93065 Madhya Pradesh HIGHER EDUCATION Reform POLICY OPTIONS Report from The World Bank South Asia Human Development Department December 2012 THE WORLD BANK Madhya Pradesh HIGHER EDUCATION Reform POLICY OPTIONS Report from The World Bank South Asia Human Development Department December 2012 THE WORLD BANK @ 2012 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20433 USA Disclaimer This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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Ltd. www.macrographics.com Table of Contents Preface v Executive Summary 1 Introduction 7 Young people in MP and their socio-economic characteristics 8 The Socio-Economic Context of Madhya Pradesh 10 Chapter 1: Effectiveness of the Higher Education System 11 Labour Market Outcomes 11 Educational outcomes and quality 13 Access and Equity 14 Addressing equity gaps 19 Conclusion 22 Annexure: Returns to tertiary education 22 Chapter 2: Improving System Performance through Governance Reform 25 The national context 25 The affiliation system 26 Institutional and sector governance 27 The Madhya Pradesh Universities Act, 1973 28 Learning from other States 30 Policy Options for MP 31 Conclusion 37 Annexure: Summary of State Councils for Higher Education 39 Chapter 3: Improving System Performance through Financing Reform 43 Public spending 43 Private spending 47 Fee paid by students of technical education 48 Allocation of public spending 49 Improving the Allocation of Funding 51 Conclusion 54 Chapter 4: Consultations 55 Best Practices 55 Governance 56 Equity and Access 57 Finance 58 Interactions with Students 59 Bibliography 61 Annexure: Additional Tables 63 State-wise Per Capita Net State Domestic Product at Factor Cost 63 Expenditure by the Directorate of Higher Education under various heads/schemes 63 Expenditure by the Directorate of Technical Education under various heads/schemes 68 Preface This report was prepared by a team lead by Toby Linden (Lead Education Specialist, World Bank) and consisting of Siddhartha Gupta, Venkatesh Kumar, Soumya Mishra, Abhinav Prakash and Priyanka Shrivastava (all consultants to the World Bank). The team would like to express its sincere gratitude for the support, assistance and encouragement it received from the Government of Madhya Pradesh, Department of Higher Education. Two successive Principal Secretaries (B. P. Singh and J. N. Kansotiya) lead the reform dialogue and provided the overall vision, and Dr. Rakesh Shrivastava (Advisor, Higher Education) and Mr. V. S. Niranjan (Commissioner, Higher Education) were constant sources of information and advice, as well as organizing the consultative Conclaves. All participated actively in the consultative process, which set the benchmark for how to engage the sector and generate consensus for reform. The draft report was discussed with officials of the Commissionariate and the Secretariat in October 2012. The team owes a debt of gratitude to Andreas Blom (Lead Education Specialist, World Bank) who, from the World Bank side, initiated the dialogue with the Madhya Pradesh Government and established a firm partnership which provided the basis for this report. The draft report was reviewed by Prof. Errol d’Souza (IIM Ahmedabad), Prof. T. C. Anant (Central Statistics Office), Nina Arnhold, Andreas Blom, and Hiroshi Saeki (all World Bank) and the team is thankful for the expert comments received which significantly improved the report. The report was prepared under the overall supervision of Amit Dar (Education Sector Manager) who provided support and guidance throughout the process. Renu Gupta provided excellent administrative support throughout the consultation and report preparation processes. Part of the funding for this study was from a generous grant by the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development. List of Abbreviations AFRC Admission and Fee Regulatory Committee AICTE All-India Council of Technical Education BE Budget Estimates BoG Board of Governors CGPA Cumulative Grade Point Average GDP Gross Domestic Product GER Gross Enrollment Ratio HDI Human Development Index IIM Indian Institute of Management IISc Indian Institute of Science IIT Indian Institute of Technology LFP Labour Force Participation MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India) MP Madhya Pradesh NER Net Enrollment Ratio NSDP National State Domestic Product NSS National Sample Survey OBC Other Backward Caste RE Revised Estimates SC Scheduled Caste SDP State Domestic Product ST Scheduled Tribe TISS Tata Institute for Social Sciences UGC University Grants Commission UT Union Territory VC Vice Chancellor Conversions 1 lakh = 100,000 1 crore (cr.) = 10,000,000 The US Dollar: Indian rupee (Rs.) exchange rate at the time of writing (September 2012) was approximately 1:55. Executive Summary In October 2010, the Government of Madhya Pradesh, overall unemployment rates are very low, Pradesh hosted, with World Bank technical advice, a at 1.17 percent, which is not surprising since most Conference on higher education reform in the State. people cannot afford not to work regardless of their The Governor, the Chief Minister and the Minister of educational attainment. The unemployment rate is Higher Education all addressed the Conference and more than five times higher for those with higher about 150 people attended the event. Subsequently, education qualifications (at 6.02 percent), but four regional Conclaves were organized, in which this is still quite low in an international context. a total of more than 400 people participated, However, males and females with higher education representing the leadership, administrators, faculty qualifications have quite different labour force and students at universities and colleges across the participation rates. About one third of both boys State. This represents an impressive outreach to the and girls, below 30 years of age and with a degree, sector stakeholders. are studying and so not looking for work. However, 50 percent of girls with a degree are neither working This report is written on the cusp of the publication nor studying; while for boys this figure is just of the Government of India’s 12th Five Year Plan. The 7 percent. indications are that the Government of India intends to push ahead with some significant reforms in the A second measure of system effectiveness is higher education sector. Of particular significance for graduates’ earnings and type of work. In MP an this report is the emphasis, for the first time, on the individual with tertiary education earns 35 percent need to support the improvement of State universities more than an individual with only senior secondary and colleges. level of education, meaning about Rs. 20,000 more per year. Those with higher education also get better The objective of this report is to provide policy jobs; 70 percent of the employed adults (aged 20 makers in Madhya Pradesh with a menu of options and above) with higher education worked in the for improving the equity, governance and financing of services sector. the higher education system in the State. Though the primary audience is policy makers, this report could A third measure of system effectiveness is quality. serve as part of the continued dialogue with the higher However, assessing the quality of higher education is education sector on the direction for reform. difficult because of the lack of comparable measures. The best available measure in India is perhaps the accreditation process undertaken by the National Effectiveness of the higher Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC). education system Between 2007 and 2012, only 98 colleges in MP have valid accreditation (out of more than 1,427 The effectiveness of the higher education system can government and private institutions in the State). be measured in a number of ways. The first way is If one looks from the input perspective, there are through employment status of graduates. In Madhya also some concerns about the quality of education. Of particular concern is the large number of faculty higher education of girls and disadvantaged groups. positions which are unfilled by full-time regular It is striking the high proportions of the young faculty. Out of 8,000 total posts sanctioned by the people in certain sub-populations that have never department of higher education in government attended an educational institution - 25 percent of and aided institutions, 29 percent were vacant in females; 22 percent of those in rural areas, compared 2011-12. to less than 7 percent in urban areas; one third (31.5 percent) of rural girls; and ST – 34 percent; Access and Equity SC – 17 percent. The first approach to addressing the overall equity gaps in higher education, therefore, In terms of enrollment, Madhya Pradesh exhibits must be to increase the numbers of those from a similar trend to the national picture, with large disadvantaged groups who enroll in and complete increases in recent times. Enrollments have recorded primary and secondary education. This is especially a large increase of 25 percent in undergraduate important since, of those young people who have courses and 49 percent in post graduate courses in completed grade 12, girls and boys and those from just the one year to 2010-11. As of 2010-11, the disadvantaged groups enroll into higher education GER in MP was 13.9 percent which is slightly below in roughly equal proportions. the national level. In terms of overall enrollments, Madhya Pradesh is in fact doing slightly better than The Government of Madhya Pradesh has three expected, given its socio-economic position. main scholarships for girls. The Gaon Ki Beti, the Pratibha Kiran, and the Vikramaditya Schemes At the overall level, Madhya Pradesh is doing fairly provided more than 36,000 scholarships in 2011-12, well but a closer look into the enrollment rates a slight increase from the previous year. However, across various socio-economic groups within the more efforts are needed to understand how to state reveals some major problems in the context of increase the impact of these schemes in the access and equity. Enrollment in Madhya Pradesh context of sharply rising numbers of students and shows that girls, those living in rural areas, and girls attending higher education, so that the those from disadvantaged groups have significantly schemes can effectively help all those students in lower rates of enrollment than boys, those in need. urban areas and those from more affluent families, respectively. There are several options for improving access for those living in rural areas. One is to establish more Only a small percentage of girls and disadvantaged institutions of higher education in rural areas, students are enrolled in higher education and this either through government or private institutions. number appears to be falling. Girls constitute only However, rural colleges tend to be of much poorer 42 percent of students in higher education. In urban quality in terms of infrastructure and availability areas, 29 percent of young people are enrolled, but the corresponding figure in rural areas was only of faculty (and their smaller size makes them hard 9 percent. The proportion of students in the category to make educationally and economically viable). of Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) in A second option is for an existing university to the year 2010-11 was 8.48 percent and 4.14 percent establish constituent units in rural areas so that it respectively, significantly below their shares in the could deploy its own faculty and maintain quality. population. Particular sub-populations face multiple A third option is for the state to support students disadvantages, especially girls and ST/SC in rural from rural areas to enroll in an urban area. This last areas. In rural areas, less than four percent of young option has the advantage that young people from SC and ST are in higher education and less than five rural areas would study in larger, better-equipped percent of girls. institutions where the quality of education is generally higher. It also helps promote greater Poor attendance in earlier phases of education is a diversity at (urban) institutions, with resulting very important factor in explaining low enrolment in benefits for all students. 2 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Improving System Performance a college would gain academic autonomy as well as administrative autonomy over its budget, and through Governance Reform becoming eligible to receive funds directly from the University Grants Commission. The bigger The governance structures of State universities require task however is to improve the quality of education fundamental transformation – to become more provided in the larger number of colleges. One option efficient, transparent, democratic, and student focused. is establishing a specific unit of the higher education A comprehensive university reform programme needs council or the affiliating university to monitor and to be designed and implemented jointly by Central built capacity in these colleges. Similarly, it would and State Governments to promote strategic planning be possible to establish one University exclusively for and recognizing performance at the University level affiliations, or a dual Model for a few Universities as for accessing resources. It is, therefore, pertinent for is being proposed in Karnataka with the remaining each State to prepare a comprehensive State Higher universities become exclusively teaching/research Education Plan, which will effectively assess the needs institutions. One of the other models of managing the and requirements of States for a better, more equitable problem of affiliation is to have the University divided and balanced allocation of resources. Currently no into several campuses with each having colleges around State has such a plan. its vicinity affiliated to those campuses. This model is being currently discussed in Maharashtra in the case There are a number of weaknesses of the affiliation of University of Mumbai. It would also be possible system. First, the relationship between a State University to create College Cluster Universities by clustering and its affiliated colleges is one of administration – a minimum of 50 colleges in the area surrounding affiliation, course recognition, syllabus prescription, a city or district giving the university its own and examination. Second, since a typical affiliating independent establishment and relevance. Another university caters to hundreds of colleges, it cannot way to get larger institutions with more faculty and provide a curriculum to meet the local needs of students would be for a number of colleges to merge. colleges, but instead offers the same curriculum to all. It is likely that larger institutions would have the In addition, in most affiliated colleges, faculty strength capacity to become autonomous. State funding could is inadequate and mostly filled with ad-hoc contract be provided to promote such mergers. Lastly, it is faculty, which does not facilitate quality enhancement possible to establish new constituent colleges where and continuity. The University departments and there is a large population of youth people. Unlike affiliated colleges are then reduced to common, minimal the affiliated colleges which are managed by a college curriculum, improvement and innovation. There are management committee, the administrative control two other fundamental weaknesses: the affiliation of the constituent colleges will be by the University. model also separates student assessment from teaching and separates research from teaching, with one An analysis of the MP Public Universities Act, 1973 function taking place in the university and the other identifies four main concerns. The first concern is the in affiliating colleges. Finally, the lack of mobility,rigidity of the current governance framework for the differentials in salary, retirement age and benefits state universities in MP. For example, the Chancellor between affiliated colleges and State Universities in (the State Governor), more often his office, decides relation to centrally-funded Universities and the on several administrative decisions. Instead, it is private sector institutions is drawing out the best recommended that the Governor’s responsibilities be faculty from State Universities. devolved to the Board of Governors (BoG) and the Vice-Chancellors (VC) as many are administrative Given the number of affiliating colleges in Madhya in nature. The Visitor (as is proposed as a new role Pradesh, the affiliation system will take some time for the Governor) should continue in his role as to reform and a number of different approaches will the Head of the University to preside at important need to be considered, tested and evaluated. The first university events such as convocations and option is to reduce the total number of affiliating commencements. In addition, it is proposed that a colleges by encouraging the better performing colleges BoG be established which will be the final approving to become autonomous. By becoming ‘autonomous’, authority on key matters of the university. The Executive Summary 3 BoG will be responsible for setting the university’s studies. Madhya Pradesh can learn from the handful strategic directions and development, and will be the of states that have a functioning State Councils for final approving authority for key matters including Higher Education, especially that the Chairman is finance and human resources (within approved selected on merit and that State Councils should be policy parameters and guidelines), and making and of manageable size. reviewing statutes and ordinances. The BoG will also be given the flexibility to decide on the internal governance structures of the university. Improving System Performance through Financing Reform The second concern is that the existing provisions of the Act provide an opportunity for political Public spending in Madhya Pradesh was Rs. 1,064 interference in the appointment of the Vice- crores on higher and technical education in 2010-11, Chancellor and other key staff. Instead, a selection with almost 80 percent of that expenditure committee comprising three to five independent (Rs. 850 crores) going on higher education. well-respected representatives from the Board, Total budget spending doubled in nominal terms society, industry, government and academia could between 2007-08 and 2010-11, with projected be formed and tasked with the responsibility of increases for the following years too. However, selecting the candidates. The BoG should appoint in recent years, the proportions of the budget the Vice-Chancellor. Key selection criteria should that are not being actually spent during a year include academic credentials, management have been rising; in 2010-11, actual spending experience and expertise, leadership potential, was around 80 percent of the budget estimates. integrity and values. Madhya Pradesh spent a slightly higher percentage Third, the current practice is that the Public Service of public spending on higher education than the Commission selects and appoints teachers in the Indian average. The State spent 10.7 percent of Government funded and aided colleges but this total education expenditure on higher education is ineffective, non-transparent and goes against in 2007-08; it was more than the median value of the basic principle of institutional autonomy. The 9.7 percent. selection of the faculty should be devolved to the The main source of private income is from tuition individual institution to administer as per the norms fees charged by institutions. An estimate of the laid by the University Grants Commission. fee income in government universities and their The last concern is that, given the archaic nature of the affiliated government colleges is Rs. 100 crores per Act with all powers (over-centralization) vested with year and in aided institutions is Rs. 1,000 crores. An the Vice-Chancellor and Governing bodies, there is estimate of tuition fees paid by students attending time and cost over run on a number of matters, which private unaided technical institutions is between should instead be addressed at the levels of Deans or Rs. 543 crores and Rs. 1,060 crores (depending on Department Chairs. data sources). Total spending on higher education from all sources was approximately Rs. 2,800 There is also a need to improve the governance crores. Therefore, private spending is approximately arrangements for the higher education sector as a (and probably more than) three times public whole. It would be desirable for Madhya Pradesh spending. to establish a State Council for Higher Education for planned and coordinated development of Ninety percent of the public expenditure goes higher education, to foster sharing of resources into funding salaries in both higher and technical between universities, benefit from synergy across education. Shares of various salary and non-salary institutions, lead academic and governance reforms expenditures in general higher education have not at the institution level, establish principles for changed significantly in recent years. What these funding institutions, maintain a databank on higher figures indicate is the impact of filling sanctioned education and conduct research and evaluation faculty positions as the cost of additional 4 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options 1,000 teaching staff members is Rs. 78 crores requiring institutions to complete a data return. In per annum. Phase II, the actual cost of providing certain courses would be calculated and the government would move There are no clearly declared funding mechanisms increasingly to meet a higher and higher proportion from central and state funding bodies. The result is of these actual costs per student. Again, this Phase that there are quite different allocations per student would give the opportunity to link funding to other across the state institutions. This ad hoc approach aspects of the governance agenda. For example, an is common to many states. Given that the current institution could get a higher (‘weighted’) per pupil amount of public money is a minority of funding amount if it obtained autonomous status or a certain for institutions, and that the amounts given to each proportion of its courses were accredited. In Phase III, institution are relatively small, this suggests that the increased amounts of funding could be targeted process for allocating grants should be simple and to good performers. The measures of performance transparent. It is desirable to move away from the would be directly related to key policy outcomes, more traditional negotiations of budgets between for example, retention and graduation rates (overall governments and public institutions and toward and for specified sub-populations). Attention should funding formulas. be paid here to improved performance as well as Changing the allocation mechanism for institutions the absolute level of performance – to encourage all is desirable and should be carried out in phases. institutions to strive towards the State’s policy goals. In Phase I, grants to institutions would be done on the basis of the numbers of students enrolled. This report identifies a number of options for the Each institution would receive money equal to the Government of Madhya Pradesh to consider. Once per student amount multiplied by the number of policy options are made, there would need to be students at the institution. It would be important more detailed policy and programme design, while also to link funding directly to some key building continuing the strong outreach to and engagement of blocks of the new governance system, for example, the sector stakeholders. Executive Summary 5 Introduction In October 2010, the Government of Madhya to try to capture additional views. These inputs have Pradesh hosted, with World Bank technical been used to inform and enrich the analytical work advice, a Conference on higher education reform that the Bank team has carried out. The main issues in the State. This Conference achieved three key raised during these various consultative processes are objectives. First, it gave a platform for the highest discussed in a separate chapter in this report. political level of the State to express its strong commitment to higher education (the Governor, This chapter provides some background to the report, the Chief Minister and the Minister of Higher especially for those who are less familiar with MP and Education all addressed the Conference). Second, it its higher education system. The chapter looks at the gave an opportunity for a wide range of stakeholders characteristics of those young people who are 18-23 in the sector to begin an engagement on the need years old, as this is the group of people who are of for reform. About 150 people attended the event, the age to attend higher education. The general socio- which received significant press coverage. The third economic features of Madhya Pradesh are also discussed objective of the Conference was to identify the key as this provides the context within which the higher issues facing Madhya Pradesh, discuss examples of education system operates and within which those good practice from India and around the world, young people in higher education will seek work. and chart a path for developing a reform agenda and plan of action. The Report of the Conference This report is timely. It was written on the cusp of (World Bank, 2012) included papers by the keynote the publication of the Government of India’s 12th speakers. The Conference converged on three main Five Year Plan. Previously published background themes around which a reform agenda should be papers and draft Plan documents have indicated formulated: ensuring access and equity; governance; that the Government of India intends to push and financing. The present report takes forward these ahead with some significant reforms in the higher themes and undertakes more detailed analyses. education sector. Of particular significance for this report is the emphasis, for the first time, on the need The Government of Madhya Pradesh has engaged in to support the improvement of State universities an extensive outreach to the sector stakeholders. As and colleges, through which about three-quarters the World Bank’s technical inputs were in a draft stage, of students attend higher education. Previously, four regional Conclaves were organized: in Indore central funding had been targeted on national (12 July 2012), Rewa (28 July), Jabalpur (29 July) and institutions. For the State universities and colleges to Gwalior (8 August). At these events, a total of more than be invigorated, the State governments themselves will 400 people participated, representing the leadership, have to play a more significant and more strategic administrators, faculty and students at universities and role. This report is therefore in part intended to help colleges across the State. At each event, senior officials the State of Madhya Pradesh be at the forefront of from the Department of Higher Education attended the these reform efforts. sessions and listened to the views of the participants. This is a significant and noteworthy approach to building There are challenges with the quality of available consensus for reform. In addition, the Department, data. There were weaknesses along several dimensions. with the World Bank’s help, launched an online survey First, in some areas, crucially in the area of outcomes, data is not collected or collated. For example, there is government department for each. However, many of no annual reporting of the number of qualifications the issues discussed are relevant to both the general awarded by the institutions in the State (at Bachelors, and technical parts of the higher education sector and Masters and PhD levels). This makes it impossible so this report covers both. to undertake an analysis of the effectiveness of the higher education system. Second, where data is The objective of this report is to provide policy collected, the definition used focuses on the input makers in Madhya Pradesh with a menu of options aspect rather than outcomes. For example, the labour for improving the equity, governance and financing market success of graduates is an important measure of the higher education system in the State. Each of the effectiveness of higher education institutions; option is described with its rationale. Though the and most colleges and universities have a unit (usually primary audience is policy makers, this report could called a Placement Cell) whose role it is to help serve as part of the continued dialogue with the students find employment. However, the indicator higher education sector on the direction for reform. they use to measure job success is ‘placement’, but this Once policy options are made, there would need to means only that a student has been offered a job, not be more detailed policy and programme design. that job has been accepted. Moreover, if an individual student receives 3 job offers, then the Placement Cells Finally, this report focuses on the three issues count this as 3 placements; so it is possible to have identified at the Bhopal Conference. Clearly these more placements than graduates (and therefore a three issues are central to the future of the MP placement rate of more than 100 percent). In fact, higher education system, but there are other issues more typically, placement rates are below 100 percent of importance which the report does not attempt to but the way placement is defined makes it is hard to cover (for example, curriculum and pedagogy issues interpret these figures to assess the effectiveness of and the status of research). The team has tried to institutions. A third general difficulty with the data identify a number of key issues on which action can is the inconsistency across different sources, even be taken in the short and medium term, to start the from official sources. The analytical work undertaken process of reform and make a significant impact over in the context of this report, therefore, presents the that time period. most accurate picture of higher education in Madhya The rest of this report is arranged as follows. There Pradesh that could be obtained and, we believe, are three main chapters dealing with the three major which is available in the public domain. However, no themes emerging out of the Bhopal Conference. In primary data collection took place. each chapter, an analysis of the current situation and In this report, we have looked at all parts of the some directions and options for reform are identified. post-secondary sector, that is, both general and There is then a chapter outlining the consultation technical education courses in higher education, process, given how important this is in the Indian those which are taught by both universities and policy-making context. Finally, the conclusion draws colleges. We have considered those students who have together the main messages and identifies further finished 12 grades of primary and secondary education avenues for analysis. (‘plus 2’ in Indian terms), so we have excluded those studying in polytechnics.1 These different parts of the Young people in MP and their higher education sector are often treated separately, and, indeed, in Madhya Pradesh there is a separate socio-economic characteristics The total population of Madhya Pradesh is 1 It should be noted that the All India Survey of Higher Education approximately 73 million.2 Madhya Pradesh (AISHE) uses a different definition of higher education. The AISHE is the sixth largest state of India in terms of is to be welcomed in that it will be the first comprehensive database of higher education, collecting data from all universities and colleges. overall population. Around 7 percent of the total However, in addition to the elements of higher education used in this report, it includes as higher education courses of at least 3 years for those who have passed grade 10 and courses of at least 9 months’ duration after class 12. 2 As per the provisional figures from census 2011: 72, 597, 565. 8 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Table 1 Education and Labor Market status of young people in MP, 2009-10 Gender Location Socio-economic status Age: 18-23 Total Male Female Rural Urban ST SC OBC Others (Status of current attendance) Population Estimate (‘000) 8,799 4,443 4,355 6,599 2,200 1,809 1,874 3,471 1,645 Educational status Never attended educational 18.1 11.2 25.1 21.9 6.4 34.2 17.3 16.5 4.9 institution (%) Ever attended but currently not 55.9 58.5 53.3 58.5 48.0 54.9 65.2 57.1 43.8 attending (%) Sub-Total 74.0 69.7 78.3 80.4 54.4 89.2 82.6 73.6 48.7 School (%) 10.3 11.9 8.7 10.2 10.8 6.6 10.5 11.6 11.3 Graduate and above (%) 13.4 15.4 11.4 8.5 28.7 3.6 5.3 13.5 33.2 Diploma or certificate (below 1.1 1.7 0.5 0.5 3.0 0.5 0.6 0.5 3.4 graduate level) (%) Diploma or certificate (graduate 1.2 1.3 1.1 0.5 3.2 0.2 1.0 0.7 3.3 and above) (%) Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Work Labor force participation rate 52.0 69.1 34.4 58.5 32.1 67.6 60.4 50.5 28.4 (Usual Status) (%) Worker participation rate (Usual 50.6 67.5 33.3 57.7 29.2 67.4 58.5 49.5 25.5 status) (%) Unemployment (Usual Status) (%) 2.7 2.4 3.2 1.5 9.2 0.3 3.1 2.1 10.0 Idleness (neither studying nor in 24.1 2.1 46.7 25.0 22.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 22.0 the labor force: both employed and unemployed) (%) Educational level Attained At least higher secondary education 23.7 27.1 20.1 14.9 50.2 7.8 11.7 23.0 56.1 (%)5 Source: Authors (Estimated using NSS 66th round, 2009-10). population of India in the age-group 18 to 23 around 48 percent are women. The composition in comes from Madhya Pradesh3. Madhya Pradesh terms of social categories is 8.48 percent Scheduled ranks fifth after Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Tribe (ST), 20.5 percent Scheduled Caste (SC), 40.77 Pradesh and West Bengal (in that order) as far as percent Other Backward Castes (OBC) and 30.26 the number of people in the age group 18 to 23 percent others. Madhya Pradesh is slightly more rural is concerned. The population in this age group is than India as a whole, with 75 percent of the people estimated to be 8.8 million4 for Madhya Pradesh in the age group 18-23 from rural areas. 49.5 percent (Table 1); it is 12.12 percent of the total populationin the State are women, while the break-up by social of the State. categories is 20.6 percent ST (which is significantly higher than for the country as a whole), 21.3 percent For the country as a whole the population of youth SC, 39.4 percent OBC and 18.7 percent others. in the age group 18 to 23 is 135 million. Around 70 Labour Force Participation (LFP) of people in the age percent of this population comes from rural areas and group 18-23 is high in MP as compared to the other states. As per the NSS (2009-10) survey MP has the 10th largest LFP rate in this age group.5 3 Using NSS 2009-10. 4 The share of the age group 18-23 in total population was estimated from NSS 2009-10 and population data of census 2011 was used to get to an estimate of the number of people 8,798,825. 5 Includes "Diploma/certificate (below graduate level)". Introduction 9 The Socio-Economic Context of 58.3 percent. As is typical in developing countries, the unemployment rate (i.e., those seeking but not Madhya Pradesh finding work) is very low: in MP it was 1.2 percent and in India it was 2.2 percent for the same age group The Human Development Index (HDI) of MP (2009-10). With respect to the unemployment rate lies below that of India overall. The HDI rank of of youth (15-29), MP is placed well as compared to MP was 20 in both 1999-2000 and 2007-08. In the other states. 2.68 percent youth unemployment fact all the states had similar rankings in the two in MP and 5.75 for the country. See the graphs in time periods. The top five ranks in both the years the annex. were states of Kerala, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Goa and Punjab. The education index6 of MP rose from Rural areas of MP are mainly agrarian, though 365 in 1999-2000 to 522 in 2007-08. For India, the share of services is high in its State Domestic the index rose from. 442 to 568 over the period Product (NSDP). There are three major employment- (IAMR, 2011). providing services sectors: (i) construction; (ii) trade, hotels, and restaurants; and, (iii) public The average economic growth rate of MP between administration, education, and community services. 2004-05 and 2009-10 was 7.11 percent, somewhat Evidence from the NSS data suggests that for every below the overall Indian rate of 8.63 percent. 1000 people employed in rural and urban India, The best performer in terms of economic growth in 679 and 75 people respectively are employed in 2009-10 was Uttarakhand (with a growth rate of the agriculture sector, 241 and 683 respectively in its Gross State Domestic Product of 10 percent) services sector (including construction), and 80 and followed by Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Gujarat, while 242 respectively in the industrial sector. State-wise, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Jharkhand experienced the there are wide differences in the share in employment lowest growth rates. of different sectors in rural India. While some north- eastern states like Sikkim, Tripura, and Manipur have There is relatively low per capita availability in a high share of employment in the services sector, MP despite high Labor Force Participation (LFP) city states like Chandigarh and Delhi also have very and low unemployment rate. Per capita availability high shares (826 and 879 respectively out of 1000 in Madhya Pradesh is close to the availability in employed people). Among the larger states, Kerala poor states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Ranks of has a high share of employment in the services sector states in terms of per capita availability, measured at 511 persons per 1000 (rural & urban). In urban by Per Capita Net State Domestic Product at Factor India the share of employment in services is very Cost (PCNSDPFC), in 2009-10 can be seen in the high in most of the states. In Madhya Pradesh, the annexure “State-wise Per Capita Net State Domestic share of services (including construction) is 700 per Product at Factor Cost. Ranking has remained 1000 employed individuals in urban areas, somewhat nearly the same between 2004-05 and 2009-10. At above the national average. However, in rural areas 2004-05 prices, PCNSDPFC was Rs. 19,736 in MP of MP share of agriculture is still very high as only which is much less than that of India (Rs. 33,731). 128 individuals per 1000 employed persons work Labor force participation of persons in the age group in the services sector; it is almost half of its share at 15-59 years was slightly higher in MP (62.4 percent) the country level (241). Similarly, in rural areas of than the country (59.6 percent) in 2009-10 (NSS). MP, the share of industry is much lower (48 in 1000) Work participation rate, the share of employed than the share at all-India level (80)7. Growth rate in total population (both in and out of labour of services sector is low in MP as compared to many force), was 61.7 percent in MP and for India it was other states. 6 The Education index is a weighted simple average of literacy and adjusted mean years of schooling. Education index = 1/3 (literacy index) + 2/3 (adjusted mean years of schooling index); where literacy index = literacy rate of people above 7 years of age; adjusted mean years of schooling index 7 Economic Survey 2011-12; NSS Report on Employment and = average number of years of school education for people above 7 years of Unemployment Situation in India 2009-10, on the basis of usually working age, adjusted for out of school children in the age-group of 6-17 years. persons in the principal status and subsidiary status. 10 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Effectiveness of the Higher Education System Chapter 1 Introduction Government working group has established certain objectives (Box 1). The outcomes of the higher education system can be measured in a number of ways. The State Labour Market Outcomes Government of Madhya Pradesh has not laid down their desired outcomes in a structured manner, but it Overall unemployment rates are low. One measure has defined the objectives of the system, to not only of the performance of the higher education system is develop the knowledge and skills of students but also the employment rates of graduate students, since it help them be self dependent thereby increasing their is assumed that one very important motivation for standard of living and contribute in the process of attending higher education is to provide better job nation building. To increase the rate of employment opportunities. In Madhya Pradesh, however, overall is also one of the objectives of Department of unemployment rates are very low, at 1.17 percent, Technical Education. For the 12th Five Year Plan, a which is not surprising since most people cannot Box 1 Objectives for the XII Five Year Plan •• To increase the GER in HE to 15 percent by 2011-12, to 21 percent by XII Plan and 30 percent by 2020 •• To expand institutional base of HE by creating additional capacity in existing institutions, establishing new institutions, and incentivizing state governments and NGOs/civil society. •• To provide opportunities of higher education to socially deprived communities and remove disparities by promoting the inclusion of women, minorities and differently-abled population. •• To remove regional imbalances in access to HE by setting up of institutions in under-served areas. •• To enhance plan support for infrastructure and faculty development in institutions of Higher learning and attract talent in teaching and research. •• Better research facilities. •• To promote collaboration with Indian Universities. •• To promote autonomy, innovations and acad. Reforms in HE institutions. •• To promote Indian languages. •• To undertake institutional restructuring. Source: Madhya Pradesh Department of Higher Education, 2012 afford not to work regardless of their educational despite a large increase in the share of the labor force attainment. The unemployment rate is more than with tertiary education. Regular wage workers five times higher for those with higher education earn 23–59 percent more than casual workers in qualifications (at 6.02 percent). Figure 1 but this is India in 2010. Regular wage or salaried workers still quite low in an international context. have the highest wages and lowest poverty rates; the self-employed have higher poverty rates; and It should be noted, however, that males and females casual labor, especially agricultural casual labor, is with higher education qualifications have quite associated with the lowest wages and the highest different labour force participation rates. About poverty rate. (page 31) one third of both boys and girls, below 30 years of age and with a degree, are studying and so not lookingAn analysis for MP conducted for this Report, for work. However, 50 percent of girls with a degree showed strong returns from higher education are neither working nor studying; while for boys this (see Annexure: Returns to tertiary education for figure is just 7 percent. In other words, half of girls details). Adults between the age group 25 to 29 who have finished higher education have withdrawn earn more in regular jobs, men earn more and from the labor market, despite having studied (and those with tertiary education earn more, this paid to study) for at least 15 years and gained a higher holds true for both India and Madhya Pradesh. In education qualification. In contrast, 57 percent of MP an individual with tertiary education earns 35 boys with a higher education qualification are in the percent more than an individual with only senior labor force and another 36 percent choose to study. secondary level of education. For India as a whole World Bank (2011) found that, for India as whole, tertiary education pays 67 percent higher income. there have been increases in the economic returns A student who graduated from higher education in to higher education. recent years in MP, and is younger than 30 years old, can expect to earn about Rs. 20,000 more per The wage premium for tertiary education more year than someone who has completed only senior than doubled in India between 2000 and 2010, secondary education (i.e., Rs. 82,000-60,000 from Figure 1 Unemployment by education (%), MP (2009-10) 7 6.02 6 5 4 3.64 3.78 3.51 3 2 1.88 1.34 1 0.47 0.23 0.16 0.23 0 Not Literate Below Primary Middle Secondary H. Dip/Cert Graduate PG and Literate w/o Primary Secondary above Formal Schooling Source: Authors’ calculations from NSS database. Notes: “Diploma/Certificate” consists of those who have completed some diploma or certificate course in general or technical education, which is equivalent to below graduation level. Graduate and PG and above consist of those who have obtained degree or diploma or certificate in general or technical education, which is equivalent to graduation level and above. 12 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Table 2 Annual Salaries by various educational levels and age of regular workers in MP, 2009-10 Education level attained All Ages <30 30-40 40-50 50-60 Secondary 67,000 44,000 63,000 75,000 132,000 Senior Secondary 96,000 60,000 76,000 118,000 136,000 Dip./Cert. below graduate level 190,000 62,000 155,000 223,000 292,000 Graduate (General and Technical) 130,000 82,000 133,000 140,000 164,000 PG and Above (General and Technical) 164,000 99,000 130,000 210,000 225,000 Source: Authors computed using data given on daily earnings during a reference week, NSS 2009-10. Note: Figures in Rs. Table 2). This compares with Rs. 27,000 annual from technically competent teachers and future private spending for technical education and government, civil service and business leaders. Rs. 7,000 for general higher education. In other Those with higher education are also more able words, an individual with a degree can expect to to generate new knowledge and access the existing recoup what they spent on higher education within stores of global knowledge and adapt them for a few years after graduating. local use (World Bank, 2002). Those with higher education also get better jobs. An individual possessing higher education Educational outcomes and is most likely to join the services sector in MP; quality 70 percent of the employed adults (aged 20 and above) with higher education8 worked in the services During the preparation of this report and especially sector. On the other hand, of all those who did during the consultation phases, there were many not attain higher education (including those with comments about the critical need to raise the no education) 73 percent were in agriculture and quality of higher education in MP. Indeed, the just 20 percent were in services (NSS 2009-10). overall purpose of this report is to contribute If we look at those with only higher secondary to quality improvement. However, getting level of education, 47 percent adults were in reliable measures of quality of higher education agriculture and 44 percent in services. In is difficult. The more comparable measure of contrast, around 80 percent of the employed the quality of the education provided in higher in MP are involved in skilled agricultural and education institutions in India is perhaps the fishery work or elementary occupations; but these accreditation process undertaken by the National occupations do not have a significant share among Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC). the workers who attained at least graduate level Both colleges and universities can seek NAAC education. accreditation, which is done at the institutional rather than departmental level.9 NAAC gives a There are also important social gains to summative numerical score (called Cumulative individuals obtaining higher education Grade Point Average or CGPA) between zero and qualifications. While there has been no attempt in 4 (with 4 being the best). There are currently 98 this report to quantify the gains to Madhya Pradesh, colleges in MP which have valid accreditation there is wide literature exploring the benefits (A+ - 3 colleges; A-, 3; B++ - 9; B – 29; of higher education to society and the broader C++ - 17; C+ - 10; and C – 3). Accreditation of economy. These benefits include capabilities to 51 colleges and 5 universities in MP is no longer pursue more knowledge-led growth, through a trained and adaptable workforce. More effective public administration and governance emerges 9 The NAAC accreditation process identifies 7 criteria against which institutions are judged: Curricular Aspects; Teaching-Learning and Evaluation; Research, Consultancy and Extension; Infrastructure and 8 Higher education here does not include diploma/certificate below graduate Learning Resources; Student Support and Progression; Governance, level. Leadership and Management; and, Innovations and Best Practices. CHAPTER 1 | Effectiveness of the Higher Education System 13 Table 3 Sanctioned and vacant academic positions in government colleges and universities   Sanctioned Posts Vacant Posts % Vacant Principals 355 183 52 Professors 675 530 79 Assistant Professors 6,414 1,336 21 Librarians 306 127 42 Sports Officers 269 150 56 Registrars 31 10 32 Total 8,050 2,336 29 Source: Compiled by authors using the Administrative Report, Department of Higher Education 2011-12. valid (National Academic Accreditation Council, Chemistry, Commerce, Economics, English, Hindi, 2010). It is difficult to compare these scores with Mathematics, Physics, Sociology, Political Science those of other states, since it is not known what and Zoology. Another cause for concern is the small proportion of institutions seek accreditation, or size of institutions: as will be illustrated below, the reasons why they do not do so.10 However, there are a little over 1 million students in higher in the country as a whole, only two universities education and approximately 4,000 institutions had accreditation with grade B and CGPA of (universities and colleges in the government, aided around 2.7. CGPA of Jawaharlal Nehru University, and private sectors). This means an average size of Delhi is 3.9 which is the highest in the country about 250 students. This number does not allow (Grade A). sufficient number of students to generate enough income to upgrade equipment and materials, nor If one looks from the input perspective, there does it enable an institution to have a critical mass are also some concerns about the quality of of faculty who can form a vibrant and supportive education. Of particular concern is the large intellectual community.11 number of faculty positions which are unfilled by full-time regular faculty, since the quality of teaching and research suffers. Out of 8,000 total Access and Equity posts sanctioned by the department of higher education in government and aided institutions, Higher education in India as a whole has been 29 pecent were vacant in 2011-12'. The vacant growing at a rapid rate, doubling from 8.4 million posts in the colleges and university teaching students to 17.0 million within the ten years to departments of the 7 traditional universities are 2010-11 (Figure 2). The Gross Enrollment Ratio many; 80 percent of sanctioned posts for Professors (GER) in India has been increasing: according to an and 21 percent of sanctioned posts for assistant estimate of Selected Education Statistics issued by professors were vacant in 2011-12 (Table 3). The the MHRD (2000), GER in India increased from 7089 sanctioned posts for teaching staff are spread 0.7 percent in 1950-51 to 1.4 percent in 1960-61, but over 40 subjects. The subjects with relatively by 2006-07 GER increased by a further 11 percent large numbers of sanctioned posts are Botany, (Table 4). The 11th Five Year Plan targeted to achieve a GER of 15 percent, a figure that according to NSS data (2007-08) has been exceeded. It should be noted, 10 Some universities have made it mandatory for an institute to have NAAC accreditation every five years but most of the institutes do not go for an assessment by NAAC because, we can assume, they do not think they will rate very highly or do not meet the minimum requirements for getting 11 Other possible measures of the quality of the system focus on efficiency, for assessed. Many institutes that had accreditation in the past may not go for example, the average time it takes to obtain a qualification or the dropout assessment after five years for the same reasons. It is also likely that NAAC rate. It can be assumed that where it takes a lot of time to finish (or a would have difficulty meeting the demands if all colleges and universities in large proportion do not do so), then the teaching and research environment India (of which there are more than 33,000) sought accreditation every five (including faculty skills and available resources) is lacking. However, the years. data was not available which would allow these indicators to be calculated. 14 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options however, that in the past decade there has been an Madhya Pradesh exhibits a similar trend in increasing gap between the enrollment of boys and overall enrollments to the national picture. In of girls (Figure 2). There has been acceleration in the recent times, enrollments have recorded a large number of institutions in the past ten years, coinciding increase of 26 percent in undergraduate courses with the rapid increases in overall enrollments and 53 percent in post graduate courses in just one (Figure 3). year to 2010-11 (comparable figures over a longer Figure 2 Growth of Student Enrollment (‘000) in India, 1950-51 to 2010-11 18,000 16,000 14,000 12,000 10,000 '000 8,000 Total Student Enrollment 6,000 Female Enrollment 4,000 2,000 0 1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 Source: MHRD for 1950-51 and 1960-61, UGC for 1970-71 onwards. Table 4 Total enrollment and Gross Enrollment Ratio, Trends since 2004-05 NSS 61st round (2004-05) NSS 64th round (2007-08) Enrollment (‘000) GER (%) Enrollment (‘000) GER (%) Scheduled Caste (SC) 1898.5 8.72 2485.5 11.54 Scheduled Tribe (ST) 767.0 8.44 652.0 7.67 Other Backward Castes (OBCs) 5027.4 11.48 6599.6 14.72 Others 7787.2 22.52 8886.6 26.64 Total 15480.1 14.19 18,623.7 17.21 Source: NSS Reports of 61st and 64th Rounds. Figure 3 Number of college and universities in India, 1950-51 to present 35,000 600 564 30,000 33023 500 Number of Universities 25,000 Number of Colleges 400 20,000 Colleges 256 300 15,000 Universities 190 12806 200 10,000 133 103 7346 5,000 55 100 4722 30 3604 695 1542 0 0 1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 Source: Higher Education in India at a Glance, March 2012. CHAPTER 1 | Effectiveness of the Higher Education System 15 Table 5 Total Enrollments in MP in different levels of courses 2010-11 910,219 233,925 65,573 UG PG Other 2009-10 730,824 157,387 61,960 0 200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 1,400,000 Source: Authors' calculation on data taken from buhe.mpnet.in. Note: Includes only students in government universities and their affiliating colleges. period of time are not available) (Table 5).12 As ofquite a strong correlation between economic 2009-10 the GER as calculated from NSS data in performance at the state level and the gross MP was recorded as 14.9 percent which is as good enrollment ratio in higher education. States are as the national level. clustered closely to the line of regression (Figure 4). Madhya Pradesh is slightly above the line, Enrollments in undergraduate and post-graduate indicating slightly better than expected enrollment courses are encouraging and point towards levels. increasing reach of state sponsored institutions. However, the total number of enrollments At the overall level, Madhya Pradesh is doing in research programmes– i.e., MPhil and fairly well but a closer look into the enrollment PhD – is much less than in undergraduate rates across various socio-economic groups courses; less than one half of one percent of total within the state reveals some major problems in enrollments. This indicates that there is only the context of access and equity. Enrollment in a very small pool of potential faculty resources Madhya Pradesh shows that girls, those living in the State (see below for further discussion of in rural areas, and those from disadvantaged this issue). groups have lower rates of enrollment than boys, those in urban areas and those In terms of overall enrollments, Madhya Pradesh from more affluent families, respectively. This is in fact doing slightly better than expected, pattern is common across states (and indeed given its socio-economic position. There is countries). Girls constitute only 40 percent of students in 12 These enrollment figures include students studying through distance mode. higher education. The number of girls enrolling Enrolment in MP Bhoj (Open) university was 93,178 in 2009-10 of which 36 percent were girls, 18 percent students were SCs and 12 percent were STs in Higher Education in the year 2009-10 was (Ministry for Human Resource Development, India, 2011). 341,621 and in 2010-11 was 452,370 which 16 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Figure 4 Gross Enrollment Ratio and Per Capital State Domestic Product, 2009-10 60 50 40 MP HP Mah 30 Chat Gu AP Ker 20 Bhr Raj UP 10 0 - 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000 Rs. Source: Lok Sabha unstarred question no. 4593, December 2011 regarding cost of higher education and technical education. is 39.7 percent and 40.7 percent of the total secondary education in rural areas would have number enrolled, respectively (Figure 5). Girls migrated to the urban areas to attend a higher were less-well represented in MPhil and PhD education institution; these students would count programmes. as ‘urban’ students in the National Statistical Survey (on which this analysis was based). In There is a significant disparity in enrollments fact, the urban advantage is so marked that urban in rural and urban areas of Madhya females have much higher enrollment rates than Pradesh. In the age group of 18-23 years, while rural males (33.6 percent as against 12.7 percent) 29 percent in urban areas are enrolled for higher (Table 6). Moreover, young urban ST people enroll education, the corresponding figure in rural areas at higher rates than the general category in rural was only 9 percent. It should be remembered, areas – and at ten times the rate of young ST people however, that some young people who attended in rural areas (Table 7). Figure 5 Percentage of enrollment of boys and girls in different levels of courses in 2010-11 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% % Girls 50% % Boys 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% UG PG Other Source: Based on Author’s calculations from the data given on buhe.mpnet.in. Note: Here “dip-cert” is inclusive of enrollment of students in MPhil and PhD programmes. CHAPTER 1 | Effectiveness of the Higher Education System 17 Only a meager percentage of socially rural areas. In rural areas, less than four percent of disadvantaged students are enrolled in higher young SC and ST are in higher education (Table 7) education. The number of students in the category and less than five percent of girls (Table 6). of Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) in the year 2010-11 was 102,671 and 50,144 There are lower proportions of people with higher respectively, as against 1,209,717 of enrollments education across poorer households of MP. Those of students in the general category. As noted who are at higher levels of economic well being above, there was a sharp rise in overall enrollments have higher proportions of people with tertiary between 2009-10 and 2010-11. It is not clear education in the age group 25-29 years (Figure 6). from the available data whether the number and Also in MPCE quintiles 4 and 5 higher proportions proportion of socially disadvantaged students is of individuals in the age group 18-23 attend any increasing or decreasing. educational institution. Particular sub-populations face multiple In particular, economic well being of a household disadvantages, especially girls and ST/SC in affects access to private institutions, which Table 6 Status of current attendance (18-23) 2009-10, by gender and location, %   Rural Male Rural Urban Urban All Females Males Females Never attended education 12.58 31.39 7.05 5.68 18.09 Have attended but currently not 62.18 54.72 47.17 48.81 55.90 School 11.30 9.12 13.91 7.57 10.35 Diploma/certificate below graduate level 0.79 0.10 4.29 1.67 1.08 Diploma/certificate graduate and above 0.49 0.48 3.76 2.68 1.16 Graduate & above 12.67 4.18 23.82 33.60 13.43 Source: Authors, constructed using 66th round of NSS 2009-10. Table 7 Status of current attendance (18-23) 2009-10, by socio-economic status and location, % Rural Urban ST SC OBC Others ST SC OBC Others Never attended education 35.22 19.21 19.79 6.98 16.36 9.68 7.29 2.56 Ever attended but currently not 56.1 67.34 57.11 51.91 33.39 56.66 57.24 34.62 School 6.41 8.6 12.17 14.67 9.07 18.27 9.96 7.6 Diploma/certificate below 0.13 0.15 0.45 1.59 6.57 2.53 0.77 5.49 graduate level Diploma/certificate 0.08 0.8 0.03 2.06 2.33 1.91 2.64 4.7 graduate and above Graduate & above 2.07 3.91 10.45 22.79 32.27 10.96 22.1 45.03 Totals 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Source: Authors, constructed using 66th round of NSS 2009-10. 18 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options have higher fees. A person with at least senior (Figure 7) and around 70 percent do so for India as secondary education and attending an educational a whole. institution is more likely to study in a private institution if she comes from a high income household. This holds true for India as a Addressing equity gaps whole as well as for MP. This divide is wider Poor attendance in earlier phases of education is a in MP: 80 percent of the students in the very important factor in explaining low enrolment lowest quintile go to a government institution in higher education of girls and disadvantaged Figure 6 Education by MPCE Quintiles, 25-29 yrs 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Not Literate Below Primary Primary Middle Secondary and Higher Secondary Dip/Cert below grad. Graduate and above Source: Authors (constructed using 66th round of NSS, 2009-10). Figure 7 Types of institution attended, by economic quintiles, percent 100% 90% 80% Not known 70% Private unaided 60% 50% Private Aided 40% Local Body 30% Government 20% 10% 0% 1 2 3 4 5 Source: Graph constructed using NSS 66th round. MPCE quintiles are based on only the section of people attending education after class 12 and are below 30 years of age. Note: 1=poorest; 5= richest quintile. CHAPTER 1 | Effectiveness of the Higher Education System 19 Figure 8 Access to secondary schools in Rural areas vs Income 2007-08 120 100 80 60 40 20 MP 0 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 Income Per Capita (Rs.) Source: Authors (NSS 2007-08). Note: Due to lack of availability of data the graph does not have Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Lakshadweep and Daman & Diu. groups. MP had the highest gross enrolment ratio13 attended an educational institution; 22 percent of in the country, for the age group 6 to 13 years, in 18-23 year olds in rural areas never attended an primary and middle/basic schools. However, for educational institution, compared to less than the age group 14-17 years (classes IX through XII), 7 percent in urban areas; one third (31.5 percent) 30 states/UTs ranked higher than MP in 2007- of rural girls never attended an educational 08, in terms of age-specific ratios: the ratio was 59 institution; and ST – 34 percent; SC – 17 percent percent14 for MP and 63 percent for the country. (Table 6 and Table 7). Clearly these numbers This can also be explained partly by poor access represent a major constraint to enrollment in to secondary schools in rural areas of MP. 77 higher education. percent of the people of MP live in rural areas. Only 25 percent of rural households of MP could The first approach to addressing the overall equity access a secondary school at a distance less than 2 gaps in higher education, therefore, must be to kms in 2007-08. For India as a whole 47 percent increase the numbers of those from disadvantaged rural households had such access. MP falls below groups who enroll in and complete primary the trend line and looks like it is performing below and secondary education. Here too, the higher what should be expected given its per capita income education sector has a role to play. Clearly there (Figure 8). MP lies at the bottom as far as access are some specific issues to address in primary and to secondary schools in rural areas is concerned in secondary education. However, most obviously, 2007-08. higher education provides teachers for secondary (and to a lesser extent elementary) schools and so It is striking the high proportions of the young higher education institutions should look for ways people in certain populations that have never to attract more young people to become teachers. attended an educational institution at all. Moreover, the pedagogical and inter-personal Twenty-five percent of females aged 18-23 never skills that teachers acquire, and curriculum and materials often developed in higher education, are important factors in making girls and disadvantaged 13 Gross enrolment ratio: Total enrolment at an educational level irrespective children feeling welcome in school. Finally, higher of age as a percentage to the population in the normative age group; e.g. 18- 23 years for higher education. GER is not the best way of measuring spread education institutions can reach out to secondary of education since enrolment does not guarantee attendance. So there are schools in order to increase the aspirations of alternative concepts of Net Attendance Ratio and Gross Attendance Ratio. There is another measure called Age-specific attendance ratio. young people to attend higher education, and 14 NSS 2007-08, Report 532, Table 17. provide teachers and schools with the latest 20 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options research to heighten interest in post-secondary They also need help with finding employment, since education. large proportions of girls with higher education qualifications have withdrawn from the labor This is especially important since, of those young market. people who have completed grade 12, girls and boys and those from disadvantaged groups enroll into The Government of Madhya Pradesh has three higher education in roughly equal proportions. main scholarships for girls. The Gaon Ki Beti Large proportions of those with senior secondary Scheme provides scholarships of Rs. 5,000 to education in the age group 18-23 studied in 2009- girls in rural areas who got first division in higher 10 in MP, about two-thirds of both boys and girls secondary and are enrolled in government colleges (Table 8). There is a similar picture for backward (the amount per beneficiary is Rs. 7,500/- p.a. for classes, though only slightly more than one-quarter girls studying in engineering and medical colleges). of Scheduled Castes went on to higher education The number of beneficiaries was 33,532 in 2011-12, once completing secondary education. The major which is slightly higher than the previous two years challenge, therefore, is to get these young people to (Table 9). In 2011-12 distribution of beneficiaries complete secondary education. by caste: SC 9.8 percent, ST 7.5 percent, OBC 47.5 percent and others 35.2 percent. The Pratibha Kiran Girls in rural areas face the greatest equity gaps. Scheme provides scholarships of Rs. 5,000 to girls It is likely that an important part of the explanation from households living below poverty line, in urban of the additional disadvantage is the general negative areas who got first division in higher secondary and attitude towards girls’ admission in higher education. who are enrolled in government/aided colleges. So finding a safe environment, such as dormitories The number of beneficiaries has been rising and gender-sensitive faculty, for girls is critical. since 2008-09, reaching 2,406 in 2011-12. Table 8 Percentages of young people who are working, studying or doing neither, MP 2009-10   Total Male Female Rural Urban ST SC OBC Others Class 12 only & 18-23 years old LFP 19.87 28.06 8.28 27.44 11.7 33.24 24.97 20.62 15.49 Studying 66.23 66.66 65.61 60.76 72.12 55.00 58.87 61.01 75.18 Neither 13.91 5.28 26.11 11.8 16.18 11.75 16.16 18.37 9.33 "Graduate and Above" & below 30 yrs LFP 42.46 56.99 18.92 39.58 43.80 54.90 52.24 48.46 35.86 Studying 34.67 36.50 31.71 41.14 31.67 31.97 27.67 33.09 37.31 Neither 22.87 6.51 49.37 19.28 24.53 13.13 20.09 18.45 26.83 Source: Authors calculations from NSS data. Note: If someone is studying and working then this person is under “studying” since such cases are few. Table 9 Beneficiaries of scholarship schemes for girls   2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Gaon Ki Beti 28,141 32,238 33,532 Pratibha Kiran 2,034 2,309 2,594 Vikramaditya 1,597 2,118 2,013 Total 31,772 36,665 38,139 Source: Administrative Report 2011-12, Department of Higher Education. CHAPTER 1 | Effectiveness of the Higher Education System 21 The Vikramaditya Scheme provides a tuition waiver larger, better-equipped institutions where for girls from low-income families. However, the the quality of education is generally higher. increase in beneficiaries overall has been modest - It also helps promote greater diversity at (urban) about 4 percent from 2010-11 to 2011-12 - at a time institutions, with resulting benefits for all when the numbers of students and girls attending students. higher education have been rising rapidly. Ways needs to be found to ensure these schemes can •• Finally, the state might consider establishing reach all those in need more effectively. education centers with recognized degree courses training the local population in There are several options for improving rural skills that they are more likely to use, for access. One response that has been tried is to instance courses in agriculture and watershed establish more institutions of higher education in management. rural areas, either through government or private institutions. However, rural colleges tend to be of much poorer quality in terms of infrastructure and Conclusion availability of faculty (and their smaller size makes them hard to make educationally and economically The Government of Madhya Pradesh is rightly viable). The affiliation model is also at its weakest concerned that there should be equal access in its support to rural colleges, especially with to higher education for all sub-populations respect to making the curriculum locally-relevant, within the State. This chapter has shown that getting faculty from the university to spend time a key constraint is the relatively few young in rural areas and generally supporting professional people from disadvantaged populations that development. This suggests that other options are able to complete secondary education. This beyond establishing new institutions need to be demonstrates the need for policy makers to take considered. a holistic approach to the education system, with the higher education system also able to •• An existing university could establish campuses promote better outcomes in elementary and in rural areas: by establishing constituent units of secondary education. Once students reach the end the university, the university could deploy its own of secondary education, in broad terms they pass faculty to the rural areas (by providing incentives on to higher education at similar rates. or contractual obligations to do so). The increased tuition fee revenue would go directly to the It is of concern therefore, that the sharp rise in university (rather than being mediated by an enrollments in the last year actually coincided affiliating college), so there is some incentive for with a drop in enrollments from girls and from the university under this model. disadvantaged groups. This drop was in absolute terms with a resulting large drop in the percentage •• Distance learning courses or technology could be represented in higher education. This is an unexpected used to reach out to the remote areas of the state, and unwelcome surprise; and further investigation in an attempt to bring higher quality materials is warranted to understand what happened and to and lectures to these areas. ensure that as the system continues to expand it remains equally accessible to all. •• Many students who attending secondary schools in rural areas are studying in urban areas; The next two chapters look in more detail at and the state could also provide supportive governance and financing issues and how reforms measures to students who do decide to enroll in these areas can address the shortcomings in terms in an urban area. This option has the advantage of the effectiveness of the system identified in this that young people from rural areas study in chapter. 22 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Annexure: Returns to Tertiary Education India, 2009-10 Madhya Pradesh, 2009-10 Selection Equation Returns to tertiary Selection Equation Returns to tertiary education education   LFP   Log Wage   LFP   Log Wage Age 0.926*** Age -1.160 Age 10.28*** Age 7.303* Age Squared -0.0160*** Age Squared 0.0239 Age Squared -0.190*** Age Squared -0.133* Female -4.166*** Female -3.015*** Female -4.600*** Female -4.700*** ST 0.898*** Tertiary 0.679*** ST 1.309*** Tertiary 0.351* Education Education SC 0.396*** Casual -0.640*** SC 0.824*** Casual -0.495* OBC 0.189*** Participation -3.999*** OBC 0.562*** Participation -5.015** Index Index Below 0.0569*** Constant 22.84 Below -0.378*** Constant -90.20* Primary Primary Primary 0.0947*** * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, Primary -0.227*** * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001 *** p<0.001 Middle -0.0707*** R2 = .28 Middle -0.688*** R2 = .5285 Secondary -0.413***   Secondary -1.183***   and Higher and Higher Secondary Secondary Diploma/ 1.001*** Diploma/ -1.323*** Certificate Certificate below grad below grad Graduate 0.0562*** Graduate -1.340*** and above and above Urban -0.731*** Urban -1.357*** Constant -9.737*** Constant -134.4*** ***p<0.001   ***p<0.001   Source: Authors. In the above table we have given the results tertiary education (dummy), casual (dummy) and from regression analysis. The models are the participation index. The pool of observations built for India and Madhya Pradesh using the included those with higher secondary level NSS data of 2009-10. In order to control for of education and those with at least graduate level education in the age group 25 to 29 selection bias in the labor market we first run the selection equation (using the Logit model) and (2009-10). Since the objective is to see the predicted values, “Participation Index”, are whether there are any premiums on moving incorporated in the regression showing returns tointo a college or a university we do not include tertiary education. people from lower levels of education. However, predicting the participation index does require Regression of log of average daily earnings (log including all levels of education in the selection wage) on age, age-squared, female (dummy), equation. CHAPTER 1 | Effectiveness of the Higher Education System 23 It is clear from the results that in India and MP Keeping other characteristics unchanged those regular workers earn more than casual workers with tertiary education earn 42(97) percent more and women earn lesser than men do (within than what those with only senior secondary the set of those with either senior secondary education do in MP (India). In the regression for education or graduate and above levels of India we see that signs of age and age-squared are education). Casual workers earn around 40 (47) unexpected but the two coefficients are statistically percent lesser than regular workers in MP (India). insignificant, also we have considered a very short Women with at least senior secondary level of range of ages i.e. 25 to 29. However, the signs education earn lesser than what men do in MP fall in line with our expectations in the model for and India. MP and the two coefficients are significant. 24 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Improving System Performance through Governance Reform Chapter 2 The Chapter discusses the need for governance of the student population goes to the State reform of state universities Madhya Pradesh within Universities rather than national institutions (and the broader context of governance reform in Indian state institutions represent 70 percent of the number higher education. It argues for re-thinking the role for of higher education institutions). Therefore, one of the the state away from a state-controlled system towards a major thrusts during the 12th Plan (2012-17)15 is to “state-steered” system with a light touch on regulation, find effective ways to rejuvenate the public universities but combined with strong financial commitments. in the States, some of which are unfortunately in a and accountability Further, the reform should address state of disrepair16. governance, both of the institutions themselves and the system as a whole. The chapter discusses the The State Universities urgently require higher central structural feature of the higher education levels of financial support, financial autonomy sector – the affiliation system – and argues for reform in and accountability for expanding equitable access order to improve governance and improve the quality to higher education. The governance structures of education provided. The chapter also reviews the require fundamental transformation – to become Madhya Pradesh University Act of 1973, as revised in more efficient, transparent, democratic, and 2000. The analysis reveals an ungovernable structure of student focused. The nature and extent of funding the State Universities in the State. There are multiple available to state universities is poor. The allocations layers of administration and internal committees where made to State Universities by State Governments need government agencies and politicians control university to be increased, especially for plan allocations, since policies and/or appointments. This prevents the Vice- most of allocation made by State Governments are Chancellor and the institutional leadership team from towards Non-Plan allocation (Salary Grants), leaving exercising effective administration. Further, the highest very little resources for development initiatives. It is body of the university, the Senate, is unmanageably also observed that, over time the State Governments large, which inhibits effective decision making and share of public expenditure on higher education has implementation, and a number of other aspects reduce declined from 3.58 percent of GDP (1999-2000) to accountability and autonomy of the universities. The 2.73 percent (2006-07), while over the same period chapter recommends a re-drafting of the Act taking the Central Governments share of expenditure has into account the national recommendations for increased from 0.61 percent to 0.84 percent. While the university reforms as well as reform initiatives from increasing contribution of the Central Government other State governments. is amply visible, there is a case for increase resources The National Context 15 Draft Chapter on Higher Education in the 12th Plan document (see http:// planningcommission.nic.in/ accessed on 5th August, 2012). The role and importance of State Universities 16 Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh address at the 150th Anniversary of the University of Mumbai, 22nd June, 2007. cannot be understated in the rapid expansion of http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=28780 accessed on 5th August, higher education in India. Roughly, 95 percent 2012. allocation to be made by the State Government, if fees from students. In Madhya Pradesh, for example, India is to achieve the goals set out in the National funding from the state government constitutes Education Policy of 6 percent expenditure on education roughly 10-20 percent of the budgets of individual as a percentage of out GDP. Further, during the 11th universities. Alternative funding models are therefore Plan (2007-12) a conscious attempt was made by the needed if the affiliation system is to change. Central Government to improve the condition of State Universities by making a dedicated allocation There are a number of weaknesses of the of Rs. 25,000 crores. Unfortunately, of that only affiliation system. First, the relationship between Rs. 10,000 crore was spent17. This brings to the fore key State University and affiliated colleges is one of issues pertaining to effective and timely utilization of administration – affiliation, course recognition, resources, funds flow mechanisms, lack of absorptive syllabus prescription, and examination. The capacity on the part of State Universities and finally University departments as a source of academic- governance reforms. Going forward, it is not only strengthening of college teachers are generally important to address the issues highlighted above, but very weak and unstructured. Second, since a to also to ensure that all future allocations are norm typical affiliating university caters to hundreds based and linked to certain indicators (which can be of colleges, so it cannot provide a curriculum bench marked), where there is effective participation to meet the local needs of colleges, but instead by various stakeholders (those who fund and those offers the same curriculum to all. In such a context, who receive).18 Clearly, a partnership mode (Central syllabus remains minimalistic and static. Moreover, and State Governments), is desirable for addressing the academic condition of affiliated colleges prompts emerging issues of access, equity and quality through an resistance to curriculum revision: inadequate improved programme design, rather than the discrete teaching-learning facilities at the affiliated GoI sponsored schemes. colleges and very limited access to current literature – books and journals – means colleges cannot A comprehensive university reform programme needs support much academic diversity (nor do they to be designed and implemented jointly by Central and have an incentive to do so). In addition, in most State Governments for promoting strategic planning affiliated colleges, faculty strength is inadequate and recognizing performance at the University level and mostly filled with ad-hoc contract faculty. for accessing resources. It is, therefore, pertinent for This does not facilitate quality enhancement the each State to prepare a comprehensive State Higher and continuity. The University departments Education Plan, which will effectively assess the needs and affiliated colleges are then reduced to and requirements of States for a better, equitable and common, minimal curriculum, improvement balanced allocation of resources. Currently no State and innovation. has such a plan. There two other fundamental weaknesses: the affiliation model also separates student assessment The Affiliation System from teaching and separates research from teaching. A teacher needs to use student assessment The financial survival of State Universities depends in order to adjust his or her teaching to the needs to heavily on fees from the affiliation system19, either students and to provide feedback to students on their from fees from affiliating colleges or examination performance; but the affiliation system means that the assessment is done away from the college (and the teaching process) at the affiliating university. 17 Chapter on Higher Education, 12th Plan document, Planning Commission. These features significantly reduce the accountability 18 These issues will be discussed in more detail in the Madhya Pradesh context for results. The affiliation system also means that in the next chapter. research is done at the university while teaching 19 Most institutions, and almost all colleges, are not approved (either by national or state organs) to awarded degrees. So colleges affiliate to a is done at the colleges, so the latest knowledge is university. The university is responsible for setting the curriculum and not available to those teaching undergraduates, conducting examinations; colleges are responsible for teaching. A student therefore studies at the college, but takes the examination at the university, except through the laborious process of curriculum which in turn awards the degree to the successful students. reform. 26 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Moreover, the State University departments are Institutional and Sector not in a good position to support and strengthen the quality of curriculum and teachers in affiliated Governance colleges. Since University departments are short of There are in particular two strands of governance regular faculty appointments, they have to manage that must be improved: with minimum faculty – a few senior and the rest are contract faculty. Quality teaching and research is not •• Institutional governance: The structures and possible in such a context. processes within which institutions are given autonomy to plan and manage their affairs so Finally, the lack of mobility, differentials in salary, as to achieve both the state and their own local/ retirement age and benefits between affiliated regional objectives. colleges and State Universities in relation to •• Sector governance: Managing the higher education centrally-funded Universities and the private sector system with a strategic framework and appropriate institutions is drawing out the best faculty from accountability so that institutions achieve the State Universities. In such an academic environment, state objectives. the economically blessed and bright students enroll in Central Universities and private institutions These two aspects of governance have been subject of leaving a large mass of students from rural, tribal extensive debate since independence. While sectoral and underprivileged communities to enroll in State governance was discussed in the initials reports of Universities (Kumar & Parasuraman, 2011). Thus, committees set up by the Government of India - the generally, the condition is not conducive to producing Radhakrishnan Commission (1948), the Kothari high quality students capable of contributing to Commission (1968), which laid the basic framework scientific, economic and social development. A key for the National Education Policy in 1986, signifying element of state higher education reform, therefore, the five cardinal principles on the basis of which Higher must be to address the affiliation system. Education in India needs to be viewed – Greater Access, Box 2 Key reports on Indian higher education governance Kothari Commission (1968) on the Importance of Autonomy •• “Only an autonomous institution, free from regimentation of ideas and pressure of party or power politics, can pursue truth fearlessly and build up in its teachers and students, habits of independent thinking and a spirit of enquiry unfettered by the limitations and prejudices of the near and the immediate which is so essential for the development of a free society”. National Policy on Higher Education (1986) – 5 key principles •• Greater Access requires an enhancement in the education institutional capacity to provide opportunities to all who deserve and desire higher education. •• Equity involves fair access to the poor and the socially disadvantaged groups. •• Quality and Excellence involve provision of education by accepted standard so that students receive available knowledge of the highest standard and help them to enhance their human resource capabilities. •• Relevance involves promotion of education so as to develop human resources keeping pace with the changing economic, social and cultural development of the country; and •• Value Based Education involves inculcating basic moral values among the youth. CHAPTER 2 | Improving System Performance through Governance Reform 27 National Knowledge Commission on Autonomy (2008) •• “the autonomy of universities is eroded by interventions from government and intrusions from political processes.” •• “ experience suggests that implicit politicization has made governance of our universities exceedingly difficult much more susceptible to entirely non-academic intervention from outsides. The problem needs to be recognized and addressed in a systematic manner within universities but also outside particularly in governments, legislatures and political parties”. Yash Pal Committee on Governance (2010) •• Governance Structures are archaic and have not changed with changing environment. •• Need to improve governance by developing expertise in ‘education management’ and avoid burdening good academics with administrative chores. •• State Governments should avoid appointing civil servants as University Administrators. •• Changes in Governance structure should be aimed at autonomy. •• Need to prevent political or commercial interest from interfering in the functioning of Universities. •• Governance structure should consists of eminent persons, excluding politicians including limited representation from the Government. Source: Authors' compilation from various reports. Equal Access (or Equity), Quality and Excellence, •• There is a heavy administrative and managerial Relevance and Value Based Education, more recently role of the Chancellor. several Government of India committees have debated around both these aspects in governance through •• There are multiple points of influence of external the National Knowledge Commission (2008), the people in internal bodies of the universities, Yashpal Committee (2010), and the Madhava Menon notably in the executive council and the Committee report on reforms in Centrally Funded finance committee. These external people are Institutions (2011). This chapter will first and principally nominated by the Chancellor or representatives focus on the institutional governance of the State of the State Government. This implies a lack Universities in Madhya Pradesh as laid out in the act, of administrative power of the Vice Chancellor and, secondly, on the appropriate “steering” role of the in two critical bodies, notably the executive state government to achieve good sector governance. council and the finance council and thus hinders implementation. Further, it creates multiple points where consensus between external The Madhya Pradesh stakeholders (Chancellor and government) needs Universities Act, 1973 to be reached. An analysis of the MP Public Universities Act, 197320 •• The lack of accountability of the Vice Chancellor (Figure 9) brings out the following specific points: towards the Governing body (Court), since the Vice Chancellor is principally hired by the Chancellor, but with important inputs from the 20  This section draws heavily on the relevant chapter to World Bank (2012). Government. 28 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options •• The dominating role of the public service and mainly has an advisory and review role with committee hiring teachers, which removes little decision making. the university’s authority over the most important input into the learning process: •• The absence of a true governing body that is the Teachers. university’s principal governing body that sets out one strategy and issues one set of policy and •• The highly unclear and overlapping division of administrative guidelines for the VC to implement powers and duties between the court and the (without further need for external consensus Senate. making within the University). •• The size and functioning of the Court. It is very •• State Government’s role in appointing the large (>65 people), which makes it difficult to Registrar and Finance and Accounts Officer generate consensus and have efficient procedures. without necessarily taking the consent of the Further, it is required only to meet once a year Vice-Chancellor. Figure 9 “Influence” Chart – MP Universities Act 1973 Members of State Other Stakeholders Legislative Assembly (Alumna, Staff, Students, Donors Industry) Court Chancellor Government Vice Chancellor Executive Finance Council Committee Faculties Public Service Commission Teachers Source: Author Note: Academic council and boards of studies not shown. CHAPTER 2 | Improving System Performance through Governance Reform 29 As a consequence, the Act risks leading to four time and cost over run on a number of matters, main concerns: rigid, ambiguous, and outdated which can be addressed at the levels of Deans or governance framework; political interference; Department Chairs. Unfortunately, in the absence ineffective and non-transparent teacher selection of decentralization with due accountability practices; and a crisis of internal governance. mechanisms, universities and colleges are plagued with internal crisis of governance. The first concern is the rigidity of the current governance framework for the state universities in MP. A Vice Chancellor (VC) has very little Learning from other States freedom and flexibility to make key management decisions. For example, the Chancellor (the State Given that quality improvement has come to Governor), more often his office, decides on be the focus of higher education, there is now several administrative decisions. In addition, the a growing desire in states to reduce the burden VC has very little say over the appointment of the of affiliation of the existing universities and Registrar and the Finance and Accounts Officer, reform internal governance of the affiliating who are appointed by the State Governments and universities. A few states like Maharashtra often times results in a stalemate in the University. (Kumar, 2009) and West Bengal have embarked Finally, any new curriculum has to be approved by on comprehensive legislative reforms in higher the State Government when the university should education. States such as Karnataka are devising have academic autonomy subject to well-defined strategies of addressing the affiliation model parameters. through a single university dual system in which a pro-vice chancellor is responsible for affiliation Second, the existing provisions of the Act provide an and a different pro-vice chancellor for the academic opportunity for large scale political interference in affairs of the university itself. While, in some States the appointment of the Vice-Chancellor and other there is a good reason to look at a single university key functionaries such as members of the governing affiliating all colleges. It is therefore important to bodies. Additionally, the janbhagidari21, which was note that, while a single template for the legislative introduced to manage the affairs of the college in the framework and governance structure at the state absence of a proper collegium to aid and assist the level may not be desirable, there is an opportunity Principals of colleges has also resulted in excessive for cross-learning between States. Another political interference. interesting reform that is being witnessed in States is to have a buffer body - State council for higher Third, the current practice is that the Public Service education –an important goal of which is to assist Commission selects and appoints teachers in the the states’ higher education departments to re-think Government funded and aided colleges but this the role of the university. In states such as Kerala, is ineffective, non-transparent and goes against Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal there already the basic principle of autonomy. Unfortunately, exists a robust and effective State Council. There there is a large number of vacant positions in these has been a less positive experience in Maharashtra, institutions. The selection of the faculty should be where the Council has not met for two years devolved to the individual institution to administer (Kumar, 2010). However, a committee consituted as per the norms laid by the University Grants by the Government of Maharashtra chaired by Commission. Dr. Anil Kakodkar has recently recommended in its report, the setting up of the Maharashtra Lastly, given the archaic nature of the Act with State Council for Higher Education and all powers (over-centralization) vested with the Development (MAHED). It has also suggested Vice-Chancellor and Governing bodies, there is that MAHED should be made a stand-alone independent statutory body with appropriate and adequate autonomy to help develop higher 21 This was introduced by the Government of MP in 2003, where by each college has to have a society formed, which takes care of the overall education right from funding to appointing development of the colleges and local problems are solved locally. vice-chancellors. 30 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Policy Options for MP senior management in key decisions. There is a need to develop models of governance along the Introduce more autonomy in universities. There lines of governance framework which exists in are generally three main forms of autonomy: some of the premier institutions of higher learning, academic, financial, administrative/human namely, Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), resources. While the universities currently have Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), Indian some level of administrative autonomy, there is a Institutes of Science (IISc) and the Tata Institute need to devolve more authority to the universities in of Social Science (TISS). In the subsequent the areas of academic, finance and human resources. discussion on the proposed model for higher For example, the universities should be recognized education system in MP, certain key features from as experts in academic matters and be given the these institutions have been adapted and the most authority to take all decisions including curriculum recent recommendation made by the Madhava and examinations. In the areas of finance, the Menon Committee (2011) on ‘Governance universities could be given autonomy to manage Restructuring in Central Universities’ have also their own budgets including sourcing for their own been incorporated (see Box 3). There are all the funds and being allowed to keep them subject to reasons to believe that this key reform would lead well-defined policy and reporting parameters. In to better governance and better education in the the areas of human resources, the proposal is that State of Madhya Pradesh. universities should be allowed to select and recruit their own staff (both academic and non-academic). More specifically, it is proposed that a Board of This gives the university more flexibility, and Governors (BoG) be established which will be the enhances their effectiveness and competitiveness; final approving authority on key matters of the leading to an overall improvement in the quality of university. The BoG will be responsible for setting education. the university’s strategic directions and development, and will be the final approving authority for key Enhancing accountability through the matters including finance and human resources establishment of a Board of Governors. As the (within approved policy parameters and guidelines), universities are given more flexibility and autonomy, and making and reviewing statutes and ordinances. it is important to put in place a sustainable and The BoG will also be given the flexibility to decide on independent framework to guide the university the internal governance structures of the university. Madhava Menon Committee (2011) on Evolve a Comprehensive Policy for Autonomy of Central Box 3 Educational Institutions Key recommendations: •• Concept of office of the visitor in central universities should be removed. •• Powers of the visitor (currently President of India) be transferred to the Chancellor. •• Establishing an office of ombudsman in each central university to intervene in crisis situations. •• Membership of academic bodies is strictly restricted to eminent academicians and independent experts. •• Providing autonomy in academic issues, all central universities adopt a system of choice-based credit courses along with semester system. •• All central universities undergo a comprehensive review of their functioning once every 10 years by an external agency. Source: Authors. CHAPTER 2 | Improving System Performance through Governance Reform 31 Akin to international practices found in the US Accountability Framework for the Universities. and Europe as well as that adopted by the IITs With autonomy and greater responsibility given to and IIMs, it is recommended that the size of the both the BoG and university senior management, there BoG is kept small to enable effective decision is a need to put in place an accountability framework meeting. The BoG could be a 10-15 member to ensure the proper usage and accountability of committee chaired by an eminent individual well public funds. This accountability can take varied respected in society and industry. The Chairman forms as follows: need not be an academic but must have prior experience in a similar capacity (whether in the •• Establish key performance indicators such as educational sector or industry). Similarly, the Board student attrition and transition rates, graduate members should comprise reputable individuals employment survey results etc which are reviewed from the institution, State Government, society, on a yearly basis between the State Government industry as well as academia. It is recommended and universities. that at least 50 percent of the board members •• Put in place a system of regular monitoring and should be external to the institution and have updates of the university’s development and significant interest in the higher education sector in performance. Madhya Pradesh. •• Develop and implement a Quality Assurance and Role of the Chancellor. Under the existing Act, the Accreditation (QAA) mechanism and process to Governor is given a lot of control over the university, ensure the delivery of quality education. including the power approve the composition of university bodies. It is recommended that these •• Ensure information transparency via requiring key responsibilities be devolved to the BoG as they are information and documents (such as the results administrative in nature. The Visitor (as is proposed of graduate employment surveys, summaries of as a new role for the Governor) should continue in the QAA reports, ranking of colleges etc) to be his role as the Head of the University to preside at published. important university events such as convocations Establish a State Council for Higher Education: and commencements. This is analogous to the shift in the role of the President with respect to Centrally- It would be desirable for Madhya Pradesh to Funded Institutions. In addition, the Visitor should establish a State Council for Higher Education for continue to have the powers to call for a report or planned and coordinated development of higher explanation on matters in the university for which education in the State and to foster sharing of the BoG should be given a time limit to respond to resources between universities, benefit from synergy the Chancellor. across institutions, lead academic and governance reforms at the institution level, establish principles Selection Committee for the Vice-Chancellor for funding institutions, maintain a databank (VC). Akin to international practices as well as local on higher education and conduct research and ones found in the States of Karnataka, Maharashtra, evaluation studies. Only a handful of states in Rajasthan and West Bengal, it is recommended that India have a functioning State Council for Higher the VC be selected via a transparent, objective and Education. A perusal of the composition of the competitive selection process. A selection committee State Councils highlights some interesting facets. comprising three to five independent well-respected While Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal clearly representatives from the Board, society, industry, stand out in the way the Chairman is selected on government and academia could be formed and tasked merit, other states have political appointees as with the responsibility of selecting the candidates. Chairpersons. One important thing to learn The BoG should be the final approving authority who from other states is that State Councils should appoints the VC. Key selection criteria should include be manageable and not unwieldy as in case academic credentials, management experience and of some states like Kerala and Karnataka. The Kerala expertise, leadership potential, integrity and values. model is however considered to be an interesting 32 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Box 4 Proposed Composition of the MP Higher Education Council Chairman of the Council •• Distinguished academician/public intellectual with proven leadership qualities. •• Appointed by a search committee – two committee members are by the Council, one by the State – three member committee will recommend three names to government who will appointment; OR Chief Minister, Leader of Opposition and Education Minister appointed by three names suggested by the Council. •• 3+3 years or 5 years non extendable. Chief Executive of the Council •• Eminent academic administrator with proven record. •• Must be the rank of Vice Chancellor. •• Search committee should be panel of three names: Chairman of the council, plus two members nominated by the Council. •• Appointed for a period of 5 years. Members of the Council •• 9 individuals representing fields of Arts, Science and technology, culture, civil society and industry: 6 members should be from outside the state; 3 members must be individuals of national eminence (outside the State). •• Each member will have a term of 6 years, 1/3rd will retire every 2 years. •• The existing council will nominate 3 new members every 2 years. Secretariat and Administrative Staff •• The council must have its own Secretariat and Administrative Staff. •• Brought on deputation from other institutions and State government. •• Suitable talent drawn from the system or the labour market and compensated adequately. Appointing/Establishing the First Council •• First Council will be appointed by a five member selection committee to be appointed by State, whose the members must be: 2 eminent scientists/social scientists; 1 former VC of a State University; 1 former director of Institute of National repute within or outside the State; 1 former VC of a central University. •• When the Council is constituted for the first time, one-third of the Board members (i.e. six members) should be given one non-renewable term of six-years. Another one-third should be given a four-year term and the remaining one-third would be given a term of two years. Source: Authors. model in the way that many of its powers and states both in terms of the composition of the functions are executed. Going forward, a proposed Council (Box 4) as well as in terms of powers and model for the State Council for Higher Education functions (Box 5) (a summary of the state councils in Madhya Pradesh based on the lessons from these in other States is at annexure). CHAPTER 2 | Improving System Performance through Governance Reform 33 There are two other issues which could be considered effective redressal mechanisms, which are manageable as functions of the State Higher Education Council: for institutions and the government, and keep all but regulation of private institutions and redressal or the most fundamental cases out of formal legal redress. tribunal mechanisms. There are advantages to having This lack means that many administrative actions by the Council deal with both private and government the institutions and by the Department are delayed. institutions, as this would create a more level playing There is pending legislation at the national level to field across the sectors, when planning for the sector it address the need for educational tribunals, which is important that the Council take into consideration would include requirements at the state level. However, the presence (and likely future presence) of the constructing an effective tribunal system (which private institutions, and the central issue of quality balances the needs and rights of all parties) is complex improvement is equally relevant for all parts of the as well as sensitive. In the short run, therefore it would sector. However, the relationship between the Council add significant complications to the functioning of the and private institutions will inevitably be somewhat Council for it to take on responsibilities for private different from its relationship to government institutions and for tribunals from the beginning of its institutions (not least with respect of funding). With operation, especially given the major tasks it would be respect to tribunal mechanisms, there clearly is a lack of responsible for. Box 5 Proposed Powers and Functions of the MP State Higher Education Council 1. Strategy and planning •• Preparing the State Higher Education Plan. •• Providing State Institutions inputs for creating their Plans and implementing them. •• Coordination between apex bodies, regulatory institutions and government. 2. Monitoring & evaluation •• Monitoring the implementation of State Higher Education Plan. •• Creating and maintaining the Management Information Systems. •• Compiling and maintaining periodic statistics at State and Institutional level. •• Evaluating state institutions on the basis of norms and key performance indicators. 3. Quality assurance & academic functions •• Faculty quality enhancement initiatives. •• Accreditation (in collaboration with national regulatory agencies). •• Quality of examinations. •• Maintaining quality of Curriculum. •• Promoting innovation in research. •• Protecting the autonomy of State institutions. 4. Advisory functions •• Advising state government on strategic investments in higher education. •• Advising universities on statute and ordinance formulation. 5. Funding functions •• Funds managed by the State Higher Education Council will come from GoI as well as the State government: ŠŠ Determine the methodology for timely transfer of funds. ŠŠ Disburse funds to State universities and colleges on the basis of the State Higher Education Plan and transparent norms. Source: Authors 34 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options More autonomy should be given to universities to put good internal governance practices in place and colleges. Linked to the above two issues, in colleges so that there is minimalistic interference there were calls for greater autonomy in the areas from external agencies. of academic, finance, administration and human resources to the state universities and better- With the MP state of higher education and the performing colleges. It is well recognized by the national and international key messages in mind, University Grants Commission (University Grants there is a need to relook at the Madhya Pradesh State Commission) now that for the affiliated colleges, they University Act –may be to re-write the Act. A robust, should be groomed and, when adequate capacity was enabling act should be based upon acts that have present, the college should be made academically demonstrated its worth over time in India, notably autonomy. This would allow the college to design the IIT/IIM model and the National Law School, their curriculum, rather than having to depend on while possibly taking into account new national the affiliating university. There is certainly a need proposals and if need be international examples. Figure 10 Proposed Institutional Relationships State Higher Education Council State (Buffer body) •• Strategic policy design •• Collects data and annual •• Planning the total budget Monies to the University reports from institutions, •• Transfers block grants to publishes data on Universities institutions •• Develops norms and standards •• Provides budget for SHEC •• Monitors compliance with operational costs accreditation and audit •• Student support activities requirements Visitor •• Decisions regarding new (Governor) institutions Representation •• Decides resource allocation on Ceremonial the basis of transparent criteria Regulation and representation Notes: Board of Governors •• Board of Governors appoints •• Oversee administration of the University search committee for the to maintain quality and accountability post of Chancellor – makes •• Approve staffing decisions recommendations to Governor •• Student support activities •• Board of Governors appoints search committee for post •• Chancellor as Chairman of the Board of of Vice Chancellor – makes Governors recommendations to Chancellor •• Chancellor officiates appointment and removal of Vice Chancellor Vice Chancellor, acting on the recommendations of Search Committee/BOM Administrative and Academic Functions Finance Functions Source: Authors CHAPTER 2 | Improving System Performance through Governance Reform 35 It has come to be clearly recognized that the number The bigger task however is to improve the quality of colleges affiliated to a single university is quite of education provided in the larger number of large in case of State Universities and over the years colleges. One option is establishing a specific unit there has been an increase as the number of colleges of the higher education council or the affiliating has risen much faster than the number of affiliating university to monitor and built capacity in these universities (University Grants Commission, 2012). colleges. Similarly, it would be possible to establish Currently, the average number of affiliated colleges one University exclusively for affiliations, or a dual per University is approximately 500 for the county Model for a few Universities as is being proposed in as a whole. It is imperative that some serious policy Karnataka with the remaining become exclusively options are looked at going forward. However, given teaching/research institutions. One of the other the number of affiliating colleges in Madhya Pradesh models of managing the problem of affiliation (Table 10), the affiliation system will take some time is to have the University divided into several to reform and a number of different approaches will campuses with each having colleges around its need to be considered, tested and evaluated. vicinity affiliated to those campuses. This model is being currently discussed in Maharashtra in the The first option is to reduce the total number case of University of Mumbai. The unit could also of affiliating colleges by encouraging the better oversee the establishment of new colleges, ensuring performing colleges to become autonomous. that they met minimum standards before they By becoming ‘autonomous’, a college would gain were allowed to be established, and also regularly academic autonomy – and so become responsible accredit and conduct quality assurance for existing for curriculum and assessment issues – as well as colleges to ensure that quality was maintained. administrative autonomy over its budget, including A possible suggestion that the more advanced being eligible to receive funds directly from UGC. colleges could “mentor” the newer ones could also An autonomous college does not, however, have the be examined. right to award a degree. One possibility in Madhya Pradesh is to identify colleges that have performed An additional option would be to limit the number well based on certain indicators may be encouraged of colleges to be affiliated to any University to to move for autonomy (there are a number of colleges 100, as recommended by the Report of the UGC- (perhaps 25) which are well-established and seem Affiliation Reforms Committee in 2011. However, likely candidates to become autonomous.) It would in MP this would mean establishing more affiliating also be possible to provide incentives to the affiliating universities than the present seven in MP, since there universities to encourage some of their colleges to are over 1000 affiliated colleges (with several thousand become autonomous. more unaffiliated colleges in the system). Table 10 Number of affiliating colleges of different types in MP (2011-12) Number of Colleges Traditional Universities Government Private Aided Private Unaided Total Jiwaji University, Gwalior 46 14 164 224 Barkatullah University, Bhopal 63 11 139 213 Devi Ahilya University, Indore 54 13 103 170 Rani Durgawati, Jabalpur 58 19 90 167 Awadhes Pratap Singh University, Rewa 51 12 60 123 Vikram University, Sagar 38 5 45 88 Dr. Hari Singh Gaur University, Sagar 32 3 35 70 Total 342 77 636 1055 Source: Annual Report, 2011-12. 36 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options It would also be possible to create College Cluster •• Withdrawal of the state from certain detailed Universities by clustering a minimum of 50 colleges control and management functions and the in the area surrounding a city or district giving the devolution of responsibility to universities university its own independent establishment and themselves. relevance. •• Need to re-organize a suitable institutional structure A way to get larger, better-quality, institutions with through legislative enactment – State Council for more faculty and students would be for a number Higher Education – whose composition should of colleges to merge, to create a larger, integrated be merit-based, acts as a think tank and helps in institution. It is likely that larger institutions would policy formulation and implementation. have the capacity to become autonomous. State funding could be provided to promote such mergers. •• A potential creation of a funding agency to carry out the implementation as per funding policies Lastly, it is possible to establish new constituent established by the government and ensure the colleges where there is a large population financial monitoring and impact of funding on of youth people. A number of constituent educational outcomes. colleges can be under a University like the case of Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University in •• Increased use of external agencies to monitor the Hyderabad. Unlike the affiliated colleges which are quality of all courses. managed by college management committee, the administrative control of the constituent colleges •• The development of new forms of accountability will be managed by the University. Recently Punjab and mandatory disclosure of all information University has followed this model in setting up in the public domain through reporting on four constituent colleges in collaboration with the performance and outcomes in achieving State Government. nationally set goals for the sector, as well as institutionally set targets. As noted above, a key constraint on reform of the affiliation system is that affiliating universities •• Gradual withdrawal of the state from decisions receive a significant proportion of their revenues on the appointment of the chair of the board or from affiliating colleges. This means that the president and members of the board. issue of financing of state universities also needs •• Expectations of managerial competence by the to be considered alongside structural reforms board and the president. which would affect the funding of colleges. These issues will be discussed further in the next Clearly, given the size and scope of the affiliating chapter. system, a number of different approaches will need to taken forward and tested to see what has the Conclusion greatest impact. It may also be possible that different approaches will work better in different parts of the The above analysis and recommendation pertain to state, given the distribution of institutions. In any good governance at the institutional level; they should case, there is some urgency in tackling the weaknesses also be seen in the light of a redefinition of the State’s of the affiliation system. role within higher education, consisting of: It should also be mentioned that despite the •• A need to move from “state control models” to imminent analysis and recommendations existing “state steering models,” or expressed in other in India on the subject of higher education reform, words “rise of the evaluative state” (Enders, insufficient progress has taken place. Clearly, the 2004). problem is not at the conceptual and knowledge level, but rather at the implementation and •• Legislation that establishes universities as operation level. There is an urgent need to address autonomous independent entities. this implementation gap. CHAPTER 2 | Improving System Performance through Governance Reform 37 While the agenda for reform is quite long, it is as mentioned earlier in this paper that the reform recognized that all steps forward are worth taking. process starts in Madhya Pradesh by revisiting its Excellence in higher education requires sustained Public Universities Act and providing an enabling improvements, evaluation, and re-strategizing, and framework for improving the quality of higher new initiatives. However, it is absolutely fundamental education in the state. 38 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Annexure: Summary of State Councils for Higher Education Structure Qualification Powers & Responsibilities Andhra Pradesh Full time members Eminent educationists Planning •• Chairman appointed by government •• State plans – short and long term •• Vice Chairman •• Implementation of plans Ex officio members •• Monitoring of plans •• The Secretary to Government, •• Coordination amongst state institutions Education Department Curriculum quality and updation •• The Secretary to Government, Finance Department •• The Secretary to Government, Academic Labour, Employment and •• Quality of Examination Technical Department •• Facilitate teacher training •• The Secretary or any other •• Promote sports and extracurricular activities office of the University Grants •• Send reports on Universities to UGC Commission not below the rank of a joint Secretary nominated by the Chairman, Advisory University Grants Commission •• On the basis and quantum of block maintenance Other Members grants •• Four persons to be appointed •• Eminent educationists •• Promoting research, setting up Research Board by the Government •• “Industry” representative •• On statues and ordinances passed by Universities •• One person appointed by the •• 1 Technical expert •• On setting up new institutions Government •• 2 Other members •• Three persons nominated by the State Government West Bengal Members •• Reputed academician •• Act as a liaison between UGC, State and •• Chairman appointed by Universities for quality, service related matters Government (teaching and non teaching staff), interpretation and •• Vice Chairman •• Reputed academician formulation of rules and statues •• Member Secretary •• IAS Officer •• Development of plans and control unplanned expansion •• Curricular development, exam forms etc •• Examine proposals for new institutions, self- financing courses and institutions •• Consider affiliation requests sent to each University •• Monitor quality through State quality Assurance Cell Karnataka Ex Officio Chairman •• Minister of Education •• Promoting academic excellence and social justice by obtaining academic input for policy formulation and Vice Chairman •• Eminent educationist perspective planning who is or has been the •• Ensuring autonomy and better accountability of all Vice-Chancellor of a institutions of Higher Education in the State and University or member of •• Guiding the growth of Higher Education in accordance any apex body of Higher with the Socio-economic requirement of the State Education nominated by •• Decisions on policy matters on behalf of the Council the Govt subject to the concurrence of the Council, it is also Member Secretary •• Eminent educationist the responsibility the committee to deal with certain administrative matters and also preparing the Annual Academic Financial Audit report. CHAPTER 2 | Improving System Performance through Governance Reform 39 Structure Qualification Powers & Responsibilities •• 16 eminent educationists as nominated members •• 17 Vice Chancellors of the State Universities •• Secretary of Higher Education •• Secretary of Medical Education •• Secretary of Finance •• Secretary of Law •• Secretary of Parliamentary affairs •• Chief Minister’s Adviser on Education Executive Committee •• Vice Chairman of the Council is its Chairman •• The Executive Director is the Member Secretary •• 2 Vice Chancellors of the Council nominated by rotation by the Council •• 4 of the 10 eminent educationists of the Council nominated by rotation by the Council as members •• The Principal secretaries to the Govt. Higher Education Dept., Medical Education Dept. are its Ex-officio members. Kerala •• Patron •• Coordinate the roles of the Government, •• Visitor Universities and apex regulatory agencies •• Chairman •• Make State HE plans •• Vice Chairman •• Provide to inputs academic and research institutes Advisory Council •• Political representatives on making and implementing plans •• 33 members such as Chief Minister, •• Undertake independent research for the generation Education Minister, of new ideas for the promotion of social justice and Representatives of academic excellence in higher education Members of Parliament, •• Improving the existing and creating new rules/statutes Members of Panchayats, •• Develop human resources in education Municipalities and •• Develop linkages between HE institutions and other Eminent personalities govt agencies Governing Council •• All Vice Chancellors of •• Changes in curriculum •• 35 members chaired by State Universities •• Evolve general guidelines for the release of grants Minister for Education •• Educationalists (with by the Government to Universities and other reservation for SC/ST institutions of higher education and woman) •• To provide common facilities for the entire State by •• Elected representatives of establishing centers, namely: the Academic Councils - Centre for Research on Policies in Higher Education of State Universities - Curriculum Development Centre •• Nominated student -Centre for Capacity Building in respect of faculty union representatives and educational administrators (with reservation for -State Council for Assessment of Higher Education woman) Institutions •• Officials of the State (not - Examination Reforms Cell; below Secretaries and -Human Resources Development, Employment Directors) and Global Skills Development Cell Executive Council •• One full time member •• Coordinate between various state institutions and •• 9 members chaired by Vice secretary Five part-time councils Chairman of Council members •• One Vice-Chancellor •• Secretary, Higher Education. 40 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Structure Qualification Powers & Responsibilities Tamil Nadu •• Chairman •• Minister for Higher Planning functions Education •• To develop State Higher Education Plan and see •• Vice-Chairperson monitor its implementation •• Member-Secretary Academic functions Ex-Officio Members •• To maintain examination standards •• Identify Centers of Excellence in Universities for •• Secretary Governor of Tamil growth in particular disciplines Nadu •• Training and development of teachers •• Additional Chief Secretary, •• Set up State Center of Research and coordinate Higher Education Department activities between Universities •• Principal Secretary, Finance Department Advisory functions •• Secretary, University Grants •• Develop norms and guidelines regarding block Commission grants •• Director of Collegiate •• To evaluate proposals for new institutes Education •• Suggest improvements and changes in existing •• Commissioner of Technical Statutes and ordinances Education •• One Research Officer Administrative functions •• One Accounts Officer •• Administer grants-in-aid from government •• One Superintendent •• Administer research Grants received from national and international agencies •• To identify and administer innovative programmes for sustainable growth through self-generated funds from consultancy services to industries  CHAPTER 2 | Improving System Performance through Governance Reform 41 Improving System Performance through Financing Reform Chapter 3 This chapter addresses three sets of issues. First, relates to overall spending; how much does Madhya Public Spending Pradesh spend on higher education and how does As expected, given its stage of economic this compare with other states; and what are the development, public spending on all education contributions of public and private resources? The levels in Madhya Pradesh is less than the Indian main messages are that MP spends about what one average. Public spending was 2.4 percent of its would expect on higher education from public State Domestic Product (SDP) in 2007-08. This resources given its economic development, but compares to an average of 4 percent and median private resources far outweigh public spending. figure of 3.1 percent for India. The total public Second, since public spending is relatively small in expenditure by the central government and state the system as a whole it is important to maximize the governments on education is still below 4 percent impact of that spending. So, this chapter considers of the GDP in India. It was 3.4 percent of the GDP how public money is allocated and what it is spent in 2007-0823. Many major states like Maharashtra, on. Third, the chapter analyses how policies for Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh public spending can improve the performance and Goa spend less than 2 percent of their State of the higher education system and support the Domestic Product (SDP) on education. Tamil Nadu, reform agenda outlined in the previous chapters. Sikkim and Mizoram spent close to 10 percent of The main messages are to simplify the distribution their SDP. of public funds, but align the allocation mechanisms more closely with reforms at the institutional Total enrolment across all education levels in India level. was 33.5 crores in 201024. So, in that year, public expenditure per student was Rs. 7,000. Total There are multiple sources of funding for budget spending on education and training by all higher education in Madhya Pradesh. The main departments in Madhya Pradesh was 3.4 percent sources are: the state government; the national of the state’s domestic product at current prices in government mainly through two sources (direct 2009-10. Total enrolment in education at all levels from UGC and through the UGC Regional during 2009-10 in MP was around 21 million. Office); and through tuition fees in both government So the estimated annual public expenditure per and private aided/unaided institutions.22 student across all levels of education was Rs. 3,500, The chapter looks at each source of financing in that is, half of the country level per student public turn. expenditure. 23 India Human Development Report 2011, IAMR, Planning Commission, 22 In addition, some institutions raise fees through providing consultancy and Government of India. other services, but this is not a significant source across the sector and is not 24 Calculated using NSS 2009-10 (Status of current attendance) and census considered further in this report. provisional population. Table 11 State funding of general higher education since 2004-05 2004- 2005- 2006- 2007- 2008- 2009- 2010- 2011- 2012- 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 (RE) (BE) General Expenditure 305.3 325.0 324.5 387.1 471.8 495.3 679.5 higher Budget 420.0 502.0 551.5 846.2 919.5 1015.5 education YoY Inc.   6.5 -0.1 19.3 21.9 5.0 37.2 35.3 10.4 Technical Expenditure 83.8 83.8 93.0 102.6 119.8 n.a. 218.1 233.9 228.8 higher Budget n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. education YoY Inc.   0.0 11.0 10.3 16.8   7.3 -2.2 Source: Finance Department, Government of Madhya Pradesh. Note: The budget figures for technical education over the years are not available, nor is the figure for expenditure in 2009-10. Figure 11 Year-on-year increases in budget allocations for general and technical higher education 40 35 30 25 20 Higher Ed % 15 Technical Ed 10 5 0 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 -5 Source: Authors’ calculations from data given by Department of Higher Education, Madhya Pradesh. Note: A budget figure for 2009-10 was not available, so no calculations of year-on-year increases were possible for the year to 2009-10 or for the year to 2010-11. In India, the share of total budgeted expenditure Madhya Pradesh spent 1,064 Rs. Crores on on higher education and technical education in the higher and technical education in 2010-11 GDP was 0.91 percent and 0.34 percent respectively (Table 11). Almost 80 percent of that expenditure in 2009-10. Of the total revenue expenditure (846 Rs. crores) went on higher education. For both incurred by education departments of all states/UTs higher and technical education, total budget spending 13 percent went into “University, Distance doubled in nominal terms between 2007-08 and Learning and Scholarships” and 5 percent into 2010-11, with projected increases for the following funding “Technical Education”25 (2009-10, Budget years too (Figure 11). Budget allocations have in fact estimates). increased every year since 2005-06, sometimes by as much as 35 percent (for 2010-11 and 2011-12) over the previous years for higher education. In recent years, the proportions of the budget 25 Caveat: Technical Education data might be including ITIs. These figures that are not being actually spent during a year have been estimated using the data given under MHRD reports on Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education for various years. have been rising. In 2010-11, actual spending 44 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Figure 12 Proportions of public budget for higher education not spent 25.0 20.0 % of budget 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 Source: Authors’ calculations from data given by Department of Higher Education, Madhya Pradesh. was around 80 percent of the budget estimates 12.76 percent and 4.87 percent respectively (budget (Figure 12). There can be many reasons for estimates). MP spent 10.7 percent of total education differences between budget and actual expenditure: expenditure on higher education in 2007-08 (Actual); if a lecturer retires/quits her salary would not be it was more than the median value of 9.7 percent. spent, estimate of number student beneficiaries for a Interestingly, Bihar spent around 16 percent and proposed scholarship may not match with the actual UP spent around 7 percent only. Chandigarh spent number of beneficiaries, plans to construct a building the most at 34 percent on higher education during may not materialize for an unforeseen reason or a 2007-08, though the state was a clear outlier as the college might not be able to use the money if it is next placed state (Puducherry) spent 19.4 percent released close to the end of the financial year. (Figure 13). Madhya Pradesh spent a slightly higher percentage Curiously, there is not a very strong relationship of public spending on higher education than the between economic status and spending on higher Indian average. The shares of higher and technical education as a proportion of total public spending education in spending on all levels of education were on education. Generally, one would expect spending Figure 13 Proportion of higher education spending in total education spending by states, 2007-08 34.1 MP 19.4 17.4 17.8 17.9 18.0 15.9 13.7 13.9 11.3 11.8 11.9 12.3 12.6 12.9 9.6 9.7 9.8 10.7 7.2 7.5 8.1 8.2 8.2 8.3 9.0 9.0 9.3 6.6 5.3 5.4 3.8 4.8 4.9 0.2 Jharkhand Lakshw. Dadra & Nagar Delhi Rajasthan Sikkim UP A & N Islands Daman & Diu Nagaland Gujarat Uttarakhand Chhattisgarh HP Tamil Nadu MP Punjab Assam Bihar Manipur Chandigarh Mizoram W. Bengal Tripura Arunachal Karnataka Maharashtra Meghalaya Goa Haryana Andhra Kerala Orissa Puducherry J&K Source: Constructed by authorsusing data from MHRD. Note: These figures do not include technical education. CHAPTER 3 | Improving System Performance through Financing Reform 45 Figure 14 Higher education spending as a ratio of total education spending vs PC NSDP, 2007-08 40 35 30 25 R² = 0.205 % 20 Or AP Har 15 Bhr Ker WB Pun 10 MP Mah Chat Kar HP Gu UP Jha Ar 5 Raj Del 0 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 Rs. Source: Constructed by authors using data from MHRD and MOSPI. Note: 2007-08 is the last year for which comparable figures across states are available. Expenditure does not include technical education. Table 12 University Grants Commission Grants to MP (Head Office and Regional Office) 2005-06 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 Rs. Cr. Rs. Cr. Rs. Cr. Rs. Cr. Plan Grants to Universities 12.0 38.0 80.3 53.1 Plan Grants to Colleges 11.0 26.4 n/a  84.5 Non-Plan Grants to Universities 2.9 8.9 23.7 69.9 Non-Plan Grants to Colleges 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 Total 25.9 73.9 104.2 207.6 Source: Compiled by authors from UGC Annual Reports. on higher education to rise as economic level increases, and 75 colleges were under 2(f ) only. In August since richer states have higher enrollment ratios (as was 2011, the following university level institutions illustrated earlier). The presence of private spending, in Madhya Pradesh were recognized by the UGC: which is likely to differ across different states, perhaps 2 central universities, 16 state universities, 3 private plays a role here. However, richer states generally universities, 3 deemed universities, 2 institutions of spend a higher proportion, though the slope of the national importance and 1 other institution26. Private line of correlation rises only gently which indicates unaided affiliated colleges can get grants from UGC that the correlation is not very strong (Figure 14). on fulfilling the criteria of a scheme. 22 autonomous colleges get some additional grants for infrastructure There were increasing amounts of public funds development from the UGC. Between 2005-06 and for higher education coming from the central 2009-10 non-plan grants to universities paid by the level, through the University Grants Commission UGC rose by 24 times and plan grants to universities (UGC). UGC provided additional about Rs. 200 increased by less than 5 times only (Table 12). Grants crores in 2009-10 (the last year for which data is were received both from the UGC head office in Delhi available) (Table 12). In 2010, 385 colleges of MP and from the Regional Office in Bhopal, with each were included eligible to receive funds from UGC (under Sections 2(f ) and 12(B) of the University Grants Commission Act, 1956, as amended) 26 http://www.ugc.ac.in/pub/12FYP.pdf. 46 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options office making its own decisions about funding. There courses like B.A., B.Com., and BSc. Math/Biology is no coordination between the UGC processes and generally hover around Rs. 1000/-. Rates are lower the State Department of Higher Education budget for women/SC/ST students. If a course is combined allocation processes. with computers, the fee is much higher, at around Rs. 5,000 per annum. The fees charged for self-financing The overall picture of public spending on higher courses at government institutions are much higher and technical education shows significant increases than traditional courses, in the range Rs. 1,000 to over the past few years, with a doubling of spending Rs. 15,000 per annum. Self-financing courses, as the on both in the past four years. The overall budget name suggests, must meet all of their costs (including is projected to continue to grow. Sources of public the salaries of faculty) from the fee income. In our spending include both State and national resources, calculations, we have assumed an average fee of and in both cases, there have been significant Rs. 1,000 p.a. for traditional and UGC funded increases. However, the budgetary allocations have courses; and Rs. 14,000 for self-financing courses. been rising even faster than spending, indicating that there is a lack of absorptive capacity for funds.  Estimated Fee Collection from 342 Table 13 Private Spending Government Colleges Courses in Number of Fee Estimates The main source of private income is from Government Students (Rs.) tuition fees charged by institutions. These fees are colleges levied by all types of institutions, i.e., government, Traditional 200,118 200,118,000 government aided and private unaided institutions. Self-financing 56,526 791,364,000 Different regulatory regimes apply to the institutions UGC Funded 11,026 11,026,000 with different management structures and between Total 267,670 1,002,508,000 technical and general higher education. Unfortunately, comprehensive data is not available about the amount Source: Authors' calculations. Note: The number of students in the three categories of colleges taken of money raised by tuition fees. This section attempts, from administrative reports. for the first time, to do such a calculation. In addition to tuition fees, institutions levy other charges such as An estimate of the fee income in private institutions for dormitories and admission fees, and though these is Rs. 1,000 crores. The number of remaining students precise amounts are unknown they are believed to be studying in private colleges and university teaching relatively small compared to tuition fees.27 departments (aided and unaided) is estimated to be 4,94,326 (i.e., 7,61,996 minus 2,67,670). Average An estimate of the fee income in government fee paid by them is assumed to be Rs. 20,000. So universities and their affiliated government the total fee receipts are 9,88,65,20,000. (Caveat: we colleges is 100 Rs. Crores per year (Table 13). don’t know how many students study in aided colleges For general higher education we took a sample of and how many went to unaided. For Private aided 6 colleges affiliated to government universities, colleges fee for traditional courses is Rs. 5,600 and for for which comprehensive information is available, self-financing courses is it Rs.16,000. Fee for courses and used the fee information of these colleges offered by unaided colleges is around Rs. 25,000. Also given on their websites. (Please refer to the table in fee paid to University departments will be higher but the annexure.) The annual fee for undergraduate we are assuming it to be similar to what is paid to colleges.) 27 Also, all the colleges have Public Participation Committees, popularly known as “Janbhagidari Samiti”. Admission fee paid by students has a So, total private expenditure within the traditional component called Janbhagidari fee and this money is added to the funds available to colleges for paying various salary and non-salary expenditures. universities and their affiliated colleges (both Some other sources of funds for technical education are the Department government and private) for higher education of Tribal Welfare, MP Council of Vocational Training etc. Some Technical courses is estimated to be Rs. 1,100 crores. This is Institutes offer consultancy services and meet around 10 percent of their expenditure in this way. almost twice the Department’s expenditure in 2011. CHAPTER 3 | Improving System Performance through Financing Reform 47 Fee Paid by Students of was 23 crores in 2008-09 for 31 institutes attended by 6097 students across 7 courses. The average tuition Technical Education collected was Rs. 53,000 per student per year. There are 3 private aided institutes supported by the The third method was to use data from the National government of MP (Indore, Gwalior and Vidisha). Sample Survey. Average annual private expenditure Their fee structures are decided by the government. per student on general education above higher Fee structures of self-financing university institutions secondary level was Rs. 7,360 for India and Rs. 7,031 are decided by the universities.28 Fee for government for MP. Expenditure on technical education was institutes is around Rs. 22,000/- per annum. Rs. 32,112 for India and Rs. 27,114 for MP in 2007-08. There are institutes not approved by AICTE. The Standard deviations across states/UTs for per student Admission and Fee Regulatory Committee (AFRC), expenditure on higher education and technical a statutory body set up in 2007-08, determines the education are Rs. 2,645 and Rs. 12,658 respectively. fee29 structure of private (unaided) professional institutes (AICTE Approved) in Madhya Pradesh. Estimates of average annual tuition fees paid by students attending private unaided technical There is no reported data on the total amount of institutions therefore range from Rs. 27,000 to fees paid by students of technical education. We Rs. 53,000. Part of these differences may be accounted have made three separate estimates because there for by the fact that there are different reference years, are different possible approaches and different even though AFRC approves fees on a three-year institutions charge different fees. First, an arithmetic cycle. The exact number of students in private unaided mean was taken of the sanctioned fees, as per the institutions is not known as it is not presently collected government website. AFRC makes sure that fee at the level of the State. So, we have estimated this charged is the same across a set of comparable institutes. figure from the National Sample Survey. This yields a AFRC determines an upper and a lower bound of figure of 200,00032 students. Therefore, the estimated fee. If number of students is less than 60 percent of total spending on tuition by students in technical sanctioned strength by AICTE, then AFRC asks the higher education is between Rs. 543 crores and institutions to charge an average fee collected by all the Rs. 1,060 crore (from the 3 data sources). Total private unaided professional institutions. The average spending on higher education from all sources was fee charged in these institutes was Rs. 47,60030 per approximately Rs. 2,800 crore (Table 15). annum during 2010-12. The average was Rs.45,600 per student per year between 2007 and 2009. The most significant fact to emerge from this analysis is that private spending is approximately In a second approach, we took a sample of 31 (and probably more than) three times public technical education colleges offering courses in BE, spending. Before we examine this in more detail B/M/D Pharmacy, MBA, MCA and M Tech.31 This and its implications, it is necessary to look at the dataset is the information submitted by institutions composition and quality of public spending. to AFRC when they seek approval of their fees (on a 3 year cycle). Tuition fee is the main part of funding student education in these institutions of professional Allocation of Public Spending education. The magnitude of tuition fees collected Madhya Pradesh does not currently report its spending by functional categories. In order to 28 8 private universities have come up recently and they offer technical identify the ways in which money was spent, we have education. They have their own fee structures. There is a conflict since they therefore constructed categories of spending into four have not come under AFRC yet. 29 Fee structure of private technical institutes given here broad categories http://www.mptechedu.org/FeeStructure.asp 30 Personal oral communication to the authors, by Mr. Sunil Gupta of AFRC on 29.2.2012. 31 The institutions used in this analysis were those for which the most 32 Students of engineering and technology in private unaided is estimated to complete data was available. The total database included information from be 1,74,000. We do not know about courses like MBA, MCA. A figure of 225 institutions. 200,000 could be a reasonable approximation. 48 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Table 14 Estimated tuition fees collected by a sample of technical colleges Year Total Tuition Fee Number of colleges in Total Students (All Average Per Student Collection the sample Courses) Tuition Fee Collection   Rs.     Rs. 2005-06 9,00,00,000 14 2,594 39,509 2006-07 10,50,00,000 18 3,584 31,908 2007-08 15,80,00,000 25 4,809 42,788 2008-09 23,30,00,000 31 6,097 53,364 Source: Authors' calculations based on data provided by AFRC. Note: Institutions included in the sample vary across years. Table 15 Sources of funds for higher education Source of funds Amount (Rs. Crore) State government 495 (2009-10) Central government (UGC Head Office) 131 (2009-10) Central government (UGC Regional Office) 77 (2009-10) Fees paid to private unaided technical colleges 1,060 Fees paid to government, aided and unaided colleges of general education 1,1001 (within 7 traditional universities) Source: Authors. Box 6 Categories of spending “Equity and Access” includes expenditure on special coaching classes for students, SC/ST grants for stationery and drawing, special coaching scheme, scholarships and endowments to poor students, Vikramaditya free education scheme for the poor, fee concession to children of green card holders, scheme for SC/ST and technical education encouragement scheme for SC/ST. “Grants” includes grants from AICTE for payment of arrears, grant to Rustamji Techincal Institute BSF Academy, World Bank Grants (TEQIP), grants to IITM, Gwalior, RGPV, Autonomous Technical Institutes, Non-governmental technical colleges and institutes. “Infrastructure” includes expenditure on establishment of book-bank, construction for technical education, maintenance of buildings, establishment of NIFT, establishment of IIT Indore, new faculties/subjects commenced in polytechnics, capital expenditure on education, arts and culture, construction of an integrated complex for the directorate, establishment of polytechnics under PPP mode, establishment of centres of excellence, up gradation of polytechnics under an Indo-German project, IT related work and construction of buildings. “Others” consists of these heads: drawing material given, establishment of a committee for determining fee, technical and industrial institutes outside MP. “Quality” includes expenditure on training of trainers of technical institutes, encouragement for outstanding work in TE, training program and World Bank TEQIP loans. “Salaries ” are paid to engineering colleges, the directorate of TE, polytechnics, pre-vocational training centre, intermediate craft/industry/architecture school, youth vocational centre, Eklavya polytechnic institutes and B.S. Ambedkar polytechnic institutes. Note: Categories have been made by authors' CHAPTER 3 | Improving System Performance through Financing Reform 49 Table 16 Expenditure on general higher education, by category Category Year 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 (RE) (BE) Equity and Expenditure 1.9 3.5 5.3 10.8 20.5 18.1 20.8 34 49.2 Access (Student Share (%) 0.6 1.1 1.6 2.8 4.3 3.7 3.1 3.7 4.8 Benefits) Student Expenditure 2.3 2.2 2.7 4 3.9 4.7 5.8 7.5 7.1 Centered Share 0.8 0.7 0.8 1 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7 Infrastructure Expenditure 16.4 17.8 16.8 27.7 53.9 40.2 64.9 27.6 48 Share 5.4 5.5 5.2 7.2 11.4 8.1 9.6 3 4.7 Salaries Expenditure 274.5 289.9 293.5 336.5 383.3 416.8 573.6 832.7 890.3 Share 89.9 89.2 90.4 86.9 81.2 84.1 84.4 90.6 87.7 Others Expenditure 10.2 11.6 6.2 8.1 10.3 15.5 14.4 17.9 20.9 Share 3.3 3.6 1.9 2.1 2.2 3.1 2.1 1.9 2.1 Total Expenditure 305.3 325 324.5 387.1 471.8 495.3 679.5 919.5 1015.5 Budget 420 502 551.5 846.2 (RE) (BE) Share 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 YoY Inc.   6.5 -0.1 19.3 21.9 5 37.2 35.3 10.4 Source: Department of Higher Education, Madhya Pradesh. Note: Categories have been made by authors. 2010-11 was twice as much as it was in 2004-05 and Shares of various salary and non-salary expenditures in general higher education have not changed in has been rising over time. The big jumps happened in a big way. Expenditure on scholarships and other 2010-11 and 2011-12 (Table 16). The reason could be the approval of the Sixth Pay Commission by the benefits to students increased by more than 10 times in 2008-09 from its level in 2004-05, but stagnatedGovernment of MP, though the Government has not fully implemented the Pay Commission provisions. It afterwards till 2010-11. Expenditure on infrastructure rose by more than 12 times between 2004-05 and should also be noted that these increases in allocations still do not, according to reports from universities, 2010-11 but estimates seem to be falling after that. cover all the salary costs (as the allocations are meant Benefits to students show an increase in its share over time. to). There is similar story in technical education. The share of salaries has been increasing over time. It rose Ninety percent of the public expenditure goes from 57.9 percent to 76.1 percent between 2004-05 into funding salaries in both higher and technical and 2010-11. Expenditure on infrastructure has not education. Nominal expenditure on salaries in gained much importance (Table 17). Table 17 Expenditure on technical higher education, by category Category   2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 (RE) (BE) Equity and Expenditure 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.7 2.5 5.2 5.6 6.6 Access Share 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.4 2.4 2.9 Grants Expenditure 25.0 22.0 32.7 27.6 21.8 29.3 44.7 58.5 Share 29.8 26.2 35.1 26.9 18.2 13.4 19.1 25.6 Infrastructure Expenditure 5.0 8.1 11.4 6.6 9.2 17.0 5.7 7.6 Share 6.0 9.6 12.3 6.5 7.7 7.8 2.4 3.3 Quality Expenditure 3.7 6.3 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.2 1.1 1.0 Share 4.5 7.5 0.9 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.4 Salary Expenditure 48.5 46.0 46.6 66.0 85.6 165.9 175.6 153.7 Share 57.9 54.9 50.1 64.3 71.4 76.1 75.1 67.2 Others Expenditure 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 1.3 1.4 Share 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.6 Grand Total Expenditure 83.8 83.8 93.0 102.6 119.8 218.1 233.9 228.8 Share 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 YoY Inc.   0.0 11.0 10.3 16.8   7.3 -2.2 Source: Finance Department, Madhya Pradesh. 1. Categories have been made by authors and are not comparable with those in Table 18. Note:  2. Expenditure in Rs. Crores. 50 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options What these figures indicate too is the impact of allocations made by the department of HE are filling sanctioned faculty positions. The cost of an dependent on inflation, enrolments, staff members additional 1,000 teaching staff members is Rs. 78 and most importantly historical trends. The result is crores per annum. This is based on the assumption that there are quite different allocations per student that the ratio of Professors to Readers to Lecturers is across the state institutions. For example, Jabalpur, 1 : 2 : 5 and the salaries are Rs. 80,000, Rs. 60,000 Indore, Jiwaji, Vikram, and Bhopal Universities are and Rs. 40,000 per month (plus 30 percent house expected to receive exactly the same allocation in rent allowance) respectively (as per UGC norms). 2011-12 and 2012-13 as they did in 2010-11. In each case, the figure for 2010-11 was higher for the previous year; but by strikingly different amounts: Improving the Allocation of while the allocation to Indore went from 6.49 to Funding 6.95 Rs. crore (a 7 percent increase), Jabalpur’s allocation went from 6.42 to 9.02 Rs. crore (a 39 In MP, the department of higher education mainly percent increase). funds 7 traditional universities, 342 government colleges, in that 100 percent of the salary expenditure This ad hoc approach is common to many states. is paid and some other expenses like telephone charges, A national level conference with key stakeholders, postage stamps, travel expenses, uniform of class 4 organized by the Planning Commission, NUEPA workers, stationery, electricity (not 100 percent) and and the World Bank reported their main water etc. are also paid by the department. Funds message as the need to adhere to the principles going to 77 private aided colleges fund 50 percent of transparency, predictability and objectivity salary expenditure only. (Planning Commission, NUEPA, World Bank, 2011). “Block grants” going (Box 7) to the universities have remained almost unchanged for quite a few years. OnIn Madhya Pradesh, the expenditure table for general higher education identifies 64 headings showing the utilization certificate to the department (or line items), ranging from Rs. 778 crore for ‘Art, the universities get block grants for the next year. For e.g. Devi Ahilya University has been getting aroundScience and Commerce Colleges’ to Rs. 0.01 for ‘Establishment of a new university’ (see annexure Rs. 2 crores for the past fifteen years. The block grants table). In addition, 14 heads were not used in the are used to meet salary expenditures. Universities are supposed to fund any expenditure over and above thelatest budget but were used in one or more of the last five years. The picture is slightly simpler in technical block grants on their own by offering self-financing courses. higher education, with 32 heads, plus 5 which have been used at some point in the previous five years. The There are no clearly declared funding mechanisms largest line item is for ‘Polytechnics’ (at Rs. 101.68 when it comes to central and state funding crores) while the smallest amount was in the line bodies. State governments mostly take decisions on for ‘Technical and industrial institutes outside MP’ untold parameters or on ad hoc basis. Essentially, (at Rs. 0.01 crores). Box 7 What is a Block Grant? It should be noted that ‘block grant’ is the term used in Madhya Pradesh to describe the grant given by the State government to institutions. However, this money must be used for, and only for, prescribed expenditure items, usually salaries. In international discourse, ‘block grant’ refers to the amount of money given to an institution which is untied, i.e., the money is allocated by the university through its internal processes to activities which it determines are its priorities. The university then reports on that spending each year. Source: Authors. CHAPTER 3 | Improving System Performance through Financing Reform 51 Box 8 Norm-based funding: Examples from Denmark and France Two concrete examples of norms-based funding are Denmark and France. In Denmark, funding is based on the number of students who pass an exam. Institutions receive 30% to 50% of their funding based on this indicator. For instance, universities receive around $19,000 per completed bachelor degree graduate within higher technical education (which is classified as medium cost). The disadvantage of this indicator is that institutions may artificially increase pass rates of the exams to receive more funding. The model requires a strong quality assurance mechanism, professional standards among university staff, and/or other funding incentives. In France, funding is based on the number of students enrolled and 50% of the total budget for tertiary education is invested via formula-based funding. The advantage of the French model is that it is easy to track spending and funding allocation information. The funding criterion is also easy to understand for everyone. On the other hand, the disadvantage for this indicator is the weak incentives for universities to provide quality education and ensure efficiency by avoiding drop outs during the school year and delays in student completion. Source: Planning Commission, NUEPA, World Bank, 2011, p. 32 Given that the current amounts of public money Under priority based funding the fields of study is a minority of funding for institutions, and designated as being of greatest relevance tend to that the amounts given to each institution are receive the highest level of funds. For example if MP relatively small, this suggests that the process seeks a workforce trained in software development for allocating grants should be simple and (or another area identified by policy makers where transparent. It is desirable to move away from the MP lags) the department of higher education may more traditional negotiations of budgets between pay a higher ‘price’ per seat in the priority subject governments and public institutions and toward as compared to what is paid per seat in the other funding formulas that aim to insulate allocation subjects. It also covers mechanisms where some decisions from excessive political pressures and institutions are given preference. For example, in encourage positive institutional behaviours. order to promote women education, MP government Different funding formulas have different effects on might pay a premium over and above actual costs per access, equity and quality. A funding formula could student to those institutions for each female student be input-based (staff members or enrolment), based enrolled. on cost per student (actual, average or normative), priority-based and performance based (Salmi & Performance based direct transfer of funds to Hauptman, 2006). institutions involves funding based on institutional performance measures. It represents one of the Under funding formulas based on normative costs more recent and growing innovations in tertiary per student efficiency measures like optimal staff/ education allocation mechanisms. The advantage student ratios are used to calculate what costs per here is that performance indicators that reflect public student ought to be, rather than what they are on policy objectives, rather than simply the individual an actual or average basis. Thus, formulas using needs of institutions, form the basis of funding. normative costs have the potential for improving They typically include incentives for institutional efficiency by tying how much institutions will be improvement. Performance indicators could be paid for their expenses to a more efficiency-based student-based (e.g. exam scores of students) or standard. This requires the collection of accurate data institution-based (e.g. completion rates). Usually, on what the actual and true costs are. Cost figures performance based funding mechanisms are used could be pegged at institutional benchmarks, and only to allocate a proportion of the available there could be variations based on levels and courses resources, and are therefore typically combined with of study (Box 8). other funding approaches (Boxes 9 and 10). 52 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Changing the allocation mechanism for to yield a ‘per student’ amount. Each institution institutions is desirable and should be carried would then receive money equal to the per student out in phases. Any effective policy decision needs amount multiplied by the number of students at the to be based on concrete evidence, and the same is institution. Given that a key goal of public policy is true of a funding formula. This suggests that the to increase the number of students accessing higher following phases might be used. In Phase I, grants education, this approach would promote this goal. to institutions would be done on the basis of the There is a danger that institutions might enroll numbers of students enrolled. The State government students simply to receive more money, perhaps would decide the total amount of money to allocate by weakening their entry standards and without to higher education. The total amount of money any intention of ensuring they are able to complete available would be divided by the total number of a course of higher education. This danger could students in institutions eligible to receive money be overcome by taking the student numbers from Box 9 Types of performance-based allocation mechanisms 1. Performance contracts - governments enter into regulatory agreements with institutions to set mutual performance-based objectives. 2. Performance set asides - a portion of public funding for tertiary education is set aside to pay on the basis of various performance measures. 3. Competitive funds, which support peer-reviewed proposals designed to achieve institutional improvement or national policy objectives. This is seen in the way a part of UGC funds reach some institutions/colleges/universities in India. There are various schemes of the UGC which are based on national objectives of equity, access and quality in higher education. Institutions fulfilling the eligibility criteria of a scheme send proposals to the UGC. After a careful review of the proposals selected institutions get the funds. International experience with competitive funds has shown the need to consider three operational questions when designing a new fund: (i) How to create a level playing field in diversified systems with strong and weak tertiary education institutions? (ii) Should private institutions be eligible? (iii) Is it desirable to closely link access to funding with accreditation or similar quality assurance requirements? 4. Payments for results - output or outcome measures are used to determine all or a portion of the funds that institutions receive either through a formula or as a separate set of payments. Source: Salmi & Hauptman, 2006. Box 10 Performance-based funding: Example from the USA One example is the state of Colorado, USA, operates performance-based contracts with public universities. Institutions are rewarded as and when they meet the negotiated standards. All the performance indicators are aligned with state goals and university goals to make sure that the implementation of performance-based funding will eventually achieve the government’s goals. The first goal was increasing access, one indicator out of four measured access and completion of students from minority groups of the population. The second goal was quality and success, of which one result was high level of student achievement on national Standardized Tests. The third goal was efficiency, of which for instance committed the university to annual increase external revenue from licensing and commercialization by 5 percent. The fourth and final goal was addressing the State’s needs, which, inter alia, rewarded the universities for expanding education programs in specific careers agreed to strategic for the State’s economic and social development. Source: Planning Commission, NUEPA, World Bank, 2011, p. 33 CHAPTER 3 | Improving System Performance through Financing Reform 53 a previous year. Note that the number of enrolled higher (‘weighted’) per pupil amount if it obtained students is key; it is not enough that an institution autonomous status, a certain proportion of its has a certain number of approved places, it must courses were accredited, and it had carried out certain actual be enrolling students in those courses. institutional reforms to do with decision making and financial decentralization, with appropriate It would be important also, in this first phase, accountability. Funding could also increase for those to link funding directly to some key building affiliating universities which enable some number blocks of the new governance system. For example, of colleges to obtain autonomy; this would prompt funding would only be released when an institution governance reform and improve quality, while also has completed a data return for its institution (using, offsetting the loss of revenue from the affiliating for example, the AISHE survey) and/or some other college and its students. management information system. This first phase could be implemented immediately. Not only would In Phase III, increased amounts of funding could this be a more transparent process but it would be targeted to good performers. The measures of enable allocations to be made more quickly.33 performance would be directly related to key policy outcomes; for example, retention and graduation rates In Phase II, the actual cost of providing certain (overall and for specified sub-populations). Attention courses would be calculated and the government should be paid here to improved performance as well would move increasingly to meet a higher and as the actual level of performance – to encourage higher proportion of these actual costs per all institutions to strive towards the State’s policy student. It would also be important at this stage goals. to have an effective system for recording how money was spent, so that the identification of course costs can be tracked reliably. Differentiation Conclusion could be made between different types of courses which have different cost structures – clearly arts Funding is a key instrument of government policy; and humanities courses cost less than laboratory as a mechanism for promoting government goals. science courses. However, simplicity would suggest This chapter has outlined some ways in which that only a small number of distinctions between shifts in funding mechanisms and approaches groups of courses (perhaps two to four) should be could help the state address the issues in equity and made. governance that have been identified in previous chapters. Also, this Phase would give the opportunity to link funding to other aspects of the governance A phased approach to change is important. These agenda. For example, an institution could get a shifts in funding approaches will also require open consultation with the sector. This will have multiple benefits: it will enable the exact mechanisms to be tested and refined as necessary, it will alert the t would likely also be necessary to ensure that an individual institution’s sector to the forthcoming changes, and it will 33. I allocation does not change too dramatically from year to year, especially down; as this can be difficult to cope with in the short run. This buffering generate a stronger consensus and therefore positive transition period might last two or three but no longer years. response. 54 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Consultations Chapter 4 As a part of the process of understanding the MP An innovative feature was to ask participants Higher Education system, the Department of Higher to identify good practice in higher education Education and the World Bank conducted four in Madhya Pradesh. While a reform process conclaves in Indore, Rewa, Jabalpur and Gwalior necessarily implies change, that process must in July and August 2012. These consultations were engage the sector as it is. And those aspects of the held with an aim of getting regional perspectives on system which are working well should be built the problems faced in the higher education system upon by the reform process. The experience of the and to engage in discussions regarding possible consultation events was that the exercise to identify solutions. good practice proved the most difficult part of the events – participants have significant experience The conclaves were held with the help of four local with pointing out problems; much less so with State Universities; Devi Ahilya Vishwa Vidyalaya identifying solutions. in Indore, Awadhesh Pratap Singh University in Rewa, Rani Durgavati University in Jabalpur and The broad themes that came out of the discussion Jiwaji University in Gwalior. Each of the conclaves included the strongly felt need for reforms in internal were attended by about 60-100 people, the delegates and sectoral governance and greater autonomy for consisted of a mix of college principals from the cities Universities and colleges; the urgent need to fulfill and remote areas under the University, University vacant faculty positions, improvement of the affiliation administration, college professors, representatives system, changes in the criteria for allotment of block of private colleges, constituent colleges, private grants and improvement of quality of colleges in universities and executive councils. In addition, remote areas. representatives of the state government participated in each conclave. The detailed discussions and suggestions made For discussions a similar format was followed in during the four conclaves are summarized below. all the conclaves; the delegates were first oriented These points were raised by different participants with the context of the conclave and then one and this summary should not be taken to represent a session each was dedicated to discussing the consensus of all the participants. broad areas of governance, equity & access and finance. For each session, two or three Best Practices brief presentations were made to prompt the discussions: these presentations were made by the •• Increasing use of technology is seen as a positive World Bank team and one or two local experts. step – online registration and admission has The main sessions were followed by an interaction helped many students. with students (chosen by the concerned University) to understand their perspective as the prime •• Introduction of semester system is a positive beneficiaries of the education system. change. •• Academic autonomy, wherever it is granted helps •• Rules and modalities need to be established in bringing innovation. for Constituent Colleges on the same lines as Central Universities. •• Credit based system that allows choosing different subjects and transferring between Universities. •• There is a lack of coordination between the various authorities like the State government, •• Evaluation system for UTD students is based on UGC, NAAC, NBA, AICTE, coordination what is followed in the IITs i.e grading system. between colleges and Universities and Transparency in evaluation. coordination between departments. This system needs to be strengthened to avoid •• Existence of the Coordination Committee. free flow of information and quick decision making. •• Existence of the State University Services. Quality Governance •• A 5-10 year plan State Higher Education Plan must be formulated. Governance – Sectoral and Internal •• Sanctioned teaching & non-teaching •• A single regulatory body be established which positions be filled with immediate effect. act as a buffer between the State and the In addition, a revision is required for the Universities. This body should function as a salary norms for visiting faculty. The use think tank and not just another regulatory of visiting faculty is very widespread (with body. An opposing view regarding a buffer many colleges functioning on 100% guest body was that it will only burden the system faculty). Very often the visiting faculty is not with another super-structure and add to adequately experienced or qualified and lacks bureaucracy. the motivation to teach beyond the number •• The role of the Governor needs to be limited. of hours they are employed for. This severely impacts the quality of teaching. •• A more transparent system for appointment of University administrators like Vice •• Examinations should be conducted by colleges Chancellors, registrars etc. In the current system and invigilation, evaluation be made a part of conflicts occur between state-appointed and teaching duties. governor-appointed officers. The appointees •• Academic audit required at a departmental must have a strong background in teaching level, college level, the benchmarks defined by and high academic credibility. UGC must be used. •• Formal and Informal political interference •• Capacity building for department Chairs, needs to be limited. non-academic staff and administrators. •• Academic and Executive Councils should be •• Direct principals must be recruited as in other made of people of academic background and states. A different pool/cadre be created for not political motives. principals to maintain quality. •• Role of Jan-bhagidari representatives be •• No specific process of appointing lower level limited from influencing or making the staff, thus bad quality of resources. State level – decisions to just advising – involving political dedicated Service Cadre for University staff. affiliated persons in College system creates disturbances. •• Before announcing changes in the system (like online admission), the State must build •• Strengthening decision making structure adequate infrastructure, especially in rural (collegiums) in colleges. areas. 56 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options •• Device a system for in-donation within •• More autonomy in matters of small financial colleges, some grant or innovation fund impact such as buying books, small equipment should be given to promote research. etc. •• Colleges (something like lead colleges, in every •• Defining detailed job profiles of University district) be developed for research in specific Administration, especially for Registrar, areas, akin to centers of excellence. Rector, Deputy VC etc to help in delegation •• Control student activism and politics on of powers and establishing accountability. campuses as it interferes with administration •• Alternate governance model: Different pro and teaching. VCs for administration, academic affairs and •• Establish a central vigilance body like a finance. Governance Cell in Universities so that •• Rules for spending money of the budget be investigations and grievance redressal can take relaxed so that at least time-bound projects place within the system. can be finished. •• Incentivize research by giving additional scholarships and fellowships to students, •• Multiple actors controlling the HE system make it a financially viable option – Promote like the UGC, state government, universities, culture of research. municipal corporations etc. There is a need to reduce the approvals and permissions required Affiliation system from multiple authorities. •• Limit number of affiliated colleges, not more Cohort Cluster Model of Governance should be than 100 colleges under affiliation for any adopted within colleges University. •• Centralization and hierarchical decision need •• Cluster Universities model can be explored- to be simplified. existing Lead colleges be used for their establishment. •• Under this system, Dean and faculty member cohorts administer and make decisions on •• Establish a separate administrative structure day-to-day matters. to deal with affiliations, including a dedicated faculty for inspections. •• Issued related to coordination with state •• New colleges be given to new universities, government, colleges, affiliation etc are dealt established universities should not dilute their with by the University administration. quality by more affiliations. •• Financial, academic audits take place for all •• Stricter systems and rules for granting and cohorts. continuing affiliations. •• Conditional affiliation should not be given Equity and Access more than twice, after two attempts they must be disaffiliated. Improving Access •• Expand number of institutions and number Autonomy and decentralization of courses covered by current institutions. •• Strong need for giving Universities and colleges •• Rural college empowerment mission autonomy, delegation of powers and setting must be undertaken Colleges of MP must accountability for quick decision making. focus on tribal and backward regions. •• Universities should be free to design and offer Instead of improving the already strong new self-financing courses and freely appoint institutions, build capacities in the weakest faculty members. of institutions. CHAPTER 4 | Consultations 57 •• Open “satellite campuses” of Universities to Finance reach remote areas, use all modes of teaching in addition to the classroom teaching option Quantum of funds and their allocation to increase rural access. •• Per capita expenditure made by the state on •• Incentivize teachers to teach in rural areas, students coming from different universities provide basic facilities in rural areas like is not uniform- e.g.: central universities are hostels, living quarters, power etc Lead given a higher per capita expenditure on every colleges can be developed as regional centers student and thus, they get more funds. Grants and eventually upgrade to Universities to for State Universities be the same as those for give better quality education in remote Central University. areas. •• Quantum of money given by State must Use of technology to improve access increase. Currently mostly student fee funds the institute. •• State Knowledge Network be established online. •• Spreading knowledge and awareness about various national and international funding •• Intranet dedicated to HE, creation of e-content agencies, specially for research. in Hindi. •• More budgets to existing Universities, make •• Use of ICT – NPTel (MHRD) e-lectures, them centers of excellence instead of opening distance education etc. more Universities. •• Soft copy of lectures should be recorded in •• There should be a separate budget for research CDs and distributed in institutions in remote and teaching. areas. •• The Dept. of Higher Education, Govt. Improving equity of M.P. has been paying the Govt. aided Teaching and non-Teaching staff of •• Different kinds of curriculum must be different colleges in Madhya Pradesh only adopted for rural areas, urban areas and 50% of the UGC designated salary of tribal areas. the Vth pay commission for the last ten •• Offer more courses related to and promoting years. The rest of the government staff traditional livelihoods, appropriate subjects is getting salary as per the recommendation that help in improvement of their productivity of the VIth  pay commission. The staff at the existing livelihood instead of prompting -whose salary has been reduced and urban immigration. then frozen - had been chosen as per government norms and as per government •• In rural/tribal areas, give students flexibility laid down selection procedures. (Davis to choose their courses under a credit-based George). system. •• Establish a Women’s University in MP. Financial control and disbursement mechanisms •• Build residential facilities for women students •• Absence of a systematic proposal for funds and for students in tribal areas, as safe and from the Universities. affordable accommodation is a major deterrent •• Granting approvals for utilizing funds needs to in their opting for higher education. be simplified. Multiple approvals dependant •• Public-private partnership in vocational on State government and local authorities education be increased. like municipal corporation or public works department leads to delays in execution of •• Meta-college option can be explored. projects and lapse of grants. 58 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options •• Scholarships, linkage with student bank •• Greater access to hostel facilities for female accounts for faster disbursement. students. •• Funds disbursement must be timely so that •• Students are required to spend a lot of time there is proper utilization of funds and they in following up bureaucratic processes, form- do not lapse. filling etc; minimizing this through online systems, single window policy etc. Interactions with Students Quality of education Students were consulted separately from other •• Massive infrastructures up-gradation is needed stakeholders and they had different views of the types in terms of internet connectivity, hostels, of changes needed. equipment etc. Student Support •• Improvement in faculty quality through teacher training, filling vacant faculty •• More need-based scholarships should be positions. given out, especially to cater to students who are from economically backward classes but •• Excessive dependence on guest faculty should not covered under reservations (from General be avoided. Guest faculty cannot give enough category). time to solve student queries and often are of poor quality. •• Faster disbursement of scholarships is needed. •• Syllabus should be improved and can be •• Stronger market linkages need to be built by made more rigorous and more relevant to Universities and colleges. Placement cells are the market requirements. The syllabus should either non-existent or not very active, linkages also aim at building key skills that will help in terms of visiting faculties, internships, field in employability instead of focusing on visits etc should also be explored. theoretical learning. •• More grants and fellowships required for •• Political interference of youth groups disrupts research students, especially those involved in the smooth functioning of the institution. the basic sciences. Greater access to journals, research materials, instruments etc. •• There are delays in declaration of results and in conduction of exams. Many degrees that •• For rural areas, more colleges are required. are supposed to get completed in two years There are enough students who migrate to can take up to three years, this not only affects bigger towns for higher education, proof the employability of the students but also enough of existence of demand for Higher creates a huge strain for the students from Education in such areas. weak financial background. CHAPTER 4 | Consultations 59 Bibliography Enders, J. (2004). Higher education, National Academic Accreditation Council. (2010). internationalization, and the nation-state: Recent Institutions Accredited by NAAC with Validity. developments and challenges to governance theory. Bangalore, India: National Academic Accreditation Higher Education, 47: 361-382. Council. IAMR. (2011). India Human Development Report. Planning Commission, NUEPA, World Bank. New Delhi, India: Planning Commission, India. (2011). Higher Education Forum: How should the Government Finance Higher Education Institutions http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/2009_44/50/ in the Future? Higher Education Forum: How Governance_Issues_in_State_Governance_Issues_ should the Government Finance Higher Education in_State.pdf Institutions in the Future? New Delhi, India: World Bank. http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/2010_45/43/ Implementation_of_the_Maharashtra_Universities_ Salmi, J., & Hauptman, A. M. (2006). Innovations Act.pdf in Tertiary Education Financing: A Comparative Evaluation of Allocation Mechanisms. Washington, DC: Kumar, V. B., & S. Parasuraman. (2011). Governance Education Working papers Series, No. 4, September and Financing of State Universities: A working paper for 2006, The World Bank. the Planning Commission. Mimeo. University Grants Commission. (undated). Annual Madhya Pradesh Department of Higher Education. Report 09-10. New Delhi, India: University Grants (2012). Consolidated Working Group Report of the Commission. Dept of Higher Education XII Five Year Plan on Higher Education and Technical & Private Sector Participation World Bank. (2002). Constructing knowledge societies: including PPP in Higher Education. Bhopal, India: new challenges for tertiary education. Washington, DC: Government of Madhya Pradesh. World Bank. Ministry for Human Resource Development, India. World Bank. (2012). Higher Education in Madhya (2011). Statistics on Higher Education and Technical Pradesh – The Way Forward. Washington DC: South Education. New Delhi: MHRD, Government of India. Asia Human Development Unit. NAAC. (2005). State-wise Analysis of Accreditation World Bank. (2011). More and Better Jobs. Washington, Reports. NAAC. DC: World Bank. Annexure: Additional Tables State-wise Per Capita Net State Domestic Product at Factor Cost Per Capita Net State Domestic Product at Factor Cost of states/UTs 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 Expenditure by the Directorate of Higher Education under various heads/schemes Scheme Name of Scheme 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 Code (RE) (BE) 89 Academic Staff College 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 250 Grant to Kasturba Village Rural 0.32 0.29 0.32 0.41 0.31 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 Institute 298 Awdhesh Pratap Singh University, Rewa 3.02 3.16 3.21 3.21 2.88 2.996 3.46 3.46 3.46 798 Art, Science and Commerce Colleges 201.02 200.52 212.94 235.32 283.74 330.05 481.59 725.49 778.52 1437 Jabalpur University 6.47 7.7 6.88 6.88 6.19 6.42 9.02 9.02 9.02 1561 Indore University 6.54 7.82 6.95 6.95 6.25 6.49 6.95 6.95 6.95 1562 Jiwaji University, Gwalior 3.03 3.62 3.22 3.22 2.89 3.71 4.18 4.18 4.18 1563 Prashikshan College Sagar, Sagar 0.32 0.3 0.34 0.34 0.3 0 0 0 0 University 1564 Grant to Madhav College, Ujjain 3.54 4.13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (Vikram University) 1565 Chitrakoot Gramodaya University 2 2.95 3.5 6.71 3.15 3.27 3.5 3.5 3.5 2194 Natnaagar Research Organization, 0.1 0.22 0.31 0.39 0.4 0.54 0.75 0.83 1.14 Seetamau Scheme Name of Scheme 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 Code (RE) (BE) 2304 Direction and Administration 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.5 3178 Bhopal University 3.67 4.08 3.9 3.9 3.51 3.64 3.9 3.9 3.9 3357 Grant to Madhya Pradesh Hindi 0.28 1.51 0.31 0.62 0.27 0.32 0.34 0.4 0.4 Granth Academy 3443 Directorate of Higher Education 3.93 3.85 4.17 4.56 5.29 6.57 8.55 12.58 14.38 3444 Maintenance Grant to Colleges 18.01 18.72 16.84 19.02 27.58 26.97 27.55 37 37 3446 Sports Promotion in Colleges 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.16 0.22 0.21 0.36 1.03 0.85 3753 National Service Scheme 2.21 2.08 2.58 3.63 2.98 3.91 5.1 5.6 5.6 3939 Vikram University, Ujjain 6.59 7.7 7 7 6.3 6.53 10.86 10.86 10.86 4120 UGC Development Grant to Colleges 0.05 0.19 0.08 0.2 0.18 0 0.05 0 0 4401 Government Colleges 3.21 6.73 4.69 5.14 6.09 0 0 0 0 4460 Sagar University 12.33 15.32 13.1 13.1 11.79 0 0 0 0 4699 Free Books and Stationery for Students 1.13 1.3 1.06 2.13 7.98 2.43 1.99 3.25 3 4934 Bhoj Open University 0.3 0.3 0.32 0.37 0.26 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 5086 Construction of College Buildings 0.98 2 0.27 2.18 3 4.85 17.14 8 8.95 5170 E-library in Sagar 0 0 0 2.5 0 0 0 0 0 5407 Scholarships for Professional 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Education given to Children of Landless Agricultural Laborers 5449 Loan for Private Colleges Pension 0 0 0 4 4 4 4 4 4 Scheme 5476 Pratibha Kiran 0 0 0 0.1 0.3 0.46 0.92 1.5 1.5 5490 Private university establishment and 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.34 0.8 0.79 management regulation 5547 Development grant to University 0 0 0 0 0.06 0.07 0.01 0.06 0 5550 Establishment of Libraries 0 0 0 0 5.37 0.5 0.24 0.75 2 5551 Using Modern Technology for 0 0 0 0 1.13 0.44 0.37 1.05 1.25 Training 5552 Development of Ideal Colleges in 0 0 0 0 0.22 0.68 3.71 0.1 0 Backward Districts 5553 National and International Research 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.12 0.75 Scholarships 5622 University Pension Scheme 0 0 0 6 8 10.16 2 0 0 5627 Scholarships to Poor Students 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.15 0.1 5650 Founding first-class college comparable 0 0 0 0 15 0.12 2.35 0.5 0.5 to Premium National Institutes 5674 Vikramaditya Free education scheme 0 0 0 0 0.27 0.28 0.27 0.75 0.65 for the poor 5713 Transportation facility for Female 0 0 0 0 0 0.05 0.06 0.3 2 Students 5715 Modernization of labs 0 0 0 0 0 0.16 0.23 0.5 1.3 5716 Construction of buildings for Govt. 0 0 0 0 6.99 0 0 0 0 Colleges 5760 Transportation facility to Female 0 0 0 0 0 0.09 0.19 0.45 0.45 Students 5763 Scholarships to Poor Students 0 0 0 0 0 0.014 0.06 0.05 0.05 64 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Scheme Name of Scheme 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 Code (RE) (BE) 5764 Awarding Research Scholarships to 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0 0.1 0.1 Handicap Students 5765 Up-gradation of Labs 0 0 0 0 0 0.51 0.32 1 2.7 5766 Awards given to meritorious students 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.25 5767 Awards given to meritorious professors 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.05 0.25 5787 Construction of Staff-room 0 0 0 0 0 2.04 0.24 0.1 1 5870 College of Excellence, Bhopal 0.85 1.02 1.02 1.03 0.69 0.18 0.2 0.8 0.8 5889 Construction of Government College 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 buildings 5890 Establishment of a new university 0 0 0 0 0 0.8 0 0 0 6061 Development of Sports in government 0.01 0.01 0 0.09 0.09 0.13 0.07 0.16 0.2 colleges 6064 Arts College 0.13 0.16 0.13 0.15 0.12 0.13 0.05 0.25 0.15 6066 Sanskrit College 1.96 2.24 2.6 2.7 3.3 4.24 5.66 7.8 9.65 6118 Construction of staff-room 0 0 0 0 4.09 0 0.71 0.15 0 6210 Grant to Yoga Propagation Committee 0 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.06 6283 UGC funds for payment of arrears 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 1 6371 Founding SrijanPeeth 0.06 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6385 Grant to MP Bhoj University, Bhopal 0.68 0.76 0.74 0.5 0.45 0.09 0 0 0 6411 Establishment of a new university 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 6915 Swami Vivekanand carreer guidance 0 0 0.12 0.1 0.28 0.25 0.34 0.6 0.5 scheme 6916 Gaon Ki Beti Scheme 0 1.19 2.65 6.74 9.99 11.77 15.25 23.5 31 (Daughter of the Village) 6938 Grant to establish Hindi University 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.51 1 6990 Students Welfare Fund 0 0 0.06 0.1 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.16 0.2 7043 Grants to Public Participation 5.5 6.16 5.02 6.92 9.01 14.62 13.57 16 17 Committees for filling vacant positions (Honorary Basis) 7052 8 Government colleges developed 0.87 2 0.24 0.33 0.07 0.116 0.05 0.5 0.8 into first class institutes of Higher Education 7134 Grant to establish a new college 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.25 7135 New faculty/departments 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.25 establishment – grants 7173 Transportation facility to Female 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.55 Students 7174 Chhatrasat University (Founding) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.12 7319 Maharishi Panini Sanskrit University, 0 0 0 5 0.3 0.3 0.35 0.5 0.8 Ujjain 7643 Construction of Government College 3.19 5.89 13.48 15.05 17.37 9.8 39.27 13 24.55 Buildings 7851 Professional training of the Youth 0 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.5 0.3 0.19 0.5 0.25 7981 Lalitkala Academy 0.27 0.52 0.55 0.27 0 0 0 0 0 7982 Music College 0.49 1.25 1.55 0.71 0 0 0 0 0 Annexure: Additional Tables 65 Scheme Name of Scheme 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 Code (RE) (BE) 8236 Financial help to Madhya Pradesh 0.25 0.48 0.28 0.28 0.25 0.26 0.3 0.3 0.32 Social Science Research Foundation 8518 National Institute of Technology, 11.07 4.85 2.48 7.2 0.33 0 0.04 0.02 1.77 Bhopal 8793 Electronic Library 0 2.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8808 Information and technology work 0 0.05 0.02 0.1 0.04 0.06 0.1 1.23 1.44 8855 Support to PhD Students 0.17 0.26 0.38 0.4 0.45 0.56 0.75 0.85 1 9013 Sanskrit Scholarships 0 0.01 0.01 0.01 0 0.01 0 0.02 0.02 9016 National Scholarship 0.01 0 0.47 0.39 0 0.01 0 0 0 9380 Autonomous colleges 0 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.26 0.3 0.22 1.07 2 9805 Free Books and Stationery for ST 0.6 0.76 0.6 0.95 1.18 1.6 0.96 2.25 2.25 Students    Total (Rs. Cr.) 305.27 324.99 324.54 387.14 471.79 495.326 679.49 919.57 1015.54    Total USD Million 61.054 64.998 64.908 77.428 94.358 99.0652 135.898 183.914 203.108 Source: Dept. of finance, MP. The figures here are sums of expenditures under Non-plan, Plan, Tribal Area Sub-plan and SC component plan given in the data from Dept. of HE. Also data for 2009-10 has been entered again from the data given by Dept of HE. UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION CENTRAL REGIONAL OFFICE, BHOPAL [M.P.] Report Showing Year wise Grant Released & No. of Colleges assisted during 2007-08 to 2010-11 State: Madhya Pradesh (Amount in Rs.) Sl. Name of the Scheme 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 No. No. of Amount No. of Amount No. of Amount No. of Amount Colleges Released Colleges Released Colleges Released Colleges Released assisted assisted assisted assisted A Infrastructure General 292 74860113.00 298 153223710.00 234 221873797.00 1 1504532.00 Development State College B  Grant for 15 Schemes merged under Development Grant as mentioned below: 1 Infrastructure Improvement of 0 0.00 0 0.00 191 17837500.00 1 100000.00 facilities in existing premises 2 Infrastructure Rejuvenation of 0 0.00 0 0.00 14 7300000.00   0.00 Infrastructure in old colleges 3 Infrastructure Catch up Grants to 6 398870.00 2 310000.00 9 5900000.00   0.00 Young Colleges 4 Equity and Colleges located 0 0.00 0 0.00 29 22350000.00   0.00 Access in Rural/Remote/ Border /Hill/Tribal Areas 5 Equity and Colleges with 0 0.00 0 0.00 91 42400000.00 1 500000.00 Access relatively higher proportion of SC/ ST/Minorities 66 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION CENTRAL REGIONAL OFFICE, BHOPAL [M.P.] Report Showing Year wise Grant Released & No. of Colleges assisted during 2007-08 to 2010-11 State: Madhya Pradesh (Amount in Rs.) Sl. Name of the Scheme 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 No. No. of Amount No. of Amount No. of Amount No. of Amount Colleges Released Colleges Released Colleges Released Colleges Released assisted assisted assisted assisted 6 Others Special Grant for 0 0.00 0 0.00 161 86262500.00   0.00 enhancement of initiative for capacity building in colleges 7 Infrastructure Establishment of 0 0.00 0 0.00 20 3600000.00 1 200000.00 Day Care Centre in colleges 8 Equity and Colleges in Backward 4 310000.00 6 612231.00 110 76045982.00   0.00 Access Areas 9 Infrastructure Establishment of 2 65000.00 0 0.00 177 40064400.00 1 257400.00 UGC Network Resource Centre 10 Equity and Equal Opportunity     0 0.00 53 3070000.00   0.00 Access Centre in Colleges 11 Equity and Remedial Coaching 55 34900000.00 110 53084602.00 11 3581154.00   0.00 Access of SC/ST/OBC and Minorities 12 Equity and Coaching for NET 2 1734000.00 3 207999.00 0 0.00   0.00 Access for SC/ST/OBC and Minorities 13 Equity and Coaching classes for 11 1628000.00 1 268800.00 0 0.00   0.00 Access entry in services for SC/ST /OBC and Minorities 14 Equity and Higher Education for 4 48000.00 4 250432.00 34 19974600.00 1 669600.00 Access persons with special needs (HEPSN) 15 Equity and Career and 0 0.00 0 0.00 162 46460000.00 1 300000.00 Access Counselling Cell 16 Infrastructure Sports facilities in 3 46338.00 0 0.00 0 0.00   0.00 Colleges C Equity and Women's Hostel 35 86755750.00 45 110887213.00 53 129285700.00   0.00 Access D Quality and Autonomous 16 13514678.00 17 34472061.00 13 23992763.00   0.00 excellence Colleges E Strengthening Minor Research 126 8238244.00 138 17104138.00 112 13425880.00   0.00 research Project- Sc & Social Sc. F Strengthening Workshops, Seminar 172 6373890.00 59 8212640.00 66 6290846.00   0.00 research & Conferences G Quality and Faculty Improvement 20 442994.00 18 1735171.00 10 1149015.00   0.00 excellence Programme H Others Committed liabilities 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00   0.00 of Xth Plan       229315877.00   380368997.00   770864137.00   3531532.00 Source: Dept. of finance, MP. Annexure: Additional Tables 67 Expenditure by the Directorate of Technical Education under various heads/schemes BCO Scheme Head of Expenditure Rs. Cr. 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 Codes Code (RE) (BE) 4203 436 Special Coaching classes for 0.1 0.07 0.09 0.1 0.21 0.09 0.15 0.7 students 4203 437 SC/ST grants for stationery and 0.23 0.19 0.21 0.45 0.58 0.37 0.4 1.5 drawing 4203 503 Engineering college 10.67 10.09 9.55 9.46 11.46 18.93 28.78 29.48 4203 1853 Drawing material given 0.43 0.55 0.53 0.5 0.6 0.59 1.25 1.4 4203 1869 Directorate of Technical 1.68 1.49 1.71 2.24 3.23 4.77 6.81 8.09 Education 4203 1870 Training of trainers of technical 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0 institutes 4203 2667 Polytechnics 35.18 33.65 33.98 39.77 58.32 129.58 127.09 101.68 4203 2796 Pre-vocational training centre 0.3 0.28 0.22 0 0 0 0 0 4203 2993 Establishment of Book-bank 0.15 0.11 0.07 0.43 0.36 0.15 0.65 1.5 4203 3500 Intermediate Craft/Industry/ 0.18 0.12 0.08 0.02 0 0 0 0 Architecture School 4203 3621 Youth Vocational Centre 0.49 0.39 0.28 0 0 0 0 0 4203 4068 Special Coaching Scheme 0.63 0.65 0.68 0.76 0.81 0.8 2 1.4 4203 4945 Construction for Technical 3.21 3.72 3.94 4.1 5.54 0.93 0.65 1.2 Education 4203 5175 Maintenance of buildings 0 0 0 0.35 0.57 0.54 0.6 0.7 4203 5423 World Bank - TEQIP - State 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.19 0.18 0.19 1 0.88 program 4203 5424 World Bank - TEQIP - 2.97 5.46 0.59 0 0 0 0 0 Engineering colleges - Loans 4203 5425 World Bank - TEQIP - 0.43 0.52 0 0 0 0 0 0 Polytechnics - Loans 4203 5627 Scholarships and endowments to 0 0 0 0 0.42 0.11 0.15 0.4 poor students 4203 5674 Vikramaditya free education 0 0 0 0 0 1.34 1.5 2 scheme for the poor 4203 5700 Establishment of NIFT 0 0 0 0 1.04 10 1 0.01 4203 5885 Establishment of IIT Indore 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 4203 6060 New faculties/subjects 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.5 commenced in polytechnics 4203 6215 Capital Expenditure on 0.7 3.15 5.45 0.91 0.42 4 1 1 Education, Arts and Culture 4203 6219 Fee concession to children of 0 0 0 0 0 2 1.02 0 green card holders 4203 6285 Grants from AICTE for payment 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 of arrears 4203 6608 Grant to Rustamji Techincal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0 Institute BSF Academy 4203 6723 Construction of an Integrated 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.25 complex for the Directorate of TE 4203 6724 Establishment of Polytechnics 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.02 under PPP mode 4203 6786 Establishment of a committee for 0.12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 determining fee 68 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options BCO Scheme Head of Expenditure Rs. Cr. 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 Codes Code (RE) (BE) 4203 7180 Encouragement for outstanding 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.02 work in Technical Education 4203 7562 Establishment of centres of 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 excellence 4203 7869 World Bank - TEQIP - 0.18 0.22 1.35 0.85 0.27 0 0 0 Polytechnics - Grants 4203 7870 World Bank - TEQIP - Engg. 1.27 2.39 14.45 7.9 0.4 0 2.7 12.48 colleges - Grants 4203 8076 Technical and industrial institutes 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.01 outside MP 4203 8274 Up gradation of polytechnics 0.62 1 0.75 0.25 0.75 0.75 0.4 0 under the Indo-German Project 4203 8354 Indian Institute of IT and 0.5 0.75 1 1 1 0.26 0 0 Management, Gwalior - Grant 4203 8796 Training Program 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.05 0.12 4203 8808 IT related work 0 0 0.01 0.31 0.05 0.13 0.4 0.5 4203 8884 Rajiv Gandhi Industrial University 2.52 4.04 1.65 1.57 1.75 0.45 0.45 0.45 - Grants 4203 8885 Autonomous Technical Institutes 2.94 2.75 3.16 5.38 7.43 17.45 27.9 33.43 - Grants 4203 9143 Non-governmental Technical 17.59 11.83 11.07 10.93 10.93 11.09 13.12 12.15 Colleges and Institutes - Grants 4203 9152 Scheme for SC/ST 0.03 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 4203 9236 Eklavya Polytechnic Institutes 0 0 0.32 7.05 5.14 4.35 3.95 7.75 4203 9237 Technical Education 0 0 0.02 0.34 0.46 0.46 0.4 0.55 Encouragement scheme for SC/ST 4203 9238 B S Ambedkar Polytechnic 0 0 0.44 7.42 7.42 8.29 9 6.7 Institutes 4203 9978 Construction of buildings 0.33 0.09 1.18 0.27 0.45 0.46 0.5 1.7     Total 83.78 83.8 93 102.55 119.79 218.08 233.94 228.78     Total USD Million 16.756 16.76 18.6 20.51 23.958 43.616 46.788 45.756 Source: Dept. of finance, MP. Annexure: Additional Tables 69 Scholarship Schemes in Madhya Pradesh Name of the Scheme Description State and Centrally Sponsored Schemes   Gaon Ki Beti Scheme Girls in rural areas who got first division in higher secondary and are enrolled in government colleges are paid Rs. 5000/- according to merit. The amount per beneficiary is Rs. 7500/- p.a. for girls studying in engineering and medical colleges. (Others and OBC + SC + ST). PratibhaKiran Scheme Girls, from households living below poverty line, in urban areas who got first division in higher secondary and are enrolled in government/aided colleges are paid Rs. 5000/- according to merit. Vikramaditya Scheme Tuition fee waiver for girls coming from households with annual income less than Rs. 42000, belonging to General category, who got first division in Higher Secondary and are enrolled in govt./aided colleges. Military Scholarships Pre-determined number of MP students studying in Military college, Dehradun are paid money. Integrated Scholarships Awarded according to merit to both boys and girls. Support to PhD Students (SC/ST) Rs. 8000 per month paid, for both boys and girls of SC and ST categories. Scholarships for Professional Education given   to Children of Landless Agricultural Laborers Sanskrit Scholrships Quota 200 scholarships. Transportation facility for female students Rs. 5 per day paid to girls studying in government colleges and living at a distance of at least 5 km from the college. Money is paid for 200 days. Free Books and Stationery for ST Students 1. Free books worth Rs. 600 per annum per UG Student 2. Free books worth Rs. 800 per annum per PG student 3. Stationery worth Rs. 50 per student p.a. Free Books and Stationery for SC Students 1. Free books worth Rs. 600 per annum per UG Student 2. Free books worth Rs. 800 per annum per PG student 3. Stationery worth Rs. 50 per student p.a. Awards given to meritorious students   Awards given to meritorious professors   Awarding Research Scholarships to Handicap   Students 70 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options   Total Expenditure and Number of Beneficiaries Name of the scheme 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12   Total Number of Average Total Number of Average Total Number of Average Expenditure Beneficiaries Benefit (Rs.) Expenditure Beneficiaries Benefit Expenditure Beneficiaries Benefit (Rs. Lakhs) (Rs. Lakhs) (Rs.) (Rs. Lakhs) (Rs.) State and Centrally Sponsored                   Schemes Gaon Ki Beti Scheme 939.11 + 28141.00 4183 1263.15 + 32238 4769   33532   136.24 + 152.4 101.96 + 121.75 Pratibha Kiran Scheme 46.34 2034 2278 92.50 2309 4006   2594   Vikramaditya Scheme 27.88 1597 1746 27.15 2118 1282   2013   Military Scholarships 1.2 10 12000 1.2 10 12000 1.2 10 12000 Integrated Scholarships 10.92 131 8335 15.72 127 12377.95 2.19 142 1542.25 Support to PhD Students (SC/ 45.56 + 59 95119 68.56 52 163230.8   38   ST) 10.56 + 16.32 Scholarships for Professional 0.00     0.00           Education given to Children of Landless Agricultural Laborers Sanskrit Scholrships 1.16     0.71           Transportation facility for 9.18 + 3.46 1417* 1000* 19.66 2613* 1000*       female students + 1.53 + 4.03 + 2.44 Free Books and Stationery for 160.99     114.94 30000 383.13       ST Students Free Books and Stationery for 242.39     209.09 45000 464.64       Annexure: Additional Tables SC Students Awards given to meritorious 0     0           students Awards given to meritorious 0     0           71 professors Awarding Research 0.60     0.00           Scholarships to Handicap Students Schemes and Scholarships from Other Departments (The links mentioned after the names of scholarships contain information on Target group, eligibility, amount of money awarded etc.) Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment http://socialjustice.nic.in/ Central sector scheme of 'Rajiv Gandhi national fellowship' for providing scholarships to scheduled caste students to pursue programmes in higher education such as MPhil and PhD (effective from 01-04-2010) http://socialjustice.nic.in/Rajiv.php?pageid=1 Central Sector Scholarship of Top Class Education for SC students (effective from 21st June, 2007) http:// socialjustice.nic.in/topclass.php Central Sector Scheme of National Overseas Scholarship for SC etc. candidates for Selection Year 2010- 2011 (Plan) http://socialjustice.nic.in/nos1011.php?pageid=2 Post-matric scholarships for scheduled castes /scheduled tribes students http://socialjustice.nic.in/ postmatsch.php Scheme of post-matric scholarships to the other backward classes for studies in India http://socialjustice. nic.in/postmatric.php Other Schemes Central Sector Scheme of Free Coaching for SC and OBC Students http://socialjustice.nic.in/freecoach.php Educational Development Programme for Scheduled Castes Girls (Zila Parishads) http://socialjustice.nic. in/eduscd.php Autonomous bodies under the Ministry of social justice and empowerment (schemes/scholarships for promoting HE): 1. Dr. Ambedkar Foundation http://ambedkarfoundation.nic.in/  Dr. Ambedkar National Merit Scholarship Scheme for meritorious students, of  Higher Secondary Examination belonging to Scheduled Caste http://ambedkarfoundation.nic.in/html/nmshs.htm 2. Babu Jagjivan Ram National Foundation 3. National Commission for Safai Karamcharis http://ncsk.nic.in/index2.asp  Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Pre Matric Scholarship  for Children of those engaged in unclean Occupation (not for HE) 4. National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) http://ncsc.nic.in/ (Scholarships are mentioned above) 5. National Safai Karamcharis Finance and Development Corporation (NSKFDC) http://nskfdc.nic.in/ financing_programmes.html (read point 5 for education loans given on the website) 6. National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation (NSCFDC) http://www.nsfdc. nic.in/uniquepage.asp?ID_PK=42 It gives educational loans 72 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options Scholarships/Schemes for OBC Students under Ministry of Social Justice and empowerment: Scheme of pre-matric scholarships to the other backward classes for studies in India http://socialjustice.nic. in/pre-matric.php Scheme of post-matric scholarships to the other backward classes for studies in india http://socialjustice. nic.in/postmatric.php Centrally sponsored scheme of construction of hostels for OBC boys and girls   http://socialjustice.nic.in/ pdf/obchostel10.pdf 2. Ministry of Tribal Affairs http://tribal.nic.in/index.asp schemes in short: http://tribal.nic.in/index2.asp?sublinkid=430&langid=1http://tribal.nic.in/index1. asp?linkid=331&langid=1 (Education) Scheme of post-matric scholarships to the students belonging to scheduled tribes for studies in India http:// tribal.nic.in/writereaddata/mainlinkFile/File728.pdf Scheme of Up gradation of Merit for ST Students http://tribal.nic.in/writereaddata/mainlinkFile/File729. pdf (coaching to school students) Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Hostels for ST boys and ST Girls http://tribal.nic.in/index2. asp?sublinkid=642&langid=1 Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship for ST Students http://tribal.nic.in/index2. asp?sublinkid=425&langid=1 Central sector scholarship scheme of top class education for ST students http://tribal.nic.in/writereaddata/ mainlinkFile/File732.pdf Facilitate Vocational Training in tribal areas http://tribal.nic.in/writereaddata/mainlinkFile/File1153.pdf Scheme of coaching for scheduled tribes http://tribal.nic.in/writereaddata/mainlinkFile/File839.pdf The scheme of national overseas scholarships for schedule tribes candidates http://tribal.nic.in/writereaddata/ mainlinkFile/File736.pdf Schemes of Strengthening education among Scheduled Tribes Girls in a low literacy Districts – seems more to be for school going girls http://tribal.nic.in/writereaddata/mainlinkFile/File844.pdf Sources: Authors’ compilation from various web sources. Annexure: Additional Tables 73 THE WORLD BANK 76 Madhya Pradesh Higher Education Reform Policy Options