95322 China Transport Topics No. 14 March 2015 Public Transport Service Optimization and System Integration Samuel Zimmerman and Ke Fang The World Bank, Washington, USA Public transport has the most customer appeal and is most efficient when it is planned and operated as a seamless, integrated system. This is particularly important in urban environments in fast growing economies such as China and India, where public transport must increasingly compete with private vehicles which offer door-to-door, “one seat” travel irrespective of time of day or day of the week. International experience suggests that public transport planners must recognize two integration dimensions: (a) integration among all modes and routes comprising the multi-modal public transport network, (b) integration of the physical and operational elements of each respective mode and service, e.g., metro or bus. Successful integration in both dimensions will provide a more customer-friendly experience and make public transport more efficient and cost-effective. This will help maximize public transport ridership and revenue, increase customer satisfaction, reduce costs and subsidies and generate environmental, social and economic benefits for the investment. The note below outlines the issues associated with the first dimension, modal integration both intra and intermodal, and how they should be addressed. The note closes with illustrations of good practice. Introduction local and long-distance buses and passenger rail within a multi-modal public transport network. Improved public transport integration can bring benefits to both public transport users and Key Service Planning and Design Issues public transport providers. First, it can provide passengers with a better travel experience by From a public transport passenger’s perspective, making it easier and more convenient to use, a trip normally involves a number of discrete especially in competition with private modes time segments, beginning at the actual origin of such as motorbikes, cars and taxis. Second, the trip and ending at the ultimate destination. effective public transport system integration can Each time segment is perceived in different ways enhance public transport’s financial that need to be considered during public sustainability by decreasing overall costs through transport planning and design. reduced overlap and redundancy and increasing revenue by attracting more customers. 1）Walking No matter which type of public transport is used, Public transport integration has a number of public transport trips include time spent walking, dimensions: (a) integration among all modes and to the initial boarding stop/station either from routes comprising the multi-modal public the actual trip origin or from a car or bus parking transport network, (b) integration of the physical space, from the last alighting stop/station and, if and operational elements of each respective a transfer is needed, walking after alighting from mode and service, e.g., metro or bus. Because the service initially boarded to the boarding the latter is more engineering- oriented, this place of the next service. note, with a service planning focus, will focus on integration among all routes and modes, including metro, light rail, bus rapid transit (BRT), China Transport Topics No. 14 2 World Bank Office, Washington Travel research throughout the world has The reason that waiting time is viewed so much consistently shown that travellers view walking more negatively than riding time reflects: time as significantly more difficult than time spent riding. Depending on the situation, walking  Uncertainty and nervousness as to when time can be considered up to twice as onerous the next bus or train will actually arrive; as riding time in travel decision making.  The fact that when waiting, no progress is being made in moving to the ultimate Exhibit I: Elasticity of Walking Time Relative to Riding Time destination; Mode Work Leisure Other  Perceived safety and security while Car 1.37 1.74 1.55 Bus 1.67 1.66 2.02 waiting, especially at night and/or for Rail, Metro 1.99 1.97 1.37 women and other vulnerable groups; *Source: The Demand for Public Transit, a Practical Guide,  The need to stand in a potentially hostile Transport Research Laboratory, TRL, UK, 2004 environment that may be hot or cold and/or without light, weather protection; The values shown in Exhibit I compare public  Poor passenger information about routes, transport demand elasticity (the ratio of the schedules, way-finding. percentage change in public transport demand per percentage change in time) for walk time Exhibit II: Elasticity of Waiting Time Relative to Riding compared to the elasticites for time actually Time riding on a public transport vehicle. They are Mode All Purposes illustrative of the importance of all aspects of Car 2.1 Bus 1.6 walking as a factor in public transport demand. Metro 1.2 The fact that the ratios are significantly greater All 1.8 than 1 for all trip purposes and modes indicates *Source: Same as the Exhibit I. the importance public transport riders (and other travellers) place on walking in making 3）Transfering travel decisions, e.g., mode choice. The The potential need to transfer between public concerns this reflects are: transport services is an important consideration in travel decision making. Travel research also  the perceived effort it takes to walk, finds that if one or more transfers are needed especially for travelers carrying packages this is in itself a negative factor, in addition to and where level changes via stairs or the measurable impact of walking from one ramps are required; service alighting point to the next service’s  the importance of the perceived safety boarding point, potentially paying an additional and security of the walking environment, fare and waiting. especially for women;  the frequent absence of continuous side Exhibit III: Perception of the Effect of a Transfer In Terms walks in good condition, free of Of Min. Of Riding Time impediments like hawkers, parked cars, Modes Equivalent to in-vehicle time mud filled pot-holes, etc. bus 20 rail transit 17 *Source: Same as the Exhibit I. 2）Waiting Waiting time is also perceived by travelers to be Exhibit III is an illustration of the dislike travelers much more onerous than riding time for have for transferring. Stated another way, travelers, as shown in Exhibit II. travelers using public transport in places reflected in the table prefer riding on a single service for up to 20 minutes longer to avoid one China Transport Topics No. 14 3 World Bank Office, Washington transfer, all else being equal. The value for a TRL’s, Op.Cit.), the authors found that the second transfer is, no doubt, higher which is a negative perception of an “assisted” (escalator) reason that so few are typically made, even level change in Boston’s urban rail system was within a high frequency and quality urban rail equivalent to about 4 minutes of walking time, network. irrespective of how long it actually took. They also found a significantly higher range of values Documented in a paper published by the U.S. for transfer penalties in the off peak (e.g., at Transportation Research Board in 2004, night) than in peak periods. This implies that “Assessment of the Transfer Penalty for Transit transfers requiring walks in underground, poorly Trips: A GIS-based Disaggregate Modeling lighted and potentially insecure passages were Approach,” two MIT researchers analyzed the more negatively perceived when few other impact of the transfer environment for trips travelers were around than in the peak periods. using the urban rail system (metro, LRT) to access the CBD in Boston Mass. They modeled In summary, the negative perception of transfer the choice between travelers walking to their requirements is a reflection of traveler concerns ultimate destination in the CBD after arriving by regarding: rail versus transferring to another rail line with a station closer to their ultimate destination. This  the potential unreliability of the service was done for different station pairs with transferred to different transfer environments within the  the possible need to leave a seat on one respective stations and underground in between, service to stand on another and the respective walking environments for the  the quality of the transferring alternative, all outdoor pedestrian paths. environment in terms of lighting, weather protection, safety/security Table 1 was taken from the paper and the values  the need for level changes it contains are consistent with the TRL synthesis.  poor way-finding information guiding In addition to confirming other research (e.g., new users to the second service Table 1: The Range of the Transfer Penalty and the Goodness-of-Fit of Models Model The Range of the Penalty Number Underlying Variables Adjusted p2 (Equivalent Value of) A Transfer constant 0.309 9.5 minutes of walking time Government Center (GOVT) Downtown Crossing(DTXG) B State (STAT) 0.369 4.8-9.7 minutes of walking time Transfer constant Transfer walking time Transfer waiting time C Assisted Level Change 0.385 4.3-15.2 minutes of walking time Transfer constant Transfer walking time Transfer waiting time 4.4-19.4 minutes of walking time (Peak) Assisted Level Change 0.414 (Peak) 2.3-21.4 minutes of walking time (Off- D GOVT 0.357 (Off-peak) peak) Source: N. Wilson & Z. Guo, 2004 China Transport Topics No. 14 4 World Bank Office, Washington Network Integration make them more attractive by bringing routes where transfers are being made (or might) The discussion above makes clear that closer together to a common stop. New routes integration of urban public transport networks, can be proposed and/or some may actually be irrespective of mode, is extremely important in eliminated as cities grow and markets change. determining whether travelers select public transport as their travel choice, and if so, their An entire network can be restructured along satisfaction with their choice. Key dimensions of “functional” lines, each type of service oriented network integration include the route structure, to a different market type, all day central stops and transfer stations, schedules, fares and business district circulation versus long-distance, passenger information. These will be discussed peak period commuting versus all day, all week individually below. local bus or rapid transit. Irrespective of types and magnitude of changes being considered, it is 1) Network structure, individual route usually not obvious what should be done. Most terminals/alignment/stops/stations, levels of public transport network planning efforts will service involve the iterative analysis of successively better service options, keeping in mind This integration dimension involves making sure financing, roadway and sidewalk capacity and that the entire public transport network other constraints. supports travel among the entire array of origins and destinations in a minimum of travel time The levels of service provided by the different and cost, accounting for the traveler preferences routes comprising a network can also be with regard to walking, waiting and transferring important in system integration. Transfers from noted above. Public transport networks should one route or mode to another can only be be planned, implemented and operated to adequately accommodated if sufficient capacity support door-to-door travel irrespective of the is available on the route transferred to leaving mode or modes, route or routes used. The the transfer point. This is an issue with many starting points for integrated public transport rapid transit systems at within rapid transit network planning are current and expected transfer points and it is a problem where rapid future travel market needs. Given travel transit interfaces with lower order, lower patterns, networks are modified and/or capacity parts of the public transport network expanded to minimize duplication, indirection of (e.g., “feeder bus routes”). Consideration should travel, walking and transfer requirements and be given to the relationship of the levels of make it easier for the traveler to understand and service/capacities of the various routes meeting use. at transfer points, the respective route demands through the stop and transfers volumes. In the simplest cases, the types of changes that might be contemplated include: 2) Schedule integration/coordination  individual route alignments and terminals Schedule integration has two implications. The  stop locations first is to ensure that all routes serving a  stops added or eliminated particular stop or terminal are in operation  frequencies increased or reduced during the same hours (known as “span of service”) so that no one is left “stranded.” For These changes can be made to minimize total example, bus routes serving a terminal rapid travel times for the largest number of transit station should have a span of service such passengers, reduce operating and maintenance that the last BRT vehicle or train of the day is costs for operators, minimize transfers or even either met by a departing local or “feeder” bus, China Transport Topics No. 14 5 World Bank Office, Washington or the bus departs from the station after the  well lighted and traffic signal (or more) rapid transit vehicle arrives. protected street crossings where required for transfers The second is to coordinate schedules, especially  off-street drop off/pick up facilities for in network with low frequencies so that the bus transfers at rapid transit stations and different routes serving an important transfer at large bus transfer locations station are scheduled to arrive and depart at the  amenities for passengers so that the trip same time and “held” for enough time between involving public transport through these or among them so that all applicable transfers locations can be made more pleasant and can be made. productive, thus presenting a more competitive alternative to private 3) Transfer Stops/Stations/Terminals vehicles use. As a general rule, public transport service Perhaps the most important planning and design planners work to avoid transfers because of the issues for intermodal and intra modal transfer negative traveler perception of the time and terminals are both the reality and the perception difficulty involved in making them. That having of safety and security,. been said, it is often more attractive to a traveler to have an alternative available which involves a Passages between stops and stations and level transfer but is always available, requires a change devices (steps, escalators and elevators) minimum of travel time and travel difficulty, are places where significant numbers of including cost, than a direct travel alternative accidents and crimes can take place. These without a transfer that is long, circuitous, slow issues are particularly important for women and and only available in the peak periods. senior citizens, and should be among the primary planning and design concerns both to Assuming that service planners have developed attract and facilitate more people using public an efficient, attractive network route structure transport. that for market, geography and other reasons results in significant transfer volumes at certain Fire and disaster evacuation is also a critical locations, it is imperative that the transfers be issue not only in case of real emergencies but made as seamless as possible, with the minimum also in the way travellers perceive the “quality” of time and difficulty. and attractiveness of public transport. This means: How the above issues are addressed is subject to the volumes of passengers transferring, the  minimum walking distances and level number of distinct services (and modes) involved changes between stopping locations and subject to physical, operational and financial  safe, secure level change equipment and constraints. facilities which enable travel by all citizens including the physically 4) Fare integration challenged (e.g., seniors)  enhanced lighting and weather protection Public transport users (and those who desire to (sun, rain, wind) in walking and waiting be) are not only sensitive to the absolute level of areas fares, but also to the number of times that fare  platforms and passages large enough to must be paid and how fare media are purchased. accommodate expected flows and This is obviously most important for travelers numbers of waiting/boarding passengers that must transfer but also has implications or those who don’t. The objective in fare setting China Transport Topics No. 14 6 World Bank Office, Washington and payment should be to maximize of the day or week and/or to new destinations. convenience and minimize the perceived cost to Potential travelers who may need or want to use the user of public transport. Having to pay for the system irregularly often perceive that the public transport one trip at a time or take a effort to learn how is insurmountable. In the public transport fare card, ticket, pass or cash case of generally easier to understand mass rail (the worst) out of a secure pocket or purse transit system, infrequent users can account for multiple times for a trip involving multiple up to 40% of total travel volumes. services is very inconvenient. It also increases the negative perception of public transport use The provision of comprehensive, easy to compared to driving where the user costs of a understand and easy to access information is single trip are not perceived at all unless tolls are important for pre-trip planning and en routes. paid or parking is charged for. The goals of the information are to make use of the system as easy as possible both before and From the perspective of operators, increased during the trip and to reduce anxiety about numbers of discrete fare media (IC and magnetic where to get off once on board. Integrated cards, tickets, token, etc.) purchases and fare information should be presented to facilitate payments increases station/terminal dwell times travel from actual origin to actual destination and thus operating costs and also increase the irrespective of how many different routes or possibility of revenue shrinkage through fare- modes may be used. non payment and theft. The information should be available at home, at To overcome these difficulties, many public work or school, on board and at stops, stations, transport companies are moving to integrated terminals and interchange points. The type of fares paid electronically with IC cards. These information will include: provide the mechanism to charge by distance or time irrespective of the number of transfers  Schedules and next service arrival times made. They also provide an equitable way of at the first boarding stop dividing revenue among different public  Way finding information directing transport operators where there is more than travelers between major public transport one serving the same market or markets. stops, stations and terminals and major Payment of a fare for a certain amount of activity centers elapsed time from the initial boarding means  Way finding information within transfer that travelers can get off a vehicle mid-trip, do facilities an errand and get back on the next one without  Schedules and next service arrival times having to pay twice, as long as it is within the at transfer points parameters set by policy. It also reduces the perception of a financial transfer penalty. The key objective is to provide the needed information in one easy to use and understand 5) Passenger Information format for all services and access/egress and transfer points, irrespective of route and mode In surveys done in both developing and to facilitate total trips from origin to destination. developed cities, the lack of easily available and understandable traveler information on public Summary transport route alignments, stops, terminals, schedules and fares are cited as a problem. This Public transport networks are perfect examples makes it difficult for new riders to begin using of economic systems where the integrated public transport and for existing riders to make whole produces far more benefits than the un- new kind of trips, for new purpose, at new times integrated sum of its parts. When satisfaction China Transport Topics No. 14 7 World Bank Office, Washington surveys are conducted for existing public place to place according to history, the transport customers, the problems usually cited governmental system, etc., but the key as significant most often deal with poor characteristics of the needed institution are: integration, both at the network level and within a specific mode or service. Problem areas at the  multi-modal scope network level include:  metropolitan area-wide jurisdiction  strong role in capital investment project  the need to take multiple routes, selection and priority setting uncoordinated with respect to schedules,  strong role in operating subsidy policy availability of service, alignments and making and allocation passenger information  the need to inconveniently pay multiple, Unfortunately, most developing cities have a often additive fares number of unique, parallel public transport  the need to walk far and change levels entities whose mandates do not extend beyond numerous times between different the individual system or municipal jurisdiction services with little or now way-finding boundary. If there is no body with a serious guidance between them. coordinating role connected to project approval and funding in these cases, it is unlikely that all Non-customers frequently cite the same services and network components will work problems as reason for not taking public together as the synergistic, integrated whole transport at all or not more frequently. described above. Far too often, public transport companies or agencies believe that their mission Institutional Arrangements and Public and functions begin and end once a customer Transport Integration arrives at their respective access points and ends once the customer leaves their part of the These integration issues not only adversely system. It is clear that this should not be and impact the number and satisfaction of people the challenge is how to change institutional using public transport, but also impact fare arrangements for urban transport to effect the revenue and operating costs and thus the needed integration. financial viability of public transport. Public transport integration issues in most developing cities are difficult to resolve not necessarily because practitioners do not recognize them or do not know how to address them. Service and physical planning issues are relatively straight forward to deal with technically. The reason is invariably related to the way public transport is organized, and how the institutions and the people that work for them relate to one another. In an ideal world, all public transport, irrespective of mode would be planned, implemented and managed under the aegis of a single authority with a mandate covering an entire metropolitan area. The specifics of how this might be accomplished could vary from China Transport Topics No. 14 8 World Bank Office, Washington Samuel L. Zimmerman is an Urban Transport Consultant to the Department of Sustainable Development, East Asia and Pacific Region in the Washington Office of the World Bank and was formerly a Senior Urban Transport Specialist there. Ke Fang is a Lead Urban Transport Specialist in South Asia Region of the World Bank, based in the World Bank New Delhi Office. This note is part of the China Transport Note Series. It is produced under TransFORM, the collaborative solution platform convened by the Government of China through its Ministry of Transport and the World Bank. The mission of TransFORM is to make comprehensive transport safer, cleaner, and more affordable for development in China while sharing the experience of China with other countries. For comments, please contact Mr. Ke Fang (kfang@Worldbank.org) or Gerald Ollivier (gollivier@worldbank.org) from the Beijing Office of the World Bank. Any findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank. Neither the World Bank nor the authors guarantee the accuracy of any data or other information contained in this document and accept no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use.