NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Recovery and Volume II Peace Building Assessment Component Report THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Recovery and Volume II Peace Building Assessment Component Report THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA © 2016 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank ** ** Nigeria Country Office: 102 Yakubu Gowon Crescent, Asokoro, Abuja Federal Capital Territory, Federal Republic of Nigeria Telephone: +234 7035830641-4 Internet: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nigeria World Bank Headquarters: 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433, USA Telephone: +1 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org European Union Delegation to Nigeria & ECOWAS 21st Crescent, Off Constitution Av., Central Business District, Garki, Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Federal Republic of Nigeria Telephone: +234 94617800 Internet: www.eeas.europa.eu/delegations/nigeria United Nations – Nigeria UN House, Plot 617/618 Diplomatic Drive, Central Business District, Abuja, Federal Capital Territory, Federal Republic of Nigeria Telephone: +2348111399927 Internet: www.ng.one.un.org or www.ng.undp.org This Recovery and Peace Building Assessment (RPBA) for North-East Nigeria is a col- laborative product by the Federal Government of the Republic of Nigeria and the State Governments of Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba and Yobe. The assessment was prepared with support from the European Union (EU), the United Nations (UN) and the World Bank (WB). Acknowledging the different mandates of the institutions that supported the assessment (EU, UN and WB) and areas of expertise, the findings, conclusions and recommenda- tions expressed in the RPBA do not necessarily constitute the views or formal recom- mendations of the EU, UN or WB, nor do they reflect the views of the governing bodies of these institutions or their member states. It is also recognized that due to different mandates not all activities set forth or proposed in the report will be shared by or engaged in by the collaborating institutions, and it is further understood that each institution will carry out or be engaged with any such activities in accordance with its mandate, and operational policies and procedures. The EU, UN and WB do not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colours, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of these partners concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions ** ** The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because the authors encourage dis- semination of their knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for non-commercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Publishing and Knowledge Division, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC, 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org Volume II Component Report Table of Contents XI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XII ACRONYMS 01 OVERVIEW 01 1. Background 01 2. Objective and Structure of the Assessment 01 3. Assessment Scope, Methodology and Approach 04 4. Recovery Strategy 05 5. Consideration of Cross-cutting Issues 05 5.1 Gender 05 5.2 Human Rights 06 5.3 Youth 06 5.4 Explosive Remnants of War 06 6. RPBA as an Ongoing Process 07 CHAPTER 1: COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION 07 1. Introduction 07 1.1 Role of the Peace Building, Stability and Social Cohesion Component 08 1.2 Relationship with other RPBA components 08 1.3 Assessment Scope and Methodology 08 1.4 Key Assumptions and Limitations 09 2. Overview of Pre-crisis Conditions 10 3. Impact and Damage Assessment 10 3.1 Contribute to the Safe and Voluntarily Return and Resettlement of IDPs 15 3.2 Reconciliation, Peace Building and Community Cohesion 17 3.3 Local Governance and Citizen Engagement 20 3.4 Community Security, Justice, Human Rights, Mine Action and Small Arms Control 22 3.5 Cross-cutting Issues 26 4. Recovery Strategy for Peace Building, Stability and Social Cohesion 26 4.1 Objectives 26 4.2 Contribute to the Safe and Voluntary Return and Resettlement of Displaced Populations 28 4.3 Reconciliation, Peace Building and Community Cohesion VOLUME II: COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT III 29 4.4 Local Governance and Citizen Engagement 30 4.5 Community Security, Justice, Human Rights, Explosive Renmants of War and Small Arms Control 31 5. Implementation Strategy and Institutional Arrangements 34 6. Costing Peace Building, Stability and Social Cohesion Component 35 7. Peace Building, Stability and Social Cohesion – Recovery Framework 46 CHAPTER 2: COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES 46 1. Introduction 46 1.1 Role of Infrastructure and Social Service Delivery towards Recovery 46 1.2 Relationship with other RPBA Components 46 1.3 Assessment Scope and Methodology 48 1.4 Key Assumptions, Constraints and Limitations 49 2. Overview of Pre-crisis Conditions of Infrastructure and Social Services 49 2.1 Agriculture 50 2.2 Education 51 2.3 Energy 51 2.4 Environment 52 2.5 Health and Nutrition 52 2.6 Housing 53 2.7 Information & Communication Technologies (ICT) 53 2.8 Private Enterprise 54 2.9 Public Buildings 54 2.10 Social Protection 55 2.11 Transport 55 2.12 Water & Sanitation 57 3. Impact and Damage Assessment 57 3.1 Background 57 3.2 Agriculture 59 3.3 Education 60 3.4 Energy 61 3.5 Environment 62 3.6 Health and Nutrition 63 3.7 Housing 64 3.8 Information and Communications Technology 65 3.9 Private Enterprise 66 3.10 Public Buildings 67 3.11 Social Protection 68 3.12 Transport 69 3.13 Water and Sanitation IV VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 01 : THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA 71 4. Overview of Recovery Strategies and Needs 72 4.1 Agriculture and Irrigation 74 4.2 Education 75 4.3 Energy 76 4.4 Environment 77 4.5 Health and Nutrition 78 4.6 Housing 80 4.7 Information and Communication Technology 80 4.8 Public Buildings 81 4.9 Social Protection 83 4.10 Transport 84 4.11 Water and Sanitation 85 4.12 Needs and Cross-cutting Issues 88 5.Implementation Strategies and Institutional Arrangements 88 5.1 Agriculture 88 5.2 Education 88 5.3 Energy 88 5.4 Environment 89 5.5 Health and Nutrition 89 5.6 Housing 90 5.7 Information and Communication Technology 91 5.8 Public Buildings 91 5.9 Social Protection 91 5.10 Transport 92 5.11 Water and Sanitation 93 6. Infrastructure and Social Services – Recovery Framework 102 CHAPTER 3: COMPONENT: ECONOMIC RECOVERY 102 1. Introduction 102 1.1 Role of Livelihoods and Economic Recovery towards Recovery 102 1.2 Relationship with Other Components 102 1.3 Assessment Scope and Methodology 102 1.4 Key Assumptions and Limitations 103 2. Economic Impact Assessment 103 2.1 Macroeconomic Pre-crisis Condition and Impact of the Conflict 105 2.2 Fiscal 109 2.3 Private Sector 111 2.4 Trade VOLUME II: COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT V NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 114 2.5 Financial sector 118 3. Livelihoods and Employment 118 3.1 Pre-crisis Conditions 121 3.2 Livelihoods, Employment Impact and Damage Assessment 124 4. Overview of Livelihood and Economic Recovery Strategies and Costing 124 4.1 Track A: Livelihood and Employment Recovery Strategy 126 4.2 Track B: Private Sector, Trade, and Finance 126 4.3 Track C: Institutional Capacity Building for Economic Recovery Strategy 128 4.4 Track C: Skills Development for Economic Recovery Strategy 130 4.5 Specific Target Groups for Economic Recovery Strategy 130 4.6 Costing of Identified Needs for Economic Recovery 132 5. Economic Recovery – Recovery Framework 135 Introduction 135 Transmission Channels of the Boko Haram Related Conflict on the Economy 135 Proposed Methodology 135 MACROECONOMIC IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF THE BOKO HARAM RELATED CONFLICT IN NIGERIA - METHODOLOGY 138 RESULTS OF MACROECONOMIC IMPACT ASSESSMENT 141 PROPOSED INTERVENTIONS FOR DIFFERENT BENEFICIARY GROUPS 144 REFERENCES 146 ENDNOTES VI VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT List of Figures 11 Figure 1.1 Overlap of forced displacement dynamics, poverty, and Boko Haram incidents 33 Figure 1.2 Institutional Arrangements for Implementation of the Peace Building, Stability and Social Cohesion Component 35 Figure 1.3 Costing of needs for the peace building, stability and social cohesion component, by State and sub- component 47 Figure 2.1 Methodology for assessing damage and needs 50 Figure 2.2 Seasonal calendar for a typical year in the North-East 51 Figure 2.3 Distribution Company Coverage Area 53 Figure 2.4 Mobile Phone Coverage in Nigeria by States (Source: Open Signal, 2016) 57 Figure 2.5 Agriculture sector damages by State (US$) 60 Figure 2.6 Education sector Damages by State (US$) 60 Figure 2.7 Energy sector damages by State and Federal level (US$) 61 Figure 2.8 Environment Sector Damages by State (US$) 63 Figure 2.10 Damages to the housing sector by state (US$) 64 Figure 2.11 Estimated damages to the housing sector in Borno, Yobe and Adamawa States, based on remote sensing and data collection from states, 2016 65 Figure 2.12 Damages to Private Enterprise by state (US$) 66 Figure 2.13 Damages to public buildings by state (US$) 68 Figure 2.14 Damages to transport by state (US$) 69 Figure 2.15 Damages to water & sanitation by state (US$) 71 Figure 2.16 Implementation of recovery: from recovery strategies to project implementation 72 Figure 2.17 Agriculture sector needs by state (US$) 74 Figure 2.18 Education sector needs by state (US$) 75 Figure 2.19 Energy sector needs by state (US$) 76 Figure 2.20 Environment sector needs by state (US$) 77 Figure 2.21 Health sector needs by state (US$) 79 Figure 2.22 Housing sector needs by state (US$) 80 Figure 2.23 Public Building sector needs by state (US$) 81 Figure 2.24 Social protection sector needs by state (US$) 83 Figure 2.25 Transport sector needs by state (US$) 84 Figure 2.26 Water and sanitation sector needs by state (US$) 106 Figure 3.1 North-East Region - Consolidated Revenue and Expenditure 108 Figure 3.2 North-East Region - Consolidated Revenue and Expenditure 110 Figure 3.3 Location of manufacturing SMEs at the State level, 2010 113 Figure 3.4 Customs Revenue, 2010-2015 (Naira) 116 Figure 3.5 Number of commercial banks and their branches operating in six states 117 Figure 3.6 Deposits and credits in six North-East states (Bill. Of Naira) 119 Figure 3.7 Structure of employment across regions in Nigeria 129 Figure 3.8 Matching Labour Supply with Demand 136 Figure AX.1 Potential Channels of Economic Impact on Conflict Countries 137 Figure AX.2 Regional Average Counterfactual VOLUME II: COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT VII List of Tables 32 Table 1.1 Planning for implementation 34 Table 1.2 Costing of needs for the peace building, stability and social cohesion component, by State and sub- component 36 Table 1.3 Detailed Needs Analysis and Implementation Strategy for Contribute to Safe and Voluntary 38 Table 1.4 Detailed Needs Analysis and Implementation Strategy for Reconciliation, Peace Building, Community Cohesion and Violence Prevention 41 Table 1.5 Detailed Needs Analysis and Implementation Strategy for Local Governance and Citizen Engagement 43 Table 1.6 Justice, Community Security, Control of Small Arms and Mine Action 49 Table 2.1 Livelihood Zones by North-East States 54 Table 2.3 Distribution of Micro-Enterprises and SMEs in North-East States 54 Table 2.4 Pre-crisis public building stock for selected categories across six states 55 Table 2.5 Household characteristics in affected and non-affected states, pre-crisis 57 Table 2.6 Summary table of damages to infrastructure by sector and state (US$ millions) 58 Table 2.7 Damages to the agriculture sector across six states (US$) 59 Table 2.8 Damages to the education sector by type, and across six states (US$) 60 Table 2.9 Damages to the energy sector by type (US$) 61 Table 2.10 Damages to the environment sector by type (US$) 62 Table 2.11 Damages and destroyed health care facilities by state 62 Table 2.12 Damages to the health and nutrition sector by type (US$) 63 Table 2.13 Housing Damage in Six Conflict Affected States in North East, 2015 64 Table 2.14 Mobile base stations in the NE by operating company and state 65 Table 2.15 Estimated number of damaged base stations in the North-East by operator 65 Table 2.16 Damages to private enterprise across states (US$) 66 Table 2.17 Distribution by building category of destroyed and damaged public buildings in the North-East 67 Table 2.18 Damages to public buildings by type (US$) 67 Table 2.19 Household characteristics pre-crisis and in-crisis in affected states 68 Table 2.20 Poverty incidence based on per capita food expenditure for selected groups 69 Table 2.21 Damages to transport by type (US$) 70 Table 2.22 Damages to water and sanitation by type (US$) 72 Table 2.23 Summary table of needs to infrastructure and service delivery by sector and state 73 Table 2.24 Agriculture sector needs by type (US$) 74 Table 2.25 Education sector needs by type (US$) 75 Table 2.26 Reconstruction priorities for the energy sector 76 Table 2.27 Energy sector needs by type (US$) 77 Table 2.28 Environment sector needs by type (US$) VIII VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 01 : THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA 78 Table 2.29 Health sector needs by type (US$) 79 Table 2.30 Housing sector needs by type (US$) 80 Table 2.31 ICT sector needs by type (US$) 81 Table 2.32 Public building sector needs by type (US$) 82 Table 2.33 Summary of sector needs 83 Table 2.34 Transport sector needs by type (US$) 85 Table 2.35 Water and sanitation sector needs by type (US$) 87 Table 2.36 Provisions for Community Infrastructure and Non Formal Services by State (in US$) 103 Table 3.1 Nigeria - Impact of Boko Haram related Crisis on North-East State Output and Prices 2011-2015 104 Table 3.2 Nigeria - Impact of Boko Haram Related Crisis on North-East State Output and Prices 2011-2015 107 Table 3.3 Consolidated Budget for the North-East Region, 2007-2015 109 Table 3.4 Fiscal impact of the conflict – accumulation 2011-2015 110 Table 3.5 Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in 6 North-East States, Lagos and Kano, 2010 111 Table 3.6 Sectoral distribution of SMEs among the North-East States (percent) 113 Table 3.7 Status of major trade routes in Borno (as of 8 February 2016) 118 Table 3.8 Solid Minerals, Natural Resources Based and Agro-Based Raw Materials by State, 2015 120 Table 3.9 Distribution of the employed labour force, by employer (For wave 1(2010/11) and wave 2(2012/13) 127 Table 3.10 Proposed Interventions to revise the private sector, trade, and finance in the North-East 131 Table 3.11 Estimated Cost of Proposed Interventions 138 Table AX.1 Nigeria - Impact of Boko Haram related Conflict on North-East State Budget 2011-2015 140 Table AX.2 Nigeria - Impact of Boko Haram related Conflict on North-East State Output and Prices 2011-2015 141 Table AX.3 Proposed interventions for different beneficiary groups List of Boxes 04 Box O.1 How social, physical and economic recovery strategies are interconnected for reconstruction and peace building in North-East Nigeria 112 Box 3.1 Gombe Case Study 114 Box 3.2 Baga Market, Maiduguri 115 Box 3.3 Trade disruption in Yobe and Adamawa 122 Box 3.4 IDPs’ Coping Strategy in Adamawa VOLUME II: COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT IX PREFACE Acknowledgements The North-East Nigeria Recovery and Peace Building Assessment (RPBA) was undertaken by the Federal Government of the Republic of Nigeria, led by the Office of the Vice President and the State Gov- ernments of Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba and Yobe. The assessment was supported by the European Union (EU), the United Nations (UN), and The World Bank (WB). The Government of Nigeria Core RPBA Team consisted of Dr. Mari- am Masha, Senior Special Assistant to the President on Internally Displaced Persons and Focal Points from the six states, including: Maurice Vunobolki (Adamawa); Mohammed Aminu Ibrahim (Bau- chi); Dr. Baba Gana Umara (Borno); Aliyu M. Kamara (Gombe); Jeji Williams (Taraba); and Muhammad Yusufari (Yobe). The strong support and the contributions of the many different national stakeholders was remarkable. The dedication of the RPBA teams from the Federal and State Governments and three institutions was exceptional. Special thanks go to the Federal and State Govern- ments, the EU, UN and WB, and the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID) for financial support pro- vided for this assessment. In addition thanks to the EU for funding the design and layout of this document. The efforts of all made this report possible. The design and layout of this document was created and executed by the team at Bivee Inc. Photo Credits: Damie Okulaja(cover, 2, 71, 105, 112, 120) VOLUME II: COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT XI NORTH-EAST NIGERIA PREFACE Acronyms ACLED Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project NGO Non-Governmental Organisations BTS Base Transceiver Stations NPVRN Nigeria Political Violence Research Network CIMIC Civilian and Military Coordination NSRP Nigeria Stability and Reconciliation Programme CJTF Civilian Joint Task Force ONSA Office of the National Security Adviser CM-COORD Humanitarian Civilian Military Coordination O&M Operations and Maintenance CP Community Platforms PCNI Presidential Committee on the North-East Initiative CSO Civil Society Organizations PHC Public Health Centres DTM Displacement Tracking Matrix PINE Presidential Initiative for the North-East EPA Environmental Protection Agency PTSD Post-Tramautic Stress Disorder ERW Explosive Remnants of War PRC Project Management Consultants ESA European Space Agency PWD People with Disability EU European Union RPBA Recovery and Peace Building Assessment FEWSNET Famine Early Warning Systems Network RPBS Recovery and Peace Building Strategy FGN Federal Government of Nigeria RRR Repairs, Rehabilitation and Replacement FMOH Federal Ministry of Health RUWASSA Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency HDI Human Development Index SALW Small Arms and Light Weapons HRP Humanitarian Response Plan SARC Sexual Assault Referral Centre ICT Information and Communication Technology SBMC School-Based Management Committees IDPs Internally Displaced Persons SEMA State Emergency Management Agencies IED Improvised Explosive Device SGBV Sexual and Gender-Based Violence IGR Internally Generated Revenue SME Small and Medium Sized Enterprise INEC Independent National Electoral Commission Federal and State Ministries for Industry, Trade and SMEDAN Investment IOM International Organisation for Migration SWTWSSA Small Town Water Supply and Sanitation agencies IS Islamic State SWM Solid Waste Management ISWA International Solid Waste Association TVET Technical Vocational Education and Training LGA Local Government Areas UASC Unaccompanied and separated children MDA Ministries, Departments and Agencies UN United Nations MNJTF Multi-National Joint Task Force UNHAS United Nations Humanitarian Air Service MRRR Ministry of Reconstruction, Rehabilitation and Resettlement UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund MTN Mobile Telephone Network USIP United States Institute of Peace M&E Monitoring and Evaluation USWA Urban State Water Agencies NEET Not in Education, Employment or Training UXO Unexploded Ordnance NEMA National Emergency Management Agency VAT Value Added Tax NERC North-East Reconstruction Project WASH Water and Sanitation NEST North-East States Transformation Strategy WB World Bank NDHS Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey XII VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW Overview 1. Background ogy; private enterprise; public buildings; social protection; trans- port; water and sanitation. The conflict in North-East Nigeria has cost over 20,000 human • Economic Recovery examines the conflict-related economic im- /// /// lives, significantly destroyed physical infrastructure, disrupted social pacts and recovery needs for: (i) macroeconomic and fiscal man- services and damaged social cohesion among its people. Economic agement; (ii) finance, trade and private sector development; and and social activities in the region have been disrupted, and fear and (iii) livelihoods, employment, and poverty. mistrust among the population is widespread. 1.8 million people Volume II of the RPBA presents the data collected and analysis made have been internally displaced from and within the conflict affected by this assessment for each component. The component reports pre- states of Adamawa, Bonro and Yobe and an additional 170,000 have sented follow the same structure with the presentation of: (i) com- fled across the border into Niger, Chad and Cameroon. The influx of ponent objective and methodology; (ii) pre-crisis conditions and displaced persons into urban areas of the above states as well as Bau- impacts of the crisis on sectors/subcomponents; (iii) component re- chi, Gombe and Taraba has exacerbated pressure on service delivery covery strategies, including costing of recovery needs and implemen- mechanisms and local economies that were very weak to start with. tation and institutional arrangements and; (iv) cross-cutting issues. Addressing the needs and impacts in the six states derived from the Boko Haram conflict to bring about recovery and build peace in the While presented in three components, the assessment should be un- North-East is a significant challenge. derstood as an intertwined platform for a single recovery and peace building framework based on a social cohesion approach that cuts across all sectors. Beyond distinctive emphases and tailored method- 2. Objective and Structure of ology which is outlined at the beginning of each component report, the Assessment the linkages between components, particularly the interconnected The Recovery and Peace Building Assessment (RPBA) is a joint en- nature of impacts and needs, are clearly demonstrated throughout the deavor between the Government of Nigeria and the European Union report and highlighted wherever possible. Box 0.1 discusses how the (EU), the United Nations (UN) and the World Bank (WB), to sup- social, physical and economic recovery strategies need to be intercon- port the Government in its efforts towards peace building and sus- nected for recovery and peace building in the North-East. tainable recovery in the North-East. The assessment was conducted across three interlinked components: 3. Assessment Scope, Methodology • Peace Building, Stability and Social Cohesion examines the needs /// /// and Approach emerging from the conflict around the issues of: (i) safe and vol- untarily return and resettlement of displaced populations; (ii) rec- Scope: Spatial and temporal boundaries were applied to the assess- /// /// onciliation, peace building and community cohesion; (iii) local ment. The assessment covers states directly affected by the conflict governance and citizen engagement; and (iv) community security, and the resulting displacement: Borno, Yobe and Adamawa, as well justice, human rights, mine action and small arms control. as the North-East states which have been largely affected mainly by • Infrastructure and Social Services examines the impacts and needs /// /// displacement: Gombe, Taraba and Bauchi. It focuses on needs related in 12 sectors: agriculture; education; energy; environment; health to factors directly attributable to the Boko Haram crisis, but does not and nutrition; housing; information and communication technol- include impacts and needs arising out of other causes of displacement VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 01 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA and physical impact. In terms of timeframe, the assessment uses 2010 Government Leadership: The assessment has been led by the Gov- /// /// as the pre-crisis baseline year for comparative data analysis. This is ernment of Nigeria, under the leadership of the Office of the Vice based on the assumption that the conflict with Boko Haram wors- President, and has been particularly State-driven, with State focal ened significantly in 2011. points guiding the coordination of assessment efforts and designating focal points for all sectors/ subcomponents covered in this assessment. Methodology: Existing literature on this conflict and its impacts was Across the six States, more than 100 sector and subcomponent focal /// /// reviewed and data collected by the states was utilised to analyse the points assisted in providing damage/impact and needs related data. impact of the conflict on infrastructure and social services, social co- Through a series of consultation and validation processes, all levels hesion and economic impact. Remote sensing was employed using a of government as well as key civil society stakeholders have played combination of satellite imagery, social media analytics and informa- a critical role in the provision of qualitative and quantitative data as tion received from partner networks, to fill in information gaps and well as contributing perspectives on the associated recovery strategies validate data, particularly for sectors and locations where informa- and needs. tion is scarce or access is limited due to insecurity. This included the sectors of agriculture, education, environment, health and nutrition, Consultation process: As mentioned above, a multi-staged consul- /// /// housing, transport and private sector. Building on the impact analy- tation process has been followed for the development of the assess- sis, a detailed needs analysis was conducted. ment methodology, collection and validation of data and progressive 02 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORTS RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW corroboration of results. This process involved a large number of estimation of needs and activities under a recovery strategy for this stakeholders, including Federal and State Governments, traditional component. Phasing and prioritisation of activities should therefore: and religious authorities, communities in conflict and displacement (vi) follow the return patterns; and affected States, IDPs, international and local NGOs, and as well as (vii) include approaches to working in highly insecure contexts and humanitarian and development partners. This entailed: areas where there is expected to be continuing displacement. (i) The September 2015 scoping mission to agree on the geograph- Taking into account the trend and patterns to date with regard to ic, sector, and temporal scope of the assessment; return, and feedback provided by displaced population (through tools (ii) Inaugural workshop in January 2016 to agree on the methodol- such as the Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) and agencies ac- ogy and data collection templates with the State Governments; tive on the ground), variables were selected to estimate return sce- (iii) Field visits over February 2016; narios including those that have influenced new displacement, and (iv) Consultations over sector recovery strategies between sector which affect the capacity and willingness of individuals and families teams and discussions over preliminary findings with State focal to return and resettle. Variables include: points in a combined technical meeting in February 2016, and; (v) Validation and consensus building workshops with a wider (1) Security in place of origin, as the single most important factor range of stakeholders over March-April 2016. Consultation influencing new displacement and preventing return; and validation of the RPBA findings took place throughout the (2) Vulnerability, as a factor that conditions the capacity of people process and culminated in a workshop from 31 March-1 April to move; 2016. The event brought together State and Federal Govern- (3) Intention of return; and ment authorities and civil society representatives, the private sec- (4) Other factors that impede the capacity of people to complete tor and other stakeholders in Abuja. The purpose of these efforts return processes. was to facilitate early validation of the results of the RPBA, and Based on observed trends for conflict and displacement two scenarios to refine the prioritisation of proposed actions based on a more for analysis are proposed for planning purposes under the RPBA: granular understanding of inter and intra-State differences. (i) Status quo: Boko Haram retains the ability to periodically stage Application of the Human Rights Based Approach: The assessment /// /// attacks in the North-East and occasionally further South. While and the proposed strategies have been guided by a human rights based return and resettlement of IDPs and reconsrtuction is possible approach which anchors the proposed strategies on human rights in some areas, the threat of local attacks continue to undermine standards while prioritizing the application of the human rights prin- the revival of the North-East region. This scenario is not a sta- ciples of equality, non-discrimination, participation, accountability, ble one, since it is relatively easy for Boko Haram to regroup and the rule of law. Across all three components, the recovery strate- and adapt. gies seek to further the realisation of human rights of the vulnerable (ii) Best-Case Scenario: The frequency and intensity of Boko Ha- groups arising from the Boko Haram related violence, strengthening ram attacks in the North-East is limited and the return and the recovery and reconstruction process by identifying inequalities, resettlement of IDPs is successful, allowing for reconstruction redressing discrimination, ensuring meaningful participation of the and development interventions and the restoration of economic most affected populations, and strengthening accountability between activities throughout the North-East; them as rights holders and duty bearers. (iii) Worse-Case Scenario: Boko Haram is resurgent, as the gov- Security and Displacement Scenarios: The security situation in the /// /// ernment is unable to address weankesses in its response to the North-East differs within and between the six States. While in Bor- conflict. This causes further disillusionment of the population, no, Yobe and Adamawa, the security situation remains fluid, Bauchi, from which Boko Haram benefits. The government again loses Gombe, and Taraba remain mostly secure. The security situation will control of parts of Borno, Yobe and Adamawa, and launches at- be key in determining the possibilities for return and resettlement of tacks in areas of Nigeria further South, leading to a vicious circle displaced persons, which is in turn instrumental in determining an of violence and insecurity. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 03 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 4. Recovery Strategy BOX O.1 How social, physical and economic Recovery strategies for all three components are formulated within recovery strategies are interconnected basic principles of the RPBA, some of which were identified during for reconstruction and peace building in the joint scoping mission in September 2015. These principles in- North-East Nigeria clude: (1) Restoring social cohesion and trust as the most critical pre- Starting from an economic perspective, the damages and losses in- /// /// condition to recovery and peace building. Recovery strategies curred to the physical environment and human lives have negatively formulated under the three components seek to enhance social affected the productive capacity, employment and livelihoods of over cohesion and trust among people and between people and Gov- six million people in the North-East. Consequently, output of the ernment. region has plummeted, thereby increasing prices and food insecurity. (2) Recovery strategies with a conflict lens. Recovery strategies are Material destruction and increased sense of insecurity have also led to /// /// formulated by realistically considering drivers of the current cri- forced displacement of 1.8 million people, while an estimated three sis and the risks of new emerging conflicts (communal clashes, million people are trapped in insecure and thus inaccessible areas. Trade has long been strong in the North-East but has been signifi- land acquisition disputes and disputes between both farmers and cantly disrupted as mobility of humans and goods and services is cur- herders and IDPs and host communities). tailed by damaged infrastructure as well as by increased insecurity. (3) Integrated and holistic approaches are necessary to address /// /// For example, business activities and commercial banks closed down multiple needs. The impacts of the crisis are multiple and affect or left Maiduguri, the capital of Borno and Potiskum town in Yobe, every aspect of the lives of conflict-affected and displacement-af- that were both previously important centres for cross border trade fected populations and host communities. This is reflected by between North-East Nigeria and neighbouring countries. Porous the interconnectedness of damage and impacts across the three borders have facilitated the emergence of illicit trade of weapons, components and the recovery strategies prioritise holistic and cross-border raids, killing and kidnapping. integrated approaches. (4) Building back better and smarter. The recovery strategies pro- /// /// Close linkages between social, physical and economic impacts of vide an opportunity to improve on the pre-existing situation. the crisis require an integrated approach to addressing them. With In doing so, innovative approaches are included while building careful design across all domains, the potential for a holistic recovery upon existing successful initiatives. can increase. For instance, the rehabilitation and reconstruction of (5) Context specific approaches are applied in proposing recovery /// /// damaged infrastructure can introduce labour-intensive construction strategies, which take into consideration the security situation, technologies, which in turn may generate local employment partic- the extent of the human and physical damages faced by the ularly in the case of sub-district and community infrastructure. It is population and the specificities of each state. In doing so, the recommended that the government introduce social protection and different components detail differentiated strategies for recovery cash-for-work schemes that can target the more vulnerable segments tailored to the states’ differentiated needs. of the affected populations particularly IDPs and host community (6) Local ownership and community participation in recovery /// /// population. Similarly, the equitable, consistent and harmonious pro- process should form the basis of decisions made in key areas. vision of basic services across host and IDP populations will improve Across all the recovery strategies, community mobilisation and social cohesion and help restore citizen trust, if built on a culture of participation as well as consultation with key stakeholders and consensual decision-making, thus contributing towards longer-term beneficiaries are integral parts of the design and implementation peace building objectives. phases to make sure that strategies adopted address their needs Sources: IOM/NEMA, 2015, DTM Round VII; UNOCHA, 2015, and are sustainable. Humanitariam Needs Overview (7) Build upon existing successful initiatives. The proposed re- /// /// covery strategies also build on and propose the scaling up of 04 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORTS RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW existing successful initiatives by communities, government or cio-cultural norms rather than on human rights or the capabilities of international agencies, and take into account different systems men and women. Comparing women’s and men’s experiences during of operation to ensure multi-stakeholder participation and avoid the crisis in the recovery process will help identify existing gender duplication. inequalities and disparities, and possibly aid recommending appro- (8) Targeting the needs of vulnerable populations. The proposed /// /// priate measures for closing the gaps. recovery strategies support vulnerable groups within the dis- The Boko Haram crisis has severely impacted women, men, boys and placed (including actual and potential returnees) and host com- girls in the North-East. Women and girls have become more vulner- munities including youth, women, children, persons with dis- able due to the conflict, further exacerbating existing inequalities re- abilities and older people. garding access to basic services including education, right to dignity (9) Provide capacity development at the Local level and foster co- and rights to acquisition of land and property. As a consequence of /// ordination. The proposed recovery strategies also include capac- the crisis, some women and girls have been reportedly forced into /// ity development to strengthen the institutional framework and marriage or used as sex slaves or subjected to sexual violence. The con- the respective roles and responsibilities at Federal, State and Lo- flict has impacted negatively on women’s economic situation, limiting cal Government levels, while also fostering coordination among their access to livelihoods and increasing the number of women-head- different stakeholders within and between affected states. ed households. Men and boys also confront a range of threats within Many of these principles are underlying recovery strategies and rec- the context of the conflict, including gender-based violence, abduc- ommendations in this report and are explicitly referenced whenever tion and forceful recruitment and detention on suspicion of sympa- applicable. Recovery strategies across the three components are fur- thies with the different armed actors involved in the conflict. Loss in ther structured into two phases of stabilisation and recovery, focusing assets, combined with lack of access to education, skills training, and on short to medium term needs. These phases can be overlapping opportunities to earn an income, leave men and male youth unable and non-linear. It is crucial that recovery strategies take into con- to fulfil often-exacting norms of manhood and masculine identity sideration and build on ongoing humanitarian interventions. To as protectors and providers. High rates of trauma compound these the extent possible, it is recommended that state recovery and peace vulnerabilities, manifesting in a range of often negative coping be- building strategies coordinate with current successful projects funded haviours including depression, addiction and/or aggression. Rates of by development organisations and NGOs for their long-term sector intimate partner violence frequently increase under such conditions, development needs. as men seek outlets for feelings of frustration or dislocation. Others often engage in illicit behaviours, such as crime and violence, and are 5. Consideration of Cross-cutting Issues more vulnerable to radicalisation and recruitment into armed groups such as Boko Haram. A cross-cutting issue is one that dynamically interacts with all or a substantial number of sectors/subcomponents and therefore requires 5.2 Human Rights a multi-sector approach. The RPBA has taken gender, human rights, The crisis has been characterised by alleged abuses and violations youth and explosive remnants of war as cross-cutting issues, and ad- under international humanitarian law, committed by all actors in- vocates that the RPBA recovery strategies be developed further and volved in the conflict. There is a lack of information on the abuses implemented with continuous review from the perspective of all of and violations committed, as they are often unreported or not fully these cross-cutting issues. addressed, in turn fostering a climate of impunity. A comprehensive human rights based response, which addresses the root cause as well as 5.1 Gender impact, is therefore imperative for the restoration of society. In doing Gender constitutes one of the determinants of wealth creation and so, the recovery and peace building response focuses on supporting the experience of poverty. Rights and entitlements of men and wom- measures to promote and protect the civil, political, social, econom- en to opportunities, resources and decision-making are based on so- ic, and cultural rights of those who are most affected, marginalised, VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 05 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA excluded, and discriminated against as a result of the conflict with 6. RPBA as an Ongoing Process Boko Haram. The human rights principles informing this response (including equality and non-discrimination, participation and inclu- This report must not be seen as a definitive end to the process of sion, and accountability and rule of law) will contribute to address- damage/impact and needs assessment; but rather as the beginning ing recovery and peace building complexities holistically, taking into of a continuous process and mode of assessment. For example, sec- consideration the connection between the populations and systems of tors such as housing, transport and environment require further data authority/power expected to respect, protect, and guarantee human collection particularly in areas with active conflict. Given the unpre- rights, and creating dynamics of accountability. A recovery strategy dictability and uncertainty of the situation, it is expected that the should broadly address the capacity and knowledge gaps resulting in Government of Nigeria will continue to play a key role in regularly and linked to weak national promotion and protection systems and updating this assessment. This may require incorporating the data their users, and establish a monitoring and reporting system for en- template and analysis methodology employed for the RPBA into the hancing accountability and addressing conflict-related violations. Government’s pre-existing systems. Such institutionalisation will help create a temporal, sectoral and geographical damage and needs data- 5.3 Youth base, comprising actionable and comparable information. This will contribute towards more systematised and time-sliced recovery plan- Youth (defined in Nigeria as those aged between 18 and 35) in the ning to meet the unprecedented challenges and requirements posed North-East have been profoundly affected by the Boko Haram crisis. by an ongoing conflict. RPBA partners aim to continue providing Youth have suffered from psychological trauma and are vulnerable active technical support to the Government in this effort. to exploitation and abuse, while also lacking the tools to access sup- port. Large numbers of young people have been deprived of educa- tion or training opportunities and have few employment prospects. Supporting youth is a key element of sustainable recovery and peace building in the North-East. The RPBA response strategies need to be designed with the input of young people and include initiatives addressing young men’s and women’s needs and concerns; promote inter-generational dialogue and youth involvement in the arts and sports to enhance social cohesion; promote youth participation in lo- cal and national governance processes and policy making; and address livelihoods and vocational training for young people. 5.4 Explosive Remnants of War The use of improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and victim-activated IEDs, also considered as land mines in this context, has been wide- spread in the context of the crisis with Boko Haram. Military activities have also employed aerial bombardment and the use of artillery, mor- tars and rockets, which inevitably leads to widespread contamination by unexploded ordnance (UXO). This situation affects possibilities of return of IDPs and puts under risks the lives of local populations in areas affected by the crisis. To address these issues various initiatives will need to be undertaken, including Emergency Risk Education campaigns, a systematic survey coupled with risk education and ex- plosive ordnance disposal/demining and medical/rehabilitation and psycho-social care for those affected by IEDs/UXOs. 06 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORTS RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION CHAPTER 1 Component: Peace Building, Stability and Social Cohesion 1. Introduction absorbed over 170,000 Nigerian refugees. 3 Also over 20,000 ref- ugees have been returned to Nigeria from neighbouring countries Nearly 15 million civilians have been affected by the crisis relat- under circumstances falling short of international standards and ed to Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awati Wal-Jihad, also known as __ __ then become IDPs. Forced displacement has severely impacted ev- Boko Haram, and the resulting military operations in North-East ery aspect of the lives of those who are forced to move, including Nigeria since 2009. The violence has left widespread devastation their access to food, shelter, education, health care and their liveli- on a level unprecedented since the civil war of 1967-1970, with hoods, and their psycho-social wellbeing and their community life an estimated 20,000 dead, nearly 2 million people displaced in- are damaged. Communities hosting IDPs are also under pressure ternally or across international borders, and at least 2,000 missing as the people share their limited resources and also the large in- persons. 1 flux of displaced population negatively impacts the local economy and service provision systems. This can fuel tension between host A far reaching effect of the conflict with Boko Haram is that the communities and IDPs over scarce resources and limited access to social fabric in the North-East has been deeply damaged, eroding labour and finances. social relations between citizens and government, ethnic groups, communities and even within extended families. The rapid dete- Even under the conditions caused by the conflict, the resilience of rioration of the conflict and limited effectiveness of mechanisms communities and capacity for support to others in the North-East to contain and control violence along with the dynamics of forced has been strong: families in North-East Nigeria have supported displacement, have resulted in widespread levels of suspiciousness, displaced households for extended periods of time, showing that mistrust and stigmatisation along ethnic, religious, political and despite the circumstances, there are conditions to sustain peace building in a structural and long-lasting way. geographical lines. Economic, ethnic, religious, political and geo- graphical divisions have hardened, affecting the way in which any 1.1 Role of the Peace Building, Stability and Social recovery effort is perceived. Subsequent divisions have emerged Cohesion Component as the conflict altered the social, gender and demographic order in households and communities, giving place to new grievances. The peace building, stability and social cohesion component of the Restoring social cohesion and trust is the most critical precondi- RPBA considers how to address the effects of conflict on the social tion for recovery and peace building but is the most challenging. fabric, local governance and on the provision of justice, with partic- All recovery and peace building actions should carefully assess and ular attention to the effects of the conflict on displaced populations account for its impact on social cohesion and trust. and host communities. This report on the component assessment of needs also summarises the component approach to recovery and The crisis has also resulted in a significant level of forced displace- peace building implementation, and sets out recommended interven- ment. As assessed in December 2015, 1.8 million people from the tions with estimated costing. Effective responses to the challenges ad- North-East have been internally displaced as a direct result of the dressed under this component will the critical foundation for sustain- conflict with Boko Haram. People have also fled across borders 2 able recovery and for successful recovery and peace building strategies to neighbouring countries and Cameroon, Niger and Chad have under the other components. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 07 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA The component has four sub-sectors: viewed. Field teams visited the six states, meeting formally and infor- mally with affected people and stakeholders, including government (i) Safe and voluntary return and resettlement of displaced pop- officials, traditional and religious authorities, service providers, IDPs, ulations; IDP camp staff, international and local NGOs, local CSOs, Faith- (ii) Reconciliation, peace building and community cohesion; Based organizations (FBOs), volunteer groups, academic institutions, (iii) Local governance and citizen engagement; and and host/resident community members. (iv) Community security, justice, human rights, explosive remnants of war and small arms control. 1.4 Key Assumptions and Limitations While these sub-sectors are inter-linked key peace building, stability This component used the RPBA geographic area, time period cov- and social cohesion issues, as well as the recovery strategies proposed, ered and population assumptions. One of the biggest limitations of are grouped under these sub-sectors. Cross-cutting issues of gender, the assessment under this component was the availability of data on human rights, youth and explosive remnants of war are also discussed. indicators of social resilience. Although the impact of the crisis on This component draws on lessons from other conflict and crisis con- various social aspects including social cohesion, reconciliation, peace texts. These include the importance of rapidly addressing issues of building, community security, and issues related to the needs of IDPs reconciliation, peace and tolerance building, access to justice, citizen and host communities is evident, the nature of these social elements, security and psycho-social recovery as fundamental elements of a sus- as well as the lack of comprehensive data, limits an accurate quan- tainable recovery process. tification of damages. Understanding the impact of the conflict in these areas would require an intensive and dedicated period of time 1.2 Relationship with other RPBA components allocated to gather both qualitative and quantitative data. While This component constitutes the backbone and lays the foundation this assessment was conducted within the timeframe of the RBPA, for the effective implementation of other aspects of recovery, such as a wider-ranging exercise would be required to design and implement infrastructure rehabilitation, restoring social services and revitalising any initiatives aimed at addressing impacts on social cohesion, peace economic activity. Recovery and peace building require more than building and resilience. Robust monitoring systems will also be need- reconstruction of damaged buildings, livelihood, jobs, basic services ed to collect and analyse relevant data in order to inform and adjust and return to physical security. Rebuilding trust and cohesion, and programmes both in the North-East and at the Federal level. Data processes to address grievances are also essential for restoration of ser- systems should be gender and age disaggregated to permit better anal- vices and reconstruction, and for developing economic opportunities ysis and improve targeting of interventions. and livelihoods. Addressing the threat of explosive remnants of war (ERW) is a precondition for any return and recovery process under all components of the RBPA. 1.3 Assessment Scope and Methodology The assessment comprised a desk review of existing primary and secondary data, and semi-structured interviews and focus group dis- cussions. Key informants and focus group discussion participants included government counterparts at the Federal, State and Local levels, including the Vice President’s Office, Ministries of Education, Finance, Health, Justice, Local Governance and Chieftaincy Affairs, Youth and Sports, Women Affairs, the State Emergency Management Agencies (SEMA) and State Attorney Generals. International NGOs, local non government organisations (NGOs), civil society organisa- tions (CSOs) and faith-based organisations (FBOs) were also inter- 08 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION 2. Overview of Pre-crisis Conditions that make up the productive sector in the Lake Chad Basin are faced with increasingly inadequate supplies of water and are under strain. Despite its status as the economic giant of Africa, social and economic North-East Nigeria has been characterised by low levels of gover- indicators in Nigeria are very low, and those in its North-East region nance, constituting a cause of poor development outcomes, a driver are generally the poorest. The country ranks 152 of 187 in the Hu- of conflict and a constraint on effective responses to both conflict and man Development Index (HDI), which is well below the average for displacement. North-East states, given their weak economies, tend sub-Saharan Africa. Nationally, 46 percent of the population is below to have few means of generating internal revenue, and are thus par- the poverty line while in the North-East, the figure is 70 percent, ticularly dependent upon transfers from the centre. States have wide which increased between 2012-2013. Access to education is also very responsibilities in the fields of service delivery, including education, low; 52 percent of children are out of school in the region. Even con- health and infrastructure. State Governments across Nigeria have sidering those who attend school, 72 percent are unable to read after faced challenges in financial management and limited transparency. completion of grade 6. In Borno, with the lowest literacy rates of any Low capacity and autonomy at the LGA level is also highly prevalent. state in the country, only 35 percent of female and 46 percent of male This leads to uneven performance between states regarding gover- adolescents are literate (compared to 98 percent for both genders in nance and service delivery. Imo State in the South-East). Under five mortality rates in the North- East are as high as 160 deaths per 1,000. The region also lags behind Religion – specifically Islam – has for centuries been central to the the rest of the country in terms of nutrition, vaccination coverage and identity of the states in Northern Nigeria. Much of present-day antenatal care. North-East Nigeria (and adjacent segments of Chad, Niger and Cam- eroon) was the territory of the Kanem-Bornu Empire, which adopted Economic infrastructure in the North-East is limited, and the in- Islam in the 10th century, and long after its decline and incorporation dustrial base of Northern Nigeria, which was mostly located outside into Nigeria, continues to be a revered centre of Islamic learning. In the North-East region in Kano and Kaduna, has largely collapsed the region religion has been used as source of political legitimacy, in recent decades. Rural livelihoods in agriculture, pastoralism and which has led to a history of (sometimes violent) religious radicalism fisheries, have been badly eroded, exacerbated by limited government challenging the State. The internationalisation of violent radicalism, support, poor management and limited access to new technology and combined with these conditions, allowed it to take root in the North- inputs. The lack of employment and livelihood opportunities is one East. of the major causes of frustration and discontent with government, and a possible “push factor” in the recruitment of individuals to vio- lent extremism. The natural environment in North-East Nigeria is fragile, especially in the area immediately surrounding Lake Chad. This fragility under- mines food security and drives environmental out-migration. Climate and weather variability play a part in this environmental degradation, exacerbated by man-made stressors such as irrigation and dam con- struction. For herders and pastoralists, the scarcity of surface water has added to the difficulties of watering animals, causing them to en- croach on agricultural resources. Meanwhile, agriculture has expand- ed into areas previously used for grazing, rendering remaining herding sites increasingly exposed to overgrazing. In addition, the reduction in the size of Lake Chad, and associated water-flow reduction have had considerable negative impacts on small-scale fishing throughout the Basin. Overall, the diverse and interdependent livelihood systems VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 09 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 3. Impact and Damage Assessment Among the 2.2 million identified IDPs nationally, 53 The conflict with Boko Haram in the North-East has had devastating percent are women and 57 percent are children (under 18 impacts. According to the UN, 14.8 million people in the North- years old). Adolescent and youth populations (aged between East have been affected by the crisis since 2009. Massive displacement 6 and 17) account for 29 percent (15 percent female and 14 both internally and cross-border to Chad, Niger, and Cameroon percent male) of the displaced population. As such, women, continues. Vulnerability of displaced people and host communities children and youth bear the brunt of forced displacement is deepening. Impacts have been felt at all levels of society: on indi- in Nigeria, accounting for nearly 80 percent of affected viduals, families and communities. Shelter, food security, water and populations. (Based on IOM’s DTM Round 7 data) sanitation (WASH), education and health have been identified as the most urgent needs of displacement affected persons. At a deeper and The current conflict has worsened pre-existing issues of underdevel- structural level, this population is also in need of psycho-social sup- opment and weak governance, which were drivers of the conflict. As port, gender specific programming and livelihoods support. mentioned, the North-East region has the lowest socio-economic The conflict has varied in intensity and nature. The people of the outcomes in Nigeria, creating a sense of social deprivation, injustice North-East, and Borno and Yobe in particular, remain exposed to and marginalisation. Weakness in governance and provision of justice multiple forms of violence and human rights abuses including those and security by the State due to the conflict currently constrain effec- allegedly perpetrated by Boko Haram, and in some cases, also by tive responses to conflict and displacement at the Local level. armed forces deployed to combat Boko Haram. The proliferation of 4 cheap and easily available small arms and light weapons (SALW) has 3.1 Contribute to the Safe and Voluntarily Return fuelled the violence, facilitating the formation of self-defence groups, and Resettlement of IDPs including the Civilian Joint Task Force (CJTF), which have also re- portedly perpetrated abuses against the civilian population, and seem 3.1.1 Damages and Impacts to be increasingly targeted by Boko Haram. There is evidence that in Forced displacement has amplified pre-existing vulnerabilities and some areas there has been a breakdown of law and order and security, caused significant detrimental development impacts among the dis- including the destruction of police stations, although the presence of placed and in host communities. Currently the North-East hosts over armed forces and the police is being progressively restored. Whilst 1.8 million IDPs displaced by Boko Haram-related violence. Neigh- there is evidence of the return of displaced population in some ar- bouring countries also host a number Nigerian refugees who have eas, insecurity is still prevalent and prevents return on a larger scale. fled from the conflict, estimated to be: Cameroon - 64,000; Niger - 93,343; and, Chad - 7,868. It is important to note that due to The presence of mines and undetonated explosives further increases the regional aspect of the conflict these countries also have internal the dangers. In the above context, there are signs that tensions based displacement, with IDP numbers of: Cameroon - 158,316; Niger - on ethno-religious, social and other divisions, including between dis- 47,023; and, Chad - 66,639. 5 (UNOCHA 2015 HRP) placed persons and hosts in some areas may be emerging, putting co-existence at risk. IDPs are disproportionally concentrated in some states. Borno, at the heart of the crisis, hosts 66 percent of all IDPs, with an estimated The situation in the North-East is notable for the resilience and dig- 1.6 million IDPs in Maiduguri alone. Yobe and Adamawa also share nity demonstrated by those affected, and for approaches to peace large burdens of IDPs: Adamawa (136,000; 6.3 percent) and Yobe building led by communities and civil society, including women’s and (130,000; 6 percent).5 The majority of IDPs, 92 percent, live with interfaith groups. However, conflict and displacement have eroded, host communities.6 Only 8.5 percent live in camps and camp-like and in some cases ruptured, the bonds and relationships between and settings. The exact scale of displacement in large parts of Borno is within groups and communities. Intra-communal structures and pro- unclear due to the continuing instability and inaccessibility but it is cesses that traditionally regulated violence and resolved conflicts have estimated that there could be up to three million people displaced in been weakened. inaccessible insecure areas. 10 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION FIGURE 1.1 Overlap of forced displacement dynamics, poverty, and Boko Haram incidents Regardless of location of displacement, living conditions and the including physical and psychological trauma and increased levels of socio-economic well-being of displaced populations are significant- SGBV. ly lowered and impaired due to sudden loss of assets and a lack of access to basic needs. DTM data from December 2016 showed that The current displacement situation in the North-East occurs within while 64 percent of the displaced population reported having regular a context of impoverishment, with significant overlaps of conflict, income before displacement, only 12 percent of the displaced have scale of displacement, and level of poverty in the affected states (See __ regular income after displacement. In host communities and informal Figure 1.1 for details on dynamics of forced displacement in the North- camps such as collective centres or transitional centres, where less tar- East). Host communities have also been negatively affected as result __ geted assistance is provided than compared to that provided in formal of over stretched social amenities and infrastructure. In North-East camps, IDPs compete with local community members over livelihood Nigeria, forced displacement will further perturb the socio-economic opportunities and other basic survival resources. Compared to condi- development of the region, creating tension within the civil society tions before displacement, the majority of IDPs reported to be worse off in terms of housing conditions, water and sanitation and hygiene and thus potentially triggering further conflicts and continuous dis- (WASH), food security, access to education and healthcare; and this is placement. If not properly addressed, forced displacement could be- especially true for IDPs displaced to host communities and informal come an important element in the vicious cycle of escalating conflict camps. Forced displacement also creates a range of secondary effects, in the future. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 11 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA elders. By entire communities being forced to displace themselves, Key Statistics of Displacement of Population from community social support was lost, limiting the availability of coping North-East Nigeria due to Conflict with Boko Haram mechanisms for affected people. People affected by the conflict: 15 million ** ** The characterisation of needs under this sub-sector should take into consideration three broader categories of population: (i) displaced People killed in conflict: over 20,000 population unable to return; (ii) population willing and able to return ** ** People in need: 7 million ** ** and resettle; and (iii) host communities and communities in areas of return. Recovery strategies under this subcomponent should address An estimated 4 million people in need of humanitarian the different needs – in the short and mid-term – of these specific assistance are receiving some form of assistance. An populations. In doing so, the main needs have been identified as fol- estimated 3 million people in need are in locations that are lows: not regularly accessible to humanitarian partners Basic Needs: Food, Shelter, WASH, Education and Health /// /// Number of people displaced from this conflict across ** Displaced populations experience limited access to basic services par- Nigeria: 2.2 million ** ticularly food, shelter, WASH, education and health. Both the DTM IDPs living in formal camps: 400,000 ** ** and the UNHCR Protection Monitoring Report show that food, shelter, and water were identified as the main needs for IDPs and IDPs living with host communities: 1.8 million host communities. Borno and Yobe have a humanitarian emergency ** ** (approximately 92 percent of IDPs are hosted by low- and increasing food insecurity resulting in displaced people adapting income vulnerable communities) their livelihoods to any opportunities available. However access to land is very limited for IDPs, often from independent farming com- Number of Nigerian refugees in neighbouring countries: ** ** munities, in both camps or camp-like setting and host communities.7 165,000 Vocational or professional skills transferrable to an urban setting are Of the IDPs, 53% are women, 57% are children under 18. often limited. __ Sources: IOM/NEMA, 2015, DTM Round VII; and In a similar trend, conflict and forced displacement in the North-East UNOCHA, 2015, Humanitarian Needs Overview. __ has led to and further amplified the challenges relevant to access to health services. The destruction or damage of health infrastructure and lack of trained health care workers and medical supplies have 3.1.2 Identified Needs resulted in an urgent need for integrated primary health care ser- vices for 3.7 million IDPs and members of host communities. As of Displacement in the North-East has affected every single aspect of December 2015, 60 percent of health centres have been partially or people’s lives. Individuals and families have lost all their productive completely damaged in Borno.8 In terms of education, in the areas assets, homes, and possessions, casting most of them into conditions affected by displacement, children have very limited access to educa- of extreme poverty overnight. Traditional livelihoods have been de- tion opportunities, in part because Boko Haram specifically targets stroyed, making them food insecure and dependent on external sup- schools for destruction, and many schools have been taken over to port to cover all their needs, from shelter to food, health care and edu- shelter IDPs.9 Borno is most affected in terms of loss of access to edu- cation. Services previously available in their places of origin have also cation: three out of five schools are closed and one out of five schools been affected, limiting access of entire communities to health, educa- is either destroyed or occupied.10 tion, justices and other social services. In the process of displacement, Psycho-social Health families and communities became separated, severing crucial social ///+ . /// ties and safety nets, and translating to an increased level of vulner- Psycho-social support is one of the most prominent needs in both ability to unaccompanied children, women heads of household and IDPs and host communities. Exposure to the shocking effects of vi- 12 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION olence in the conflict-affected areas is widespread in the North-East. Gender-specific Vulnerabilities ///+ . /// The UNHCR Protection Monitoring Report notes that of 17,534 11 SGBV appears to have increased among IDPs, although social stigma- vulnerable IDP households surveyed (both in camps and host com- tisation hampers reporting. Surveys and evidence from humanitarian munities), 3,476 had witnessed killing/violence to others. Like other agencies suggest that sexual abuse of women and children, not only indicators, this varies widely from state to state, with 41 percent in perpetrated by Boko Haram, is an important, yet largely unregistered Borno, to 6 percent in Gombe. Currently, there is no comprehen- problem, magnified by the vulnerability of displacement, economic sive survey that determines the extent to which the population in the desperation, and the breakdown of normal social protection mecha- six states has been affected by trauma. Particularly vulnerable groups nisms. This is especially the case within IDP camps where men and within IDPs and host communities such as women, widows, older women are segregated, and where law enforcement is absent. Social people and children (including unaccompanied children) are popula- stigmatisation and lack of responsiveness by law enforcement bodies tions identified as those with higher need for psycho-social support. ensure that few women or children report such abuse. Further infor- Such widespread psycho-social needs, especially when left unad- mation on the impact of conflict on women and girls is provided in dressed, can have serious impacts on health and nutrition, wellbeing, section 3.5 Cross-Cutting Issues. employability, and the emergence of new patterns of violence, includ- More broadly, vulnerability along gender lines is also visible when ing domestic violence, as well as SGBV, long after the current period looking into the income situation of IDPs before and after displace- of violent conflict has ended. ment. As per DTM data, the situation before displacement was very The current response to trauma is fragmented and limited. There are similar across different vulnerability types. Yet, after displacement, only three mental health facilities in the region and no referral mech- female and child-headed households constitute the group with the anisms to link the affected population to these facilities. A few initia- lowest rate of regular income, falling from 57 percent in regular em- tives are currently underway among professionals, civil society and ployment to 0 percent. government to develop a framework and standards for trauma provi- Socio-economic Vulnerabilities sion, yet these remain limited in terms of the needs of the population. ///+ . /// Within the already fragile socio-economic environment in North-East Child Protection ///+ . /// Nigeria, one of the biggest challenges that IDPs and host community Children have been disproportionately impacted by the crisis and members face is rebuilding their livelihoods. Across the North-East, have been subject to grave violations of their rights. They are also agriculture and animal husbandry are two major livelihoods. The exposed to heightened risk of sexual violence and physical abuse as a Boko Haram related conflict and the resulting displacement situation result of displacement and separation from or loss of their families. have contributed to the loss of critical assets including lands, property In July 2014 Boko Haram was listed in the United Nations Secre- and other productive assets, rendering both displaced population and tary-General’s 13th Annual Report on Children and Armed Conflict members in the host communities vulnerable to food insecurity. (S/2014/339) for two grave violations of children’s rights: killing and Since host communities have very limited resources to share with maiming of children and attacks on schools and hospitals. IDPs, to cope with the macro impacts of forced displacement, on the Child protection among IDPs is an immediate humanitarian and hu- individual level, displaced populations have adapted their livelihoods man rights challenge. The DTM in December 2015 reported that to any opportunities available in the host communities. Petty trading 55.7 percent of the IDPs are children and 28.13 percent are five years becomes one of the main occupations for IDPs, especially for women. old or younger.12 Beyond education and other basic needs, recent re- As forcibly displaced migrants have usually had to leave all their be- ports highlight the vulnerability of IDP children, particularly those longings behind, they are initially completely dependent on support orphaned or unaccompanied, to abuse, child labour and other viola- systems in the displacement sites. In camp or camp-like settings in tions. Girls are vulnerable to exploitative arrangements including ear- the North-East, IDPs at least have access to basic amenities (even if ly marriage in an effort to assure families of some form of economic intermittently) to which host communities may not have access, and or social security. a more or less regular access to in-kind assistance. Access to land is VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 13 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA however very scarce for IDPs in both camps or camp-like settings and Return of refugees is conditioned by different legal frameworks to be host communities. agreed on a tri-partite-base including UNHCR as well as the relevant governments. At this point it remains unclear when the conditions for Conditions for Return and Resettlement their safe return will be met, increasing the chances of this becoming ///+ . /// The vast majority of the displaced appear to wish to return home. In another protracted displacement situation. But a solution is not just one intention of return survey, 94 percent expressed the intention to about return and resettlement. As clearly articulated in the Kampala return.13 However, the current security situation and physical infra- Convention which Nigeria has signed, local integration is the third structure are not yet conducive to this. IDPs and local governments element of any solution, and resources should be used, not only to expressed the fear of landmines/explosive remnants of war (ERW) as secure return, but also to fund projects that support IDPs integration an obstacle to safe return and taking up livelihood activities in the in local communities as part and parcel of economic initiatives. most affected LGAs in Borno, Yobe and Adamawa. A strong mine ac- Affected Populations tion response will be essential to ensure safe access to mine/ERW-af- ///+ . /// fected LGAs and to address fear among IDPs of explosive devices. In the context of needs, some groups within the IDP face more severe and particular risks than others, such as older people, the chronically Among the IDPs surveyed through the DTM, 80 percent of those sick, people with disabilities, female- and child-headed households, who want to return home identified security as the main condition unaccompanied and separated children, adolescent boys and preg- to return, while 17 percent placed the improvement of the economic nant women. situation in their area of origin as the main factor for their return. In Borno, where most IDPs originate, return is currently minimal due Host communities have been also highly impacted. Living space is to ongoing insecurity. In Adamawa, it has been reported that many of over-stretched, and reserves of food and other resources are exhausted. the IDPs have begun to return to areas of origin. They report finding Already-poor host communities have been sharing resources for more devastation of homes and infrastructure, pollution of water sources than 12 months with little support, and are now relying on negative with dead human and animal bodies, and the presence of mines and coping strategies, such as selling livestock or property or reducing unexploded ordnance. Similarly, they are unable to fully settle as they meals, after savings and assets have been depleted. This exhaustion lack the resources and conditions to restore their livelihoods, and ac- of household and community resources has caused fatigue and some- cess to basic services.14 Discussion of safe and voluntary return also times resentment on the part of host communities, which could lead needs to be considered along with discussions for safe resettlement to secondary displacement of IDPs and in some cases conflict. The of IDPs. While most of IDPs have expressed their desire to return pressure is particularly intense in Maiduguri where a majority of IDPs home, a closer look by age shows that the willingness to return var- are located. Simultaneously, the State has struggled to provide basic ies among age groups. While adult and elderly IDPs expressed their services such as healthcare, nutrition and sanitation for the suddenly intention to return with assurance of safety being secured, younger enlarged population, the lack of which is negatively affecting both IDPs (aged 20 and under) suggested that they would prefer to stay in host and IDP services. Tensions have also arisen when IDPs receive the urban areas where they have been displaced, as they have become assistance and the host communities do not. used to the urban settings and want to pursue urban livelihood op- portunities. These dynamics are more pronounced in states such as In terms of addressing the needs of the conflict affected popula- Gombe and Bauchi where the state government have already put in tion, at present, over 60 humanitarian organisations are operating place initiatives oriented to the integration of IDPs and provision of in North-East Nigeria in support of a Government humanitarian basic services, such as shelter. There are special needs for the displaced response, led by the National and State Emergency Management population that lived under Boko Haram control for long periods of Agencies (NEMA/SEMA).16 This includes 27 international NGOs; time. Their basic needs are likely to be acute and unmet, while at the 19 national NGOs; 11 United Nations offices, agencies funds and same time, they suffer stigma as some other communities have ex- programmes; three Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement Organi- pressed a fear of returning and living amongst populations who they sations; and one inter-governmental organisation. However, the State believe may have been radicalised during the period of living under and National level humanitarian sector coordinators need additional Boko Haram control. capacity: many have multiple responsibilities and lack information 14 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION management (IM) capacity, which prevents a well-informed humani- erosion of trust and fragmentation of society along religious, ethnic tarian response. The diversity of approaches among development and or other cultural fault lines. A culture where violence is increasingly humanitarian actors further stretches the coordination response. Led common has become entrenched, with criminal activities expanding. by the Humanitarian Coordinator the UN is currently developing The conflict has particularly contributed to the rise in targeted vio- a joint coordination funding strategy to ensure that a coordination lence against women and children. Emerging in part in response to mechanism is immediately established with an associated information government detentions of women and children associated with the management platform. armed group in 2012, Boko Haram has increasingly targeted women for abduction and violence. Protection challenges include abduction, Around 20 national CSOs and NGOs operating in the North-East rape, torture, forced marriage and forced conversion. play a critical role in the delivery of assistance, especially in areas where international actors have limited access. While the number of More widely, conflict, combined with longer-term social processes, humanitarian partners has tripled since March 2015 from 19 to 62, has undermined gender norms and child rights and created a power the overall humanitarian response is still limited in the face of the shift between generations. Conflicts and the resultant displacement needs, and lacks rapid response capacity. situation have broken communities and families, throwing up large numbers of ‘nonconventional’ households (e.g. those headed by fe- 3.2 Reconciliation, Peace Building and Community males, children and the elderly) and new community leadership Cohesion structures. There are serious implications for future stability as the 3.2.1 Overview of Damages and Impacts human capital of upcoming generations is compromised. It is esti- mated that during the conflict 600 teachers have been murdered, The Government of Nigeria has made significant progress in recover- 19,000 teachers displaced, and 1,200 schools damaged or destroyed. ing areas previously controlled by the Boko Haram armed group. Yet, This has resulted in 600,000 children losing access to learning since continued attacks and insecurity are limiting the return of IDPs and 2013.17 Children have been disproportionately impacted by the crisis Nigerian refugees from neighbouring countries. In addition to phys- and have been subject to grave violations of their rights. They are also ical damages and casualties caused by the conflict, protracted armed exposed to heightened risk of sexual violence and physical abuse as a conflicts also disturb any peace building processes in the region and result of displacement and separation from or loss of their families. hamper efforts made towards social cohesion and reconciliation. Human security is at stake in the region. In fact, the crisis has result- 3.2.2 Identified Needs ed in violations of a range of human rights and humanitarian law, • Restoring Social Cohesion and Trust ///+ . /// including death, injuries, sexual violence, detention, disappearances, As outlined earlier, the situation in parts of the North-East remains forced displacement and forced recruitment. As the Nigeria military insecure. In this context where Boko Haram violence and response by and security forces expand their operations within the regional Mul- security agencies and non-State armed groups continues in some ar- tinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF), Boko Haram has increasingly eas, and where large-scale displacement continues, social and conflict relied upon asymmetric warfare tactics, including the use of suicide dynamics can change. Many areas in the region remain highly inse- bombs, Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs), Vehicle-Borne Impro- cure. This means that mechanisms to manage and resolve tensions vised Explosive Devices (VBIEDs) and coordinated attacks. Simulta- and conflict at community level are important. neously, the continued role and emergence of self-defence vigilante A dynamic of social fragmentation is emerging in some areas, evi- groups (especially the CJTF) has added to the number of armed non- denced by a decrease in social cohesion and trust, and increasing ten- State actors, further threatening community-level security and stabil- sions between groups within society. While a full analysis of social ity. If not managed properly, there are severe risks to peace building cohesion and community dynamics is needed, the assessment under- associated with these groups. taken in the North-East identified some general patterns. Some relate The length and uncertain nature of the conflict, coupled with un- directly to Boko Haram violence; others are also linked to pre-existing predictable population movement and displacement, have led to the factors or wider social trends. They include incidences of fragmenta- VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 15 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA tion and tension along religious and ethnic lines; tensions between conflict, decreasing legitimacy of traditional authorities and changing host communities and the internally displaced; and stigmatisation of generational dynamics. individuals perceived as associated with Boko Haram. There are also The response to inter-communal conflict now includes a range of challenges related to reintegration of former combatants and return civil society initiatives including those implemented by women and of IDPs. youth groups. There are localised initiatives, in addition to larger pro- IDPs and host relations vary. In many cases IDPs are hosted by family grammes. Some of the approaches used include peace groups, sports members. There is limited data on relationships between host and for peace, and community sensitivity and dialogue mechanisms. displaced communities, however during focus group discussions on • Countering Violent Extremism and Addressing Mobilisation of ///+ . the RPBA field missions concerns were expressed in Borno, Bauchi Non-State Armed Actors /// and Gombe over increasing tensions. Highlighting the variation be- Individual motivations and ‘pull factors’ for joining Boko Haram vary tween areas of the North-East, anecdotal findings suggests that ten- and may include personal (allegiance to charismatic leaders), political, sions between IDPs and hosts appear to show radically different pat- material and economic opportunities and ideological conviction. Ev- terns in Adamawa compared to Yobe, probably due to closer ethnic idence from de-radicalisation interventions suggests members often and religious ties. have rigid, linear belief systems. Thus, one can break Boko Haram down into an ideological, criminal, opportunistic and perhaps po- There are areas in the North-East where tensions along sectarian litical group. Some members were forcibly recruited and find it very and religious lines are evident. In several states, some stakeholders difficult to leave: former members have reportedly been killed for at- reported that there is a pattern of fracturing, mistrust and decreased tempting to do so. Unless and until Boko Haram can be demobilised integration between Muslim and Christian communities. Trust in and brought within a peace framework, the security situation will government and other institutions is reportedly weak, and in the con- remain unstable. However, demobilisation and reintegration of Boko text of the movement of communities, there is mistrust and fear that Haram represents a particular challenge, and does not call for conven- individuals may be Boko Haram members. This emanates perhaps tional processes, but rather learning from the innovative approach of from that initial Boko Haram attacks seem to have targeted churches, de-radicalisation programmes implemented in Nigeria and elsewhere. although mosques subsequently also became subjects of attacks as the Responses need to reflect that there are non-combatants and victims conflict evolved. of kidnapping, and other abuses with Boko Haram, including women Children associated with and/or recruited by Boko Haram are often and children. stigmatised and rejected upon return into their communities. Girls Locally recruited vigilante groups have played a critical role in the who have experienced sexual violence perpetrated by Boko Haram are response to Boko Haram in the North-East. They have been accused particularly stigmatised, especially pregnant girls, together with their of human rights violations, including summary executions. Exact fig- children who are also at risk of rejection and violence. The widows ures for the mobilisation of vigilante groups in the North-East are of suspected Boko Haram fighters also face stigmatisation from their unclear. Indications are that members of these groups may find it communities. Many of them are unwilling to return to their com- difficult to accept the return of Boko Haram to their localities, giv- munities, fearing that they will bring their family dishonour and be en the level of atrocities committed against the population. Inclusive rejected or even attacked by their communities. community dialogue and attention to the livelihoods of ex-combat- ants from all forces will be critical in the rehabilitation, reconstruction Traditional institutions, extended family networks and local associ- and reconciliation planning. ations have continued to underpin social solidarity and encourage trust between citizens of the North-East, providing conflict resolution According to recent analysis, the number of ‘defectors’, ‘disengaged’, and sensitisation campaigns. Many disputes continue to be resolved or ‘surrendees’ from Boko Haram to the Nigerian military and its through traditional methods. However, the authority of conflict mit- allied forces from neighbouring countries is on the increase.18 In or- igating institutions has been weakened through a combination of der to reduce the level of mistrust, risk and threats associated with 16 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION the treatment and handling of defectors, it is important to consider having in place clear legal, policy and screening procedures. It is also Violent extremism is an affront to the purposes and crucial for the future stability of Nigeria and for the well-being of principles of the United Nations. It undermines peace states affected by the conflict to provide aid and on-going support and security, human rights and sustainable development. for both victims and defected perpetrators of Boko Haram. Without Violent extremism is a diverse phenomenon, without clear this aid and de-radicalisation efforts, the result will be a generation of definition. It is neither new nor exclusive to any region, damaged and fragile citizens, deficient in education, and Nigeria will nationality or system of belief. Nevertheless, in recent years, lack the civic population it needs to maintain economic, political, and terrorist groups such as Islamic State in Iraq and Levant social stability. A wide process of dialogue and a tailored approach (ISIL), Al-Qaida and Boko Haram have shaped our image with consideration to the ethic and cultural priorities of the popula- of violent extremism and the debate on how to address this tion in the North-East should be considered in any measures adapted threat. These groups’ message of intolerance – religious, for de-radicalisation and reintegration of defectors and children who cultural, social – has had drastic consequences for many have been captured by armed forces. regions of the world. Report of the Secretary-General, Plan of Action to Prevent 3.3 Local Governance and Citizen Engagement __ Violent Extremism, The United Nations Global Counter- 3.3.1 Damages and Impacts Terrorism Strategy, Seventieth Session, UN General Assembly, 24 December 2015 The Local Government Area (LGA) is the lowest of the three-tier __ governance structure in Nigeria and the tier closest to the people. It is where the State connects with society, and where government policies sanitation).19 In areas where attacks targeted public institutions and interface with the aspirations of the people. In principle at least, there officials as well as traditional and religious leaders, damage to public are only 112 LGAs in the North-East with an average population of infrastructure and to administrative capacities have been extensive a few hundred thousand people often scattered across close to 50,000 (among the public buildings most affected by the conflict are local square kilometres: accordingly, local governments are often remote government buildings and police stations). These damages, along from most of their constituents. Local governments therefore play with threats to their lives, have forced local governments to operate an important role in the recovery and peace building process in the from makeshift facilities or, as in Borno and Yobe, to flee to and op- North-East; they are critical in identifying and meeting quickly evolv- erate remotely from the State capital. Many local governments have ing needs on the ground, in rebuilding and strengthening the social been detached from their constituencies for some time. contract where it is severely damaged, and in building social cohesion where fractures are most acute. Local governments are crucial in mon- The long-standing challenge of inadequate resources faced by lo- itoring the ‘pulse’ of the population at the grassroots and anchoring cal governments has been aggravated by the conflict. A large num- interventions in local contexts. They are also critical to ensuring local ber of health facilities are considered non-functional across the six ownership of processes designed to achieve the short-term recovery states (health services have been systematically targeted by the armed goals and build the long-term resilience of communities and of insti- group’s attacks), and hundreds of schools have been severely damaged tutions at all levels. or destroyed (most schools still open are noted to operate in highly re- strictive conditions, while many in safer areas are being used to house Significant challenges however impede the role of local governments IDPs). In areas with local governments in place and hosting IDPs, the as frontline agents of recovery and peace building in the North-East. strain on already scarce financial and natural resources is significant, The conflict has weakened the human, financial, and institution- further weakening their capacities and generating tensions between al capacities of the local governments, with devastating impact on IDPs and host communities. their ability to carry out core functions, beginning with provision of services under their jurisdiction (e.g., civil registry, primary and Large-scale damage to critical socio-economic infrastructure has adult education, health care, environmental protection, and public adversely affected the internally generated revenue of local govern- VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 17 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA ments, further straining resources that were noted to be insufficient vices in some cases, also suffered losses during the conflict, as well as prior to the outbreak of the conflict. Fiscal transfers to local govern- security forces (including vigilante groups) that have sometime sub- ments from the Federal account, diminished since the financial crisis stituted for civilian authorities, and traditional leaders. Young men of 2009, and were further strained since the outbreak of violence in and women who comprise a large portion of local population and 2011. Local governments, for instance, have reportedly been asked at who could be critical agents of change, face extensive challenges. They certain points to substitute for the inability of other public entities to have not had access to education and gainful employment for a con- fund operations and to complement the budget particularly for local siderable period, are targeted for recruitment by the militant group, police stations and the military. The breakdown in public expenditure lack role models in public life, face trauma and suffer injuries, and are channels since the outbreak of the conflict has wide ramifications; it marginalised or excluded from public decision-making processes by is important therefore to underline how public administration at the both officials and traditional leaders. local level had been weakened during the conflict. Some local govern- ments in the conflict affected areas have been either displaced to the 3.3.2 Identified Needs State capitals in Borno and Yobe, and operate remotely from there, Improving local governance is a critical part of the recovery and peace or they have to cater to a population significantly increased by IDPs building strategy: particularly to restore and improve the social con- (Maiduguri, the capital of Borno, has a nearly doubled population tract between the population and the government, to strengthen for- since the last population census in 2006). mal and informal conflict resolution mechanisms, and ensure legal se- curity of the population and property. Efforts will require reactivation Alongside these challenges are governance deficits that have been not- and ensuring safe return of the displaced local governments; rebuild- ed as drivers of the conflict in the North-East. Public trust in local ing the capacity of local governments (beyond the reconstruction of government had been weak, this being one of the reasons cited for public facilities); enhancing fiscal and human resources to enable ef- weak collection of tax revenue, which is understood to be effectively fective provision of public services; supporting local governments of raised but not remitted by tax collectors. This has not only increased host communities to cope with IDPs, in financial terms and in man- local governments’ dependency on fiscal transfers from the Federal aging tension between host communities and IDPs; and, enhancing account, but also damaged trust in local taxpayers and communities. citizen engagement in local governance to build trust in and enhance In most states affected by the conflict, local council elections have legitimacy of public institutions. not been conducted for many years (except in Yobe in 2013). In the A coordinated effort is necessary to ensure that local governance absence of elected councils, State Governors have filled posts with ap- structures (formal and informal) are improved and have necessary ca- pointees that have eroded the legitimacy of the local authorities, and pacities to play a critical role in recovery and peace building processes. has contributed to public perception that they do not hold themselves The objective is not to reinstate local governance to the pre-conflict accountable to local constituencies. Weak or lack of mechanisms for level, but to strengthen it, firstly by enhancing the effectiveness of citizen engagement in and monitoring of public decision-making local governments to manage the recovery process and effectively ful- processes reinforce a perception of ineffectiveness and lack of trans- fil core functions, specifically for effective and equitable delivery of parency. basic services and social cohesion. Rebuilding the capacities of local The engagement of stakeholders who are key in ensuring inclusive, governments to restore services is key as it provides the foundation responsive and accountable local governance is severely hampered. for achieving other recovery objectives; local governments will need Political parties and traditional leaders that have been significant in to undertake the basic reconstruction functions including peace representing needs and aspirations of population scattered across large building. Strengthening local governance also requires enhancing the areas may have been dispersed, or their relations with constituencies transparency and accountability of local governments, by enabling fractured due to the divisions and violence that attended the conflict. citizen engagement in public decision-making processes and sup- Civil society and CBOs such as women’s groups, trade unions and porting mechanisms that will help enhance their representativeness professional organisations, that have stepped in to provide certain ser- and responsiveness. 18 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION Strengthening the Effectiveness of Local Governments ///+ . /// agement at the Local level is seen as less robust than upper-tiers of government; local governments are expected to submit audited ac- The disruption in or pressures on local government functions caused counts to the State each year, but it is unclear how effectively this pro- by the conflict need to be urgently addressed to resume service deliv- cess ensures accountability as state audit reports are not made public. ery and advance the recovery process. There needs to be an assessment These point to a need for greater coordination between Local and of technical assistance required by diminished public administration State Governments on revenue mobilisation and allocation. The sim- capacities (from destroyed public administration offices, equipment plification of the local tax system initiated by the Joint Tax Board and and systems, as well as loss of personnel due to displacement, inju- initiatives such as the harmonisation of accounting standards across ry or death). The cadre of local government civil servants need to all three tiers of government (launched with UNDP and other devel- be supported; the return of those displaced (wherever feasible) needs opment partners for instance) could help enhance local capacities and to be planned, organised, and funded, and the provision for their accountability. More needs to be done, particularly to address lack of housing addressed alongside reconstruction of public facilities. Ca- public trust. Concrete efforts addressing mismanagement of public pacities of local governments in areas hosting IDPs should be but- resources at frontline point of delivery (schools, health facilities, etc.) tressed financially as well as administratively. Pressures brought on by need to be part of recovery programs. Community participation in influx of huge numbers of displaced population on natural resources the development of recovery plans as well as oversight of implemen- such as water and land, and on services such as health, nutrition and tation will help ensure transparency and build trust. sanitation, need to be managed effectively. Local actors involved in service delivery chain, such as local entrepreneurs or contractors and Enhancing Inclusive and Responsive Local Governance through ///+ . the private sector, are also affected by the conflict; livelihoods and Citizen Engagement /// small business assistance programs therefore should be synchronized, Strengthening local governance is a prerequisite to the recovery and with particular attention to enhancing opportunities for women peace building process, and efforts could begin by rebuilding and en- and youth. hancing public trust in the local governments and traditional leaders Strengthening the capacities of local governments also requires sig- through meaningful citizen engagement. Enabling the engagement nificant improvements in their financial and administrative capaci- of local communities and key stakeholders particularly in planning ties, beginning with revenue generation and tax administration. In and implementation of recovery and peace building efforts will be most Nigerian States, local governments are not autonomous from particularly crucial, as this ensures buy-in as well as direct relevance the State Government; their jurisdiction under the 1999 Constitu- of efforts to actual needs, thus building the legitimacy of these efforts. tion is narrowly limited to the provision of few services and public Mechanisms for government-citizen engagement had been noted as facilities, and their core financial resources are derived from the Fed- weak prior to the conflict, and engagement among communities has eration account (20 percent of total revenue accruing to the account been damaged by the conflict; they now require even greater support are earmarked to LGAs). Local governments raise on average 10 per- and investments to address exclusion and accountability issues. cent of State level internally-generated revenue (IGR), from a range Of immediate concern is the need to support mechanisms that en- of local taxes (such as from market fees and licensing fees for vehicles, able local communities, including IDPs, to voice their needs and to radio and television). However, in areas affected by conflict and the monitor responses to those needs by local governments and tradi- dwindling of commercial activities, this source of revenue had been tional leaders. These mechanisms should include channels for griev- seriously affected. Building the capacities of local governments there- ance redress and conflict resolution, as well as channels for addressing fore should also explore decentralisation alongside efforts to enhance perceptions of inequitable access to support and services during the closer coordination across all levels. recovery process. This is particularly crucial in areas where competi- Also, the perception among tax collectors that financial management tion between IDPs and host communities over services and livelihood systems are weak point to considerable seepage of revenue, and con- opportunities is causing friction, and where tensions along sectarian tribute to people’s lack of trust in local authorities. Financial man- lines persist. Mechanisms should aim therefore to ensure equitable VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 19 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA opportunities for stakeholders, ensuring a focus on the distinct chal- lenges faced by youth, women, and people with disabilities. Community security is a concept that goes beyond physical security and “seeks to operationalize human security, human Citizen engagement efforts should also aim to reduce political ex- development and state-building paradigms at the local level”. clusion and discrimination to address deficits in lack of representa- A community security approach drives both the ‘what’ and tiveness in local institutions. The recovery and peace building efforts the ‘how’ of this component. therefore present opportunities to advance inclusive and responsive governance. They need, however, to be aligned with existing, tradi- tional mechanisms that have been weakened by the conflict, including by the emerging challenges arising directly related to displacement. As conflict mitigating actors and institutions in the North-East such as already noted, SGBV is believed to be high and the provisions for report- traditional leaders, extended family networks and local associations. ing and prosecution are not responsive to the social stigmatisation and shame many victims feel. For example, complaints are usually recorded 3.4 Community Security, Justice, Human Rights, and statements taken in rooms with no privacy, and courts rarely provide Mine Action and Small Arms Control separate waiting areas for victims and witnesses, while hearings are rarely 3.4.1 Damages and Impact heard in camera. The lack of specialist trained law enforcement (espe- cially of trained female officers) is another barrier to effective reporting. Community security encompasses all forms of threats to personal and group security, hence is interlinked with justice, human rights, and Many IDPs are also unable to access legal support services as they lack control of small arms/light weapons (SALW). Human rights abuses documentation to register. While this is the responsibility of the LGA, have been committed not only by armed actors involved in the con- amendments to the legal framework for the emergency situation would flict. Weak access to justice, accountability and oversight mechanisms facilitate registration for IDPs while increased access to legal advice and facilitate impunity for such violations and leave the population vul- assistance urgently needed. nerable. This also limits the ability to deal with ethnic-religious, eco- nomic and social tensions. The resulting low level of human security The cost, inaccessibility and poor perception of and lack of public trust has been one of the structural drivers of the conflict. The fact that in the formal system mean that the overwhelming majority of people in these issues are both outcomes of, and drivers of conflict, means that the North-East do not even report crimes to the police. Traditionally, the it is essential to integrate human security into all aspects of recovery vast majority of people use alternative mechanisms (customary, sharia, and peace building. familial or other) to resolve disputes but conflict and displacement has in many places disrupted traditional community leadership structures. The capacity of law and security institutions to deliver efficient ser- More often, these mechanisms do not always operate according to due vices and the ability of the population to access them has historically process and human rights standards. In the context of inter-communal been low across the North-East. These structural weaknesses include tensions, the legitimacy and effectiveness of even those structures have poor infrastructure concentrated in a few urban centres inaccessible broken down in some places leaving a vacuum for peaceable dispute reso- to much of the rural population, under-funding, insufficient staff and weak capacity.20 This has led to large case backlogs, and long delays lution. Without effective mechanisms to resolve disputes peacefully, there in court hearings, which have resulted in a lack of trust in the system. is increased recourse to violence. Despite the displacement crisis, there has been no concomitant in- The proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALW) has played crease in law enforcement provision in the wider host community and a major part in fuelling the conflict. SALW are cheap and easily avail- the police are absent from most IDPs camps, leaving law enforcement able, especially in border areas, where illicit cross-border trafficking is rife. to military, ad hoc groups of camp inhabitants and untrained camp SALW are also used by vulnerable communities to protect themselves authorities (with no legal mandate). from attacks by Boko Haram and other armed groups. These groups have The severe strains caused by the destruction of police stations and posts, also been responsible for attacks on civilians and other unlawful acts of court buildings and the absence of key personnel have been compounded aggression using small arms. 20 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION 3.4.2 Identified Needs Returnees are likely to face multiple challenges in accessing their property and land rights, which often results in disputes over land ///+ . Rebuilding, Retooling and Equiping Key Justice and Security In- ownership, particularly where justice mechanisms are underdevel- stitutions /// oped or not functioning well. This adds further uncertainty, with the Boko Haram attacks have targeted police stations and court build- most vulnerable members of society (e.g. widows and orphans) who ings, destroying the infrastructure necessary for service delivery. are at greatest risk of being denied their rights, rendering it impossible These circumstances disrupt the accessibility of effective justice and for them to rebuild their livelihoods. It will be essential to mitigate security, and tarnish the legitimacy of the institutions responsible for the potential for disputes over land ownership by making available delivering these services during and after the crisis. The absence of formal legal mechanisms such as courts, and involving traditional key data and information on the state of rule of law institutions in the clan structures in order to avoid parallel processes, and by providing North-East undermines effective response in re-establishing rule of greater public information about citizens’ land rights, especially for law, thereby undermining the very foundation on which lasting peace women and child-headed households. and order can be built. A mapping on rule of law service delivery ca- While the vast majority of people in the North-East, like other Ni- pacities and levels of trust in institutions is needed to provide relevant gerians, rely on alternative justice mechanisms, studies have shown information for the delivery of justice and security services. that their failure to follow due process and comply with human rights ///+.Increasing Access to Justice for the Most Affected Groups Including standards undermines the quality of justice they dispense. Interven- Women, Girls, and IDPs /// tions that seek to improve the quality of decision making, particularly as it relates to women and children, strengthen accountability/over- Restoring rule of law services in North-East Nigeria will be needed sight through recording of decisions as well as increase the coordina- to ensure both formal and informal justice providers are available, ac- tion between them and the formal justice sectors, which will make cessible, accountable and making quality decisions in the interests of the system less patriarchal and arbitrary, and enable it to comply with their entire community, and ensuring the rights of women, children, human rights standards. Also, poor public perceptions and mistrust and IDPs are respected – all of which are key to re-establishing com- in the formal justice system will need to be addressed by increasing munity safety. Support measures to make legal and justice services the levels of public knowledge and understanding about their rights available through mobile courts and community-based paralegals will and where in the justice system they can seek redress. increase access to timely and quality justice for the groups most affect- ed by the conflict and human rights violations. Restoring Citizen and Community Security ///+ . /// The conflict has exacerbated the plight that women and girls in The on-going conflict with Boko Haram and inter-communal vi- North-East Nigeria historically face. SGBV, including among dis- olence continues to inhibit recovery in the North-East and under- placed communities, has emerged as a human rights, justice, and se- mine citizen and community security, which is intended to allow curity concern needing attention particularly where women and girls for safe and peaceful coexistence among communities. Citizen and are concerned, and will be a crucial element of recovery efforts in community security will need to be established to help secure a safe North-East Nigeria, to be addressed through legal means as part of environment for returnees, and help restore trust in basic services by a multi-sectoral response. Consistent with the Security Council Res- reintroducing policing in LGAs as the situation allows, in order to olution 1325 (2000), 1820 (2008), 1888 (2009) and 1960 (2010), transition from military to civilian policing control, including where efforts to address impunity will mean that there should be improved feasible, ensuring a balance of female officers. Interventions will need access to justice including legal aid services for the survivors, while to further ensure that the police are properly prepared to assume con- also invoking community level prevention efforts that seek to raise trol from the military; including being properly equipped and trained awareness and mobilise men to advocate against marginalisation of on technical policing functions and police management in a conflict and discrimination against women. setting. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 21 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Of equal importance will be support measures, which build confi- and Chad) is a recognition of the regional aspect of the conflict and dence and relations between local police and communities as well the need to coordinate responses across borders. The capacity of the as the IDPs so that police services are accessible and acceptable to MNJTF will need to be further enhanced if it is to play an effective the communities it serves. To this end, support in strengthening role in preventing the illicit cross-border movement of arms and Boko both community security and community policing which incorpo- Haram fighters. rate gender and child friendly issues will be key in rebuilding trust, The priority areas for the SALW in the immediate emergency recov- and should embed a special emphasis on getting local authorities and ery phase will be to provide sustainable alternative livelihood options community representatives to promote participatory processes and for key actors (CJTF, other vigilantes groups) whose livelihoods have conflict mitigation, to analyse security risks, and design and imple- revolved around the use of SALW over the period of the crisis. It will ment community based plans. be imperative to also establish a training and capacity needs assess- Given the high potential for inter-communal violence, priority should ment of CJTFs both organised and independent groups, and there- be given to activities which promote inter-faith dialogue, cooperation after provide support to the formalisation of these recognised CJTFs between traditional leaders of different communities and faiths and into cooperative groups. Community participation on security/ training on mediation and reconciliation skills. SALW awareness and reduction in the North East will also need to be enhanced through advocacy and sensitisation on the dangers of SAL- Ensuring that oversight and accountability of the police is strength- Ws and their role as a part of the community security mechanism. ened through support of the Human Rights Commission, the Com- mittee against Torture, and civil society organizations, should be con- Community resilience and security will have to be fostered through sidered. The introduction of a model police in which policing with a the development of a comprehensive early warning mechanism/da- rights based approach should be piloted and scaled up. tabase, commencing with the detailed profiling of all community vigilantes and CJTFs in all North-East states. Through this mech- Sustained Monitoring of Human Rights Violations anism, selected border community members including IDPs will be ///+ . /// While human rights violations are often a root cause of conflict, they engaged as early warning agents. This activity will be carried out in are always an indispensable element in achieving peace and reconcil- collaboration with CBOs, faith groups and Human Rights Monitors iation. Human rights monitors are well placed to function as early etc. Inter-faith sensitisation for a peaceful co-existence as well as joint warning mechanisms to flag risks of violations of civil, political, eco- cross-border sensitisation programmes on the influence on conflict nomic and social human rights, as well as risks of intolerance, all of and SALW proliferation on livelihoods would be explored. which are necessary to help diffuse tensions at an early stage and take Finally, the legal and regulatory frameworks required for sustained early action to prevent an escalation into conflict. State party report- fight against SALW will have to be established with a view to promot- ing to international and regional human rights mechanisms such as ing the harmonisation of national laws in line with the ECOWAS the Universal Periodic Review (UPR), treaty bodies and in reports Convention on SALW and the United Nations Programme of Action. of UN special procedures should enable stakeholders to hold gov- ernment and key stakeholders accountable for improving the human 3.5 Cross-cutting Issues rights situation on the ground. 3.5.1 Gender Small Arms Control ///+ . /// Boko Haram-related activities have worsened the situation of the Porous borders result in the free circulation of SALW and thus fa- population in the North-East, particularly for women and girls who cilitate activities by illegal armed groups, enabling them to launch have become more vulnerable due to the armed conflict. Prior to the attacks into and from neighbouring countries. Therefore, a regional, Boko Haram-related violence, the rights of women and girls were cross-border approach to addressing SALW proliferation is critical. grossly undermined owing to socio-cultural and religious beliefs The Multi-National Joint Task Force (MNJTF) comprising units which do not define and appropriate their rights on an equal footing from Nigeria and its neighbouring States (Benin, Cameroon, Niger, with men and boys. This manifested in the sharp inequality between 22 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION women and men with particular reference to social needs, education, • Available and accessible mental and medical services with special- right to dignity and right to acquisition of land and property. ised personnel trained to address cases of SGBV to provide imme- diate as well as follow-up attention to SGBV survivors and effective Exacerbating their plight, the armed conflict has been marked by the referral mechanisms; systematic use of violence against women and girls. The UN SRSG • Comprehensive mapping of available services and services that on Sexual Violence described the Boko Haram armed group as “wag- could be potentially adjusted to address SGBV related issues; __ ing war on women’s physical, sexual and reproductive autonomy and • Safe spaces and confidential systems to reach out to SGBV survi- rights” by repeatedly raping their female captors and treating them as vors; vessels for producing children for fighters. In this context, sexual violence • Strengthening capacity of national/state institutions and improved is not merely incidental, but integral, to their strategy of domination and monitoring and data collection; self-perpetuation.”21 • Legal and social protections for people affected by SGBV, especial- __ The current situation has seen women and girls being forced into ly vulnerable groups such as women and children; and marriages or becoming sex slaves, denying them the rights to educa- • Community engagement to address negative perceptions of vic- tion and free will as to who should be their life partner. Meanwhile, a tims/survivors and to promote family and community support for proportion of women die prematurely owing to sexual abuse, which those that do report. may also result in sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/STD. 3.5.2 Human Rights In some parts of the region, there are now large numbers of wom- The violent conflict has been characterised by allegations of human en-headed and child-headed households. rights abuses and violations under international humanitarian law Using data extrapolation DTM Round VII in December 2015 re- committed by Boko Haram, including killings, the use of children in ported that 52 percent of IDPs are women and girls. Addressing their hostilities, abductions, SGBV including rape, forced marriages, tor- situation requires the mainstreaming of the rights of women and girls ture and ill-treatment. There have also been reports of heavy-handed in whatever policy and intervention that is designed for the North- military operations (both by the Army and by affiliated CJTF mi- East. One factor in the recovery process will therefore be the extent to litias), including against civilians. Allegations have also been made which discrimination and violence against women is addressed, and of violations of international human rights and humanitarian law women empowered to fulfil their potential to contribute to econom- by security agents, including extra-judicial killings, enforced disap- ic, social and political life. pearances, torture and ill-treatment, arbitrary arrests and detentions. However, the lack of information on the human rights situation, and Men and boys also confront a range of threats including: gender-based the fact that abuses and violations either go unreported or are not violence; abduction and forceful recruitment by Boko Haram; re- fully addressed, in turn, fosters impunity. cruitment by security forces and vigilante groups; and, detention on suspicion of Boko Haram sympathies. They are frequently targeted The Boko Haram conflict has its roots in a long history of human from both sides, being specifically selected for killing due to the belief rights violations and bad governance that alienated the majority of that they are allied with the different parties involved in the conflict. the population by denying them access to goods and services. If re- spect for human rights is not addressed, the distortions in society will Interventions to respond to SGBV are detailed in section 4. Recovery remain, or be further exacerbated, making it more likely that indi- Strategies. Key elements of the response to SGBV, which requires an viduals will resort to violence. Durable solutions, which are commu- integrated inter-agency and multi-sectoral response to both SGBV nity-driven and pay attention to and prioritise the most affected and and SGBV related trauma include: marginalised, are essential to eliminating recourse to violence. Rec- • Comprehensive programming on SGBV, including immediate onciliation and sustainable peace in the region can only be achieved attention to SGBV survivors and incidents, as well as preventive when a human rights based approach is applied as a guiding principle initiatives; in addressing the root causes of the conflict as well as its impacts. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 23 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA As such efforts arising from this RPBA should consciously aim to suffered as local schools struggle to cope with increased numbers. further the realisation of human rights. Moreover, national capaci- This has caused untold impact on the futures of over one million ty development should therefore focus on: i) enhancing government children in the North-East, with the effect of further weakening the institutions with frontline responsibility for the promotion and pro- future prospects for a stable recovery. The issues are further elaborated tection of human rights with a view to strengthening their capacity in the Infrastructure and Social Services Component. as duty bearers to fulfil their obligations; ii) enhancing the capacity Girls and young women have a particularly difficult time as they are of citizens and civil society as rights holders to claim their rights; and taken out of school earlier, and marry earlier. The average marriage (iii) strengthening the accountability between them through effective age of a Nigerian woman is under 18, while the average man marries mechanisms for systematic monitoring and reporting on the human in his late twenties.26 The average literacy rate among women in the rights situation, with particular focus on the most vulnerable and at North-East is 20 percent, and is likely to fall further in the current risk populations, and on the functioning rule of law institutions to generation of girls, whose education has been considerably disrupted, address conflict-related violations and disputes. as well as with the apparent increase in young girls engaging in trans- 3.5.3 Youth and Children actional sex or other coercive arrangements to support themselves and their families. Understanding and meeting the needs of children and young people represents a defining challenge for Federal and State authorities. Ni- Children and adolescents have suffered disproportionately from psy- geria faces a demographic challenge, which is particularly acute in the chological trauma and are vulnerable to exploitation and abuse, while North-East. According to the National Bureau of Statistics Nigeria’s also lacking the tools to access support. Large numbers of such young population reached 167 million in 2012, of which around 50 percent people are growing up without education or training and with few are youth, of whom only half have a primary school education or educational prospects. Unless this is recognised and built into the re- none at all. The median age of the population is 17.9. The demo- 22 23 covery strategy, they will grow up to be marginalised and vulnerable graphic bulge presents the significant challenge of ensuring that there to radicalisation and criminality, perpetuating present insecurity into is work for this large population of young people. When asked to rate the next generation. the gravity of access to employment in an online survey, 86 percent of Young men and women have few role models in public life and op- respondents viewed it as a very serious problem.24 In 2005, the Edu- portunities to articulate their concerns or participate in peace and cation Sector Analysis (ESA) for 2004 reported that, out of the 130, security policymaking. The traditional leadership and political class 000 youths that graduate from Nigerian universities annually, only excludes young people, hence their ability to influence policy is low, about 10 percent are able to secure paid employment. and they lack a political voice. With most youths in the North-East Unemployment rate in the North-East is around 40 percent. The fig- now unemployed or underemployed, they are further marginalised, ure is even higher amongst the youth. This is partly due to the poor and the risk of continued conflict and destabilisation is high. It is economic state of the North-East, but also due to the low levels of particularly important therefore that the design and implementation educational attainment and standards in the region. of recovery strategies makes space to listen to their voices and plan for their needs. Against this backdrop, the conflict has had specific impacts. It has involved targeted attacks by Boko Haram on schools and school chil- Young people can be agents of change, and indeed game changers dren as part of its ideological attack on Western education. Since the for the North-East if their potential is harnessed by creating oppor- conflict started, more than 600 teachers have been killed, hundreds tunities for their meaningful participation. Opportunities should be of pupils kidnapped or killed, and over 1200 schools have been de- made available for youth, including boys and girls, to take part in the stroyed or damaged. 25 Schools in large parts of the North-East have peace building and reconstruction process building on existing suc- not been functional for up to three years. Many displaced children cessful initiatives. Social change should be endogenic, that is, embed- have been unable to access education for successive school years, ded within local communities where young people live, go to school, while the quality of education of children in host communities has work and plan for their futures. 24 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION Integration of youth concerns and participation in sub-sectors, plus stand-alone youth-focused programmes are needed, such as: Explosives Remnants of War • Engagement with educational institutions; Activities, which aim to reduce the social, economic and • Support of young people’s peace building initiatives, with involve- environmental impact of mines, and explosive remnants ment of hard-to-reach young people, including those dispropor- of war (ERW) including unexploded sub-munitions. The tionately affected by conflict (from marginalised, minority and objective of mine action is to reduce the risk from landmines indigenous groups); and ERW to a level where people can live safely; in which • Intergenerational dialogue, including with religious and tradition- economic, social and health development can occur free al leaders; from the constraints imposed by landmine and ERW • Development of young people’s skills in leadership, mediation, contamination, and in which the victims’ different needs can negotiation, conflict resolution, to provide life skills and positive be addressed. Mine action comprises five complementary social norms; groups of activities: (i) risk education, (ii) survey and • Improved technical and vocational training as an entryway to in- clearance, (iii) victim assistance, (iv) advocacy and (v) come generation; stockpile destruction. • Youth-led initiatives in arts, culture, music, social media and sports to foster social cohesion and mediation; • Setting up a youth peace and reconciliation fund or award for the tion mechanism needs to be in place. To allow for a safe return, an emergency Risk Education campaign needs to reach all IDPs and the North-East to recognise and support innovative youth projects; local population as well as those working temporarily in potentially • Institutionalisation of youth participation and representation in dangerous areas. A systematic survey coupled with risk education and local and national governance processes and policy making; and explosive ordnance disposal, working LGA by LGA, will provide the • Protecting environments for the lives of children and youth in required data and response to the North-East of Nigeria. post-conflict and returnee settings. A mine action programme in line with international standards does 3.5.4 Explosives Remnants of War not exist in Nigeria. Joint undertaking of the government, the securi- The threat from explosive devices in Nigeria’s North-East, partic- ty forces and development partners, is required to address the threat ularly in Borno, stems from improvised explosive devices (IEDs), of mines and ERW through a mix of emergency actions and capacity which have been used both for attacks and as victim-activated de- development. Setting up an institutional and operational framework vices emplaced in the ground. As victim-activated IEDs maim and as well as basic legal and policy framework to allow such activities kill indiscriminately, they can be considered as ‘landmines’. Some will require a concerted effort. A team to coordinate mine action is factory-made mines may also have been used, but the available in- planned, possibly based at Maiduguri. formation is very limited to date. In addition, military activities have employed aerial bombardment and the use of artillery, mortars, rock- Data on mine/ERW victims (deaths and injuries), on war-injured, and persons with disabilities are scarce in general. Many of those in- ets, etc., which inevitably leads to widespread contamination by un- jured from the conflict will remain chronically disabled. Medical/re- exploded ordnance (UXO). habilitation and psycho-social care are the most pressing needs. Mine Explosive remnants of war (ERW) and IEDs can be found on roads, action activities can help to identify, educate and refer survivors and in abandoned houses and buildings (including schools), and in ag- family members of the deceased to existing service providers. The spe- ricultural fields; it is also possible that water sources were ‘mined’ cific needs of under-18s are to be taken into consideration for MRE by the armed group. To access areas in the North-East, roads have and victims assistance. to be assessed and de-mined and areas need to be surveyed prior to initiating a safe return process. Cleaning up rubble and debris and burning waste can be extremely dangerous and an ERW-risk reduc- VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 25 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 4. Recovery Strategy for Peace Building, different identified needs while in the meantime, the strategy should also recognise and account for differences in state dynamics and the Stability and Social Cohesion particular needs of populations affected by displacement (new IDPs and those unable to return; host communities; and IDPs already re- 4.1 Objectives turned). The recovery strategy identified under the peace building, stability and social cohesion component has the following objectives: At a broader level, a recovery strategy regarding return and resettle- ment of IDPs should include a policy and operational framework that (i) Identify initiatives that enhance long-lasting and sustainable provides guidance on how return and resettlement should take place peace building in North-East Nigeria while considering the dif- in a safe, dignified and voluntary manner. While a signatory country ferent state dynamics as well as the different needs of the popu- of the Kampala convention, this legal framework has not been do- lations in these states. mesticated and sanctioned within Nigeria. As such, the country lacks (ii) Identify durable solutions to displacement, which ensures that returns are voluntary and conducted in secure and dignified the necessary coordination across agencies and more importantly, a manner. For those IDPs who prefer to be resettled, identify du- defined set of roles and responsibilities with attached lines of account- rable solutions for dignified and secure resettlement. Durable ability that allow for a comprehensive and holistic response to the solutions should address the most immediate and basic needs of needs and challenges of forcibly displaced populations. As a conse- IDPs (food security, shelter, WASH, education and health), the quence, responsive efforts to IDPs related issues tend to be scattered, need for psycho-social support, gender specific programing and uncoordinated and inefficient, and do not comply with internation- livelihoods support. Addressing the threat of ERWs is a precon- al standards. Most of the burden of displacement, such as manag- dition for any return and recovery process. Identified vulnerable ing resources and providing additional services, is in fact carried by populations should be specifically targeted to generate sustain- communities. Consequently, there are increased social tensions and able recovery. deepened sense of abandonment by the Government within IDPs (iii) Identify initiatives that help to restore the social fabric in the host communities, undermining peace and stability efforts. Also, North-East, by nurturing and enhancing trust and social cohe- prospects for return and resettlement will be determined by physical sion – with communities, between groups and between citizens conditions, in particular security environment. Those who are will- and government. ing to return and resettle should be properly assisted, once safety is (iv) Prevent conflict and violence including gender-based violence guaranteed. Ensuring that the areas where IDPs are going to return or at community level. resettle are safe would also imply working in coordination with hu- (v) Reduce violence in context of Boko Haram related violence manitarian actions to undertake a mine action response to ensure safe through reducing Boko Haram mobilisation and human rights access to mine/ERW affected LGAs, and to address the fear among violations by armed forces. IDPs and local communities of explosive devices. (vi) Increase access to effective justice and redress. (vii) Increase a culture of human rights respect at community level. To address the needs of populations affected by displacement (new (viii) Strengthen local governance to support service delivery and ac- IDPs and those unable to return; host communities; and IDPs already countability. returned), existing initiatives that mostly focused on humanitarian support to ensure adequate provision of food, emergency shelter, and 4.2 Contribute to the Safe and Voluntary Return the restoration of basic services such as education, health and nutri- and Resettlement of Displaced Populations tion, and water and sanitation, may need to be scaled up, and in some A sound recovery strategy that enhances safe, dignified and volun- cases adapted. This will be particularly important in addressing the tary return and resettlement of IDPs should be formulated in an needs of new IDPs, in case new waves of displacement occur. Adap- integrated and holistic manner. Such strategy should be embedded tion and these existing services will be required to facilitate the tran- in interlinked and integrated programme responses that address the sition of IDPs back to their places of origin, including the provision 26 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION of food aid to allow them to survive during planting and harvesting mal and informal institutions, social stigmatisation towards specific seasons. groups, and reckoning. For this group of the population, it is also key to enhance community based and participatory approaches to re- Besides humanitarian support, there is also increasing need for initia- store livelihoods, reactivate local markets, re-establish access to social tives that facilitate the transition of IDPs in the processes of return or services and facilitate the reintegration of IDPs into local communi- resettlement. Some agencies have started the provision of support in ties. This may include the provision of food support and agricultural/ priority areas such as psycho-social support, livelihoods and SGBV productive inputs in exchange for reconstruction works, and support prevention. Due to the dimensions of the crisis however, these efforts for the initiation of new livelihood activities in areas of resettlement. remain limited and thus needs are largely underserved. To effectively Creating safe spaces for women and unaccompanied children to re- address these needs, programmatic, holistic and integrated approach- duce safety risks, and continued psycho-social support are also key es should be preferred. Such approaches should not only address basic needs, but also include initiatives on livelihoods support and priorities for this population. By the same token, gender-inclusive provision, psychosocial support and specific programming to address livelihood stabilisation and local economic recovery efforts are also SGBV. It is key that these holistic initiatives pay special attention key in the North-East, given the high number of female household to vulnerable populations, including women, widows, elderly, youth heads who have little to no experience in the labour market. Also, and children including UASC, for whom family reunification pro- given that increasingly more young IDPs are willing to seek livelihood grammes should also be included. opportunities in urban areas, there may be an operational opportu- nity for the provision of marketable vocational skills training to IDPs Given that the security conditions remain volatile in parts of the displaced in urban settings. North-East, the displacement dynamic in relation to this crisis re- mains highly fluid, with new waves of displacement being contin- Finally, for host communities and communities in areas of return, uously registered (as per assumptions and displacement scenarios it is imperative to alleviate pressure on services such as water and detailed in this document). Therefore, and as mentioned above, the sanitation, health and nutrition, and education. The most effective recovery strategy proposed to ensure safe and voluntarily return and approach to host and return communities is treating IDPs as equal resettlement of IDPs should be formulated by taking into account the partners alongside the local population, by drawing on their skills particular needs of different displaced groups (new IDPs and those and other available resources to solve common problems. IDPs are unable to return; host communities; and IDPs already returned). potential partners and important contributors to the local economy, and community development projects may be a good starting point For new IDPs and those unable to return, efforts should focus on for matching needs with skills and resources of both the permanent addressing basic needs (food, water and sanitation, and emergency and temporary residents. Efforts along this line are key to restoring shelter); access to basic services (education and health), and support social cohesion as they: (i) alleviate immediate tensions over access to for early recovery, including livelihoods and psycho-social support. Attention should also be directed to addressing particular vulnerabil- employment between affected communities, host community indi- ities, including reunification/protection of unaccompanied children, viduals, and displaced individuals; (ii) help IDPs cover their increased widows, the elderly and SGBV survivors. living costs; (iii) provide immediate, visible community benefits via the rehabilitation of socioeconomic community infrastructure; (iv) For people willing and able to return and resettle, the aforementioned boost the purchasing power and revive the local markets in the host policy and operational framework for safe, voluntary and dignified communities, increasing the overall economic absorption capacity return and resettlement is instrumental. A central consideration in and resilience of host communities to support IDP inflows; and (v) the elaboration of such framework is the restoration of social cohe- support more diversified livelihoods opportunities, enterprise recov- sion between those who are returning/resettling and those who nev- ery, and skills development for communities, including the most vul- er left/host community residents. It will be important to establish nerable groups. mechanisms for managing tensions that are likely to emerge from the process, including land and property disputes, mistrust in both for- VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 27 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 4.3 Reconciliation, Peace Building and • Community level support to reintegration, and means to ensure Community Cohesion community safety such as tracking of returning former Boko Ha- ram followers, ensure the safety and wellbeing of those reintegrat- This subcomponent recovery strategy will aim to restore and strength- ed; en the social fabric in the North-East to prevent and resolve conflict • Measures to prevent violent extremism including strategic commu- and increase cohesion. Priorities will differ between insecure areas nications and community level capacity building, with capacity at where populations remain displaced, and areas where return occurs. state and targeted LGA levels; In some areas, the priority will be addressing tensions between IDPs • Reintegration efforts for former Boko Haram followers, including and hosts, in others, processes of reintegration or reconciliation. A livelihood, psycho-social support, (including tailored support for core implementation strategy will be to develop community level under-18s) and necessary community sensitisation; and sensitisa- platforms, either new ones, or building up on existing peace build- tion to support their safe return; ing structures. The strategy also includes support to civil society ini- • The disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of vigilante tiatives and the development of capacity of civil society, particularly groups is another area highlighted by assessment. Priorities of this womens groups, youth groups and traditional authorities. It is also process include facilitating dialogue between the parties, establish- key to promote inter-faith dialogue. ing a policy framework, ensuring accountability, developing live- lihood opportunities and providing psycho-social support (taking Preventing and addressing violent extremism requires a dedicated, into account the specific needs of under-18s). Approaches have /// /// tailored and integrated approach, based on the lessons of the Office been developed to date including by Bauchi State Government and of National Security Advisor (ONSA) programme and on research Adamawa Peace Initiative. and evidence. This should encourage defection of Boko Haram mem- bers by offering safe treatment and detention conditions, and making Response to conflict related trauma should build on existing initia- tives, and includes enhancing capacity of state health providers and clear which categories of detainees will be held accountable through civil society organisations, establishing referral mechanisms for popu- formal justice processes, and which might receive alternative treat- lations affected by trauma. ment. Evidence based de-radicalisation programmes are suggested. Needs of victims should be understood and addressed, and reintegra- Gender and SGBV programming should incorporate holistic, /// /// tion of former combatants should be supported where communities multi-sectorial interventions to mitigate and address the consequenc- are willing to receive them. Priorities include: es of SGBV and broader exposure to violence. Interventions should • Legal framework to outline how Boko Haram members will be build on international guidelines and good practice for addressing treated if they defect or are captured, outlining categories who will SGBV in complex emergencies and conflict-affected environments. be tried, or might receive alternative treatment; All interventions, including associated assessments, should uphold in- • Encourage Boko Haram defection through offering safe corridors ternational ethical and safety standards that are age, gender- and cul- turally-sensitive and mindful of requirements to maintain anonymity and safe detention conditions; and confidentiality of affected populations. Design of interventions • Register and assess detainees to ensure response according to le- should further take into consideration the extent to which the safety gal framework, and ensure provision for women and children, and and security risks of affected populations are addressed, and activ- those who are victims; ities seek to minimize potential exposure of populations to further • Accountability: peace must be anchored on justice. Formal justice violence.27 processes and alternative dispute resolution mechanisms may be required. Due process and human rights standards for fair trials Mechanisms for support for survivors of violence should advance should be observed; an integrated, multi-sectoral approach to service provision for survi- • Evidence-based de-radicalisation programmes for both those who vors, including support for holistic provision of care and for referral convicted and those who are processed through other channels, pathways related to: (1) medical support; (2) mental health and psy- based on best practice from the ONSA programme; cho-social care; (3) legal support; (4) opportunities for livelihoods 28 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION and economic empowerment; and (5) follow-up for survivors within Key intervention strategies will focus on: their respective communities. While identification or establishment • accompanying the return of displaced local governments and sup- of referral centres providing one or more services may be explored, porting local governments hosting IDPs to meet the immediate consideration will necessarily be given for connecting these services needs; with existing institutions (e.g. hospitals or health centres), to ensure • enhancing fiscal and human resources of local governments to en- their sustainability in the longer-term. Ensuring confidentiality of able them to effectively contribute to the provision of public ser- survivors seeking care, both to encourage support-seeking behaviour vices, and to the protection and safety of their constituents; and to minimize the potential for stigmatisation, will also be a prior- • establishing social accountability mechanisms, through budget ity. Community awareness raising and sensitisation activities will also monitoring and transparent contract awards and taxation systems be explored as a means to reduce potential stigmatisation of survivors and the re-establishment of their grievance redress mechanism and to promote community reconciliation. • strengthening the existing community mobilisation mechanism, in A community or stakeholder-mapping exercise should be conduct- particular conflict resolution mechanisms and legal security; ed to identify what services are currently available and at what scale, • ensuring that local governance structures (formal and informal), where critical gaps lie, and where there are opportunities to strength- and traditional rulers are engaged and capacitated to actively par- en or build further access to sustainable support services and care. ticipate in the peace building process; and While there are likely stand-alone initiatives specifically addressing • strengthening governance structures at settlement level (villages in needs of survivors, opportunities and entry points for activities to rural areas, neighbourhoods in urban areas, IDP camps). be embedded within relevant sectors (e.g. health and nutrition, edu- Recovery and peace building should provide immediate mitigation cation, social protection, water, livelihoods and economic empower- of the most critical symptoms of weak governance, which could po- ment, etc.) should also be explored. tentially fuel further conflict, e.g. newly arising tensions between host and IDPs communities. While prevention of Boko Haram related violence may fall outside the scope of this initiative, activities should identify opportunities to The effectiveness of local governments remains an issue of utmost support awareness building and advocacy activities to promote gen- importance in Nigeria, and while the crisis in the North-East offers der equality, behaviour change, and violence prevention, working an opportunity to redeem and resuscitate local governments in a more with men, women, boys, and girls at the community level to shift systematic and structured way, it should not aim at their immediate attitudes and norms and reduce violence. Communications and sen- empowerment beyond the existing legal framework. Improving local sitisation activities that attempt to reduce stigmatisation of survivors democracy may require changes in state policies but should be done of S/SGBV and reduce the potential for rejection of or violence to- in a coordinated manner. wards children born out of Boko Haram’s sexual violence should also For example, strengthening political participation through local dem- be explored and, where feasible, embedded within reconciliation and ocratic elections of Local Councils can only be contemplated in the peace building initiatives. long run. In the absence of elected Local Government Councils in 4.4 Local Governance and Citizen Engagement most North-Eastern states, the existing formal and informal struc- tures at ward (village) level need to be empowered and mobilised for Interventions will aim to improve local governance in order to re- recovery and peace building, and to reach out to targeted beneficia- store the social contract between the population and the government, ries. and rebuild citizens’ trust in public institutions. The objective is to encourage broader participation and citizen engagement in order to In a context of narrowly limited while scattered (and often compet- increase representativeness of local government, and establish social ing) institutional capacity, the recovery and peace building strategy accountability, as well as build capacity of local institutions for effec- needs to mobilise and promote coordination among all stakeholders tive service delivery. (state and non-state, formal and informal). VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 29 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA In scarcely populated (including when deserted by the population) ar- Stockpiling Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on eas or in overpopulated ones (under the influx of IDPs), recovery and Their Destruction (‘Ottawa Convention’) and undertake clearance peace building calls for a particular focus on and effort in strength- activities to international standards. This must provide coherent and ening governance at the settlement level (villages or IDPs camps) in effective safety messaging that specifically addresses children and oth- order to meet the actual service delivery needs of both IDPs and host er at-risk groups. communities. There will be the need to train and equip integrated mine action teams according to the International Mine Action Standards (IMAS), 4.5 Community Security, Justice, Human Rights, who can survey the ERM risk and provide risk education, targeted Explosive Renmants of War and Small Arms Control explosive ordnance disposal (EOD)/clearance, identify victim needs, Effective peace building must strengthen formal justice and law en- provide EOD levels I-III+ and mine clearance training, as well as reg- forcement mechanisms and increase oversight and accountability, but ular refresher training to demining/EOD operators. also allow mechanisms to ensure abuses and weaknesses are moni- tored and corrected. At the same time, traditional methods of dispute Support on small arms control shall be provided in accordance with /// /// resolution will play a critical complementary role. Increasing the ca- national and international instruments, Conventions and Standards, pacity, speed and responsiveness of the relevant state institutions, and including the national laws, ECOWAS Convention on SALW, the building more localised mechanisms (such as community policing) United Nations Programme of Action and the International Small are essential to increasing trust in the justice system, which will in Arms Control Standards (ISACS). turn increase access to justice. This is especially the case as regards gender-based crimes and crimes against children. This will require mainstreaming the roles of women, youth, traditional and commu- nity leaders, religious leaders and civil society organisations in the entire process. Structural conflict drivers such as poor governance and weak rule of law will not be addressed unless community needs and participation are embedded in recovery programming. Strengthening accepted grievance redress mechanisms, with appropriate capacitation to en- sure that the rights of women, children and marginalised groups are respected, are key to re-establishing community safety. Increasing the availability of all forms of grievance redress should start with an assessment of all entry-points (district courts, traditional rulers, in- formal conflict resolution mechanisms, etc.), and mobilisation and capacitation should occur based on effectiveness locally. Education and awareness campaigns and attitudinal change pro- grammes should aim to enhance the capacity of the population to understand how and where redress and justice services can be found. Dealing with ERW is a key element of recovery and strengthening and scaling up existing mine/ERW/IED risk education initiatives by the military, civil defence and various emergency management agen- cies at the local level is needed. To achieve this the government should embark on committing to the Convention on the Prohibition of Use, 30 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION 5. Implementation Strategy and a core factor for emergence of violent conflicts, including in the North-East; Institutional Arrangements • Take into consideration the seasonal factors (such as rain and The RPBA implementation will happen in context of ‘on-going con- drought) and related constraints for recovery when planning the flict’ and asymmetric warfare in parts of the North-East. The Gov- functional implementation framework. ernment of Nigeria, with the support of neighbours in the Multi-Na- Mechanisms for Implementation /// /// tional Joint Task Force (MNJTF) continues to combat Boko Haram. (3) National level policy reform in key areas including the legal While the Government of Nigeria has announced that Boko Haram framework for responding to displacement and treatment of has been largely decimated, as of February 2016, the movement con- Boko Haram detainees. Additional areas where policy work may tinued to launch isolated but deadly attacks and suicide bombings in be required are the response to trauma, transitional justice, and localities in Borno, including on IDPs camps. In other parts of the mine action; North-East there is greater security and areas where return is under- (4) Providing technical assistance at Federal, State, and Local level; way but there remains a large number of IDPs who cannot return to (5) Supporting inter-governmental coordination mechanisms at insecure areas. Federal and State level; (6) Empowering communities through community mobilisation Resettlement and reconstruction is not possible in some areas, and platform and tools: it is foreseen that a range of activities can should only take place when security is restored. As such, RBPA will be supported through community level structures, including have to be responsive and adaptive to different situations. While this reconciliation, conflict management, community security, and will require an approach tailored for each state, the operating context engagement with local government where sufficient trust is pres- will include the following: ent within communities; (i) Insecure, continued displacement, significant return not possi- (7) Establishing grievance and conflict management mechanisms at ble in near future. settlement level; (ii) Areas where return and reconstruction become possible. (8) Direct funding for civil society organisations participating in the Considerations /// /// process; and • Transparent communication over the RBPA through community (9) Institutionalising social accountability. radio stations and programs; Figure 1.2 shows institutional arrangements for the implementation • Restoring and supporting conflict resolution mechanism at grass- of this component, which is anchored at the community level. roots level. An anchor of the recovery should be strong mechanism Priorities and Phasing and processes for reconciliation and healing of the past. Well sup- /// /// ported and funded local peace infrastructures can build cohesion Table 1.1 shows planning for implementation of peace building, and resilience capacities; stability and social sohesion recovery strategies under both security • Evidence based design and implementation. RBPA should estab- related contexts. lish clear baselines and ensure evidence is gathered on the impact of interventions; __Insecure areas, continued displacement, significant return not possible in • Conflict sensitive programming: In order to prevent future con- near future. Priority interventions (stabilisation): __ flicts and uphold the principle of do-no-harm, factoring conflict • Reduce dynamics of conflict through counter extremism measures prevention in programming is needed; which encourage Boko Haram defection, improved protection of • Inclusiveness, equity and non-discrimination (by ethnic group, re- civilians, and increasing trust by reducing human rights abuses by ligion, gender, physical ability and age) in prioritisation of projects, armed groups and CJTF; distribution of resources, appointments to positions of responsi- • Manage current displacement through support to IDPs and host bility at all levels, and overall implementation. Exclusion has been communities which meet immediate humanitarian, protection, VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 31 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA and basic services needs, and reduce pressure on land and resourc- es. This also includes addressing psycho-social support, and specif- ic programming on SGBV; • Increase trust by enabling community engagement and hold ac- countable those responsible for abuses; • Manage and mitigate tensions that emerge within communities through community level dialogue processes; and • Empower people for eventual return with viable livelihood sup- port. Areas where security improves and return becomes possible: __ __ • Demining and debris removal; • Demand driven planning for reconstruction with community en- gagement; and • Community based reintegration and reconciliation processes. TABLE 1.1 Planning for implementation Returns take place, displacement on decrease Returns unlikely or limited, significant concentration of IDPs States: Adamawa, Gombe, Bauchi, Taraba States: Borno, Yobe Recovery scenario Emergency/Stabilisation scenario Engagement at Federal and State level Agree institutional framework and intra-governmental coordination mechanism Engage with key players at local and settlement level Mapping of key stakeholders active in displaced and host communities Identify existing or establish community mobilisation platforms at settlement level Provision of immediate assistance to displaced and host communities in the current Rapid needs assessment: locations • in displaced and host communities • minimum conditions required for safe and voluntary returns in liberated areas Development needs assessment at settlement and local level Revise Service Delivery Plans and financial allocations in host communities in order to address the actual needs Long term Recovery and Development Plans Provision of immediate assistance to displaced and host communities in the current locations Implementation and M&E Survey on safe and voluntary returns – intention, needs and anticipated patterns Evidence based planning for returns and recovery in liberated areas Needs assessment at settlement and local level in the liberated areas Long term Recovery and Development Plans Implementation and M&E 32 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION FIGURE 1.2 Institutional Arrangements for Implementation of the Peace Building, Stability and Social Cohesion Component Federal Government Law enforce Assistance Resources Technical Security Funding State Governments Policy Data Management Social Mobilisation Accountability Management Management Conflict Project Local Governments Informal Community Platform at settlement level Civil Leaders (ward, town, IDP camp) Society VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 33 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 6. Costing Peace Building, Stability and Social Cohesion Component The costing of the implementation of the suggested activities under this component has been calculated based on a number of assump- tions. These include: (i) Overlapping costing items among the three components (i.e. physical infrastructure and humanitarian support needed to ad- dress the immediate needs of IDPs) were not included as costed items in this component; (ii) costing for this component does not include project manage- ment costing. The only costing as ‘personnel’ is for technical staff; and (iii) ‘Support to community cohesion platforms’ is included under sub-component 3 but it is a mechanism put in place to support all subcomponents as per the implementation model in Figure 1.2. TABLE 1.2 Costing of needs for the peace building, stability and social cohesion component, by State and sub- component Regional/ Recovery Intervention Adamawa Borno Yobe Gombe Taraba Bauchi Federal Total Safe and Voluntarily Return of 9,017,100 11,321,100 7,481,100 5,177,100 7,097,100 8,633,100 48,726,600 IDPs Reconciliation, Peace Building 3,651,263 4,694,480 2,955,784 1,912,566 2,781,914 3,477,393 19,473,400 and Community Cohesion Local Governance and Citizens 9,288,090 11,941,830 7,518,930 4,865,190 7,076,640 8,845,800 150,000 49,686,480 Engagement Community Security, Justice, 5,587,370 9,823,038 4,550,597 1,670,581 2,476,606 2,959,333 5,555,375 32,622,899 Human Rights, Mine Action, Small Arms Control Total 27,543,823 37,780,448 22,506,410 13,625,437 19,432,260 23,915,625 5,705,375 150,509,379 34 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION FIGURE 1.3 Costing of needs for the peace building, stability and social cohesion component, by State and sub- component 12,000,000 10,000,000 8,000,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 Adamawa Borno Yobe Gombe Taraba Bauchi 2.1: Safe and Voluntarily Return of IDPs 2.3: Local Governance and Citizens Engagement 2.2: Reconciliation, Peace Building and Community Cohesion 2.4: Community Security, Justice, Human Rights, Mine Action, Small Arms Control 7. Peace Building, Stability and Social Cohesion – Recovery Framework See following pages. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 35 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA TABLE 1.3 Detailed Needs Analysis and Implementation Strategy for Contribute to Safe and Voluntary Impact (Why) Recovery Strategy (how/results) Interventions (what) Needs of new displaced population, and population unable to return due to security constrains in the short to medium term • Food security, emergency Holistic and integrated • Develop and • Support government to adopt and implement a detailed policy framework with clear criteria for voluntary and shelter, WASH, health and programmatic approach implement a policy and secure returns. Operational and policy framework for safe return, including conditions in place of return -security, nutrition, and education. that address in an operational framework livelihoods, access to services, including availability of buildings and services in place. • Support voluntary safe integrated manner to determine how and • Promote and implement international standards relevant to return of IDPs such as the African Union Convention the identified needs. when IDPs can be on the Protection of and assistance to IDPs and the UN Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement and dignified return. Programmatic approach supported to return. • Working closely with mandated international agencies, establish a regional mechanism/ Tripartite arrangement to • Widespread protection should target IDPs and facilitate a safe, dignified and voluntary return of Nigerian refugees from neighbouring countries risks and psychosocial • Apply and enforce host communities at existing international • Support the deployment of human right monitors and legal aid counsellors trauma to civilians the same time to avoid including children and legal frameworks • Monitor and ensure civilian character of IDPs camps and settlements and establish mechanism that promotes the appearance of conflicts regarding safe, dignified involvement of IDPs women and voluntarily return • Carry out security assessment and intention surveys involving IDPs • Widespread incidence of Priorities: and resettlement. • Profiling and verification of spontaneous returns or settlements SGBV and SGBV. 1) Land mines, 2) Security; • Enhance institutional • Coordinated provision of emergency assistance (food, shelter, health and education) to IDPs, new IDPs and those • Lack of means of arrangements at the 3) LGAS return back to populations unable to return livelihoods (particularly international level to problematic to community; • Strengthen prevention and response mechanisms in camps, camp-like settings and host communities, ensuring 4) Community leaders ensure safe, dignified services provided in integrated manner (i.e. links to and nutrition, education, etc.) female- and child- and voluntarily return headed households), return; • Mapping and assessment of existing initiatives for scaling up regarding SGBV and psychosocial support, 5) Communities return and resettlement. livelihoods means provision, paying particular attention to those initiatives that focus on vulnerable populations affecting IDPs and host • Broader access to such as widows, women, UASC, elderly communities. basic needs and • Develop mechanisms of identification of cases of trauma, PTSD, SGBV and enhance service referral to specialised • Large numbers of support of IDPs to care (counselling, psychotherapy or psychiatric care) unaccompanied and ensure provision of • Strengthen the capacity of local health institutions in responding and providing effective mental health and separated children food, shelter, WASH, psychosocial support such as training of trainers, supervision and monitoring of services for quality control (UASC) and child headed education and health • Develop community-based and group-based strategies for providing psychosocial support to affected populations, households and nutrition. including survivors of SGBV • Needs of elderly mainly • Develop and • Creation of “safe spaces” in camps and communities for females to communicate, seek services, interact and, if associated with care and implement protection necessary, find refuge against acts of SGBV (including forced marriage) isolation. interventions focusing • Adhere to the IASC guidelines of MHPSS interventions in complex humanitarian settings on providing psycho- • Regarding UASC, support family unity including through tracing program and extend existing emergency services social support to to include UASC affected population, • Awareness campaign, communication and sensitization at local level including on SALW and Mine risk including IDPs and education(see 2.4) host communities. • Strengthen capacity of IDPs and host communities to apply prevention strategies using local social mechanisms • Develop and (train local leaders, teachers, female empowerment programs, etc.) implement • Strengthen prevention and protection against sexual assault including establishing Sexual Assault Referral Centres interventions focused (see 2.4) on livelihoods provision • Targeted cash transfer program and skills paying special • Vocation skills (see Component on Economic Recovery) attention to vulnerable populations (women, • Life skills training including conflict resolution skills widows, elderly, youth, • Strengthen child protection mechanisms including on UASC and UASC). • Strengthen referral pathways and ensure provision of basic needs • Develop and • Support interventions to UASC will be sensitive to psychosocial needs and will identify and refer cases for implement protection Tailored psychosocial support interventions to address • Extend existing emergency services to include UASC. SGBV. • Scale-up reunification and enhance capacity of local authorities to provide registration and reunification services • Scale up existing • Establish temporary caregiver programs. livelihoods initiatives in • Mapping of trauma (nature/type/scale, etc.) in affected population and provide trauma/PTSD counselling for camps, camp-like sites those affected by the violent crisis and host communities • Support family unity including through tracing program. particularly those focused on vulnerable • Programs at camps, camp-like setting and host communities to provide continuous care populations (i.e. • Safety net programs for adults over 60 and widow headed households widows, elderly and • Specific programs for physically challenges persons (me, women, children) women) and privilege • Special attention and response on food security, health and provision of tailored community-based psychosocial community based support services for elders initiatives in the areas • Extend existing food, health services to include elderly and address specific needs of psychosocial support, SGBV, and livelihoods • Establish livelihoods programming in camps, camp like sites and host communities, focusing on vulnerable populations (i.e. widows, SGBV survivors, former members of Boko Haram) provision. • Marketable vocational trainings • Support to establish economic associations 36 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION Impact (Why) Recovery Strategy (how/results) Interventions (what) Population willing and able to return/resettle • IDPs overwhelmingly Holistic and integrated • Ensure access to • Implementing joint strategies between humanitarian and development actors for humanitarian and early wish to return provided programmatic approach WASH services in areas recovery activities, planning and programs. security and other that address in an of return. • Establish coordination mechanisms that allows coordination between humanitarians and development actors preconditions are in integrated manner • Implement protection • Carry out capacity building initiatives on how to apply the criteria and assess when a return is safe place. the identified needs. monitoring in the area and voluntary. • Lack of coordination Programmatic approach of return for vulnerable should target IDPs and • Implement capacity building mechanisms including trainings on protection and international standards between humanitarian populations (survivors and development actors; local communities at the of SGBV, UASC, • Establish livelihoods initiatives for returnees and communities who stayed behind, including market analysis in and the need to involve same time as to avoid elderly, widows). places of return, provision of skills trainings, cash transfers and specific activities for vulnerable populations. affected population and appearance of conflicts • Initiatives addressing • Provide materials for construction and rehabilitation of shelters while also providing support to the civil society organizations trauma and related community to ensure appropriate utilization of available raw material for construction of houses.(see in decision making acute psychological Component on Infrastructure and Social Service) • Returnees face challenges disorders as well • Implement distribution of start-up kits to help them establish basic farming and domestic life (pans, tools, including lack of tools, as SGBV. seeds, etc.) seeds, destruction of • Establish and • Support paralegal interventions to promote access to housing, land and property (see subcomponent 2.4) homes and infrastructure. implement family • Promote safety and security of returnees through capacity building of security providers on • Mechanisms to address reunification international standards. possible conflicts resulting from return movements, • Support the establishment of and strengthening mechanisms for conflict resolution based on local institutions particularly those related and dynamics (see subcomponent 2.4) to land, housing and • Efforts to replace lost and destroyed personal documentation and other relevant documents necessary to access property. assistance and social benefits and the full exercise of their rights such as birth registration should be hastened • Widespread protection without discrimination in an expedient way and without imposing unreasonable conditions on displaced risks and psychosocial people to apply for or collect documents support to civilians • Strengthen child protection mechanisms targeting vulnerable groups, including UASC, child headed including children and households, victims of sexual violence, children born out of sexual violence and children borne out of conflict, women, elderly, UASC. including psychosocial support and alternative care and mine action/ERW risk education. • Children in the • Scale-up reunification and enhance capacity of local authorities to provide registration and environment of return reunification services should be supported • Strengthen and expand alternative caregiver programs. with family reunification initiatives • Create systems of identification and referral of cases to specialised care to target survivors of SGBV, and those in need of psycho-social support. • SGBV initiatives for those returning and those who • Enhance the capacity of health system at the primary level to treat psychological disorders and stayed behind. referral mechanisms. • Attention to elderly. • Create community-based psycho-social and school based psychosocial support promotion and prevention mechanisms with affected communities • Undertake community engagement and dialogue initiatives to reduce stigma and support reintegration of children and women associated with Boko Haram, including girls and women who were subjected to sexual violence and children born out of conflict related sexual violence • Ensure alternatives for social inclusion and reduction of stigma strategies for people suffering of acute psychological distress/disorders • Safety net programs for adults over 60 and widow-headed households • Special attention and response on food security, health and provision of tailored community-based psychosocial support services for elders. • Implement tools and establish local structures that allows direct involvement of returnees and local populations • Implement programs aimed at supporting women and men and fostering equal engagement in decision- making. Response to gender, age and diversity specific concerns and in particular SGBV follow up at community level should be prioritised with increased support to local actors. Diversity should be promoted through community participatory programs • Strengthen protection and human rights monitoring including through strong information management system (see subcomponent 2.4) • Continuous monitoring of security risks returnees and local communities face. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 37 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA TABLE 1.4 Detailed Needs Analysis and Implementation Strategy for Reconciliation, Peace Building, Community Cohesion and Violence Prevention Impact (Why) Recovery Strategy (how/results) Interventions (what) Peace-building, reconciliation and community cohesion • Increased tensions and social • Support community dialogue and mediation platforms • Develop community platforms and structures (see 5.3) fragmentation threatens processes, and where appropriate, truth telling and • Training of key stakeholders (village leaders, religious leaders, teachers, etc.) in villages with peace across the North-East reconciliation; according to local needs and relations high number of host communities and IDPs and in IDP camps, and where returns are likely including between IDPs and between different social, religious and ethnic groups and hosts, and returnees and between generations • Micro-credit schemes to support small enterprises and/or allocation of equipment those who remained. (i.e. sewing machine) to enable small business potential (link to component on • Support mediation processes between IDP and host Economic Recovery) • Stigmatisation of individuals communities, and returnees and people who remained. and vulnerable groups • Support civil society to contribute towards peace building initiatives • Provide support for CSOs for peace building activities and • Traditional conflict innovations, in particular focused on youth resolution mechanisms weakened and sometimes unavailable Preventing and addressing existing mobilisation for violent extremism • Reduce numbers of Boko • Support a coordinated national strategy for combatting • Workshops and technical advice to security sector to develop policy for ‘safe corridors’, and Haram members and radicalization, and policy framework on how Boko Haram for implementation, taking into account the specific needs of under-18s sympathizers by encouraging detainees should be categorized and treated • Train and build capacity of prisons, law enforcement on legal framework defection • Establish de-radicalisation programs in affected areas • Policy framework, political preparedness and institutional arrangement necessary for • Communities need • Establish re-integration programmes for children and adults Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration taking into account the specific needs of to be assured that associated with Boko Haram under-18s returning Boko Haram members have genuinely • Ensure conditions of detention meet • Review/revise legal and policy framework on treatment of Boko Haram detainees renounced violence international standards • Build capacity of national body to undertake registration process and mobilise staff to • Communities need a • Sensitization of communities to prepare for returns North-East legitimate and trusted and reintegration • Equip and train staff in detention centres to ensure appropriate conditions including for mechanism for justice and • Support justice and grievance redress mechanisms to women and children accountability for wrongs facilitate victim redress, truth telling, and accountability. • Scale-up prisons de-radicalization initiative and launch new initiatives in 3 North-East States committed by Boko Haram • Monitor reintegration of individuals -Train religious teachers/Imams members. -Train psychologists -Establish workshops and skills training in 3 States to enable economic reintegration • Communications campaign for all six states aimed at local population and potential Boko Haram members • Train key stakeholders at ward level (village leaders, imams, teachers, etc.) in six states, who then do local outreach and sensitisation • Establish a monitoring mechanism with police and local community security platforms of those who have gone through de-radicalisation programs in prisons. Demobilizing, disarming and reintegrating CJTF and vigilante groups • Proliferation of unregulated • Create policy/legal framework established for reintegration • Consultation with CJTF, security sector and community stakeholders to develop policy vigilante groups with • Strengthen justice and accountability mechanisms for those framework for safe reintegration program in three States weapons poses risk to long- responsible for abuses • Training of key stakeholders (village leaders, Imams, teachers, etc.) in six States term security. • Community dialogue and support to receive fighters • Launch new initiatives in 6 North-East States, with a particular focus on Adamawa, Borno • Vigilante groups accused and Yobe; of participating in human • Processes of truth telling, reparation to victims reconciliation through community platforms o Train religious teachers/Imams rights violations o Train team of psychologists to work with former members • Mechanism for justice and • Livelihood assistance o Establish workshops and skills training in 3 States to enable economic reintegration accountability for wrongs committed by vigilante groups necessary 38 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION Impact (Why) Recovery Strategy (how/results) Interventions (what) Responding to trauma • Extensive trauma and • Enhance capacity of State health providers and civil society • Support existing initiatives including cross agency platform to develop standards for trauma PTSD as a result of conflict, organizations who can develop appropriate programs treatment. Provide support such as: suffering and witnessing • Establish referral mechanisms for population affected Undertake mapping of available services and capacity activity and good practices (all violence, bereavement, by trauma 6 states) displacement and insecurity: • Support government to develop common standards of practice, and establish monitoring address trauma • Engage with health and mental welfare specialists in Federal, State and Local medical/mental health facilities systems • Trauma has significant • Support CSOs to scale-up existing interventions impacts on socio-economic development, and social • Comprehensive survey to determine the extent of trauma levels and need for psycho-social cohesion. It can lead to support. potential cycle of violence • Support Government to establish specific psycho-social support programs according to • Unaddressed, large-scale needs including children (including former child combatants) women, youth and children. societal trauma and further • Communications campaign to at-risk villages advising them on what services are available, trauma. and train health professionals in recognizing and responding to trauma in 6 States • Developmentally, trauma • Community-based and family-based sensitisation (local media, radio, town hall meetings, impacts health, wellbeing, mobilisation of mothers) to convey the messages of life after defection employability at the • Initiatives to collect and destroy small arms and weapons in the communities (such as individual level, and the ‘weapons for cash’ or ‘weapons for food’ programs) likelihood of future violence • Create local media programs (i.e. local radio, musical programs) in local languages, to at the community level. sensitise community member and raise awareness regarding how to readily receive former Boko Haram fighters and former fighters associated with vigilante groups • Conduct registration of defectors in the communities • Community-based and market-based livelihood support for defectors: including thorough market and value chain analysis to map out available livelihood options; vocational skills training based on market analysis (in order to avoid tensions, target beneficiaries can also include community members); life skills training; financial support on setting up economic associations; referral system for employment • Targeted psycho-social support to defectors/children and women associated with Boko Haram: identification of their psychosocial needs; psycho-social counselling and discussion groups; training of local psycho-social support personnel; strengthening the role of local and religious leaders VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 39 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Impact (Why) Recovery Strategy (how/results) Interventions (what) Improving the response to gender based violence as a consequence of conflict. • SGBV as tactical feature of • Comprehensive programming on SGBV, including • Map and assess capacity of current active medical, psycho-social and health service providers Boko Haram; immediate attention to SGBV survivors; as well as for SGBV survivors and identify successful community interventions for scaling up. • Kidnapping as preferred prevention initiatives. • Strengthen referral mechanisms for population affected by SGBV. tactic of Boko Haram • Available mental and medical services with specialised • Strengthen legal and protection aid programs for SGBV survivors. personnel trained to address cases of SGBV to provide immediate attention to SGBV survivors. • Support community based information campaigns on referral pathways where they exist and • Rape, torture, forced establish new ones where needed marriage, and forced • Comprehensive mapping of available services. conversion to Islam • Support the mobilisation of community actors to mobilise and refer survivors to access • Safe spaces and confidential system to reach out to SGBV services survivors. • SGBV and stress amongst • Legal and social protections for population, especially the displaced. According • Train existing local mental health and medical specialists including personnel providing first women and children, affected by SGBV. aid and humanitarian workers to address SGBV. to UNHCR Protection Monitoring 2015 2,226 • Establish prevention programming at the community and camp levels (i.e. discussion households had survivors of groups, communication campaigns) to enhance behavioural change and gender roles. NSRP, SGBV, comprised of 32% protecting women and girls from violence through safe spaces. forced or early marriage, • Strengthen the operations of women friendly spaces and establish new ones where necessary 30% of rape or sexual • Support the operation and expansion of the GBVIMS and CPIMS assault and 21% engaging in survival sex (UNHCR, • Design and implement male focused service provision initiatives to address the mental and 2015). psycho-social needs of men and boys • The use of female suicide • Establish male dominated discussion platforms to foster behavior change for the reduction bombers, many of whom of SGBV have been under the age of • Support the strengthening of platforms a for coordination (women committees, WDCs, 16 (32 suicide bombings etc.) with camp and host communities to ensure adequate delivery of quality services for were reported in the North SGBV survivors East between 1 November • Support capacity enhancement/mobilisation of on PSEA for humanitarian actors and key 2015 and 15 January community stakeholders 2016, involving 63 suicide bombers, with the majority • Engage in community dialogue and sensitisation to reduce stigma and rejection of victims of being female (ACLED). SGBV and enhance support, as well as address negative perceptions of children born out of conflict related sexual violence to mitigate against rejection and violence. • Fear of retaliation by Boko Haram or its adherents persist, contributing to a broader culture of silence that impedes reporting or help-seeking by survivors of violence. • Boys and young men, particularly those unaccompanied by adults, are further vulnerable to forced conscription into armed groups, including both into Boko Haram, and, according to some reports, into state-sponsored militia groups including the Civilian Joint Task Force (iDMC 2014). • Limited health and mental services including specialised personnel who can adequately address cases of SGBV while referral mechanisms are still weak. 40 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION TABLE 1.5 Detailed Needs Analysis and Implementation Strategy for Local Governance and Citizen Engagement Impact (Why) Recovery Strategy (how/results) Interventions (what) Assisting the return of displaced local governments & supporting local governments hosting IDPs • Local governments displaced and • Increase responsiveness of local government to the • Technical Assistance provided by local branches of State Emergency Management forced to operate remotely increasing needs of the population through: Agencies (SEMAS) • fiscal and human resources need • Decentralise planning for recovery and reconstruction • Set up bottom up planning model in cooperation with State authorities to be enhanced to enable them needs to the local government level • Stakeholder mapping – identification of core coordination groups at settlement level, to effectively contribute to the • Facilitate intra-governmental cooperation of displaced including the most active representatives of communities, informal leaders, and both provision of public services and host local governments, and relevant State host and displaced councils and local governments • the capacity of local governments institutions • Training on needs assessment and social protection needs assessment for core to provide protection and safety of • Build capacity of local governments to plan, execute coordination groups their constituents in displacement and monitor recovery projects needs to be rebuilt • Rapid needs assessment in settlements of IDPs, including camps, and host • Build capacity of local governments to respond to communities • IDPs hosted by local governments emergencies incur significant expenditure for • Integration of plans at State level, budgeting and fiscal allocations to inform provision local governments (for education, • Improve social protection function of local government of immediate service delivery needs in current health care, etc.) to identify vulnerabilities and address social • Evaluation of the rapid needs assessment process and review of methodology protection needs; • influx of population weigh heavily on scarce natural resources • IDP’s who chose to remain in host communities management (water and land) and should be fully integrated and have full rights; result in social tensions Building inclusive governance at the local level • The poor quality of • Support to decentralisation and democratic • Facilitating engagement of stakeholders at local (community, settlement) level; local democracy process through: • Promoting community radios for citizen engagement and conflict resolution; • Inadequate and unequal access to • Enhance representativeness and responsiveness of LGA • Encourage political inclusiveness at local level public resources councils and ruling elites • Facilitate policy dialogue at state and federal level on decentralization • Critical need to restore and • Enable and facilitate citizens’ engagement in improve the social contract local institutions • Support policy implementation at local level between the population • Increase political/electoral participation and reduce • Engagement with accountability institutions including on corruption and the government, and political exclusion and discriminations to restore citizens’ trust in public institutions • Reduce corruption and curtail abuse of power • Need to improve effectiveness, • Enhance grievance redress and conflict resolution social accountability and mechanisms by strengthening political participation representativeness of local and inclusion, institutions • Build and strengthen social accountability mechanisms • Public trust in local government and traditional leaders need to be restored. Strengthening local government capacities • Low capacity of local governments • Improve effectiveness of local institutions through: • Technical Assistance for LGA level government including: to deliver services • Ensure adequate spatial coverage by public institutions • Trainings for local governments on: • Local governments have not been • Invest in building capacities of LGAs for effective and o Budgeting and Planning, effectively granted the resources responsive governance, o Project Monitoring, & Reporting, earmarked to them • Mentoring and on-the-job training • Establish more effective interagency coordination • Host government incurring significant drain on already scarce • Improve IRG, PFM and policy financial and natural resources implementation capacity • Need to ensure the provision • Implement de-concentration of service provision: of basic services and livelihood access to and quality of health and education at beyond their pre-conflict level frontline service providers level, State and non-State VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 41 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Impact (Why) Recovery Strategy (how/results) Interventions (what) Enabling participation to enhance accountability and transparency of local institutions • Lack of accountability • Build local accountability mechanisms through: • Training for core coordination groups on Community Mobilisation and transparency • Build social and upward accountability of local • Building on the existing structures and through Core Coordination Groups establish • Communities at local level do not institutions, broader community platform which will serve as a forum to discuss community have opportunity to participate • Build transparency mechanisms, including budget needs, grievances and security. in the planning process, or in transparency, capital expenditure and public • Performance Based Disbursement System, including financial and qualitative monitoring and evaluation of procurement opened to public scrutiny reporting programme implementation. • Strengthen existing community mobilisation • Preparation of long term and evidence based recovery plans for liberated areas using mechanisms participatory approach and through applying local needs assessment methods. • Enable community participation in the drafting of Training for CSOs on independent monitoring recovery plans • Involve communities and civil society in oversight of the implementation • Mainstream and institutionalize local participation mechanisms Restoring security and rule of law at local level • The conflict has generated • Capacitate local government to exercise a preventive • Using established community platforms set up regular consultation and information multiple sources of tensions role for security and to help their constituents affected exchange mechanism for security and rule of law and disputes within affected by the conflict to claim their rights and obtain • Training for local government on referrals and legal aid providers (see 2.4 below) communities. compensation. (This goes beyond the role vested with • Need to re-establish and local governments under normal circumstances) strengthen formal and informal conflict resolution mechanisms and legal security 42 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION TABLE 1.6 Justice, Community Security, Control of Small Arms and Mine Action Impact (Why) Recovery Strategy (how/results) Interventions (what) Security and Rule of Law re-established in all accessible areas • Absence/weak capacity of justice • Support police to re-introduce services in areas where • Detailed localized assessments of needs in all North-East States. and security institutions to they have been absent due to insecurity, and strengthen • Basic policing kits for refurbished police posts services (equipment, laws, ICT, stationary, deliver services drives conflict and capacity to deliver services with particular focus on communication equipment etc) insecurity IDPs, and host communities. • Establish police offices in IDPs camps and areas of high concentration of IDPs • Absence of police and justice • Establish high visibility justice services in IDPs camps institutions and services and within local communities • Structured training programme for police in North-East States, with heightened focus on from camps denies justice Borno, Adamawe and Yobe. • Improve prison conditions, and improve capacity to to those residing there and rehabilitate and reintegrate prisoners especially de- • Training for prisons staff increases vulnerability radicalisation programmes • Support legal aid provision for prisoners, survivors of SGBV and returnees with • Lack of tools by law enforcement • Strengthen case management and data collection of land disputes institutions (Courts, prosecution, justice institutions • Coordinate with PVE and livelihoods components to establish pathways to reintegration prisons) to deliver justice due to • Services for SGBV survivors improved and integrated • Construct gender sensitive and purpose built courts to replace those that were destroyed destruction of infrastructure and with health and livelihoods support (link to infrastructure) equipment by Boko Haram • Carry out advocacy campaigns against SGBV and • Retool, equip and provide materials for establishing courts services (stationery, court • Extensive use of pre-trial Boko Haram related stigmatisation furniture, law books, forms for court users) detention in poor prison conditions coupled with case • Mobile justice hearings in IDPs camps, and locations without a courtroom, focusing on backlogs denies justice to accused serious criminal cases and clearing backlog persons • Training of judiciary, prosecutors and court staff • Lack of legal assistance and • Support to legal aid providers (NGOs and LACON) to provide free legal aid knowledge denies victims of • Case management systems developed to strengthen and speed-up hearings, and improve redress, especially regarding tracking of cases. women’s property rights, children’s rights and SGBV • Establish 8 x Sexual Assault Referral Centres with trained staff including law enforcement, victim support, medical and psycho-social counseling providing integrated justice and • Stigmatisation and poor other services for SGBV survivors. At least one per state, 2 in areas with highest need investigative and judicial response (including Borno) to sexual assault results in discrimination and creates culture • Establish 1 x Model Police Station in each state to incorporate gender friendly policing, of impunity strengthen the connection with communities and increase accountability. Fair, effective and accessible dispute resolution systems in local communities • Absence of legitimate, fair • Strengthen community security infrastructure and • Establish/train multi-agency community security platforms (using existing structure where and effective grievance redress implement community policing possible) that enable community members to regularly liaise with police. mechanisms increases chances of • Strengthen traditional forms of dispute settlement to • Train traditional leaders, Sharia judges and others in human rights and gender sensitive violent conflicts. comply with human rights standards and due process; dispute resolution Education on civic rights and responsibilities; • Support coordination between informal and formal mechanisms • Lack of gender and human rights • Increase levels of knowledge and awareness on human awareness undermines realization • Train/capacitate women community leaders & strengthen women and youth participation rights and voice in informal grievance redress. of rights • Training and outreach to vigilante group members Human rights abuses and misconduct monitored and punished • Lack of accountability and • Strengthen justice and security sector oversight and • Enhance capacity of NFP’s Internal Affairs Section, and the Police Services Commission. oversight allows impunity for accountability through both internal and external • Strengthen oversight bodies eg the Human Rights Commission and Committee against abuses and undermines rule of law mechanisms. Torture, NGOs. and public trust. Drives public mistrust and conflict • Support judicial inspection mechanisms to oversee judicial conduct. • Support inclusion on the State of North East in State party reports to international and regional human rights mechanisms • Support human rights monitoring at community level VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 43 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Impact (Why) Recovery Strategy (how/results) Interventions (what) Knowledge and awareness of rights increased and victimization reduced • Poor knowledge and awareness • Outreach and information campaigns against • Conduct KAP study on violence against women and children of rights especially rights of stigmatisation and discrimination • Develop/implement behavioural change training on violence against women and children women and marginalised groups prevents access to justice, allowing • Grants for Civil Society to implement pilot programs to strengthen community security and impunity for abuses. human rights. • Stigmatisation of SGBV and • Pilot free reporting and advice line with Legal Aid Council/NGOs persons abducted by Boko Haram • Outreach campaign engaging schools, religious and community leaders and through mass media Control access to Small Arms and Light Weapons • SALW are the weapons of choice • Minimise the impact of the widespread availability • Engage and sensitise selected border community members including IDPs to form early of Boko Haram, who amassed of SALW by sensitising communities to the dangers warning agents (work with CBO, HRMs etc...) a large stockpile of arms and associated with them and promoting the safe and • Organise joint cross border sensitization programs on the influence on conflict/SALW ammunition from Libya following secure storage of arms and ammunition that are already proliferation on economic livelihoods. the collapse of the Gaddafi legally registered and in civilian hands, in order to regime, and who use them to reduce risks to communities. • Support the formalization of recognized CTJFTs into cooperative community security carry out attacks against civilian, agents and provide alternative livelihood options. • Support vulnerable communities in the development of police and military targets. community security plans in cooperation with available • Provide equipment/agricultural support for identifiable groups including IDPs in selected • Small arms have been widely security service providers, including armed forces, law border communities in response for arms collected. dispersed among the civilian enforcement agencies and civilian joint task forces, • Community based awareness-raising on the dangers associated with SALW (in conjunction population (CJTFs) for use in as relevant. with awareness raising on mines, ERW and IEDs. self-defence against Boko Haram, • Enhance community participation on security / SALW • Community-led solutions for the safe and secure storage of legally licensed small arms which has also led to their misuse awareness and reduction through targeted advocacy already in the hands of civilians (e.g. locally produced locking mechanisms, communal by unregulated vigilante groups. and sensitization programs storage of small arms, etc.) in order to reduce risk. • Illicit trafficking of SALW • Strengthen community resilience and security through • Build the capacity of local NGOs to lead the inclusive development of community security continues to supply Boko Haram the development of a comprehensive Early Warning plans in cooperation with available security service providers. and fuel violence, facilitated by Mechanism/Database. • Training to security services on the identification and tracing of SALW captured from porous borders and inadequate • Provide sustainable alternative livelihood options Boko Haram. cross-border cooperation with Nigeria’s neighbours for key actors (JCTF, other vigilantes groups) whose • Needs assessment of the Multinational Joint Task Force with regard to cross-border livelihoods have revolved around the use of SALW over cooperation to prevent illicit trafficking in SALW. • The ability of communities to the period of conflict build resilience through their participation in SALW reduction • Support cross-border coordination, cooperation is imperative, while bearing in and information-sharing between Nigeria and mind the related imperative of neighbouring States in order to curb the illicit cross- not increasing the vulnerability of border movement of SALW. communities to attacks by Boko • Enhance the capacity of the security forces to identify Haram. and trace SALW captured from Boko Haram, in order • Effective recovery of arms from to gather information on sources and trafficking routes unregulated CTJFTs and the of illicit SALW. provision of alternative livelihood • Enhance the capacity of the security forces to options is critical to sustaining destroy SALW captured from Boko Haram in order violence prevention. to demonstrate tangible progress and prevent such weapons from re-entering the illicit market • Support for SALW control should be guided by international and regional instruments such as the International Small Arms Control Standards (ISACS) (www.smallarmsstandards.org), the UNPoA, and the ECOWAS Convention in order to ensure compliance with international best practice and protocols. 44 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 1 : COMPONENT: PEACE BUILDING, STABILITY AND SOCIAL COHESION Impact (Why) Recovery Strategy (how/results) Interventions (what) Mine action – Risk education; Survey & Demining; Victim Assistance • Undertake mine action survey and • Create preconditions for safe return and access for • Set up mine action coordination mechanism to undertake risk education, survey and clearance to address fear of mine/ humanitarian support clearance ERW-infested/roads/ houses/ wells/fields among the population Provide risk education, survey and humanitarian demining in line with International Mine trapped in the North East, IDPs Action Standards (IMAS) and refugees leading to increased and long-term displacement and lack of access for government and humanitarian actors • Increasing number of deaths and • Population living in areas affected from fighting need • Strengthening and scaling up existing mine/ERW/IED risk education initiatives by the violent injuries leading to lasting to be able to identify explosive devices/ landmines military, civil defense and various Emergency Management Agencies at the local level impairments as a consequence of and how to stay safe and protect others from getting aiming to provide coherent and effective safety messaging that specifically addresses children accidents from explosive devices injured or killed. Boys and young men are expected to and other at-risk groups. and landmines be most at risk. Agreeing on a common mechanism to monitor (injury surveillance), report and respond to Surveillance and reporting capacities on explosive incidents related to mines/ERW and its victims at the community, LGA and State levels. devices and blast injury are weak among the media, Defining SOP on mine/ERW-reporting and response among Army engineers and others health operators etc. and do not allow for adequate authorized to engage in Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) and local government planning and response. structures. Mechanisms at the local and state level that link Systematic mine/ERW survey, LGA by LGA, coupled with risk education, EOD and victim community reports on landmines/ERW with the identification relevant actors capable to assess and remove explosive Ensuring health and rehabilitation sector training includes blast injury/trauma specific threats within 24 hours. training that is age- and gender specific Weak capacity among first aid responders at the local Undertaking a victim needs assessment and setting up a case management system for level increases the risk to die from violent trauma or to conflict victims and persons with disabilities including mine/ERW victims sustain more severe and long-lasting impairments. Weak capacity among health and rehabilitation service providers increases the risk of sub-standard care and of secondary impairments VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 45 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA CHAPTER 2 Component: Infrastructure & Social Services 1. Introduction can promote mobility of goods and services and people. Destroyed facilities such as local government offices, ministry offices, and police 1.1 Role of Infrastructure and Social Service stations need to be prioritised in the recovery efforts so that gover- Delivery towards Recovery nance and security management function more effectively. The key objectives of the Infrastructure and Social Service Compo- In the directly affected states, in addition to the ‘brick-and-mortar’ nent are to: damage to infrastructure, the loss of equipment, the exodus of em- (1) Characterise and estimate the impact of the crisis on the physical ployees, and a drop in staff capacity are challenges that need to be infrastructure and social services of the affected region and; addressed. In indirectly affected states service provision has been con- (2) Propose preliminary strategic options and scenarios for the res- siderably strained by the influx of displaced populations, and work toration and recovery of infrastructure and service delivery. needs to be done to ensure satisfactory provision of social services. For example, many schools have exceeded standard enrolment capacity; With the proposed strategic Recovery Framework and the guiding policies by the Government, sector teams have also attempted to the road network is suffering from increased usage; and water and identify, quantify, and cost the corresponding transitional recovery sewage systems are stretched to handle increased demands in some needs. The Recovery Framework for this component is presented at states with a large IDPs population. the end of this chapter and summarizes the recovery needs in all sec- tors. 1.2 Relationship with other RPBA Components As discussed in the Overview, while the assessment of damages and The sustainable restoration and improvement of infrastructure and needs as well as suggested recovery strategies are presented under three social services is crucial to societal normalisation and stabilisation in components, they should be understood as critical, intertwined ele- the crisis-affected areas, as well as for creating conditions for eventual ments of a single recovery and peace building framework that adopts IDPs returns or smooth integration into host communities. Efficient a social cohesion approach cutting across all sectors. All infrastructure and effective recovery of infrastructure and service delivery will not and social services efforts are subject to a careful assessment of their only help ameliorate the suffering of the affected populations, but social impacts, and should be designed in such a way that they pro- substantively catalyse the restoration of citizen trust in the State. mote reconciliation, social cohesion, trust and peace building. As an Hence paying immediate attention to addressing critical service de- integral part of daily life of conflict-affected people and communities, livery disruptions and shortcomings caused by the conflict is not a infrastructure and social services are critical parts of comprehensive choice but an imperative. For example, recovery strategies in the agri- responses necessary to attend the needs of the populations and com- culture sector are critical to ensuring food security in the region and restoring livelihoods of affected families. Similarly, the housing sec- munities affected by the conflict. tor in the region experienced significant damage, and reconstructing housing units is one of the key elements in restoring people’s sense of 1.3 Assessment Scope and Methodology normalcy and is a first step towards reactivating the productive econ- Sectoral Scope of Assessment: As agreed between the Government /// /// omy. Repair and reconstruction of damaged transport infrastructure and RPBA partners, the current scope of the Infrastructure and So- 46 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES FIGURE 2.1 Methodology for assessing damage and needs Estimating physical damages Implementation Characterising and arrangements quantifying impacts and performance on public service measurement delivery indicators Infrastructure and Service Delivery Impacts and Needs Prioritising and Developing sequencing of strategic options recovery needs into and scenarios for a sector timeline transitional recovery Quantifying corresponding recovery needs, including specific IDP needs cial Services Component covers: Agriculture; Education; Energy; En- __ pletely or partially destroyed assets, and movable assets like goods, vironment; Health and Nutrition; Housing; Information and Commu- furniture, machineries and inventories. Indirect losses have not been nications Technology (ICT); Private Enterprise; Public Buildings; Social the emphasis of this assessment. Importantly though, impact analysis Protection; Transport; and Water Supply and Sanitation. __ has factored in disruption in service delivery in the directly affected areas and also has taken stock of the additional burden on services in Administrative and Temporal Scope: The assessment primarily fo- /// /// areas hosting IDPs. cuses on crisis impacts and recovery related to public sector assets, with the exception of some sectors, such as energy, housing, educa- Classification and Quantification of Recovery Needs: Recovery /// /// tion, and ICT, where private sector-run public services have also been needs are the costs of recommended interventions that include the included. Since the private sector is providing vital public services reconstruction and rehabilitation of damaged and destroyed infra- such as electricity and ICT, the Government may want to consider structure and equipment. These costs have been calculated using the private sector facilitation measures. replacement value of assets and infrastructure, plus additional differ- entials for building-back-better. Recovery needs also include capacity Use of Improvised, Locally-adapted, and Context-specific Method- /// building and operational costs for service delivery that are necessary ology: The methodology developed for this assessment brings togeth- /// for the implementation of interventions over the next four years er a blend of conflict and post-disaster needs assessment tools, as well during the stabilisation (years 1–2) and recovery periods (years 3–4). as building on local knowledge and state and national systems for The assessment methodology is summarized in Figure 2.1, which il- damage characterisation, classification, and quantification. lustrates it as an on-going process. The assessment process begins with Damage and Impact Classification: The impact of the conflict on /// /// the estimation of physical damages, and moves towards developing each sector has been evaluated in terms of Direct Damage and Recovery __ __ __ recovery strategies and implementation, with the option of updating Costs. Direct Damages refers to the monetary value of replacing com- __ damages and needs over time. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 47 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Treatment of Internally Displaced Persons(IDPs): The key objective /// /// able. In addition, where available, validity of primary data was es- of ensuring the equitable delivery of infrastructure and social services tablished through use of secondary sources such as remote sensing. to IDPs and their hosts in conflict-affected areas has been incorpo- • To facilitate focused scope for the RPBA, the assessment takes stock rated in the needs assessments. Further recommendations to main- only of damages and impacts created by the crisis since 2010, with stream IDPs issues into the recovery agenda include the following: (i) a cut-off point of 2015. This is notwithstanding that the conflict ensuring schools, health care facilities, water and sanitation systems, continues to evolve and the associated damages and needs continue for instance, are rebuilt to accommodate new demand associated with to accrue. There is a need to periodically update the damage and the presence of IDPs; (ii) ensuring equal and adequate access by IDPs needs analysis. • The damage classification criterion for fully and partially damaged and host populations to rehabilitated services so as not to engender infrastructure was adopted to generate analysis of primary data. conflict between IDPs and hosts in areas with high concentrations of This approach was consistent across different sectors. IDPs; (iii) involving both IDPs and hosts in the process of identifying • An important aspect of estimating reconstruction needs was inclu- rehabilitation priorities in communities from the beginning of the re- sion of security premiums. The security risk premiums were not covery process; (iv) weighing in IDPs return options, surveying return factored in the final cost estimates with the understanding that intentions and needs of IDPs to discern return intentions and triggers these may be added based on government’s decision for implemen- in order to prioritise the rehabilitation of infrastructure and social ser- tation planning and resource allocation. vices that will enable and sustain return, and; (v) avoiding neglecting IDPs skills such as in public works, and adequately employing these skills during the recovery process. Data Collection and Validation: The key source of information for /// /// damage and needs was data provided by state sector focal points through customized sector templates. This was supplemented by in- dependent secondary data collection by the RPBA team from other sources. Data validation techniques included field inspection visits, interviews with relevant stakeholders such as civil society, and desk reviews. Remote sensing data was used to analysis damages in edu- cation, environment, health and nutrition, housing, transport, and private enterprise, both for data gap filling and corroboration. Fur- ther validation of data was performed using process verification tech- niques and empirical plausibility checks. 1.4 Key Assumptions, Constraints and Limitations Several key assumptions, constraints and limitations are applicable to all sectors under the Infrastructure and Social Services Component. These include: • Where possible, the analysis of damages and needs is disaggregated at the State level, and collated from the Local Government Author- ity (LGA) level. • As a result of limited access to some of the heavily affected areas for data gathering and verification, the sector teams used relative to baseline analyses where inventory based damage data was not avail- 48 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES 2. Overview of Pre-crisis Conditions of inadequate access to high quality seeds, fertiliser and efficient pro- duction practices. The resulting yields in the region are low, averaging Infrastructure and Social Services 20 percent of the world’s highest yield. Increasing population and This section provides a consolidated overview of sector characteristics climate change have further exacerbated the challenges of poor, small- holder farmers. With the short rainy season in most of the regions, and conditions prior to the crisis. This is important to contextualise only one cropping season is attained during the year. Irrigated land and frame sector damages and needs. For each sector, baseline con- is less than one percent of the cultivated area, and is located mainly ditions reviewed include: (i) brief profile of sector; (ii) inventory of in the Hadejia-Nguru wetlands, which receive their water from the infrastructure assets; (iii) status of service delivery; (iv) costs of service Komadougou-Yobe River which flows into Lake Chad. In the areas delivery; and (e) sector developmental challenges. with developed irrigation facilities or where flood plain farming takes place, there are usually two cropping seasons in the year, during the 2.1 Agriculture rainy season and with irrigation during the dry season. Irrigation wa- Overall, about 80 percent of the population in the region was en- ter is applied mainly to wheat, rice, vegetables, and sugarcane, for gaged in either crop farming or animal rearing. The livelihood zones enhanced yield. For example, while the average yields for rice and in the region are highlighted in the table below. tomatoes during the rainy season are 2.2t/ha and 6.4t/ha, they are 3.5t/ha and 10t/ha, respectively under irrigation. In the 2003-2004 TABLE 2.1 season, irrigated production accounted for only 0.9 percent of total Livelihood Zones by North-East States __ grain production and 2.3 percent of total vegetable production. Adamawa Bauchi Borno Gombe Taraba Yobe The primary shocks to livelihoods in the region are droughts or floods, depending on the livelihood zone. More than half of the wet- NG zone 5 NG zone 10 NG zone 10 NG zone 10 NG zone 5 NG zone 11 lands have been lost due to drought and upstream dams along the NG zone 6 NG zone 11 NG zone 12 NG zone 11 NG zone 6 NG zone 12 Hadejia and Jama’are rivers, which meet to form the Komadougou River. Expansion of irrigated crop production in the fadama lands NG zone 9 NG zone 12 NG zone 13 NG zone 7 NG zone 13 has also contributed to the lowering of the water table in some areas. NG zone 10 NG zone 9 The chart below shows a seasonal calendar for a typical year in the North-East. Key __ NG zone 5: Niger and Benue river floodplain rice and fishing ** ** The pre-crisis situation regarding the inventory of infrastructure and NG zone 6: Central plain yam and cassava ** ** functionality of service delivery varied from state to state in the re- NG zone 7: Mambilla Plateau cattle, cocoa and tea ** ** gion. Borno State, for example, had an inventory of over 560,097 infrastructures and a fairly functional service delivery system prior to NG zone 9: North-East highland maize, cocoyam, potatoes, and livestock ** ** the crisis. However, the quality of service delivery in the agricultur- NG zone 10: North Central maize, sorghum and cotton al sector in the North-East, as in the rest of the country, had start- ** ** NG zone 11: Northern floodplains irrigated rice, wheat and vegetables ed dwindling before the crisis. In response, from 2010, the Federal ** ** NG zone 12: North-East millet, cowpea, and sesame ** ** Government instituted a number of interventions to improve the NG zone 13: Sahel mixed cereals and livestock ** ** provision of subsidised inputs to farmers, especially fertilisers and seeds, and increase the access of farmers to credit facilities, agricultur- al equipment and irrigation facilities. These initiatives took off just Ownership of land and/or livestock, access to agricultural inputs, cap- before the crisis heightened in the region and therefore, have not any ital and mechanized agriculture, are the major determinants of wealth shown any impact in the region. In December 2011, nationwide un- in the sector. The majority of the farmers (at least 80 percent) practice der the Growth Enhancement Support Scheme (GESS), 17 fertiliser rain-fed, subsistence agriculture on two to four hectares of land, with suppliers had been identified to feed about 4,280 certified agro-deal- VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 49 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA FIGURE 2.2 Seasonal calendar for a typical year in the North-East Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Harvest Land preparation Planting Weeding Harvest Off (Dry)-season activities Off-season harvest Lean season Rainy season* Livestock Migration Note: All the major crops are grown during the rainy season except wheat which is usually grown under irrigation in the dry season. ers; 600,000 farmers had been captured at the GESS data centre; and Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba and Yobe, a total number only 15 states had written to commit to participate in the GESS. of 9,191 primary schools (including those with ECD centres) and Regarding the provision of credit to farmers, in December 2011, the 1,687 junior secondary schools existed in 2010. Federal Ministry of Finance had only signed MOU with the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the participating Girls’ participation in education remains below that of boys’ across banks for the provision of guarantee on 70 percent of the credit pro- all levels of education, and the gender gap is significantly more pro- vided by the banks. Pilot demonstration of the e-wallet technology nounced at the upper secondary level. Education sector access indi- platform was planned to start in January 2012. cators are particularly dismal for the North-East: whereas all south- ern States achieved basic education GERs close to 100 percent in 2.2 Education 2013, the North-West and North-East registered a GER of 66 and 63 percent at the primary level and 54 and 42 percent at the lower Basic education in Nigeria is provided predominantly by States and/ secondary level, respectively. Furthermore, Nigeria has an estimated or local government authorities (72 percent of enrolment), followed 13.2 million school-age children (6-14 years old) not in school – the by the private sector (20 percent), Federal schools (five percent), and religious schools (four percent). Private education is more prevalent largest out-of-school population in sub-Saharan Africa. Of the 13.2 in the South and is dominated by children from wealthier families. By million, 95 percent (12.6 million) are in the north of the country, contrast, religious schools are more prevalent in the North, and their and the numbers of out-of-school children actually went up between enrolment is slightly higher among children from poorer families. In 2010 and 2013 in the North-West and North-East. the North-East, 42 percent of children attend religious schools only Despite having established teachers’ minimum qualification criteria while 34 percent attend formal and religious schools. The majority in basic education at the national level, a large proportion of recruited of religious schools do not integrate core education subjects into the teachers were and still are unqualified, especially in the North-West instructional schedule. and North-East. In 2010, on average, 32 percent of teaching staff To establish the 2010 baseline data for education, information was in pre-primary education were unqualified, 40 percent in primary collected by the Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC) on education, and 15 percent in junior secondary education. Qualified early childhood development (ECD) centres, primary schools and ju- teachers tend to be in the South, in urban areas and private schools. nior secondary schools in the North-East. Though this data does not Important hurdles to the effectiveness of teaching remain unresolved include senior secondary schools, it does allow for a higher level of in basic education, including inadequate school facilities and a lack of consistency of measurement across the states. Across the six states of instructional materials. However, total public spending on education 50 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES (at all levels) has hovered around 1.7 percent of GDP and increased FIGURE 2.3 marginally from 10.2 to 12.5 percent of total public spending over Distribution Company Coverage Area the 2009-2013 period. As such, Nigeria’s education spending is lower than the averages for sub-Saharan Africa (4.6 percent of GDP and 17 percent of total public expenditure). 2.3 Energy Historically, power supply in Nigeria was provided by a vertically in- tegrated government monopoly that generated, transmitted and dis- tributed electricity. Reform began in 2001 with the adoption of the National Electric Power Policy, followed by the Electric Power Sector Reform Act (EPSRA) in 2005. In accordance with EPSRA, the Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) was unbundled into six gen- eration companies (GenCos), one transmission company (TransCo), and 11 distribution companies (DisCos). These were to operate as separate companies in preparation for eventual privatization (DisCo coverage areas are illustrated in Figure 2.3. EPSRA also mandated the customers depend primarily on diesel generators and the compara- creation of an independent regulator and so the Nigerian Electricity tively high cost has forced the shutdown of many factories particular- Regula-tory Commission (NERC) was formed in 2007. The Trans- ly in the textile industry which used to be a major employer of labour. mission Company of Nigeria (TCN) remains government-owned but has been placed under a management contract awarded to Manitoba 2.4 Environment Hydro International (MHI). The environment sector consists of three main sub-sectors: Ecolog- ical Assets, Solid Waste Management and Debris Management and In the North-East region, two DisCos cover the six states: Yola cov- Explosive Remnants of War (ERW). ers Borno, Adamawa, Taraba and Yobe, while Jos covers Bauchi and Gombe. Baseline conditions of 2010 reflect an already challenging Ecological Assets: The North-East is predominately a hot and dry situation for electricity delivery, with inadequate infrastructures and environment with a typical Sudanian Savanna vegetation and less load wheeling capacity. Allocation of energy from the grid to the than 200mm of rainfall per year. The region is part of two major northern DisCos is less than 37 percent of the energy supplied; and river basins and endowed with vast wetland and savannah forest areas structural and operational issues with the grid typically mean that providing an important livelihood for the communities. These live- the northern DisCos receive much less energy than what has been lihoods include grazing livestock, orchard farming, medicinal herb allocated to them. For example, in 2009, the energy consumption for harvesting, and firewood collection. Jos and Yola was only 4.9 percent and 1.8 percent of the total energy supplied respectively. In 2010, resources across the six States consisted Solid Waste Management: The solid waste management sector is cur- of 9,649 km of transmission lines (4,336 km of 33 kV; 1,008 km of rently poorly regulated through a fragmented framework of institu- 11 kV; and 4,305 km of 415-230 V) connecting 92 33/11 kV substa- tions and regulations. At a Federal level, the National Environmental tions, 1,844 11 kV/415 V substations, and 948 33 kV/415 V substa- Standards and Regulation Enforcement Agency (NESREA) is man- tions. A large percentage of the distribution substation transformers dated to monitor compliance with national and international laws; were overloaded and in need of reinforcement. Many customers were however no specific State-wide regulation or implementation plans not metered and others received estimated bills – resulting in custom- currently exist in the North-East. Waste management is therefore pro- ers either being over- or under-billed. Since the 1980s, the available vided as a municipal service in urban agglomerations only, with man- power has not significantly increased in the region; thus industrial agement decisions made at a Local level, based solely on immediate VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 51 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA locally visible requirements, and a lack of strategic future-proof plan- TABLE 2.2 ning. As a result, the investment in this sector has been exclusively on Pre-crisis Health Service Delivery Indicators by rolling stock, with little to no investment made in disposal or recy- State for the North-East (Source: MICS, 2011) cling processes, nor on human soft skills. An informal sector is active and focuses on the recovery of valuable metals and plastics from the Deliveries with skilled value chain. Most materials are brought to processing sites as far away State Full vaccination 1-2 years birth attendants as Lagos or Kano. Many other sub value chains (paper, cardboard) are Adamawa 34.2 37.3 currently not fully valorised, leaving a livelihoods opportunity deficit. Bauchi 18.3 7.9 Debris Management and ERW: As a sector, debris managementwas Borno 7.7 19.2 non-existent pre-crisis. The construction sector is expected to contain some valuable skills required for the large scale management of debris, Gombe 31.3 21.7 however there are still many lacunae, especially in safe demolition Taraba 25 17.6 practices, large scale accountable logistical management, hazardous Yobe 10.1 20.5 waste management and most notably, Explosive Remnants of War (ERW) management. Nigeria 22.9 48.7 2.5 Health and Nutrition midwives, pharmacists and laboratory workers. Medical doctors are The Northern geopolitical zones of Nigeria have lower coverage rates available in larger facilities and hospitals. Private healthcare is import- of key services such as immunisation and skilled birth attendance. ant although underdeveloped in the North and 70 percent of health The nutritional status of children and women of childbearing age is expenditure is out-of-pocket. another concern, and reliable figures on effective treatment of acute malnutrition at primary care facilities are lacking (SMART Survey Sector development challenges include: constrained and inefficient III, 2011). Despite large investment in the health and nutrition sector State budgets with preferential allocation to secondary and tertiary in the last two decades, Nigeria did not meet the millennium devel- care, shortages of skilled personnel and essential drugs, insufficient opment goals (MDG) for health. The health system remains fragile operations budgets, low quality of care, low public sector utilization and under-performing, with outbreaks of infectious diseases such as and limited private health sector in the North-East, weak manage- cholera, measles and meningitis often reaching epidemic proportions. ment and limited accountability. Widespread malnutrition – about half of all children under five in the six states are stunted – contributes to almost half of all childhood 2.6 Housing deaths. Service delivery, especially for maternal and child health in- In 2010, the estimated total number of housing units in the six terventions, showed no improvement in the last three decades. Table conflict affected states was about 4 million. Along with the largest 2.2 shows some key health indicators for each state and the nation- population size, Bauchi and Borno States have the largest number al average. of housing units, with 908,062 and 977,795 respectively. Based on The pre-crisis number and distribution of facilities were considered the construction materials, housing units are classified as permanent adequate, but infrastructure is poor and hard for remote communi- and temporary houses. Temporary housing units are informal and tra- ties to reach. Although local government areas usually have at least ditional houses constructed of temporary building materials such as one secondary hospital, access to comprehensive Primary Health Care mud, earth, bamboo, thatched roof, etc. Permanent houses are those (PHC) is restricted by the fact that the majority of first line structures using modern and durable building materials for floor, wall and roof. focus on preventive care, with a limited capacity for diagnosis and It is estimated that nearly 62 percent of the total housing stock in treatment of common diseases. Most PHC personnel are Commu- North-East were temporary units. This is very high compared to the nity Health Extension Workers, with few nurses, and shortages of national average of temporary units. In comparison with other states 52 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES in the North-East, Gombe and Taraba had the highest shares of per- 2.8 Private Enterprise manent houses in 2010, amounting to about 67 percent. The private sector in Nigeria, including enterprises of all sizes, is dominated by services, in particular wholesale and retail trade. Ni- 2.7 Information & Communication Technologies geria’s largest employers are the agriculture, manufacturing and trade (ICT) sectors.28 The business environment is generally difficult in all of Ni- In Nigeria, citizens use three types of telecommunications services: (i) geria and the country ranked 169 out of 189 in the World Bank’s mobile phone; (ii) internet (including high-speed internet or broad- 2016 Doing Business report.29 The 2014 Sub National Doing Business __ __ band); and (iii) fixed line telephony. Of these, mobile phone remains Report on Nigeria lists Gombe, Yobe and Bauchi as better performing the predominant form of communication in Nigeria, with 91.2 per- states on the ease of doing business index, which ranked these three cent of the population in Nigeria covered by a mobile phone signal in States at 6, 8 and 11 respectively. The report ranked Taraba and Ad- 2013. However, mobile phone coverage is heavily centred on larger amawa much lower at 19 and 29 respectively out of 36 States. Note population centres in Nigeria due to commercial viability. A Univer- that Borno State was not ranked in this report. sal Service Provision Fund (USPF) is intended to be used to extend The North-East’s economy comprises mainly of micro-, small- and the access gap in mobile phone coverage to rural and remote areas. medium-enterprises (MSME) and no large industrial establishments, As shown below, coverage of mobile phone is sparse in the North- and a host of informal establishments – all in the non-oil sectors. East States, and particularly in Adamawa, Borno and Yobe. Across the A survey was carried out jointly by Small and Medium Enterprise country, broadband adoption remains low and fixed-line network is Development Authority of Nigeria (SMEDAN) and Nigerian Bureau not widely available. of Statistics (NBS) in 2010 on the MSME sector. The survey covered FIGURE 2.4 Mobile Phone Coverage in Nigeria by States (Source: Open Signal, 2016) VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 53 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 4,300 MSMEs (employing below 200 persons). While all 36 states and reduce poverty and socio-economic shocks by promoting and en- are reported to be covered in the survey, data is not available for the hancing livelihoods and a life of dignity. Social protection programs states of Yobe, Borno and Adamawa. This is likely a result of lack have proven to be effective in promoting social and economic de- of access to these areas at the time of the survey, which took place velopment, making these programs a key element of national devel- during the crisis. Table 2.3 shows the relatively small (1.98 million, opment plans across the African continent. Moreover, as they foster 5.37 percent) distribution of microenterprises in the three North-East social cohesion and contribute to political stability, they are increas- States of Bauchi, Gombe, and Taraba against the countrywide total ingly being used in post-conflict areas whilst recognised by several of 36.99 million enterprises. The numbers of SME distribution (4.13 million, 5.68 percent) are also small compared to national distribu- international declarations as a human right. tion in other states. A household profile for the North-East pre-crisis was examined us- ing analysis of the Nigerian General Household Survey (GHS) pan- 2.9 Public Buildings el, conducted in 2010-2011, with an emphasis on highlighting the For the purpose of this assessment, the main types of buildings/public structural differences between the affected States in the North-East assets that were assessed are prisons, post offices, audit offices, police and the rest of the country. Table 2.5 presents basic household charac- stations, police barracks, cultural and historical buildings, local gov- ernment buildings, election offices and ministry buildings. Schools teristics in affected states and non-affected states, before the onset of and government hospitals are excluded, as they are covered in the the crisis, showing that households in the North-East lagged behind education and health and nutrition sectors, respectively. Based on their counterparts in the rest of the country in various indicators. data collected across the six states, the number of pre-crisis public buildings is shown in Table 2.4. TABLE 2.4 Pre-crisis public building stock for selected 2.10 Social Protection categories across six states Social protection constitutes a mix of policies and programs designed for individuals and households throughout the life cycle to prevent 2010 Building Category Stock TABLE 2.3 Prisons 18 Distribution of Micro-Enterprises and SMEs in Audit Offices 12 North-East States (source: SMEDAN and NBS Survey, 2010) Post Offices 18 Police Stations 122 State Microenterprises SMEs Police Barracks 17 As % of total As % of total (Number) (Number) 34 States 34 States Election Offices 38 Bauchi 944,503 2.55% 2,066 2.83% Development Office 8 Gombe 527,230 1.43% 1,108 1.52% Cultural/Historical Houses 34 190 Taraba 513,973 1.39% 960 1.32% Local Government Building 531 Total enterprises 1,985,706 5.37 % 4,134 5.68% Ministry Building 159 in three North- East States Other buildings 35 80 Total enterprises 36,994,578 72,838 Total 1,193 in 34 states 54 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES A poverty analysis of the GHS panel also shows that prior to the Nigeria relies heavily on road transport and over 90 percent of surface conflict there is considerable variation in the poverty incidence across transport of goods is by road. Ownership of roads in the country is regions, with a poverty incidence of 47.1 percent in the North-East, three-tiered, namely: Federal, State and Local Government. The road compared to 21.2 percent in the South-West, and a national inci- network also includes community roads and village tracks and paths. dence of 35.2 percent. Moreover, the rural poverty incidence of 46.3 Its total length amounts to 200,000 km, of which about 40,000 km are paths and village tracks. 32,000 km of the national road network percent stands in contrast to the urban incidence of 15.8 percent. are Federal roads while the rest are shared between the States and Due to lack of data on existing social protection schemes in the af- LGA, with a greater percentage for the LGA. The total length of fected states prior to the crisis, it was difficult to establish an accurate paved roads is estimated at a little over 60,000 km. baseline. Given that across Nigeria, coverage of social protection is Undue bias towards new road construction and rehabilitation at the already low, coverage is expected to have been even lower in North- expense of maintenance over the last three decades has led to severe East. National health insurance figures give an indication of the access under-funding of road maintenance which has in turn resulted in and the share of national health insurance contributors is lower in the heavy road maintenance backlog. Performance of the road infrastruc- North-East than in the rest of the country, with 0.7 percent and 1.5 ture has been a challenge, as reflected in the condition of large per- percent, respectively. Similarly, the GHS dataset 2010-2011 reveals centage of the road network in poor condition, especially at both that per capita assistance received by households that benefit from State and LGA levels. Available estimates of the annual cost to main- the different cash, food and in-kind transfer programs, is lower in the tain the existing road infrastructure, assuming it is in maintainable North-East than in the rest of the country. condition, are between US$ 2.5 and 3.5 billion for all levels of roads combined, split between routine and periodic maintenance. These 2.11 Transport estimates are unreliable in the absence of a robust road asset manage- ment system that tracks the condition and use of the road network TABLE 2.5 in Nigeria. There are no updated and reliable estimates for the cost Household characteristics in affected and non- of construction and rehabilitation for all classes of roads in Nigeria. affected states, pre-crisis 2.12 Water & Sanitation Non-affected Nigeria ranks third and fourth globally in the number of people with- Household characteristics Affected States States out access to improved water supply and basic sanitation, respective- Households in urban areas 0.167 0.568 ly.30 With a current national average of 59.6 percent and 34 percent access to water supply and sanitation respectively,31 Nigeria is not on Households in rural areas 0.833 0.432 course to achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) -6 if Number of children per household (mean) 5.5 3.6 the current trend persists. School attendance of children under 18 0.637 0.818 Access to water supply in the North-East is far below the national av- Education expenditure per household member 310 Naira 3,586 Naira erage and comes across as the lowest among the six geopolitical zones. (mean) Access to WASH facilities in Yobe State has been on the decline; ac- Immunization of children under 1 0.421 0.559 cess to improved water supply dropped by 6.6 percent (50.3 to 43.7 Health expenditure per household member (mean) 399 Naira 1029 Naira percent) between 2008 and 2013 (NDHS), while access to sanitation equally dropped slightly (31.4 to 31 percent). Equally, open defeca- Rate of National Health Insurance System 0.007 0.015 contributors tion practices in Borno and Yobe States increased significantly by 3.5 percent (19.2 to 22.7 percent) and 5.5 percent (34.4 to 39.5 percent) Food expenditure per household member (mean) 33,258 Naira 44,635 Naira respectively, from 2007 to 2011 (MICS). Open defecation practice VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 55 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA in the North-East is one of the highest, at 34 percent with national • inability to provide affordable service to the poor, low involvement average being 28.5 percent. of users in planning and implementation; • low priority and under funding of sanitation and hygiene promo- Currently, as a national average, less than 40 percent of urban resi- tion interventions; dents get water from State Water Agencies and the rest get water from • poor data management system and overall weak mechanism for other sources including formal and informal service providers as well sustainability of services. as self-supply. Urban growth is out-stripping new water connections and with the current trend, the service coverage may drop below 30 percent within 10 years, and only 20 percent of the urban residents will have a direct water connection. While this data is from 2011, 2012 and 2013, it gives a picture of the situation pre-crisis in the North-East. Based on data provided by the North-East States, typical water fa- cilities include protected wells (nearly 30 percent); hand pump, mo- torised, and solar powered boreholes (nearly 70 percent); and others such as piped scheme (less than 1 percent) in the directly affected LGAs. The sanitation infrastructure is largely based on on-site sanita- tion facilities, predominantly comprising of pit latrines in households as well as in institutions and public places. Pour flush latrines exists in very few institutional settings. In urban areas, centralised sewer- age systems with sewer networks and treatment plants do not exist, even in cities in the North-East. Faecal sludge management is not organised and regulated and services are largely provided by private informal and formal providers. Persistent challenges to the water and sanitation sector cut across a weak and divergent policy framework including: • a lack of political will for policy implementation with most states yet to develop state-specific WASH policies; • low autonomy of WASH institutions and lack of accountabili- ty framework; • lack of harmonized approach for planning, budgeting and invest- ment mobilisation; • weak institutional arrangements, especially at the sub-national lev- els with absence of statutory WASH institutions in about a quar- ter of the states whilst LGA WASH Departments exist in only six states across the entire country; • coordination mechanisms are weak (both for development and emergency programming); • participation of non-government actors (private sector and civil society organizations) is still nascent; • inefficient subsidies from states and poor cost recovery; 56 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES 3. Impact and Damage Assessment FIGURE 2.5 Agriculture sector damages by State (US$) 3.1 Background This section provides a summary of the direct and indirect impacts of the conflict in the sectors assessed. Impact on physical infrastructure and associated ability to provide social services can be divided into States Damages two broad categories: (i) damages caused by the Boko Haram related Adamawa 457,854,653 violence; and (ii) damages to service provision and supply infrastruc- Bauchi 7,562,550 ture preventing services from reaching the affected population. Borno 2,377,729,000 Gombe 4,884,447 Total damages to infrastructure and social services are estimated at Taraba 11,970,825 around US$ 9.2 billion, with the Agriculture and Housing sectors ac- counting for over three quarters of the total damage estimates. Table Yobe 868,717,883 2.6 shows the sector damages by state. erinary facilitates have been destroyed. Farm and store buildings on 3.2 Agriculture subsistence and other farms were likewise destroyed, as were irrigation (US$ 3,728.72 million in damages) facilities, agriculture machinery and equipment, and agriculture in- puts. Large numbers of people fled these affected areas or were killed, The prolonged violent attacks, particularly in the states of Borno, Yobe and Adamawa, have had devastating consequences on agricul- leaving their farmlands fallow. There is reduced availability and mo- ture in the region. In these directly affected states, government agri- bility of labour due to threats of attacks on farmers on their way to the culture related structures such as agriculture offices, stores, and vet- field. As access to fertilisers, herbicides and improved seeds reduced, TABLE 2.6 Summary table of damages to infrastructure by sector and state (US$ millions) Adamawa Borno Yobe Gombe Taraba Bauchi Federal Total Physical Sectors Energy 31.9 16 4.3 7 129.5 188.7 Environment 1.2 2.9 0.6 0.2 0.8 <0.1 5.7 ICT 25.1 Transport 73.8 306.1 116.9 29 525.8 Social Sectors Education 58 143.8 47.3 2.1 10.2 11.6 273 Health/Nutrition 21.1 59 32.9 0.4 6.5 27.8 147.7 Housing 25.8 3179 118.3 2.9 2.8 1.2 3.329.9 Public Buildings 2.3 15.3 14.5 1.1 2.3 35.5 Social Protection N/A Water & Sanitation 7.3 35 3.6 46 Productive Sectors Agriculture 457.9 2377.7 868.7 4.9 12 7.6 3729.7 Private Enterprises 149.8 763.6 <0.1 2 <0.1 915.4 Total 828.9 6898.5 1207.2 42.5 39.2 50.5 129.5 9221.5 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 57 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA farmers applied lower amounts of the inputs. Furthermore, service In LGAs that received IDPs across all six states there have been serious providers including extension workers and financial institutions, negative impacts on agriculture and consequently on food security. In displacement-affected states, government-owned farmlands have amongst others, discontinued services and fled the area. Livestock in been converted to camps for IDPs. It is estimated that 104,650 per- the conflict-affected areas were eaten by the armed group, deliberately sons will require food assistance for six months over the period 2016- killed or left to fend for themselves (which resulted in the deaths of 2019 in Bauchi, 44,850 in Gombe and 74,750 in Taraba because of many animals from starvation). the damages. Land preparation and planting activities for the main TABLE 2.7 Damages to the agriculture sector across six states (US$) Adamawa Borno Yobe Gombe Taraba Bauchi Total Peasant farms/ farmland 144,382,000 1,680,000,000 295,485,974 2,362,680 11,722,800 7,500,000 2,141,453,454 Gardens 11,056,500 7,612,684 18,669,184 Irigation and drainage systems 37,800,000 255,213,232 293,013,232 Agricultural machinery and equipment 13,920,000 14,462,500 4,198,629 32,581,129 Storage and other buildings 82,177,500 68,150,000 125,048,960 110,000 50,000 275,536,460 Plantations 46,129,500 6,714,144 52,843,644 Seeds 240,000 35,894,354 107,087 200 36,241,640 Inputs/agrochemicals 3,142,550 9,000,000 24,881,681 139,500 45,000 37,208,731 Heavy duty machine 10,575,000 10,575,000 Poultry 8,101,980 165,156 1,500 4,875 8,273,511 Cattle 171,928,500 318,750,000 71,154,652 9,750 101,250 58,500 562,002,652 Fisheries 307,293 15,000 322,293 Sheep and goats 23,310,045 125,000,000 14,402,150 6,025 16,700 4,050 162,738,970 Markets 3,625,000 14,257,893 7,500 17,890,393 Transportation services 18,000 7,403,428 7,421,428 Agroprocessing services 2,066,750 5,818,478 7,885,228 Marketing services Training services 276,089 276,089 Implements such as disc harrows, ploughs, knapsack 2,143,000 12,000 2,155,000 sprayers, water pumps etc. Veterinary clinics and abattoirs 150,000 29,750,000 29,900,000 Farm roads 10,912,500 153,000 11,065,500 Boreholes 5,000 14,000,000 37,380 22,500 14,064,880 Pigs 3,601,780 3,601,780 Horses & Donkeys 823,875 823,875 Processing industries 4,380 4,380 Poultry farms 50,000 27,905 77,905 Cattle feed & vaccines/drugs 772,500 772,500 Sheep/goat feed & vaccines/drugs 770,000 770,000 Poultry feed & vaccines/drugs 412,500 412,500 Stock route 138,000 138,000 Total 457,854,653 2,377,729,000 868,717,883 4,884,447 11,970,825 7,562,550 3,728,719,358 58 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES harvest, starting in October, have been minimal, which will result in 3.3 Education a third consecutive year of below-average harvests. The situation is ag- (US$ 272.96 million in damages) gravated by forecasts of poor rainfall in the North-East through Oc- tober. Fear of attacks and the need to be prepared to flee on short no- Boko Haram has targeted schools, restricting access to this service, tice, have prevented households in some communities from farming. frightening away teachers, and killing more than 600 of them. In- Arable land which could have been used for agriculture is being used creased population density in many urban areas due to displacement to provide shelter for IDPs and farmlands have become even more has led to greater competition for access to education. Short-term fragmented than before, because of host communities leasing some solutions for housing IDPs, like using at least 50 schools to host IDPs of their land to IDPs to farm. There has been an increased demand in Borno, meant that, while IDPs found themselves in inadequate (without commensurate increases in supply) on food, agricultural inputs and irrigation facilities, leading to high prices and generally quarters for longer than expected, host communities have been neg- lower purchasing power. The demand for services such as extension, atively affected by leaving children without access to learning due to market, and transport services has also increased, leading to low cov- the closure of all schools in the state for one year. erage and poor quality of service delivery. Market access – for both the In terms of the damage to the education sector’s infrastructure and as- sale and purchase of agricultural products – has declined and become more uncertain. In addition, not only is access to agricultural inputs sets by the end of 2015, the costs across six states totalled an estimated a challenge, the use of fertiliser for agriculture has been restricted in US$ 272.96 million. Borno had the highest proportion of damages the most conflict affected states, because fertilisers are being used for (53 percent), followed by Adamawa (22 percent), Yobe (16 percent), the production of IEDs. Similarly, there have been restrictions on the Bauchi (4 percent), Taraba (4 percent) and Gombe (1 percent). The planting of maize and sorghum (important food crops in the region) damage costs for each school were estimated based on a set of core because of the height that these crops attain, which make them hide- infrastructure and equipment, including 6-classroom block, office outs for the armed group. block, borehole and overhead tank, latrines, classroom, pupil seats (16 per classroom), teacher table and chair (1 per classroom), as well All the six states recorded varying degrees of agriculture infrastructur- al damage, loss and impact on service delivery. The vast majority of as a perimeter fence surrounding the school. This set is considered damage was sustained in Borno State (64 percent), followed by Yobe to form the essentials for a functioning school. In order to estimate (23 percent) and Adamawa (12 percent). Across the six states, dam- damage costs to the education facilities in the North-East, states were ages to farmlands, buildings, equipment and livestock account for a requested to provide the unit cost of the damaged infrastructure and majority of the damage. equipment. TABLE 2.8 Damages to the education sector by type, and across six states (US$) Adamawa Bauchi Borno Gombe Taraba Yobe Total 6-classroom block 20,775,848 2,052,417 65,875,000 574,595 3,895,472 20,625,000 113,798,332 Office block 4,469,163 411,387 9,854,599 43,966 785,376 3,085,406 18,649,897 Hand pump borehole 560,000 55,000 1,317,500 65,000 105,000 412,500 2,515,000 Motorized borehole/overhead tank 2,222,500 192,500 4,611,250 195,000 367,500 1,443,750 9,032,500 Latrines (2 blocks, each 3 compartments) 2,800,000 275,000 6,587,500 62,500 525,000 2,062,500 12,312,500 Classroom rehabilitation 3,248,310 5,415,179 277,470 401,853 2,937,352 12,280,164 Pupil seat 1,069,500 985,600 4,806,240 157,500 134,400 982,400 8,135,640 Teacher table & chair 91,560 83,065 609,116 47,000 11,327 82,795 924,863 Perimeter fence 22,738,914 2,093,122 50,139,781 651,359 3,995,960 15,698,414 95,317,549 Total 57,975,795 11,563,270 143,800,986 2,074,389 10,221,887 47,330,117 272,966,444 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 59 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA FIGURE 2.6 FIGURE 2.7 Education sector Damages by State (US$) Energy sector damages by State and Federal level (US$) States Damages States Damages Adamawa 57,975,795 Adamawa 31,852,500 Bauchi 11,563,270 Bauchi Borno 143,800,985 Borno 16,032,500 Gombe 2,074,389 Gombe Taraba 10,221,887 Taraba 6,991,250 Yobe 47,330,116 Yobe 4,295,000 Federal 129,537,500 3.4 Energy Crisis impacts to the power supply sector include damage to medium to substations or distribution lines, some diesel generators and petrol voltage (MV) and low voltage (LV) assets, managed by the respective stations were partially damaged and destroyed. The states of Gombe distribution companies, and damage to high voltage transmission as- and Bauchi recorded no direct damage to the energy sector as a result sets (HV), managed at Federal level by the Transmission Company of the crisis. A summary of damages by asset type and state is shown of Nigeria (TCN). In terms of State level assets, Borno has the most in Table 2.9. damaged or destroyed substations (46 percent), followed by Adama- wa (14 percent), and Yobe (11 percent). For damage to State level dis- On the transmission side, the assets are owned and operated at the tribution lines, Adamawa reported the highest damage (79 percent) Federal level, and include all equipment and infrastructures with volt- followed by Borno (19 percent), and Yobe (6 percent). The direct ages above 66 kV (substations, transmission lines, control building damages to the State level distribution sector amounts to around US$ etc.). The estimated cost of damages to transmission (Federal) level is 56.17 million, with Adamawa the most affected (US$ 31.85 million), around US$ 129.54 million. Accounting for 69 percent of the costs, followed by Borno (US$ 16.03 million), Yobe (US$ 4.30 million), the impact at the Federal level is higher than the impact on the distri- and Taraba (US$ 3.99 million). While Taraba reported no damage bution (State) level. This is largely because HV assets are much more TABLE 2.9 Damages to the energy sector by type (US$) Yobe Borno Adamawa Gombe Bauchi Taraba Federal Total Distribution Substations 1,140,000 9,275,000 1,615,000 75,000,000 $87,030,000 Distribution Lines 2,442,500 6,757,500 30,237,500 54,537,500 $93,975,000 Solar panels (house/office/boreholes) Solar street lighting 712,500 $712,500 Conventional Street ligthing $- Diesel generators 491,250 $491,250 Petrol stations 3,500,000 $3,500,000 Contol Building TCN 3,000,000 $3,000,000 Total 4,295,000 16,032,500 31,852,500 6,991,250 129,537,500 $188,708,750 Note: Extensive damage to Taraba requires validation 60 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES expensive than MV or LV. Significant damages were reported in HV FIGURE 2.8 substations and lines in Borno and Taraba States, with almost 300 km Environment Sector Damages by State (US$) of affected lines and thirteen substations. Additionally, one control centre in Borno State was completely destroyed. 3.5 Environment States Damages (US$ 5.70 million in damages) Adamawa 1,161,279 Because of the crisis, damages to the environment sector consist of Bauchi 18,430 US$ 4.74 million in damages to ecological assets, and US$ 0.96 mil- Borno 2,897,272 lion in damages to waste management infrastructure. Gombe 192,478 Taraba 835,985 Ecological Assets: Major impacts of the conflict crisis to ecological ** ** Yobe 596,949 assets are two-fold: the physical damage to forestry from conflict, as a result of the armed group settling there and battles raging within those areas, and the stresses put on high IDPs areas, through over- is estimated at US$ 0.96 million across the states of Borno, Yobe grazing, over cropping of firewood, or other ecosystem service related and Adamawa. More notably, the impact of population movement requirements of the displaced population. Damages were obtained on solid waste management is intense, especially where individuals from State environmental ministries and agencies, and complement- have moved from rural to urban areas. IDPs bring with them their ed with a satellite-based study to estimate the impacts to forestry sec- waste generation patterns, which puts a substantial stress on the local tor for Sambisa Forest Reserve and surrounding areas used as Boko collection, recovery and disposal systems. The city of Maiduguri for Haram training camps. Damage to ecological assets totalled US$ example is now expected to manage up to 45 percent more waste than 4.74 million, consisting of US$ 1.19 million to forests, woodlots and before the crisis. This issue directly impacts all six states, correlated wildlife, US$ 1.80 million to economic tree and orchards, and US$ directly with the presence of IDPs. 1.75 million to protected areas and national parks. Just over half of Debris and Explosive Remnants of War: The extensive physical these took place in Borno State. Damages related to forests and pro- ** ** damage to the housing stock is shown to have created unprecedented tected areas are based on the estimated value of their products, e.g. quantities of debris. It is expected across the six states that a total of fuel wood. 7.3 million cubic metres of debris have been generated. This material Solid Waste Management: Waste collection vehicles in areas of ** ** is currently lying in areas where it impedes access and reconstruction fighting have been damaged, destroyed and sometimes stolen, which and will require processing and haulage as a priority. Complicating has impacted on states’ abilities to provide basic service of waste the management of this material, it is expected that many areas are collection. The total damage to waste management infrastructure contaminated with ERW. The nature and concentration of this con- TABLE 2.10 Damages to the environment sector by type (US$) Borno Adamawa Yobe Gombe Bauchi Taraba Total Forest /Woodlots/Wildlife 206,441 179,117 20,174 291 1,210 777,813 1,185,046 Economic Tree/orchards 1,130,250 127,725 447,400 23,310 17,220 56,963 1,802,868 Protected Areas/National Parks 1,300,581 229,438 54,376 168,877 1,211 1,754,482 Waste Management Infrastructure 260,000 625,000 75,000 960,000 Total 2,897,273 1,161,280 596,950 192,478 18,430 835,986 5,702,396 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 61 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA tamination is still not clearly assessed due to the lack of access and FIGURE 2.9 specialised skills required. Note that debris and ERW do not have a Damages to the health sector by state (US$) coinciding damage cost, as they represent a need, which is quantified in Section 4. 3.6 Health and Nutrition States Damages (US$ 147.70 million in damages) Adamawa 21,067,200 Bauchi 27,824,400 The comparatively poor health and nutrition situation described in the baseline conditions has been aggravated by the conflict, show- Borno 58,996,800 ing higher rates than average of child mortality and malnutrition. 33 Gombe 399,600 According to the HNO 2015, the North-East Zones recorded more Taraba 6,472,800 than 35,000 cases of cholera in 2014, and more than one-third of the Yobe 32,936,400 country’s cases of measles. The crisis has also had a negative impact on childcare, contributing to poor infant and young child feeding cases were admitted compared to almost 110,000 in the North-East practices. The coverage of nutrition services prior to the crisis was in 2015. The nutrition sector estimates that 20 percent of the nation- minimal and limited to the few areas where the health system had the al caseload or 318,733 children between 6-59 months who require required capital and human resources to integrate nutrition into the treatment of severe acute malnutrition in 2016 are in the six states. services they delivered. The cases of severe acute malnutrition (SAM) treated in the six states increased. In 2009, a total of 1,701 SAM Health facilities have been systematically targeted by violent attacks, leading to destruction and damage incompatible with proper service TABLE 2.11 provision. Damage costs of facilities and equipment exceed US$ 147 Damages and destroyed health care facilities by state million, of which the highest proportion are in Borno (40 percent), followed by Yobe (22 percent), Bauchi (19 percent), Adamawa (14 PHC Facilities Secondary Hospitals percent), Taraba (4 percent), and Gombe (1 percent). Out of 788 State Damaged Destroyed Damaged Destroyed reportedly damaged facilities, including 21 hospitals, 45 percent Adamawa 12 57 4 2 were destroyed. In Borno and Yobe, almost half the PHC network Bauchi 257 - 3 0 was damaged. As a result, health and nutrition service coverage is Borno 2 186 3 6 extremely low. In Adamawa, damage and destruction of facilities was Gombe 3 - - - Taraba 6 19 - - considerable, though less extensive. In states less directly affected by Yobe 148 77 2 1 the conflict (Bauchi, Gombe, and Taraba), service indicator trends Note: Reported damage to 257 facilities in Bauchi requires validation __ __ have also shifted downward. Health and nutrition services are un- TABLE 2.12 Damages to the health and nutrition sector by type (US$) Adamawa Borno Yobe Gombe Taraba Bauchi Total Health Posts 4,276,800 6,336,000 17,661,600 475,200 13,464,000 42,213,600 PHC Centres 9,590,400 39,160,800 8,391,600 399,600 3,330,000 11,455,200 72,327,600 Comprehensive Health Centres 3,283,200 2,667,600 205,200 6,156,000 Secondary Hospitals 7,200,000 13,500,000 3,600,000 2,700,000 27,000,000 Total 21,067,200 58,996,800 32,936,400 399,600 6,472,800 27,824,400 147,697,200 62 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES derused (user rates <1/person/y). Financial and security barriers re- FIGURE 2.10 main. 34 Damages to the housing sector by state (US$) Destruction of facilities and targeting of and nutrition workers, of whom at least 48 were killed and over 250 injured (more than half in Borno State), led to the fleeing of the most qualified ones. Low- skilled staff provides much of the healthcare. Supply chains have been States Damages destroyed in Borno and part of Yobe and the Health Information Sys- Adamawa 25,750,000 tem (routine collection and analysis of data relevant for management) Bauchi 1,200,000 has been disrupted. IDPs in formal camps or camp-like settings are Borno 3,179,000,000 entitled to free services, but user cost is unclear for vulnerable IDPs Gombe 2,870,000 living among communities, and for host families. A significant chal- Taraba 2,750,000 lenge exists with service provision in places where IDPs are concen- Yobe 118,300,000 trated. 3.7 Housing estimated number housing stock based on population densities cap- tured through remote sensing data analytic. (US$ 3,329.87 million in damages) The total number of damaged houses in the six affected States is Across the six states, the baseline housing stock for 2015 was cal- culated in this assessment to be 4,607,130. The following assump- 431,842 units, constituting 68 percent fully damaged/destroyed (not tions were made to calculate the housing stock. First, the LGA level liveable) and 32 percent partly damaged (liveable) units. Table 2.13 housing stocks given in the housing census of 2006 were projected shows the housing damage across the six states, while Figure 2.10 for 2015 based on national population growth and changes in the shows the distribution of damage to housing across Borno, Adamawa regular household size adjusted for regional household formation. and Yobe. The State of Borno, the heart of the crisis, shared about 95 Second, the algorithm used for validating the base year housing stock percent of the damaged housing stock, and hence becomes the prima- is based on housing densities and housing typologies captured in the ry state for any rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts. Although, LandScan data for 2010. The total housing stock for 2015 is done Yobe and Adamawa States are affected by frequent violent attacks, the using the population projection provided by the State Nigerian Gov- magnitude of housing damages in these states is minimal compared to ernment Bureau of Statistics. The baseline housing stock for 2015 is Borno. It is important to highlight that nearly 40 percent of the hous- estimated based on the average of projected housing stock and the ing stock of Borno is damaged and 27 percent destroyed. A large part TABLE 2.13 Housing Damage in Six Conflict Affected States in North East, 2015 Reported Total Number Total Number of Total Number of % of Housing Total Housing of Damaged Fully Damaged Partly Damaged Stock Damaged, % of Fully % of Partly States Stock, 2015 Houses Houses Houses 2015 Damaged Units Damaged Units Borno 10,35,370 409124 275301 133823 39.51 67.29 32.71 Yobe 5,60,666 16209 12156 4053 2.9 75 25 Adamawa 7,57,619 5134 4237 897 0.68 82.53 17.47 Gombe 5,58,070 525 513 12 0.1 97.71 2.29 Bauchi 11,23,233 200 200 0 0.02 100 0 Taraba 5,72,172 650 621 29 0.11 95.54 4.46 Total 46,07,130 431842 293028 138814 9.37 67.86 32.14 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 63 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA of the damage has taken place in cities and urban centres. Generally, FIGURE 2.11 housing damages are caused by bomb blasts, shelling and fire, and the Estimated damages to the housing sector in nature of damages varies from urban to rural areas. Borno, Yobe and Adamawa States, based on remote sensing and data collection from states, The housing sector has incurred significant economic loss due to 2016 damages to houses and assets. Economic impacts of housing damage were calculated based on the average values of permanent and tem- porary houses, and average value of household assets provided by the various state agencies. For each state, the average value varied across LGAs. For example, in the State of Borno, the average value of per- manent houses ranged from N600,000 to N5,500,000, temporary houses ranged from N100,000 to N800,000 and the average value of housing assets ranged from N160,000 to N850,000. Based on the values provided by states, the direct financial loss due to housing damage is estimated at US$ 3,329 million across the six states (Figure 2.10). While not included in the damage, additional expenditure has been incurred by a large percentage of IDPs for rental costs. 3.8 Information and Communications Technology (US$ 25.1 million in damages) In 2011, in response to the conflict, the National Communications Commission (NCC) required all mobile phone subscribers to register their subscriber identity modules (SIMs). During March 2011-Jan- uary 2012, NCC registered SIMs, and required unregistered SIMs to be deactivated. In subsequent months, conflict heavily targeted telecommunications infrastructure, particularly base stations (or base transceiver stations, or BTSs) used for creating a mobile phone net- work. In 2012, attacks were reported on base stations in four North- TABLE 2.14 Mobile base stations in the NE by operating company and state State Operator Total in State % of Total in Country MTN GLO AIRTEL EMTS Adamawa 147 87 97 62 393 0.013 Borno 138 101 123 78 440 0.015 Yobe 90 45 63 31 229 0.008 Gombe 100 63 68 38 269 0.009 Taraba 139 77 87 44 347 0.011 Bauchi 187 99 126 82 494 0.016 NE Total 801 472 564 335 2172 0.072 Nigeria Total 12557 6677 6186 4758 30178 1 64 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES TABLE 2.15 Estimated number of damaged base stations in the North-East by operator MTN GLO AIRTEL EMTS Total in NE Number damaged base stations 177 104 125 74 480 East states—Borno, Yobe, Bauchi, and Kano. In 2012 alone, 150 base stations were damaged due to conflict.35 FIGURE 2.12 Damages to Private Enterprise by state (US$) In addition to direct damages to infrastructure, the conflict has had other impacts to the ICT sector. In the summer of 2013, the Nigerian military, as part of its operations against Boko Haram, shut down GSM mobile telephones in the three North-East States of Adamawa, States Damages Borno and Yobe.36 Mobile phone networks were shut down between Adamawa 1,161,280 23 May and 12 July 2013. While the impacts of this have not been Bauchi 18,430 costed, lack of ICT access disrupted patterns of social living. Borno 2,897,273 Table 2.14 shows a summary of total infrastructure (namely base sta- Gombe 192,478 tions) for mobile phone service in the country, as provided by NCC. Taraba 835,986 Currently, 7.2 percent of the total infrastructure for mobile phone Yobe 596,950 service in the country is deployed in the North-East. Table 2.15 shows the number of base stations across all six states that are projected to percentage based (instead of inventory based) damage assessment us- be damaged, based on information obtained on actual damages from ing proxy indicators. some mobile operators. Roughly 480 base stations, or 1.6 percent have been reported as damaged. This represents an estimated cost of The total number of damaged and destroyed business units is esti- US$ 25.1 million. mated to be 1.3 million. The vast majority of the costed damages have been sustained by small shops and petrol pumps, which together 3.9 Private Enterprise account for nearly 97 percent of all damages to the sector (Figure 38). In line with the concentration of violence, the private sector of Borno (US$ 915.42 million in damages) has suffered the most damages, with total damage costs amounting to Damage to private sector infrastructure and equipment was provided nearly US$737 million (83 percent of the total damage). Within the private sector of Borno, most destruction targeted the shops followed by State focal points, and covered shops, industry, markets, banks, by markets. No damages were reported for the State of Taraba. petrol stations, hotels, and restaurants and other tourism related ac- tivities. In the case where data gaps existed, a combination of the Note that while damage to the private sector has been accounted for following was used to estimate damage: (i) desk-based approach of within this component, the needs and recovery strategy are covered reviewing the secondary information for baseline validation; and (ii) under component on Economic Recovery. TABLE 2.16 Damages to private enterprise across states (US$) Borno Yobe Adamawa Bauchi Gombe Total Total 763,646,543 2,282 149,768,558 39,955 1,960,662 915,418,001 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 65 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 3.10 Public Buildings FIGURE 2.13 (US$ 37.6 million in damages) Damages to public buildings by state (US$) The conflict has damaged nearly 700 public buildings, amounting to approximately 60 percent of the baseline stock. Of this about 94 per- cent are fully destroyed and not functional. The remaining 6 percent States Damages are functional, but require repair/retrofitting. The highest proportion Adamawa 2,267,624 of public buildings that have been damaged or destroyed is in Borno Bauchi 2,335,600 (66 percent), followed by Adamawa (20 percent), Yobe (8 percent), Bauchi (5 percent), Taraba (5 percent), and Gombe (2 percent). Borno 15,269,349 Gombe 1,102,000 The main public building categories affected by the conflict are local Taraba government buildings, cultural/historical buildings, police stations, Yobe 14,518,181 and ministry buildings. These four categories share nearly 82 percent of the total damage. Also, key to note is that prisons, police stations, cultural/historical houses and other buildings all have over 80 percent of the baseline (2010) stock damaged. Due to the paucity of the State level economic and employment data related to disruptions of government activities, it is difficult to esti- mate the economic loss due to loss of workforce and disruptions in public administration and decision making, as well as additional ex- penditure incurred by the State and Local Governments for operating from makeshift facilities, etc. For example, many LGA offices have moved to the State Capitals due to lack of office spaces and they work in makeshift arrangements. TABLE 2.17 Distribution by building category of destroyed and damaged public buildings in the North-East Total Buildings Destroyed/ % of Baseline (2010) 2010 Building Buildings Destroyed Buildings Damaged Damaged Stock Destroyed/ Category Stock # % # % # % Damaged Prisons 18 10 1.51 5 11.36 15 2.12 83.33 Audit Offices 12 3 0.45 2 4.55 5 0.71 41.67 Post Offices 18 3 0.45 1 2.27 4 0.57 22.22 Police Stations 122 101 15.26 5 11.36 106 15.01 86.89 Police Barracks 17 8 1.21 2 4.55 10 1.42 58.82 Election Offices 38 21 3.17 1 2.27 22 3.12 57.89 Development Office 8 6 0.91 0 0 6 0.85 75 Cultural/Historical Houses 43 190 155 23.41 6 13.64 161 22.8 84.74 Local Government Building 531 232 35.05 13 29.55 245 34.7 46.14 Ministry Building 159 62 9.37 4 9.09 66 9.35 41.51 Other buildings 44 80 61 9.21 5 11.36 66 9.35 82.5 Total 1193 662 100 44 100 706 100 59.18 66 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES TABLE 2.18 Damages to public buildings by type (US$) Borno Yobe Adamawa Gombe Bauchi Taraba Total Prisons 64,500 268,000 82,500 27,500 442,500 Audit Offices 60,000 285,280 15,000 15,000 375,280 Post Offices 269,000 250,318 $- 519,318 Police Stations 909,900 1,548,250 95,750 676,500 910,250 125,000 4,265,650 Police Barracks 749,417 90,875 265,500 86,600 1,192,392 Election Offices 2,176,450 774,320 2,950,770 Development Area Office 167,500 167,500 Cultural/Historical Buildings 310,500 1,290,000 415,399 800,000 1,960,000 4,775,899 Local Government Building 6,335,099 7,350,000 305,000 114,250 14,104,349 Ministry Buildings 3,618,900 1,506,501 3,750 5,129,151 Other Buildings 1,525,000 496,095 1,091,850 160,000 382,000 3,654,945 Total 15,269,349 14,518,181 2,267,624 1,102,000 2,335,600 2,085,000 37,577,754 3.11 Social Protection In this sector, damages are measured in terms of the households’ TABLE 2.19 well-being. A comprehensive profile of household characteristics Household characteristics pre-crisis and in-crisis in-crisis was developed using a second wave of the GHS panel, con- in affected states ducted in 2012-2013. The focus shifts from comparing affected Source: Author’s calculations based on GHS panel 2010-2011 for pre-crisis & __ __ and non-affected states to primarily a comparison of pre-crisis and GHS panel 2012-2013 for in-crisis in-crisis conditions in the affected states. Table 2.19 summarizes the changes recorded from pre- to in-crisis for selected indicators. This Household characteristics Pre-Crisis In-Crisis shows that the school attendance rate of children under the age of 18 School attendance of children 0.637 ` 0.604 dropped slightly from 64 percent to 60 percent, yet the average edu- under 18 cation expenditure per household member increased to 1,273 Naira. Education expenditure per 310 Naira 1,273 Naira Further, the rate of child immunization increased by one percentage household member (mean) point to 43 percent in the North-East, while during the same period Immunization of children 0.421 0.434 the rate increased by five percentage points in the rest of the country. under 1 This development stresses that the affected states not only lag behind Health expenditure per 399 Naira 630 Naira in various developmental indicators, but also that they advance at household member (mean) a slower pace. Similarly, the share of contributors to the National Rate of National Health 0.007 0.014 Health Insurance Scheme grew slower in the North-East than in the Insurance System contributors other states, with a growth of 0.7 percentage points and 1.5 percent- Food expenditure per 33,258 Naira 29,855 Naira age points, respectively. Health expenditure per household member household member (mean) increased to 630 Naira, while food expenditure decreased to 29,855 Per capita assistance in 389 Naira 78 Naira Naira compromising household food and nutrition security situation. beneficiary households (mean) VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 67 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA TABLE 2.20 FIGURE 2.14 Poverty incidence based on per capita food Damages to transport by state (US$) expenditure for selected groups Source:Author’s calculations based on GHS panel 2010-2011 for pre-crisis & __ __ GHS panel 2012-2013 for in-crisis States Damages Household characteristics Pre-Crisis In-Crisis Adamawa 73,808,500 Poverty incidence 0.469 0.499 Bauchi Urban households 0.169 0.15 Borno 306,137,824 Gombe 29,043,500 Rural households 0.525 0.571 Taraba Households with children 0.474 0.506 Yobe 116,852,000 Households with elderly 0.555 0.579 Households with limited 0.521 0.535 3.12 Transport labour capacity 45 (US$ 525.84 million in damages) The poverty analysis conducted by the World Bank on the second The various road assets damaged during the conflict are (i) bridges, wave of the GHS panel 2012-2013, reveals that the poverty incidence culverts, retaining and slope protection structures; (ii) potholes and of the North-East increased by more than three percentage points to ditches in pavements due to shelling or IEDs; (iii) roads damaged due 50.4 percent. An examination of the poverty incidence for specific to bombing, fire, movements of tanks and heavy armed vehicles; and groups in the North-East, allows for a more detailed analysis of the (iv) damaged pavements due to temporary blockages of the roads. pre-and in-crisis situation. A substantial increase in the poverty inci- The total road network reported to have damage in Borno, Yobe, dence can be observed for rural households. With 49.9 percent, the Adamawa and Gombe States is about 40386 km. Of this, nearly 60 percent of damage is to Federal roads, owned by the Federal Gov- in-crisis poverty incidence is significantly higher than the pre-crisis ernment. The remaining damage is to State and LGA roads. For the incidence of 46.9 percent. purpose of this assessment, the damage to Federal roads was placed A more in-depth analysis of the poverty incidence of various groups under the State where the damage occurred (see Table 3.16). reveals that the poverty incidences of households with children, Boko Haram have attacked and mined trunk roads and destroyed households with elderly, and households with limited labour capacity main bridges to disrupt movements of armed vehicles. Since Boko increased, by two to four percentage points each. Haram controlled a large part of LGA roads, it is observed that the level of damages to them is relatively low. It is reported that about While positive developments have been recorded for some in- 11262 square meters of bridges are damaged in these four states and dicators such as education expenditure, others have deterio- 50 percent of the damaged bridges need to be reconstructed. The rated from pre-crisis to in-crisis. However, these negative de- conflict has gutted nearly 5574 buses, 11347 cars, and 142 trucks in velopments cannot only be attributed to the crisis, as some of these states over the past five years seriously affecting mobility in the these indicators have worsened in the non-affected states as conflict affected local areas. The conflict also damaged heavy vehicles well. Nevertheless, one can confidently assume that the crisis such as bulldozers, pavers, asphalt plant, and stone crushers, etc. has had a negative impact on the well-being of the households. The total damage cost to the transport sector is estimated at US$ 508 million, with road damage constituting nearly 72 percent of the total impact. Damage to bridges is estimated at about US$ 31.5 million, sharing about 6 percent of the total loss. 68 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES TABLE 2.21 Damages to transport by type (US$) Borno Yobe Adamawa Gombe Total Federal Roads 84,898,000 60,588,000 32,300,000 177,786,000 State/LGA Road 150,120,000 15,540,000 10,350,000 24,900,000 200,910,000 Bridges 2,189,824 7,920,000 17,820,000 3,563,000 31,492,824 Bus 22,425,000 13,422,500 383,500 36,231,000 Car 36,225,000 13,936,500 900,000 265,500 51,327,000 Asphalt Plant 4,445,000 4,445,000 Stone Crusher 1,000,000 1,000,000 Truck 1,530,000 555,000 45,000 2,130,000 Bull Dozer 5,000,000 2,000,000 7,000,000 Paver 1,000,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 Excavator 2,000,000 1,000,000 3,000,000 Tractor 750,000 7,500,000 8,250,000 Culverts 270,000 270,000 Total 306,137,824 116,852,000 73,808,500 29,043,500 525,841,824 3.13 Water and Sanitation (US$ 46.02 million in damages) FIGURE 2.15 Damages to water & sanitation by state (US$) Water supply, sanitation and hygiene services are critical determinants for survival in displacement as people affected are generally much more susceptible to illness and death from communicable diseases related to inadequate sanitation, inadequate water supplies and in- ability to maintain good hygiene. Insecurity and the resulting dis- States Damages placement have aggravated the low levels of WASH access that existed Adamawa 7,378,000 prior to the crisis. Low coverage, coupled with the practice of open Bauchi defecation, heightens the risk of waterborne and communicable dis- Borno 35,022,000 ease and worsens malnutrition. This is further exacerbated by lack Gombe of knowledge and poor hygiene and sanitation practices. The inade- Taraba quate capacity and low funding of WASH sector institutions to deal Yobe 3,613,000 with the massive influx of IDPs poses a major challenge, as does the hydrogeology in some areas of Adamawa, Borno and Yobe, which requires very deep boreholes. Gombe, the increase in population due to inflow of IDPs has placed additional burden on already strained water and sanitation facilities. The conflict has seriously damaged water and sanitation infrastruc- This is further discussed in the Section 4 addressing sector needs. Ad- ture, particularly in the States of Borno, Yobe and Adamawa. Both ditionally the damage to WASH infrastructure inflicted in Schools, water and sanitation have sustained damages to community and in- Health Centres and Public buildings have not been considered, as stitutional (schools, health facilities, motor parks, market places, etc.) they have been included under Education, Health and Housing sec- facilities. The majority of damage taking place in Borno (75 percent), tors respectively. followed by Adamawa (17 percent), and Yobe (9 percent). While no direct damages are reported for the States of Bauchi, Taraba and VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 69 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA TABLE 2.22 Damages to water and sanitation by type (US$) Borno Yobe Adamawa Total Water Facilities 26,862,000 1,273,000 4,384,000 32,519,000 Sanitation Infrastructure 8,160,000 2,340,000 2,994,000 13,494,000 Total 35,022,000 3,613,000 7,378,000 46,013,000 70 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES 4. Overview of Recovery Strategies and Needs This section provides an overview of costed strategic options and scenarios for transitional recovery and reconstruction strategy. This will include a qualitative assessment of infrastructure, service delivery, capacity, and human development needs as well as quantification of resources required to reconstruct needed infrastructure and restore social services. Sector needs estimates build upon the damages reported to infrastruc- ture to additionally cater to: (i) the reconstruction of impacted infra- structure to improved standards; (ii) the restoration of service delivery to individuals residing in the six North-East States and replacement of facilities; and (iii) the provision of social services to IDPs due to Boko Haram conflict and host communities they are residing with. Figure 2.16 shows the process for implementing recovery, from the transitional recovery strategy to the needs quantification to the im- plementation options. As shown in Table 2.23, the total recovery needs for the Infrastructure and Social Services Component are estimated at US$ 6.04 billion. In terms of cost estimates, needs are highest in the housing, agriculture, education and health and nutrition sectors. The distribution of the needs across states is also shown in Table 2.23. FIGURE 2.16 Implementation of recovery: from recovery strategies to project implementation Transitional Needs Implementation Recovery Strategy Qualification Options Broader sector policy framework Reconstruction and rehabilitation Prioritised recovery timeline Costed strategic options and scenarios BBB Differentials Institutional arrangements for recovery (rightsizing, right-sitting, IDPs & qualitative improvement) Performance indicators Capacity building and software needs Links with longer term development VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 71 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA TABLE 2.23 Summary table of needs to infrastructure and service delivery by sector and state Regional / Adamawa Borno Yobe Gombe Taraba Bauchi Federal Total Physical Sectors Energy 31.9 15.9 3.3 3.4 92.5 147 Environment 10.6 235.9 15.9 15.6 34.4 2.7 315.1 ICT 272.1 272.1 Transport 74.5 337.5 126.7 37 575.8 Social Sectors Education 83 513.6 77.1 6.8 17.4 23.5 721.4 Health & Nutrition 50.6 481.7 86.2 4 12.7 29.3 2.2 666.7 Private Housing 15.7 1097.4 46.6 1.8 2.2 0.7 1164.4 Public Buildings 40.3 295.9 22.7 2.7 5.8 6.7 374.1 Social Protection 93.8 180.3 69.6 34.3 30.6 91.1 499.5 Water & Sanitation 25.9 115.3 17.2 3 4.7 5.8 171.9 Productive Sectors Agriculture 141.1 485.4 170 18.5 29.7 36.6 881.4 Contingency Community Infrastructure 27.4 174.4 33 5.4 4.1 6.5 250.8 Total 594.9 3933.3 668.3 129.1 144.9 202.9 94.7 6040.1 4.1 Agriculture and Irrigation FIGURE 2.17 (US$ 881.37 million) Agriculture sector needs by state (US$) The stabilisation and recovery needs for the agriculture and irrigation sector include the following objectives: to ensure food and nutrition security in the short term (March-August 2016) through food assis- tance; to achieve both food security and sustainable agricultural liveli- States Needs hoods in the medium term; to create jobs and regenerate wealth in the Adamawa 141,109,690 region; and to rebuild damaged/destroyed infrastructures and re-es- Bauchi 36,602,990 tablish or strengthen service delivery channels. Some of these recovery Borno 485,443,689 needs, such as job creation and wealth regeneration, are discussed in Gombe 18,487,489 more detail in the Economic Recovery Component, under the liveli- Taraba 29,700,262 hoods and employment recovery sub-component. Yobe 170,029,316 In terms of direct damages, the abandoned farmlands would need extensive clearing (including partly mine clearance) and preparation Although hundreds of personal agricultural property were damaged before crop production can commence. There is a need to reconstruct the damaged structures for livestock production, and to gazette and or destroyed as a result of the violence, there are no immediate plans enforce livestock grazing areas. Support is especially needed for dry to repair or reconstruct these until the affected LGAs are safe and season and irrigated farming, supply of animal feed, and food process- people can return to their communities of origin. Hence, immediate ing/preservation techniques. To facilitate effective and efficient pro- duction, training of farmers on best agricultural practices is crucial. repair and reconstruction plans will focus on institutional infrastruc- There is also a need to re-establish trade routes and rebuild markets. ture. The reconstruction of institutional buildings is expected to be 72 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES staggered over the stabilisation/recovery period, based on the security ditional demand from the displaced persons, while extremely food situation in each LGA and on the relative importance of the facilities. insecure members of host communities will also require immediate food assistance. Based on FAO’s experience in food distribution, unit Displaced people who are yet to return to their communities of ori- cost for food assistance is estimated at N 26,000 per person per year gin need support for crop and livestock production only if they have or N 2,200 per person per month. access to land. Hence, the need for food and nutrition assistance for a prolonged period will be greater amongst such people. IDPs with The needs are significantly concentrated in Borno State, which ac- access to land, as well as those who have returned to their communi- counts for over half of stabilisation and recovery needs. Adamawa and ties of origin, need food assistance in the short term, as well as assis- Yobe States, also directly affected by the crisis, each represent roughly tance for crop and livestock production. In about two planting sea- a fifth of the needs. Across all states, the needs consist of food assis- sons, these returnees are expected to produce at least sufficient food tance, livelihood assistance, extension services, household support for for subsistence. Vulnerable host communities will generally require food and livestock production, reconstruction of damaged infrastruc- support for increased agricultural productivity to cope with the ad- ture, and purchase of agricultural equipment. TABLE 2.24 Agriculture sector needs by type (US$) Adamawa Borno Yobe Gombe Taraba Bauchi Total Peasant farms/ farmland Operational Gardens Operational 11,056,500 302,003 11,358,503 Irigation and drainage systems Capital 37,800,000 64,103,072 101,903,072 Agricultural machinery and equipment Capital 13,920,000 14,462,500 1,407,000 29,789,500 Storage and other buildings Capital 80,927,500 68,150,000 15,489,915 50,000 164,617,415 Plantations Operational 46,129,500 41,927 46,171,427 Heavy duty machine Capital 10,575,000 10,575,000 Markets Capital Implements such as disc harrows, ploughs, Capital 2,143,000 2,143,000 knapsack sprayers, water pumps etc. Veterinary clinics and abattoirs Capital 525,000 29,750,000 30,275,000 Farm roads Capital 10,912,500 262,500 11,175,000 Boreholes Capital 5,000 14,000,000 22,500 14,027,500 Processing industries Capital Transportation services Operational Agro-processing services Capital and 2,066,750 2,066,750 Operational Earth dam Capital 155,000 155,000 Food Assistance Operational 9,327,500 136,500,000 45,500,000 2,960,100 4,933,500 6,906,900 206,128,000 Supplementary food assistance for 4 months Operational 9,471,000 32,340,000 15,477,000 57,288,000 of food around lean season Extension Services Operational 3,068,493 13,501,076 4,078,431 592,593 888,889 1,230,769 23,360,251 Input support in host communities 8,444,493 29,726,337 11,223,843 8,457,481 12,686,222 17,565,538 88,103,916 Dry season vegetable support 3,860,548 13,589,916 5,131,176 1,188,611 1,782,917 2,468,654 28,021,822 HH support for small-scale food processing 301,374 900,143 356,203 64,815 104,938 128,205 1,855,679 & preservation Support for sheep production 704,795 2,481,020 936,765 136,111 204,167 282,692 4,745,550 HH support for goat production 551,370 1,940,934 732,843 106,481 159,722 221,154 3,712,505 HH support for poultry production 2,694,521 9,485,262 3,581,373 520,370 780,556 1,080,769 18,142,850 Crop production support for returnees 5,241,346 1,667,764 4,043,426 8,086,852 6,718,308 25,757,695 Total 141,109,690 485,443,689 170,029,316 18,487,489 29,700,262 36,602,990 881,373,435 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 73 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 4.2 Education FIGURE 2.18 (US$ 721.38 million) Education sector needs by state (US$) Education needs were calculated by considering both the financial resources necessary to reconstruct, rehabilitate, and refurnish educa- tion facilities damaged in the North-East, and the education needs States Needs of IDPs and the host communities they reside with. The total needs Adamawa 82,986,795 comprise of US$ 272.97 million in reconstruction costs, and US$ 448.41 million to meet the educational needs of IDPs and host com- Bauchi 23,473,270 munities across the six states. Borno 485,443,689 Gombe 6,838,389 Costs of recovery for damaged schools were previously detailed in Taraba 17,367,887 Section 3.4, and consisted of core infrastructure and equipment; Yobe 77,105,117 including a 6-classroom block, office block, borehole and overhead tank, classroom rehabilitation, pupil seats (16 per classroom), teacher table and chair (1 per classroom), as well as a perimeter fence sur- for damaged infrastructure would increase from US$ 272.97 million rounding the school. This set is considered to form the bare essentials to US$ 625.18 million. It should be noted that standard unit costs for a functioning school, and recovery needs for damaged infrastruc- were applied across each of the states. However, once reconstruction ture across the six states using this methodology were estimated at and rehabilitation begins, it is expected that contractors might choose US$ 272.97 million. A second alternative was also explored, which to charge a security premium for certain LGAs. This potential premi- includes additional infrastructure and equipment in order to secure um has not taken into account in the unit cost. a suitable learning environment for students. This additional infra- structure and equipment includes a science lab, clinic, computer li- The analysis also addressed the recovery needs of the education sector brary and computers, library books, and hostels for students and/ for IDPs and host communities. According to the December 2015 or teachers. Unit costs for such facilities were provided by the states. DTM report, there are currently over 1.8 million IDPs displaced as a Should such an alternative be implemented, the total recovery needs result of the Boko Haram related violence. The majority of IDPs are TABLE 2.25 Education sector needs by type (US$) Adamawa Bauchi Borno Gombe Taraba Yobe Total Core infrastructure and equipment 6-classroom block 20,775,848 2,052,417 65,875,000 574,595 3,895,472 20,625,000 113,798,332 Office block 4,469,163 411,387 9,854,599 43,966 785,376 3,085,406 18,649,897 Hand pump borehole 560,000 55,000 1,317,500 65,000 105,000 412,500 2,515,000 Motorized borehole/overhead tank 2,222,500 192,500 4,611,250 195,000 367,500 1,443,750 9,032,500 Latrines (2 blocks, each 3 compartments) 2,800,000 275,000 6,587,500 62,500 525,000 2,062,500 12,312,500 Classroom rehabilitation 3,248,310 5,415,179 - 277,470 401,853 2,937,352 12,280,164 Pupil seat 1,069,500 985,600 4,806,240 157,500 134,400 982,400 8,135,640 Teacher table & chair 91,560 83,065 609,116 47,000 11,327 82,795 924,863 Perimeter fence 22,738,914 2,093,122 50,139,781 651,359 3,995,960 15,698,414 95,317,549 Additional Burden on Service Delivery Capital costs for IDP education services 19,971,000 9,510,000 295,285,500 3,804,000 5,706,000 23,775,000 358,051,500 Recurrent costs for IDP education services 5,040,000 2,400,000 74,520,000 960,000 1,440,000 6,000,000 90,360,000 Total 82,986,795 23,473,270 513,606,486 6,838,389 17,367,887 77,105,117 721,377,944 74 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES aba Bauchi Federal ICT Total 0% 63% 0% 100% in Borno (close to 67 percent), followed by Adamawa (six percent), recruitment and redeployment of teachers will likely be required, as % 1% 0% percent). 0% Yobe (six and 100% Close to 56 percent of IDPs are children, well as strong outreach and other measures to ensure that children 4% 0% 0% 100% and over 28 percent are five years old or younger. The number of attend school. While these issues are crucial for the improvement of 0% 0% school-age 100% 0% children IDP by state over the 2014-2019 period amounts 2% 0% 0% 100% education outcomes in the North-East, they are beyond the scope of to between 550,000 and 600,000 (this is based on the number of 18% 0%projected 0% by state, IDPs 100% into future years on the assumption that the the present report. 0% 0% 0% 100% situation remains unchanged). The overwhelming majority of IDPs 3% 0% 0% 100% and in many instances IDPs children at- FIGURE 2.19 are with host communities, Energy sector needs by state (US$) tend school with host community children, if not during the regular 3% 0% during 0% then often shift, 100% a second afternoon shift. However, there are 3% 5% where 100% 2% instances often schooling facilities are not available for IDPs children, and have to be provided either in the form of tents or mo- bile classrooms. In addition, IDPs children are often taught by IDPs States Needs teachers on a voluntary basis. This situation is not sustainable and Adamawa 31,852,500 serious consideration must be given to providing teachers of IDPs Borno 15,938,500 children with compensation and to additional capital costs associated Taraba 3,391,250 with their instruction. Capital costs were calculated on the assump- Yobe 3,318,000 tion that while 50 percent of them might be integrated into existing Federal 92,477,500 education facilities, 30 percent are taught in tents, and the remaining 20 percent in mobile classrooms. The resulting costs for IDPs related teacher compensation and capital investments over the four-year re- covery period total an estimated US$ 448.41 million. 4.3 Energy The above cost estimates focus on restoring damaged infrastructure (US$ 146.98 million) and equipment and addressing the needs of IDP children. Clearly, restoring education service delivery to the North-East is primarily a The overall cost of reconstruction and rehabilitation of the power question of restoring the teaching force and the student body. For this sector are summarized in in the table below. The cost of restoration is to occur, the first requirement will be a secure environment for the close to US$ 147 million, of which US$ 54.5 million are at State level population to return to its normal life. In addition, given the histor- ical disadvantage of North-East in terms of education, it will not be and the remaining US$ 92.5 million are at Federal level. sufficient to return to the pre-crisis state of affairs. Instead, additional TABLE 2.26 Reconstruction priorities for the energy sector State Priority actions Involved entities Adamawa Restoring distribution substations 33/LV and 11/LV and MV and LV lines. Yola disco Adamawa State Borno Restoring transmission lines and substation (132 kV) Yola Disco In parallel, the MV and LV infrastructure can be developed, but the energy has to be provisionally generated from diesel groups. Borno State TCN Taraba Restoring transmission lines and substation (132 kV) Yola Disco In parallel, the MV and LV infrastructure can be developed, but the energy has to be provisionally generated from diesel groups Taraba State TCN Yobe Restoring distribution substations 33/LV and 11/LV and MV and LV lines. Yola disco Yobe State VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 75 0% 63% 0% 100% % 1% 0% 0% 100% 4% 0% 100% 0% NIGERIA NORTH-EAST 0% 0% 0% 100% 2% 0% 0% 100% 18% 0% 0% 100% 0% 0% 0% 100% The strategies for the sector recovery will depend on the situation of FIGURE 2.20 3% 0% 0% 100% each state. While the less affected states can focus on reconstruction of Environment sector needs by state (US$) medium and low voltage infrastructure immediately, the most affect- 3% 0% 0% 100% ed states (Borno and Taraba) should first restore the big transmission 3% 2% 5% 100% infrastructures. Obviously, without these infrastructures in proper condition, there will not be power flow to the distribution substation States Needs and, therefore, no power delivered to the population. As mentioned, Adamawa 10,574,307 these infrastructures are owned and managed by TCN at Federal lev- Bauchi 2,739,764 el, so a common agreement and timeline has to be achieved between Borno 235,915,794 State and Federal Governments in order to coordinate the efforts and Gombe 15,598,029 to reduce the impact of reconstruction in the population. Table 2.26 Taraba 34,366,598 synthesizes the priorities for each state with reported damages. Yobe 15,880,161 4.4 Environment (US$ 315.1 million) forest resources, restoration of protected areas (fencing, cleaning of sites, reforestation activities and cleaning of water bodies and pollu- It is recommended to take a phased approach to the recovery strat- tion control). Across the six affected states, the total needs for eco- egy of the environment sector, entailing: i) Securing lives with the safe removal of ERW and clean-up of polluted areas and hazardous logical assets estimated at US$ 315 million, of which 65 percent are waste; ii) Restoring livelihoods and clean up with debris removal, required for Borno State. waste management and woodlot rehabilitation; and iii) Long term environmental restoration with sustainable waste management and Solid Waste Management: Needs include providing displaced and ** ** protected area management. host populations with a reliable, safe, sustainable, and livelihood gen- erating solid waste management service as well as state wide man- Ecological Assets: To recover livelihood generating potential of eco- ** ** agement plans, improved collection, storage, disposal and recycling systems in the damaged and over-utilised areas of the North East, the needs identified are the restoration of community wood lots to capacity, and integrated livelihood generation. The total estimated provide communities with fuel wood and other essential services from needs for solid waste management is US$ 34.7 million. TABLE 2.27 Energy sector needs by type (US$) Yobe Borno Adamawa Gombe Bauchi Taraba Federal Total Distribution Substations 1,140,000 9,226,000 1,615,000 55,000,000 66,981,000 Distribution Lines 1,465,500 6,712,500 30,237,500 34,477,500 72,893,000 Solar panels (house/office/boreholes) Solar street lighting 712,500 712,500 Conventional Street ligthing Diesel generators 491,250 491,250 Petrol stations 2,900,000 2,900,000 Contol Building TCN - 3,000,000 3,000,000 Total 3,318,000 15,938,500 31,852,500 3,391,250 92,477,500 146,977,750 76 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES TABLE 2.28 Environment sector needs by type (US$) Borno Adamawa Yobe Gombe Bauchi Taraba Total Forests, Orchards, Wetlands and Protected Areas 97,266,481 2,677,640 2,107,291 13,611,160 223,737 32,115,150 148,001,459 Solid Waste Management 20,677,399 3,977,053 3,294,764 1,986,869 2,516,027 2,251,448 34,703,558 ERW Risk Reduction 9,963,600 1,913,600 2,392,000 14,269,200 Debris Management 108,008,315 2,006,014 8,086,106 118,100,435 Total 235,915,794 10,574,307 15,880,161 15,598,029 2,739,764 34,366,598 315,074,651 Debris Management and ERW: In order to provide safe access to ** ** (IMNCH) care, including immunisation and management of com- damaged areas for returnees and reconstruction activities at the lowest mon childhood diseases, nutritional promotion, and in cases of severe possible human and environmental cost, there needs to be Mine Risk malnutrition rehabilitation, malaria prevention and treatment, and Education (MRE), Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD), state wide safe delivery with referral of complications. Management of SGBV debris management plans, ERW identification and clearing, labour and trauma care should also be free. Priority for Anti-Retroviral Treat- intensive debris clearing, transport, disposal and recycling opportu- ment in HIV/AIDS and for tuberculosis treatment is given to people nities, and capacity development. This is specifically targeted at ar- already on treatment. Voluntary HIV counselling, testing, and treat- eas heavily affected by the conflict, and the needs total US$ 132.37 ment of pregnant women and high-risk groups needs to be resumed. million Continuous management of non-communicable diseases is import- ba Bauchi ICT BornoTotal Federal across (89 percent), Yobe (8 percent) and Adamawa (3 percent). ant for previously identified patients. Skills in mental healthcare and 0% 63% 0% 100% rehabilitation of disabled people need to be enhanced. 1% 0% 0% 100% 4% 0% and Nutrition 4.5 Health 0% 100% Infrastructure and equipment costs amount to 26 percent of needs. 0% 0%million) 0% 666.78 (US$ 100% In residential areas with a high IDPs workload, existing permanent 2% 0% 0% 100% structures can be upgraded and complemented by temporary struc- The recovery strategy for the health and nutrition sector is com- 18% 0% 0% 100% tures. Reconstruction and rehabilitation of permanent buildings posed of two complementary approaches, ensuring access to essential 0% 0% 0% 100% health and nutrition services for target groups, and restoring critical FIGURE 2.21 3% 0% 0% 100% health system functions. Estimated costs by strategic component are: Health sector needs by state (US$) health and nutrition service provision (US$ 443.80); infrastructure 3% 0% 0% 100% and equipment (US$ 176.39); governance, which includes the re-op- 3% 2% 5% 100% erationalization of LGA health teams currently non-functional and the setting up of Early Warning and Response Systems (US$ 22.93); health systems to restore health information and supply chain systems States Needs (US$ 16.85); and risk mitigation, which includes increasing commu- Adamawa 50,636,400 nity involvement in identification of health risks (US$ 6.80). Bauchi 29,286,000 Borno 481,690,400 Approximately two-thirds (64 percent) of the estimated recovery Gombe 4,047,600 costs, of which 84 percent are in Borno, are aimed at service pro- Taraba 12,744,800 vision. Primary Health Care (PHC) services that should be free of Yobe 86,168,000 charge include integrated Maternal, Neonatal and Child Health Federal 2,202,500 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 77 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA TABLE 2.29 Health sector needs by type (US$) Adamawa Borno Yobe Gombe Taraba Bauchi Federal Total Health Care Facilites/Infrastructure & Capital 22,916,400 71,830,400 53,168,000 527,600 7,464,800 20,486,000 176,393,200 Equipment Service Provision (operational) Operational 22,176,000 327,888,000 26,400,000 2,816,000 4,224,000 7,040,000 390,544,000 Service Provision (capital) Capital 3,024,000 44,712,000 3,600,000 384,000 576,000 960,000 53,256,000 Health System Restoration (capacity Capacity 352,800 5,216,400 420,000 44,800 67,200 112,000 200,000 6,413,200 building) Building Health System Restoration Operational 529,200 7,824,600 630,000 67,200 100,800 168,000 1,120,000 10,439,800 (operational) Governance & Early Warning Systems Capital 378,000 5,589,000 450,000 48,000 72,000 120,000 6,657,000 (capital) Governance & Early Warning Systems Operational 882,000 13,041,000 1,050,000 112,000 168,000 280,000 737,500 16,270,500 (operational) Risk Mitigation (capital) Capital 75,600 1,117,800 90,000 9,600 14,400 24,000 1,331,400 Risk Mitigation (operational) Operational 302,400 4,471,200 360,000 38,400 57,600 96,000 145,000 5,470,600 Total 50,636,400 481,690,400 86,168,000 4,047,600 12,744,800 29,286,000 2,202,500 666,775,700 needs to respect FMOH standards and plans, adding appropriate pro- 4.6 Housing tection. Construction priorities need to consider population density, (US$ 1,164.41 million) range of required services and security. In insecure areas and informal camps, mobile teams stationed nearby in a permanent referral facili- The total investment need for housing recovery is estimated at ty can opportunistically deliver a selective package of services. Places US$1,164.41 million. The unit cost for reconstructing a fully dam- with improving unstable security and formal camps can be served by aged house is assumed as N700,000 (US$ 3,500, i.e. US$ 100 per temporary structures. Secondary referral structures are a priority in square meter) and for repairing a partly damaged house is assumed at N200,000 (US$ 1,000). The total investment need was calculated safe areas and can be built in a modular way according to needs. by multiplying these unit costs by the total number of destroyed and The health system needs to restore managerial support for human damaged housing units (431,842 and 293,028, respectively) across resources (e.g. incentive packages), supply management (from quan- the six states. The financial cost of reconstructing damaged units is tification of necessary medicines to their distribution and utilization) therefore estimated at US$ 1,025 million, while that of repairing and the health information system (routine collection and analysis partially damaged housing units is estimated at US$ 138.81 million. of data relevant for management), and enhance governance (proper Based on these financial cost estimates, the project would replace planning which includes recovery interventions). Resilience can be about 35 percent of the damage to the housing sector. As shown in Figure 2.22, Borno State represents nearly 95 percent of the estimated strengthened through surveillance and early warning systems, emer- need. gency preparedness and epidemic response, referral and coordination between levels of care. Risk mitigation includes community outreach Experiences from conflict-based assessments suggest the actual hous- and public awareness campaigns to involve communities in identify- ing needs, and thus the financial cost, would come down significant- ing the health risks introduced by conflict and displacement, and to ly after field level damage assessments and differential payments for make them participate in the management of services provided. urban and rural reconstruction. The housing recovery program, if 78 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES FIGURE 2.22 programs indicates that, to whatever extent possible, the most feasible Housing sector needs by state (US$) and sustainable option is in-situ reconstruction managed by affected households assisted by a combination of cash grants and access to affordable loans. Nigerian experience in rebuilding nearly 600 hous- ing units in conflict affected communities through a homeowner driven approach in Bauchi State (Moraraba Liman Katagum in Bau- States Needs chi LGA; Baram, Sabon Gari Narabi and Magama Guamu in Toro Adamawa 15,726,500 LGA; and Boto in Tafawa Balewa LGA) indicate that the approach is Bauchi 700,000 workable and preferred by local communities. Based on the cultural Borno 1,097,376,500 preferences, families will manage the pace and content of their house Gombe 1,807,500 rebuilding process, though under the ‘Build Back Better’ guidelines Taraba 2,202,500 they will be provided with relevant information on possible housing Yobe 46,599,000 type, construction costs and techniques, as well as access to demon- stration units. implemented in total, would rehabilitate nearly 3.15 million people Resettlement model: Considering the special land ownership condi- ** ** affected by the conflict. Besides the multiplier economic impacts of tions and practice of issuing occupation certificates to build houses in the huge housing recovery program, the program would directly im- Nigeria, marketable land titles could be a potential issue while imple- prove the household savings by N 4.53 billion (US$ 22.65 million) menting the homeowner driven program. To ensure that houses built and improve the purchasing power of the people and boost the lo- under the program are legally tenable, there may be an opportunity cal economy. for states to appropriate tracks of public lands through a resettlement The regional diversity in terms of social and economic vulnerability plan to rehabilitate vulnerable families. Moreover, the rehabilitation of families living in rented houses would be a serious issue due to land of affected families, capacity of government and non-government or- ownership issues. The assessment has observed that nearly 20 percent ganizations, institutional constraints in attracting private sectors in of the affected families were tenants prior to their displacement. The the reconstruction process, and varying social customs and preference guiding principles in such situations will be, to whatever extent pos- for type of housing, etc., demand multiple and parallel reconstruction sible, to keep affected communities intact. In addition, renters and responses. The homeowner driven housing reconstruction model and families without tenure should be treated on par with owners who resettlement models are described below. have clear titles. Eligible families who prefer to build houses their Homeowner driven housing reconstruction model: Experience from ** ** own in the resettlement sites could be supported under the housing a large number of conflict response driven housing reconstruction reconstruction scheme. TABLE 2.30 Housing sector needs by type (US$) Borno Yobe Adamawa Gombe Bauchi Taraba Total Reconstruction of Damaged houses 133,823,000 4,053,000 897,000 12,000 29,000 138,814,000 Reconstruction of Destroyed houses 963,553,500 42,546,000 14,829,500 1,795,500 700,000 2,173,500 1,025,598,000 Total 1,097,376,500 46,599,000 15,726,500 1,807,500 700,000 2,202,500 1,164,412,000 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 79 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 4.7 Information and Communication Technology 4.8 Public Buildings (US$ 272.11 Million) (US$ 374.1 million) As summarized in Table 2.31, it is estimated that refurbishing dam- The economic loss due to damages to government and police systems aged infrastructure for mobile phone base stations and towers would is significant and affects the governance and security management in require US$25.2 million of capital expense across the six North-East these states, especially in Borno. As described in Section 3.3 of the states. The damage to telecommunications infrastructure entails an Peace Building Stability and Social Cohesion Component, it is criti- added cost of US$248 million due to disrupted mobile phone service. cal to restore and improve the social contract between the population and the government. Thus, damaged government facilities should In addition to refurbishing telecom infrastructure, the North-East be restored at the earliest. Facilities such as local government offices, states would require an upgrade and modernisation of telecom in- ministry offices and police stations should be prioritised in all states. frastructure in order to allow easily available, affordable high-speed The investment needs are estimated for all damaged buildings using internet and high-quality mobile phone service. The upgrade and a standard unit cost that includes construction cost, cost of furnish- modernisation would require another US$30-50 million of invest- ing and fixtures (assets), and a premium for ‘building back better’. ments, in conjunction with the private sector. The premium for ‘building back better’ is assumed as 10 percent of the total estimated construction and asset cost. The investment costs TABLE 2.31 ICT sector needs by type (US$) provided by various states are reviewed based on market rates and a relatively higher rate is considered due to the high construction cost incurred in the northern parts of Borno State. The total cost of Cost of Damaged Infrastructure US$374.1 million includes basic construction cost plus a ‘building Mobile Operators 24,687,632 back better’ premium, totalling US$ 291 million and a project man- HTN Towers 262,065 agement cost of US$ 29 million. The total cost includes provisions for physical and price contingencies. IHS Nigeria 149,250 Cost of Disruption of Service It is important to note that due to the changing functional and oper- ational modalities of some of the public institutions such post offices, Mobile Operators 247,013,514 election offices, police stations, etc., they cannot be reinstated in their Total 272,112,461 FIGURE 2.23 Public Building sector needs by state (US$) States Needs Adamawa 40,339,585 Bauchi 6,694,222 Borno 295,851,401 Gombe 2,671,680 Taraba 5,825,325 Yobe 22,712,443 80 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES TABLE 2.32 Public building sector needs by type (US$) Borno Yobe Adamawa Gombe Bauchi Taraba Total Infrastructure Reconstruction Public Building Category Prisons 115,000 250,000 357,500 305,000 1,027,500 Audit Offices 288,750 144,375 144,375 144,375 721,875 Post Offices 433,125 144,375 577,500 Police Stations 9,491,625 2,734,875 1,876,875 965,250 1,769,625 195,000 17,033,250 Police Barracks 160,875 965,250 321,750 160,875 1,608,750 Election Offices 2,734,875 804,375 3,539,250 Development Area Office 866,250 866,250 Cultural/Historical Buildings 15,675,000 618,750 16,087,500 643,500 4,410,000 37,434,750 araba Bauchi Federal ICT Total Local Government Buildings 157,080,000 7,012,500 5,610,000 618,500 170,321,000 % 0% 63% 0% 100% Ministry Buildings 45,581,250 721,875 46,303,125 1% 1% 0% 0% Other Buildings 100% 2,475,000 5,362,500 5,981,250 825,000 1,650,000 16,293,750 % 4% 0% 0% Management Project 100% 23,387,463 1,795,450 3,188,900 211,200 529,188 460,500 29,572,700 % 0% 0% 0% Contingencies Physical 100% 25,726,209 1,974,995 3,507,790 232,320 582,106 506,550 32,529,970 % 2% 0% Cost 0% Contingencies 100% 12,863,104 987,498 1,753,895 116,160 291,053 253,275 16,264,985 % 18% 0% Total 0% 100% 295,851,401 22,712,443 40,339,585 2,671,680 6,694,222 5,825,325 374,094,655 % 0% 0% 0% 100% % 3% 0% 0% forms, original 100% and may warrant improved designs and construction FIGURE 2.24 methods. The high construction cost and ‘building back better’ pre- Social protection sector needs by state (US$) % 3% 0% provisioned mium 0% in the 100%costing have considered these innovative % 3% investment 2% needs. 5% During the 100% project design stage, the costing would be reviewed based on detailed technical specifications. 4.9 Social Protection States Needs (US$ 499.51 Million) Adamawa 93,764,839 Bauchi 91,080,398 Based on the household and poverty profile of the affected states, Borno 180,263,768 various needs can be identified. Poverty incidence has increased in the Gombe 34,290,979 North-East from pre-crisis situation to in-crisis situation. The most Taraba 30,556,067 substantial increases in the poverty rate (and gap) can be observed for Yobe 69,565,531 households in rural areas, households with children, and households with limited labour capacity. These developments suggest that inter- ventions targeted at households with children and elderly should be between the North-East and the rest of the country. Additionally, it is developed. In order to address these needs and to better equip house- considered crucial that the social protection sector recovery strategy is holds to cope with disasters, the implementation of various social linked to other sectoral strategies, including education and health, as protection interventions is recommended. These recommendations simultaneous improvements in supply-side infrastructure and services are linked to the changes in the households’ well-being due to the unlock the true developmental potential of demand-side targeted so- crisis, and also lay the foundation for addressing structural differences cial protection programs. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 81 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA TABLE 2.33 Summary of sector needs Parameters Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Cumulative cost Expansion of National Social Safety Nets Project Total cost (in million Naira) 5991 10723 14220 16505 47438 Total cost (in million USD) 30 54 71 83 237 Public employment scheme Total cost (in million Naira) 1969 4069 6305 8686 21029 Total cost (in million USD) 10 20 32 43 105 Old-age and disability allowance Total cost (in million Naira) 1889 3904 6050 8334 20176 Total cost (in million USD) 9 20 30 42 101 Subsidy for Community-Based Social Health Insurance Program 46 Total cost (in million Naira) 3673 7589 11262 Total cost (in million USD) 18 38 56 Capacity building course Total cost (in million Naira) 36 36 Total cost (in million USD) 0.18 0.18 Total cost (in million Naira) 9885 18695 30247 41113 99940 Total cost (in million USD) 49 93 151 206 499.51 Total cost (% of GDP) 0.01% 0.02% 0.03% 0.04% Firstly, it would be advised to expand the coverage of the affected implement a national school-feeding program. For implementation states in the North-East under the NASSP, which will be implement- of this program in the North-East, it is recommended procurement ed as part of the Federal social protection umbrella scheme. In order should be designed in a decentralised manner, and allow for the em- to adequately provide support to the crisis-affected households in the ployment of IDPs to support the program locally, for instance by North-East, it is proposed to disproportionally expand coverage for procuring, preparing, and serving the food. the region, to reach the poorest 10 percent of the households within Given the strong need to rebuild and improve infrastructure and ser- the affected states. In addition to expanded coverage, it is recommend- vice delivery, a public employment scheme is recommended, which ed to consider making the top-up benefit of 5,000 Naira uncondi- complements the measures foreseen to rebuild infrastructure in other tional for all households in the North-East, given that the under- sectors. Persons with disabilities resulting from the crisis constitute a development of supply-side infrastructure and services might hinder vulnerable group in the post-crisis context. As interventions such as beneficiaries from meeting any attached conditions. Nevertheless, it is public employment exclude individuals without labour capacity, it is important that the cash transfer remains outcome-linked and will be important to address their vulnerabilities through different interven- implemented in line with sensitization campaigns, aimed at linking tions. Therefore, the introduction of an old-age and disability allow- benefit receipt with the program’s intended outcomes in health and ance would be advised, targeted at elderly aged 65 years and above, education. Lastly, it is recommended to design an IDPs-sensitive ben- and at persons with disabilities (PWDs). To address the challenge of eficiary selection system, for instance by establishing an interface with barriers preventing access to health care and utilization of services, a the Displacement Tracking Matrix database, and integrating IDPs targeted subsidy for the Community-Based Social Health Insurance status into the targeting selection criteria. Next to the cash transfer Program is also recommended should be provided. In light of the component, the forthcoming Federal Social Protection Program will NHIS’s former focus on providing free access specifically for mothers 82 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES and children, and in line with best practices across the continent, the FIGURE 2.25 subsidy could be targeted at children under the age of five, lactating Transport sector needs by state (US$) mothers, and pregnant women. Finally, to tackle the low institutional capacity in terms of implementing social protection schemes, capacity building of policy- and implementation-structures is strongly recom- mended. States Needs The costs for the recommendations to address sector needs were Adamawa 74,531,000 estimated for a four-year period, assuming a two-year stabilisation Borno 337,522,671 period, followed by a two-year transition period. The cost provided Gombe 37,001,900 for the different recommendations assume a phased, linear roll out Yobe 126,711,650 plan for all interventions, increasing from 25 percent of the targeted coverage estimate in year one, to 100 percent in year four, as capacity and infrastructure constraints are expected to hamper a full imple- mentation from year one onwards. Furthermore, a maximum take- up of 80 percent is assumed given that in reality implementation is Stability, and Social Cohesion Component – Section 3.5.4). The res- likely to be imperfect, as not every individual or household that is toration of vehicles on the road will take some time depending upon an eligible beneficiary, will enrol in the program. Additionally, 15 the economic recovery of the people in these regions; however, it is percent administrative cost are included for all programs, except for assumed that some of the main trunk roads and critical bridges, and the expansion of the NASSP. Here, 10 percent administrative cost are all roads requiring repairs and rehabilitation of public transportation, estimated, given that it is an expansion of a forthcoming scheme, so would be prioritised during the stabilisation stage. In the absence of that lower administrative cost due to economies of scale and scope information on the road networks in terms of local area based length can be assumed. Over the four year period, the cumulative costs total of actual damages and connectivity/linkages to towns and cities, it US$ 500 million, ranging from 0.01 percent of national GDP in year is assumed that all damaged roads and bridges damaged would be one, to 0.04 percent in year four. taken up for rehabilitation and the rest could be planned for the re- covery phase. 4.10 Transport The total basic investment cost for rehabilitating and reconstructing (US$ 575.77 million) damaged roads and bridges and rehabilitation of bus transportation, The recovery strategy for the transport sector should primarily aim to including transport to IDPs camps, is estimated at US$ 432 million. promote mobility of goods and services and people. Since ERW/IEDs Note that the costing for the transport sector does not include the safe can be found on roads, as a first step, these will have to be assessed and removal of ERW, as these needs were costed within the environment demined to initiate a safe return process (refer to the Peace Building, sector (Infrastructure and Social Services Component – Section 4.4). TABLE 2.34 Transport sector needs by type (US$) Borno Yobe Adamawa Gombe Total Federal Road Capital 84,898,000 60,588,000 32,300,000 177,786,000 State/LGA Road Capital 150,120,000 15,540,000 10,350,000 24,900,000 200,910,000 Bridges Capital 2,189,824 7,920,000 17,820,000 3,563,000 31,492,824 Public Transport Capital 22,425,000 13,422,500 35,847,500 Project Management & Contingencies Operational 77,889,847 29,241,150 14,061,000 8,538,900 129,730,897 Total 337,522,671 126,711,650 74,531,000 37,001,900 575,767,221 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 83 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Nearly 63 percent of the transport sector’s costing is estimated for FIGURE 2.26 Borno. About 55 percent of the total cost is required for repairing Water and sanitation sector needs by state (US$) and rehabilitating damaged road and bridges in these States. Cost of rehabilitation of public transportation is estimated at US$ 35.8 mil- lion in Borno and Yobe States. Including additional costs for project management and physical contingencies and capacity building, the States Needs total cost of the transport sector investment needs is estimated at US$ Adamawa 25,890,554 525 million. Bauchi 5,788,496 4.11 Water and Sanitation Borno 115,323,061 Gombe 2,955,809 (US$ 171.85 million) Taraba 4,682,627 Water and sanitation sector recovery needs entail: (i) reconstruction Yobe 17,211,969 and rehabilitation of damaged water supply infrastructure in commu- nities and public places; (ii) reconstruction, repair and rehabilitation not include the cost of sanitation infrastructure in schools and health of damaged sanitation infrastructure in public places; (iii) increasing centres, as this is covered under education and health sectors. the capacity of water supply to accommodate IDPs in host commu- nities and return areas as well construction of sanitation facilities in Sanitation and hygiene promotion will involve implementation of public places; (iv) engaging IDPs and host communities in sanitation community led total sanitation, development and distribution of in- and hygiene promotion; and (v) institutional support and capacity formation, education and communication (IEC) materials, hygiene development support. The needs distributed across the six states total promotion campaigns and formation, and training of community $171.85 million. based structures for implementation and monitoring of sanitation and hygiene promotion activities. Behaviour change aimed at im- The overall reconstruction and rehabilitation costs are estimated at proving sanitation and hygiene practices will be spread over a larger US$ 62.53 million. About 1.4 million beneficiaries in communities population covering the IDPs who will be returning to their commu- would benefit from access to improved water sources from the above rehabilitation/replacement work in the three North-East States (Bor- nities; population in communities hosting IDPs and a provision (at no – 0.9 million; Adamawa - 0.28 million, and Yobe - 0.22 million). 25 percent over and above the estimated total population) to account In addition, people accessing the public places and public buildings for the population in affected communities. The sanitation and hy- will benefit from access to improved water sources and sanitation fa- giene promotion at an estimated cost of US$ 28.9 million is expected cilities. to reach over 4.8 million people in the six North-East States. Provision is made for additional water facilities, as well as water and Institutional support and capacity development aims at facilitating sanitation infrastructure in public places in directly affected commu- the transition from the relief response to a State-led and development nities and in under-served communities hosting IDPs over a long oriented response. Institutional support in the form of technical as- period. The total cost is US$ 46.52 million and an additional 1.49 sistance for improved planning, design, implementation, monitoring million people benefit from access to improved water sources from and management of water and sanitation infrastructure is extremely the above interventions in addition to access to WASH in public important to State Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) places. The costs for sanitation infrastructure only covers the costs of the 6 states, including at the LGA levels in the three most affected of provision of sanitation facilities in public places (motor parks, states to ensure the investments are judiciously made and adequately market places, places of worship, recreation centres, etc.) Sanitation maintained for long term sustainability. This will also include capac- infrastructure does not include provision of household toilets, as it is ity building and optimization of existing organization structures. . already costed under the housing needs assessment. Similarly it does One-time capital support is envisaged to MDAs and affected LGA 84 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES (including those hosting IDPs) to procure vehicles, tools & equip- egy will gradually move from stabilisation phase through early and ment, to improve ICT, and to beef-up office infrastructure. Resources medium term recovery and thereby transit from emergency to medi- for operational expenses, including fuelling of vehicles, purchase of um-term development leading to the eventual attainment of SDG-6 chemicals, operation and maintenance of equipment and facilities, is targets in 2030. The recovery strategy will comprise the following key also foreseen over a four-year period. The total cost for institutional elements: (i) provision of immediate relief through Repairs, Rehabil- support and capacity development is estimated at US$ 33.90 million. itation and Replacement (RRR) of partially and completely damaged Technical assistance would be also provided in two keys areas: WASH Infrastructure; (ii) bridging of infrastructure needs in affected • for designing and implementing sustainable management systems communities and addressing infrastructure deficits in communities and sustainable cost recovery mechanisms for water supply and hosting IDPs; (iii) building back better and smarter by ensuring that sanitation facilities; most appropriate and adaptive technology options are used and built • for developing faecal sludge management systems in urban areas. to standard; (iv) comprising a mix of hardware and software inter- ventions to address the water and sanitation infrastructure deficits as Overall water sector needs is estimated at US$ 171.85 million, bene- well as the prevailing poor sanitation and hygiene practices among the fiting nearly 2.9 million people with access to improved water sourc- affected population; and (v) institutional and systems development es, and another 4.8 million people benefiting from sanitation and support for service sustainability. hygiene promotion, in addition to the access to water and sanitation infrastructure in public places and public buildings. Borno State has a 4.12 Needs and Cross-cutting Issues share of 67 percent of the estimated total cost followed by Adamawa For recovery and peace building outcomes in the infrastructure and State at 15 percent, and Yobe State at 10 percent. The remaining 8 social service development in the North-East, it is critical to main- percent of the total estimated cost is shared between the remaining stream the capacities, needs and priorities of women, men, boys and three states – Bauchi, Gombe and Taraba. girls into RPBA recovery strategies. Also key is that RPBA implemen- The overall recovery strategy will involve structured and staged in- tation mechanisms must be designed to ensure equal participation terventions in areas of return, (both communities and public places, of men, women, boys, girls and people living with disabilities, and excluding schools and health facilities) as well as addressing the infra- reporting mechanisms need to be structured to allow for regular feed- structure need amongst populations hosting IDPs. The recovery strat- back on how the interventions are working. TABLE 2.35 Water and sanitation sector needs by type (US$) Borno Yobe Adamawa Gombe Taraba Bauchi Total Water infrastructure in communities, Capital 35,580,479 3,691,800 7,575,379 165,000 345,000 47,357,658 institutions and public buildings Sanitation infrastructure in institutions Capital 9,166,700 1,512,150 3,978,563 165,000 345,000 15,167,413 and public buildings Water infrastructure for host communities & provision for IDP Capital 29,131,787 2,732,463 3,402,994 337,813 645,063 965,950 37,216,070 return areas Costs for water & sanitation Capital 7,282,947 683,116 850,748 84,453 161,266 241,488 9,304,018 infrastructure in public places Sanitation & Hygiene Promotion in Capacity IDP return areas, host communities and 24,061,148 1,492,440 1,782,870 203,543 676,298 691,058 28,907,357 Building Institutions Total cost of damages to institutional Recurrent 10,100,000 7,100,000 8,300,000 2,000,000 3,200,000 3,200,000 33,900,000 sanitation infrastructure Total 115,323,061 17,211,969 25,890,554 2,955,809 4,682,627 5,788,496 171,852,516 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 85 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA To summarise how the cross-cutting issues of gender, youth, human security, providing water and sanitation facilities, and tackling sexu- rights and mines were considered by component sectors, they are al harassment with policies, teacher training, and by raising student examined under the heading of physical sectors, social sectors, and awareness. Information and education communications materials productive sectors. under sectors including health and nutrition, water and sanitation, social protection, and mine risk education will consider gender and Physical sectors covered are energy, environment (including solid youth perspectives in their design and use. /// waste management and debris), information and communications technology (ICT) and transport. Receding Lake Chad, severe de- /// There is a need to emphasize the urgency of training artisans, espe- forestation, and lowering water table are often cited as some of the cially within the youth from the region, to provide a critical mass of drivers of the present conflict. In a post-conflict situation, youth can skilled labour force to carry out the needed reconstruction exercise. be engaged as green brigades in large-scale tree planting (similar to Training youth in building and construction skills and deploying the green wall project in the North-West), of rapidly growing trees them to ‘build back better’ houses and infrastructure will also give for firewood and to erect/check dams to store the runoff. Production them and the community a notion of ownership, as well providing of energy efficient clean cooking stoves by young entrepreneurs and them with marketable skills, which could in turn provide income their wide use can reduce the use of firewood, and reduce the time and dignity. women need to source firewood. In the absence of reliable grid con- The North-East States have among the lowest school enrolment rates nection, youth can be trained in the assembly and installation of solar among girls in the world. This cannot be attributed to cultural factors lighting for houses and public lighting, and this will provide addi- alone. Revisiting the schooling system in the post-conflict environ- tional security for women and girls. The restoration of roads can also ment will be important. Making the school curricula relevant to job utilise the labour of young people, and restoring roads and transport opportunities, providing a mid-day meal at school, and having toilets links will support women to reach markets and basic service centres. and water in schools are some quick wins that should be attempted. Social sectors include education, health and nutrition, housing, /// Vocational training and training in skills to match the market de- public buildings, social protection, and water and sanitation. There /// mand are also useful, both in the short and medium term. are gender-specific differences in health relating to different biolog- While the 1999 Constitution and Land Tenure Systems (Land Act) ical constitutions. Women are more vulnerable to vitamin and iron provide for men and women’s ownership of land and property, in deficiencies and thus malnutrition, while they tend to sacrifice their practice, prevailing practices, attitudes, religious and cultural norms, own food intake to provide food for their households. Health and prevent equal access to and control over land, housing, and prop- nutrition sector interventions take into consideration the specific erty by women. Women tend to face constraints accessing land as needs of men and woman, also focusing on the needs of pregnant and in many situations access is mediated through the men according to lactating women. The design and distribution of food assistance and gender social norms. Provision of housing aids and low credit rates for any non- food items must ensure access for women and girls. More women will enhance women’s capacity to own property and address female health care workers need to be trained as some women in the restrictions in accessing housing credit. There is a possibility for more region are culturally and religiously constrained from being cared for conflict around ownership when IDPs return to claim land and prop- by male attendants. Health facilities should include services that ad- erty, and pre-existing structures and cultural context will disadvantage dress the psycho-social and mental health of women, men, boys and women. Recovery plans should include mechanisms to ensure equali- girls with gender sensitive counselling services and medical employees ty and equity in property restitution to returnees and IDPs, which are must be trained to protect the confidentiality of female patients, par- not dependent solely on existing titles. ticularly around access to reproductive health options and treatment of SGBV injuries. Productive sectors include agriculture and private enterprise /// /// Education response strategies will address the pre-existing reasons for The breakdown of infrastructure, markets and services complicates low enrolment of girls and high drop-out rates as well as enhancing daily life, and endangers and impoverishes lives. Access to credit and 86 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES TABLE 2.36 Provisions for Community Infrastructure and Non Formal Services by State (in US$) Adamawa Borno Yobe Gombe Taraba Bauchi Total Education 8,298,680 51,360,649 7,710,512 683,839 1,736,789 2,347,327 72,137,794 Health and Nutrition 5,063,640 48,169,040 8,616,800 404,760 1,274,480 2,928,600 66,457,320 Public Buildings 4,033,959 29,585,140 2,271,244 267,168 582,533 669,422 37,409,466 Transport 7,453,100 33,752,267 12,671,165 3,700,190 57,576,722 Water and Sanitation 2,589,055 11,532,306 1,721,197 295,581 468,263 578,850 17,185,252 Total 27,438,433 174,399,402 32,990,918 5,351,538 4,062,064 6,524,199 250,766,554 agricultural inputs is limited and this will remain a problem after the traders. The contingency is estimated as a ten percent premium over conflict ends. Without access to resources, women are economically the above-mentioned sectors. The total needs to cater for community dependent on their husbands or relatives, and thus made more vulner- infrastructure and non-formal services is US$ 250.8 million, whereof able, by death, divorce, desertion or separation. Reparations for loss Bono takes the largest share with US$ 174.4 million (see Table 2.36). of property must take into consideration that women are historically impoverished and disadvantaged (owning only 4 percent of the land in the North-East) and must be included when resources are being disbursed regardless of past ownership history. Support for the CSOs working to improve women’s financial inclusion and literacy will help more women access existing credit facilities for agriculture and build capacity in managing finances. Gender considerations will also be key in the design of private enterprise and livelihood interventions. Many youth in the North-East fall under the Not in Education, Employment or Training (NEET) category. Sectors including ag- riculture, private enterprise, environment and housing will look to provide cash for work opportunities to young people. Community Infrastructure and Non-Formal Services /// /// Community infrastructure and non-formal services are important for local communities, but yet challenging to make exact estimation of needs. Therefore a contingency has been added to cater for com- munity infrastructure and non-formal services, which is particularly relevant for the education, health and nutrition, public buildings, transport, water and sanitation sectors. This accounts for example for non-formal or traditional education and schools as well as locally managed community infrastructure, such as community centres or local pathways, which are not yet specified in the assessment. It also accounts for a security premium, which for example relates to higher costs for construction material due to security premiums charged by VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 87 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 5.Implementation Strategies and Education and State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB – the State-level arm of UBEC) are the main actors, in collaboration with Institutional Arrangements the State Emergency Management Agency (SEMA – the State-level arm of NEMA). 5.1 Agriculture Experience in restoring education services in conflict-affected areas The proposed recovery interventions for the RPBA are closely in show that community level empowerment and engagement is critical- line with the Government’s agricultural policy framework. The de- ly important. It will be of paramount importance to ensure sufficient clared aims of Nigeria’s national agricultural policy are to: (i) attain community involvement in any reconstruction and rehabilitation food security; (ii) increase production and productivity; (iii) generate effort. In Nigeria, the suitable institution exists by law and often in employment and income; and (iv) expand exports and reduce food practice: the school-based management committee (SBMC). These imports, thereby freeing resources for critical infrastructure develop- committees include members of school staff, parents of children, as ment and delivery of social services. The last Government’s Agricul- well as community figures, and are as such very well suited to spear- ture Transformation Action Plan (ATAP) launched in August 2011 head the reconstruction and recovery effort. Given the prevalence of sought to develop the value chain of five key commodities, i.e. rice, IDPs in certain settings, SBMCs should include representation from cassava, sorghum, cacao and cotton. This entails reforming the input the IDPs population to ensure that the needs of IDPs children as well supply regime, a targeted region-specific increase in the output of as host community children are addressed. the five priority commodities, post-harvest systems development, a strong orientation towards agri-business and promoting value-addi- 5.3 Energy tion in the product chain. The impact of ATAP has not yet been Effective energy sector recovery is expected to constitute a complex evaluated, as effective implementation did not start until late 2012. mix of public sector–led implementation and regulation and facilita- Other elements of policy that could be helpful in revamping the ag- tion of private sector recovery interventions. The government struc- ricultural economy of the North-East include: (i) greater collabora- ture responsible for coordinating recovery efforts in the North-East tion among Federal Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDAs) will need to significantly reinforce its staff, skills and capacity, to co- involved in agriculture, global development partners, private sector ordinate across public and private sector recovery. It will have to work donors, NGOs and CBOs, in interventions such as the Growth En- in close cooperation with Yola Distribution, Jos Distribution, Trans- hancement Support Scheme (GESS), Agricultural Mechanization mission Company of Nigeria, affected states and Local Governments. Program, and Staple Crops Processing Zones; and (ii) attracting in- vestors into products such as rice, maize, cotton, groundnut, millet, 5.4 Environment wheat, sorghum, sugarcane, onions, and cassava in which the region Ecological Assets: It is recommended that recovery implementation ** ** has comparative advantage. for ecological assets are coordinated with the Ministry of Environ- ment across Federal, State and Local levels. To promote ownership 5.2 Education and active involvement, it is important that local communities be involved in discussions and decision making on key issues, and be In order for the reconstruction and recovery of the education sector provided with job opportunities through environmental rehabilita- to occur as efficiently as possible, a concerted effort across Federal, tion work to whatever extent possible (such as reforestation projects, State and Local Government actors will be necessary. At the Federal waste clean-up operations, etc.). level, the Ministry of Education and the UBEC (which is responsible for basic education) are key. Other actors at the Federal level include Solid Waste Management: This is best implemented through the for- ** ** NEMA, which has been instrumental in responding to IDPs needs mulation of state-specific strategic solid waste management plans to to date, as well as the Presidential Committee for the North-East clarify the most cost-effective approach of dealing with the changing (PCNI), whose role is to coordinate interventions in the North-East population and consumption patterns. These should be made by the across the different sectors. At the State level, the State Ministry of relevant environmental authorities, usually referred to as Environ- 88 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES mental Protection Agencies (EPA), in consultation with a number of The bulk of Public Health financing is allocated from Federal ac- industry and private sector partners. They will cover strategic aspects counts to States and LGAs, with some additional VAT and local tax of the recovery, and will ensure that a standardised approach will be based revenue. Attracting and retaining qualified personnel is a major used throughout each state. They will also define very specific insti- problem. Benefit packages and salary adjustments assume availability tutional actors, who are not yet defined in the North-East, to be re- of skilled workers. Training will be necessary to deal with identified sponsible for implementation of each of the different aspects of those shortages. State-based institutions could develop fast-track training plans. In particular, collection, safety and processing protocols can be with pilot implementation. Improving the functionality and account- set within these documents, as well as selection criteria for contrac- ability of LGAs is crucial. tors, partners and livelihood beneficiaries. These strategies will also Proposed indicators include: (i) percentage LGAs with operational enable the State as a whole to benefit from economies of scale through public health teams; (ii) percentage of wards with functioning PHC the implementation of multi-LGA improvement projects and sharing centre; (iii) number and skill mix of health workers per facility and of larger assets such as disposal facilities. per 10,000 inhabitants; (iv) total number of consultations per facility Debris Management and ERW: Similarly to the waste management ** ** by age and gender and user rates by target group; (v) percentage of situation, each state needs to have its own debris management plan total (expected) deliveries with skilled birth attendance; (vi) percent- to determine the exact institutions involved and their particular tasks. age of children aged 12-23 months fully vaccinated according to EPI This management plan will also need to include the specific interac- schedule; (vii) percentage of children started on treatment for SAM tion with the army and the police, in particular during cases of ERW who successfully completed treatment (cured); (viii) HIV patients on management, but also if there is the potential to support efforts logis- treatment (number and proportion of HIV+ diagnosed persons); and tically through specialised equipment for debris management. (ix) number of insecticide-treated bed-nets distributed and house- hold usage. 5.5 Health and Nutrition Longer term reforms should be aligned with the Nigerian health strat- Planning for recovery needs to be at the three levels of governance egy. Strengthening overall management and medical supply manage- reflected in the Nigeria health care system: Federal, State and Local ment are long term objectives, as is coordination within and among Government. The State Primary Health Care Development Agency governance tiers. Human resource needs planning and training is an (SPHCDA) coordinates and facilitates PHC service provision in the unmet requirement. Financial protection of vulnerable users will con- states, and handles procurement and distribution of recurrent sup- tribute to increases in service use. An upward accountability mecha- plies. The LGA PHC department is responsible for disease surveil- nism is advisable. lance and reporting, supervision, collation of health management information, and relations with the traditional structures and com- 5.6 Housing munity members. The State Health Management board is responsible The regional diversity in terms of social and economic vulnerability for secondary care. Tertiary specialist hospitals are governed by the of affected families, capacity of government and non-government or- FMOH which also oversees line-funded programs on AIDS, tuber- ganizations, institutional constraints to attract private sectors in the culosis and malaria. All three tiers administer the Expanded Program reconstruction process, and varying social customs and preference for on Immunisation. type of housing require multiple and parallel reconstruction respons- Where humanitarian needs are urgent, platforms including all stake- es. Since nearly 95 percent of the damage has occurred in the Borno holders can enhance coordination, with military logistic support. The State, the institutional capacity of the State Government and Local FMOH and States determine the role of not-for-profit private actors. Government agencies should be assessed, and the housing recovery Secondary facilities can act as a managerial hub for temporary and strategy and investment plan should be structured and phased accord- mobile PHC services. PHC services include the broad set of health, ingly. Considering the institutional issues and security concerns, it is nutrition and HIV services. desirable to stagger the implementation plan temporally and spatially. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 89 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Efforts to respond to the reconstruction and repair of nearly 431,842 gram without financial participation of multi-lateral institutions and housing units damaged during the conflict should be guided by the partnerships with Federal and State Governments. rehabilitation and reconstruction policy announced by the Govern- ment of Nigeria. The Government can finance housing reconstruc- 5.7 Information and Communication Technology tion through the transfer of a cash grant of Naira 700,000 (US$ The availability and affordability of high-quality telecom services, in- 3500) for fully damaged and Naira 200,000 (US$ 1000) for a partly cluding broadband and mobile phone, is seen as a necessary precon- damaged house. After the detailed field level damage assessments, the dition for economic development, job creation, recovery and peace cash grant could be differentiated between urban housing and rural building. The telecommunications infrastructure forms the baseline housing, and could be structured as part of operational guidelines and from which innovative digital applications and local IT industry can gazetted. The program would transfer the cash grant to the selected be developed. household in instalment, based on the physical progress of recon- struction. The 2003 Nigerian Telecommunications Act vests regulatory re- sponsibilities over the ICT sector in the Nigerian Communications Experience from reconstruction efforts from previous conflict re- Commission (NCC). To develop the telecommunications sector of construction in other countries and consultations with civil society North-East States, the Government may consider the following in- suggest that the following core principles are key to a successful im- terventions: plementation of housing recovery strategy: comprehensiveness, inclu- • Strengthening the enabling environment: A supportive policy and siveness, participatory, transparency and sustainability. regulatory environment is necessary to provide relief and incentives Considering the large size of the housing recovery needs and inad- to the private sector to invest in telecommunications infrastructure equate institutional capacity of States to design and implement the in North-East and conflict-affected states. Legislation may be con- program, it is desirable to phase the needs based on LGA level impacts sidered for protecting critical infrastructure. The use of Universal and social needs. For practical purposes, it would be desirable to de- Service Provision Fund (USPF) and output-based aid (OBA) may sign the housing reconstruction projects in two stages: (i) Phase 1 for help address the access gap for telecom services in remote and rural 25 percent of the total needs targeting the most vulnerable families parts of the North-East States. Building policymaking and regula- and critical housing needs during 2016-2020 periods; and (ii) Phase 2 tory capacity at the Federal and State levels would be important in for an additional 25 percent of the housing target for Borno depend- strengthening the enabling environment. ing on the Phase 1 progress and improvements in security conditions • Developing telecommunications infrastructure: consider support- in the state. The program can start in those LGAs that are free from ing the refurbishment and modernization of telecom infrastructure conflict and where security and safety of citizens are ensured. in North-East States, in partnership with the private sector. The development of telecom backbones (such as with fibre networks The Phase 1 of the operational plan would target nearly 107,960 or microwaves) can help provide high-speed internet to commu- damaged units. Based on the success and security situations, the re- nities in North-East States and to link the under-developed areas covery operational program could be rolled over. The Borno State with major metropolitan centres of the country. The development Government has taken the first step of forming a separate Ministry and use of internet exchange points (IXPs) can help aggregate and of Reconstruction and the Ministry could be empowered to detail route internet traffic, improving efficiency and availability of in- out the operational plans compatible with its capacity. The opera- ternet services. Greater adoption and use of mobile phones and tional cost for Phase 2 is not detailed, but it could be another Naira internet can support economic and social development in the 800 billion (US$ 400 million) for the Phase 2 housing reconstruc- North-East States. tion project. Further research and analytical work will be necessary to build on The estimated cost of rehabilitating and reconstructing damaged the work done as part of this report and to conduct a more thorough houses is large and it would be difficult to finance the recovery pro- investigation in order to refine and design possible interventions. 90 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES 5.8 Public Buildings eligibility criteria, defining who is eligible and who is not. A critical component in ensuring effective targeting and delivery is the use of a As the capacity of the various public works departments to design unique identifier to enable various programs to map and assess over- and implement reconstruction of damaged buildings is limited, it lap of coverage; therefore, efforts to set-up a social protection system is assumed that State Governments would establish a project, i.e. a should be accompanied by initiatives to extend the provision and cov- North-East Reconstruction Project (NERP), and tender construc- erage of unique identifiers, such as the National ID card. tion projects to competent companies. Under this project, the gov- ernments could appoint project management consultants (PMC) to The institutional arrangements for implementation of the sectoral re- prepare request for proposals (RFP), tender documents, technical covery strategy for social protection are recommended to be linked to specifications of the various reconstruction projects based on ‘build the delivery unit under the Vice President’s office, which will be set back better’ principles, evaluate technical and financial proposals, and up in line with the launch of the Federal Social Protection Program. recommend competent companies to the Government for awarding The forthcoming social protection delivery unit will be responsible contracts. Depending upon the program management structures ac- for the implementation of the schemes under the Federal umbrella cepted by the Government and partner organizations, the structure program. The recommendations on expanding the cash transfer and and form of the program management would be revised. integrating IDPs into the procurement of the national supplementa- ry feeding program are additions to the forthcoming programs, and Implementation of a public building recovery strategy would be should therefore be embedded within the delivery unit’s directive pol- undertaken at two stages. First, the government would formulate a icy making. Moreover, all programs should aim to work towards the policy to establish NERP and PMC for program management and objectives specified in the National Social Protection Policy, which is accept basic ‘build back better’ principles to ensure that repaired and hosted by the National Planning Commission, and currently in the reconstructed public buildings would meet high technical standards. process of verification and adoption. Such an integration and stream- Second, since the primary objective is to reinstate the local adminis- lining of policies will help to minimise overlap and foster cooperation. tration and security systems, the recovery strategy should aim to re- pair all damaged local government and ministry buildings and police Concerns regarding service delivery and the availability of essential stations during the first two years, and continue the reconstruction of infrastructure, including health and education services, as well as fi- fully damaged buildings in phases. During the stabilisation stage, the nancial services such as banking for the poor, are key challenges to program would establish the institutional structure for implementing the implementation of the identified recommendations, and even the program by setting up NERP and PMC, and preparing opera- for longer term development of the social protection system in the tions manuals for efficient program management. country. The division of roles and responsibilities among the Federal, State and Local levels entails that services at the LGA level are provid- 5.9 Social Protection ed with logistical support from the State Government. This division Given the lack of institutionalised targeting and delivery mechanisms, of responsibilities means that the local governments, the government and the time required to set-up such mechanisms, it is recommend- tier with the least financial and human resources is in charge of estab- ed that the social protection interventions be targeted geographically. lishing and providing basic services. While social protection policies Priority should be given to areas with a high number and density focus on reducing demand-side barriers, there is an urgent need for of IDPs, ensuring that first and foremost crisis-affected households improvements on the supply-side, and strengthening the LGAs de- and individuals are targeted. Keeping in mind the particularly high livery capacity, to enable beneficiaries to utilise their benefits, such as poverty incidence for household in rural areas can help to effectively health insurances. target the programs. Categorical targeting is also recommended as the analysis has shown that specific groups of households, such as house- 5.10 Transport holds with children, elderly and other households with limited labour The recovery strategy of the transport sector requires involvement of capacity, tend to be poorer in terms of extent and depth of poverty. the Ministry of Transport at all levels, as Local, State, and Federal Another crucial feature in designing the targeting mechanism is clear roads have all been affected by the crisis. The process of full transport VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 91 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA sector reconstruction will not be quick, and thus requires prioritisa- have been established in many States for coordinating and monitor- tion. Major roads should be dealt with first, with local roads to follow. ing all activities in the rural sub-sector. Institutional and systems de- Any towns or villages that are cut off should have temporary access velopment support for these institutions would be key for service sus- reconstructed for them. While the departments of roads and bridges tainability and preparing the transition towards future development of various State Governments can initiate the rehabilitation works lead by the respective states. during the stabilisation phase, it is important to set up a dedicat- ed institution to design and implement reconstruction of roads and bridges. 5.11 Water and Sanitation The overall recovery strategy will involve a structured and staged in- terventions in areas of return, (both communities and public places, excluding schools and health facilities as these are covered in their re- spective sectors) as well as addressing the infrastructure need amongst populations hosting IDPs. The recovery strategy will gradually move from stabilization phase through early and medium term recovery and thereby transit from emergency to medium-term development leading to the eventual attainment of SDG-6 targets in 2030. The re- covery strategy will comprise the following key elements: (i) provision of immediate relief through Repairs, Reconstruction and rehabilita- tion of partially and completely damaged WASH Infrastructure; (ii) bridging of infrastructure needs in affected communities and address- ing infrastructure deficits in communities hosting IDPs; (iii) build- ing back better and smarter by ensuring that most appropriate and adaptive technology options are used and built to standard; (iv) com- prising a mix of hardware and software interventions to address the water and sanitation infrastructure deficits as well as the prevailing poor sanitation and hygiene practices among the affected population. Sector responsibilities are shared among tiers of Governments. Insti- tutions and the key institutional players, at state level are: State Min- istry of Water Resources (stand alone or combined with other sectors e.g. Rural Development) is responsible for formulating and monitor- ing policies and planning for water services across the State; Urban State Water Agencies (USWA) are responsible for establishment, op- eration, quality control, and maintenance of urban and semi-urban water supply; Local Governments are responsible for the establish- ment, operation and maintenance of rural water supply schemes and sanitation facilities in conjunction with the benefiting communities and for establishing Water and Sanitation Departments to coordinate and support WASH activities; and Rural and Small Town Water Sup- ply and Sanitation agencies in some states(RUWASSA and STWSSA) 92 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES 6. Infrastructure and Social Services – Recovery Framework Below is the consolidated Recovery Framework for the Infrastructure and Social Services Component, which combines individual sector frameworks into a cohesive whole. This provides the baseline con- ditions, performance indicators and implementation sequencing of various sectors at the level of individual interventions. This could prove to a useful tool for future intra- and inter-sectoral prioritisation and sequencing of recovery needs, as well for monitoring, evaluation, and subsequent readjustments and course corrections to the recovery program. Baseline Indicators Stabilisation Recovery Responsibility for Needs Present State (Dec 15) for Stabilisation & Recovery Years 1-2 Years 3-4 Implementation Subcomponent 1: Agriculture and Irrigation Reconstruction or rehabilitation of - 60-100% destroyed by the - % of Agriculture -40% -60% Federal/State Government/ Agriculture and Irrigation facilities crisis and Irrigation Facilities Development Partners/ reconstructed other stake holders Strengthening Agriculture and - Significant reduction in - % of farmers/IDPs with -60% -40% Federal/State Government/ Irrigation Related Services Value human mobility thus limiting access to agricultural inputs Development Partners/ Chains for increased food security access to extension services and and extension services other stake holders and agricultural productivity productive inputs/assets Food Assistance Federal/State Government/ Development Partners/ (i) General food assistance for - Borno 600,000, Yobe 200,000, - % of IDPs and host -86% -14% other stake holders populations in emergency and Adamawa 41,000 community population in famine phases of food insecurity food insecurity provided food (ii) Supplementary food assistance - Borno 420,000, Yobe 201,000, - % of most vulnerable -86% -14% for most vulnerable for 4 months Adamawa 123,000 provided supplementary food (iii) Short term food assistance (for - Bauchi 70,000, Gombe - % of IDPs and host -89% -11% 6 months) for less directly affected 30,000, Taraba 50,000 community populations in states food insecurity provided food during the lean period (March-August) VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 93 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Baseline Indicators Stabilisation Recovery Responsibility for Needs Present State (Dec 15) for Stabilisation & Recovery Years 1-2 Years 3-4 Implementation Subcomponent 2: Education – Reconstruct/rehabilitate education facilities in six Focus states Complete assessment of facilities Survey completed with precise 100% Complete assessment of damaged in six Focus States estimates of rehabilitation/ facilities damaged in six Focus reconstruction needs (building, States furniture, equipment, learning materials, textbooks) Reconstruction or rehabilitation, % of facilities rehabilitated, 30% 70% Reconstruction or refurbishment and re-equipping of reconstructed, re-equipped rehabilitation, refurbishment educational facilities and re-equipping of educational facilities Support service delivery Establishment of temporary learning Number of temporary 100% State Universal Basic space during reconstruction learning spaces established Education Board Compensation to teachers of IDP Number of teachers of IDPs 50% 50% students/ hardship allowances for students; number of teachers teachers returning to conflict- returning to teaching affected areas Cash transfer/scholarship to address 0 Number of boys/girls who 50% 50% State Universal Basic financial barriers to enrolment receive cash transfer/scholarship Education Board Provide psycho-social support to Percent of affected children 100% State Universal Basic affected children who receive support Education Board Capacity development Train in psycho-social support and 0 Percent of teachers/ head 100% State Universal Basic peace building to teachers and head teachers trained Education Board teachers to support children and parents affected by the conflict Develop capacity of SBMCs, e.g. to 0 Percent of SBMCs that 50% 50% State Universal Basic conduct enrolment drives, monitor conduct enrolment drive and Education Board enrolment monitor enrolment Subcomponent 3: Energy Energy delivered in the six states Not available GWh/year 450 500 Electricity consumption per capita Not available kWh per capita 40 50 Reconstruction of distribution 28% destroyed Number of substations 60% 40% substations Reconstruction of distribution lines 29% destroyed km of lines rehabilitated 60% 40% Yola and Jos Disco State Governments Reconstruction of transmission 16 substations destroyed Number of substations 60% 40% TCN substations FGN State Governments Reconstruction of transmission lines 257 km of lines destroyed km of lines rehabilitated 60% 40% TCN FGN State Governments 94 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES Baseline Indicators Stabilisation Recovery Responsibility for Needs Present State (Dec 15) for Stabilisation & Recovery Years 1-2 Years 3-4 Implementation Subcomponent 4: Environment Reduce Risks Related to Explosive N/A Hectare handed over as safe to 100% TBD – Army not capable Remnants of War the local government according to humanitarian Information on suspicious mine action standards. items correctly reported by affected population (behaviour change indicator) Formulate debris management plans - No institutional framework No. of debris management 100% State Environmental for each of the conflict affected States for the management of debris plans formulated and adopted Protection Agency (EPA) by State Governments to frame the management of debris in their jurisdiction Clear Debris from Areas where it - 290,000 fully destroyed Number of Structures 100% To be defined by State Level Hampers Access or Reconstruction housing units, 135,000 partially cleared of debris, ready for Debris Management Plan. damaged housing units reconstruction Most likely State level EPA, potentially the Army in logistical support. Remove debris aggregations from Up to 7.3 million m3 of debris M3 of debris removed from 100% As defined by debris areas of human settlement generated from damage to the areas of human settlement management plans above, housing sector most likely EPA. Recycle, reuse, or reprocess as much Not quantifiable, some informal M3 of debris diverted from 50% 50% EPA, private sector debris as possible, especially through sector recovery occurring, as well the disposal route through sustainable SMEs as direct reuse on site reuse or processing for recycling Safe disposal of unusable debris Current disposal sites are Number of livelihoods 100% EPA unmanaged and uncontrolled supported in the process of recycling and % of disposed debris which is disposed in a safe site, as described by International Solid Waste Association (ISWA) standards. Formulation of State wide solid No waste management strategy Number of states with a 100% EPA waste management plans available at the State level formulated and adopted SWM management plan Replacement of lost SWM 15 vehicles destroyed and 8 Number of vehicles replaced 100% EPA infrastructure damaged directly by the conflict Provision of SWM collection service 2 million people displaced, Number of people with 100% EPA to displaced populations a large majority not received regular (once a week min.) SWM collection waste collection service within 100m of their home (according to international standards) Reinforcement of existing waste Unquantified number of SMEs Number of livelihoods created 50% 50% EPA management and resource recovery informally supporting municipal within the SWM and DM livelihood sector SWM system through resource resource recovery sector recovery activities VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 95 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Baseline Indicators Stabilisation Recovery Responsibility for Needs Present State (Dec 15) for Stabilisation & Recovery Years 1-2 Years 3-4 Implementation Subcomponent 5: Health and Nutrition Reconstruction or rehabilitation of PHC facilities damaged by State % of PHC facilities PHC facilities reconstructed/ rehabilitated Adamawa 7% Adamawa 32% Adamawa 75% Bauchi 27% Bauchi 18% Bauchi 41% Borno 46% Borno 17% Borno 70 Gombe 1% Gombe 100% Gombe 100% Taraba 3% Taraba 48% Taraba 100% Yobe 46% Yobe 27% Yobe 93% Reconstruction or rehabilitation Hospitals damaged % of secondary hospitals Adamawa 33% Adamawa 100% of referral facilities (secondary reconstructed/ rehabilitated hospitals) by State Bauchi 67% Bauchi 100% Adamawa 33% Borno 40% Borno 100% Bauchi 14% Gombe Gombe Borno 21% Taraba Taraba Yobe 25% Yobe 100% Yobe 100% Increased availability and utilisation Skilled deliveries per state % of deliveries attended by of essential services: Deliveries skilled personnel attended by skilled personnel Adamawa 38% Adamawa 50% Adamawa 65% Bauchi 26% Bauchi 45% Bauchi 60% Borno 29% Borno 45% Borno 60% Gombe 47% Gombe 60% Gombe 70% Taraba 33% Taraba 45% Taraba 60% Yobe 9% Yobe 20% Yobe 40% Increased availability and utilisation Coverage of DPT3/Penta3 % children of 23 months of essential services, particularly or below immunised with provided through non-permanent Adamawa 45% DPT3/Penta3 Adamawa 60% Adamawa 80% structures: Coverage of DPT3/ Penta3 Bauchi 15% Bauchi 50% Bauchi 70% Borno 32% Borno 50% Borno 70% Gombe 24% Gombe 45% Gombe 75% Taraba 26% Taraba 55% Taraba 80% Yobe 8% Yobe 25% Yobe 50% 96 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES Baseline Indicators Stabilisation Recovery Responsibility for Needs Present State (Dec 15) for Stabilisation & Recovery Years 1-2 Years 3-4 Implementation Restoration of health system None of the CHEWs has been % of facilities with CHEW 20% 60% functions trained in the provision of the trained for the essential essential package package of service Restoration of governance and None of the LGA/States has an % of LGA with operational 10% 40% resilience functions restored operational EWARs Early Warning & Response System Risk mitigation initiated No activities of awareness % of LGA with budgeted 20% 70% plan for awareness campaigns Subcomponent 6: Housing Rehabilitation (Repair) and 431,842 of the housing stock 25% Percentage of Total 25% of the Operation 100% of the Fully Establish a North-East Reconstruction of Damaged Houses damaged during crisis Damaged Houses (107,960 Plan Target Fully and Partly Damaged Housing Reconstruction units) Repaired and Damaged Units and Targeted Units Project Unit /State Reconstructed in Damaged 75% of Partially Reconstructed. Governments/ Ministry Affected LGAs as part of Damaged Units of Reconciliation, Operation Plan Phase 2 of the Rehabilitation and operational plan for Reconstruction 107,960 units kick starts based on the Phase 1 progress and conflict situations (US$ 400 Million) Establishing Mechanism Establish North-East Housing Open Bank Accounts by Publish the List of Establish Material Establish a North-East to Implement the Housing Reconstruction Project/ Beneficiaries and Share at Beneficiaries based on Coordination Teams to Housing Reconstruction Reconstruction Program through Gazette Operations Guidelines least 10% of the cost in cash detailed assessments Ensure Easy Access to Project/ State Governments/ Home Owner Driven Processes to Design and Implement and kind and Open Bank Building Materials by Lead Commercial Banks Home Owner Driven Housing Accounts by 100% People /Lead Micro Credit Recovery Program Beneficiaries Institutions/ Chamber of Commerce Establishing a Community Based Establish LGA Level Beneficiary Establish Village Establish Beneficiary Quarterly Auditing/ Establish a North-East Grievance Redress Mechanism Identification and Grievance Rehabilitation Committees to Auditing and Technical Supporting up Housing Reconstruction Redress Mechanism Monitor Housing Assistance Auditing Teams Uncompleted Housing Project/ State Housing Delivery Mechanism Units to Complete Ministry Subcomponent 7: Information and Communication Technology Refurbishing damaged infrastructure Approximately 480 base stations Number of repaired base 60% 100% Relevant Ministry at State for mobile phone base stations and damaged across six states stations and towers and Federal Level; private towers sector entities such as: MTN, Glo, Airtel, Etisalat Subcomponent 8: Public Buildings Repair and retrofit partially damaged 706 public buildings are All partly damaged public All partly damaged Remaining partly Public Works Departments/ public buildings damaged; buildings are repaired and local government (13) damaged building (19) State Governments made functional and ministry buildings are repaired and made 44 partly damaged (functional) (4), police stations/ functional; and require repair/retrofitting barrack (7) and election office (1) are repaired 100% of the partly and made functional; damaged public (57% of total partly buildings restored damaged buildings) VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 97 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Baseline Indicators Stabilisation Recovery Responsibility for Needs Present State (Dec 15) for Stabilisation & Recovery Years 1-2 Years 3-4 Implementation Reconstruct/rebuild fully damaged 662 public buildings are NERP established 25% of the total 100% of all fully Establish a North- public buildings completely destroyed (non- fully damaged local damaged public East Reconstruction functional) and need to be All fully damaged public government and buildings reconstructed Project (NERP)/ Project Establish North-East Reconstruction rebuilt buildings are reconstructed ministry buildings, and made functional Management Consultants Project to design and implement the and made functional police stations and (PMC)/ State Governments recovery program barracks are rebuilt and made functional Establish Project Management Policy decision to reconstruct Prepare RFPs/ Tender Prepare retrofitting 100% fully damaged Establish a North- Consultants (PMC) to prepare public building as per ‘build- Documents and Contract guidelines for public buildings East Reconstruction RFP, tender documents and project back-better’ principles Awards restoration of partly reconstructed Project (NERP)/ Project monitoring and quality controls damaged units. and completion Management Consultants certifications awarded (PMC)/ State Governments Award contracts for the reconstruction of 25% of the fully damaged buildings Subcomponent 9: Social Protection Expansion of coverage of Poverty incidence: 49.9% Output indicator: Number of 50% 50% forthcoming National Social Safety households covered; Nets Program, unconditional top-up Ratio of IDPs to non-IDP for first 2 years beneficiary households Outcome indicator: Poverty incidence and poverty gap; Household income/ expenditure Employment of IDPs in Output indicator: Number of 70% 30% procurement of forthcoming IDPs employed; national school feeding program Number of meals served; Number of public school children that received meals Public employment scheme Poverty incidence: 49.9% Output indicator: Number of 50% 50% households covered; Ratio of IDPs to non-IDPs beneficiary households Outcome indicator: Poverty incidence and poverty gap; Household income/ expenditure Old age and disability allowance Poverty incidence of households Output indicator: Coverage 50% 50% with older persons: 57.9% of older persons aged 65 years and above and PWDs, in terms of absolute numbers and share of total older persons/PWDs Outcome indicator: Poverty incidence and poverty gap 98 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES Baseline Indicators Stabilisation Recovery Responsibility for Needs Present State (Dec 15) for Stabilisation & Recovery Years 1-2 Years 3-4 Implementation Targeted subsidy of Community Immunisation of children under Output indicator: Number of 0% 100% Bases Social Health Insurance 5: 43.4% total individuals covered; Program for children under 5, Individuals covered as share lactating mothers, and pregnant of total population in the women North-East; Health expenditure per individual/ household; Child immunisation rates Capacity building Low institutional capacity to Output indicator: 100% 0% implement social protection Number of LGA-level schemes implementers receiving training Subcomponent 10: Transport Rehabilitate Federal roads 878 m2 of Federal road Square meter of rehabilitated 80% 100% Federal /State Ministry of damaged roads and bridges Transport Rehabilitate State infrastructure 3326 m2 of State/LGA road Square meter of rehabilitated 80% 100% Federal /State Ministry of (roads and bridges) damaged roads Transport 11262 m2 of bridges damaged Square meter of rehabilitated bridges Restore public transport Restored Public transport 60% 100% Federal /State Ministry of assets Transport; Public Transport Corporations of Borno and Yobe Subcomponent 11: Water and Sanitation Repair/Rehabilitation and Replacement (RRR) of Damaged WASH Infrastructure RRR of all damaged water facilities • Number of water points Ministry in charge of water, (hand pumps, motorised and solar restored Water Board, RUWASSA, powered) boreholes in communities • Number of schemes STWSSA, LGA WASH and of piped schemes in small towns rehabilitated Unit, WASHCOM and urban centres • Number of beneficiaries RRR of all damaged water facilities • Number of water points Ministry in charge of water, (hand pumps, motorised and solar restored Water Board, RUWASSA, powered) boreholes in public places STWSSA, LGA WASH (excluding schools and health Unit, WASHCOM facilities) Replacement of all damaged • Number of water points Ministry in charge of water, protected dug wells with hand pump restored RUWASSA, STWSSA, boreholes • Number of beneficiaries LGA WASH Unit, WASHCOM Replacement /Rehabilitation of • Number of water points Ministry in charge of water, damaged sanitation infrastructure in restored RUWASSA, STWSSA, public places (excluding schools and LGA WASH Unit, health facilities) WASHCOM VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 99 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA Baseline Indicators Stabilisation Recovery Responsibility for Needs Present State (Dec 15) for Stabilisation & Recovery Years 1-2 Years 3-4 Implementation Bridging of WASH Infrastructure need in affected communities and in under-served host population: Population in affected communities and in host communities in need of new water points to bridge the water supply infrastructure deficit within in addition to water and sanitation infrastructure deficits in public places Construction of new water facilities • Number of new water Ministry in charge of water, (hand pumps, motorised and solar points; Water Board, RUWASSA, powered boreholes) and network • Additional population STWSSA, LGA WASH extension in small towns and urban served by Piped schemes Unit, WASHCOM centres in affected areas as well as in • Number of beneficiaries select host communities Construction of new water facilities • Number of new water Ministry in charge of water, (hand pumps, motorised and solar points; Water Board, RUWASSA, powered boreholes) and sanitation • Number of new sanitation STWSSA, LGA WASH infrastructure in public places in the facilities Unit, WASHCOM affected areas as well as in select host communities Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion: People in affected areas as well as in host communities engage in high risk sanitation and hygiene practices Implementation of community led • Number of people in Ministry in charge of water, total sanitation approach in rural communities meeting RUWASSA, STWSSA, areas international standards LGA WASH Unit, WASHCOM Conduct of hygiene promotion • Number of people reached Ministry in charge of water, campaigns including distribution of with hygiene messages RUWASSA, STWSSA, IEC materials to the affected areas LGA WASH Unit, plus the host communities WASHCOM Formation and training of • Number of communities Ministry in charge of water, community based structures for with structures for hygiene RUWASSA, STWSSA, implementation and monitoring of and sanitation promotion LGA WASH Unit, sanitation and hygiene promotion WASHCOM activities Institutional and Systems Development support to local institutions at State and LGA levels: Weakened WASH institution at the State level with low capacity and near absence of WASH structures at the LGA level with resultant poor and stretched capacity for project planning, implementation, and coordination with limited funding for project and operational activities. Establishment / strengthening of • Number of States Federal/State Government Local institutions (MDAs) at the Institutions strengthened and ESAs (WB, EU, State and LGA level • Number of LGAs with UNICEF) WASH Units/Dept. established and operational Technical assistance for initial • Assessment report and Federal/State Government assessments, strategic planning capacity building plan and ESAs (WB, EU, and capacity building on project available UNICEF) management On time provision of equipment • Number of supplies Federal/State Government and logistics support (Vehicles, delivered and ESAs (WB, EU, office equipment, furniture, ICT UNICEF) infrastructure, etc.) Operational support for fuelling • % of functional WASH Federal/State Government of vehicles, purchase of chemicals, facilities and ESAs (WB, EU, working tools and office expendables UNICEF) Strengthening systems at community • Number of communities Ministry in charge of water, level for improved management of with active structures RUWASSA, STWSSA, water and sanitation facilities • Number of communities LGA WASH Unit, with water safety plans WASHCOM 100 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 2 : COMPONENT: INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIAL SERVICES Baseline Indicators Stabilisation Recovery Responsibility for Needs Present State (Dec 15) for Stabilisation & Recovery Years 1-2 Years 3-4 Implementation Community Infrastructure and Non-Formal Services Rehabilitation of Community Infrastructure and revival of non-formal services: Communities in affected areas have rebuilt their community infrastructure, while non-traditional services are reinstated by the communities. Construction of community • Number of community Federal and state level infrastructure (small pathways, infrastructure rebuilt and ministries responsible for cultural centres and meeting places) rehabilitated education, health, public in affected areas as well as in select buildings, transport, water host communities and sanitation Provision of non-formal services, • Number of non-formal Federal and state level such as non-formal and traditional services provided / reinstated ministries responsible for education and community health education, health and facilities nutrition, public buildings, transport, water and sanitation VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 101 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA CHAPTER 3 Component: Economic Recovery 1. Introduction macroeconomic trends for the North-East and the counterfactual mac- roeconomic trend (an average macroeconomic trends for the six states) for both pre-crisis and in-crisis periods. Subsequently, the averages of the 1.1 Role of Livelihoods and Economic Recovery differences for both periods are computed. Finally, the macroeconomic towards Recovery impact of the conflict is the difference between the average difference for The objectives of this chapter on Economic Recovery are twofold. First, post-crisis period and the average difference for the pre-crisis period (see it assesses the economic impacts of the Boko Haram related conflict on Annex 1 for detailed methodology). local macroeconomics (output, price and fiscal) on key sector activities (trade, finance, and private sector), and on people’s livelihoods, employ- The impact assessment of the conflict on trade, finance, and the private ment, and poverty. The assessment of impacts includes both quantitative sector will be quantitative where data is available, or else qualitative using and qualitative analyses. Second, the report will make recommendations anecdotal evidence collected through field visits to the six states or from that will facilitate short term economic stabilisation as well as assist State secondary sources. and Local Governments to sustain economic recovery in the medium term, together with the cost of proposed interventions and implemen- 1.4 Key Assumptions and Limitations tation arrangements. The recommendations will therefore focus on re- 37 Quantitative analysis is severely constrained by the limited availability building sustainable livelihood systems and strategies in order to recover and poor quality of statistics at the State and Local Government levels. from the current crisis situation, reducing the risks associated with subse- Macroeconomic statistics at the State and Local Government levels are quent conflicts. This second action-oriented part will support the Federal extremely scarce, often not available; and the existing data tends to be and Local Governments, civil society organisations, and communities to incomplete or inconsistent, largely due to the lack of demand for statistics develop and implement livelihood and economic recovery programmes for evidence-based policy making as well as limited technical capacity. and strategies. State level GDP (aggregate and sectoral contribution) is not calculated; consumer price indices for relevant non-food items (rent, fuel, transport, 1.2 Relationship with Other Components etc.) are not available at both National and State levels; and the disaggre- gated employment data by sector and by state is not available. Budget It should be highlighted here that any recommendation related to data for some 600 Local Governments (out of the total of 774) cannot youth empowerment should take into account their future role in be consolidated into the State Government budgets. The team mitigates local and democratic governance, and economic development. the data shortfall by utilising historical data and secondary sources of data provided by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) and the Central 1.3 Assessment Scope and Methodology Bank to estimate State level GDP and to simulate the impact of the con- The methodology used for estimating macroeconomic impact on out- flict on output. However, the results should be interpreted with caution. put, price and fiscal, is based on the comparison of the actual situation Furthermore, lack of detailed GDP at the State level by expenditure com- with counterfactual scenario. It is found that the average macroeconomic ponent and sector hampers the estimation of the impact of the conflict trend for all 36 states is an appropriate method to derive a counterfactual on poverty and income distribution in the North-East region. The lack macroeconomic trend, as the required data is available for the simulation of full coverage of 774 local government administrations also limits the of a counterfactual. The method calculates differences between the actual analysis of the fiscal impact on the State Government. 102 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 3 : COMPONENT: ECONOMIC RECOVERY 2. Economic Impact Assessment geria’s landmass) accommodates 19 million population (14 percent of Nigeria’s total population) according to the NBS projection for 2.1 Macroeconomic Pre-crisis Condition and 2007 and 2016. The local economy was dominated by agriculture Impact of the Conflict including cash crops (cotton and groundnut), food crops (rice, maize, millet and yam), livestock and fisheries. This was followed by the Over the 2005-2010 period, Nigeria as a whole experienced robust service sector (trade, transport, financial, telecommunication and real macroeconomic performance characterised by a high economic estate) that benefited from trading within and between regions, and growth rate, strong fiscal position and external balance, and a stable also from cross border trade with neighbouring countries (Cameroon, exchange rate. Growth averaging 8 percent per annum was driven by Central African Republic (CAR), Chad and Niger). The contribu- an increase in international oil price as well as rapid growth of non- tion of trade to GDP was especially pronounced in Borno, Yobe and oil sectors (agricultural, mining, industry, and service). Despite a de- Adamawa States. The manufacturing sector, mostly agro-processing cline in oil output during this period, overall GDP growth remained industries (grain and rice mills, cotton ginneries, oil, meat process- strong, reflecting the expansion in the non-oil sector (especially the ing, leather, etc.), catered to the domestic markets as their expansion service sector), accounting for nearly 70 percent of GDP. Fiscal per- was constrained by the lack of infrastructure and long distance to formance improved significantly, benefiting from the introduction of markets. With the mix of agriculture, mining, non-petroleum natural a reference oil price for budget estimates in 2003 and debt relief, as resources and abundant labour, the region had the potential for eco- well as increased international oil prices.38 The current account re- nomic diversification. mained in surplus during the period but slightly deteriorated as a re- sult of declining oil exports caused by the 2009 global financial crisis. However, performance of the North-East economy had continuously Inflation remained above 10 percent per annum and the Naira depre- lagged behind the national average prior to 2010. Economic growth ciated because of external shocks in 2009-2010, but remained stable. in the North-East was led by non-oil sectors; notably agriculture, ser- vices, and retail trade. Anecdotal evidence and available indicators 2.1.1 Pre-crisis Macro Economic Trends in the NE Region point to the weak growth of this non-oil sector in the North-East The North-East region holds the potential for contributing to Nige- compared to the national average reflecting significant challenges in ria’s economic development through economic diversification. The the region, including the distance from markets, inadequate infra- region spanning over 275,677 square kilometres (30 percent of Ni- structure and an unfavourable business environment, leading to a TABLE 3.1 Nigeria - Impact of Boko Haram related Crisis on North-East State Output and Prices 2011-2015 by Year Inflation, all prices Inflation, food prices Year GDP (Naira billions) (percent) (percent) 2011 -174.68 4.81 0.36 2012 -464.32 0.83 8.09 2013 -239.61 -0.35 -0.42 2014 -447.13 -0.09 -1.09 2015 -335.11 0.18 0.53 Accumulation 2011-15 -1660.84 5.37 7.47 Source: World Bank staff ’s estimate VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 103 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA TABLE 3.2 Nigeria - Impact of Boko Haram Related Crisis on North-East State Output and Prices 2011-2015 by State Inflation, all prices State GDP (Naira billions) (percent) Inflation, food prices (percent) Adamawa -314.0 10.4 9.0 Bauchi -86.3 -4.5 22.6 Borno -708.2 10.0 11.3 Gombe -280.9 12.7 46.3 Taraba -49.1 -2.9 0.0 Yobe -222.3 6.6 0.7 Primary affected States -1244.5 27.0 21.1 Secondary affected States -416.3 5.3 23.8 Accumulation 2011-15 -1660.8 5.4 7.5 Source: World Bank Staff ’s estimate high cost of doing business, rapid population growth and increased Nigeria the largest economy in Sub-Sahara Africa. Inflation fell from poverty. These factors constrained the development of the private 11 percent in 2011 to a single digit of 7.9 percent in 2013, and stabi- sector, and the economic activities in the region have been predomi- lised thereafter. However, fiscal performance deteriorated, reflecting a nantly characterised by small agricultural farms, large informal mar- decline in oil revenue, a combination of lower production caused by kets operated by petty traders, and micro and small enterprises. They oil thefts and pipeline sabotage during the earlier years, and sustained created jobs and employment that require basic skills; thus adding international oil price shocks in 2015. These events led to the deple- limited value to total output. In parallel, the public sector including tion of the Excess Crude Account (ECA) reserve that fell to US$2 State and Local Governments that are responsible for providing social billion at end 2015. The current account surplus continued declining services (health, education and social protection) and public infra- throughout the period and the balance turned to a deficit in 2015. structure has become one of the local drivers of economic growth. To evaluate the impact on output, the State level GDP was estimated They provide employment and income to public sector employees using a regression analysis.39 It is important to note that the estimated (civil servants, teachers, and health care workers), while suppliers and impacts should be viewed as proxies, as their precision is undermined contractors provide goods and services to the governments. by estimation errors caused by limited information. The annual im- 2.1.2 North-East Region Macroeconomic Impact and pacts of the Boko Haram related conflict on output and price in the Damage Assessment North-East were simulated between 2011 and 2015. It is estimated that the region suffered an accumulated output loss of N1.66 trillion Economic performance during 2011-2015 weakened, reflecting the between 2011 and 2015, with a significant loss registered in 2012 and impact from both internal and external shocks. Growth slowed down 2014, N464.32 billion and N447.13 billion respectively (Table 3.1). but remained at the average rate of 5 percent per annum, thanks to the strength of non-oil sectors (manufacturing, and services includ- The primary affected states of Adamawa, Borno and Yobe40 experi- ing wholesale and retail trade). The rebased GDP in 2014 has made enced significant output loss accounting for 75 percent of the accu- 104 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 3 : COMPONENT: ECONOMIC RECOVERY mulated output loss in six states, with Borno experiencing the greatest as through displacement loss where cattle had to be left behind. Main loss during 2011-2015. While Borno, Adamawa and Yobe are the pri- sources of food for most IDPs in host communities and unrecognised mary targets of the Boko Haram group, the loss suffered by the three IDP camps in the secondary affected states are distributions from other states is, to a large extent, attributable to the influx of IDPs and charities, humanitarian partners, the governmental NEMA/SEMA, the fear of conducting economic activities in locations that are close or donations from host communities, relatives and friends. Howev- to primary targets of the armed group. er, this was not so in the primary affected states where IDPs in host communities are not receiving any support except from relatives and The crisis appears to have put upward pressure on prices for all items donations from host community members, thus requires urgent at- including for food items in the North-East. At the regional level, pric- tention. es for all items rose by 5.4 percent annually during 2011-2015 while prices for food items rose by 7.5 percent annually (Table 3.2). Prices 2.2 Fiscal for food and for all items rose in four states, except in Bauchi and Taraba.41 2.2.1 Pre-crisis Fiscal Trends The crisis severely affected food production and agricultural produc- The consolidated budget for the North-East region recorded an in- tivity in the North-East, in particular in the hardest hit states of Bor- creasing deficit during the pre-crisis period and subsequently wors- no, Yobe and Adamawa. Limited food availability and restricted access ened during the crisis. The aggregated fiscal deficit (as percentage of to farms and markets in Borno, Yobe and Adamawa have generated the total revenue) for the North-East region increased rapidly prior to localised food crises of acute food insecurity during the lean period.42 the crisis, largely due to an expansion of the State budgetary expendi- As a result, food insecurity has increased dramatically, among the ture and to some extent, reflecting the impact of the global economic IDPs, but also within the hosting communities, according to FAO. 43 crisis in 2009 (Figure 3.1). The crisis lowered oil revenue and thus statutory transfer from the Federal account to State Governments; Food insecurity is severe as the ongoing conflict has led to a reduced however, this was offset by an increase in Value Added Tax (VAT) dis- agricultural production resulting in a critical food shortage. A lower tributed from the VAT pool account. This, combined with a reduc- productivity (yields per Ha) of main crops was due to limited access tion in capital expenditure, lowered the deficit in 2009, but this trend to quality agricultural inputs (seeds and fertiliser) as well as reduced was reversed in 2010, when both recurrent and capital expenditure hectares to produce due to abandonment of fields and agro enterpris- rose sharply in the region. es as people fled from Boko Haram activities. The food insecurity level in the region has been defined as critical and severe. Livestock is Despite an increase in consolidated revenue during the pre-crisis pe- significantly reduced following major thefts by Boko Haram as well riod, the North-East region was highly dependent on statutory allo- VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 105 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA FIGURE 3.1 North-East Region - Consolidated Revenue and Expenditure (Billions of Naira) and Budget Balance (% of Total Revenue, 2007-2015) 600 0.0 500 -5.0 -10.0 % of Total Revenue 400 Billions of Naira -15.0 300 -20.0 200 -25.0 100 -30.0 0 -35.0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Total revenue Total expenditure Budget balance Source: Central Bank of Nigeria cation transferred from the Federal Government. An increase in total At the State level, fiscal performance during the pre-crisis was uneven revenue was attributed to increased statutory transfer (gross statutory across North-East States. Table 3.3 shows an average fiscal indicator transfer and VAT), Internally Generated Revenue (IGR) and grant. for each state during the pre-crisis in comparison with the averages for Statutory transfer accounted for about 60 percent of total revenue, the North-East Region.45 allocated every month to State and Local Governments based on a transparent revenue sharing formula among the three tiers of gov- 2.2.2 Fiscal Impact and Damage Assessment ernments as stipulated in the constitution. Gross statutory allocation Fiscal performance deteriorated during the conflict period (2011-15) from the Federal Account that accumulates oil revenue, corporate as indicated in the widening average budget deficit for the North- income tax, international trade tax and excise tax accounted for 50 East region. Following a slight decline in 2011, the aggregate budget percent of total revenue, and transfer from the VAT pool account deficit for the North-East region increased steadily from 2.8 percent accounted for the remaining 10 percent. Thus changes in the interna- in 2011 to 31 percent of total revenue in 2014 (Table 3.3). Both con- tional oil prices greatly affected the statutory transfer and thereby the solidated revenue and expenditure for the North-East regions accel- total revenue of North-East States.44 erated during 2010-2013 but they subsequently declined thereafter. Given the weakness in the IGR at the State level, changes in the in- However, the total revenue fell faster than the total expenditure, re- ternational oil prices directly affected total revenue of the North-East flecting the declining statutory allocations, thus significantly increas- region through a reduction in the statutory allocation from the Fed- ing the budget deficit in 2013 (Figure 3.2). The deficit fell to 20 per- eral account. In response to revenue shortfalls, State Governments cent in 2015, as spending declined. Increased total spending reflected financed their budgets largely by increased domestic borrowing from an increase in both recurrent and capital, presumably to mitigate the commercial banks and to some extent by accumulation of arrears on negative impact of the conflict on the affected population, especially salary, goods and services and contractors. IDPs, as well as to maintain public order and safely. 106 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 3 : COMPONENT: ECONOMIC RECOVERY TABLE 3.3 Consolidated Budget for the North-East Region, 2007-2015 Statutory Total Total Budget Year Allocation VAT IGR Grants Revenue Recurrent Personnel Capital Expenditure Balance Total Debt 2007 24.7 5.2 5.8 0.0 44.0 24.2 11.2 34.4 58.7 -14.7 0.0 2008 32.4 6.1 3.7 7.1 61.9 24.6 11.2 34.7 59.3 2.6 5.0 2009 33.7 6.7 6.0 11.8 67.0 29.1 15.4 28.6 57.9 9.2 6.4 2010 37.9 7.4 6.2 0.1 63.0 32.1 17.7 43.3 76.0 -13.0 8.1 2011 37.1 7.3 5.3 0.0 55.4 28.8 19.2 28.8 57.9 -2.5 8.8 2012 26.6 7.5 18.6 0.0 55.5 32.1 7.0 34.0 66.0 -10.5 0.0 2013 23.3 4.1 2.8 0.2 37.5 20.5 8.9 31.6 52.8 -15.3 2.8 2014 33.5 7.0 7.9 3.8 60.6 29.3 14.1 33.9 63.4 -2.8 5.6 2015 167.6 35.0 39.7 18.9 302.9 146.6 70.5 169.4 317.2 -14.2 28.2 Average 2007-10 32.2 6.4 0.7 1.3 28.8 16.0 2.1 10.4 26.5 2.3 0.3 Average 2011-15 57.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Percent of Total Revenue 2007 56.1 11.9 13.1 0.0 100.0 55.0 25.5 78.2 133.4 -33.4 0.0 2008 52.3 9.8 5.9 11.4 100.0 39.7 18.1 56.0 95.8 4.2 8.0 2009 50.3 10.0 8.9 17.6 100.0 43.4 23.0 42.7 86.3 13.7 9.6 2010 60.1 11.8 9.8 0.1 100.0 50.9 28.1 68.8 120.6 -20.6 12.8 2011 66.9 13.3 9.5 0.0 100.0 52.0 34.6 52.0 104.5 -4.5 15.8 2012 47.9 13.5 33.5 0.0 100.0 57.8 12.7 61.2 118.9 -18.9 0.0 2013 62.1 11.0 7.6 0.4 100.0 54.7 23.8 84.4 140.9 -40.9 7.3 2014 55.3 11.6 13.1 6.3 100.0 48.4 23.3 55.9 104.7 -4.7 9.3 2015 55.3 11.6 13.1 6.3 100.0 48.4 23.3 55.9 104.7 -4.7 9.3 Average 2007-10 54.7 10.9 9.4 7.3 100.0 47.2 23.7 61.4 109.0 -9.0 7.6 Average 2011-15 57.5 12.2 15.4 2.6 100.0 52.3 23.5 61.9 114.8 -14.8 8.4 Percent of Total 2007 56.1 11.9 13.1 0.0 100.0 41.2 19.1 58.6 100.0 -25.1 0.0 2008 52.3 9.8 5.9 11.4 100.0 41.4 18.9 58.4 100.0 4.4 8.0 2009 50.3 10.0 8.9 17.6 100.0 50.2 26.6 49.5 100.0 15.8 9.6 2010 60.1 11.8 9.8 0.1 100.0 42.2 23.3 57.0 100.0 -17.1 12.8 2011 66.9 13.3 9.5 0.0 100.0 49.7 33.1 49.8 100.0 -4.3 15.8 2012 47.9 13.5 33.5 0.0 100.0 48.6 10.7 51.4 100.0 -15.9 0.0 2013 62.1 11.0 7.6 0.4 100.0 38.8 16.9 59.9 100.0 -29.0 7.3 2014 55.3 11.6 13.1 6.3 100.0 46.2 22.2 53.4 100.0 -4.5 9.3 2015 55.3 11.6 13.1 6.3 100.0 46.2 22.2 53.4 100.0 -4.5 9.3 Average 2007-10 111.8 22.1 2.5 4.7 100.0 60.6 8.0 39.4 100.0 8.7 1.0 Average 2011-15 53.0 11.4 9.6 13.1 100.0 56.8 19.2 41.4 100.0 -12.9 7.1 Source: Central Bank of Nigeria VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 107 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA FIGURE 3.2 North-East Region - Consolidated Revenue and Expenditure (Billions of Naira) and Budget Balance (% of Total Revenue, 2007-2015) 600 500 400 Billions of Naira 300 200 100 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Total revenue Total expenditure Source: Central Bank of Nigeria The average budget deficit during the crisis was twice higher than schools, health facilities, markets, etc.), and social assistance to IDPs. the average budget deficit pre-crisis. When comparing the pre-crisis Consequently, both recurrent and capital spending increased and period with the in-crisis period, the average budget deficit in nominal thereby widened the budget deficit. terms doubled (from N5 billion to N10 billion), driven by a faster rise The impact assessment shows that the conflict lowered tax collection in the total expenditure especially recurrent spending as compared to but increased expenditure. On the revenue side, IGR and VAT rev- an increase in the average total revenue during the crisis. The budget enue fell while grants increased in all six states. On the expenditure deficit was financed by borrowing mostly from domestic markets. side, total expenditure including both recurrent and capital increased The conflict severely affected public finance in the North-East States in primary affected states, while total expenditure fell in the second- through reduced revenue and increased expenditure. The damage ary affected states as a result of a reduction in recurrent spending. The accumulated loss in tax revenue in the primary affected states was and destruction to the local economy directly lowered total govern- greater than that of the secondary affected states.46 ment revenue and increased public spending at the State and Local Government levels. Increased violence and insecurity have hampered The conflict increased public spending in the primary affected states business activities such as manufacturing, trade and banks, most of and thus worsened the overall budget deficit. During the crisis period, which have been completely closed down or relocated or have operat- the conflict increased total public spending by N124 billion, largely ed under reduced businesses hours, thus undermining the collection due to an increase in capital spending in the primary affected states. of VAT and IGR. On the expenditure side, the on-going conflict and This is probably due to the need to rehabilitate physical infrastruc- its aftermath necessitated government interventions in strengthened ture, markets, schools and health facilities damaged by the armed public order and safety, rehabilitation of physical infrastructure (road, group’s attacks. 108 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 3 : COMPONENT: ECONOMIC RECOVERY TABLE 3.4 Fiscal impact of the conflict – accumulation 2011-2015 State VAT IGR Grant Revenue Recurrent Capital Total Balance Adamawa -9.1 -10.8 91.0 71.1 38.3 31.6 69.9 -17.2 Bauchi -5.6 -15.2 36.4 15.7 -23.8 30.8 7.1 12.8 Borno 2.5 -35.2 14.5 -18.2 -30.0 41.8 11.8 -8.3 Gombe -11.2 -11.0 -18.6 -40.7 -9.9 18.9 9.0 12.1 Taraba -11.9 -6.1 28.5 10.5 -58.0 -26.1 -84.0 14.2 Yobe -3.7 -16.9 9.1 -11.5 12.8 29.8 42.5 -6.6 North-East Region -38.9 -95.2 161.0 26.9 -70.6 126.9 56.3 7.0 Notes: 1. Adamawa, Borno, and Yobe 2. Bauchi, Gombe, and Taraba Source: Central Bank of Nigeria and WB Staff ’s Estimate 2.3 Private Sector The total number of micro-enterprises in the North-East remains relatively small at the National level. There are around 2.5 million 2.3.1 Pre-crisis Conditions enterprises (out of 17.3 million enterprises in total), accounting for Nigeria has about 37 million enterprises including Micro, Small and only 14 percent of total micro-enterprises in Nigeria.49 Medium Enterprises (MSME). About 40 percent are farms, and most The distribution of SMEs by sector in the North-East States shows of the rest are informal Non-Farm household Enterprises (NFEs). Ac- that they are concentrated in the manufacturing sector, wholesale/re- cording to the Small Enterprise Development Agency Nigeria (2014), tail sector, hotel/restaurants and social services (education, health and there are about 68,000 small firms (between 10 and 49 employees) other social services). There were about 346 SMEs in manufacturing, and 4,700 medium firms (with between 50 and 200 employees). The 272 SMEs in wholesale/retail, 185 in hotel/restaurants, and 451 in private sector, including firms of all sizes, is dominated by services, in education and health (Table 3.6). particular wholesale and retail trade.47 According to the 2009 Enterprise Survey,50 firms in five out of the The North-East Region has a relatively large representation of the six North-East States (Adamawa, Borno, Gombe, Taraba and Yobe) micro-enterprise sector compared to the formal private sector. Ac- identified that electricity and access to finance are the most important cording to the 2010 National Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises obstacles. Electricity shortage is considered the most important obsta- (MSMEs) survey undertaken by the National Bureau of Statistics and cle in all states except Yobe (where firms consider access to finance as the Small and Medium Enterprise Development Agency of Nigeria the most important obstacle). Other important obstacles are tax rates, (SMEDAN),48 the total number of MSMEs (employing up to 200 corruption and transportation. persons) in Nigeria stood at 17.28 million, with 17.26 million mi- cro-enterprises (with less than 10 employees), thus representing 99.9 The 2010 Sub-National Doing Business report indicated that key percent of MSMEs; 21,264 small enterprises (with 10 to 49 employ- doing business indicators in the North-East States were favourable.51 ees) and 1,654 medium enterprises (with 50 to 199 employees). The report assesses the performance of Nigerian States across four VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 109 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA FIGURE 3.3 indicators: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, reg- Location of manufacturing SMEs at the State istering property and enforcing contracts. In 2010, Gombe was sec- level, 2010 ond in terms of ease of doing business; Borno was third; Yobe, sixth; Bauchi, tenth; Taraba, eleventh, and Adamawa, nineteenth. So most North-East States had a relatively good ranking. NFEs in the North-East demonstrate low productivity. Productivi- ty differentials across regions are in part due to the composition of NFEs, with roughly 44 percent of NFEs in the North-East involved in retail/wholesale, and 15 percent in food compared to a larger share of NFEs engaged in other services in the Southern region. The NFE sector has long been excluded from the jobs agenda and private sec- tor development projects, as only 5 percent of NFEs are formal (i.e. registered with the Corporate Affairs Commission). The informal sec- tor presumably does not generate waged jobs and investing in it can create distortions and discourage informal firms from formalising. Based on two rounds of the General Household Survey (2010/11 and 2012/13); however, this analysis finds that the informal sector actu- ally consists of two types of economic entities—household enterpris- es (HEs,) operated by a single person, and microenterprises (MEs), Source: World Bank Urbanization Review for Nigeria, 2015v which hire workers who are not members of the household.52 TABLE 3.5 Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises in 6 North-East States, Lagos and Kano, 2010 State Micro Percent Small Percent Medium Percent Adamawa 405,261 2.3 235 1.1 11 0.7 Bauchi 460,186 2.7 497 2.3 49 3.0 Borno 463,009 2.7 131 0.6 37 2.2 Gombe 416,183 2.4 225 1.1 31 1.9 Taraba 360,682 2.1 242 1.1 5 0.3 Yobe 364,806 2.1 150 0.7 5 0.3 Sub-total for North-East 2,470,127 14.3 1,480 7.0 138 8.3 Lagos 880,805 5.1 4,146 19.5 389 23.5 Kano 872,552 5.1 1,740 8.2 69 4.2 Nigeria 17,261,753 100.0 21,264 100.0 1,654 100.0 Source: 2010 National MSMEs Survey, NBS & SMEDAN 110 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 3 : COMPONENT: ECONOMIC RECOVERY TABLE 3.6 Sectoral distribution of SMEs among the North-East States (percent) Hotel/ Transport/ State Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Wholesale/retail restaurants communication Financial sector Real estate Education Health/social Total Num % Num % Num % Num % Num % Num % Num % Num % Num % Num % Num % Num % Adamawa 18 7.3 4 1.6 41 16.6 7 2.8 22 8.9 37 15.0 0 0.0 20 8.1 21 8.5 17 6.9 60 24.3 247 100 Bauchi 14 2.3 4 0.6 81 13.1 5 0.8 103 16.7 79 12.8 54 8.8 59 9.6 7 1.1 134 21.8 76 12.3 616 100 Borno 5 3.0 0 0.0 61 36.3 2 1.2 29 17.3 11 6.5 0 0.0 0 0.0 3 1.8 17 10.1 40 23.8 168 100 Gombe 32 12.5 24 9.4 54 21.1 9 3.5 74 28.9 16 6.3 5 2.0 20 7.8 17 6.6 0 0.0 5 2.0 256 100 Taraba 14 5.6 0 0.0 75 30.1 0 0.0 22 8.8 16 6.4 5 2.0 20 8.0 0 0.0 34 13.7 63 25.3 249 100 Yobe 14 8.8 0 0.0 34 21.4 0 0.0 22 13.8 26 16.4 16 10.1 39 24.5 3 1.9 0 0.0 5 3.1 159 100 North-East 97 32 346 23 272 185 80 158 51 202 249 1695 Source: 2010 National MSMEs Survey, NBS & SMEDAN 2.3.2 Private Sector Impact and Damages Assessment Trade flows in 2008 were concentrated on selected commodities: livestock, maize and millet. The North-East – and Maiduguri, in As reported in the Infrastructure and Social Service Component, the particular — is a major regional trading hub for agricultural com- private sector has been significantly affected by the conflict. for exam- ple, the Borno State Government reported that estimates for the dam- modities. Official statistics (National Bureau of Statistics) show that age/destruction of 1.5 million shops in the Kukawa LGA amounted exports from Borno and Adamawa mostly consists of footwear and to US$753 million. In addition to direct damage due to the conflict, plastics, while imports mostly consist of agricultural products (sesa- the private sector is also deeply affected by reduced mobility resulting me, groundnut and groundnut oil), hides and skins, as well as auto- from the conflict and the interruption of regional trade – due to the mobile parts. A World Bank report54 estimating trade flows between conflict affecting Nigeria, but also Niger, Chad, and Cameroon. This Nigeria and Cameroon highlights that a large share of trade enters impact of the conflict on trade is discussed further in the next section. at official border crossings, but that the value and volume of trade are significantly under-reported (the report estimates that they are 2.4 Trade under-reported by as much as a factor of 50). This report also un- derlines that trade procedures remain extremely non-transparent 2.4.1 Pre-crisis Trends – demanding multiple formal and informal payments – and actual Nigeria enjoys a historical legacy of North-South trading relations trade relationships and barriers differ depending on a large number dating to the pre-colonial era. In the pre-colonial period, a complex of characteristics. Procedures and barriers differ depending on the system of trade and urban economies existed in Nigeria, particular- location (geographical characteristics of the border area), weather ly evident in the North. The Hausa States and the Kanem Empire, (seasonal variation), time of day, specific border crossing, scale of centred on Borno, were part of a trade network stretching across the operation, type of product and personalities involved. They are ul- Sudan region northwards to the ports of North Africa and on to Eu- timately determined on a case-by-case basis through negotiations. rope.53 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 111 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA BOX 3.1 Gombe Case Study Gombe State shows a declining number of registered businesses (3.8%), this was also lower than in the country as a whole (9.7%). between 2010-2015. This can be explained by a number of constraints The Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (MAN) reported it has as identified in the 2014 Enterprise Survey for Gombe: electricity seven members in Gombe State (mostly in the plastics sector). Three (with 54 percent of firms considering it as a major constraint), tax of these members closed down their activities, as of 2015, and the rates (52 percent), corruption (52 percent), tax administration (52 reminding saw a sharp decrease in their operations (in 2015 at 50 percent) and political instability (51 percent). For tax rates, tax percent of their 2010 capacity). administration and political instability, this is far higher than in other Livestock trade has also been affected as highlighted by the graph parts of Nigeria. Overall, in Nigeria, less than 20 percent of firms below. Trade in cattle significantly dropped in 2011 and has continued consider tax rates and tax administration as serious problems and 22 its decline up to 2015, with 141,500 animals. This drop in trade in percent of firms consider that political instability is a serious problem cattle was compensated by an increase in trade in sheep and goats in (the survey was undertaken ahead of the 2015 Presidential elections). 2011 and 2012. But trade in sheep and goats significantly decreased Another difference to note between Gombe and other parts of Nigeria in 2013, and continues to decrease in 2015, with 179,400 animals. is that 23 percent of firms of Gombe consider access to finance as a Trade in poultry has seen a continuous slow decline with 215,000 serious problem, compared to 33 percent in the country as a whole. animals in 2015. Between 2011 and 2013, on average, firms reported negative sales Source: Gombe Ministry of Industry and Trade growth (average sales growth was -29% and median sales growth was __ __ -53%). This is worse than in the country as a whole (-4% and -31% respectively). Although average employment growth was positive 112 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 3 : COMPONENT: ECONOMIC RECOVERY 2.4.2 Trade: Impact and Damage Assessment TABLE 3.7 The trade routes and markets have been significantly disrupted in Status of major trade routes in Borno (as of 8 Yobe, Borno and Adamawa. Table 3.7 summarises the status of the February 2016) major trade routes of Borno as of 8 February 2016, and demonstrates that all trades routes from Borno to Niger, Chad and Cameroon are Trade routes Status currently closed. As a result of the conflict and of the suspension of Maiduguri-Bama-Banki to Cameroon Not accessible regional trade (following the closure of trade routes), the volume of Maiduguri-Bama-Gwoza to Cameroon Not accessible trade is extremely low and traders have been forced to use alternative (longer) trade routes.55 While formal trade has stopped (as border Maiduguri-Dikwa-Ngala to Chad Not accessible posts are not operating), informal trading activities continue. Maiduguri-Mafa-Marte to Chad Not accessible Customs revenue fell sharply in 2014 as a result of the conflict. It Maiduguri-Monguno-Baga to Niger Not accessible peaked at N44.7 million in 2013 in Borno/Yobe (or equivalent to Maiduguri-Monguno-Abadam to Niger Not accessible around US$224,000). However, customs revenue plummeted to around N6 million (equivalent to US$30,000) for the six states at the Maiduguri-Gubio-Mobbar to Niger Not accessible peak of conflict in 2014. Subsequently, it has picked up in 2015, with Maiduguri-Monguno-Mallam Fatori to Niger Not accessible Adamawa/Taraba now contributing to the bulk of revenues (N31.6 Maiduguri-Damboa-Biu-Gombe Not accessible million or equivalent to US$158,000) due to the use of alternatives trade routes, as highlighted in the above paragraph. Nevertheless, Maiduguri-Biu-Adamawa Not accessible trade flows are significantly under-reported due to prevalent informal Maiduguri-Damaturu-Kano Accessible cross border trade. FIGURE 3.4 Customs Revenue, 2010-2015 (Naira) 50,000,000 40,000,000 30,000,000 Naira 20,000,000 10,000,000 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Adamawa / Taraba Bauchi / Gombe Borno / Yobe VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 113 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA BOX 3.2 Baga Market, Maiduguri During its days of glory, the famous Baga Market in Maiduguri, Borno Dozens of heavy duty trucks that used to ply the highway along State prided itself as the biggest fish market in the North-East of Nigeria. Gamboru-Ngala, conveying commodities such as foodstuff and building But persistent attacks by Boko Haram in the last six years have depleted materials to Chad, Cameroon, Central African Republic, and parts of the fortunes of the market and reduced it to a risky area where both Sudan, can no longer do so as armed groups have taken over the road. buyers and sellers visit with apprehension. The only passable route to Maiduguri is through Damaturu, Yobe State’s capital. Merchants from the southern part of Nigeria barely venture to The market was attacked more than 20 times from 2009 to date. In all Maiduguri, fearing attack. the attacks, lives have been lost, limbs maimed, vehicles destroyed and merchandize reduced to ashes by raging flames from IEDs. The latest The same applies to the native fishermen from all the communities attack was on Monday, 22nd June 2015, when two female suicide in Baga, Kukawa, Monguno, Mallam Fatori, Damasak, and other bombers stormed the market. At least 35 persons died; most of the locations who have access to lakes and rivers which they used as source victims are traders. of livelihood. Most of them have decided to forget their trade and many of them are afraid to come to Maiduguri. Fishermen and traders from So compromised is the present state of Baga market, most of its patrons Kano, Sokoto, Kebbi, Zamfara, and Niger States have mostly relocated have moved to other climes. Gone are the days when fishermen from to their ancestral towns, due to fear. Also, prices of fish have skyrocketed, towns and villages along the shores of the Lake Chad bring their nets out making it difficult for low income-earners to afford. A small carton that of the waters with sizeable catches and then transport them to Maiduguri sold for N8,000 three years ago is now N20,000. “We have no option but for sale. Gone, too, are the days when the market was handy for sizeable to sell at high prices so that we can recoup our investment. People should consignments of fish, while mongers from all parts of Nigeria and beyond be grateful that the fish is even available,” said Mohammed Mai Kifi. At traded there. No longer do cartons of assorted fish get loaded onto dozens present, the visible sights in parts of Baga Market are destroyed, while fish of vehicles for onward delivery to Onitsha, Lagos, Aba, Abuja and other mongers and other traders are living in perpetual fear. parts of Nigeria. Source: Adapted from North-East’s biggest fish market crippled by The closure of all the roads leading to Maiduguri due to the currently __ Boko Haram, by Hamza Idris, Maiduguri, Jun 27 2015. http://www. precarious security situation, has also hit the fortunes of the market hard. dailytrust.com.ng/weekly/index.php/new-news/20932-north-east-s- After series of clampdowns by Boko Haram arsonists on the Baga road, biggest-fish-market-crippled-by-boko-haram. the Dikwa-Gamboru-Ngala road, the Bama road, and the Damboa road, __ the economic buoyancy of the market and other business activities was adversely affected. Market activities are also significantly affected by the conflict as mar- ities took decisive measures to strengthen the banking system. The kets have been regularly attacked. Markets have also suffered from the tenfold increase in the minimum capital requirement for banks in reduced mobility of the population due to the conflict. The army has 2005 led to the consolidation of the banking system (from 89 to 24 also closed some markets for security reasons (to avoid attacks or to banks), and rapid expansion of the banks’ lending. This lending was disrupt supplies to the armed group).56 undertaken partly to finance the purchase of the banks’ new share issuance (‘margins loans’) and partly in an effort to earn returns for 2.5 Financial sector those who had invested in the banks’ significantly expanded capital base. With the stall in economic growth and the collapse in share 2.5.1 Pre-crisis Conditions prices in 2008, both the margin loans and new lending contributed to In 2010, the financial sector in Nigeria was still recovering from the rapid deterioration in the quality of the banks’ assets, which resulted 2008-2009 banking crisis. Following the crisis, the Nigerian author- in the banking crisis of 2008–2009. 114 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 3 : COMPONENT: ECONOMIC RECOVERY BOX 3.3 Trade disruption in Yobe and Adamawa As highlighted by the figure below, trade (measured by the number Similarly, during the dry season, before the conflict, there would have of trucks importing or exporting goods between Yobe and Niger) has been around 1,000 trucks of fertiliser, now there are only around been significantly affected in 2014 and 2015. As measured by the 150 trucks. For agro-chemicals: before the conflict, there would have number of trucks, imports from Niger to Yobe are more significant been around 500 trucks, now around 10 trucks. During the rainy than exports from Yobe to Niger: with close to 10,000 trucks in 2013, season, there used to be around 1,500 trucks of fertiliser, now only and down to around 3,600 trucks in 2015. Exports from Yobe to 50 trucks. There used to be 200 trucks of agrichemicals, now only Niger were at the highest in 2010, with almost 2,000 trucks, down around 50 trucks. to around 700 trucks in 2015. Yobe imports, cattle, cowpea, ‘guna’ There were around 1,000 trucks driving from Gombe to Madagali (watermelon), vegetable oil, rice, and spaghetti, mostly from Niger. before the conflict, now, only around 70 trucks. In Yola, the num- Exports from Yobe to Niger are mainly grains. ber of transporters has been reduced to 25 percent, with a large de- Number of trucks importing goods from Niger to Yobe and export- /// crease of number of trucks on the road: before the conflict, there ing goods from Yobe to Niger /// were around 500 trucks in operation; currently only around 50 trucks are operating. In addition, 10,000 achabas (moto-taxis) in operation In Adamawa, a representative from the oil sector explained that the have been banned (as the conflict has been using motos to carry out transport connection to Madagali and Michika have been lost and oil attacks). pumps are destroyed. As a result, only 10 percent of transporters are currently working. Before the conflict, there would be 200 trucks of Source: World Bank, Adamawa –RPBA Mission, February 2016. __ __ oil per week across the 7 LGAs; now only 2-3 trucks of oil per week. Number of trucks importing goods from Niger to Yobe and exporting goods from Yobe to Niger 2,500 10,000 Number of Trucks 2,000 8,000 Number of Trucks 1,500 6,000 1,000 4,000 500 2,000 0 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Exports from Yobe to Niger Imports from Niger to Yobe VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 115 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA The 2010 EFInA (Enhancing Financial Innovation and Access) Ac- 2.5.2 Financial Sector Impact and Damage Assessment cess to Financial Services survey shows that the North-East has sig- Commercial banks have been a frequent target of attacks during the nificantly more financial exclusion. In the North-East, 20.5 percent conflict.57 As a result, the number of commercial banks has reduced of the adults are formally included (i.e. have access to formal financial (between 2010-2015). Figure 3.5 shows that Borno experienced the services), 11.2 percent of adults are informally included (i.e. have ac- most significant reduction (from 23 to 18), following by Adamawa (from 20 to 18), and Taraba (from 16 to 15). Figure 3.5 also shows cess to informal financial services), and 68.3 percent are financially that the number of branches of commercial banks reduced in Ad- excluded (i.e. have no access to formal or informal financial services). amawa (from 62 to 42), Bauchi (from 61 to 50), and Borno (from The national average shows 43 percent of adults are formally includ- 75 to 42), with the most significant drop in Borno (with the closure ed, 17.3 percent of adults are informally included, and 39.7 adults are of 33 branches). The number of branches increased slightly in the financially excluded. three other states; Gombe (from 31 to 33), Taraba (from 33 to 38), FIGURE 3.5 Number of commercial banks and their branches operating in six states Number of Commercial Banks Number of Commercial Banks’ Branches Operating in States Operating in States 25 80 70 20 60 Number of Banks 50 15 40 10 30 20 5 10 Adamawa Bauchi Borno Gombe Taraba Yobe Adamawa Bauchi Borno Gombe Taraba Yobe 2010 2015 Source: Central Bank of Nigeria 116 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 3 : COMPONENT: ECONOMIC RECOVERY FIGURE 3.6 Deposits and credits in six North-East states (Bill. Of Naira) Deposits Credits 120 40 35 100 30 80 25 60 20 15 40 10 20 5 Adamawa Bauchi Borno Gombe Taraba Yobe Adamawa Bauchi Borno Gombe Taraba Yobe 2010 2015 Source: Central Bank of Nigeria and Yobe (from 34 to 38). But overall, the number of branches of Microfinance Banks (MFB) are concentrated in Bauchi and Gombe. commercial banks decreased from 296 to 243, with the closure of 53 With 15 each, Bauchi and Gombe have the highest number of MFBs, followed by Adamawa (9), Borno (5), Taraba (4), and Yobe (2). branches across the six states between 2010-2015. The EFInA Access to Financial Services Survey for 2014 shows that Total deposits in the six North-East States have increased by 58 per- formal financial inclusion has improved in the North-East. It rose cent between 2010-2015 (from N214 billion or US$1.07 billion to from 20.5 percent of adults formally included in 2010, to 26.1 per- N339 billion or US$1.69 billion). Figure 3.6 shows that increase in cent in 2014. However, the number of adults formally excluded did deposits was lower in Borno and Yobe. Similarly, credit has increased not improve (68.3 percent in 2010, and 68.4 percent in 2014). This by 120 percent (from N61 billion or US$305 million to N134 bil- is by far the highest rate of exclusion across the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria as a result of lowered informal financial inclusion. It stood lion or US$ 669 million). Total commercial banks’ credit in Yobe at 11.2 percent in 2010, and at 5.4 percent in 2014. State was the lowest across the six states. Deposits and credits have increased between 2010-2015 in the North-East, including in the three states more severely affected by the conflict. However, in 2015, credits in the North-East represent 1 percent of the total credits in Nigeria, while the North-East represents 14 percent of the total pop- ulation of Nigeria. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 117 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 3. Livelihoods and Employment However, productive employment opportunities are fewer. The ma- jority of poor households are engaged in some income generating ac- 3.1 Pre-crisis Conditions tivities that do not provide sufficient income to lift the households out of poverty. In fact, even the non-poor Nigerians, particularly in The North-East has abundant sources of livelihoods, with agriculture the North, live extremely close to the poverty line. Employment in being the backbone of the economy. Prior to the crisis, communities North-East concentrates in the agriculture sector, accounting for 67 in the region earned a livelihood and income from dry land crop percent of total employment in the region, the highest compared to production (mostly grains such as millet, sorghum, maize, and rice; the other regions (Figure 3.7). Given that most Nigerians involved in and legumes such as groundnuts and cowpeas, and irrigated as well as agricultural work live on subsistence minimum (half of those working non-irrigated horticultural crops such as tomato and onion), livestock in agriculture belong to the poorest 40 percent of the population), rearing and production (cattle, goats, sheep and pigs), nomadic pasto- they are also vulnerable to shocks.59 ralism, fisheries, and natural resources based enterprises (such as arti- The labour force participation in the North-East was high in agricul- sanal mining, shea nut and gum Arabic harvesting, and merchandise tural activities and in the smaller informal sector. According to the trade). Farmers in the region also have harvested non-timber forestry General Household Survey 2010/11, 82 percent of the labour force products for food security and the market, such as gum Arabic, tama- was self-employed in agriculture and non-agriculture activities (Table rind, baobab, and dessert palm extraction, as merchandise trade. The 3.9). This was attributed to the decline in investment in the manufac- region, namely Yobe and Borno States, produces 80 percent of the turing sector in the North-East, poor infrastructure, and social unrest. 8000 MT exported gum Arabic per annum (Table 3.8).58 Besides ag- Non-family enterprises are the only getaway for the poor to escape riculture, other livelihood sources before the crisis included agro-pro- poverty and are the most accessible form of income diversification, cessing, trading, artisanal mining, real estate, public and private sector as the poor working on farms are the most vulnerable to economic formal employment, remittances, pension, and donor assistance. and crop shocks. TABLE 3.8 Solid Minerals, Natural Resources Based and Agro-Based Raw Materials by State, 2015 State Minerals Crops / Livestock Natural Resources Adamawa Sand, limestone, salt, clay, granite, marble, laterite, Maize, millet, guinea corn/ sorghum, groundnuts, beans/ cowpeas, rice, gypsum, clay cassava, yam, cocoyam, melon, potatoes, livestock, fish Bauchi Tin, copper, gemstone, hydro-carbon, columbine, Beans, maize, rice, cassava, sorghum, cotton, wheat, millets, cowpeas, Baobab, Gum Arabic, Tamarind barite, sand, granite, gypsum, mica, clay, talc, zircon sesame, soy beans, water melons, livestock Borno Iron ore, sand, natural salt, mica, gypsum, granite, Maize , millet, sorghum, ground nuts, beans, rice, cotton, sesame, Baobab, Gum Arabic, Tamarind, aquamarine, clay, bentonite, laterite cowpeas, tomatoes, peppers, cattle, camel, donkeys, sheep, goats, fish desert palm , shea nuts, neem, moringa, spring water Gombe Limestone, sand, salt, clay, gypsum, diatomite, Beans, maize, millet, rice, sorghum, ground nuts, cotton, wheat, granite vegetables, livestock Taraba Lead , barites, uranium, rock salt, garnet, tourmaline, Tea, coffee, cassava, yams, maize, rice, ground nuts, cotton, cattle, sapphire, zircon, gelena, limestone, laterite, clay sheep, goats, fish, cocoa, cocoyam, potatoes, poultry Yobe Silica sand, diatomite, clay, limestone, gypsum, Ground nuts, maize, millet, sorghum, rice, wheat, sesame, cowpeas, Gum Arabic, Tamarind, Desert kaolin, trona potash, bentonite, iron ore, coal, wheat, tomatoes, red pepper, fish, cattle, goats, sheep, camel, donkeys Palm, Baobab, spring water natural salt, granite Source: Assessment Survey Findings based on data obtained by the Ministry of Agriculture, the Nigeria Solid Mineral Resources and the FAO. 118 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 3 : COMPONENT: ECONOMIC RECOVERY FIGURE 3.7 Structure of employment across regions in Nigeria 100% 17% 9% 9% 14% 22% 26% 24% 27% 31% 80% 24% 28% 54% 67% 60% 59% 64% 55% 50% 40% 20% 18% 0% North Central North East North West South East South South South West Agriculture HHC Wages Source: World Bank, Mungunsuvd Terbish and Vasco Molini, Labour Market in Northern Nigeria, Agriculture remains the dominant income generating activity, fol- Labour productivity in the North-East remains low. Agriculture con- lowed by buying and selling, manufacturing and personal services. It tinues to be an important sector in the Northern Nigerian economy, has over 55 percent participation by male population in all age groups, employing over 75 percent of the region’s farmers. However, the ag- and the age group between 5 and 14 has the highest participation rate ricultural value chain remains undeveloped and uncompetitive and (89.6 percent), reflecting low literacy rates60 and low school atten- post-harvest losses are high as appropriate processing and value add- dance. Female participation in agriculture is lower, with the highest ing technologies are not readily available.62 High participation rates reported participation among girls between 5 and 14 (73.9 percent), and long hours reflect the prevalence of subsistence work in agricul- and lowest among females aged 25-44 (28 percent). Buying and sell- ture. Only four million people work as employees for a private com- ing is the second most popular source of income in this region. The pany. Among non-agricultural wage workers, three out of four are in- female part of the population in all age groups dominate this category formally employed. Further, a misalignment of skills demanded and with the highest participation (30 percent) among women between supplied in the North-East has led to the deficit of workforce with 25-44 and over 65 years of age, followed by women between 15-24 higher level of cognitive, non-cognitive, and job-specific skills that (24.9 percent). Finally, manufacturing and personal service activities are also very common for income generating. Female participation in a developing economy demands. Formal education fails to provide manufacturing is much higher than male participation, with as much sufficient levels of basic skills such as literary and numeracy because as 30.6 percent participation by women between 25-44 and 45-59, of low educational attainment, a lack of appropriate training and job but only 4.5 percent maximum participation among men in the same preparation. They continue to work in the low productivity and low category in all age groups.61 earning agricultural sector and informal enterprises. VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 119 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA TABLE 3.9 Distribution of the employed labour force, by employer (For wave 1(2010/11) and wave 2(2012/13) 100% 9% 10% 7% 7% 14% 13% 10% 6% 11% 25% 11% 22% 7% 10% 11% 9% 10% 13% 10% 11% 9% 2% 2% 11% 13% 1% 14% 80% 39% 45% 5% 11% 16% 9% 7% 44% 6% 7% 31% 16% 11% 10% 2% 12% 56% 58% 39% 37% 43% 60% 29% 6% 38% 41% 38% 29% 40% 43% 45% 37% 31% 33% 34% 31% 20% 25% 26% 27% 22% 22% 16% 13% 0% w1 w2 w1 w2 w1 w2 w1 w2 w1 w2 w1 w2 w1 w2 Nat. NC NE NW SE SS SW Self - Ag Self - NonAg Private Public HH Unpaid Others Source: Estimates based on GHS 2010/11 and GHS 2012/13. 120 VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 3 : COMPONENT: ECONOMIC RECOVERY The shortage of productive jobs is the most critical challenge giv- have forced displacement of the population.68 In this fragile context, en increasing unemployment in Nigeria. Three factors have largely 63 regional insecurity, growing extremism and forced displacement in contributed to a high unemployment rate: (i) job creation has not the Lake Chad Basin add a regional dimension to the present hu- kept pace with the labour force growth as evidenced by phenomenal manitarian crisis, reducing economic activities and weakening the growth in the number of active population as well as the labour force; local productive capacities. As some IDPs begin to move back to their (ii) until 2014, the Nigerian definition of unemployment defined communities in Adamawa, they are finding complete devastation of an unemployed person as one who worked for less than 40 hours; homes and infrastructure, mined communities, and due to persistent therefore, the results might best be interpreted as under-employment, fear of repeat attacks, often remain displaced in the closest town. Re- rather than unemployment; and (iii) the employment surveys do not cent displacement trends show that as the military pushes Boko Ha- capture a large number of workers employed in the informal sector ram out, the population that had previously been trapped in that area in Nigeria. 64 moves out immediately to urban centres where they are in need of humanitarian assistance. While there is a growing tendency to talk of Consequently, inclusiveness in the North-East has remained elusive return, with over 80 percent of Borno’s LGAs still considered high or despite Nigeria’s global economic progress during 2003-2013. For the very high security risk for the international humanitarian community same period, Nigeria experienced a decline in poverty rate from 45.3 to access, unseen aspects to this humanitarian crisis remain.69 percent to 33.2 percent, while the poverty rate in the North-East rose from 43.2 percent to 50.4 percent. The North-West and North-East The on-going conflict and insecurity is affecting rural and urban together account for 52 percent of Nigeria’s poor.65 The share of the livelihoods in the conflict affected States. Famine Early Warning population in the lowest 20 percentile of income from the North- Network (FEWSNET)70 points out that “the continuing conflict has East also rose from 11 percent in 2003 to 18 percent in 2013. At the contributed to limiting agricultural activities in the North-East”. In same time, the share of the population in the highest 20 percentile of the urban areas, real estate rental has reduced, and most of the houses income from the North-East was reduced from 13 percent in 2003 and buildings have been destroyed during the attacks in LGAs and to 7 percent in 2013. towns. Most houses and buildings in cities are no longer able to gen- erate rentals for owners, as most people are hosting IDPs who are 3.2 Livelihoods, Employment Impact and their relatives or neighbours from the rural areas. Wholesale trading Damage Assessment has also been affected negatively by insecurity and loss of goods by owners, some who have now become IDPs themselves. Petty trading The North-East has a history of marginalisation and chronic un- has since replaced the interstate and neighbouring countries’ coun- der-development, with poverty, illiteracy and youth unemployment tries trade. all higher than in the rest of the country. A lack of investment to address these inequalities contributed to sparking the cycle of violence Losses of grazing land, livestock and crops in areas affected by con- and displacement that has continued since 2009.67 The conflict in the flict have increased food prices and unemployment. Crops have been North-East triggered by attacks of Boko Haram, has further compro- destroyed in some areas where IDPs used farmland as a route to flee mised the region’s capacity to overcome underdevelopment. Trade of the conflict. Acreage under cropping has also reduced due to limited products through the North-East has been disrupted, and more than access to inputs because of damages to input manufacturing compa- 1.8 million people have been internally displaced, putting additional nies and inaccessibility, in addition to the migration caused by the pressure on already scarce local resources and collapsed service provi- armed group. Maize, sorghum and millet were replaced by beans and sion systems. groundnuts, as the former provide cover for the armed group in case of an attack. As a result of low crop yields and production, food prices 3.2.1 Impacts of the Conflict on Livelihoods have risen because of lower crop yields. The conflict and displacement Widespread infrastructure damage, especially to schools, health fa- have also increased unemployment. Many farmers who fled their land cilities, economic structures such as farmland (unknown extend of are now unemployed. Some of the farmland has been taken over by mining), public and private enterprises, markets, and transport routes the IDPs to stay without purchasing. These farmers whose land was VOLUME II : COMPONENT REPORT RECOVERY AND PEACE BUILDING ASSESSMENT 121 NORTH-EAST NIGERIA 17.6 percent of the working age population were engaged in crop production and livestock production, respectively. Following the cri- BOX 3.4 sis, the labour force participation rate in the North-East shifted from IDPs’ Coping Strategy in Adamawa crop production to livestock production, as well as to non-agricultur- al self-employment. The IDPs in Daware in Adamawa State negotiated access to land with the host communities and set out to plant during the upcom- IDPs and host communities have coped with the situation using dif- ing planting season. They should be able to harvest between Sep- ferent mechanisms. In order to cope with the forcible change in avail- tember and November depending on what and when they planted. ability of livelihoods and sources of income, IDPs as well as members This is a promising coping strategy and it may be worth following of the hosting community made adjustments in consumption of food up on it to see whether it can be made available to other IDPs. An and non-food items. From the assessment, it was noted that some of overview on the lessons learned is presented in the recommenda- the coping mechanisms used by IDPs and hosting community mem- tions section. bers are: sale of livestock, land and/or other property; sending chil- dren away to stay with friends and relatives or withdrawing children from school; engagement in some irregular income generating activi- taken by IDPs for settlements have been deprived from using the land ties (petty trade, daily labour, etc.); friends’ and family assistance; tak- for agricultural purposes. Gombe, once served as the commercial hub ing loans from microfinance facilities or relatives; migration to bigger for the six North-East States, as well as Cameroon, lost 80 percent71 towns for work while family remained in the IDPs camps or hosting in the trade business. community; advanced selling of harvest; reduced food consump- tion; and assistance from NGOs or government support institutions Portions of the economic infrastructure, damaged or destroyed by (NEMA/SEMA, VSF etc.). Boko Haram-related violence, have significantly impeded access to sources of income. In addition to the loss of income faced by farm- 3.2.2 Livelihood Impacts on the Displaced Communities ers currently without access to their land to plant crops and raise livestock, non-agricultural livelihoods are also being affected. Local Most displaced households can no longer pursue their typical liveli- markets in most LGAs have been destroyed or abandoned because hoods. IOM, the registration exercise of IDPs noted that about 55 businesses were either forced to close down because of insecurity or percent of the IDPs households indicated that they had a regular business owners migrated to safer states and LGAs as IDPs. Accord- source of income before their displacement. 57 percent of IDPs de- ing to the RPBA meetings, it was noted that the less than 50 percent clared that agriculture was their main source of income before dis- of markets that remain operational reported business slowing down placement, followed by other small scale businesses (28 percent). 83 (from >N1 million to