KARNATAKA WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT E-458 VOL. 2 TRIBAL STUDY REPORT MAY 2001 FILE COPY KARNATAKA WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT TRIBAL STUDY REPORT Table of Contents 1 The Project: Scope and Design 1 2. Tribals in Karnataka 6 3. Tribals in Legal and Welfare Context 16 4. Socio-Economic Baseline of Tribals in Karnataka and Selected Villages 21 5. Does the project Require an IPDP ? 34 6. Vulnerable Groups (including Tribals) Development Strategy 37 Annexure Profile of Tribes in Karnataka 44 1 THE PROJECT: SCOPE AND DESIGN 1.1 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT The Government of Karnataka (GoK) has proposed Comprehensive Watershed Development Project (CWDP) in the mid 2000 with the assistance of World Bank. The implementing agency will be Watershed Department, GoK. For implementaton arrangements, the GoK with the help of the World Bank has proposed an elaborate arrangement by creating several organizabons responsible at various levels: State, Districts, Watersheds and Villages. The demand driven approach is the key aspect of this project. The project proposes to cover about 77 sub-watersheds in 1,270 villages in 38 talukas in 5 districts in the state, selected based on the poverty ratio. It is estimated that about 426,969 ha of land will be treated directly benefiting 350,000 families of which 25,000 would be landless families including some tribals. With an ultimate emphasis on alleviaton of rural poverty especially in the dry areas, the project aims at augmenting and sustaining productivity of both arable and non-arable land, with involvement of local communities. This calls for adopting a holistic approach through integrated development of diversified fields viz., agriculture, horticulture, forestry, sericulture, fisheries, livestock management and income generating activities specially designed for the vulnerable groups, including tribals. 1.1.1 Project Objectives The Project aims at achieving two basic objectives as stated under: a) Primary Objective is to achieve sustainable alleviation of poverty in predominantly rain fed areas in Karnataka. The Strategies to achieve this are: *:~ Improve the productive potential of selected watersheds; *. Enhance production and livelihood systems; *. Strengthen community and institutional arrangements for natural resource management; Participatory involvement of project stakeholders/beneficiaries with line departments as partners in development; and *. Assistance to women, landless and other vulnerable groups by supporting investments in income generating schemes to accelerate their entry and expand their involvement. b) Associated Objective is to strengthen the capacity of communities in the project villages for participatory involvement in local level development programs with the implementing department operating as facilitators within the framework of a convergent watershed development plan. 1.1.2 Project Components The project would include four key components as listed under: Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 2 a) Participatory Watershed Treatment Social mobilization and capacity building for community, departmental staff, Panchayati Raj Institutions in selected watersheds, formation of Micro Watershed Management Group (to prepare detailed Village Watershed Development Plans) and Participa.ory Watershed Development Committees (to integrate the village plans into a comprehensive watershed treatment and development plan); and *:1- Actual treatment of the watersheds. b) Farming System Intensification Demonstrations in appropriate farming systems such as tillage for moisture conservation, use of improved seed varieties, production of high value fodder crops, Dry land horticulture, agro-forestry and livestock development; and Improving knowledge (location-specific research) and dissemination (extension) through training of scientists and farmers, and on-farm trials (identification and development of alternative models of afforestation, silvi-pasture, agro-forestry and agro-horticulture suitable for specific agro-ecological zones) c) Income Generating Activities for Vulnerable Groups Identification of specific activities to extend the project benefits to women, landless and other vulnerable groups. d) Institutional Strengthening Training and technical assistance (M&E, Social Assessments, Environmental Assessments, and other studies necessary during implementation); and Support for project management and coordination. The activities of the actual watershed treatment are given in Table 1.1. Table 1.1: Watershed Treatment Activities Watershed Activities Treatment _- Soil and Water * Erosion control - contour vegetative hedges, gully control measures Conservation * Drainage treatment Water harvesting with eco-engineering devices - check dams, dugout sunken ponds, recharge pits, etc. . Village pond Agriculture & allied * Conservation measures - vegetative field boundaries, reuse of harvested water, furrow contour activities cultivation * Production measures - organic farming, crop demonstration, rainfed crop demonstration, on farm fodder and biomass production Dryland horticulture * Rainfed horticulture - demonstrations, marginal land and Agroforestry . Silvi-horticulture * Agroforestry Animal husbandry * Livestock management Animal health care / breeding centers * Stall feeding - construction / rehabilitation of stalls * Chaff cutters for fodder feeding Forestry Afforestation / reforestation . Silvi-pasture * Vegetative shrub barriers . Pasture land development . Production improvement 1.1.3 Vulnerable Groups (including Tribal) Development Strategy (VGDS) As discussed earlier, the project has a strong social objective. The Project aims to improve the quality of life of the community in general and vulnerable groups inter alia Tribals. One of the specific components of the Social Assessment is to assess whether the vulnerable people, particularly the tribals, will suffer adverse impact or not.There is a need to develop a strategy to facilitate the processes for decision-making, implementation KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 3 and monitoring and evaluation of proposed project activities by targeting the Scheduled Tribes (STs)' and other vulnerable groups. In other words, the VGDS should provide mechanism to ensure that the tribals and other vulnerable groups are mobilised into groups, capacitated to plan, implement and operate, and maintain the project activities/facilities. The VGDS will also provide suitable mechanism for community monitoring, sustainability monitoring and impact evaluation. The specific objectives of the vulnerablegroups including tribal development strategy are: To provide mechanism for mobilization of such groups;; To capacitate them to plan, implement, operate and maintain the project activities/facilities; To foster and improve grassroots tribal institutions; To provide a suitable mechanism for monitoring of the process of empowerment, sustainability of the services and impact of the interventions by the community; and -*e To develop a framework for their participation, especially women, in development activities. 1.2 Methodology Adopted For the Study The study was conducted with complete participation of potental beneficiaries in the 63 project villages. The process followed is described below. a) Consultation Process The study was carried out through series of consultations with the local community (may be called as Primary Stakeholders) at the project villages. The various stages involved in study were as under: Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) of Selected Villages As the first step, a pilot field visit was made to all 63 villages. Using RRA technique, a quick assessment was made on each village. This RRA also helped to workout the methodology, tools and techniques for comprehensive field survey to be undertaken further. Through Rapport Building Exercise, important personalites in each village were met and solicited their perceptions, opinions and ideas about the existing situation and the proposed project. The objectives of the proposed project were also explained to them. *: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Studies In Selected Villages PRA was a principal tool used to facilitate information sharing, analysis and action amongst stakeholders. Village communities were involved actively in the discussions and the whole exercise was participatory. The purpose of the PRA was: identification of key issues; assessment of inter- relationships among the stakeholders; identification of priorites, problems and prospects; state of natural resources including common property resources; ascertainment of people's perceptions; understanding of institutional structure; observation of livelihood systems; examination of the existing cost-sharing As per Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India (Part X, Fifth Schedule that provides protection to the Scheduled Tribes on account of their disadvantages) KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 4 mechanism; analysis of existing O&M; and evaluation of existing Income Generating Activities. PRA included social mapping, resource mapping, time-line analysis, stakeholder analysis, beneficiary assessment, etc. With the help of the PRA, social status of the village was assessed and the needs of the village community were determined. Three levels of consultation was carried out: (a) Meeting with all local community in a common place; (b) Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with selected groups including men groups, women groups and landless; and (c) Household level interview. The key objective of FGD and in-depth interviews was to ascertain their views and perceptions on possible impact of the proposed watershed components, prioritization of environmental issues of the villages, proposed activities, willingness to cost-sharing on the proposed watershed interventions, training needs, future income generating activities etc. Opinion leaders and village elders were also met for information on the life patterns in the past and changes that have taken place over the years, especially in the area of natural resource management. They were also queried on the possible impact of the project. Checklists were used for facilitating discussions with target groups such as women. landless and Scheduled Castes & Tribes. These groups were met separately for frank and free discussions. In the case of Household Survey, 15% of the total households were interviewed in each of the selected villages. Transect Walk As a third level of field survey, a village transact walk was undertaken in each village. Transects were taken around the village area to have first hand information on the status of natural resources and to ascertain the kind of interventions required. Villagers, officers from the District Watershed Department and members of the Gram Panchayat were actively involved in the exercise. During transact, many other details regarding each component was discussed with the community. This has helped in deciding a suitable location/area amongst many choices for proposed project activity. The other issues discussed include cost-benefit analysis of each of the project intervention, willingness to cost sharing arrangements, level of participation in implementation and operation and maintenance. 1.3 THE REPORT The purpose of this Report is to understand and appreciate the existing situation of Tribals in Karnataka in general and in the Project districts and villages surveyed in particular. It is also expected to suggest suitable strategies for facilitating the participation of all the vulnerable groups in the project. The Report is organized into 5 sections: Section 2: presents the distribution of tribals in the state and project districts by group; Section 3: discusses the tribals in Karnataka in the legal and welfare context; Section 4 presents the socio-economic baseline of tribals in the project districts; Section 5 KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Studv 5 discusses the need for an IPDP; and Section 6 outlines the vulnerable groups (including tribal) developrment strategy. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 6 2 TRIBALS IN KARNATAKA 2.1 INTRODUCTION This Chapter presents the distribution of tribal groups in Karnataka in general and five project districts in particular. The Chapter also presents briefly salient characteristics of each of the tribal groups in Karnataka including the language and culture and so forth. 2.2 STATE LEVEL SCENARIO 2.2.1 Geographical Distribution of Tribal Population In all, Karnataka State had a tribal populaton of 1.9 million (as per 1991 Census), accounting for 4.25 per cent of the total populaton (Table 2.1). The distribution of ST populabon across the districts indicates that the share is higher than the district average in about 11 districts. Table 2.1 Tribal Population in Karnataka Districts Tol Population TST Population |% ST to Dist. Total % ST to Total State ST Districts otal Popuation ST opulationPopulation Population Bagaikote 1394654 22175 1.59 1.16 Bangalore (U) 4831622 53631 1.11 2.80 Bangalore (R) 1671356 49305 2.95 2.57 Belgaum 3580862 83076 2.32 4.34 Bellary 1656092 147889 8.93 (H) 7.72 Bidar 1255602 104215 8.30 (H) 5.44 Bijapur 1538053 17380 1.13 0.91 Chamarajanagar 883630 38703 4.38 (H) 2.02 Chikmaglur 1016628 26534 2.61 1.39 Chitradra I 112687 222763 16.97 (H) 11.63 Dakshina Kannada 1632734 64493 3.95 3.37 Devanegere 1559118 155600 9.98 (H) 8.12 Dharwad 1376235 23396 1.70 1.22 Gadag 859163 20534 2.39 1.07 Gulbarga 2582971 106935 4.14 5.58 Hassan 1564245 16581 1.06 0.87 Haveri 1274354 61169 4.80 (H) 3.19 Kodagu 488630 40312 8.25 (H) 2.10 Kolar 2217667 153019 6.90 (H) 7.99 Koppal 958782 59828 6.24 (H) 3.12 Mandya 1635068 11936 0.73 0.62 Mysore 2280540 63399 2.78 3.31 Raichur 1351785 120444 8.91 (H) 6.29 Shimoga 3264581 74106 2.27 3.87 Tumkur 2305805 167632 7.27 (H) 8.75 Udupi 1060204 41666 3.93 2.17 Uttar Kannada 1225060 10168 0.83 0.53 STATE Total 44969272 1915691 4.26 100.00 KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project- Tribal Study 7 Source: Census of India, 1991Among all, Chitradurga district has the highest share of STs (over 11 %) followed by Tumkur (8.7%) and Davanagere (8.1 %). Chitradurga also ranks first in the share of STs to the total population of the district populaton. 2.2.2 Distribution by Tribals Groups The state government of Karnataka has specified nearly 49 communities as Scheduled Tribes as per Constitltion of India2. Table 2.2 presents all 49 tribal communities (groups) in the state and table 2.3 gives the share of population by each community to the total ST populaton in the State. It is evident that Nayaka Group constitutes the highest share with 69% followed by Kadu Kuruba with 11.5%. The other larger tribals of the state includes Gond, Koli Dhor and Jenu Kuruba, each account over 2% of the total ST populaton of the State. Table 2.2: Scheduled Tribes in Karnataka 1. Adiyan 26. Koya, Bhine Khoya 2. Barda 27. KudiYa Melakudi 3. Bavacha, Bamcha 28. Kuruba (In Coorg District) 4. Bhil, Bhil Garasia 29. Kurumans 5. Chenchu, Chenchwar 30. Maha Malasar 6. Chodhara 31. Malaikudi 7. Dubla, Talavia, Halpati 32. Malasar 8. Gamit, Gamta 33. Malayekandi 9. Gond, Naikpod 34. Maleru 10. Gowdalu 35. Maratha(In Coorg District) 11. Hakkipikki 36. Marati (In South KanaraDistrict) 12. Hasaralu 37. Meda 13. Irular 38. Naikda, Nayaka, Cholivala Nayaka, Kapadia Nayaka, Mota Nayaka, Nana Nayaka 14. Iruliga _ 39. Palliyan 15. Jenu Kuruba 40. Paniyan 16. Kadu Kuruba 41. Pardhi 17. Kaniyan, Kanyan 42. Patelia 18. Kammara 43. Rathawa 19. Kattunayakan 44. Sholaga 20. Kathodi 45. Soligaru 21. Kokna 46. Toda 22. Konda Kapus 47. Varli 23. Koli Dhor 48. Vitolia 24. Koraga 49. Yerava 25. Kota I Source: Compiled by Consultants from secondary sources Table 2.3: Different Types of STs in Karnataka TRIBAL RURAL URBAN Total % GROUPS Male Female Male Female Nayaka 558562 545336 79754 76506 1260158 69.04 Kadu Luruba 90767 87509 16373 15028 209677 11.49 2 The need to specify tribes and tribal communities as Scheduled Tribes arose only after the Constitution of India came into force on January 26, 1950. Article 342 of the Constitution provides that the President may with respect of any State or Union Territory specify the tribe or tribal communities or parts of or groups within tribes or tribal communities, which shall be deemed to be Scheduled Tribes in relation to the State or Union Territory. In pursuance of this provision the President made an order in 1950, called the Constitution (Scheduled tribes) Order, 1950 in relation to the term Part A and Part B States. Subsequently, an Advisory Committee was set up for advising the Government on the revision of lists Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The Committee, which submitted its report in August 1965, suggested revised lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This present list of STs in all States and Union Territories confirms to the Committee's suggestions. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 8 Gond 28799 27697 2294 1940 60730 3.33 Koli Dhor 15841 15440 4048 3806 39135 2.14 Jenukuruba 14916 14176 2951 2704 34747 1.90 Koya 12811 12829 1115 1052 27807 1.52 Yerava 9614 9234 197 216 19261 1.06 Meda 3377 3254 6201 5852 18684 1.02 Soligaru 8009 7684 380 317 16390 0.90 Koraga 6049 5992 1552 1551 15144 0.83 Hasalaru 5325 5104 115 116 10660 0.58 Malaikudi 3463 3406 73 25 6967 0.38 Gowdalu 2836 2540 455 392 6223 0.34 Iruliga 2726 2486 160 162 5534 0.30 Hakki pikki 1473 1323 299 284 3382 0.19 Bhil 722 686 235 224 1867 0.10 Barda 277 259 101 90 727 0.04 Adiyan 26 18 182 142 368 0.02 Chenchu 98 85 52 41 276 0.02 Bavacha 12 15 24 28 79 0.00 Others 39985 39600 3983 3819 87387 4.79 TOTAL 805691 1784673 120544 114295 1825203 100 Source: Census of India, 1991. 2.2.3 Culture and Traditions of Tribals Groups As explained earlier, though the State has 49 tribal community groups, Nayaka,Kadu Kurubas and Jenu Kuruba. constitute 80% of tribal population in Karnataka. A brief discussion on their culture and traditions of these major tribes is presented. The specific characteristics (cultural traits) of each of the tribal group mentioned in Annexure - I. a) Nayaka The term Nayaka means leader. The Nayaka community has three sub-castes namely Valmiki, Beda and Talavara. Valmiki claim direct descent from Valmiki, the author of Ramayana. Bedas practice hunting. Talavars function as messengers as well as village watchmen. e.: Ancient culture and tradition: The community used to worship animistic gods, when they were living in forests. Their traditions and belief were nature-based. Ancestral worship was also predominant among them. Hunting was extensively practiced among the community. Caste Panchayat system was prevalent. They spoke dialect of Kannada. Child marriage was in vogue. Present Culture and Tradition: They speak Kannada. They have adopted local traditions, customs and beliefs and these vary from one region to other. AT present, they very into main stream of development. The main stay is agriculture, wage labour and animal husbandry. Hunting is no longer practiced except for the day after Ugadi Festival (Kannada New Year - in April every year) when hunting is practiced as ritual. Though the system of caste panchayat has diminished, they take decisions collectively in the general community meetings. Religion & Worship: They profess Hinduism and worship some village and regional deities like Shiva and Vishnu and other gods. The Brahmin priests serve them only during marriage rituals. They celebrate Ugadi, Dasara and Shivraatri. Inter-community Relations: They share water sources and burial grounds with their neighbours, visit the same religious shrines and participate together in village festivals. They take part in all village activities and move socially with other communities. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Studv 9 Food Habits: They are non-vegetarians. Rice, Jowar and Ragi are their staple food. Liqucr consumption is not a taboo. Smoking and tobacco chewing are common among them. Social Conditons: The vertically extended family is the predominant type. Male equigeniture is the rule of inheritance and the succession of authority goes to the eldest son. There are exogamous clans in the community. Marriage to one's father's sister's daughter is allowed. Junior sorority is permissible. Adult marriages are preferred and marital alliances are sought through negotiations. Monogamy is the norm and the symbols for women are the locket and toe-rings. They follow the patriarchal rule of residence. The remarriage of a widower is allowed, but a widow cannot remarry. There has been an increase in the age at marriage among them, due to education and increased awareness. It has also been observed that bride price is now giving way to dowry, as in other non-tribal communities. Status of women: The Nayaka women participate in agriculture and also tend cattle. They do all household chores including collection of fuel for cooking and bringing water. There are specific roles for women in social, ritual and religious spheres. Rituals: Among them, birth pollution lasts for thirty days and the naming ceremony for a baby in performed on the thirtieth day. A puberty rite (hosage) is performed for the girls. The marriage ceremony is held at the bride's residence and the marriage feast is hosted by both the bride's and the groom's families. The dead are buried or cremated. In case of cremation, the bones are immersed in water. Death pollution lasts for eleven days and ancestor worship is observed annually. *:. Attitudes: The attitudes of the Nayaka towards formal education is favourable for the boys and partly so for the girls. The literacy rate among the Nayaka is 18.95 per cent (28.64 per cent males and 9.00 per cent females). They utilise modern medicines and family welfare programmes. Drinking water, employment generation programmes, electricity, media and communication facilities are available to them. Some of them are self-employed in agriculture and animal husbandry. b) Kadu Kuruba They are also known as Betta Kuruba, The names "Kadu kuruba' and 'Betta kuruba' have been derived from the words kadu meaning forest and betta meaning hills. They are short statured, round headed and broad faced with a very broad nasal profile. The women of this community can be identified by their distinctive way of wearing the sari. *:. Ancient culture and tradition: They used to speak a dialect of Kannada. Formerly the Kadu Kuruba had three divisions namely Anne, Bevina and Kali. At present these groups are not identifiable. The hereditary headman of their traditional community council, known as the Yajaman used to deal with intra-community disputes and impose cash fines on those who violated social norms. They used magic, sorcery, and witchcraft for the treatment of ailments. This is no longer happening. Language: They now speak Kannada and use the Kannada script. However, many of them speak a dialect of Kannada among themselves. *~ Religion: They are Hindus and have faith in local deities. The priest serving them is from their own community. They observe most of the Hindu festivals. They sing folksongs on the occasion of festivals. Family and marriage: The families are predominantly nuclear. Cross cousin and maternal uncle-niece marriages are prevalent among them. They are monogamous and prefer to marry late in life. The necklace is the symbol of marriage, but it need not necessarily be worn. Post-marital residence is KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 10 patriarchal. Divorce is granted if sought for reasons like adultery and maladjustment. Remarriage of widows, widowers and divorcees is allowed. Sons share the property of a deceased person equally. Eldest son is the successor of the family. The women participate in all domestic, social and economic activities. Rituals: Pollution caused by the birth is observed for seven days, whereas post- natal restrictions last for three to five months. The tonsure ceremony for children is observed after one year. The puberty rite muttu, is observed for girls. The dead are buried and pollution is observed for twelve days. Social Control: There are some villages, which still have Yajaman as the hereditary headman of their traditional community council. But this council mostly exists only for the namesake and do not exercise social control as in the past. Health Status: Of late, they have started visiting primary health centers. Family planning programmes are not very popular in the community, as couples prefer to have a big family. c) Jenu Kurubaa This group derives their name from Jenu, meaning honey, which they used to collect from the forests. They are concentrated in the districts of Kodagu and Mysore. They inhabit a plateau area, which is characterized by moderate climate, low humidity, thin forest and medium rainfall. Like the Betta or Kadu Kuruba, the Jenu Kuruba are short statured. -.1. Ancient culture and traditions: They spoke a dialect of Kannada called Jenu Nudi. The collection of honey, herbs, roots and fruits from the forest is the traditional occupation. The traditional community council dealt with social and economic disputes and was empowered to excommunicate the offenders or impose a fine on them. Present culture and traditions: They speak Kannada. Some of them still speak Jenu Nudi. The traditional community council no longer wields control, as earlier. Food Habits: They are non-vegetarians and their staple food is ragi and rice. Consumption of liquor is not barred. Family and Marriaae: Patriarchal family is prominent. People are monogamous. Marriage with one's father's sister's daughter, the mother's brother's daughter and the elder sister's daughter is practiced among them. Adult marriage is preferred and alliances are generally made through negotations. A marriage pendent (Thali) and toe-rings are the marriage symbols for their women. A newly wedded couple may stay with the husband's parents or may establish their own household. Either spouse can seek divorce. The remarriage of widows, widowers and male or female divorcees is permissible. A widower is allowed to marry his late wife's younger sister. Inheritance and succession: Male equigeniture is the rule of inheritance, while the rule of succession demands that the eldest son should succeed his father. *. Women Participation: Women participate in all economic activities and contribute to the family income considerably, but they are not allowed to participate in the worship of some deites. Rituals: Post-delivery pollution lasts till the twelfth day. The naming ceremony is observed on the same day. The maternal uncle tonsures a male child. Menarche calls for the observation of certain rites and restrictions. The marriage rituals are performed at the bride's residence and the bride's parents arrange the marriage feast. The dead are buried and pollution is observed for twelve days. Social Control: At present they employ priests, called Jangams, for conducting the marriage rituals. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 11 *:1- Religion: They are Hindu by religion. They celebrate the festivals of Navaratri, Ugadi, Mahashivaratri and a few others. Attitudes: Formal education is favoured for the boys and to a certain extent for girls. There is high rate of dropouts among the students of the community, due to economic reasons. By and large, the attitudes towards education of the girl-child, family planning, savings and modern progress are not very favourable. 2.3 TRIBAL GROUPS IN THE PROJECT DISTRICTS The project area covers five districts viz., Chitradurga, Dharwad, Haveri, Kolar and Tumkur. As per 1991 census, these five project districts have about 0.62 millions tribals spread across 39 taluks covering 7395 villages. Chitradurga has relatively large share of STs to total district populaton (16.9 %), followed by Kolar (8.2%), Tumkur (7.8 %), Haven (5.2 %) and Dharwad (1.9 %). (It is important to note that project villages number 1270 out of the 7400 within the five districts. Broad estimates indicate that tribal population concentration is about 93,000 in the project villages). The distribution of population by tribal community in each of the project districts is given in Tables 2.4 to 2.7. The tables suggest that by and large, Nayaka is observed as the dominant tribal community in all the project districts. The principal tribal group found in these districts is Nayaka followed by Kadu Kuruba. These tribal groups discussed in section 2.2.3 constitute almost 95% of total tribal populaton in the project villages. 2.3.1 Chitradurga District The distribution of ST population by groups in Chitradurga (Table 2.4) reveals that over 98% of the populaton is dominated by Nayaka. The district has a total of over 2.5 lakhs ST population. The next largest community is Jenu Kurubaa3. Table 2.4: Major STs in Chitradurga District Rural Urban Type of STs Male Female Male Female Total Per cent Nayaka 112422 108400 13968 12594 247384 98.16 Jenu Kurubaa 850 836 48 35 1769 0.70 Kadu Kuruba 715 686 106 107 1614 0.64 Meda 4 0 462 416 882 0.35 Others 126 107 67 60 360 0.14 Total 114117 110029 14651 13212 252009 100.00 Source: Census of India, 1991. 2.3.2 Dharwad and Haveri Districts The distribution of ST population by groups in Dharwad and Haveri districts (Table 2.5) indicates that over 54% of the populaton is dominated by Nayaka. The district has a total 3 The name is derived from jenu or honey that they used to collect from the forest. They are concentrated in Kodagu and Mysore districts of Karnataka. They speak a language locally called Jenu Nudi, is a dialect of Kannada. They speak Kannada and use the Kannada script. The people are monogamous. Women participate in all economic activities and contribute to the family income considerably. The government has given cultivable lands. In spite of this, a large section of them are working as daily labourers. Their traditional community council deals with social and economic disputes. They are all Hindus. There are residential schools to impart primary education. They are covered under the government schemes and programmes. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 12 of over 1.3 lakhs ST population. The next largest community is Kadu Kuruba with 37% share in the district. The other tribals living in these districts include Koli Dhor4, Korga5, Meda6 and Iruliga. Table 2.5: Major STs in Dharwad and Haveri Districts Rural Urban Type of STs Male Female Male Female Total Per cent Nayaka 32470 31039 5506 5264 74279 54.04 Iruliga 248 241 23 27 539 0.39 Jenu Kuruba 445 451 74 77 1047 0.76 Kadu Kuruba 21681 20858 4551 4256 51346 37.35 Koli Dhor 1123 1105 355 307 2890 2.10 Korga 1591 1514 492 478 4075 2.96 Meda 65 50 757 743 1615 1.17 Others 165 178 679 648 1670 1.21 Total 57788 55436 12432 11850 132461 100.0 Source: Census of India, 1991. Note: Haveri is a newly formed district after 1991 from Dharwad district. 2.3.3 Kolar District The distribution of OT population by groups in Dharwad and Haveri districts (Table 2.6) indicates that over 54% of the populabon is dominated by Nayaka. The district has a total of over 1.13 lakhs ST population. The next largest community is Kadu Kuruba. The other tribals living in these districts include Jenu Kuruba, Hakki Pikki and Meda. Table 2.6: Major Scheduled Tribes in Kolar District Rural Urban Type of STs Male Female Male Female Total Per cent Nayaka 51551 50204 2982 2909 107646 94.56 Hakki Pikki 244 211 8 12 475 0.42 Jenu Kuruba 382 386 122 106 996 0.87 Kadu Kuruba 1250 1123 360 319 3052 2.68 4 In Karnataka, they are distributed in the districts of Belgaum, Bijapur, Gulbarga and Bidar districts. They speak Marathi at home and use Kannada for inter-group communication. Many work as agricultural labourers. A few also own cultivable land. They are all Hindus. They have a positive attitude towards formal education, modern medicine, family planning and development programmes. Generally they are monogamous. 5 They are concentrated in Dakshina Kannada District. They speak in Koraga (dialect) among themselves and in Tulu and Kannada with others. They are non-vegetarians. Endogamy at the group level and exogamy at the clan level are observed. Nuclear families are in vogue. Women participate in social, ritual and economic activities, including basket making and agricultural labour. Ancestors are worshipped. A few of them own cultivable land. Others practice basetry, work as agricultural labourers or are in government and private services. Children often work as wage earners. They are Hindus and worship a goddess and spirits. Folk songs are sung to the accompaniment of percussion and wind instruments. They also take part in dance performances. The institution of Gurikara, the headman, effects social control. They have positive attitude towards formal education, modern medicine and family welfare. 6 The name is derived from a Kannada word Bidiru, meaning bamboo. They speak Kannada, but in Kodagu, they speak Kodagu. They are non-vegetarians. Their main occupation is basket making, but now they have taken up cultivation. They work as labourers on coffee plantations and in paddy fields. Adult marriage is preferred. Male equigeniture is the rule of inheritance and the eldest son succeeds to the father's authority. Women participate in economic and social activities, but the ritual, political and social control affairs are managed without them. Hinduism is their religion. They educate both boys and girls. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project- Tribal Stuadv 13 Meda 44 47 258 249 598 0.53 Others 451 438 111 72 1072 0.94 Total 53922 52409 3841 3667 113839 100.00 Source: Census of India, 1991. 2.3.4 Tumkur District The distribution of ST population by groups in Dharwad and Haveri districts (Table 2.7) indicates that over 96% of the population is dominated by Nayaka. The district has a total of over 1.4 lakhs ST population. The next largest community is Kadu Kuruba. The other tribals living in these districts include Jenu Kuruba and Meda. Table 2.7: Major Scheduled Tribes in Tumkur District Rural Urban Type of STs Male Female Male Female Total Per cent Nayaka 63640 61072 5386 5007 135105 96.42 Jenu Kuruba 555 509 389 354 1807 1.29 Kadu Kuruba 820 792 99 78 1789 1.28 Meda 43 41 85 91 260 0.19 Others 523 535 49 49 1156 0.83 Total 65581 62949 6008 5579 140117 100.00 Source: Census of India, 1991. 2.4 ST POPULATION IN SELECTED VILLAGES The 63 villages in five districts covered by this study reveal the following: Chitradurga District: The overall percentage of the population of Scheduled tribes and Schedule Caste is nearly 48% of the total population. The STs constitute 24.4% and SCs 23.8 percent. In 9 out of 13 villages the population of SCs is more than the STs. Haveri District: 3 out of 12 villages do not have ST population. and together with the SCs the percentage works out to 21.1 percent. However the percentage of SCs population is more that the STs with 13.8% and 7.3%, respectively. Dharwad District: only 4 out of 12 villages do not have ST populaton. The SCs constitute 9.2% and Sts 1.2% of the total population. Kolar District: 6 out of 11 villages do not have ST populaton at all. The percentage of populaton of STs and SCs taken together is nearly 45 of the total population and SCs are double in number when compared with STs. Tumkur District: 8 out of 13 villages do not have ST population. The STs and SCs together account for 21.7% of the total population. Once again the Scs constitute 16.4% and are more than STs. Table 2.8: Major Scheduled Tribes in Tumkur District %of ST to %of SC to ST SC Total. Total Total Districts Taluks Villages Population. Population Population Population. Population. Tumkur Chikkagundagal 0 176 547 0.0 32.2 Tumkur Tirimalpalya 0 0 392 0.0 0.0 Tumkur Kempanadodderi 163 154 818 19.9 18.8 , Tumkur Hanchihalli 0 53 401 0.0 13.2 E H- Sira Chengavara 273 356 2508 10.9 14.2 Sira Kamagondanahalli 10 366 2244 0.4 16.3 Sira Nadur 112 1048 5739 2.0 18.3 Sira Kavanadala 171 392 1405 12.2 27.9 KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 14 Sira Bevinanalli 61 288 3485 1.8 8.3 Madhugiri Sidadaragal 70 381 1481 4.7 25.7 Madhugiri Sheebanayanapalya 36 7 303 11.9 2.3 Korategere Chikkannanahalli 29 61 449 6.5 13.6 Korategere Negatala 180 173 1238 14.5 14.0 Sub Total 1105 3455 21010 5.3 16.4 Mulbagal Kenchanahalli 0 5 110 0.0 4.5 Mulbagal pJ. Vommasandra 0 47 145 0.0 32.4 Chintamani Munthakadirenahalli 0 241 441 0.0 54.6 Chintamani Upparalahalli 183 63 406 45.1 15.5 Chintamani Bondakota 0 99 392 0.0 25.3 o Siddiaghatta Gejjiganahalli 114 229 525 21.7 43.6 Siddiaghatta Kadrinayakananahalli 90 60 719 12.5 8.3 Siddiaghatta Pindipanahalli 34 118 678 5.0 17.4 Siddiaghatta Hujaguru 0 102 423 0.0 24.1 Siddiaghatta Goramadugu 0 570 913 0.0 62.4 Siddiaghatta A. Hunasenahalli 379 63 574 66.0 11.0 Sub Total 800 1597 5326 15.0 30.0 Dharwad Baad 0 55 1523 0.0 3.6 Dharwad Mugad 67 759 4185 1.6 18.1 Dharwad Ambikoppa 0 79 727 0.0 10.9 Hubli Tanhal 0 93 1841 0.0 5.1 o Hubli Anchatagen 89 613 2871 3.1 21.4 ! Hubli Devaragudihal 0 91 980 0.0 9.3 n Kalaghatagi Sangameshwara 0 106 1708 0.0 6.2 Kalaghatagi Hullambi 0 44 1293 0.0 3.4 Kalaghatagi Hulkoppa 12 46 1645 0.7 2.8 Kundagol |Devanur 0 56 2466 0.0 2.3 Kundagol IBilebal 0 146 1052 0.0 13.9 Navalagunda Bhadrapura 111 184 2756 4.0 6.7 Sub Total 279 2272 23047 1.2 9.9 Savanur Baradur 0 72 871 0.0 8.3 Savanur Kubaramallur 320 53 1173 27.3 4.5 Savanur Manangi (old) 0 126 1188 0.0 10.6 Savanur Hosaneerallag 0 50 1212 0.0 4.1 Shiggav Jakanakatti thanda 40 780 1384 2.9 56.4 > Shiggav Gangibhavi 134 127 1337 10.0 9.5 I Byadagi Mutaebennur 913 714 7208 12.7 9.9 Byadagi Beedarakatti (Sidenur) 108 871 4602 2.3 18.9 Ranibennur Airani 49 449 3053 1.6 14.7 Ranibennur Magod 220 238 1887 11.7 12.6 Hirekerur Kanavisidageri 45 113 1238 3.6 9.1 Hirekerur Makari 189 217 2473 7.6 8.8 Sub Total 2018 3810 27626 7.3 13.8 Challakere Channamma Nagathi Halli 150 401 1418 10.6 28.3 m Challakere Devareddihalli 132 322 1336 9.9 24.1 Challakere Purlehalli 90 167 843 10.7 19.8 .F Chitradurga lBeeravara 161 259 727 22.1 35.6 Chitradurga bowrammanahalli 0 31 968 0.0 3.2 Chitradurga IChikkabennur 245 310 1466 16.7 21.1 KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Studv 15 Chitradurga B R Halli 0 44 174 0.0 25.3 Chitradurga Chikka Jagalur 178 0 186 95.7 0.0 Molakalmur B G Kere 867 1097 3454 25.1 31.8 Molakalmur Marammanahalli 925 123 1053 87.8 11.7 Molakalmur Mogalahalli 86 281 1176 7.3 23.9 Molakalmur Ramasagara 560 97 730 76.7 13.3 Molakalmur Chikkanhalli 51 225 574 8.9 39.2 Sub Total 3445 3357 14105 24.4 23.8 Project Villages Total 7647 14491 91114 8.4 15.9 Source: Census of India, 1991. The Project Scope and Design 2.5 CONCLUSION As indicated in section 2.3 that the share of three tribal groups Nayakas, Kadu Kurubas and Jenu Kurubas is almost 95% in the project districts. The STs in the project villages too belong to these three groups. None of these three tribes exhibit any significant distinguishable characteristics, which set them apart from the mainstream civil society. The 3 tribes speak Kanada, the majority community language, and the Nayaks (about 96% of the total STs) speak no other dialect. Religious, ritualistic, custom, festivals, shared burial grounds, shared water sources do not distinguish the ST population from the rest. The aspect of self-identification was also specifically explored. Since the legislation recognizes these groups as tribals, and since the poverty alleviation programs are specifically targeted to these groups for their upliftment they are able to use the opportunties provided under welfare schemes of the central/state governments. Other than this as discussed earlier they do not show any distinct socio- cultural identity from the non tribal population specifically the SCs. It is well known and established that SCs in nearly all the Indian states have characteristics like a high percentage of poverty, limited access to resources, low levels of literacy, limited access to education and health facilities, high unemployment rates and are therefore recognized as vulnerable people. Hence, in India Scheduled Castes are considered vulnerable as scheduled Tribes for the above mentioned characteristics. Moreover the findings from the sample villages indicates that the percentage of SC populaton is more than the STs. Therefore, it is important that equal if not higher attention is given to SCs while planning for poverty reduction, improving access to resources, increasing literacy, increasing access to education and health facilities and providing opporlunities for employment. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project- Tribal Study 16 3 TRIBALS IN LEGAL AND WELFARE CONTEXT 3.1 INTRODUCTION The objectives of this Chapter is to appreciate the laws applicable to STs in Karnataka in protecting their rights and to understand the schemes adopted by various State level line agencies for the welfare of the ST community. Though there exits several laws that protect the ST rights, the chapter presents those which have direct relevance to project components of watershed development at the village level such as Forest Act, 1963, Joint Forest Planning and Management Program (JFPM) in Karnataka, 1993 Prohibition of Transfer of Certain Lands Act, 1978 and the Prevention of Atrocities Act, 1989. 3.2 STATE LAWS AND ST RIGHTS 3.2.1 The Karnataka Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prohibition of Transfer of Certain Lands) Act, 1978. Land is the principal source of livelihood for tribals. The development of tribals, therefore, is linked with the development of their lands. Many non-tribal immigrants have fraudulently alienated large areas of tribals, who are ignorant and helpless. Persons belonging to the affluent and powerful sections, to obtain sales or mortgages either for a nominal consideration or for no consideration at all, have exploited scheduled Tribes grantees and they have become the victims of circumstances. Therefore, alienation of land has been a serious problem faced by the tribals in Karnataka. To fulfil the purposes of the grant, the land even if it has been alienated, should be restored to the original grantee or his heirs. The state is fully aware of this problem and has taken a number of measures to check land alienation. In 1978, the Karnataka Scheduled Cast and Scheduled Tribes (Prohibition of Transfer of Certain Lands) Act was passed by the Legislative Assembly to prohibit transfer of lands by members of ST to non-tribals and for restoration of land alienated by such members. The Act has been amended in 1984, 1985 and 1992 to give enough teeth to the enforcement authorities. The 1984 amendment provided for disposal of the appeals from the aggrieved persons. It was further amended in 1992 to remove the legal bottlenecks and strengthen the enforcement of the Act. It also laid down the manner of presenting and disposal of appeals. The Act provides for an invalidation of all land- transferred transactions from STs to Non-STs. The Act is expected to address fully, issues related to land alienation of tribal lands. The issue related to land alienation was a non-issue in the project area. The discussions based on the primary data in the subsequent chapter reveals that tribals have legal holding over the agriculture land. 3.2.2 The Karnataka Forest Act 1963 The Karnataka Forest Act 1963 is modelled on the lines of Indian Forest Act of 1927. Additionally, protection of wild life is through the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 formulated by the Centre and adopted by the State. Relevant provisions of the Cattle Trespass Act of 1871 in combination with the sections of State Forest Act govern cattle grazing in forests. However, cattle grazing are permitted in natural forests and the same has resulted in the destruction of regeneration in the forests alarmingly. The regular areas of high incidence KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Studv 17 of cattle grazing have caused run-off of rainwater and compaction of soil. Development of fodder and stall-feeding are receiving the attention of the Forest Department. The encouragement of throwing open the whole of the natural forests to grazing has resulted in a proliferation of non-productive cattle in forest rich districts, compared to the drier tracts. 3.2.3 Joint Forest Management (JFM) Following the National Forest Policy 19887, the Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests passed a national resolution in June 1990 providing more specific guidelines regarding the formation, functioning, rights and responsibilities of community forest management groups. It specifies sharing arrangements on which village forest committees that "successfully protect the forests, may be given a portion of the proceeds from the sale of trees when they mature, as well as non timber forest products for subsistence. Since 1990 there have been sixteen states have already adopted this concept of Joint Forest Management. In JFM approach, there are state wise variations in operational details and the share of control and forest produce between the Forest Department and rural communities. JFM in Karnataka People's participation is of paramount importance in the success of any forestry program. In this concept the government of Karnataka issued an order on 12.4.93 to launch a Joint Forest Planning and Management Program (JFPM) in the state. For easier identification and management purposes of JFM, forests are divided into five zones: * Zone 1 - intact and in excellent condition, these forests are to be preserved for scientific enquiry. No human interference permitted; * Zone 2 & 3 - forests to be kept for timber extraction under the control of the Forest Department; * Zone 4 - forests with a canopy cover of less than 0.25 which are to be given to rural communities for JFM; and * Zone 5 - forests under the Revenue Department and private ownership. The government order states that the Village Forest Committees (VFCs) should be established and these should help the government in protection, regeneration and development of dearaded forest land with a canopy cover of 0.25 and less. The respective Deputy Conservator of Forest will register the VCFCs under the Karnataka Societies Act. Ex-officio members will comprise panchayat members elected in that area, officers of government departments, the forest guard and forester and a representative of an NGO appointed by the Deputy Conservator. The ex-officio members of the panchayat may vote and contest the election for the post of chairman. The formal stipulations of the order, furthermore, directs that Scheduled Casts and tribes should have two representatives, two women, one landless and one artisan. The forester will be ex-officio member secretary and be in charge of the cashbook. The total proceeds derived from the sale of Forest produce at the notified (concessional) 7 Ministry of Environment and Forests passes a new National Policy in 1988 due to the success of experiments in participatory forest management systems. The policy envisages people's involvement in protection, conservation and management of forests. The policy also aims to protect and enhance the yields of non-timber forest products in order to generate employment and income for forest and village communities preferentially, so that these communities are motivated to identify themselves with the development and protection of forests. The general theme of the policy is that forest should not be looked upon as a source of revenue but as a national asset to be protected and enhance for the well being of the people and the nation. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 18 prices as well as in public auction shall be shared between the government, beneficiaries and village forest committees as per the ratios given below: * 50% to the Government; * 25% to the beneficiaries through VFC's as per rules to be framed for this purpose; and * 25% to a special fund to be called the village forest development fund. This fund shall be operated by the VFC's as per the rules to be framed by the government in this regard. Traditional rights of the STs towards minor forest products have been specifically recognised, and the STs have access to the Joint Forest Planning and Management arrangements for forestry usufructs even in denser forests (comparably higher access than the non-ST groups). Tree Patta Scheme As an innovative scheme to consolidate the gains of the Joint Forest and Management process the Tree Patta scheme was launched. The salient features of the scheme are to grant 'Tree Pattas' to the adjoining landholders both in urban and rural areas. If adjoining landowners are not available or not willing, then the tree pattas will be issued to other willing beneficiaries of VFC. Beneficiaries are entitled for 100% unsufructs free of cost, provided they protect the trees. Nominal rent of Re.1/tree/year is charged from the tree patta holder/village Forest Committee. The final harvest shall be shared in the ratio of 75:25 between the beneficiaries and the Government. 3.2.4 Non-Wood Forest Product (NWFP) Tribals living in and around the forests traditionally depend up on hunting and NWFP collection for the livelihood. Consequent to the nationalization of forests in 1974, hunting was banned and NWFP collection entrusted to private contractors who employed mostly non-tribals. This was changed after a few years and collection rights were assigned to Gir#jan groups. Tribal cooperative societies were formed to take up NWFP collections. This arrangement has helped the tribals to secure attractive sale value for their products. 3.2.5 Karnataka Land Grant Rule The Mysore Land Improvement Act, 1961 This is an act to provide for the preparation and execution of schemes relating to the construction of embankments and other works, the prohibition and control of grazing for the purposes of preservation of soil, prevention of soil erosion, conservation of water resources, reclamation of tidal lands and other matters in order thereby to protect and improve lands including khar lands and crops in the State of Mysore (now, Karnataka) and for charging certain expenditure on the Consolidated Fund of the state. This act provides constitution of boards for preparation of Land Improvement Schemes. The Board may direct the preparation of the land improvement scheme for any area within its jurisdiction. A scheme may make provision for any of the following matters, namely: i. Preservation and improvement of soil ii. Prevention of soil erosion iii. Conservation of water resources iv. Introduction of dry farming methods KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Studv 19 v. Improvement in the methods of cultivation vi. Reclamation of waste, saline or waterlogged land or of land from the sea vii. Prohibition or control of grazing, or reservation of land for pasture viii. Planting, maintenance and control of tree growth ix. Construction of each and masonry works in fields, gullies and ravines x. Development of khar lands by xi. Such other matters not inconsistent with the object of this Act as may be prescribed. This act facilitates the development and improvement of Watershed Development Programs. 3.3 WELFARE SCHEMES FOR TRIBALS IN KARNATAKA For the effective implementation of the schemes for the STs, separate Directorate was set up in the year 1999. It is responsible to implement ST sub plans effectively at district level. As per ST sub plan, all the development departments of the state government has to reserve the 3 per cent of the annual budget for schemes exclusively for the betterment of STs. Following are the schemes/facilities for STs under different departnent: Department Welfare Schemes Education * 70 nursery and women welfare center were established to promote early education for ST children's. At present about 3288 children's benefited from the scheme. In these centers, midday meals are being given along with a stipend of Rs. 50 per children is also given towards cloth, soap etc,. * 91 Ashrama schools (Residential schools) for education from 15' to 4th standard. There are about 5725 children in these schools and are getting a stipend of Rs. 250 per month towards meals and others. * 61 pre SSLC student hostel are opened and about 2835 students are getting admission every year. Each ST student is getting stipend of Rs. 350 per month with free hostel facility * 16 aided STs hostels are there in the state with about 888 students. Here also a stipend of Rs. 350 per month is being given to each student with free hostel facilities. * Student fellowship ranging from Rs. 75 to 425 is also been provided for all the ST children of the poor families ( with less than Rs. 50920 annual income) in the state. * Higher education fellowship ranging from Rs. 2400 for job orented courses to Rs. 7500 for engineering and medical studies. Agriculture Free distribution of agriculture implements worth Rs. 2800, sprayers worth Rs. 2000, storage box, etc., * Subsidy to the tune of 75 percent (max. Rs. 50,000) for the purchase of power tiller, improved irrigation techniques like drip, sprinkler etc-. Horticulture Development of 'A acre coconut garden, 1 acre fruit garden and 'A acre commercial garden for the each of the ST beneficiaries. * A stipend Rs. 350 per acre for the first year and Rs. 650 in the second year towards the maintenance cost of the newly planted trees. Fishery * Free training on inland fisheries along with distribution of equipments worth Rs. 3000. * Special incentives for taking up fish culture in village tanks, ponds and for women entrepreneur's. Animal Husbandry * 75 per cent subsidy and remaining 25 per cent loan assistance to take up livestock activity. Forestry * To maintain block plantation, Rs. 2500 for half an hectare is being given as maintenance cost. Free distribution of bamboos, canes for the handicraft ST beneficiaries. * Supply of wood worth Rs. 10,000 for construction of houses. Distribution of 5 honey box at the rate of Rs. 350 to encourage apiculture. Rural & Small * Job oriented training for the ST youths and distribution of equipments worth Rs. 2500 to Scale Industries take up activities. * Under 'Vishwa' scheme, financial assistance for unemployed youths to take up self- employment activities. * To encourage household industres, subsidy (max. Rs. 25,000) for construction of 'Living cum Workshed'. Sericulture * Subsidy of Rs. 2000 to take up mulberry cultivation. 60 per cent subsidy (max. Rs. 25,000) for construction of reeling units. Karnataka Power * Rs. 40,000 to electrify the ST colonies. Power connection to the pump sets of STs.. Transmission * Household electrification under'Bhagya Jyothi' scheme. Corporation Limited Women and * Student scholarship for girl students of STs in rural areas. Stipend for widows under Children 'Navajeevana' scheme. Development * Subsidy for rehabilitation of the child labours. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 20 Department * Special incentives for girls under 'Jagruthi' scheme. Housing * Distribution of housing plots under 'Ashraya' scheme. Construction of houses under 'Ambedkar housing' scheme. * Replacement of thatch roof by tiles under 'Neralina Bhagya' scheme. Group housing scheme for STs. Rural Development For economic upliftment of the STs the following projects are being implemented. and Panchayat Raj 1) Swarna Jayanthi Shahari Rojgar Yojana (SJSRY), 2) Indira Awas Yojana, and 3) Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS), Health * Separate Primary Health Centre (PHCs) in the area having more STs. * Mobile health units for health check up of STs. Health check-up of STs twice in a year under 'Yellow Card' scheme. Employment and * One month training on motor vehicles driving for unemployed ST youths at free of cost Training * Stipend of Rs. 500 to avail training on stitching, Electronics and computer. The training fee for these courses will be borne by the government for the selected trainees. * Under 'Navachetana' scheme, job oriented skills are being given to the unemployed educated ST youth. For the selected candidate Rs. 1000 stipend is being given during training period. Cooperative Formation and strengthening of Large Area Multipurpose Societies (LAMPS) for procurement and distribution of minor forest products and other household products. There are 19 LAMP Societies in the state. * Subsidy for the strengthening of marketing linkage. Other Welfare * Land owning scheme: Distribution of minimum two acre of dry land or one acre of schemes by the irrigated land to the land less ST families. 50 percent of the cost is subsidy and remaining Directorate of ST 50 per cent through loan at 6 per cent interest rate. * Individual irrigation borewell scheme: 100 per cent subsidy for ST families having minimum 2 acres of land. * Self-Employment Scheme: Rs. 5000 grant and up to Rs. 25,000 loan to take up self- employment activities. * Ganga Kalyana Scheme: Group irrigation in the 8 to 15 acre of land of STs. * Pump set: Distribution of free pump sets for the poor ST families. 3.4 CONCLUSVON The existing legislation affords protection to the tribal groups against voluntary and involuntary land alienation. Hence, rights to land for STs are protected under the existing law. The tribal groups have more liberal access to the provisions of the JFPM Act compared with their non-tribal counterparts, both in relation to use of forest land and the density of forest cover (better forest land) which is prescribed under JFPM Act (more than 0.25 canopy cover). Welfare schemes for the STs of the society are being implemented through a very strong mechanism. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 21 4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BASE LINE OF TRIBALS IN KARNATAKA 4.1 INTRODUCTION The objective of this Chapter is to understand the socio-economic profile of the tribals verses non-tribals in the project districts based on the 63 sample villages covered under the study. This would help in identifying the level vulnerability of the Scheduled Tribe populaton in comparison to the non-tribal population in the project area and designing appropriate strategy for their development. 4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC STATUS The project area covers five districts viz., Chitradurga, Dharwad, Haveri, Kolar and Tumkur. As per 1991 census, these five districts have about 6.3 lakhs tribals spread across 39 taluks covering 7395 villages. In the project area, the tribes account for 7.4 percent of the total populaton, which is much higher than the state average (4.3%). The highest concentration is recorder in the Chitradurga district (17 percent) and the lowest by Dharwad (1.7 percent). The distribution of tribal population in project district is given in Table 4.1. Table 4.1: Concentration of Tribal Population in Project Districts Share of ST to Total District Total Population ST Population Population (%) Chitradurga 1312717 222763 16.97 Dharwad 1374895 23396 1.7 Haveri 1269213 61169 4.8 Kolar 2216889 153019 6.9 Tumkur 2305819 167632 7.27 Total Project Districts 8479533 627979 7.4 STATE 44977201 1915691 4.3 4.2.1 Population Size The distribution of ST Population in 63 villages of project districts is presented in Table 4.2). Three project villages of Chitradurga District namely Chikka Jaglur, Marammanhalli and Ramasagara have dominance of tribal population with more than 75 percent share. A. Hunasenahalli and Upparalahali villages also have very high concentration of Tribal populaton whereas, 22 project villages do not have any tribals. Three villages shaded in the table 4.2 have more than 850 tribals, though their share to total village population may not be very significant. Table 4.2: Tribal Population in Project Villages Population of Population of Total %of ST to ST Non ST Population Total District Taluk Village M F T M F T M I F I T Population Tumkur Chikkagundagal 0 0 0 271 276 547 271 276 547 0.0 E Tumkur Tiiimalpalya 0 0 0 200 192 392 200 192 392 0.0 Tumkur Kempanadodden 82 81 163 328 327 655 410 408 818 19.9 KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka WVatershed Development Project-Tribal Study 22 Population of Population of Total %of ST to ST Non ST Population Total District Taluk Village M F T M F T M F T Population Tumkur Hanchihalli 0 0 0 204 197 401 204 197 401 0.0 Sira Chengavara 140 133 273 1188 1047 2235 1328 1180 2508 10.9 Sira Kamagondanahalli 4 6 10 1121 1113 2234 1125 1119 2244 0.4 Sra Nadur 58 54 112 2894 2733 5627 2952 2787 5739 2.0 Sira Kavanadala 87 84 171 636 598 1234 723 682 1405 12.2 Sira Bevinanalli 37 24 61 1736 1688 3424 1773 1712 3485 1.8 Madhugiri Siadaragal 35 35 70 730 681 1411 765 716 1481 4.7 Madhugiri Sheebanayanapalya 18 18 36 133 134 267 151 152 303 11.9 Korategere Chikkannanahalli 16 13 29 193 227 420 209 240 449 6.5 Korategere Negatala 97 83 180 539 519 1058 636 602 1238 14.5 Sub Total 574 531 1105 10173 9732 19905 10747 10263 21010 5.3 Mulbagal Kenchanahalli 0 0 0 58 52 110 58 52 110 0.0 Mulbagal J. Vommasandra 0 0 0 71 74 145 71 74 145 0.0 Chintamani Munthakadirenahalli 0 0 0 225 216 441 225 216 441 0.0 Chintamani Upparalahalli 88 95 183 104 119 223 192 214 406 45.1 Chintamani Bondakota 0 0 0 186 206 392 186 206 392 0.0 Siddiaghatta Gejjiganahalli 55 59 114 213 198 411 268 257 525 21.7 Siddiaghatta Kadrinayakananahalli 43 47 90 315 314 629 358 361 719 12.5 Siddiaghatta Pindipanahalli 17 17 34 308 336 644 325 353 678 5.0 Siddiaghatta Hujaguru 0 0 0 212 211 423 212 211 423 0.0 Siddiaghatta Goramadugu 0 0 0 444 469 913 444 469 913 0.0 Siddiaghatta A. Hunasenahalli 198 181 379 101 94 195 299 275 574 66.0 Sub Total 401 399 800 2237 2289 4526 2638 2688 5326 15.0 Dharwad Baad 0 0 0 790 733 1523 790 733 1523 0.0 Dharwad Mugad 34 33 67 2138 1980 4118 2172 2013 4185 1.6 Dharwad mbikoppa 0 0 0 375 352 727 375 352 727 0.0 Hubli Tanhal 0 0 0 957 884 1841 957 884 1841 0.0 Hubli Anchatagen 55 34 89 1459 1323 2782 1514 1357 2871 3.1 Hubli Devaragudihal 0 0 0 470 510 980 470 510 980 0.0 Kalaghatagi Sangameshwara 0 0 0 882 826 1708 882 826 1708 0.0 Kalaghatagi Hullambi 0 0 0 638 655 1293 638 655 1293 0.0 Kalaghatagi Hulkoppa 7 5 12 840 793 1633 847 798 1645 0.7 Kundagol Devanur 0 0 0 1303 1163 2466 1303 1163 2466 0.0 Kundagol Bilebal 0 0 0 554 498 1052 554 498 1052 0.0 Navalagunda Bhadrapura 56 55 111 1381 1264 2645 1437 1319 2756 4.0 Sub Total 152 127 279 11787 10981 22768 11939 11108 23047 1.2 Savanur Baradur 0 0 0 472 399 871 472 399 871 0.0 Savanur Kubaramallur 173 147 320 440 413 853 613 560 1173 27.3 Savanur _Manangi (old) 0 0 0 633 555 1188 633 555 1188 0.0 Savanur Hosaneerallag 0 0 0 663 549 1212 663 549 1212 0.0 Shiggav Jakanakatti thanda 25 15 40 716 628 1344 741 643 1384 2.9 Shiggav Gangibhavi 62 72 134 595 608 1203 657 680 1337 10.0 Byadagi Mutaebennur 4 4 9 3264 3031 6295 3740 3468 7208 12.7 Byadagi Beedarakatti (Sidenur) 60 48 108 2348 2146 4494 2408 2194 4602 2.3 Ranibennur Airani 26 23 49 1569 1435 3004 1595 1458 3053 1.6 Ranibennur Magod 111 109 220 851 816 1667 962 925 1887 11.7 ,Hirekerur Kanavisidageri 26 19 45 631 562 1193 657 581 1238 3.6 Hirekerur Makari 103 86 189 1147 1137 2284 1250 1223 2473 7.6 Sub Total 1062 956 2018 13329 12279 25608 14391 13235 27626 7.3 KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project- Tribal Studv 23 Population of Population of Total %of ST to ST Non ST P pulation Total District Taluk Village M F T M F T M F T Population Channamma Nagathi Challakere Halli 84 66 150 629 639 1268 713 705 1418 10.6 Challakere Devareddihalli 65 67 132 614 590 1204 679 657 1336 9.9 Challakere Purlehalli 37 53 90 392 361 753 429 414 843 10.7 Chitradurga Becravara 82 79 161 274 292 566 356 371 727 22.1 Chitradurga Gowrammanahalli 0 0 0 515 453 968 515 453 968 0.0 Chitradurga Chikkabennur 127 118 245 615 606 1221 742 724 1466 16.7 . Chitradurga B R Halli 0 0 0 81 93 174 81 93 174 0.0 C hitradurga Chikka Jagalur 88 90 178 3 5 8 91 95 186 95.7 Molakalmur B G Kere 460 407 867 1329 1258 2587 1789 1665 3454 25.1 Molakalmur Marammanahalli 488 437 925 59 69 128 547 506 1053 87.8 Molakalmur Mogalahalli 50 36 86 554 536 1090 604 572 1176 7.3 Molakalmur Ramasagara 289 271 560 79 91 170 368 362 730 76.7 Molakalmur Chikkanhalli 31 20 51 268 255 523 299 275 574 8.9 Sub Total 1801 1644 3446 5412 5248 10660 7213 6892 14105 24.4 Project Villages Total 3990 3657 7647 42938 40529 83467 46928 44186 91114 8.4 Source: Census of India, 1991 4.2.2 Gender Ratio Gender ratio in tribal population among project villages ranged betvween 1500 females per thousand males to 600 females per thousand males, whereas among Non STs gender ratio ranged between 1667 to 845. Thus, it needs to be mentioned that Gender ratio unbalance is same for both ST and Non ST Population in project villages. There is a high degree of disparity in gender ratio for STs at village level however, number of females per thousand males is lower in the project area at district level. Table 4.3: Gender Ratio in Project Villages (Females per thousand males) Total Districts Taluk Village ST Non ST Population Tumkur Chikkagundagal 1018 1018 Turnkur Tirimalpalya - 960 960 Tumkur Kempanadodderi 988 997 995 Tumkur Hanchihalli 966 966 Sira Chengavara 950 881 889 Sira Kamagondanahalli 1500 993 995 E Sira Nadur 931 944 944 Sira Kavanadala 966 940 943 Sira Bevinanalli 649 972 966 Madhugiri Sidadaragal 1000 933 936 Madhugiri Sheebanayanapalya 1000 1008 1007 Korategere Chikkannanahalli 813 1176 1148 Korategere Negatala 856 963 947 Sub Total 925 957 955 Mulbagal Kenchanahalli - 897 897 Mulbagal J. Vommasandra 1042 1042 o Chintamani Munthakadirenahalli - 960 960 Chintamani Upparalahalli 1080 1144 1115 Chintamani Bondakota 1108 1108 KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 24 Total Districts Taluk Village ST Non ST Population Siddiaghatta Gejjiganahalli 1073 930 959 Siddiaghatta Kadrinayakananahalli 1093 997 1008 Siddiaghatta Pindipanahalli 1000 1091 1086 Siddiaghatta Hujaguru 995 995 Siddiaghatta Goramadugu - 1056 1056 Siddiaghatta A Hunasenahalli 914 931 920 Sub Total 995 1023 1019 Dharwad Baad 928 928 Dharwad Mugad 971 926 927 Dharwad Ambikoppa 939 939 Hubli Tanhal 924 924 V Hubli Anchatagen 618 907 896 Hubli Devaragudihal - 1085 1085 Kalaqhataai Sangameshwara 937 937 Kalaghatagi Hullambi 1027 1027 Kalaghatagi Hulkoppa 714 944 942 Kundagol Devanur _ _893 893 Kundagol Bilebal 899 899 _Navalagunda Bhadrapura 982 915 918 Sub Total _ 836 932 930 Savanur Baradur 845 845 Savanur Kubaramallur 850 939 914 Savanur Manangi (old) - 877 877 Savanur Hosaneeralla - 828 828 Shiggav Jakanakatti thanda 600 877 868 Shiggav Gangibhavi 1161 1022 1035 I Byadagi Mutaebennur 918 929 927 Byadagi Beedarakatti (Sidenur) 800 914 911 Ranibennur Airani 885 915 914 Ranibennur Magod 982 959 962 Hirekerur Kanavisidageri 731 891 884 Hirekerur Makari 835 991 978 Sub Total 900 921 920 Channamma Nagathi Challakere Halli 786 1016 989 Challakere Devareddihalli 1031 961 968 Challakere Purlehalli 1432 921 965 Chitradurga Beeravara 963 1066 1042 Ca Chitradurga Gowrammanahalli - 880 880 21 Chitradurga Chikkabennur 929 985 976 T _Chitradurga B R Halli - 1148 1148 Chitradurga Chikka Jagalur 1023 1667 1044 Molakalmur B G Kere 885 947 931 Molakalmur Marammanahalli 895 1169 925 Molakalmur Mogalahalli 720 968 947 Molakalmur Ramasagara 938 1152 984 Molakalmur Chikkanhalli 645 951 920 Sub Total 913 970 955 Project Villages Total 917 944 942 Source: Census of India, 1991 KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 25 4.2.3 Literacy Level Literacy Level is found much lower among tribal population in project villages. The variation among project districts varies between 26 to 36 percent for ST population as against Non ST population, which range between 52 to 63 percent. Among all, Tumkur district recorded the highest literacy rate among Non ST populaton and Haver among ST population. Kolar recorded lowest literacy rate for both ST and Non ST populabon (Table 4.4). With regard to literacy, female literacy is very low due to poorer accessibility and lower affordability to education. Field observations indicate that some of the tribal groups have to walk long distances to avail educational facilities. However, it is generally noticed that the tribals have considerable awareness about the importance of education and hence the number of literates is slowly on increase. Table 4.4: L iteracy Level in Pro ect Villages (In Plrcent) Districts Total Population ST Population Non ST Population Chitradurga 52.30 26.58 57.56 Dharawad 62.70 33.13 63.21 Haveri 56.10 36.58 57.09 Kolar 50.50 24.70 52.41 Tumkur 64.50 35.75 66.75 Total Project Districts 55.20 31.35 59.49 Source: Census of India, 1991 4.3 ECONOMIC STATUS 4.3.1 Occupational Structure About 5 per cent of the tribals are classified as marginal workers and 49 per cent are categorized as non-workers i.e., who are not involved in any economic activities in the project area as shown in table 4.5. Working population is higher among ST population than the Non-ST population. Tumkur has higher share of marginal workers, which is common to both seztion of population. Table 4.5 : Workforce Participation Ratio in Project Districts Total Population (%) ST Population %) Non ST populati n(%) Main Marginal Non Main Marginal Non Main Marginal Non Districts Workers Workers Workers Workers Workers Workers Workers Workers Workers Chitradurga 39 4 57 49 5 46 37 4 59 Dharawad 38 4 58 49 4 47 36 4 56 Haveri Included in Dharwad 43 5 52 Included in Dharwad Kolar 40 4 57 47 4 49 39 4 58 Tumkur 4 40 8 52 43 8 49 40 8 52 Total Project Districts {_39 5 56 46 5 49 38 6 56 Source: Census of India, 1981 Agriculture is the major source of income to majority of the tribal families (see table 4.6). Most of them are marginal farmers and are partly engaged in agriculture. They supplement their incomes by working as labourers in others' farms. Nearly 70 per cent of the households earn their livelihood through labour. The other sources of income include dairy farming, government service and silkworm rearing. It is evident that majority of the KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Studv 26 households are dependent on more than one occupation since the opportunities for full employment are not available in a single activity. It was found during the PRA and FGDs that tribals work as labourers in the locality. When employment opportunities are not locally available, they are forced to migrate to distant places in search of work. Nearly one third of the households often migrate to places like Chikmagalur, Kodagu and Mangalore and work as casual labourers. In Chitradurga district, business was carried out more by Non STs whereas working as labour was found to be more prevalent among STs. In Dharwad, agriculture and labour work was less adopted by STs in comparison to Non STs and shift was found towards service and Artisanship. There was no marked difference found between tribals and non- tribal population. Among the STs 8% have employment in the government /public bodies, whereas less than 5% of the non-ST population has such (compare with the fact that STs constitute 8% of the total population). In certain districts, 8-12% of the STs has such employment, whereas only 6-7% is the ceiling for non-ST population. Business and basket making are the other two non-farm activity in the project villages. However, there is no marked difference among the tribal and non-tribal population. Women's share in the workforce is similar for the ST and not-STs. Note that the government job is the only activity among the villagers, which require certain education and other skills. Amonig the skillful, there is a better opportunity available for the STs. Table 4.6:Occupational Profile in Project Districts (HHs In Percent) Tribal Population Non S Population Occupation Chitradurga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Chitradurga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Agriculture 88 55 46 91 85 78 78 54 52 67 Labour 70 57 67 93 41 46 45 54 62 38 Silk Worm Rearing 6 0 3 23 4 4 2 1 14 1 Dairy o 15 21 23 11 1 22 21 19 5 Poultry o 15 10 4 0 2 8 9 17 1 Business 2 12 15 0 7 12 13 10 5 6 Sheepary 4 0 18 13 0 4 1 4 11 9 Floriculture 0 2 0 0 4 2 9 1 1 5 Basket Making 0 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 Service (Govt.) 2 12 8 0 15 7 6 8 3 6 Artisan o 15 3 0 0 6 12 6 2 5 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 4.3.2 Assets Possession of assets determines the economic status of the households. In the project area of the five districts covering 60 villages, Television and Pumpsets are two significant assets owned by tribal households (Table 4.6). In the possession of assets, Chitradurga topped the list in respect of pump sets, Dharawad for TVs, Haveri for tractors and Kolar has comparatively more two wheelers. Pattern of pumpset ownership is similar among both groups showing need of irrigation in the area. Television ownership pattern is also quite similar which shows that even tribal population are adopting new technologies be it works or leisure. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Studv 27 Table 4.6: Asset Ownership Pattern in Project District (HHs In Percent) Tribal Population Non S Population Assets Chitradurga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Chitradurga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Tractors 0 2 3 0 0 2 7 8 2 3 Pumpset 14 0 6 9 5 14 7 29 14 9 Thresher 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 Telephone 0 2 0 0 0 5 11 4 5 1 TV 10 17 5 16 11 22 30 13 28 16 Car 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 0 1 Scooter/Motor Cycle 0 5 0 11 4 6 9 3 12 7 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 4.3.3 Land Ownership Nearly 77 per cent of the households possess cultivable land in the project area. During PRA, it was observed that of these, very few households own more than 4 acres of land and the remaining households have lands ranging between half an acre to four acres. Possessing own land is higher among STs in almost all the districts (see table 4.7). Cultivation in Tenancy land is high in Haveri and Dharwad districts for both STs and Non STs. 14% ST households in Chitradurga district do not own land whereas 25% of the total population do not own land. STs constitute 24% of the total population. Therefore, among the non-STs, 28% do not have land. Landlessness among the non-STs is twice as much as that of the STs. In other districts, landlessness among the STs and non-STs does not vary significantly. (Dharawad: ST- 42% and non-ST-21% with ST population being 1.2% of the total populaton; Haveri: ST-33% and non-ST-24%; Kolar: ST-20%, non-ST-21%; Tumkur: ST-26% and non-ST-27%). About tenancy, the pattern does not vary between the ST and non-ST groups in any meaningful manner. All this shows that Tribal households follow similar pattern of Non Tribals rather are stronger in relation to land ownership owing to stringent laws of tribal land transfer. Table 4.7: Land Ownership Pattern in Project District (HHs In Percent) Tribal Population Non ST Population Land Ownership Chitradurga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Chitradurga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Noland 14 42 33 20 26 27 21 25 21 27 Own land 8b 58 67 80 74 69 58 62 71 60 Cultivating on Tenancy Land 2 3 13 12 8 3 11 12 7 2 Irrigated Land 35 8 10 14 18 25 14 15 19 28 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 In project villages of all 5 districts, more STs own land than the total population, and consequently much more than the non-ST population. The reason can be attributed to protective land laws in Karnataka for STs. In all 5 districts there is dearth of irrigated land, and in 4 districts the STs have lower ownership of irrigated land compared to the average. STs are perhaps not the richest segment of the population, apart from in Chitradurga (who corner the irrigated land). Around 17 per cent of the households have irrigation facilities. The main sources of irrigation are bore well, tank and canal (Table 4.8). Open well irrigation is insignificant in the area. This is due to dwindling underground water table. The depth of bore wells KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 28 shows the deplefon of underground water table in the project districts. Lift irrigation was reported to be non-prevalent among STs. Irrigation facility is not so favourable for tribals in Dharwad district. Table 4.8: Sources of Irrigation in Project District (HHs In Percent) Source of Tribal Population Non ST Population Irrigation Chitradurga Dharawad Haveri I Kolar ITumkur Chitradurga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Source of Irrigation Canal 8 0 0 0 0 o 2 3 1 4 4 Bore Well 16 3 7 11 10 10 10 8 18 15 Tank 10 5 3 3 4 0 10 1 2 12 Lift irrigation 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 1 O5pen Well 0 o o o 4 2 0 1 8 5 Depth of the bore (Feet) < 100 40 0 0 1 0 11 2 2 2 100-200 8 2 1 0 4 14 7 2 1 3 200-300 2 1 3 3 2 5 9 4 7 7 >300 2 0 3 8 4 1 2 2 22 8 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 As regards to agriculture, tribal groups are faced with a number of problems. The prominent ones are lack of finance (71 %), lack of irrigation and non-remunerative price for produce (both 66 %), variation in yield (65 %), lack of extension services (63 %), non- availability of improved seeds and lack of market facilities (both 60 %), unreliable and shortage of power (59 %), loss of soil fertility (58 %), high production costs (42 %) and uneconomic land holdings (36 %). As a result of these problems, agricultural incomes are low. Problems reported by ST are much higher in Tumkur district in comparison to Non STs whereas it is just the opposite in Dharwad. In other districts problems faced in agriculture are of similar level for both the groups. In Haveri, problems faced in agriculture are much less in comparison to Tumkur district (Table 4.9). Table 4.9: Problems faced in Agriculture in Project District (HHs In Percent) Agriculture Related Tribal Population Non ST Population Problems Chitra- Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Chitra- Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur durga durga Non availability of 1 67 42 44 68 81 71 55 42 44 68 improved seeds I Lack irrigation | 53 55 39 100 85 46 62 45 61 63 Financial problem 73 55 49 93 85 67 56 55 60 72 Non availability of 67 40 26 73 85 65 53 25 40 63 improved machinery | Lack of market facilities 71 42 28 79 78 65 55 26 50 66 Lack of information 73 40 56 64 81 64 56 51 47 64 agriculture Low price for produce 74 52 36 82 85 67 63 50 44 69 Fluctuation in yield 69 47 51 79 81 65 60 52 46 64 Electricity problem 53 30 44 91 79 44 47 41 49 57 Low/piece land holding - 55 20 26 27 52 48 37 21 16 53 Depletion in soil fertility 65 30 44 71 81 62 47 42 47 60 High production cost 37 27 23 54 67 45 40 31 32 53 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 29 4.3.4 Livestock Resources An analysis of the cattle heads owned by tribal-respondents indicates that most of them are proud of their possession for social as well as economic reasons. From social viewpoint, the size of cattle stock enhances their standing in the society by conferring honour and respect. In economic respect, cattle stock is a remunerative source and rewarding vocation. In the project districts, most of the households own livestock. Livestock ownership pattern of Non STs are similar to STs showing that cattle rearing is now equally significant for Non STs (Table 4. 10). Cow is the most preferred animal as is evident from the fact that 38 percent of the households own it. Most of the cows are local breed and milching. Dairying is an significant occupation in Kolar, Haveri and Dharwad district. The next preferred is bullocks, which are used for cultivaton, Chitradurga district has highest bullock ownership where agriculture is the only dominant occupation. In Tumkur district Milch cattles and Bullock ownership is higher among STs whereas Goats and Sheep ownership is higher among non STs. Chickens are favourite domestic bird to as many as 17 percent of the households. Sheep rearing is taken up by 15 per cent while goat rearing is pursued by 13 per cent of the households. A community called Nayaks mostly rears these sheep and goats. Buffaloes are owned by 14 per cent of the tribal households. Piggery is very rarely practiced. The ownership pattern of livestock is very much related to the occupational profile in the project area. Table 4.10: Livestock status in Project District (HHs In Percent) Tribal Population Non ST Population Chitra- Chitra- Livestock a Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur durga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Buffaloes 20 10 13 14 11 24 22 23 19 19 Cows 37 20 36 66 33 30 39 32 45 10 Bullocks 71 28 41 25 15 40 47 42 14 6 Goats 18 15 23 11 0 6 9 8 18 24 Sheep 12 0 18 32 15 5 2 8 23 24 Pigs 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 Chicken 2 20 26 37 0 5 12 21 28 5 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 Table 4.11 :Sources of Fodder in Project District (HHs In Percent) Tribal Population Non ST Population Fodder durga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur durga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Own Field 76 33 51 48 41 58 71 69 91 51 Community Land 2 13 0 27 4 2 15 3 10 5 Forests 0 30 10 9 4 2 32 5 13 7 Market 12 8 8 9 4 11 14 15 13 17 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 The principal sources of fodder are own fields, neighbours' fields, community land, forests and market (Table 4.11). Nearly 50 per cent of the households obtain fodder from their own fields. In addition to crop residues, grazing on bunds and cultivation of fodder crops are done. Dependence on forests for fodder is found among 11 per cent and on community lands among 9 per cent of the households. During lean seasons and when fodder is inadequate, they are forced to depend on the market. Nearly 8 per cent of the households procure fodder from the nearby market. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 30 Trend of procurement of fodder from market is higher among Non-STs. Whereas, the availability of community land is similar for STs and Non STs except for Kolar district where it is rather higher for STs. Thus, it can be said thet access to community resources are similar for STs Table 4.12: Problems faced in Procuring Fodder in Project District (HHs In Percent) Tribal Population Non ST Population Chitra- Chitra- Problems durga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur durga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Non Availability in Near Vicinity 8 23 38 46 11 9 33 30 43 10 Inadequate 10 28 49 48 11 8 31 33 45 17 Expensive/Unaffordable 6 25 44 66 11 10 28 23 28 16 Seasonal 16 18 31 54 0 6 20 16 30 8 No Problem 57 20 15 0 18 40 27 21 14 12 Access to Veterinary Services 29 33 33 71 18 19 54 32 47 28 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 Procurement of fodder is beset with a number of difficulties. Problem in procurement of fodder is more recognised in the districts with higher livestock ownership ie Kolar, Haveri and Dharwad. For 30 per cent of the households, purchase of fodder is expensive and prohibitve. The problem of inadequacy is faced by 29 per cent and the difficulty of non- availability is encountered by 25 per cent of the households. For 24 per cent of the households the scarcity of fodder is only a seasonal problem. The fodder is not a problem for 22 per cent. Regarding veterinary services, 37 percent of the tribal households have an access (table 4.12). Accessibility to [he veterinary services is highest in Kolar district (71 %). For rest of the districts accessibility is less than 33 percent. This points to the reason why animal husbandry has not picked in these project districts. Further, it also indicates the cause of low productivity of livestock. In Kolar while STs are much better off than non STs, in Dharwad access to vetenary services is recorded lower for STs. 4.4 SOCIAL STATUS 4.4.1 Habitation The field survey reveals that none of the Tribal Groups in the Project Districts are living in exclusive clusters as in the past. A major proportion of tribals have a nuclear family structure. The joint family system is found in some villages for the reason of inability to own independent dwelling. Most families are patriarchal in nature. There are, however, families headed by women but males mostly direct decision-making. The family size ranges between 6 and 9. 4.4.2 Housing Type Housing conditions exhibit the quality of life. In the project districts under study, housing conditons are found to be relatively better. About 55 per cent of the households surveyed possess pucca houses while the remaining 45 per cent dwell in kutcha structures constructed using locally available resources. In Chitradurga, 84 per cent of the tribal KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Developmenl Project-Tribal Study 31 households have the privilege of living in pucca houses, but in Tumkur a mere 26 per cent of the houses were pucca (table 4.13). It is interesting to note that about 95 per cent of the houses were owned which may be attributed to the implementation of several housing programmes in these villages. The scenario is not encouraging in regard to household latrines, as only 8 per cent of the households have afforded household latrines. In case of Non STs 61 percent live in kachha houses in Kolar district and around 56 percent in Tumkur district. Hence, it can be said that housing status does not vary for the tribal population and is a factor of economic and locational conditions. Table 4.13 :Housing Status in Project District (In Percent) Tribal Population Non ST Population Chitra- Chitra- Kolal Housing durga |Dharawad Haver Kolar | Tumkur durga |Dharawad| Haveri Kolar Tumkur Construction Type Kachha (mud) 16 42 56 32 74 20 49 47 61 56 Pucca 84 58 44 68 26 77 51 53 34 36 With Laterine 4 3 11 7 18 10 18 23 10 22 Ownership Own 96 94 93 98 96 95 92 93 95 93 Rented 4 6 7 2 4 5 8 7 5 7 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 4.4.3 Access to Drinking Water Drinking water, being a basic need, indicates the quality of life of a community. A majority of the households are dependent up on hand pumps / mini water supply schemes of the government. On the whole, 82 percent of the tribal households procure drinking water from this source (table 4.14). Among the districts, the maximum dependence on hand pumps is 90 percent in Chitradurga and the lowest dependence is in Haveri (82 %). The dependence on other sources like open well, canal, tank and ponds is negligible. House connections are taken by mere 13 percent of the households in the project districts taken together. Piped water supply connection is highest in Dharwad for Non STs. Open community well are also considerable source of drinking water in Kolar for non STs and in Dharwad for STs. Table 4.14: Drinking Water Availability in Project District (HHs In Percent) Tribal Population Non ST Population Source of Drinking Chitra- Chitra- Water durga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur durga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur House Connection (Piped) 10 5 18 16 15 22 66 38 18 18 HP/MWS 90 80 82 84 74 66 40 69 79 68 Open Well (Community 0 15 0 0 4 1 5 0 18 1 Open Well/Pump set 0 0 0 2 7 1 2 1 3 3 Canal 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Tank/Pond 0 5 0 2 0 0 10 0 4 0 Average Distance to source (mts.) 80 138 110 87 168 52 53 73 78 97 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 The average distance to source of water is higher for STs. It is women who fetch water. On an average they traverse a distance of about 117 meters. On the quality of water KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 32 fetched, 76 percent of the households consider it to be good, 23 percent rate as satisfactory and only one percent express reservation about the quality of water. It is interesting to note that the tribal households use public stand-posts and hand pumps, which are open to all irrespective of caste or status. Table 4.14 :Drinking Water Quality inPrject District (HHs In Percent) Tribal Population Non ST Population Drinking Water Chitra- Chitra- Quality durga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur durga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Good 94 40 67 80 96 83 48 65 66 81 Satisfactory 6 60 28 20 0 13 50 31 33 12 Unsatisfactory 0 0 3 0 0 2 2 3 0 2 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 4.4.4 Access to Health and Sanitation Facilities The status of health, hygiene and sanitation is poor. Household sanitation is negligible and personal hygiene is the most neglected aspect. Over 92 percent of the households defecate in open space. Those few who have HHL are not accustomed to use them. There is some awareness on the consequences of unhygienic practices. They do agree that, most of the diseases they suffer from are the "gifts" of the unhygienic and unsanitary conditions. But lack of finance, shortage of water and lack of space that are necessary for the construction of HHL are the deterring factors. The sensitivity level is same for both Tribals and Non tribals. Because of increased access to reasonably safe water, prevalence of water borne diseases is only marginal. Only 19 percent of the households suffered from water borne diseases such as diarrhoea, cholera, jaundice, typhoid, malaria, filarial, polio and gastro- enteritis. Among the districts, Kolar has more afflictions as compared to other districts. Tumkur and Chitradurga have been safe in this (table 4.15). Table 4.15: Water Borne Diseases in Project District (In Percent) Diseases [ Chitradurga Dharwad Haveri Kolar Tumkur All Districts Diarrhoea [ 6 5 10 4 5 6 Cholera 1 0 2 1 0 1 Jaundice 1 2 0 2 2 1 Typhoid 0 8 2 0 0 2 Malaria 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fileria 0 0 2 0 0 0 Polio 2 0 2 2 1 1 Gastroenteritis 4 0 3 23 6 7 None 86 85 79 68 86 81 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 4.4.5 Cooking Devise and Fuel Sources An analysis of cooking devices used and fuels consumed portray the socio cultural status of the tribal households. It is found that 90 percent of the households surveyed are using traditional hearths. This device is more prominently used in all the project districts (table 4.16). Kerosene stoves are in vogue among 9 percent of the households. About 7 percent of the households have taken to improved chullas. The use of biogas is almost non- existent except Dharawad and Haveri where it is used by 3 percent and one per cent respectively. Use of LPGs is higher among Non STs. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 33 Table 4.16: Cooking Devices in Project District (In Percent) Tribal Po ulation Non ST Population Chitra- Chitra- Cooking Devices durga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur durga Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Traditional Hearth 94 93 92 100 89 87 96 91 94 77 Kerosene Stove 6 15 5 12 7 17 16 4 64 8 Improved Chulha 6 5 0 11 15 10 2 2 5 17 LPG 2 0 0 0 0 3 3 2 1 2 Bio Gas 0 3 1 0 ° 0 1 9 3 1 1 Electric Stove 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Source: PRA & FGD, 2001 In regard to the types of fuel used, firewood appears to be the principal source. Over 96 per cent of the households STs as well as non STs use firewood while 41 percent take recourse to twigs, bushes and crop residues. The use of dung cake is also significant among STs since 25 percent of the households are dependent up on it as a source of energy (table 4.17). Nearly 20 per cent of the households use kerosene and a bare I per cent has biogas connection. Pattern of use of kerosene is found to be similar among both type of communities. Table 4.17: Cooking Devices in Project District (In Percent) _________ Tribal Population Non ST Population Source of Fuel Chitra-dur aDharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Chitra-dur a Dharawad Haveri Kolar Tumkur Dung Cake 13 58 54 12 23 0 2 7 11 3 Firewood/ Logs 100 98 90 100 92 96 95 86 97 88 Twigs/Bushes/Crop Residue 23 53 56 23 48 0 72 41 0 30 Kerosene 6 30 15 45 4 17 35 1 6 25 8 Biogas 0 3 0 0 0 2 8 3 0 0 4.5 CONCLUSION The landholding pattern in the project villages is similar across the ST and the remaining populaton. In some districts, the tribal population owning land is higher than the non-tribal population. This means there are other non-tribal vulnerable groups in these villages who have smaller holding, when compared to the STs. Tribals have taken advantage of the positive discrimination of the government policies particularly for secured government positions. There is otherwise no significant difference in the occupational pattern between the tribals and the other groups. Productive asset ownership (livestock) pattern has changed and is now inclined towards bullocks, cows and buffaloes compared with the traditional ownership of sheep, goats, and poultry. This is almost similar to the type and numbers of livestock owned by the non-tribal groups. Problems faced in agriculture and procurement of fodder is high in the project area, which is no different for STs from other communities. Social amenities like drinking water, health, and Community pastureland are equally accessed by the tribal and other groups in the villages. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project- Tribal Study 34 5. DOES THE PROJECT REQUIRE AN IPDP? World Bank directives state that special action is required if the project affects the local community composed partly of or entirely of indigenous, tribal, low caste or ethnic minority groups. This is particularly true where their social status restricts their capacity to assert their interests in land and other resources upon which they depend for their livelihood. The argument on whether an IPDP is required has been evaluated on two key aspects in the following sections: 5.1 CONFORMITY OF THE STATUS OF THE STs TO THAT ESTABLISHED BY OD 4.20. The following table highlights that the ground reality (based on Field surveys and Consultations held in 66 villages) does not indicate existence of distinct " social groups" for the ST populabon nor does the non-ST community exhibit symptoms of being the "dominant group" except (in some cases) in terms of statistical incidence. The baseline status of the ST populabon does not bring out any special characteristics which could set them apart from the other vulnerable stakeholders of the project. However, the economic characteristics reveals that STs and the non-STs are both economically weak. S.No Key Characteristics Key Characteristics of IP in KWDP of IP as per OD 4.20 1. The OD 4.20 defines IP None of the major tribes exhibit ant distinct characteristics, which as "social groups" with set them apart from the mainstream civil society. The ST population social and cultural identity shares all social amenities and facilities with the non-ST people. distinct from the They participate in all village activities and move socially amongst "dominant society" that other communities. makes them vulnerable to being disadvantaged in the development process 2. IP have a close The ST community possessing land is higher than among STs in attachment to ancestral almost all districts. In fact landlessness among SCs is twice as territories and to natural much as STs. resources in the area 3. Self identification and Traditionally, segregation in use of water, community resources identification by others as especially wells and burial grounds set apart the STs from the non- members of a distinct STs. However, in the project areas, the IP, especially the three cultural group dominant tribal groups, all have shared religious, ritualistic, custom, festivals, burial grounds, water resources, with the civil (non-ST) population. The apparent 'self identification' by the groups is more of 'community behavior' exhibited by any other community (non-ST too) rather than any attempt to preserve their ethnicity or distinct identity. Field surveys reveal that none of the tribal groups in the project districts are living in exclusive clusters. 4. An indigenous language The three dominant tribal groups (Nayakas, Jenu, Kudu Karubaa) often different from the do not speak different dialects. They all speak Kannada, which is national language the official language, and the nayaks (95% of the total STs) speak no other language. 5. Presence of customary The social and political institutions prevalent in the IP is same for social and political the non-STs. institution KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 35 6. Primary subsistence Agriculture is the main stay of majority of the tribal families. They oriented production also work as labourers. Other sources of income include dairy farming, government service (8-12%) and silkworm rearing. 5.2 POSSIBILITY OF THE STs BEING SUBJECTED TO ADVERSE IMPACTS BY THE PROJECT OD 4.20 goes on to state that an IPDP is required if there is likelihood of the IP being subjected to adverse impacts due to the project. The tribals being people close to nature and sustaining on natural produce, commonly forests for their sustenance, land and access to natural resources are the key areas, which if impacted by the project will have adverse impact upon these people. The possibility of these likely adverse impacts happening due to the project is highlighted below. They have also been explained in detail in preceding chapters. S.No Key Likely impacts on STs Likelihood of Impact happening due to the project Warranting an IPDP 1. Loss of Land./Involuntary The Karnataka Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes Act resettlement was passed in 1978 and amended subsequently to prohibit transfer of land from STs to non STs and for restoration of land alienated by such members. Thus, STs having legal holding over their agricultural land. 2. Loss of access to natural Traditional rights of the STs towards minor forest products resources (forests, wildlife and are specifically recognized in Karnataka and the STs have water) access to Joint Forest Planning and Management for forestry usufructs even in denser forests. Tribal co- operatives were formed to take NWFP (Non wood forest products) collections. The project does not envisage alteration in this arrangement. 3. Change in legal status of Group The legal status as defined and established in the fifth schedule of the constitution shall not be undermined by any proposed development in the project. The project does not envisage an change in the legal status of the STs Additionally, the Tribal Welfare Directorate for STs has many development schemes for education, agriculture, horticulture, fishery, animal husbandry, forestry, rural and small scale industries, serculture, women and child development, rural development and panchayat raj, employment and training, co operatives, and other welfare schemes. These schemes which are in various stages of implementation and have started yielding results and the following subsections go to state that the STs are in a state of social and economic upliftment. *: None of the Tribal Groups in the Project Districts are living in exdusive clusters as in the past. *. Religious, ritualistic, custom, festivals, shared burial grounds; shared water sources do not distinguish the ST populabon from the rest. *: The percentage of SC population is more than the STs therefore; the population that belongs to vulnerable groups seems to be higher among the SCs than the STs. *: The tribal groups have more liberal access to the provisions of the JFPM Act compared with their non-tribal counterparts, both in relation to use of forest land and the density of forest cover *: Gender ratio balance is no different for STs from Non ST Population in project villages. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 36 *: Although, Literacy Level is found much lower among tribal population in project villages awareness about the importance of education and hence the number of literates is slowly on increase. *: Among the STs 8% have employment in the government /public bodies, whereas less than 5% of the non-ST population has such (compare with the fact that STs constitute 8% of the total population). In certain districts, 8-12% of the STs have such employment, whereas only 6-7% is the ceiling for non-ST populabon. *: Ownership of assets especially TV sets and hand pumps is quite similar for STs and non STs which shows that even tribal population are adopbng new technologies be it work or leisure. *: In project villages of all 5 districts, more STs own land than the total population, and consequently much more than the non-ST vulnerable population. *: Livestock ownership pattern of Non STs are similar to STs showing that cattle rearing is now equally significant for Non STs *: Increasing number of tribals are exchanging traditional hearths for modern cooking devices *: Productive asset ownership is now inclined towards bullocks, cows, and buffaloes compared with traditional ownership of sheep goats and poultry. Based on the findings and conclusions, the study concludes that as STs in the project area are not really secluded in terms of social cultural and economic circumstances from the non STs. Their social and political rights are adequately represented and protected by various legislations. The project thus is not likely to have any adverse impact on them. Therefore, there is no need for an IPDP. However, the study, in anticipation of.a situation of differential access to project benefits by the tribals and other vulnerable groups, proposes development of a framework, which will ensure their participation in the project, and sharing in the benefits emanating from the project. Such a Strategy shall cover all vulnerable groups (including tribals) and would be premised on the following: *: Strategy for identification of vulnerable people; *. Forum for consultations with the tribal groups in project planning; ** Framework for participatory decision-making; ** Mechanisms for review/supervision of micro-plans; and ** Plans for comprehensive participatory monitoring and evaluation. This Strategy is discussed in the following section. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project- Tiibal Study 37 6 VULNERABLE GROUP INCLUDING TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY The Vulnerable Groups (including tribals) Strategy would be premised on five main pillars. These are: (a) strategy for identification of tribal people; (b) forum for consultations with the tribal groups in project planning; (c) framework for participatory decision-making; (d) mechanisms for review/supervision of micro-plans; and (e) plans for comprehensive participatory monitoring and evaluation. Further discussion on each aspect is provided below. 6.1 OBJECTIVE 1: Identification of Vulnerable Group Members * To ensure that al! the vulnerable group populaton is identified in an adequate and transparent manner. 6.1.1 The Strategies And The Processes * The Vulnerable Group Population in the Project: The following groups (and individuals) are considered to be vulnerable, for the purpose of the project: (i) Scheduled Caste (SC) Populaton, (ii) Scheduled Tribe (ST) population, (iii) the Other Backward Communities (OBCs), (iv) the landless families (engaged primarily as agricultural labourers) (iv) women, and (vi) economically poor or those who belong to the Below Poverty Line as defined by GoK. * Census at Project Villages: As part of the project, a census will be undertaken at each of the project villages, which would be enough to identify the vulnerable group population. The census will be conducted by the NGO procured for implementation of the project in each of the 5 districts. Cross-References: All these groups are covered in the various government programmes; and the SCs, the STs, the landless (agricultural) labourers, and the women have been enumerated by the Census of India (the recent one conducted in 2001AD). * Other Processes: The beneficiaries in the project will include, as primary stakeholders, the landowners, the landless, the big, medium, small and marginal farmers, and the vulnerable group population among the primary stakeholders. A list of the primary stakeholders will be prepared and will be displayed at a public place (a prominent public place without control on access) in the villages. Under the same, a sub-list of the vulnerable group population in the villages (for each category of vulnerabilty) will be displayed. 6.1.2 Institutional Responsibility The primary responsibility for identifying the vulnerable group population in the villages (within the micro-watershed) will rest with the micro-watershed management group (MWMGs). The secondary and (supervising) responsibility will be of the non-government organisations (NGOs) procured for the project. 6.1.3 Contingency action for Residual issues KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 38 Updating: The government may notify an additional community to be vulnerable (as scheduled caste, scheduled tribes, or 'other backward community', etc.); or, as consequence of or by investigation during the implementation of the project, individuals/community might additionaly be identified as vulnerable (such as the agricultural labourers, without any skill in vocations other than traditional cultivation, etc.). These groups will be included in the updated list of vulnerable group population. The updated list will be used in planning for the vulnerable groups, or in the MWDPs. 6.2 OBJECTIVE 2: Consultation with and Participation of the Vulnerable Group Population To ensure that the VGP are consulted adequately, and that the perception of such groups are incorporated in the plans/designs of the project. 6.2.1 The Strategies and the Processes * The consultation and the participation strategy is based on continued PRA though out the duration of the project. The project would start with awareness and confidence building among the VGP, and aim at full participation of the VGPs. - The awareness campaign undertaken during 'entry point initiatives' in a village will have a special focus on the VGP. At every village, the community will be impressed upon that without active participation of women and the other VGP, the village will be excluded from the project. The awareness campaign will focus on the lack of knowledge/awareness, and will include exchange visits and demonstration that people of similar background have improved their lot. - The planning/design of the project will be through Social mobilization. The social mobilization process will involve project information dissemination by the NGOsNVDD staff, readying the Gram Sabha for project participation, doing a Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) to identify distinct groups/constituencies (including VGP), formation of SHGs/affinity groups (including VGP groups), establishing a MWMG, followed by 1-2 PRAs to culminate in social and resource mapping, identification of constraints and possible solutions, village transects, and preparation of an initial MWDP with suggested entry point investments. The NGO will play the role of community facilitators and motivators during the entire period of MWDP formation and implementation. At each stage of the social mobilization, consultation and working with the VGPs will be a crucial element. Consultation will continue during the implementation of the project and subsequent O&M. * Participation: Inclusion and prioritisation of villages in the project will depend upon the readiness of the VGP to collaborate and participate in the project. Participation of the VGP in the project will be in the form of user groups (or beneficiary groups), and self help groups (SHGs). * Participation of the VGP in the project will be as beneficiaries and as owners, through the beneficiary groups and SHGs. Cost sharing will be an important part of such participation. The cost share will be proportionate to the size of the land that would be treated, and the quantum of benefit that may accrue following treatment, and will be dependent on whether the investment has common or private benefits. For common benefits, the cost share may be about 25%, but for private benefits, it may be more (about 35-40%). The VGP will be allowed to contribute through labour KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka 'atershed Development Project- Tribal Study 39 instead of cash or assets. Cost sharing for non-farm income generating activities will be based on the baseline economic status of the potential beneficiaries. Institutional arrangements for effective participation of the VGP have been formulated. At both the micro-watershed and the district levels, VGP are made part of the institutional arrangements. 6.2.2 Institutional Responsibility The primary responsibility for awareness campaign will rest with the NGOs. The MWMGs along with the WDD will be responsible for initial RRA and PRA exercises. Consultation during planning/design and implementation stages of the project will be the responsibility of the MWMGs, with collaboration of the NGOs. The NGOs and the SHGs will be responsible for participatory O&M and. The overall supervision responsibility to ensure consultation with and participation of the VGP will remain with the WDD. 6.2.3 Contingency action for Residual Issues Given the issue of cost sharing, there might be a possibility that the vulnerable group populaton might be excluded from the project citing inadequate cost sharing in the activities, which require smaller quantities of labour8. Again, this might be a pretext to engage the vulnerable group labourers in other activities without pay. To protect the interests of the vulnerable group population with respect to the above, the project proposes the following additional safeguards: ( Cost of a work will be calculated consisting of the (base cost) of the material and labour cost only. The cost of involvement of the Department Officials, NGOs, line departments, Panchayats, or any institution created by the project; or any overhead arising out of such institutional arrangement will not be considered as part of the cost of work, as far as cost sharing by the vulnerable group population is concerned. * The cost of labour will be calculated as per the minimum wage rate fixed by the government for the district. Further, a ceiling on the labour component will apply as follows: * In the event that the cost share component in an activity limited on a private land, is more than the labour required for the same activity, the required labour in the activity will be the ceiling for cost sharing. (Depending on their willingness, the vulnerable group individuals may use the unspent labour in any other activity on community land). * For an activity on community/common land, the unspent labour (equivalent to the cost sharing by the individuals/ community) will be used in activities in other community/common land belonging to (or associated with) the same or another vulnerable group. In no event, the unispent labour (as per above) will be utilized in activities on a private land. If workers other than the owners are engaged in activities in a private land, they will be paid as per the minimum wage rates applicable. These above safeguards will effectively seal the possibility of exploitation of the vulnerable group labourers, during the course of the project. 6.3 OBJECTIVE 3: Conducive institutional arrangements 8 Such situations will arise as the minimum wage rate prevailing is low, the labour is cheap, and the material component is predominant in the cost of a work. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 40 To ensure that the institutional arrangements in the project are conducive to the sharing of the benefits accrued from the project, in an equitable manner. 6.3.1 The Strategies and the Processes * The strategies: To ensure that the VGP fully participate in the project and benefit from it, the project would support formation of self-help groups (SHGs) for income generating activities, provide training and skills development programs, promote awareness creation and develop close links with other gender related poverty alleviabon and social programs. Such activities would be incorporated in the MWDPs and qualified NGOs will facilitate implementation. Each MWMG9 will include representatives from the vulnerable groups. The project has been formulated in a demand-driven and bottom-up approach, and the consequent decentralised institutional arrangements incorporate the needs of the VGP. * The processes include the preparation and implementabon of "vulnerable group micro-watershed development sub-plans (VGSs). A separate list will be prepared for the felt needs of the VGP. If no distinction exist between the overall and the VGP 'felt needs', a staterment will be prepared giving the perception of the vulnerable group population on the 'general' listed needs. This would ensure that the priorities of the VGP are considered in the beginning of the MWDP planning process. - For each of the villages/micro-watersheds, a VGS will be prepared incorporating the 'felt needs' (or the perceptions, and priorities) of the VGP. The sub-plan will be prepared essentially following the format and techniques of the overall MWDP, except when a deviation is required to reflect the needs of the VGP. It would be mandatory for each MWDP to completely incorporate the VGSs. To that effect, it would be required that the VGSs are finalised prior to the finalisation of the MWDPs. * Fund Flow: The GOK would pass on the funds to WDD and to the five district ZPs, under the advice of WDD. The transfer of funds would be made to the WDD and the ZPs on a quarterly basis, through the State Treasury system. The release of funds to the MWMGs would be based on the approved Micro-Nillage Watershed Development Plan (MWDP) and Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed between the ZP and the MWMGs. The MWMGs will open and maintain a separate project bank account called the 'Implementation Account'. All the project funds received from the ZPs will be deposited in this account and utilized for project related activities. The verification/certification process will be the joint responsibility of the field officer of the WDD and the designated NGO. The rolling advances will ensure that MWMGs will have a working imprest of one month's requirement to allow for processing time and release of the next instalment of funds. Any funding requirement for VFCs will be met by the MWMGs. VFCs will also be required to maintain a separate project bank account and submit detailed vouchers on a monthly basis to the MWMGs. * It may be noted that the MWMGs are the most important level in the entire fund flow. As the MWMGs have adequate representation of the VGP (refer the next section on the role of the VGP in decision making), the VGP will have substantial say in the management of finances and about the expenditure. 9 Note that the MWMGs are the most important agencies with respect to the planning/designing, implementation, O&M and monitoring of the project. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 41 6.3.2 Institutional Responsibility The WDD will be responsible to ensure that all the MWMGs are constituted and operationalised with at least the recommended number of VGP. The MWMGs along with the NGOs will be responsible to ensure that an adequate number of SHGs/affinity groups are formed among the VGP. The NGOs will have the primary responsibility to ensure that a sufficient number of VGP beneficiary groups are formed. 6.3.3 Contingency action for Residual Issues Screening of the Felt Needs: All the 'felt needs' will be listed. At each village, a discussion will take place (in at least one public meeting) with respect to each of the 'felt needs'. To ensure that the land and assets of the VGP are not impacted indirectly (owing to the focus on improvement of other land parcels), a sub-list will be prepared for the following: * The needs that require interventions on the village/community land/asset, but directly or indirectly impact any private land/assets. * The needs that requires interventions on a private land/asset but impact another private land/asset directly or indirectly. * This will include the possible cases of private land/asset requirement, as well as fragmentation of landholding. The list of 'felt needs' including the above mentioned sub-list will be displayed in a public place (with no restriction of access) in the village. 6.4 OBJECTIVE 4: Role of the Vulnerable group Population in Decision Making To ensure that the vulnerable group population has a decision-making role in the planning/design, implementation, operation and maintenance. 6.4.1 The Strategies and the Processes * Villages/micro-watershed will be the most important level in the planning/designing, implementation, operation and maintenance, and monitoring phases of the project. The interventions at the taluka, district or the state level will be minimum, and only when required by a consideration not resolved by the villagers themselves. Therefore, it is important to ensure a role for the vulnerable group population in the decision-making at the village level. (Note that at the taluka and the district level, there is a prominent decision-making role for the vulnerable groups by way of the reservations in the local body elections). * Decision-Making Role at the Village Level: Within a village/micro-watershed, the most crucial decision-making body is the MWMG. The project proposes that all the plans/designs, implementation decisions, etc., for a MWDP will be undertaken at the MWMG, and a majority decision will prevail. The project builds adequate conditons within the MWMgs to protect the interests of the vulnerable group populatbn. * Composition of the MWMGs: An MWMG comprises of 14 members, including elected GP members from the village(s) and representatives from the vulnerable groups, SHGs, user groups and affinity groups, and the local WDD staff, as the ex- officio member. It is proposed that except for the WDD staff, at least 7 of the KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project- Tribal Stucdy 42 remaining MWMG members be women, and at least 6 of the remaining MWMG members belong to the other vulnerable communities/groups. * Quorum in the MWMG: More important than the composition in itself, is the quorum at the MWMg meeting, where crucial decisions are take. The project proposes that the quorum in the MWVMG meetings shall comprise of at least 9 members, of which at least 5 shall belong to the vulnerable group communities. * When only 9 members are present in a MWMG meeting, the vulnerable group members will constitute a majority. Given that all 14 members are present in a meeting, the vulnerable group members together constitute half of the committee, and without their support, no decision can be taken. Given also that the local WDD staff (ex-officio, but may be a woman or of a vulnerable community) will not generally be part of the village-level conflicts, the vulnerable group members will be in the majority. * The above ensures that no decision in the project is possible without willing participation of the vulnerable group members. 6.4.2 Institutional Responsibility The WDD will be responsible to ensure that all the MWMGs are constituted and operationalised with at least the recommended number of VGP. The NGOs will ensure that the VGP members of the MWMGs exercise their powers in an effective manner, and in pursuance of common good. 6.4.3 Contingency action for Residual Issues Dispute resolution: All disputes will normally be handled within the SHGs. As most of the vulnerable group population will form SHGs among themselves, it is expected that the conflicts will be minimum. All SHGs of the vulnerable group population will be encouraged to constitute a body of elderly persons among themselves (or from the same vulnerable community) to help resolve difference within the members of the SHGs. A dispute unresolved by the SHGs, or a dispute between two or more SHGs will be resolved by the MWMGs. Similarly, any dispute on CPRs will be resolved by the MWMGs. For all such arbitration, the MWMG and the GP will nominate a body of 5 members, at least 3 of whom shall be women and at least 3 of them shall belong to the other vulnerable communities. This would ensure that there would be a pro-'vulnerable group' bias within the arbitrators. Although the interpersonal disputes are in the domain of the GPs, a body of arbitrators will be constituted within the GP in the same manner, if any of the parties in the dispute is a woman, or a member of the other vulnerable groups At the district level, arbitration by the Watershed developrnent Department will include NGOs, who will be responsible to ensure that the just interests of the vulnerable group populaton are protected. 6.5 OBJECTIVE 5: Participation of the Vulnerable Group Population in Monitoring and Evaluation To ensure that the VGP has a decision-making role in the monitoring and evaluation of the project. 6.5.1 The Strategies and the Processes KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project- Tribal Studv 43 All monitoring in the project will be participatory in nature, including development of M&E indicators in consuitation with the project beneficiaries. In all the following monitoring, inclusion of the VGP is a dominant criterion. * Input and output monitoring: The WDD would be responsible for input/output monitoring of the project at all levels through a computerized MIS. At the micro- watershed level, the NGOs would be responsible, together with MWMGs, for establishing and maintaining an on-going monitoring system. This would be based on monitorable quantitative indicators selected in partnership with the MWMGs for transparency in reporting at their level. The VGP as part of the MWMGs will have a share in the input/output monitoring. * Process monitoring. The project would appoint an independent agency to carry out process monitoring. The agency would have access to, and contribute to, the project data gathered by the MIS, and through the use of participatory methods. There would be an emphasis on monitoring the socially inclusive process and the extent to which the marginal and the VGP were included in the project. The process monitoring/evaluation would be carried out with the full participation of MWMG members (including the minimum sub-quorum of the VGP members) and would be based on the agreements reached during the MWDP exercises and MOUs. This will also include Self-Assessment by beneficiaries, MWMGs, and VPGs. - Impact assessment. This part of the M&E system would establish the net impact of the project on the socio-economic indicators, including poverty. The evaluation would focus on the project's overarching objectives, i.e., a reduction in poverty of the small and marginal farmers, landless, women, and indigenous peoples. In addition to the regular mid-term and end-project evaluations, thematic evaluation and monitoring (e.g. environmental, Social Accountability Analyses or Social/Institutional Audits of the project, etc.) would be carried out throughout the project implementation period. - Learning. The outcome of the M&E exercise would feed into improving the project design and implementation arrangements, in particular the component relating to the VGP. The TOR being developedfor the M&E exercise will focus on these aspects. 6.5.2 Institutional Responsibility The primary responsibility of monitoring the project on behalf of the VGP will rest on the MWMG. At secondary level, the responsibility will be of the WDD. 6.5.3 Contingency action for Residual Issues At all levels of monitoring, there would be distinct section of the monitoring report dealing with the implementation of the Vulnerable Group Development Strategy in the project. Each village/micro-watershed level monitoring report will be endorsed and signed by the vulnerable groupSHGs and at least 5 of the vulnerable group members of the MWMGs. The MWMGs (or the Watershed Development Department) and the NGOs will certify that the Vulnerable Groups (including tribals) Strategy of the project is implemented fully at all levels of the project. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka W1atershed Development Project-Tribal Study 44 Annexure PROFILE OF TRIBES IN KARNATAKA 1. ADIYAN They describe themselves as Ravuler and have a populabon of, according to the 1981 census. Their name is said to have originated from an old rule that they should maintain a distance of aar (six) adi (feet) to avoid pollution. The word 'Adiyan' also connoted a slave or a vassal attached to a person of social standing. They speak Adibhasha, which is a dialect of the Kannada language. The women wear saree with a knot over the right shoulder and bear tattoo marks on their forearms. Regarding food habits they are non- vegetarians. They drink alcoholic beverages and smoke beedies. Both sexes are fond of chewing betel leaves. Monogamy is the norm. Residence after marriage is patrilocal. Nuclear families are common. Women have a role in economic, social and religious activities. They are mainly landless and their traditional occupation is agricultural labour. Plantation and daily wage labour is on increase. They are also engaged in animal husbandry and government service. They profess Hinduism. In Karnataka, the Adiyan are notified as a scheduled tribe. 2. BARDA They are called because long ago they lived mostly in hilly areas, which are locally called barda. They speak a dialect of Marathi and use the Devanagari script. They are non- vegetarians and are used to alcoholic drinks. They practice monogamy but polygamy is also allowed. They are patrilocal and divorce is allowed. They have joint family as well as nuclear type. The women work as casual labours and also take part in agricultural operations, collection of firewood and its sale. They contribute to the family income and control family expenditure to some extent. They depend on wage labour and work as agricultural and casual labourers. A few of them own agricultural lands. They have their own Panchayat, which settles dispute related to social and religious aspects. A majority of them profess Hinduism and have their own deities. Their attitude towards formal education is more favourable for boys. They avail facilities such as health care, rations etc., provided by the government. They are mostly found on the borders between Karnataka and Maharashtra. 3. BAVCHA These are predominantly urban. They are non-vegetarians. They are believers of the Shakti cult. They belong to Hindu religion. The rate of literacy is now on increase. Liquor is liberally consumed. Family is patrilocal and all the sons inherit property equally and succession is through the eldest son. A majority of them are landless and work as grooms and labourers. The group of elders deals with social issues. They are located in the areas bordering Maharashtra. 4. BHIL This is the second largest tribe of India, spread over a large territory in western and central parts of the country. It has a long history going as far back as the sixth century AD. They speak Bhili and are well versed in many other regional languages, depending on the state of their residence. They have nuclear pattern of families. Nearly 96 per cent of them are Hindus. They are predominantly agricultural labourers and cultivators, though hunting and the collection of forest produce is still a source of livelihood for some. Some families have benefited from government programmes. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project- Tribal Study 45 5. CHENCHU This tribe has a mention in Manusmniti and is classified as Proto-Australoids. Nuclear families exist and they usually practice patrilocal residence. Inheritance is through the male line. They mostly work as agricultural labourers although many of them are cultivators. They worship and believe in Hindu deities. They prefer formal education for both boys and girls. They have availed the benefits of government programmes. 6. DUBLA, TALAVIA, HALPATI The term Dubla in Hindi means thin or weak. Etymologically, Halpati is derived from the words hal, meaning plough and pati meaning lord. The name Halpati was given to them by Mahatma Gandhi to remove the stigma of their bonded labour. They are basically a rural based community. They claim a Rajput descent. They are monogamous. The rule of residence is patrilocal. Mostly, nuclear and vertically extended families are found among them. The rule of inheritance is male equigeniture, except the parental house, which is inherited by the youngest son. Women take part in agricultural activities and work as labourers in addition to looking after the family. They are today agricultural labourers and cultivators and practice dairy farming too. They believe in supernatural powers and appease them through worship and blood sacrifice. Most are Hindus and worship gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon. They celebrate festivals. The women know the art of tattooing. 7. GAMIT The Gamit have synonyms like Gamta, Gavit, Mavchi and Pandi. They are said to have migrated from Goa. Gamit means a villager. They are non-vegetarians and are used to alcohol consumption. They are traditionally agriculturists. They have their own traditional community council. They know the art of floor and wall painting and the women are experts in basketry and mat making. There are a good number of professionals from the community. They are mostly Hindus. They are benefited by the government programmes. The Gamit including all the subgroups had a population of 34, as per 1981 census. 8. GONDIGONDARU The Gond is concentrated in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka. They enjoy the tribal status as the Gond, Naikpod and Rajgond. Their ancestors are believed to have migrated from Andhra Pradesh. They speak Kannada and use Kannada script. The Gond women drape a saree in a different fashion and adorn their necks with a number of long black bead necklaces. They are non-vegetarians. Adult marriages are practiced and are settled through negotiation. Male equigeniture is the rule of inheritance and succession is in the male line. The women participate in activities connected with agriculture, animal husbandry, collection of fuel, and social, ritual and religious functions. Ancestor worship is observed. Some of the Gond possess land and are engaged in cultivation. Agricultural labour, animal husbandry, petty business and private services are other occupations pursued. Meat weaving is a leisure-time activity. The traditional community council looks after the internal affairs of the community. The Gond follow Hinduism worship several deities. Rangoli is a traditional form of art. They have favourable attitude towards education, modern medicine and family welfare programmes. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 46 9. GOWDALU The name is derived from the Kannada word Gowda, meaning a headman. Earlier, they were called Kodigeyavaru or palanquin bearers. This practice is extinct and they are now known as Oora Billava. They are different from the toddy-tapping community of Billava. The men among this community suffix Gowda to their names. The Tulu Gowdalu among them speaks in Tulu at home while the other sub-groups speak Kannada. They are non- vegetarians and use alcoholic drinks occasionally. The gowdalu has five groups, namely Tulu Gowdalu, Namdhar Gowdalu, Male Gowdalu, Kumbri Gowdalu and Kabbinamaleyavaru. Marriage between the groups is allowed. Adult marriage is the general practice. Male equigeniture is the rule of inheritance and succession is by the eldest son. Many of the Gowdalu own small pieces of land and are engaged in cultivation. Wage labour and animal husbandry are the other sources of income. They have a community association to look after social matters. They are followers of Hinduism. They have a literacy rate of around 23 per cent. They are covered under various government programmes. 10. HAKKIPIKKI The name of the community is derived from their traditional occupation of bird catching: hakki in Kannada means a bird while pikki is an echo-formation. The community is distributed in the districts of Mysore, Kolar, Shimoga and Hassan in Karnataka. They speak Vaghriat home and Kannada outside. They are non-vegetarians and regular consumers of alcohol. Adult marriage is the rule and monogamy is the practice. Patrilocal residence is followed. Both nuclear and vertically extended family systems are found. Women participate in all economic, social and ritual activities and contribute to the family income. Ancestor worship is found. The trapping of birds and animals and collection of forest produce are the traditional occupations. Many of them lead a nomadic life and move from village to village, selling cosmetics. A few are settled cultivators or earning a livelihood as agricultural labourers. They have a traditional community council to deal with cases of dispute. They belong to Hinduism. They have strong faith in their devate, who is the supreme authority of their religious life. They do not generally favour formal education. The literacy rate is as low as 7 per cent. They are covered under various government programmes. 11. HASALARU They derive their name from hasalu, meaning a child; in the plural this refers to the agricultural labourers attached to a landlord. They have several divisions. They are distributed in the hilly tracts of Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Dakshina Kannada and Uttara Kannada districts of Karnataka. They speak Kannada and eat non-vegetarian food. Endogamy is practiced only at the community level. Monogamy is the form of marriage and adult marriage is practiced. They follow patrilocal residence. The nuclear family is predominant. The rule of inheritance is fast changing towards equigeniture. They were traditionally bonded labourers, but now they are either agricultural or plantation labourers. They have a traditional headman, known as gurikara or buddhivanta, who settles disputes among them. They participate in bhoota worship, called kola, but maintain a distance from caste Hindus. They have made moderate progress in the field of education. They are covered under goverrment programmes and are found turning progressive. 12. IRULAR, IRULIGA They are also called Iraliga and llligaru. In some areas, they are known as Pujaris or Kadu Pujaris. They are distributed in the districts of Bangalore, Kolar, Chikmagalur and Chitradurga districts. They speak Kannada and use Kannada script. Agricultural wage KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Studv 47 labour is their primary occupation followed by cultivation. Most of them profess Hinduism. They do not show favourable attitude towards formal education. They have availed some of the facilities under the government programmes. 13. JENU KURUBA, KADU KURUBA, HALU KURUBA The name is derived from jenu or honey that they used to collect from the forest. They are concentrated in Kodagu and Mysore districts of Karnataka. Their speech, locally called Jenu Nudi, is a dialect of Kannada. They speak Kannada and use the Kannada script. The people are monogamous. Adult marriage is preferred. Male equigeniture is the rule of succession while the rule of succession demands that the eldest son should succeed his father. Women participate in all economic activities and contribute to the family income considerably. The collection of honey, herbs, roots and fruits from the forest is the traditional occupation. The government has given cultivable lands. In spite of this, a large section of them are working as daily labourers. Their traditional community council deals with social and economic disputes. They are all Hindus and they celebrate a number of festivals. There are residential schools to impart primary education. They are covered under the government schemes and programmes. Since they live in forests, they are called Kadu Kuruba. Kadu Kurubas are found in Mysore district. They speak Kannada. Cross cousin and maternal uncle-niece marriages are prevalent. They are monogamous and prefer to marry late in life. Family is nuclear and women participation in social and economic activities is permitted. The primary occupations are cultivation, agricultural labour, basket making and beedi rolling. They are skilled at handling, riding and trapping elephants. Yejaman is the head of the traditional community council and he deals with intra-community disputes. They are Hindus and worship deities. They favour formal education for both boys and girls. Several welfare programmes cover them. 14. KAMMARA These are found in Dakshina Kannada and Kollegal of Mysore district. Cross cousin marriages are common. Levirate and sororate are allowed in this community. Monogamy is the common form of marriage. Nuclear family is predominant. Equigeniture is the norm. Women participate in agricultural operations and animal husbandry, in addition to their domestic chores. They observe certain chores. Most of them are wage labourers and peasants. They have Kula Panchayat, which adjudicate cases pertaining to family, social and economic matters. They profess Hinduism. They worship village goddesses and observe festivals. Their attitude towards development is favourable. 15. KUNIYAN,KANYAN The term Kaniyar means people who cultivate and predict. They are located in the districts of Bangalore, Mysore, Mandya, Hassan and Dakshina Kannada of Karnataka. However, the community is notified as a scheduled tribe under the nomenclature Kaniyan and Kanyan in Kollegal taluk. They speak Kannada. Adult marriage is the rule and mates for marriage are acquired through negotiations. Monogamy is the general form. Residence is patrilocal. The nuclear families predominate. Parental property is divided equally among the sons and the eldest son inherits succeeds the father. Women take part in economic activities and contribute to family income. Ancestor worship exists. Astrology, the practice of herbal medicine and exorcism are the traditional occupations. In villages, agricultural labour, silkworm rearing and silk reeling are the other occupations followed by them. They have a community association. They are Hindus and the followers of Ramanujacharya. They celebrate festivals. They have positive attitude towards formal KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed De",elopment Project-Tribal Study 48 education, modern health system and family welfare. Many boys have taken to college education and government jobs. 16. KATHODI They are also known as Katkari or Kathodia. Their economy is based on agriculture. A number of them work as daily-wage labourers. Poultry farming is also pursued. Negotated marriages are the convention. Monogamy is the popular form of marriage. The mixed extended type of family is common among them. The sons inherit ancestral property equally and the eldest son inherits the mantle of authority of his father. The women participate in agricultural activities and contribute to the family income. They take part in socio-religious affairs. There is a traditional community council as a mitigating body for intercommunity disputes. They are Hindus and have a rich oral tradition. They are covered development programmes. The impact of education is yet to be felt among them. 17. KA1TUNAYAKAN The name is derived from the words, Kadu, meaning forest, and nayakan, meaning leader or headman. They are also called as Jenu Kuruman, Ten Kuruba, Naickan and Jenu Kuruba. They are believed to be the children of Hidambi and Bheema. They speak Kannada. They are non-vegetarians. They prefer adult marriage and monogamy is practiced for marriage. Nuclear and vertically extended types of families are found. The descent pattern is patrilineal and the eldest son is the successor. Nuclear families are on increase. Women have a role in economic and social affairs. Food gathering, hunting, fishing and trapping of birds and animals are the traditional occupations, which a few of them pursue till today. A few of them are landowning peasants. A majority of them are agricultural labourers. Child labour exists. Social control is maintained through a traditional council headed by an elder. They are Hindus and worship trees, rocks, the sun, the moon, deities and ancestors. The community has oral traditions, folk-tales and folk- songs. Their attitude towards formal education is not favourable. 18. KOKNA, KOKNI, KUKNA They are said to the immigrants from Konkan area of Maharashtra. They eat meat and drink alcohol. They are monogamous and have nuclear families. They are patrilocal, patrilineal and patripotestal people. The rule of inheritance follows the male line. The women participate in social, ritual and economic activities. They also work as agricultural labourers and contribute to family income. They have a community council to regulate social and religious activities. They are Hindus and they profess the traditional form of religion. They worship ancestors. 19. KOLI DHOR In Karnataka, they are distributed in the districts of Belgaum, Bijapur, Gulbarga and Bidar districts. They speak Marathi at home and use Kannada for inter-group communication. 20.07 per cent of their populabon dwell in urban areas. They are traditionally engaged in operating ferries and they also subsist on fishing. A good number of them work as agricultural labourers. A few also cultivate land. They are all Hindus. They have a positive attitude towards formal education, modern medicine, family planning and development programmes. Generally they are monogamous. 20. KONDA KAPUS KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Studv 49 The name Konda Kapu is derived from the words konda (hill) and kapu (watchman). They speak Telagu and live in the borders of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. They are non- vegetarians and often consume indigenous alcoholic drinks. They prefer cross-cousin marriages and both sorority and levitate are permitted. Monogamy is the usual practice. Remarriage of men and women is permitted. The traditional occupations are hunting, collection of minor forest produce, shifting cultivation and horticulture. They also work as farm servants and daily-wage labourers. They profess Hinduism and worship several deities. The literacy rate is about 19 per cent. 21. KORAGA They are concentrated in Dakshina Kannada District. They speak in Koraga (dialect) among themselves and in Tulu and Kannada with others. They are non-vegetarians and are used to alcohol. Endogamy at the group level and exogamy at the clan level are observed. Sororate is permissible. Nuclear families are in vogue. The eldest among the sister's sons succeeds the diseased in authority. Women participate in social, ritual and economic activities, including basket making and agricultural labour. Ancestors are worshipped. A few of them own cultivable land. Others practice basetry, work as agricultural labourers or are in government and private services. Children often work as wage earners. They are Hindus and worship a goddess and spirits. Folk songs are sung to the accompaniment of percussion and wind instruments. They also take part in dance performances. The institution of Gurikara, the headman, effects social control. They have positive attitude towards formal education, modern medicine and family welfare. They are covered under various development programmes. 22. KOTA Kota is a small group in Karnataka. They are non-vegetarians and regular consumers of alcohol. They practice exogamy. Monogamy is the form of marriage. Sororate and levirate are permitted. Families are nuclear or extended. Male equigeniture is the law of inheritance. The women have roles in agricultural operations, animal husbandry, collection of fuel, fetching of potable water and other economic activities. The rule of post- marriage is patrilocal. Traditionally they are potters. At present, agriculture is the main stay of livelihood for many of them. Animal husbandry, agricultural labour, pottery and making of metal objects are the other occupations. Traditional community council exists. They are Hindus. They are fairly literate. They are on the banks of mainstream development. 23. KOYA, BHINE KOYA, RAJKOYA These people are monogamous. Adult marriage is preferred. Families are nuclear and male equigeniture is the rule of inheritance. The women contribute to family income and control family expenditure. They play an important role in social functions, rituals and in religious matters. They subsist by tilling land and by hunting gathering forest products. They are experts in indigenous medicines and go around selling it. They also work as agricultural labourers They play wind and percussion instruments and both men and women participate in dancing performances. They worship mother earth and village deity. They have positive attitude towards development and education. 24. KUDIYA, MELAKUDI The people of this community inhabit the hill district of Kodagu. They speak Tulu, Kannada and Kodagu, They have a distinct dress system. They eat meat. They have house names, which are like the patrilineal clans, and are exogamous in nature. Adult marriages are preferred and monogamy is practiced. They profess Hinduism. They KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karinataka Watershed Development Project- Tribal Study 50 worship deities and believe in spirits (Bhoota). They observe festivals. They have accepted traditional as well as modern systems of medicine. They have availed the benefits under the government programmes. 25. KURUBA, KURUMAN The Kuruba or Kuruman means one who tends sheep. They speak a dialect of Kannada. They are meat eaters. Monogamy is the general rule. The rule of residence is patrilocal. Divorce by men is permissible. Parental property is divided equally among male children. Women take part in economic activities and contribute to family income. Traditionally, they reared goats and sheep, but now they have switched over to an agricultural economy. They are Hindus by religion. Social control is exercised by the traditional village council. 26. MALASAR They practice monogamy. Diverse is allowed. Remarriage is allowed. Women take part in agricultural operations, the collection of fuel and social functions. They derive their livelihood by collecting minor produce and as non-skilled labourers. They also trap birds and animals. They live in reserved forests. A council of elders exercises social control. 27. MALERU The term Maleru means the people living in the hilly regions. They claim that they were given the rights to collect cardamom from forests by the Pandavas who happened to visit there. They live mainly in the hilly tracts of Dakshina Kannada and Chikmagalur districts. They speak Tulu and use Kannada script. They eat meat and drink indigenous brew. Adult marriage is the practice. They follow the patrilocal rule of residence after marriage. They were hunters and gatherers in the past . Now they are engaged in cultivation. The other occupations include wage labour, collection of forest produce, mat and basket making. They have a headman to settle disputes. They sing folk songs, play drums and perform folk dance on special occasions. They have turned progressive in the recent past. 28. MARATI This community comprises Marathi non-brahmin castes, which came to the south as soldiers in the armies of Maratha invaders. It is notified as a scheduled tribe with two different names, viz., Marati in Dakshina Kannada and Maratha in Kodagu district. The former claim Kashatriya status for themselves. Monogamy is the popular form. The patrilocal rule of residence is followed. Male equigeniture is the rule of inheritance. Women take part in all kinds of activities. The main occupations are cultivation and agricultural labour. They profess Hinduism. The community has teachers, engineers, doctors and professionals. Their attitude towards development is very favourable. 29. MEDA The name is derived from a Kannada word Bidiru, meaning bamboo. They speak Kannada, but in Kodagu, they speak Kodagu. They are non-vegetarians Their main occupation is basket making, but now they have taken up cultivation. They work as labourers on coffee plantations and in paddy fields. Adult marriage is preferred. Male equigeniture is the rule of inheritance and the eldest son succeeds to the father's authority. Women participate in economic and social activities, but the ritual, political and social control affairs are managed without them. Hinduism is their religion. They educate both boys and girls. They are covered by the government social welfare schemes. KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project-Tribal Study 51 30. NAIKADA, NAYAKA Popularly known as Palegar, Beda, Valmiki, Ramoshi Parivara etc., they are concentrated in the Chitradurga, Shimoga, Bellary and Tumkur districts of Karnataka. They speak Kannada. The term Nayaka means leader and Palegar means village watchman. They are non-vegetarians. The community has a number of exogamous clans. Adult marriages are preferred and marital alliances are sought through negotiations. Monogamy is the norm. The vertically extended family is the predominant type. Male equigeniture is the rule of inheritance and the succession of authority goes to the eldest son. The women participate in agriculture and also tend cattle. There are specific roles for women in social, ritual and religious spheres. Their main occupation is wage labour. There are small cultivators among them. Many have taken up government service or salaried jobs. They have an association, which works for their upliftment. They profess Hinduism and worship household, village and regional deities. They celebrate a number of festivals. There are businessmen, scholars, professionals and administrators among them. Their attitude towards formal education and development is very favourable and positive. They have availed the benefits under the welfare schemes of the government. 31. PALLIYAN They are a food gathering community. They are meat eaters and regular consumers of alcohol. Monogamy is the common form of marriage. The rule of residence is patrilocal. Nuclear family is prominent. They have taken up the vocation of agricultural and plantation labourers, in addition to collection of forest produce. They are Hindus, by religion. 32. PANIYAN They are rural in character. They eat meat and consume liquor. They are monogamous and follow both neolocal and patrilocal rules of residence. Nuclear family is common. They are engaged in wage labour, basketry, fishing, settled cultivation and government service. They are Hindus and they worship several deities. 33. PARDHI They are stone chiselers, hunters, living close to forests. Basket making, agricultural labour, stone cutting and hunting are some of their occupations. They are backward and their attitude towards formal education and progress are not encouraging. 34. PATELIA They have the sickle cell trait. They are non-vegetarians. They are engaged mainly in agriculture and agricultural labour. They are Hindus by religion and are mostly Devi worshippers. They have maintained traditional patron-client relations. They are fast moving towards progress. 35, RATHAWA Karnataka has a small group of 10 persons belonging to this tribe. They are mostly small farmers or wage labourers. They are Hindus by religion. 36. SOLIGA, SHOLAGA KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies Karnataka Watershed Development Project- Tribal Study 52 In Karnataka, they are concentrated in the hilly parts of Mysore district. They speak soliga (dialect of Kannada) language. The Sholigas speak Kannada. They are non-vegetarians and users of non-alcoholic beverages. Endogamy at group level and exogamy at clan level are practiced. Equigeniture is the law of inheritance. They practice adult marriage. The traditional occupations were shifting cultivation and the collection of forest produce. Now they have taken to forest and agricultural labour. A few of them are landowning cultivators. They have their associations at regional level. They are Hindus by religion and worship several deities. They have residential schools started by the government. Their attitude towards formal education is positive. 37. YERAVA They inhabit the Kodagu district of Karnataka. They derive their name from yeravu or yeravalu, which in Kannada means to borrow. Perhaps these people took loans from their landlords, which they could not repay. They served the landlords as agrestic serfs for generations and remained in a state of perpetual indebtedness. They speak Kannada. They are non-vegetarians and regular consumers of alcohol. They marry after attaining adulthood. Monogamy is the common form of marriage. Both men and women have the right to divorce. Nuclear families predominate. Women take part in economic, social, ritual and religious activities. Ancestor worship is practiced. They earn their livelihood through agricultural labour. They work as daily labourers on coffee plantations. Children also contribute to the family income. Their community council maintains social control. They profess Hinduism and worship deities. Their culture is rich in folk songs and folk tales. They are not very enthusiastic about formal education due to economic reasons. Literacy rate is low. The govemment welfare programmes have covered the community. 38. Other tribes include Siddhi, Yerukula Koravar and Korcha KWDP - Regional Environmental Assessment and Social Assessment Studies