World Bank Reprint Series: Number 377 Marlaine E. Lockheed and Ellen B. Mandinach Tirencds in 'Ecucatioanal Co puting: Decreasing iteres ancd thipe r ma ing R focus of insuctio on Reprinted with permission from Educational Researcher, vol. I5, no. s (May 1986), pp. 21-26. Inforrnation Technology and Education Trends in Educational Computing: Decreasing Interest and the Changing Focus of Instruction MARLAINE E. LOCKHEED and ELLEN B. MANDINACH The World Bank Educational Testing Service ABSTRACT: This urticle)preselt.s a rationalefor(chtianging the current emphasis ofprecollege colnpiuter cn r?ses. It suggests that as an interim approach, to be used before computers are i.ntiygrated ffieTet ivrly across the curriculum, computer courses deemphasize BASIC program- mning skills and instead focus on teaching oppvlicut ions software skills. The research evidence Iegar-l-ring the quality of computer liteinery courses ts reviewed, and the parallel cognit'tivPef and (0lfertebr consequences of programming and applicutiuns software are (diseanssed. The primary source of evidence regard- Between 1973 an( 1983, interest in college computer courses began around ing student interest in specific under- computer science rose dramatically. 1979. In 1980, 15% of elementary and graduate majors comes from reports on Less than 1% of high school seniors 50% of secondary schools provided stu- college-bound seniors prepared for the chose computer science as their intended dents access to microcomputers in their College Board (College Board, 1983b, major in 1974 (College Board, 1974), instructional programs (Goor, 1982); by 1984, 1985). More than 800,000 high whereas in 1983, more than 10% of high 1985, 82% of elementary and 93% of sec- school seniors annually complete infor- school seniors chose it (College Board, ondary schools provided students access mation regarding their intended college 1983b). In the next two years, however, to computers (Becker, 1985). The most majors, choosing from a list of over 115 interest in computer science took a sud- frequent use of microcomputers was for fields or specializations. Computer sci- den downward turn, with the level of in- national, state, and locally mandated ence was first listed as a possible major terest in 1985 approximating that of computer literacy courses (Boyer, 1983; choice in 1974, with subcategories of sys- 1981 (see Figure 1). This trend repre- College Board, 1983a; National Science tems analysis and data processing added sents a decline of 27%, with women's in- Board Commission on Precollege in 1975. terest decreasing 35% and men's inter- Education in Mathematics, Science and est 22%. No other intended major suf- Technology, 1983). In general, the man- fered such dramatic shifts during the dates provide for required, not elective, Support for the preparation of this paper same period of time. computer course participation. It is the was provided by Educational Testing Although this rise and fall may simply contention of the authors that the Service, reflect the fortunes of the computer in- generally poor quality and restricted Marlaine E. Lockheed is a Sociologist dustry in general, another explanation curriculum of these courses, which in in the Education and Training Department, for this decline in interest also rmay be 1985 were required for many high school The World Bank. 1818 H Street, NW, tenable. Students in the 1970s enrolled seniors, accounts at least in part for the Washington, DC 20433. f'er specializa- in untried and novel computer curricula. declining interest in computer science at tions are the sociology of education, ed- By 1985, due to their increased exposure the college level. ucation technology, and gender in edu- to computers and computer literacy cation, courses at elementary and secondary Inadequate Computer Literacy Ellen B. Mandinach is Associate Re- school levels, students had more infor- Courses searchScienitist, Educational Testing Ser- mation with which to evaluate computer Early computer literacy courses, vice, Princeton, NJ 08541. Her specializa- science (Becker, 1983a, 1983c; Lock- which stressed learning to program in tions are individual differences and educa- heed, 1985a). BASIC, were generally of poor quality tional uses of microcomputers. The increase in students taking pre- in terms of teacher training, course cur- May 1986 21 14.0 T- LEGEND Alternatives to computer program- ming coiurses include the long-term ob- , .6x Moles jective of integrating computers into the Fe11.2 t feoles curriculum, and the short-term objec- Total tive of developing a curriculum based on 9. /s Xapplications software. Both alternatives 8.4 *will be discussed, and a rationale for em- 7- w phasizing an applications-based compu- 7C/ ter literacy course in the short-term will 5.6- be offered. f 4.2 E-Based Coiur.se University of California, Berkeley) are mented, tested for errors, and reformu- A second alternative woul(d he to beginning to provide empirical evidence lated if errors are found. teach an applications-based computer of the cognitive skills engendered in The third link in the chain of cognitive course. The class woul(d include instruc- )rogramming. Once these results iden- accomplishments is comprised of tem- tion in how to use word plrcessors, (a- tify the requisite programming skills, plates and proceduiral skills that can be tal)ase managers. spreadsheets, and esearch then can begin to examine the generalized to other formal systeins. graphics packages, and would empha- parallels amorng and generalizahility to For example, recogniitioin of the appro- size generalizable skills relate(d to l)lan- other computer domains. priateness of skills and knowledge for ning, gathering, and interpreting data. Thus, it will he possible to ansal ze ap- particular situations is a general prob- The applications-based computer class idial io software, examine necessary lem-solving or autonomous learning could he linke(d to the remain(ler of the skills, an(d (draw parallels to those re- skill. Autonomous learning skills are curriculum by collaborative teaching (quire( in programming. Although spe- those neeled to manage one's own mas- strategies, and the scope of the class cific skills may not be identical, it is like- tery of a new formal system an( assume could he etnhlaniced by dirawiing on ma- ly that similarities among global (on- responsibility for one's own learning terials taken from a number of domains. structs in the two computer learning en- (Corno & Mandinach, 1983; (Glaser, vironrmenits can he found. Linn's (1985') 1984). Such skills are high order and R ./t on f(I ttIr ( i. ,,/1 Ap i('(I I chain of cognitive accomplishments for logically follow from re(juisite (declara- A . ell-st ructure(d computer c urric u- I - t r g ra'oi ning provides a general frame- tive and( procledural knowle(dge. Thus, in lum based on apjlikati n. s ttwari' iS Work for exanmining the diemands and( or(der of difficulty, learning language preferalble to one base(d on program- )otential outcomes of compluter learn- features is least (lifficult, fi 11r xedl by ming for two reasons: it is likely to ing erivicomiment and can be general- templates, procedlural skills, and final- foster higher cognitive skills sinilar to ized to all alp)litions-ba0se-hed 0 ,1 p1c ly grt '1erl ; rizihtI problem-solving skills. those e I1tciideret in programming; and curriculum. Lockheed's research on the Pr'etirrable (it/lOCttirc (itcI'mrs., Chil- it is likely to stinmulate p)ositive atfe('tive skills re(quisite for database mnanager d ren generally express positive attitudes responses (e.g., interest in andI liking of use provides preliminar'y descriptive about computers when they are used for ( 'lilpters) for students who heretofore evidenCe for these parallels (Lockheed, compluter-base(d inistructioni, game-lay - have been disinterested in program- (, lei, & Morse, 1985; Lockheed et ing, orI Logro turtle graphics (Clements, ming. If applications cati l)roduce posi- al., 1985). 1981: I)emarest & McKenzie, 1984; tive cognitive effects, and at the same According to Lion's miio(lel, there is a Lawton & Gereschner, 1982' W ilder et time inierease affective responses to three-stage (chailn of accomplishments al, 1985; Willianms & Williams, 1984). computer science in a broader range Of for programming: (a) learning lao,uag', Hlowever, their attitudes about conmpu- students, then it seenms reasonable to fieattnr-s; (b) learning designi skills, in- ters use(d for required ilnstru(tin in pro- focus comlli)Lter instruction on such soft- cluding templates and p)roce(lural skills; gramnning languages-the typical use of ware instead of f (c.i_siii,i on prograam- and (c) learni-n generalizable Ine Hei CinLuIt e i s in secondary schools ming instruction. solving skills such as planning anid self- (Becker, 1985)-range fro(m neutral to Although little curreent empirical sup- regulation (see Linn, 1985, for details). negative. Al) examnjple of this finding is piort for our claim exists at this time, it The first link in the chain of cognitive pn \-itledl by a study of 4(0 hiigh school is possible to sLIr(l W.hly aii a)p)lica- ct n ' lisolints (onsists of non-decoom- stLIleIts enrolled in a re(quired compu- t it n.>-l asel curriculum may be generally posable language features. the elements ter literacy course featuring instruction prefetli 'le to one focused on pro'(gram- basic to all formal syst(ms. In a (lata- in BASIC. Fewer than half of the boys ming. base. mei)u sIperati ins conmprise the and one-thirdl of the girls reported that Pu rUllUeI 'ogitic{ h,Ut'(!Cnws p rppi- Imianltlives of the >\stvills. wihile a they like(d working with cttliiputers or1 v(diwus mid proqrantiviiqj. A primary "field" or "rie((Ird serves as a variable. programinming (Lockheed et al,,1983). reason for selecting an appllic:ltiolis- The se'co(nd link in Linn's cihain con- There also is some evidence that cour- based curriculum is that such soht'wi; tc sists (tf design skills, or techniques for ses featuring programming languages May 1986 23 affect boys and girls differentially. For around the use of applications software. articles and reports on the computer example, Collis (1984) found that girls' Several projects have demonstrated cre- and collected and analyzed data. attitudes about computers were associ- ative and exemplary uses of mnicrocom- Other projects have focused on appli- ated negatively with exposure to puiter technology in educationial set- cations to promote more equitable uses BASI( nD .)gramming courses, whereas tings, and at least one research program of computers. One such project, funded boys' attitu(les were associated posi- has begun to explore systematically by the Department of Education, is tively with them. Simila-ly, Miura some of the many issues related to stu- "Tr'lactical Solutions to Overcoming In- (1984) foun(d that seventh-gra(de girls in (lent use of applications software. We eq(uities in Computer UIse" at the Amer- programming classes reported liking describe briefly several model projects. ican ilnstitutes for Research (Schubert, computers less than their male class- 1984, 1985). The goal of the project is males, and were less likely to take a 11'"'S (, h to identify an(d define factors that limit subsequent elective computing course. One example of a precollege c(omputer access to computers for females and mi- There is considerable evi(lence that curriculum based on applicationis soft- norities. The project also seeks to de- girls are less likely than boys to elect ware is provided by the Federal Repub- velop potential solutions and identify voluntarily to take programming cour- lie of Germany's Institute for Science sources of inequity in schools. ses. For example, transcrip)t (lata fr)om Education (compu11LIteL literacy curricu- A second project funded by the De- IHighi School and( Beyond (HS&B) show lum. This curriculum was developed partment of Education is "The Neuter that 41 I% of those enirolled in program- through an open, process--u it-wed pro- Computer'" of the Women's Action Alli- mning (lasses in high school in 1982 were cedure knowvn as the curriculum confer- ance of New York (Sanders & Stone, girls (Rock et al., 11985). Self-report data ence, and involve(d e(lucators, students, 1 985). The project's goals are to develop from the 1 9s1,8-8 I NAEPI slhow that 31% and intereste(d laypersons. Features of optimal str:ttegies for computer use at of eighth-grade studenits who wirote pro- the curriculum inclu(de tthe following: (a) the middle school level and to increase ,grams frequently wc, girlls (Lockheed, introdluction of computer literacy as a computer opportunities for, and use by, 1985b). (1n the other hand, girls who en- course for eiglhth-gradie students, linm- females. The project is inten(ded to im- roll in elective programmiinig (courses of- ite(l to ()o class perio(ds; (b) separation prove computer e(lucation for all stu- ten have positive attitu(les about comn- of introductory and a(lvanced levels of (leints by designing a variety of compu- puters (Chen, 118 4). Cl tcrJlT literacy, withl the introductory ter activities and specific implementa- Bv comparison, courses featuring ap- level focuse(d on the stulent as a com- tion strategies. These strategies de- plications software seenm to appeal to puter user, (c) teaching the use of the scribe what can be (lone in the class- studeits nmore than pr)ogranminig cour- "si It tools such as data manage- room, school, and (co1inLIllity, and what ses (1o. Although there is no published menrt systems (e.g., dBase II)" rather parents can (io to improve computer ed- research that (lirectly addresses this than programming languages; and (d) ucation for the broader student popu- issue, we (l0 know that students en- a decision that at the upper secon(lary lation. Some of the suggestions include rolle( inalaplications (ourses report pos- level '-At' ,warec tools can replace previ- establishing a sigll-up system so that itive attitudes about computers. For ex- ously uise(d programming languages for males are less likely to diominate the la- ample, in a study of 100) seventlth-gr;olcd the application of microcomputers in a boratory during free time, or encourag- students enrolle(i in a computer literacy number of subjects" (Bosler, undlate(l). ing group interaction that is likely to en- course featuring word processing an(l The over-all computer literacy course is hance interest anmong females. database managers, nearly two-thirds dlivi(led into three components: use of (63%7,) of the students agreed with the the application system, thematicallyic- re I(1(I JI I'- statement "I enjoy working with com- lated project unlitS, and problem solving Several programs have explored how puters," anld more than half (56(T/o) oiis- with algorithmriic niethod (Bosler & (o'(mputers can be used effectively for agree(d with the statement "Computers Frey, 1984; Bosler, Tiampe, Wanke, & various sthi(lents at (lifferent gra(de lev- are boring" (Lockheed, (G,ulovsen & van Weert, 1985). els. The programs provide models for Morse, 1985). Voluintary enrollments in G(iven the decentralization of Ameri- bow to integrate applications software non-programming classes also are nmore can education, it is not possible to adopt into the extant curricula and increase bl;iinced by sex. In the I1S&B (data, for or inmplement a national computer liter- female and minority liirticiplittii in example, 51% of students enrolled in acy curriculum, or any other national comiputer-related act i itieS. data processing and applications curriculumn, whether or not it is based Coutputer tutors. One project that fo- courses and 47%7o of students enrolle(d in on ap)plications software. Several local cuses on the use of applications and en- computer literacy courses were girls sst lis, however, hcave ado(ptedl appli- courages minority participation is the (Rock et al., 1985). In the NAEP data, cations-hased computer literacy curric- Computer Tutors program, directed by for all types of computer use, no sex dif- ula. One example is the seventh-grade .Joan Targ, at the .Jordan Junior High ferences in course enirollments were computer e(ducation curriculum fir-om Schlool in Palo Alto, (aliforniia, All stu- found for students at any of the three the Edward D)evotion School of Brook- dlents, wiheni they are not in class, have gra(les assessed (Lockheed, 1985a). line, Massachusetts. The matjor (Ibjec- access to two classr(onts (of microcom- tive of this course was to have studenits puters. Students learn how to use com- Model Projects experience the computer as a useful plex word processors for their writing At present, neither researchl nor de- tool. D)uring the year, stu(dents learne(d assignments, graphics packages, data- velopment efforts on applications soft- to use both a word processor arId a data- base ilranager-s, and( spreadsheets. They ware use in schools are abundanit. How- base manager an(i worked with several are enCou1ra,ge(d to make full use of the ever, change is imminent. Both national different simulation programs; no pro- c(l In(LIter laboratory for any type of as- and local curricula have been designied gramming was taught. Students wrote signnment that could be accomplished 24 Educational Researcher easily with the help of a computer. have begun to study the cognitive con- environments and establish an empirical To use the computer laboratory, stu- sequences of using applications soft- base from which policy recommenda- dents must have participated in the tu- ware (Lockheed, Gulovsen & Morse, tions can be made. tor program. Students are assigned to 1985). These studies have been primar- The curricular shift from program- a computer and receive instruction from ily descriptive, focusing onl the observed ming to applications necessitates re- a same-sex, same-ethnic group peer. difficulties encountered by learners of search on the cognitive, afffective, and The intent is for the tutor to serve as applications software. Much more work social effects of using such software for a peer role model, thereby increasing is needed to fully understand the issues. instructional purposes. Because applica- the likelihood that the novice student tions programs deal with generic func- will react positively to the computer. Condusions tions such as data manipulation and Each peer tutor has received instruction We have noted a changing trend in word processing, they can he applied on providing support to the novice, in- precollege computer curricula toward across subject areas (e.g., English, so- creasing interest, and conveying infor- an emphasis on applications-based cour- cial studies) and integi ated into extant mation about the computer. Empathy ses. We also have outlined a hypotheti- curricula. is fostered because all of the tutors were cal model of the cognitive consequences More important, however, a well- once novices. Thus, students learn about of programming and applications-based structured applications-based curricu- computers and they learn to impart ae- learning activities and presenited seve- lum mav not only foster the acquisition quired knowledge to other students ral model computer projects. We n1ow Of lhigher cognitive skills, but also stim- while using applications solftm-ie that consider issues related to the implemein- ulate positive affective responses for is integrated into their daily course- tation of suclh curricula and propose a stu(ients who heretofore have been (lis- work. research agenda to examine that imple- interested in programming. If applica- The e ETSIBII Projeet. A second proj- mentation. tions can produce positive cognitive ef- ect that focused on the use of applica- fects, and also inerease affective re- tions was the ETS/IBM Project, a model j"'1'1 5,sponses to computer scienee in a broad- for effective use of computers in second- National survey results have provided er range of studenits, theni it seems rea- ary schools (Cline, Bennett, Kershaw, a good understanding of the current sta- sonable to focus computer instruction Schneiderman, Stecher, & Wilson, tus of e(lucational computing (e.g., on such sift wie. 1986). The goals of the project were to Becker, 1985). However, these results Cognitive analyses of the applications develop ways to enhance the use of ap- fail to desclibie the (leterlinflants and woul(d serve as the initial phase of the plications software and to explore the conse(uences of implementing a com- research, and the precursor to the im- use of computers as a tool to promote puter curriculum in school settings. The plemientation of an jlpli(Iris-lnise(l learning across content areas an(d in ex- process of implementation should be curriculum. Research needs to establish tracurricular activities. A major compo- (l0cLimen1ted and address the question: the theoretical and empirical links be- nent of the project was a t' -ee-state What are the factors involved in actual- tween programming and applications network of teacher-training institutes ly getting a well-structured computer courses and the potential outcomes that that provided support to, and training curriculum into the classroom? Issues are likely to result from different in- for, secondary school teachers, The in- that must be addressed concern the structional orientations. More specifical- stitutes helped the teachers (levelop need for (a) adequate teacher training; ly, the research must examine the cog- their own materials and curricula for a (b) administrators and curriculum r;itive deeman(ds and conseqluences of variety of subjects and activities. The specialists who are informe(d about the learning from applications, anli( compare teachers then implemented the newly potentials of computers; (c) ade(quate those findings with correspon(ding stud- developed applications uses in 89 dem- physical resources (i.e., appropriately ies of programming. The social andl af- onstrated schools. The teacher-training configure(d hardware and software); and fective effects of the curricula must be institutes continued to provide support (d) softwnare tar geted to the appropriate studie(d. Research also must examine for the teachers following the initial educational level. Each of these factors the effects of curric ula in the different training period. The project demon- affects the way computer curricula are computer learninig environments to strated how applications coul(d be use(i implemente(l. evaluate andi demonstrate the potential effectively for a variety of educotion.l of the instructional media. activities at the seconlary school level. Aespprc(hAyi, c Cors1,In conielusion, a redefinition of com- ARleseaarcs-Ba se ('0 puter liteiac;y has been suggested. The Research It is critical for future research not knowledge of how to program does not Research on the effec.ts of using com- only to examine the cognitive demands necessarily assume that individuals are puter applications has only just begun. and c 11lselLW11Ct2'es of computer learning computer literate. Moreover, the intent Several studies on the difficulties with environments, hut also to consider the of precollege instruction is not to create and effects of using applications soft- changing definition of computer litea a group of expert programmers, hut ware have been completed or are in and the corresponding mo(lifications in rather to provide basic knowledge about progress at the Educational Technology computer curricula. Future research how to use computers in everyday life. Center at Harvard University. Re- should provide systematic cognitive An applications-based curriculum is like- searchers have sought to understand analyses of computer-based learning ac- ly to focus on skills that are applicable what difficulties students and teachers tivities and explore the instructional im- in a variety of real-life situations, and encounter while trying to integrate plications of their adoption into school thereby serve as an appropriate intro- microcomputers into the ongoing cur- curricula. Such research should help elu- (luction to computers for a broad range riculum (Lockheed et al., 1985), and cidate the effects of computer learning of students. May 1986 25 References tion for college. New York: The College En- K. (1983). Sex differences in microcomput- Anderson. R. E., Welch W. W., & Harris, L. trance Examination Board. er literacy. In D. Bonnette (Ed.), Proceed- J. (1984). Ineqjuities in opportunities for College Board. (1983b). 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