PROVISION FOR TEXTBOOK PROVISION TEXTBOOK FOR IN ETHIOPIA ALL IN ALL ETHIOPIA Lessons Learned from the General Education Quality Improvement Project (GEQIP)1 GIRMA WOLDETSADIK with CHANDRANI RAYSARKAR May, 2017 TEXTBOOK PROVISION FOR ALL IN ETHIOPIA Lessons Learned from the General Education Quality Improvement Project (GEQIP)1 GIRMA WOLDETSADIK with CHANDRANI RAYSARKAR May, 2017 © 2017 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved 1 2 3 4 19 18 17 16 This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data [[CIP data]] iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v ABOUT THE AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii FOREWORD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii 1. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Country Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Education Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2.  PROVISION OF TEXTBOOKS: ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Curriculum and Languages of Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Minimum Profile of TLMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Supply Targets and Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Textbook Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Financing of Textbooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Procurement and Contract Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Manufacturing: Printing, Binding, and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Distribution and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Management and Use of Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Monitoring and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 3.  LESSONS LEARNED AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Availability of Textbooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Textbooks in Multiple Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Minimum Profile of TLMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Unit Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Sustainable Financing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 Public Versus Private Provision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Centralized Versus Decentralized System of Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 Single Versus Multiple Textbook Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Government Retention of Copyright. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Higher Benchmark for Technical Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 iv Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia International Versus Local Publishing Industries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Distribution from Woredas to Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Appropriate Storage Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Use and Care of Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Management of the Textbook Provision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 4. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 5. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 ANNEXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Annex 1. Mother Tongue Languages Used as Medium of Instruction in Primary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Annex 2. Titles of Textbooks and Teaching Guides Developed under GEQIP1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Annex 3. Ratio of Textbooks to Students, 2013–14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Annex 4. Textbooks and Teaching Guides Not Provided under GEQIP1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Annex 5. GEQIP2 Plans for Provision of Teaching/Learning Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Annex 6: Technical Evaluation Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 LIST OF FIGURES Ethiopia National Learning Assessment, Composite Scores (%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Figure 1.1:   tudent Enrollment in Ethiopia, 1995–2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Figure 2.1: S LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Subjects in Primary and Secondary Education by Grade Level, Ethiopia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Number of Textbooks to Be Procured under GEQIP1, 2010/11–2012/13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Table 2.2:  Number of New Textbooks Developed and Delivered under GEQIP1, 2010/11–2013/14. . . . . . . . . 5 Table 2.3:  Table 2.4: Unit Costs of Textbooks and Teaching Guides, 2010/11–2013/14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Cost of Distributing Textbooks and Teaching Guides, Ethiopia, 2010/11–2013/14. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Table 2.5:  Table 2.6: Annual Amortized Cost of Textbooks Set in Ethiopia, 2010/11–2013/14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Table 2.7: Textbook Cost for Grade 1, Selected Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Table 2.8: Textbook Cost for Grade 11, Selected Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Table 2.9: Sources of Textbook Funding in Selected African Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Table 2.10: Features of Textbook Provision Systems in India, the Philippines, and Vietnam. . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Table 2.11: Estimated Annual Textbook Cost as a Percentage of Education Spending in Ethiopia, 2010/11–2013/14������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 12 Table 2.12: Estimated Time Required to Develop, Produce, and Distribute Textbooks under GEQIP1 . . . . . . . .14 Table 2.13: Textbook Specifications in Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Table 2.14: Delivery of Textbooks and Teaching Guides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Table 2.15: Results of School Inspection of Teaching Standards, 2014 and 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 LIST OF BOXES Box 2.1: Take Good Care of this Textbook. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS T his report is authored by Girma Woldetsadik team, particularly Daniel Abebe (Director of (Senior Education Specialist) and Chandrani Curriculum Development and Implementation) and Raysarkar (consultant). The authors are grate- Taye Mengistu, Textbook Unit Coordinator for ful to Sajitha Bashir, (Practice Manager, Education providing useful feedback, and Zelalem Tadesse Global Practice, Africa East), Thanh Thi Mai (Senior (Procurement consultant) for providing the data. Education Specialist), and Peter Materu (Director, The report draws from the 2015 World Bank Education and Learning and Youth Livelihoods, report, Getting Textbooks to Every Child in Sub- MasterCard Foundation—, and formerly Practice Saharan Africa: Strategies for Addressing the High Manager, Education Global Practice, Africa Cost and Low Availability Problem, authored by West) for providing valuable guidance in finalizing Birger Fredriksen and Sukhdeep Brar with Michael this report. The authors are also grateful to Birger Trucano, and, Where Have All the Textbooks Gone? Fredriksen, education consultant and co-author of Toward Sustainable Provision of Teaching and Getting Textbooks to Every Child in Sub-Saharan Learning Materials in Sub-Saharan Africa, authored Africa: Strategies for Addressing the High Cost and Low by the late Tony Read. Availability Problem, for his review and insightful Finally, the authors are thankful to Meskerem feedback. This report has benefitted from important Mulatu (Practice Manager, Education Global feedback from Alfonso de Guzman, textbook spe- Practice, Africa West) for managing the Textbook cialist (consultant) and Chenjerani Simon Chirwa Study project and making the publication of this (Senior Procurement Specialist). The authors also report possible. wish to thank the Ethiopian Ministry of Education All errors and omissions are those of the authors. vii ABOUT THE AUTHORS G irma Woldetsadik is a Senior Education planning expert in Ethiopia Commission for Higher Specialist in the World Bank’s Education Education. Girma holds an MSc in Human Resources Global Practice, based in Ethiopia. He joined Development from the University of Manchester, the World Bank in 2009 and has since worked on United Kingdom, and a BA in Economics from Addis different education sub-sectors, including early Ababa University, Ethiopia. childhood development, general, and post-second- Chandrani Raysarkar is a consultant at the ary education. Girma has also worked on textbook World Bank and has worked across various units management, teacher development, school improve- since 2010 and within Africa Education since 2014. ment, education leadership, and learning assessment. For the past two years, Chandrani has focused exten- He has served as TTL for Ethiopia Russia Education sively on textbook provision in sub-Saharan Africa. Aid for Development Trust Fund for strengthen- Prior to joining the World Bank, she has extensively ing learning assessment systems. He is currently reported on human development issues such as child co-task team leader for General Education Quality labor, and post-conflict resettlement and has worked Improvement Project phase 2, and Ethiopia Africa on grassroots advocacy projects on the education Higher Education Centers of Excellence project. of the girl child in India. She is trained in ethnog- Girma has actively participated in analytical works, raphy and other qualitative research methods and including education sector financing, secondary has conducted extensive household surveys in parts education, and skills in Ethiopia. Prior to joining of New Delhi, India, following the Kargil conflict. the World Bank, Girma worked as a social devel- Chandrani has a BA in Journalism from Calcutta opment specialist in the African Development University, and an MA in Journalism from the Indian Bank’s Ethiopia country office. He also worked as Institute of Mass Communication, New Delhi and Assistant Director for Education and Training at has taken doctoral level courses in Communication the British Council, Ethiopia, and as an education and Sociology at the University of Oklahoma. ix FOREWORD W ith an estimated 101.8 million people, development and a mechanism of assessment; Ethiopia is the second most populous (ii) a teacher development program; (iii) school country in Africa and one of the poor- improvement; and (iv) strengthening management est nations in the sub-Saharan region. Aspiring to and administrative systems and developing an edu- become a middle-income country by 2025, Ethiopia cation management information system. GEQIP2 has adopted a Growth and Transformation Plan became effective in February 2014 and will end in in which education plays a key role. As one of the July 2018. first steps, Ethiopia has rapidly increased access to This report takes an in-depth look at support for education and more than quadrupled its primary textbook development under GEQIP1. It analyzes net enrollment rate from 21.6 percent in 1996 to the current state of textbook provision, explores 92.6 percent in 2014. Gross enrollment rate in the bottlenecks, highlights some of the lessons learned first cycle of secondary education tripled from 12.8 throughout the implementation phase and makes percent in 2000 to 39.3 percent in 2014. Today, realistic recommendations for providing textbooks Ethiopia’s education system serves more than 20 for students in Ethiopia in the future. million children, a number that is expected to rise GEQIP1 began implementation in 2009. By 2013, as the total population reaches 125 million by 2025. Ethiopia had made impressive strides. The country Even with this surge in accessibility, inequity in achieved a 1:1 ratio of textbooks to students and a both availability and quality of education is prevalent 1:40 ratio of teaching guides to students for most and improvement in learning outcomes have not subjects for which learning materials were devel- kept pace with the expansion of Ethiopia’s education oped in English for the secondary grades, and in four system. Students from the poorest sections of soci- major regional languages for the primary grades. New ety, girls, and school-goers from pastoral areas face learning materials were also developed to reflect the socio-cultural barriers and financial constraints that new curriculum. Most of these results were achieved prevent them from enrolling or finishing in school. through a steady stream of funding from public To bridge this quality gap, the Ethiopian gov- sources and development partners, and through well- ernment has developed the General Education designed policies for textbook provision. A policy Quality Improvement Project (GEQIP), which is of offering a single textbook (title) for core subjects a government-led program with active participa- helped to achieve economies of scale, and the larger tion from eight development partners, including print runs reduced textbook unit costs. Effective and the World Bank, Global Partnership for Education, fair mechanisms like international competitive bid- UK, Finland, Italy, Norway, UNICEF and USA. All ding helped to locate the most economical bidders. funding sources are pooled, with the World Bank Bundling development, printing, and distribution of acting as the supervising agent. GEQIP1 became textbooks helped create a linear production process. effective in June 2009 and ended in December 2013. Finally, clear quality specifications and high produc- The main components of the first phase of the proj- tion values for learning materials increased their lifes- ect (GEQIP1) were: (i) textbook and curriculum pan and helped to reduce recurrent production costs. x Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia Nevertheless, given the short time frame for Ethiopia. This report is based on a desk review implementing GEQIP1, textbook provision in of project documents, policy papers, and survey Ethiopia is not yet on a sustainable foundation. This reports, complemented by discussions with several report analyzes the reasons and proposes several stakeholders. The World Bank regional study titled steps to amend current practices. For example, a Getting Textbooks to Every Child in Sub-Saharan vast textbook provision framework that prints over Africa: Strategies for Addressing the High Cost and 54.6 million books for the primary level and 23.5 Low Availability Problem has informed this report. million textbooks for the secondary level requires a This publication will be important to education robust education management information system practitioners at all levels, school administrators, to track status of supplies and plan replenishments. teachers, students, parents, and development Similarly, scaling up of the textbook distribution partners. network is essential to facilitate timely deliveries As we focus our attention on inclusive and equi- to urban and rural schools, and school authorities table quality education, SDG 4 touches on the broader should be trained in the proper use and storage and more inclusive humanistic and moral purposes of textbooks. Capacity strengthening should take of education and how they impact policies, curricu- place at all levels of the educational administration lar contents and teacher preparation. Textbooks are to handle complex procurement processes such as related not only to policy implementation and cur- international competitive bidding. Capacity build- ricular changes but also to teacher preparation and ing among local publishers could help to reduce student assessment. Every country can learn from dependence on foreign publishers and printers. The Ethiopia’s program to ensure that all children and government should earmark adequate and long-term teachers receive and utilize high-quality, low-cost finances to make sure that textbook provision in textbooks and teaching learning materials as essen- Ethiopia is sustainable and integral to the program of tial tools for improving learning outcomes at the quality enhancement in education. Finally, teachers country level. should be trained to use textbooks effectively, and every child must be encouraged to bring textbooks Sajitha Bashir to school. Practice Manager The lessons described here will inform future Education Global Practice, Africa East efforts to provide textbooks to every child in World Bank Group xi ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment IT Information technology EMDPA Ethiopian Materials Production and KG Kindergarten Distribution Agency MoE Ministry of Education ETB Ethiopian birr NCB National competitive bidding G Grade NER Net enrollment rate GEQIP General Education Quality NLA National Learning Assessment Improvement Program/Project PAD Project Appraisal Document GER Gross enrollment rate REB Regional Education Bureau gsm Grams per square meter TB Textbook GTP Growth and Transformation Plan TG Teaching guide [Ethiopia] TLM Teaching/learning material ICB International competitive bidding xiii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY W hile Ethiopia has experienced remark- practical recommendations for developing a sustain- able improvement in access to education, able system for providing textbooks in Ethiopia. quality of education has hardly kept pace. By the 2013–14 school year, Ethiopia achieved An acute shortage of teaching/learning materials a 1:1 ratio of textbooks to students and a 1:40 ratio has particularly hampered learning in primary and of teaching guides to students. This goal was met in secondary education, and the limited materials every subject at the primary level, for which learning available frequently turn out to be of poor quality. materials were developed in English and four major For a low-income country such as Ethiopia, where regional languages. It was also met in every subject class sizes are large, teachers often are untrained, and at the secondary level for which content was created instructional time is cut short by various contingen- in English. The new learning materials were aligned cies, access to good quality teaching/learning mate- with the new curriculum and designed to benefit rials can greatly improve the quality of education. major linguistic groups. In 2010–11, to the benefit of the overall qual- These achievements came about as a result of ity of education, newly developed textbooks and reliable financing and well-considered policies for teaching guides started to become widely available textbook provision. The government’s program was in Ethiopia under the General Education Quality strongly supported by development partners, and Improvement Project (GEQIP). GEQIP is a two- the private sector provided essential needs-based phase program led by the government with active assistance. A single-title textbook policy for core participation of eight development partners; and subjects (in other words, developing one title per all funding sources are pooled, and the World subject) helped to achieve economies of scale, and Bank is the supervising entity. The program is larger print runs made it possible to reduce the designed to improve quality of general education unit cost of textbooks. A decision to pursue inter- in Ethiopia through five components: curriculum national competitive bidding made it possible to reform and textbook provision; a teacher develop- combine and streamline the development, print- ment program; a school improvement program; ing, and distribution of textbooks. Government’s management and capacity building; and the use policy to retain copyright of the new materials sig- of information and communication technology in nificantly reduced reprinting costs. Finally, high education. The first phase of the program, GEQIP1, standards for textbook content and production began in June 2009 and ended in December 2013; values helped to improve the quality and durabil- GEQIP2 started in February 2014 and will end in ity of the materials and reduce the recurrent costs July 2018. of providing them. This report examines the achievements as well as the challenges encountered in providing teach- Objectives of the Report ing/learning materials in Ethiopia under GEQIP1. It pays particular attention to the lessons learned Despite these results, the system for developing from this first phase. Based on those lessons, it offers and delivering textbooks in Ethiopia is not yet xiv Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia sustainable. This report draws on a review of proj- Lack of expertise and limited production facili- ect documents, policy papers, and survey reports, ties of local publishers and printers have required the in addition to discussions with stakeholders, to gain government to resort to international alternatives, insight into the most common barriers to making sometimes to the detriment of local enterprises. teaching/learning materials available on a long-term Given that it would be preferable to rely on local sup- basis and identify strategies for overcoming them. pliers to produce teaching/learning materials of com- parable quality to those produced internationally, a Main Findings systematic effort is essential to scale up local capacity and enable the local printing industry to become Ethiopia printed more than 78 million textbooks competitive in supplying national requirements. for 20.1 million students under GEQIP1. When As in many nations, Ethiopia’s weakest link in the current reliance on development partners to the textbook supply chain is the distribution system. provide teaching/learning materials comes to an Schools in rural and remote areas suffer the most. end, these impressive gains can be sustained only Restructuring the delivery system would ensure if the Ethiopian government allocates adequate, more timely distribution of teaching/learning mate- predictable yearly financing from the treasury to do rials from districts (woredas) to schools. so. Based on the experience of GEQIP1, the average Finally, students must be encouraged to bring budget to sustain the provision of textbooks and their textbooks to school rather than keep them at teaching guides is estimated at 6–8 percent of the home for fear of damaging them and incurring fines. yearly recurrent budget for education (8–10 percent Teachers, who are the primary facilitators of learning, if supplementary materials are added). A second must be trained in effective handling of textbooks prerequisite for sustaining these gains is to develop and to play an active role in sensitizing families to an effective information management system to the importance of using textbooks in the classroom. track national demand for textbooks in relation to Although a country’s expenditure on learning supply and facilitate inventory control. materials is often a good indicator of its commit- To handle the complexities of international ment to providing good quality education for all, competitive bidding and maintain a strict timeline textbooks are the most powerful tools for improv- for routine delivery, the MoE should plan a robust ing learning outcomes in the most efficient way capacity-building exercise that will help Ethiopia possible. As SDG 4 emphasizes the importance not only to manage textbook provision for larger of access to learning materials as a key strategy to linguistic groups but mainstream access to textbooks achieve, “inclusive and equitable quality education for minority groups as well. and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.” 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Country Context (grades 5–8). The four years of secondary education are also split into a first (grades 9–10) and second Ethiopia’s federal system of government, encom- cycle (grades 11–12) serving as preparatory steps for passing nine autonomous regions and two chartered university education. Access to both primary and cities, was established in the early 1990s, and in the secondary education expanded rapidly during the early 2000s, administrative functions were decen- last two decades. The net enrollment rate (NER) for tralized to the regional and district (woreda) levels. primary education more than quadrupled, ris- The country now has the second-largest population ing from 21.6 percent in 1996 to 92.6 percent in in Africa—estimated at 101.8 million in 2016—of 2014, and the gross enrollment rate (GER) in the which only a minority (19 percent) lives in urban first secondary cycle tripled from 12.8 percent in centers (UN 2015). At the current annual growth 2000 to 39.3 percent in 2014. Ethiopia’s education rate of 2.6 percent, by 2025 Ethiopia will have an system served 3.5 million primary and secondary estimated 125 million people. students in 1995, 12.4 million in 2005, and 20.1 mil- Even with its recent substantial progress in eco- lion in 2014. More than 80 languages are spoken in nomic and social development, Ethiopia remains the country; 36 are currently used for medium of one of the world’s poorest countries. To sup- instruction in primary schools. port its aspiration of becoming a middle-income The robust expansion in enrollment was not country by 2025, Ethiopia has adopted a Growth matched by improved learning outcomes. Grade 4 and Transformation Plan (GTP), in which edu- students tested in English, environmental science, cation plays a critical role. The Education Sector mathematics, and reading in the mother tongue Development Program, which is part of the GTP, recorded lower composite National Learning is focused on improving access to quality educa- Assessment (NLA) scores. Lower scores were also tion for all. Within the framework of its education recorded for grade 8 students tested in biology, sector plan, the government has developed the English, mathematics, and physics (Figure 1.1). General Education Quality Improvement Program Similarly, in the 2010 NLA, mean scores for grade (GEQIP),1 which focuses on quality reforms such 10 (36 percent) and grade 12 (47.8 percent) were as implementing a new curriculum, developing and both below the minimum standard of 50 percent providing teaching/learning materials, providing set by the 1994 education and training policy. An school grants to enhance school-based development Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) conducted reforms, as well as institutional development at the in six languages in 2010 found that 33.9 percent of federal, regional, and woreda levels. Education Sector 1 GEQIP is a government-led program with active participation of seven development partners. All funding sources are pooled, and the Primary education lasts eight years in Ethiopia, World Bank is the supervising entity. GEQIP1 became effective in June 2009 and ended in December 2013. GEQIP2 became effective in split into a first cycle (grades 1–4) and second cycle February 2014 and will end in July 2018. 2 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia Ethiopia National Learning FIGURE 1.1:  administered by the Ministry of Education (MoE), Assessment, Composite Scores was unable to supply sufficient textbooks. Though (%) precise data on the shortage prior to 2010–11 are not 60 available, generally students either shared textbooks 47.54 48.5 or fully relied on teachers’ notes (MoE 2008). The 50 40.9 40.06 40 inefficient delivery system prevented textbooks from 30 reaching schools on time, and teaching guides were nonexistent. The few textbooks in circulation were 20 poorly written and not very durable. During that 10 period in Ethiopia, effective teaching and learning 0 2000 2004 2007 2011 was an almost unattainable goal. Grade 4 Grade 8 In a departure from that approach, in 2009 the Source: National Educational Assessment and Examinations Agency, MoE decided to procure textbooks and teaching 2000–12. guides through private publishers,3 with support from the World Bank and other development partners (DPs) under GEQIP1. This decision sig- children in grade 2 and 20 percent in grade 3 read nificantly transformed the quantity and quality zero words correctly (USAID 2010). of the textbooks and teaching guides provided to Several factors have contributed to these low schools. In 2013–14, for the first time, the ratio learning results, including the relevance and suit- of textbooks to students reached 1:1 for texts in ability of the curriculum, teacher qualifications and most subjects. motivation, teaching methods, school leadership and management, the availability of basic facilities, students’ home backgrounds, and many others. The most critical factor, however, was the short- 2 TLMs include textbooks, teaching guides, and supplementary mate- rials (aside from print materials such as reading books, dictionaries, age of teaching/learning materials (TLMs).2 The atlases, reference books, and school library books, TLMs also include state-controlled Ethiopian Materials Production non-print materials such as films, audiotapes, CDs, DVDs, software, and so on). and Distribution Agency (EMDPA), a printing and 3 See the ministry’s draft textbooks and teaching guides development distribution organization established in 1975 and and procurement policy (2012). 3 PROVISION OF TEXTBOOKS: ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES 2 Curriculum and Languages of Instruction of regional languages in primary schools is a long- standing tradition in Ethiopia—both the Ethiopian A new curriculum framework for KG to G12, includ- Education and Training Policy (1994) and the ing syllabi and minimum learning competencies per Ethiopian constitution (Negarit Gazeta 1995) grant subject per grade, was introduced in 2010. The new permission to primary schools to do so—and is curriculum—replacing the curriculum adopted in supported by research showing that mother tongue the mid-1990s—focused on active learning meth- instruction improves performance and completion odologies and addressed weaknesses such as content rates (World Bank 2002; UNESCO 2008; Read 2015). overloading and poor sequencing. The new curricu- As a result, 36 languages (out of more than 80 lum formed the basis for developing tailor-made used in Ethiopia) are currently used for instruc- textbooks and teaching guides for each subject in tion or are under preparation for use, with several primary and secondary education (Table 2.1 lists languages co-existing within the same regions (see the subjects by grade). In line with the government’s Annex 1). A survey by Young Lives (2014) reveals decentralization policy, Regional Education Bureaus that about 80.5 percent of grade 4 sample students in (REBs) adapted the national curriculum for primary seven regions are able to learn in the same language education to suit local conditions, including making that they speak at home. textbooks available in local languages of instruction. The multi-language instruction system is not The current language of instruction in second- without pitfalls. While GEQIP1 provided primary ary schools is English, and several languages are used school textbooks in the four major languages used for primary schools, in addition to English. The use by 75 percent of the population (Amharic, Oromifa, TABLE 2.1: Subjects in Primary and Secondary Education by Grade Level, Ethiopia Grade Subjects 1–2 English, environmental science, mathematics, mother tongue, arts, physical education 3–4 Amharic, English, environmental science, mathematics, mother tongue, arts, physical education 5–6 Amharic, civics and ethical education, English, integrated science, mathematics, mother tongue, social studies, music, physical education, visual arts 7–8 Amharic, biology, chemistry, civics and ethical education, English, mathematics, mother tongue, physics, social studies, music, physical education, visual arts 9–10 Amharic, biology, chemistry, civics and ethical education, English, geography, history, information technology, mathematics, mother tongue, physics, physical education 11–12 Natural sciences: Biology, chemistry, physics, technical drawing Social sciences: Economics, general business, geography, history Common courses: Civics, English, ICT, mathematics, Amharic, nationality language, physical education Source: MoE, Curriculum Framework for Ethiopian Education: KG to G12, May 2009. Note: For subjects in italics, only teaching guides are provided. 4 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia Somali, and Tigrigna), the regions had to develop Number of Textbooks Procured TABLE 2.2:  materials in other languages spoken by smaller but under GEQIP1, 2010/11–2012/13 significant populations of students. In doing so, Teaching schools have faced several constraints. A shortage Titles Textbooks guides Total of authors and translators means that textbooks in Level (number) (million) (million) (million) some mother tongues are not ready for use. Because Primary 50 78.4 1.9 80.3 the population requiring textbooks in some lan- Secondary 50 14.2 0.3 14.5 guages is relatively small, print runs for those texts Total 100 92.6 2.2 94.8 are low, making the books more expensive. In some Source: World Bank, GEQIP1 Project Appraisal Document, 2008a. regions, a shortage of qualified teachers has forced the adoption of a gradual approach to introducing textbooks in different mother tongues; texts are introduced as a one-subject pilot until adequate 100 accompanying teaching guides in series from content is developed and teachers are trained. G1 to G12. With the target of a 1:1 ratio of textbooks to students and a 1:40 ratio of teaching guides to Minimum Profile of TLMs students, an estimated 94.8 million copies of these materials were needed (Table 2.2). During the early Under GEQIP1, support focused primarily on the stages of GEQIP1, additional textbook titles and provision of textbooks and teaching guides, which teaching guides were added in response to varia- are among several materials that the 2012 draft text- tion in mediums of instruction in primary schools. book policy lists as essential for delivering on the As noted, the MoE decided to use a competitive learning objectives of the curriculum. Other items international procurement process to seek commer- include supplementary materials by subject and cial publishers to develop primary school textbooks grade, copies of the national curriculum framework and teaching guides in the four major languages and all relevant syllabi, content flow charts, and and secondary school textbooks in English. The minimum learning competencies in each school for production of primary school textbooks and teach- reference by teachers. Schools therefore procured ing guides in the languages of instruction required supplementary TLMs (such as reading books, dic- by smaller populations was supported directly by tionaries, atlases, reference and school library books, the MoE, because the smaller print runs would science equipment and supplies) using GEQIP1 not attract large commercial publishers. As noted, school grants and funds from other sources (woreda GEQIP1 also offered school grants to support school block grants, community contributions, and grants improvement plans, including the procurement of from other DPs). Because no standards for supply- supplementary materials. ing such materials exist, there is significant variation in their availability across schools. Shortages are Achievements particularly serious in rural schools. GEQIP1 has improved access to quality textbooks Supply Targets and Performance and teaching guides in Ethiopia. The project devel- oped and printed 78.1 million new textbooks and Targets teaching guides (82.4 percent of the number esti- mated at appraisal) and delivered them to all pri- In keeping with the new curriculum, GEQIP1 mary and secondary schools between 2010–11 and aimed to provide at least 100 textbook titles and 2013–14. In sum, 148 titles and teaching guides were Provision of Textbooks: Achievements and Challenges 5 Number of New Textbooks TABLE 2.3:  which considerably delayed contract delivery. The Developed and Delivered under projected number of textbooks was based on the GEQIP1, 2010/11–2013/14 2007–08 primary school enrollment and the 2008–09 Teaching secondary enrollment, but the number of students Titles Textbooks guides Total had increased two to three years later when the Level (number) (million) (million) (million) materials were delivered. As a result, the MoE had Primary 102 53.3 1.3 54.6 to reprint some textbooks; reprints constituted 36 Secondary 46 22.9 0.6 23.5 percent of the copies eventually in use. The relatively Total 148 76.2 1.9 78.1 lower unit costs of reprints helped to offset some of Source: GEQIP1 implementation support mission aide mémoires, the increased transaction costs, however. 2009–13. For various reasons, some textbooks and teach- ing guides were not provided as planned (for details, developed in five major languages (see the summary see Annex 4): in Table 2.3 and details in Annex 2). The Implementation Completion and Results  Keen to address the poor performance revealed report for GEQIP1 (World Bank 2014a) confirmed in the 2010 EGRA, the MoE revised the mother that as of December 2013, a national textbook- tongue curriculum for primary grades. The revi- student ratio of 1:1 or better was achieved in seven sion caused ongoing bids for primary school primary school subjects and thirteen second- textbooks in mother tongues to be cancelled. ary school subjects supported by the project (see  Textbooks in subjects such as primary environ- Annex 3). Corresponding teaching guides were ment science and integrated science, with low provided at a rate of 1 guide for every 40 students. print runs, failed to attract qualified bidders, This was no ordinary feat for Ethiopia and was so the MoE and REBs decided to develop them achieved primarily because of the partnership with internally using their own resources. The MoE private sector publishers. The new arrangement also contracted a local university to develop improved the quality of materials and their distribu- teaching guides for arts, music, visual arts, and tion, and owing to fair and open competition, the physical education. The content was not print- actual costs were less than the project’s estimated ready under GEQIP1, so production was delayed. costs. The project also created opportunities for local  The MoE’s decision to develop history books textbook writers hired by international publishers using in-house staff and a local institution to enhance their skills. In addition, staff at the MoE was not realized due to lack of knowledge and and REBs gained valuable experience in managing know-how. textbook procurement, including preparing and  The plan for REBs to translate textbooks and evaluating bids, reviewing drafts of textbooks, man- teaching guides into various local languages also aging contracts, and handling distribution. fell through due to technical and financial con- straints. This failure seriously impacted the effec- Shortfalls tive implementation of the new 2010 curriculum, particularly in linguistically diverse regions. The biggest shortfall was in estimating the turn- around time required to develop, print, and distrib- Trends in student enrollment ute textbooks. GEQIP1 estimated 12 months; the government insisted that 5 months were sufficient. Enrollments in primary and secondary schools in In reality, the process took 18 months on average, Ethiopia have increased nearly six-fold in the last 6 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia FIGURE 2.1: Student Enrollment in Ethiopia, Textbook Costs 1995–2014 Several factors determine the costs of provid- ing textbooks, including student enrollment, the number of textbook titles, textbook specifications (content and print materials), unit cost, shelf-life, 25,000,000 textbook-student ratio, and rates of loss and dam- 20,000,000 age (Read 2015). Though it is difficult to compare 15,000,000 the unit cost of textbooks before and after GEQIP, the unit cost of a textbook was as low as ETB 5 prior 10,000,000 to GEQIP1, mainly because of minimum produc- 5,000,000 tion values and other specifications (MoE 2008). 0 These textbooks lasted only one year and had to be Primary Secondary Total reprinted often. The real costs were also consider- 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 ably higher due to hidden overhead expenditures Source: MoE, Educational Statistical Annual Abstracts, 1995–2015. and the amount of time it took to deliver the books to the schools. 20 years, growing at an annual rate of about 10 per- This situation changed considerably under cent (Figure 2.1). Similarly, the number of teachers GEQIP1. With higher technical specifications and more than quadrupled, rising from 105,892 in 1995 production values, the average unit costs for devel- to 438,976 in 2014. oping, printing, and distributing textbooks were In the next five years, primary NER is expected US$1.14 for primary textbooks and US$1.72 for to rise from 93 percent to 98 percent; G9–10 GER secondary textbooks. The unit costs for reprinting from 39 percent to 74 percent; and GER for G11–12 and distribution were much lower—US$0.52 and from 10 percent to 12 percent (MoE 2015). This US$1.00 for primary and secondary textbooks, huge increase in student numbers has significant respectively (Table 2.4). Under GEQIP2, unit implications for providing TLMs in Ethiopia. costs for reprinting and distributing primary and secondary textbooks in 2015/16 have continued GEQIP2 to be lower (US$0.47 and US$0.74, respectively), lower than those under GEQIP1. GEQIP2 (2014/15–2017/18) has helped to expand It should be noted, however, that the real cost and consolidate the gains made under GEQIP1, would be higher if costs of administration and and it has incorporated a number of lessons from distribution from woredas to schools were added. the first phase of the project. The project is keen to The overall project unit cost of primary textbooks maintain Ethiopia’s current textbook-student ratio was 16 percent lower than the average appraisal of 1:1 and will support the reprinting of textbooks estimate, and that of the secondary textbooks was to do so. Starting from 2016–17, new textbooks will 20 percent lower. replace worn out copies. The project also supports Data are not readily available on the different the provision of new textbooks and teaching guides, elements of textbook costs. Estimates based on as well as supplementary materials not provided project reports indicate that the cost of develop- under GEQIP1 (Annex 5 describes plans for TLMs ing textbooks was higher than the cost of printing/ under GEQIP2). In addition, GEQIP2 will continue reprinting them, which in turn was higher than the to provide grants to schools. cost of distributing them. For instance, distribution Provision of Textbooks: Achievements and Challenges 7 TABLE 2.4: Unit Costs of Textbooks and Teaching Guides, 2010/11–2013/14 Contract cost (US$) Quantity (copies) Unit cost (US$) Project estimate (US$) Primary New edition 52,721,429 35,934,561 1.47 Reprint 9,771,132 18,691,688 0.52 Subtotal 62,492,561 54,626,249 1.14 1.36 Secondary New edition 30,792,776 13,934,342 2.21 Reprint 9,541,943 9,527,327 1.00 Subtotal 40,334,719 23,461,669 1.72 2.11 Total 102,827,280 78,087,916 1.32 1.48 Source: Guzman 2014b. Cost of Distributing Textbooks TABLE 2.5:  For a set of secondary school textbooks, the amor- and Teaching Guides, Ethiopia, tized cost ranged from US$4.3 to US$4.73 for a 2010/11–2013/14 four-year book life, and from US$5.73 to US$6.31 Cost of distribution as a for a three-year book life. This cost seems reason- Grade percentage of total contract able compared to the recurrent cost per student in G1–8 10.6–13.4 2011–12 of US$28 for primary school and US$69 G5–8 9.3–20.6 for secondary (World Bank 2015). G7–8 13.7–16.6 How do such costs compare with those in other G9–12 3.8–18.7 countries in sub-Saharan Africa? At first glance, G11–12 5.5–11.6 unit costs of textbooks seem to be lower in Ethiopia than in other African countries (Table 2.7 and Source: A. Guzman 2014b. Table 2.8). Yet it is difficult to compare unit costs across countries, owing to variation in the cost ele- costs in-country to the woreda level ranged from 3.8 ments, which include origination, raw materials, percent of the contract cost for secondary school manufacturing, procurement methods, publisher textbooks and teaching guides to 20.6 percent for overhead and profit, bookseller discounts, and dis- primary school materials (Table 2.5). tribution and storage, among others (Fredriksen, With an estimated book life of three to four Brar, and Trucano 2015). For instance, the unit cost years and a 1:1 textbook-student ratio, the annual seems lower in Burundi because it includes only raw amortized unit cost ranged from US$0.29 to materials and manufacturing, the books are shorter US$0.38 for primary textbooks and from US$0.43 (mostly under 100 pages) and printed in one or two to US$0.57 for secondary textbooks. The annual colors, and the use of only one language for instruc- amortized costs for a set of books for each student tion and the absence of competing textbooks have by grade are shown in Table 2.6.4 resulted in large print runs. The annual amortized cost of a set of primary school textbooks per student ranged from US$1.14 4 Annual amortized cost of textbook set = target number of textbooks to US$2.57 with a book life of four years, and from X average unit cost X textbook-student ratio/target textbook life US$1.52 to US$3.42 with a book life of three years. (Read 2015). 8 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia TABLE 2.6: Annual Amortized Cost of Textbooks Set in Ethiopia, 2010/11–2013/14 Average annualized cost of Average annualized cost of Grade Subjects Unit cost (US$) textbook set (book life of 4 years) textbook set (book life of 3 years) G1–2 4 1:14 1.14 1.52 G3–4 5 1.43 1.90 G5–6 7 2.00 2.66 G7–8 9 2.57 3.42 G9–10 11 1.72 4.73 6.31 G11–12 10 4.30 5.73 TABLE 2.7: Textbook Cost for Grade 1, Selected Countries Cost of Target Annualized Number of textbook set Assumed book textbook- costs per pupil Country required books Price (US$) (US$) life (years) student ratio (US$) Benin 6 2.70 16.20 n.a. 1:1 n.a. Burundi 9 1.00 9.00 2–3 1:1 3.00–4.50 Chad 2 5.00 10.00 1 1:1 10.00 Côte d’Ivoire 3 3.00 9.00 1 1:1 9.00 Kenya 8 3.80 30.40 4 1:1 7.65 Madagascar 8 0.75 6.00 2 1:1 3.00 Mali 3 4.50 13.50 2–3 1:1 4.53 Namibia 3 7.50 22.50 5 1:2 2.25 Rwanda 4 2.50 10.00 4 1:1 2.50 Median 5.5 3.75 14.25 3 1:1.5 6.125 Ethiopia 4 1.14 4.56 3–4 1:1 1:14–1.52 Source: Read 2015; author’s estimate for Ethiopia. Note: n.a. indicates not available. On the other hand, unit costs in Kenya and bidding (ICB), which bundles development, print- Rwanda include all the costs of publication. Unit ing, and distribution; the use of quality and price as cost in Namibia is high because textbooks have high factors for evaluation; a copyright agreement that production values, including four-color printing; allows the government to reprint at no additional the availability of competing alternative textbooks cost; and large print runs (due to the large number and the use of seven languages for instruction have of students and the decision to offer a single title per resulted in small print runs; price is not a factor subject per grade, which led to economies of scale). in textbook evaluation; and the difficult terrain As mentioned, unit cost is not the only factor increases distribution costs (Read 2015). that determines the cost of a system for providing The relatively lower textbook costs in Ethiopia textbooks; the others include the number of books, are likely to result from several factors. They include their projected lifespan, and the textbook-student (among others) the use of international competitive ratio, which vary across countries. Although the unit Provision of Textbooks: Achievements and Challenges 9 TABLE 2.8: Textbook Cost for Grade 11, Selected Countries Cost of Target Annualized Number of textbook set Assumed book textbook- costs per pupil Country required books Price (US$) (US$) life (years) student ratio (US$) Benin 8 4.30 34.4 n.a. 1:1 n.a. Burundi 16 1 16 5 1:1 3.20 Chad 7 n.a. n.a. n.a. 3:5 n.a. Côte d’Ivoire 6 13.95 83.7 5 1:5 3.00 Kenya 8 5 40 4 1:1 10.00 Madagascar 7 n.a. n.a. n.a n.a. n.a. Mali 10 11.5 115 5 n.a. 23.00 Namibia 8 15 120 5 1:2 12.00 Rwanda 8 15 120 5 1:1 24.00 Median 11 8 88 4.5 1:3 13.50 Ethiopia 10 1.72 17.2 3–4 1:1 4.30–5.73 Source: Read 2015; author’s estimate for Ethiopia. Note: n.a. indicates not available. costs of G11 textbooks in Namibia and Rwanda are countries (Read 2015). In seven countries, the the same, for instance, the annual amortized unit government provided free textbooks for primary cost of a set of G11 textbooks in Rwanda is double school; in two, the government provided grants that of Namibia because of the difference in text- for schools to buy textbooks; and in seven coun- book-student ratios. In Côte d’Ivoire, the annual tries, parents partly or fully purchased second- amortized cost of a set of G1 textbooks is triple that ary school textbooks for their children. Some of Namibia because of differences in book life. countries (such as Gambia, Guinea, Lesotho, and Malawi) have introduced rental schemes Financing of Textbooks with school-based procurement for secondary school textbooks (Read 2015), which are reported Financing in African countries to have initially improved textbook provision. The rental system has faced several challenges For 15 countries in sub-Saharan Africa for which data over time, however, including problems associ- are available, the median share of the total recurrent ated with the collection and management of fees public education budget spent on TLMs in 2009 was and the inability of fees to keep pace with rising 6.6 percent for primary and 5 percent for secondary replacement costs. A survey by the World Bank schools. External aid constituted about 20 percent of (2008b) in 18 sub-Saharan countries5 found that that amount (Fredriksen, Brar, and Trucano 2015). secondary textbooks were financed by (i) parents This level of public expenditure on TLMs is consid- in 11 countries; (ii) government (including with ered low, and the result is that parents, especially in poor countries, must bear the huge burden of pay- ing for textbooks, particularly for secondary school. 5 Parental financing: Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Nigeria, Rwanda, Togo, Uganda, Zambia. Govern- Table 2.9 shows who pays for primary and ment financing: Botswana, Eritrea, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania. secondary textbooks in a sample of 11 African Government/parental financing: Ethiopia, Ghana. 10 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia TABLE 2.9: Sources of Textbook Funding in features of textbook provision in these countries Selected African Countries (summarized in Table 2.10) include: Country G1 G6 G8 G11 Benin S S P P  They have relatively well developed administra- Burundi S S S S tive and management structures for providing textbooks. Chad F F P P  The governments in these countries play a lead- Côte d’Ivoire F F P P ing role in providing free textbooks and allocate Kenya C C CP CP significant resources to do so; they have achieved Madagascar F F P P almost a 1:1 ratio of textbooks to students. Mali F F F F  Textbooks are aligned with the national cur- Namibia F F F F riculum framework. These countries provide a Nigeria F F F/P/C F/P/C single title textbook for each subject per grade. Rwanda C C C C  In India and Vietnam, the MoE is given Sierra Leone F F F/P F/P responsibility for developing textbooks and Source: Read 2015. retains full copyright, which makes reprint- Note: F= free government supply to schools; C= purchased by ing cheaper. schools with government funding; P= parent purchase; R= textbook rental fee paid by parents; S= government provides limited free  In the Philippines, private publishers are con- safety net supplies. tracted for developing, printing, and distrib- uting textbooks, which contributes to lower costs; copyright for five years reduces the costs external aid) in 5 countries; and (iii) a mix of of reprinting. In India, printing is also done government and parents in 2 countries. through competitive bidding, which helps to On quality and equity grounds, it is generally keep the unit costs lower. agreed that the government should provide ade- quate funds for at least primary-level textbooks. It Ethiopia is estimated that countries in sub-Saharan Africa could provide all primary students with three to The total education allotment within the govern- five textbooks per grade if they allocated 3–5 per- ment budget has been stable at about 20 percent cent of their primary education budgets to that between 2003/04 and 2011/12. Recurrent spend- task, and all secondary students with five to eight ing in education, on the other hand, has risen in textbooks per grade if they allocated 4–6 percent response to the rapid expansion of the system to of their secondary education budgets. These reach 33 percent of government recurrent spending allocations are higher than current allocations in 2011–12 (World Bank 2015). (Fredriksen, Brar, and Trucano 2015). Before GEQIP1, salaries accounted for the bulk of general education recurrent spending (96 Experiences of India, the Philippines, and percent for primary education and 87 percent for Vietnam secondary education in 2008–09). The remaining funds were insufficient to cover non-salary costs, Three Asian countries—India, the Philippines, and including textbooks, other TLMs, and training Vietnam—have pursued policies in textbook pro- for teachers and school leaders. GEQIP1 provided vision and financing that could benefit Ethiopia much-needed funding for non-salary recurrent (Fredriksen, Brar, and Trucano 2015). Common spending; consequently, the share of salaries in Provision of Textbooks: Achievements and Challenges 11 TABLE 2.10: Features of Textbook Provision Systems in India, the Philippines, and Vietnam India Philippines Vietnam Textbook title policy Single title per subject per grade Single title per subject per grade Single title per subject per grade Textbook–student 1:1 1:1 1:1 ratio Textbook life 1 year 5 years 4 years Financing Free for G1–8 Free at all levels (collected at Free for 30–40% of children end of school year); with donor living in poor and remote areas partner support (collected at end of school year); 60–70% of students buy their own textbooks (discard or resell at end of school year) Content and Government, using pools of pre– Private publishers through Government, using pools of pre– textbook identified authors competitive bidding identified authors development based on national curriculum Copyright Government Reprinting rights for 5 years Government Printing Competitive bidding among Competitive bidding (printing and Government/Education Publishing approved printers development costs linked) House using state printing houses Distribution Government using resource Suppliers Government/Education Publishing centers House US$ US$ Average unit cost Grades Subjects (2011 Grades Subjects (2010) Grades Subjects US$ (2011) G1–2 3 0.67 G1–2 4 0.92 G1–3 5 0.8 G3–5 4 0.67 G3–6 6 0.92 G4–5 9 0.7 G6–8 6 1.06–1.11 G7–10 9 1.11 G6–7 15 0.8 G9–10 8 1.11 – – – G8–9 14 1 G11–12 5 3.55 – – – G10–12 13 1.3 science Arts 5 5.11 – – – – – – Commerce 5 3.27 – – – – – – Source: Adapted from Fredriksen, Brar, and Trucano 2015. recurrent spending has declined to 83 percent for ratio, the estimated annual cost was US$35–47 primary education and 81 percent for secondary million, which amounted to 36–48 percent of the education since 2011–12. non-salary education expenditure and 6–8 percent Between 2010/11 and 2013/14, GEQIP1 allo- of the recurrent education expenditure in 2011/12 cated an estimated US$140 million to procure (Table 2.11). Expenditures on TLMs other than primary (US$109 million) and secondary (US$31 textbooks and teaching guides are not readily avail- million) textbooks and teaching guides for students able, but as mentioned they may possibly increase in each grade and subject. With a textbook life of the annual cost of TLMs to 8–10 percent of the three to four years and a 1:1 textbook-student recurrent budget for education. 12 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia TABLE 2.11: Estimated Annual Textbook Cost as a Percentage of Education Spending in Ethiopia, 2010/11–2013/14 Estimated annual textbook cost as % of non- Estimated annual textbook cost as % of recurrent salary spending in education spending in education Level Book life of 4 years Book life of 3 years Book life of 4 years Book life of 3 years Primary 0.37 0.49 0.06 0.08 Secondary 0.35 0.46 0.07 0.09 Total 0.36 0.48 0.06 0.08 Source: Estimated based on GEQIP1 allocation (World Bank 2008a) and financing review findings (World Bank 2015). The Ethiopian government’s policy is to lend In Ethiopia, prior to GEQIP1, the MoE Institute textbooks to students in public primary and first- of Curriculum Development and Research retained cycle secondary schools (G1–10) without charge, responsibility for developing secondary grade text- and to provide textbooks on a cost-sharing basis in books, and REBs managed primary grade textbooks second-cycle secondary schools (G11–12).6 Under using their own staff or private authors. Prior to GEQIP1, however, schools have been lending text- GEQIP1, both the MoE and REBs depended solely books free of charge to all students in all primary and on the MoE-administered Ethiopian Materials secondary grades. Students are normally required to Production and Distribution Agency and a few return the books at the end of school year or repay local printers for printing and distribution. These the full cost for lost or damaged books. Thanks to arrangements, while failing to provide sufficient GEQIP2, this arrangement will continue at least numbers of textbooks with internationally competi- until 2018. Post-GEQIP2, the government needs tive content, pedagogical methods, and illustrations, to devise a financing mechanism to maintain the also failed to provide them on time to schools. State current status of textbook provision and respond to provision of TLMs was constrained by the limited additional needs resulting from system expansion. local textbook-writing and publishing skills, the lack of modern technology to manufacture textbooks Procurement and Contract Management locally, insufficient funding and incentives, inef- ficient management, and other factors. State versus private sector provision Because the MoE competitively procured private services to develop, print, and distribute textbooks The introduction of public-private partnerships for and teaching guides under GEQIP1, the ministry was providing textbooks was a relatively late occurrence free to focus on managing procurement, determining in Ethiopia compared to other African countries. the criteria for evaluating textbooks, securing funds, The transition from state provision of textbooks to getting textbooks to students, and training teach- private sector involvement started in Anglophone ers. This partial liberalization of textbook provision countries (Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, improved students’ access to textbooks of better qual- Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Uganda, and ity, at a lower cost, in four major languages in primary Zambia, for instance) in the 1990s (Read 2015). A schools as well as in English in secondary schools. World Bank survey of 19 countries in 2008 found that nearly all had shifted to private publishers to produce secondary school textbooks (World Bank 6 Students in private schools are required to buy their own books. REBs make separate arrangements with publishers to print additional copies 2008b). of materials and sell them to private schools. Provision of Textbooks: Achievements and Challenges 13 Centralized versus decentralized procurement of scale, MoE found it problematic and stressful to manage ICB for a number of reasons.9 Over the last 15 years, African countries have moved First, it was difficult for a central agency such away from central textbook procurement to school- as the MoE to accurately determine the number of based selection. Schools in Botswana, Cameroon, textbooks required by each school throughout the Côte d’Ivoire, Kenya, and Tanzania, for instance, country, resulting in frequent variation in orders select textbooks from a government-approved list and reprinting to meet shortages. Second, capacity and order them directly from booksellers using gov- at the MoE was not equal to the complex task of ernment school grants or funds supplied by parents. procuring textbooks and teaching guides for more Schools in Lesotho, Rwanda, and Uganda order than 3,000 schools. An added difficulty was that the from their own lists. Other countries—including ministry was constantly recruiting and training new Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria (partly), and Sierra staff because it had problems attracting and retain- Leone—procure textbooks centrally on behalf of the ing qualified staff. Third, apart from capacity issues, schools (World Bank 2008b; Read 2015). the MoE was slow to make decisions at each stage of Each approach has its pros and cons. School- procurement, which slowed the implementation of based selection allows schools to base their requests GEQIP1. Fourth, some bids had to be re-tendered, on their needs, whereas centralized procurement owing either to the perceived high cost (for example, requires a good information system to make realistic primary-level chemistry textbooks) or the lack of projections and avoid shortages or surpluses. School- interested or qualified bidders (for example, for based selection requires a well-established commercial primary-level environmental science and integrated book trade, adequate school funds, skills in selecting science textbooks, secondary-level mother tongue appropriate textbooks, and strong government super- textbooks, and teaching guides). vision and monitoring to prevent misuse of funds and price markups. If these requirements cannot be met, Single versus multiple textbook options centralized procurement is a better option. The limited grants received by Ethiopian schools GEQIP1 provided a single textbook title and teaching enable them to buy only a few supplementary mate- guide for each subject, grade, and language of instruc- rials through national shopping. Through national tion. This approach reduced unit costs because the competitive bidding (NCB), regions contract with books could be produced in bulk, but the drawback local printers to reprint textbooks to temporarily was that each winning bidder was the sole supplier of fill gaps and to produce small numbers of primary the textbook for a particular subject and grade, and school textbooks that REBs prepare themselves. schools had no alternative but to use that textbook. With an underdeveloped local textbook market and distribution structure, schools or regions gener- 7 Under GEQIP, ICB was the preferred method to procure textbooks. ally cannot find appropriate or adequate numbers of Where ICB was not the most economic and efficient method of pro- curement, NCB for bid packages of less than US$500,000 and national textbooks to order and buy, so most textbooks and shopping for packages less than US$50,000 were allowed. The Bank’s teaching guides developed, printed, and distributed standard bidding documents and forms were used to process all ICB procurement. Bids for NCB and shopping procurement methods under GEQIP1 were centrally procured through were processed using national/regional procedures (with the standard ICB.7 REBs delegated MoE8 to handle the interna- bidding documents and forms required by the World Bank). Under GEQIP2, the NCB threshold has been increased to US$1million. tional bidding process as they lacked experience 8 In Ethiopia, following the policy of decentralization in mid-1990s, and capacity. Although central bulk procurement, regions are responsible for managing primary and secondary educa- tion, and for providing appropriate TLMs. particularly for secondary textbooks and reprint- 9 Procuring a textbook entails more than 40 main steps, from technical ing at all levels, was believed to deliver economies specifications to contract completion. 14 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia Many African countries have followed this Project Appraisal Document (PAD) for GEQIP1 approach, including Benin (primary education), or in the contracts issued by MoE for the work Burundi, Chad, Madagascar, Malawi (primary edu- (Table 2.12). As mentioned, the PAD assumed cation), Sierra Leone, and Zimbabwe (Read 2015). that the development, printing, and distribu- As discussed, the policy in India, the Philippines, tion of textbooks would take at least one year. and Vietnam is to provide a single textbook for The contracts issued by MoE required bidders each subject, aligned to the national curriculum to deliver textbooks to woredas within 21 weeks, (Fredriksen, Brar, and Trucano 2015), which allows which proved impossible. The time allotted for these countries to gain economies of scale in text- printing, reprinting, and distribution was reduced book provision and to ensure that textbooks are to 12 weeks, which was also impossible. standardized across schools. In the long term, Ethiopia’s MoE intends to Bid preparation, evaluation, and awarding introduce a system in which schools have a wider contracts choice of textbooks (MoE 2012). Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, and Namibia have adopted There were constant delays in finalizing bids for competing, alternative textbooks selected from gov- tendering. On an average, it took about two months ernment-approved lists (Read 2015), while Lesotho, from drafting the bidding documents to issuing the Rwanda, and Uganda have chosen textbooks from invitation to bid, and most of the time was spent on lists developed by the schools themselves (World negotiations between the MoE and the World Bank. Bank 2008b). The argument in favor of a wider choice Bid submissions involved a call for offers by of textbooks is that it allows schools to choose books the MoE to supply textbooks and teaching guides suited to their students’ context and needs. On the developed according to the new curriculum. As other hand, ordering a wider array of textbooks with part of their bids, vendors were required to furnish smaller print runs is likely to increase publishers’ unit a bindery dummy (sample pages of one or more costs, particularly in cases such as Ethiopia’s primary learning units as outlined in the syllabus) of the schools, which use multiple languages of instruction. proposed book (or the stated number of pages in the case of reprinting) using the required number Procurement time frame of colors, paper, cover materials, binding, and trimming. Bidders were also required to submit The time required for each step in providing a valid laboratory test report on weight, opacity, textbooks (development, printing, and distri- and brightness of the inside pages and the folding bution) was longer than assumed either in the resistance of the textbook cover, either with the TABLE 2.12: Estimated Time Required to Develop, Produce, and Distribute Textbooks under GEQIP1 Preparation Development Shipping and Final payment and for bidding Procurement (up-to sign-off) Printing distribution contract closure 2 months 6 months 13 months 3 months 2–4 months More than 6 months From drafting of From issuance of bid From contract From printing, From loading on Checking of delivery, bid documents invitation, through signing to approval binding, packaging, ship, through customs negotiation on to receipt of bid evaluation, of page proofs for pre-shipment clearance, overland liquidity damages if World Bank no- Bank’s no-objection, printing inspection to loading distribution, to request any, processing of objection to contract signing for shipment for final payment payment Source: World Bank GEQIP2 PAD, 2013; author’s estimate for development and final payment. Provision of Textbooks: Achievements and Challenges 15 dummy or prior to printing and with each deliv- increase in enrollment as well as to replace lost or ery. The evaluation of bids10 to develop, print, and damaged books. distribute textbooks was done using a weighted system that incorporated quality and price criteria. International versus national provision The weights were 70 percent for the technical score and 30 percent for price. Contracts were awarded Calls for offers attracted eight firms on an average to the lowest evaluated bids. Criteria for evaluation, per bid, all of which were international. Twelve firms provided in the World Bank’s standard bidding were awarded contracts and two local printers col- documents for the procurement of textbooks and laborated with them to source and recruit national reading materials (2014b), included conformity to authors, and help with clearance and distribution. the new curriculum, content, language appropri- Contracts were awarded to the lowest evaluated bid- ateness, preference for active learning strategies, the ders, which created an uproar among local printers provision of teaching guides, and effective design who feared the loss of business. As a result, in 2010 and illustration. To help evaluators apply quanti- the MoE expressed a strong desire to allow Ethiopian tative measures, a checklist was devised for each printing companies to participate in the provision criterion (see Annex 6). of textbooks under the project. The MoE argued For evaluating bids involving printing and that participation would enhance their capacity and reprinting, price was the main consideration, car- make the provision of textbooks more sustainable. rying a score of 100 percent. A technical evalua- A Bank textbook specialist (Guzman 2011) con- tion verified the extent to which bids responded to ducted a survey on the capacity of local printers,11 technical specifications and requirements, including public and private. The review concluded that quality of paper, cover, and binding (among others). no local firms at that time could provide text- In both cases, the evaluation took longer than books matching the specifications for production anticipated to complete (about three and a half months on average). Mobilizing and training evalu- ators took time, and decision making at each step 10 Evaluation passed through several stages: • Preliminary examination. The MoE textbook evaluation com- of the evaluation was not quick. Many evaluation mittee conducts a preliminary examination to determine the reports were not rigorous enough and had to be completeness of bids and confirm that they respond to the com- mercial and general technical requirements. revised, more than once in some cases. • Technical evaluation. The committee sends bids passing the pre- Once a “no-objection” was granted to award liminary examination to evaluators (experienced teachers, subject area experts, curriculum specialists, who are a priori trained) recommendations, contracts were signed fairly for a technical evaluation against a set of criteria. Bids scoring a quickly (in about 15 days on average). Significant minimum of 65 percent are considered technically responsive and eligible for the financial comparison. delays occurred between the date of contract sign- • Financial comparison: The textbook evaluation committee reviews ing and the issuance of a commitment letter for a financial offers of technically responsive bids. A bid with the low- est financial offer is then given a maximum score of 100 percent, vendor to start the production process. against which other bids are compared. • Combined technical and financial evaluation. The weight is 70 percent for the technical score and 30 percent for price. The bid Copyrights with the highest combined evaluated bid score among responsive bids is determined to be the lowest evaluated bid and is eligible for contract award. Publishers contractually agreed to hand over cam- • Post-qualification criteria: The committee carries out a post- era-ready copyrighted materials to the MoE for a qualification review on the lowest-evaluated bidder, using factors such as experience, financial position, production, and distribu- five-year term, which helped the MoE run multiple tion capacity. 11 reprints at competitive rates through ICB. This The survey covered nine big printers and three publishers, both public and private. Public enterprises are legally and financially au- approach enabled the government to handle an tonomous exposed to competitive bidding. 16 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia values, quantities, and delivery times at competi- is whether to include them at the expense of an tive prices. Compared to other African countries increase in costs, a reduction in quality, and addi- like Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and Uganda (Read tional delays. 2015), where local publishers have flourished at least since the 1990s, Ethiopian publishers and Challenges printers lacked skills to compete with regional and international firms. More specifically, the survey The MoE successfully completed all textbook con- showed that (i) local firms in Ethiopia had limited tracts, but managing those contracts involved several publishing experience and expertise; (ii) they had challenges for the ministry: limited capacity in thread-sewn binding and high- quality cover finishing; (iii) they had the capacity  The delivery times that the MoE specified in only to organize printing in sequence; (iv) they its contracts were unrealistic (21 weeks from had limited access to foreign exchange to import the issuance of a letter of credit for developing, good quality paper, other printing materials, and printing, and distributing books, and 12 weeks modern printing equipment; and (iv) they were for printing/reprinting and distribution), and required to pay duty on the equipment. publishers could not meet them.14 Given that the International firms had several competi- development of a large number of textbooks in tive advantages. They had access to capital and different subjects is a complex process in which advanced printing facilities, which allowed them the volume of work required is likely to differ to handle many print jobs in parallel, thereby significantly for each title, the delivery periods reducing the lead time required to print a given specified in contracts for different textbooks text. They had rich experience and expertise in should have been different. developing textbooks to international standards.  The MoE had little experience in contract Under the United Nations protocol on the free management, particularly for appropriate flow of information, they were exempted from interpretations of contract provisions, dispute paying taxes on textbooks printed overseas mitigation, and managing contract extensions. (Fredriksen, Brar, and Trucano 2015).12 The lack of intra-agency coordination further Under these circumstances, to at least level slowed the decision-making process. the playing field the bid documents allowed a 15  Because the contracts included no milestones for percent margin of preference to domestic sup- the key stages of textbook delivery, it was prob- pliers in the evaluation of bids under ICB. The lematic for the ministry to monitor the imple- bid documents also allowed an advance payment mentation of contracts. Both parties frequently of up to 30 percent of the contract price for bids revised delivery schedules, but the revisions were quoted in local currency. This option was included never formalized and enforced. to benefit local publishers, who often faced cash flow constraints. Even so, these additional terms 12 Duty-free import is covered by the 1950 Florence Agreement on the did not seem to improve the ability of local firms importation of educational, scientific, and cultural materials to which many sub-Saharan countries are signatories, and the 1982 Nairobi to compete on the basis of either quality or price. Protocol to that agreement. Under GEQIP, the government bore a Ultimately their participation was limited to small 10 percent import tax. 13 Primary textbooks and teaching guides in civics and ethical education, print-runs13 of low-quality texts (single-color environmental science, integrated science, mathematics, social studies in publications with a lower grade of paper, cover, several mother tongues apart from those procured through ICB, as well as supplementary materials which schools buy with their school grant. and binding). While the government is keen to 14 Under GEQIP2, the time specified for printing/reprinting and involve local publishers and printers, the question distribution was increased to five months, which is still ambitious. Provision of Textbooks: Achievements and Challenges 17  Frequently delivery documentation from pub- Delays in reviewing created delays in signing off lishers was incomplete or incorrect, which on the content and approving the camera-ready delayed payments. copy for printing. On average, the development process took almost 13 months. All of these factors resulted in contract disputes between the government and vendors. Some of the Manufacturing: Printing, Binding, and disputes were resolved with publishers paying a Finishing penalty to the MoE. Prior to GEQIP1, textbooks had minimum quality Development specifications for several reasons, including a lack of budget and expertise, as well as the inability of local The textbook development process involves printers to produce textbooks in bulk. For example, “conception, content creation, editing, design, textbooks were single-color publications, printed illustration, pre-testing, and evaluation,” and the on paper with a low grade-weight ratio (58 grams final product must be approved by the appropri- per square meter for secondary level textbooks) that ate institution before it is printed (World Bank tore easily. The books were bound using wire saddle- 2002). These steps ensure that a textbook is stitching or simple stab binding, and the quality of compatible with the curriculum. In the past, the the covers was low. They were unattractive and often ministry used in-house staff or private authors lasted only a short time (one-year). to write new textbooks or adapt existing ones. GEQIP1 addressed these inadequacies. It The textbooks were of poor quality, however, specified high production values for textbooks owing to a shortage of qualified staff, financing, produced in high volumes, such as the use of high- and the MoE’s inability to manage the complexi- quality paper and covers, multi-color printing as ties of the development process. When the new needed, and thread-sewn binding. The project curriculum framework was introduced in 2010, wanted not only to make the books attractive but the MoE decided to competitively procure inter- to extend their life to three or four years, which national publishers to develop new textbooks, would reduce the recurring costs and frequency of with two exceptions: textbooks in (i) civics and reprinting. Read (2015) provides broad guidance ethical education and (ii) history.15 Publishers on production standards that can prolong the life used a mix of foreign and national authors and of textbooks to four or five years, with minimum editors to develop the textbooks, which created care at home and school. The new textbook speci- opportunities for national writers to apply and fications in Ethiopia are close to those standards enhance their skills. (Table 2.13). The MoE faced several challenges in develop- To meet the desired quality and quantity speci- ing and reviewing textbook content. GEQIP1 had fications and delivery schedule, all ICB printing of provisions for pre-testing in classroom situations, textbooks and teaching guides was done overseas and but the severe time crunch prevented that testing took an average of three months. Prior to shipment, from being done. The shortage of reviewers pre- the MoE staff conducted inspection visits to suppliers’ vented MoE from providing timely feedback to printing premises to confirm that printing, binding, publishers to make the required corrections on sample units; in the event, the MoE had to assem- 15 The MoE handled the development of these textbooks, which it con- ble teams of subject specialists for each textbook sidered to be country-specific, using its own staff and a local institution and train them in the textbook review process. to have complete control over their development. 18 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia TABLE 2.13: Textbook Specifications in Ethiopia Aesthetic specifications Technical specifications Textbook paper • Minimum weight of 70 grams per square meter • Basis weight: Not less than 80 gsm (gsm), although 80 gsm would be better • Uncoated offset text paper or better • Wood free composition with a machine finish • Brightness: Greater than 80% • White for maximum contrast and readability with • Opacity: Greater than 90% good opacity to prevent see-through pages Cover card • One-sided art card with minimum weight of • Basis weight: Not less than 230 gsm 240–260 gsm (better protection if 280–300 gsm) • Caliper: Not less than 290 microns • Rigid; caliper (thickness) not less than 300 • Solid bleached board, coated on one-side, long grain, shall not register microns fold-marks or warps when bent up to approximately 150 degrees • Color: White Finishing • Cover card finished with either a laminate or • UV coating applied on the outside cover to protect against rubbing and ultraviolet varnish to provide waterproofing scratching; resistant to scuff, heat, and chemicals; smooth finish protection, to enable covers to be wiped clean with a damp cloth to remove dust and grit Binding • Saddle-stitched binding (wire-stitch) for textbooks • Saddle-wired stitching for books up to and including 96 pages plus cover up to 96 pages long • Thread-sewing for books longer than 96 pages • Thread-sewn binding for textbooks above 96 • Soft-bound (i.e., paperback) in both cases pages Color • Four colors for primary; one or two colors for • Cover: Outside, four colors; inside, black ink only secondary, although some textbooks such as • Body: Four colors biology and geography can benefit from four- color sections Packing • Corrugated cartons packed and sealed to withstand rough handling, to protect against moisture and water damage Testing • Testing of advance copies and of delivered copies • Laboratory test report of the specified paper and cover stock properties to verify that production quality conforms to as part of bid offer required standards • Pre-shipment inspection and tests by the purchaser at the supplier’s premises Source: Adapted from Read 2015; GEQIP1 bidding documents. and packaging of textbooks and teaching guides were Distribution and Storage done according to specifications. Publishers were required to pack printed textbooks well enough to Distribution to woredas withstand rough handling and to protect against the elements. The packaging contained information Publishers/printers were required to deliver text- about the subject, grade, quantity, and destination to books and teaching guides directly to woredas and expedite delivery to the correct location. sub-cities (up to 900 woredas for primary grades, Provision of Textbooks: Achievements and Challenges 19 and about 630 for secondary grades). On average, budget for distribution, and assign appropriate staff shipment of printed materials and distribution to to monitor timely and safe delivery. the woredas took about three months. Publishers were incentivized with 80 percent of payment upon Distribution from woredas to schools delivery, which sped up the process. The payment of the final 20 percent of their contract was contingent The costs of distributing textbooks and other upon the publishers/printers submitting complete materials from woredas to schools are borne by the delivery documentation from woredas and sub-cit- schools from their own budget or by the woreda ies. Once textbooks reached the dry port of Modjo, budget. Several challenges emerged here as well. however, bureaucratic procedures delayed clear- The first, mentioned previously, was late delivery ance, which in some cases took more than a month. by contractors. A related issue is that it was rela- This arrangement was by far better than the tively easy to deliver books to urban schools but pre-GEQIP1 distribution system, although the challenging to deliver them to rural schools due to new system was not free of challenges. One con- inadequate finance and poor roads; delivery was straint was that contractors delivered textbooks to prolonged until the finance issue was resolved. woredas at different times of the year, in many cases Books for schools located far from the nearest roads long after the school year had started. Delivery to had to be transported by cycles, animals, and even remote woredas took 7–8 months in some cases. on children’s heads (increasing the risk that books Delays prompted REBs to locally reprint textbooks would be damaged). Finally, inaccurate information (in one color with low production values) as a stop- on enrollment, grades, and subjects at the woreda gap measure, incurring additional costs. Another Education Offices caused some woredas to have a binding constraint, confirmed by the 2013 Joint surplus of books while others had shortages. Review Mission, was that some publishers delivered textbooks to the wrong woredas, leading to surpluses Storage at the school level in some and shortages in others. A third issue was that woredas received no guid- The 2013 Joint Review Mission concluded that most ance on steps to be followed before issuing accep- schools lacked adequate facilities (space, shelves, tance certificates to publishers. For that reason, some cupboards) to store textbooks before the school woredas could not inspect the materials adequately year or during breaks and to safely house surplus to verify compliance with technical specifications books. Most storekeeping staff lacked basic skills in and standards. Fourth, most woredas lacked secure inventory management. The lifespan of textbooks quarters to store the new materials and trained per- and teaching guides is inevitably reduced by expo- sonnel to manage inventory. Many textbooks were sure to the elements and termites. This problem is damaged or lost before they reached schools. especially acute in primary schools in rural areas. Under GEQIP2, newly printed materials are delivered to woredas, whereas reprints are delivered Management and Use of Textbooks to a smaller number of regional depots (55 collec- tion points), where storage and distribution can Availability of textbooks be managed better. For these depots, the regions are required to develop an effective textbook man- Textbooks and teaching guides were delivered to agement information system to determine when woredas and schools in different years (see Table 2.14). supplies need to be replenished, establish effective Once the books arrive at the schools, the policy is to systems for delivery to schools, allocate an adequate lend a complete set of textbooks to students free of 20 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia Delivery of Textbooks and TABLE 2.14:  print-based TLMs. The MoE uploaded 142 teach- Teaching Guides ing guides of all grade levels and subjects in five Year and number (millions) languages (Amharic, English, Oromifa, Somali, and Cycle 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 Total Tigrigna) on its website for easy access by the stu- dents, teachers, and other stakeholders in Ethiopia. Primary 24.8 29.8 54.6 Their use is obviously constrained by limited access Secondary 5.8 6.1 11.6 23.5 to computers, power, and the internet, particu- Total 5.8 30.9 41.4 78.1 larly in rural areas. A starting point for increasing online access to texts and teaching materials in charge. Parents sign a contract to return the books Ethiopia would be the secondary schools, which at the end of school year or pay a fine for unusable have better IT facilities. Trained teachers could or lost books. Schools estimate these losses at about introduce supplementary e-materials (either on 5 percent. Lost books are not replaced because they disk or online) alongside printed textbooks and are not available on the market. teaching guides. The lack of data on inventories of textbooks and other teaching materials at the central, regional, and Care woreda levels is enormous, including data on rates of use, shortages, surpluses, and damages in more than Box 2.1 lists the essential steps printed on the 34,000 schools. A few verbal accounts surfaced ini- inside cover of each textbook for extending the tially about new textbooks being sold at high prices lifespan of books (and thus reducing recurrent to private school students in secondhand markets, printing costs). One important lesson learned from creating a scarcity of textbooks in schools. REBs most schools visited during the last few years is that tackled the problem by printing additional copies. although all schools inform students and parents Monitoring visits to sample schools in the early about the correct handling of textbooks, the result years of the project confirmed that most schools did issue textbooks to students on a 1:1 ratio in subjects supported by GEQIP1. Visits in later years BOX 2.1: Take Good Care of this Textbook (2014–15 and 2015–16) revealed shortages of text- This textbook is the property of your school. Take good care books in some subjects, however. not to damage or lose it. Here are 10 ideas to help take care With an estimated book life of three to four of the book. years, books delivered in 2010–11 and 2011–12 1. Cover the book with protective material, such as plastic, (constituting about 47 percent of the books provided old newspapers, or magazines. under GEQIP1) must already have deteriorated. 2. Always keep the book in a clean, dry place. 3. Be sure your hands are clean when you use the book. Under GEQIP2, replacement copies are expected to 4. Do not write on the cover or inside pages. arrive e in the 2016–17 school year. Poor planning 5. Use a piece of paper or cardboard as a bookmark. and procurement constraints have caused delays, 6. Never tear or cut out any pictures or pages. 7. Repair any torn pages with paste or tape. which have forced schools to issue either worn 8. Pack the book carefully when you place it in your school textbooks or black and white reprints to students. bag. 9. Handle the book with care when passing it to another person. E-textbooks 10. When using a new book for the first time, lay it on its back. Open only a new page at a time. Press lightly along In the near term, e-textbooks are unlikely to the bound edge as you turn the pages. This will keep the cover in good condition. emerge as a widespread alternative to traditional Provision of Textbooks: Achievements and Challenges 21 TABLE 2.15: Results of School Inspection of Teaching Standards, 2014 and 2015 Level 1 schools Level 2 schools Standard Scores <50% 50–69.99% <50% 50–69.99% 11 – teaching well planned 78 20 29 60 12 – subject knowledge 20 64 6 45 13 – teaching methods 74 25 23 64 18 – assessment 62 36 14 65 Source: Tihtina, Analysis of National Inspection Data from MoE from 2014 and 2015 inspections, March 2016. is always a mixed assortment of well-handled and effectively, but the training has not yet been badly damaged books. In one of the school visits, fully implemented. More generally, the overall it was reported that “textbooks were in poor physi- capacity of teaching staff appears to be an issue. cal condition, badly dog-eared, missing covers, School inspections in nine of eleven regions in and [had] grimy pages” (World Bank, June 2015). 2014 and 2015 found that most teachers did not meet minimum standards related to teaching,16 Using textbooks effectively in classrooms including (i) well-planned teaching with grade- appropriate resources; (ii) adequate knowledge of The improved availability of textbooks is no guar- the subject(s) they teach; (iii) the use of correct antee that they will be used effectively in classrooms. and modern teaching methods that increase stu- Many students do not bring textbooks to school; dents’ participation; and (iv) making the neces- they may be too many and too heavy to carry every sary assessment of student learning and providing day, or the family discourages the practice because the right feedback to students. Of 18,372 schools they fear damaging the books and incurring a fine. inspected, 87 percent were classified as Levels 1 On average students have six to seven periods/sub- and 2—below the national standard—and most jects per day, and they are reluctant to bring all the performed poorly with respect to all teaching books to class each day. standards (Table 2.15). An exit survey of GEQIP1 (2013) reported that Between 2013 and 2015, less than 15 percent of 58 percent of students brought their textbooks to the college and university graduate teachers who took classroom. The 2013 Joint Review Mission in three licensing tests that assessed their knowledge of con- regions (Amhara, Gambella, and Somali) and sub- tent (75 percent) and pedagogy (25 percent) scored sequent visits by DPs and MoE to schools in other above the minimum standard of 70 percent (World regions observed that students sit in classrooms in Bank 2015). These results imply that new teachers groups of five, and each student brings a different are unlikely to use the new textbooks effectively textbook to share during the teaching-learning pro- to deliver the learning objectives of the school cess. Textbooks cannot be used for individual assign- curriculum. ments in the classroom, and sharing one textbook among five students for group work is not ideal, 16 Schools are classified into four levels of performance based on 26 either. Poor use of textbooks in classrooms is bound standards of inputs, processes, and outcomes: Level 1 schools (below to have an adverse impact on student learning. the standard) have an overall score below 50 percent; Level 2 schools (improving) have a score of 50–69.99 percent; Level 3 schools (meets GEQIP1 had provisions to train teachers the standard) have a score of 70–89.99 percent; and Level 4 schools to use the new textbooks and teaching guides (above the standard) have a score of 90–100 percent. 22 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia Monitoring and Evaluation Educational Assessment and Examination Agency show a positive relationship between the availability Impact on learning and use of TLMs and student achievement. TLMs—including textbooks, teaching guides, Review of textbooks and reference books—are the primary source of information for students and teachers in Ethiopia. The 2013 Joint Review Mission on education Evidence supports the view that the availability and revealed that the overall attitude of principals, teach- effective use of TLMs can have a positive impact on ers, and students toward Ethiopia’s new textbooks student learning outcomes (Read 2015). Textbooks and teaching guides was extremely positive, finding are a core component of the new Sustainable the books to be well-designed in content and pro- Development Goal on education, which recog- duction. Some shortcomings were reported, includ- nizes that increasing access to appropriate learning ing editorial mistakes, disregard for local contexts materials is a key strategy to achieve “inclusive and and culture, and a mismatch between content and equitable quality education and promote lifelong period allotment, among others. Such shortcomings learning opportunities for all” (UNESCO 2016). could have been addressed with pre-testing in class- The role of TLMs is particularly significant in rooms. Obviously a systematic review of feedback Ethiopia, where teacher quality is low, instructional from teachers and students on the new textbooks time is short, class size is large, and school facilities as well as learning assessment results is required to are either scarce or substandard. National learning determine gaps and make the necessary adjustments assessments conducted over 2000–12 by the National to future editions. 23 LESSONS LEARNED AND RECOMMENDATIONS 3 T he discussion in this report has already pointed regional textbook units, equipping them with digi- to several lessons from the GEQIP1 experience tal printing facilities, strengthening the capacity of of providing TLMs to schools throughout local printers, and so on) to provide appropriate Ethiopia. This section summarizes the main lessons and adequate textbooks to students whose mother and offers recommendations for establishing a sus- tongue is not used widely enough to attract com- tainable, affordable system to continue providing petitive bidding on TLMs. these materials in the future. Minimum Profile of TLMs Availability of Textbooks Supplementary materials are an important addi- A textbook information management system tion to textbooks and teaching guides to deliver is essential to track needs, procurement, deliv- the learning objectives of a curriculum. Because eries, and inventories. Nationally, a 1:1 ratio of most schools do not have adequate and relevant textbooks to students and a 1:40 ratio of teach- materials, the MoE is preparing a framework ing guides to students were achieved in subjects to provide supplementary materials in mother supported by GEQIP1 in the 2013–14 school tongues, mathematics, and science for first-cycle year. Since then, no information has been avail- primary schools. The MoE also needs to develop able on the status of these materials by region, similar frameworks for (i) other levels of education woreda, or school. An effective textbook infor- and (ii) other supplementary materials, includ- mation management system is needed at all levels ing supply standards. These frameworks will help to determine available stocks, reduce under- and decision makers to make financial projections and over-ordering of textbooks, and effectively man- publishers to respond to needs. age replenishment. Unit Cost Textbooks in Multiple Languages By introducing competition into the provision of Textbooks in Ethiopia’s major primary languages textbooks, implementing a single-title textbook are more widely available, but special steps must policy, and retaining copyrighted camera-ready be taken to expand access to appropriate and materials, Ethiopia has been able to provide text- adequate textbooks for smaller linguistic groups. books at a relatively lower unit cost compared to the Regions use different languages of instruction in project’s initial estimates and compared to other primary schools, but TLMs in several languages African countries. Unit costs could be reduced fur- are either nonexistent or inadequate. For effective ther by improving the efficiency of procurement and mother tongue instruction, it is critical that regions distribution systems and procedures and by improv- take the necessary measures (such as strengthening ing the storage, care, and use of textbooks. 24 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia Sustainable Financing would increase to 8–10 percent if TLMs other than textbooks and teaching guides are included. A sustainable financing system needs to be estab- In the long run, the government might apply a lished to provide an adequate supply of quality policy of partial cost sharing. Under such a policy, textbooks to children. The government and DPs G11 and G12 students would purchase textbooks have made a huge investment through GEQIP1 in from schools or directly from booksellers. The improving access to quality textbooks and teach- government would still need to provide subsidies ing guides since 2010–11. GEQIP2 will fund the to students who cannot afford to purchase books. provision of TLMs until 2018–19. After that, the government needs to establish an effective financing Public Versus Private Provision mechanism—one that is also affordable, sustainable, and predictable—for the supply of TLMs. The provision of textbooks (development, print- According to the 1994 Education and Training ing, and distribution) through competitive bid- Policy, as well as the draft textbook policy, the prior- ding is more efficient and cost-effective than ity for government financial support extends to the public provision. By partnering with private pub- completion of general secondary education (G10), lishers, Ethiopia has produced better-designed and with cost-sharing at G11 and G12. Currently, how- illustrated textbooks in appropriate languages, ever, the government lends textbooks free of charge with more relevant content that stimulates active to all public school students. If the government learning. As part of the contract, publishers/print- wishes to continue the current practice, it has two ers delivered textbooks directly to woredas, thus main options. One is to rely on continued renew- improving the distribution system to that level. The als of support from DPs after GEQIP2, which is not government still manages this system, determining guaranteed. A second option is for the Treasury to which textbooks to use, how they should be pub- allocate a specific budget to provide textbooks. lished, how to cover their costs, and so on, and it also Currently the government allocates block grants plays a key role in providing textbooks to students to woredas, which are responsible for allocating from smaller linguistic groups that cannot be served those funds across sectors based on their priorities, through competitive bidding. including education. Woredas allocate block grants to schools for non-salary expenditures, either in Centralized Versus Decentralized cash or kind, but these grants are totally inadequate System of Procurement and used mostly to buy stationary supplies. Even if these grants are increased, schools cannot find In the absence of a well-developed commercial the required textbooks on the market, and it is not textbook market and distribution network, cen- practical or cost-effective for individual schools to tralized textbook procurement (either by MoE or place new orders with publishers/printers, particu- REBs) is preferred to school-based procurement. larly international ones. Schools are underfinanced and lack the experience The federal/regional government therefore needs to procure textbooks on their own. Even if schools to set aside part of the recurrent education budget for had sufficient funding (through school grants, for the central provision of textbooks. The budget must example), the local market and distribution system be sustainable, predictable, and adequate for meet- are not sufficiently developed to meet demand. ing the textbook supply standards. Such a budget, Central bulk purchasing reduces unit costs due based on GEQIP1 data, is estimated at 6–8 percent to economies of scale, but central procurement has of the yearly recurrent education budget. That share its challenges. In particular, the absence of reliable Lessons Learned and Recommendations 25 information prevents realistic projections of the in primary schools where multiple languages are number of textbooks needed in each subject, grade, used for instruction. and school. Procurement of new textbooks took a minimum of two years, and reprinting took at least Government Retention of Copyright one year. These turnaround times are longer than projected in the PAD or contracts. To improve The copyright agreement concluded with each delivery, the MoE needs to address inefficiencies at publisher under GEQIP1 enabled the MoE to each stage of the procurement process. reprint textbooks and teaching guides at lower A critical first step is for the MoE to strengthen unit costs. These texts are expected to be used until its system for collecting data on textbook require- a new curriculum is introduced, but the copyright is ments. Second, the ministry should have adequate valid for only five years. It is therefore recommended expertise and a sound system for procurement and that the MoE renews its copyrights to avoid possible contract management and monitoring. Third, it legal disputes and disruptions in textbook provision. must establish a clear coordination and accountabil- ity mechanism, both at the MoE and REBs, to expe- Higher Benchmark for Technical dite the decision-making process. Fourth, the MoE Specifications should have detailed implementation schedules that are time-bound for key milestones and agreed upon The use of high production standards has helped between the two parties. Delivery schedules need to to prolong the life of textbooks and teaching guides coincide with the start of the school year. Fifth, the and to reduce the cost of providing them. To ensure MoE should consider conducting periodic orienta- that suppliers were providing textbooks in compli- tions for contractors, MoE staff, REBs, and woreda ance with quality specifications, the MoE tested text- staff on delivery, distribution, documentation, and books at the suppliers’ premises prior to shipment. payment processing methods. In particular, woreda For their part, woredas must understand delivery staff need guidance on procedures for receiving and and receipt procedures and make a final quality accepting deliveries to ensure that materials are check to make sure that everything is in order. provided in compliance with the contract. All of these measures will reduce the costs incurred by all International Versus Local Publishing parties and ensure that students have timely access Industries to textbooks. Strengthening the capacity of local publishers Single Versus Multiple Textbook Options and printers is necessary to reduce dependence on foreign companies. Policies of providing The single-title policy has helped the MoE gain instruction in mother tongues, as well as the need economies of scale and standardize textbook pro- for supplementary reading materials, are creating vision across schools. In the long run, the MoE fore- new opportunities for domestic firms in the text- sees a shift to a system in which multiple textbook book market. Yet the provision of textbooks since titles are available for the same subject and grade. 2010–11 has been dominated by international While a multiple-title system allows schools to publishers and printers—the lowest bidders—cre- choose the textbooks they consider most suitable, it ating fears of lost business opportunities among could fragment the market and increase the unit cost local publishers and printers. There is additional of textbooks. Before introducing such a system, the concern that the ICB modality may not be feasible MoE needs to assess its pros and cons, particularly when the government relies on its own resources. 26 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia To reduce dependence on international publishers, Use and Care of Textbooks the government needs to support local publishers and printers to build their capacity to operate to Textbooks are effective only if they are used well the required quality standards and increase their in classrooms. It is not cost-effective to spend mil- participation. Support could include capacity lions on textbooks if they are locked away or kept at building in authoring and publishing textbooks, home. Many students do not brings books to school, access to capital (including foreign currency), and and teachers are not using textbooks optimally in tax incentives, among others. Encouraging local their teaching. It is critical that the MoE, REBs, publishers and printers to form joint ventures and woreda Education Offices: (i) train teachers with international publishers could also provide (including those already in service) to use textbooks opportunities to gradually build their experience effectively; (ii) train school leaders and teachers to and expertise. care properly for textbooks and maintain textbook stocks; (iii) in collaboration with schools, continu- Distribution from Woredas to Schools ously sensitize students and their parents to the importance of using textbooks in the classroom as Woredas need adequate capacity to deliver text- well as taking adequate care of them; and (iv) under- books to schools in a timely and reliable man- take regular monitoring and supervision of what ner. Distribution of textbooks from woredas to happens in schools and take corrective measures. schools, particularly to rural and remote schools, was problematic. In addition to training woreda Management of the Textbook Provision staff in the procedures for accepting delivery of textbooks, it is critical to strengthen their capac- A robust management and implementation capac- ity to deliver textbooks to schools before or at the ity is needed to improve the efficiency and effec- start of school year, in good condition and in the tiveness of each link in the textbook supply chain. required quantities. The MoE has a draft textbook policy framework that provides guidance on: (i) policy issues such Appropriate Storage Facilities as standards for the provision of TLMs; supply assumptions; financing; and procurement arrange- Adequate storage facilities are required at all lev- ments; (ii) operational issues, including the roles els of distribution to reduce the loss and damage and responsibilities of all players in the book supply of textbooks and prolong their life. Woredas and chain, from the federal ministry to individual stu- schools lack such facilities. While woredas need dents; and (iii) coordination with other ministries facilities to store books temporarily until they can be like finance and industry. Implementation of this sent on to schools, schools need appropriate facili- policy framework will require a strong implementa- ties to store books safely when they are not in use tion capacity at all levels of the education system to or until they are distributed to students. institutionalize and consolidate gains achieved and address challenges encountered during GEQIP1. 27 CONCLUSION 4 Since 2010–11, access to quality textbooks and A third challenge is to reduce delays in text- teaching guides has improved significantly with sup- book procurement by enhancing the capacity of port from GEQIP1 and a shift from state to private the MoE to handle ICB contracts. A related chal- sector provision of TLMs. Textbooks aligned with lenge is that the MoE turned to foreign compa- the new curriculum have been developed in four nies because local publishers and printers lacked major languages for primary grades and in English experience and technical resources to produce for secondary grades. Unit costs of textbooks have textbooks to government standards. It is criti- been low because of economies of scale and because cal to strengthen capacity of local publishers and ICB made it possible to combine textbook develop- printers to meet national textbook standards, ment, printing, and distribution, thereby making especially if the use of ICB is no longer feasible textbook production a streamlined process. The when the source of textbook financing shifts to use of high technical standards and specifications the government. has extended the life of textbooks and reduced the To overcome the challenges of distributing overall systems cost of producing them. textbooks, particularly to rural schools, the wore- At the same time, challenges related to vari- das’ capacity to deliver textbooks to schools on ous links in the textbook supply chain remain to time and in good condition must also be enhanced. be addressed if the supply of quality textbooks and School infrastructure would also require adequate teaching guides is to extend beyond GEQIP2. The enhancement to facilitate safe storage of textbooks first challenge is to overcome the lack of reliable when not in use. information on the status and inventory of text- A final challenge is that the availability of text- books in schools. An effective textbook information books has not guaranteed their effective use in class- management system is needed to track book stocks rooms. Students need to be encouraged to bring and plan adequately to replenish them. A second their books to class, and teachers must be trained in challenge is that the government must allocate suf- the optimal use of textbooks. School administrators ficient and predictable funds for textbook provision and teachers must also be trained in textbook care to prevent a return to the situation prior to GEQIP1. and stock management. 29 REFERENCES Aurino, Elisabetta, Zoe James, and Caine Rolleston. National Educational Assessment and Examinations 2014. “Young Lives Ethiopia School Survey Agency (Ethiopia). Various years. Data, 2000– 2012–13: Data Overview Report.” Working 12. Addis Ababa. Paper No. 134. December. Oxford, UK. Negarit Gazeta. 1995. Proclamation No. 1/1995 de Guzman, Alfonso. 2011. Reconnaissance of of the Constitution of the Federal Democratic Textbook Printing Capacity in Addis Ababa. Republic of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa. Processed. Read, Tony. 2015. Where Have All the Textbooks ______. 2014. Technical Notes on Curriculum and Gone? Toward Sustainable Provision of Teaching Textbooks. February. Processed. and Learning Materials in Sub-Saharan Africa. Fredriksen, Birger, and Sukhdeep Brar, with Michael Directions in Development. Washington, DC: Trucano. 2015. Getting Textbooks to Every Child World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0572-1. in Sub-Saharan Africa: Strategies for Addressing License: Creative Commons Attribution CC the High Cost and Low Availability Problem. BY 3.0 IGO Directions in Development. Washington, DC: Tihtina Zenebe Gebre. 2016. Analysis of National World Bank. doi: 10.1596/978-1-4648-0540-0. Inspection Data from MoE (2014 and 2015 License: Creative Commons Attribution CC inspections). March. BY 3.0 IGO. 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Processed. for kindergarten to G12 government schools. ______. 2002. “Support for Provision of Textbooks Processed. in Sub-Saharan Africa: 1985–2000.” Report No. ______. 2013. Education Sector Joint Review 24564. Washington, DC. Mission report on textbook development, print- ______. 2008a. GEQIP1 Project Appraisal Document. ing, distribution and utilization. Processed. Processed. ______. 2015. Education Sector Development ______. 2008b. “Textbooks and School Library Program V. Addis Ababa. Provision in Secondary Education in 30 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia Sub-Saharan Africa.” World Bank Working ______. 2014b. “Standard Bidding Documents for Paper No. 126. Washington, DC. DOI: the Procurement of Textbooks and Reading 10.1596/978-0-8213-7344-6. Materials.” Washington, DC. ______. 2013. GEQIP2 Project Appraisal Document. ______. 2015a. GEQIP II implementation support Processed. mission aide-mémoire. June. Processed. ______. 2014a. GEQIP1 Implementation Completion ______. 2015b. GEQIP II implementation support Report. Processed. mission aide-mémoire. December. Processed. ______. 2015c. Investing in Ethiopia’s Future. Education Sector Financing Review. Processed. 31 ANNEXES 32 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia  other Tongue Languages Used as Medium of Instruction in Primary Annex 1. M Education TABLE A1.1: Mother Tongue Languages Used as the Medium of Instruction in Primary Education, Ethiopia (total = 36) Region Language G1-4 G1-6 G5-8 G1-8 1 Addis Ababa Amharic X 2 Afar Afar X Amharic X Amhara Amharic X 3 Awigna X 4 Himtigna X 5 Afan Oromo X 6 Benshangu-Gumuzl Bertagna X 7 Gumuzgna X 8 Shinashigna X Amharic X 9 Gwama On trial 10 Komogna On trial 11 Ma’ogna On trial Dire Dawa Afan Oromo X Amharic X 12 Somali X 13 Gambela Agniwa X 14 Nuer X 15 Majang X 16 Opo X 17 Komo X Amharic X 18 Harari Hararigna X Afan Oromo X Amharic X Oromia Afan Oromo X Amharic X Somali Af Somali X 19 SNNP Siddamo afo X As a subject (continued on next page) Annexes 33 TABLE A1.1: Mother Tongue Languages Used as the Medium of Instruction in Primary Education, Ethiopia (total = 36) (continued) Region Language G1-4 G1-6 G5-8 G1-8 20 Hadiysa X As a subject 21 Wollayitato X As a subject 22 Gedi ofa X As a subject 23 Siltigna X As a subject 24 Kefinono X As a subject 25 Dawrogna X As a subject 26 Gamogna X As a subject 27 Gofigna X As a subject 28 Zeisigna As a subject 29 Oidigna As a subject 30 Giditcho As a subject 31 Kembatigna X As a subject 32 Tembarogna As a subject 33 Korete As a subject 34 Burjigna As a subject 35 Araf As a subject 36 Basket As a subject 37 Halabisa As a subject 38 Kontigna X As a subject 39 Kebenigna As a subject 40 Libdigna X 41 Shekogna X 42 Me’enitgna X 43 Benchigna X 44 Dizigna X 45 Surmigna As a subject 46 Zelmamogna As a subject 47 Shekinono As a subject 48 Yemisa As a subject Amharic X 49 Tigray Tigrigna X 50 Kunamigna As a subject 51 Sahogna As a subject 34 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia Annex 2. Titles of Textbooks and Teaching Guides Developed under GEQIP1 Note that for each subject, language, and grade, textbooks (TB) and teaching guides (TG) are single titles. TABLE A2.1: Titles for Primary Grades Primary school Number of titles Grade Subject TB TG Total 5–8 Civics and ethical education: Amharic, English, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrinya 20 20 40 1–6 Mathematics: Amharic 6 6 12 5–8 Mathematics: English 4 4 8 1–8 Mathematics: Oromifa, Somali, Tigirnga 24 24 48 5–8 English 4 4 8 5–8 Social studies: Amharic, English, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrinya 20 20 40 7–8  Physics: English, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrinya 8 8 16 7–8  Biology: English, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrinya 8 8 16 7–8  Chemistry: English, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrinya 8 8 16   Total 102 102 200 Note: G1–4 English textbooks and teaching guides were provided from other sources of funding. TABLE A2.2: Titles for Secondary Grades Secondary school Number of titles Grade Subject TB TG Total 9–12 Mathematics 4 4 8 9–12 Biology 4 4 8 9–12 Chemistry 4 4 8 9–12 Physics 4 4 8 9–12 Civics and ethical education 4 4 8 9–12 English 4 4 8 11–12 Technical drawing 2 2 4 11–12 General business 2 2 4 9–12 Geography 4 4 8 11–12 Information and communication technology 4 4 8 11–12 Economics 2 2 4 9–12 Amharic 4 4 8 9–12 Mother tongue – Oromifa 4 4 8   Total 46 46 92 Annexes 35 Annex 3. Ratio of Textbooks to Students, 2013–14 TABLE A3.1: Ratio of Textbooks to Students by Subject and Grade, Ethiopia, 2013–14 Subject and grade Enrollment in 2013–14 Total textbooks supplied Pupil: book ratio Mathematics 1–8 18,139,200 20,998,179 1:1.16 Civics 5–8 5,599,940 7,735,917 1:1.38 English 5–8 5,599,940 7,734,301 1:1.38 Social studies 5–8 5,599,940 7,738,021 1:1.38 Biology 7–8 2,238,628 2,676,789 1:1.20 Chemistry 7–8 2,238,628 3,078,309 1:1.38 Physics 7–8 2,238,628 3,314,978 1:1.48 Mathematics 9–12 1,998,355 2,685,582 1:1.34 Civics 9–12 1,998,355 2,685,582 1:1.34 Amharic 9–12 1,998,355 1,456,289 1:0.73 Oromifa 9–12 647,778 527,280 1:0.81 English 9–12 1,998,355 2,525,239 1:1.26 Geography 9–12† 1,998,355 2,135,547 1:1.07 Biology 9–12† 1,998,355 2,489,260 1:1.25 Chemistry 9–12† 1,998,355 2,489,260 1:1.25 Physics 9–12† 1,998,355 2,489,260 1:1.25 ICT 9–12 1,998,355 2,525,239 1:1.26 Economics 11–12† 389,040 218,408 1:0.56 General business 11–12† 389,040 218,408 1:0.56 Technical drawing 11–12† 389,040 429,913 1:1.11 Source: MoE, Educational Statistical Annual Abstract, 2015; World Bank, GEQIP1 ICR, 2014 Note: ICT (information and communication technology). † Number of students is lower than this, as G9–12 students are split into social and natural sciences. 36 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia Annex 4. Textbooks and Teaching Guides Not Provided under GEQIP1 Titles of Textbooks (TB) and Teaching Guides (TG) Not Provided under GEQIP1, by TABLE A4.1:  Grade and Subject Area, Ethiopia Grade Subject area TB TG Total 1–4 Arts: Amharic, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrigna — 16 16 1–4 Physical education: Amharic, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrigna — 16 16 5–8 Visual arts: Amharic, English, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrigna — 20 20 5–8 Music: Amharic, English, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrigna — 20 20 5–8 Physical education: Amharic, English, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrigna   20 20 1–8 Mother tongue: Amharic, Oromifa, Somale, Tigrigna, Hadiyisa, Sidama and Wolayita 56 56 112 3–8 Amharic as a second language 6 6 12 1–5 Environmental science 20 20 40 5–6 Integrated science 10 10 20 Total 92 184 276 9–12 Mother tongue: Tigrigna 4 4 8 Mother tongue: Somali 4 4 8 9–12 Physical education teaching guides: English — 4 4 9–12 History textbooks and teaching guides 4 4 8   Total 12 16 28 Note: History textbook planned to be funded and developed by the government but not delivered. Quantities of Textbooks (TB) and Teaching Guides (TG) Not Provided under TABLE A4.2:  GEQIP1, by Subject, Ethiopia Primary Secondary Subject TB TG TB TG Teaching guides — 413,837 — 36,430 Mother tongues 11,762,760 294,079 135,560 3,389 Amharic 5,022,840 125,571 — — Environmental science and integrated science 9,673,100 241,828 — — History (equivalent to geography) — — 2,135,547 54,955 Total 26,458,700 1,075,315 2,271,107 94,774 Annexes 37 Annex 5. GEQIP2 Plans for Provision of Teaching/Learning Materials TABLE A5.1: Quantities of Teaching/learning Materials to Be Delivered under GEQIP2 Item G1–8 G9–12 Remarks Supplementary materials 31,228,034 14,877,545 Development or off-the shelf G1–8 textbooks 30,109,160 — Reprinting and distribution Civics and ethical education, mathematics, English, social studies, biology, chemistry, physics (Amharic, English, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrigna) G1–8 mother tongue textbooks and teaching guides 26,670,520 — Printing and distribution (Amharic, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrigna, Hadiyisa, Sidamu, Wolayita) G1–8 adapted mother tongue textbooks and teaching 5,219,141 — Printing and distribution guides (Amharic, Oromifa, and Somali) G3–8 Amharic textbooks and teaching guides as 7,674,794 — Development, printing, and distribution second language G1–8 Arts, physical education, visual arts, music 559,400 — Translation, printing, and distribution (Amharic, Oromifa, Somali, Tigrigna) G9–12 Biology, chemistry, civics and ethical — 6,891,323 Reprinting and distribution education, mathematics, physics, geography, ICT, Amharic, Oromifa, English, general business, economics, and technical drawing G9–12 Tigrigna and Somali mother tongue — 509,548 Development, printing, and distribution G9–12 Physical Education teaching guides — 60,000 Printing and distribution Materials in Braille (34 titles) — 25,047 Transcription, printing, and distribution Total 101,461,049 22,363,463 Note: G1–8 mother tongue textbooks and teaching guides in 7 languages were developed with USAID support; G3–8 Amharic materials devel- oped by UNICEF. ICT (information and communication technology). 38 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia Annex 6: Technical Evaluation Criteria TABLE A6.1: Technical Criteria for Evaluating the Quality of Teaching/Learning Materials Developed and Produced for Public Schools in Ethiopia Quality evaluation factor Maximum points 1 Conformity to the curriculum 10 Conformity of the material to the requirements of the current curriculum • Minimum learning competencies are developed in the sample 2 Content 20 Accuracy and appropriateness of the factual content of the sample • Vocabulary and length of sentences are suitable to target learners • Material takes into account diversity of backgrounds of target Ethiopian learners • Treatment of gender in terms of roles, occupations, and contributions in the text and illustrations of the textbook is balanced • Encourages integration of positive values and is mindful of health and safety of the learners • Text, visuals, layout, and design are interesting and suitable to the target Ethiopian learners • Sample does not contain conceptual errors • Sample does not contain factual errors • Sample does not contain grammatical errors • Sample does not contain computational errors • Sample does not contain obsolete information • Sample does not contain other errors (such as in tables, illustrations, diagrams, pictures, maps, graphs) • Material takes into account the cultural backgrounds of target regional learners • Material takes into account religious backgrounds of target regional learners • Material takes into account economic backgrounds of target regional learners • Material takes into account family backgrounds of target regional learners • The text is relevant and interesting for target regional learners 3 Level of language 10 Accessibility of the level of language to the pupils of the grade for which the text is intended and whether it also helps to improve pupil understanding and use of language • The vocabulary level is suitable to the target users • Sentence structures (complexity, length) are suitable to target users • Ideas and activities follow logically and flow smoothly within lessons and from lesson to lesson • Transition words, sentences, or paragraphs are used to focus on a topic or signal a change in topic • Lessons, instructions, exercises, questions, and activities are presented clearly (i.e., they are not confusing) (continued on next page) Annexes 39 TABLE A6.1: Technical Criteria for Evaluating the Quality of Teaching/Learning Materials Developed and Produced for Public Schools in Ethiopia (continued) Quality evaluation factor Maximum points 4 Pedagogical method 30 Appropriateness of the pedagogical method to classroom circumstances and pupil needs and the usefulness of the exercises, tasks, and evaluation and testing materials equally useful • Content topics are logically presented throughout the material • Sample unit/s and lesson/s are arranged from simple to complex and from observable to abstract • Sample unit/s contain/s useful introductions, reviews, summaries and other devices that facilitate smooth progression from one lesson to another • Sequencing of activities within each lesson facilitates achievement of objectives • Motivational strategies (i.e., overviews, advance organizers, puzzles, and games) are provided • Development of lessons in the material allows for review, comparison, and integration with previous lessons • Various types of teaching and learning strategies are used to meet individual differences • Material promotes development of higher cognitive skills such as critical thinking, creativity, learning by doing, problem solving, and other similar skills • Material provides strategies that allow development of social skills such as striving for excellence, accepting responsibility, and working harmoniously with others • Material provides help to the teacher in assessing learner progress in mastering the target minimum learning competencies 5 Design and Illustration 10 Quality of the visual presentation, including typography and illustrations, in relation to the pedagogical needs of the text and the motivations of the pupils • Design and layout are interesting and attractive to target user • The way the text is organized (font size, use of capitals, bold and italic type) enables the student to easily identify topics and themes and distinguish important items for study and learning • The drawings and/or photographs are relevant to the text • The maps, charts, and/or graphs are relevant to the text • The drawings are consistent in style, tone, and level of detail (i.e., they are not confusing) • All visuals are correctly labelled and/or captioned • Illustrations are relevant and interesting for target regional learners • Photographs are relevant and interesting for target regional learners • Maps are relevant and interesting for target regional learners • Teaching guide includes activities relevant and interesting for target regional learners (continued on next page) 40 Textbook Provision for All in Ethiopia TABLE A6.1: Technical Criteria for Evaluating the Quality of Teaching/Learning Materials Developed and Produced for Public Schools in Ethiopia (continued) Quality evaluation factor Maximum points 6 Teaching guide 20 Appropriateness of the teaching guide in providing a good guide to the curriculum; helping with lesson planning; giving notes on each individual lesson; and helping with devising project work, homework, testing, and evaluation. • The material in the teaching guide corresponds with the material in the textbook sample • Sample unit/s or lessons of the teaching guide have specific, attainable, and measurable learning objectives • Lessons use activity-based teaching methods, learning activities, and evaluation measures • Teaching methods, learning activities, and evaluation measures are compatible with learning objectives • The teaching guide provides review activities of prerequisite content or skills where these are needed • The teaching guide provides rationales, alternative teaching approaches, and additional remedial and enrichment materials • The time allocation suggested in the teaching guide conforms to the period allocation in the official syllabus • The teaching guide provides various approaches for evaluating and assessing students’ learning • The teaching guide provides additional activities and exercises for gifted students or slow learners • The teaching guide provides bibliographic references, internet websites, and similar resources for the teacher Total maximum points 100 Note: To successfully pass the quality evaluation and therefore be considered technically responsive to quality evaluation factors 1–6, each cycle series in a bid must score a minimum of 65 points.