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Table of Contents ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii TABLE OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii TABLE OF BOXES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii FOREWORD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1: INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.1: Emerging Trends in Agribusiness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.2: Women in Agribusiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3: Methodology and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2: INPUT PROVISION AND USE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.1: Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2: Women’s Key Value Chain Activities in Input Provision and Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.3: Constraints Women Face in Input Provision and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.4: Recommendations for Company Actions in Input Provision and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.5: Case Study: Krishi Utsho Builds Markets for Agricultural Inputs through Micro-Franchising. . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3: PRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.1: Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.2: Women’s Key Value Chain Activities in Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.3: Constraints Women Face in Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.4: Recommendations for Company Actions in Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.5: Case Study: Mondelēz International’s Cocoa Life Program in Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 4: POST-HARVEST PROCESSING AND STORAGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.1: Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.2: Women’s Key Value Chain Activities in Post-Harvest Processing and Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 4.3: Constraints Women Face in Post-Harvest Processing and Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4.4: Recommendations for Company Actions in Post-Harvest Processing and Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 4.5: Case Study: Africa Exchange Holdings Builds a Market for Agricultural Warehousing and Exchange . . . . . 33 5: TRANSPORTATION, MARKETING, AND SALES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 5.1: Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 5.2: Women’s Key Value Chain Activities in Transportation, Marketing, and Sales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 5.3: Constraints Women Face in Transportation, Marketing, and Sales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 5.4: Recommendations for Company Actions in Transportation, Marketing, and Sales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 5.5: Case Study: Primark, CottonConnect, and the Self-Employed Women’s Association Build a Sustainable Cotton Supply Chain with Female Farmers in India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 6: CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 ANNEX A: SUMMARY OF GENDER-SMART SOLUTIONS IN AGRIBUSINESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 ANNEX B: BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 ANNEX C: ENDNOTES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 i ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS Acknowledgments AFEX Africa Exchange Holdings This publication, “Investing in Women along Agribusiness Value AIRN Agro-Input Retailers Network Chains,” was developed by IFC’s Gender Secretariat, under the overall CEO Chief Executive Officer guidance of Henriette Kolb, and in response to the request of IFC’s Manufacturing, Agribusiness, and Services (MAS) department. The CNFA Cultivating New Frontiers in core working group comprised authors Nathalie Hoffmann and Alexa Agribusiness Roscoe with the support of subject-matter experts and peer reviewers Coca-Cola The Coca-Cola Company from across IFC and the World Bank Group, including: Andi Wahyuni CSISA Cereal Systems Initiative of Sofiyanti Baso, Ernest Bethe, Victoria Y. Chang, Marieme Esther South Asia Dassanou, Adriana Eftimie, Triyanto Fitriyardi, Jannina Flores Ramirez, ECOM ECOM Agroindustrial Corp. Sherry Goldberg, Anup Jagwani, Tania Lozansky, Amy Luinstra, Natalie FAO Food and Agriculture Macawaris, Kalyan N. Neelamraju, Carmen Niethammer, Jane Onoka, Organization Bradford Roberts, Sanna Liisa Taivalmaa, and Rick Van Der Kamp. The report was edited by Elizabeth Gibbens and Bhattiprolu Balachandra FY Fiscal Year Murti, and designed by Groff Creative Inc. GDP Gross Domestic Product GHG Greenhouse Gas The team would like to acknowledge Caren Grown, Senior Director, GIIF Global Index Insurance Facility World Bank Group Gender Cross-Cutting Solution Area, Alzbeta Klein, GSMA Groupe Spéciale Mobile Director, Manufacturing, Agribusiness, and Services, IFC, and Sergio Association Pimenta, Director, Manufacturing, Agribusiness, and Services, IFC, for their guidance. ICT Information and Communications Technology We would also like to acknowledge that the project with Mondelēz IFC International Finance International was implemented in partnership with Global Affairs Corporation Canada. KEPHIS Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service IFC would like to thank the companies and organizations that MAS Manufacturing, Agribusiness, contributed case study data for this report, including: Africa Exchange and Services Holdings, Ltd., CARE Bangladesh, CottonConnect, Krishi Utsho, MIS Mobile Management Mondelēz International Inc., Palladium, Primark, and the Self-Employed Information System Women’s Association (SEWA). NGO Non-Governmental Organization RUDI Rural Distribution Network International Finance Corporation SEWA Self-Employed Women’s IFC, a member of the World Bank Group, is the largest global Association development institution focused on the private sector in emerging markets. Working with 2,000 businesses worldwide, we use our six SFD Seeder Fertilizer Drill decades of experience to create opportunity where it’s needed most. In SMS Short Message Service FY16, our long-term investments in developing countries rose to nearly UN United Nations $19 billion, leveraging our capital, expertise, and influence to help the USAID United States Agency for private sector end extreme poverty and boost shared prosperity. For International Development more information, visit www.ifc.org. WBG World Bank Group ii Table of Figures Figure 1: Overview of Gender Gaps in Agribusiness Value Chains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Figure 2: Select Business Benefits of Closing Gender Gaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Figure 3: Reducing Gender Gaps—How the Private Sector Can Help. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Figure 4: A Closer Look at Input Provision and Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Figure 5: Microfranchise Model, as Used by Krishi Utsho in Bangladesh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 6: A Closer Look at Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Figure 7: A Closer Look at Post-Harvest Processing and Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Figure 8: A Closer Look at Transportation, Marketing, and Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Table of Boxes Box 1: Another Report in IFC’s Series of Publications, “The Business Case for Women’s Employment in Agriculture”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Box 2: Women and Care. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Box 3: Business Benefits for Companies from Closing Gender Gaps in Input Provision and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Box 4: Business Benefits for Companies from Closing Gender Gaps in Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Box 5: The Coca-Cola Company, Project Nurture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Box 6: ECOM and IFC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Box 7: Mars and CARE International. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Box 8: Index-Insurance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Box 9: Business Benefits for Companies from Closing Gender Gaps in Post-Harvest Processing and Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Box 10: Business Benefits for Companies from Closing Gender Gaps in Transportation, Marketing, and Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 This report calls on the private sector to invest in closing gaps between men and women in agribusiness. iii Foreword IFC, a member of the World Bank Group, has made closing gaps between men and women in agribusiness a priority because of its broad development impact and strong role in poverty reduction. In the fiscal year that ended in June 2016, IFC invested $3.4 billion across the agribusiness supply chain—from farm to retail—to help optimize production, increase liquidity, improve logistics and distribution, expand access to credit for small farmers, and boost gender equality. At the end of the fiscal year, IFC’s agribusiness portfolio stood at $5.6 billion. However, despite a significant agribusiness portfolio, gaps between men and women remain and IFC cannot act alone. Including women more equally will require both further partnership with and investments from private sector actors along the value chain. Fortunately, an increasingly strong body of evidence confirms that gender-smart solutions in agribusiness can increase the sector’s productivity and profitability and lead to stronger, more integrated value chains. However, specific manifestations of gender gaps and opportunities vary widely across regions and value chains. Companies require a starting point to identify the best approach for their businesses to tackle gender gaps and seize emerging opportunities. This report aims to help companies close productivity and efficiency gaps in agribusiness value chains, particularly those in smallholder production. At each stage—(1) input provision and use; (2) production; (3) post-harvest processing and storage; and (4) transportation, marketing, and sales—it outlines key challenges that women face, highlights business benefits, and offers potential private sector solutions. Companies can use this report as a resource to understand how gender dynamics impact their businesses, identify steps they can take to address constraints, and ultimately strengthen their supply chain. We encourage our agribusiness clients and partners to draw on this report as they define their goals when it comes to closing gaps between men and women in their value chain, thereby creating new opportunities for their companies and the agribusiness sector as a whole. Alzbeta Klein Sergio Pimenta Director, Manufacturing, Director, Manufacturing, Agribusiness, and Services, IFC Agribusiness, and Services, IFC 1 FIGURE 1: Overview of Gender Gaps in Agribusiness Value Chains Value Chain Input Production Post-Harvest Transportation, Provision Processing and Marketing, and and Use Storage Sales Gender Informal, unacknowledged, and under-resourced Underrepresented Gaps Cross- Cutting Limited access to information, hired labor, technology, assets, and networks Issues 2 Executive Summary This Report I n the coming years, the agribusiness sector will navigate a rapidly shifting, and, in many ways, an increasingly challenging context. The sector will face increased demand for agricultural products, a decline in the availability of arable land, effects of climate change, a pivot from global to regional value chains, technical advances, and a decline in the traditional labor force. Navigating these complex trends will mean seizing new ways to increase the productivity and efficiency of agribusiness value chains. One promising way to contribute to both goals is to apply gender-smart solutions. This report calls on the private sector to invest in closing of the size and quality of the final commodities produced. gaps between men and women in agribusiness. It focuses Yet, these roles are often informal, unacknowledged, or on four different stages of a simplified value chain: (1) under-resourced. Conversely, in transportation, marketing, input provision and use; (2) production; (3) post-harvest and sales women are underrepresented outside local processing and storage; and (4) transportation, marketing, markets, playing limited roles that keep them from gaining and sales. At each value chain stage the report helps from the most profitable portions of the value chain. companies to identify potential benefits from closing Across the entirety of the value chain, women face limited gender gaps by reviewing women’s contributions and access to information, hired labor, technology, assets, and constraints within each stage, outlining gender-smart networks (see Figure 1). When given equal access, women solutions for the private sector, demonstrating the can maximize their contributions to the sector. business rationale for making gender-smart investments, and presenting best practice case studies. GENDER AND SMALLHOLDER VALUE CHAINS Women play significant While there is variation of opportunities and constraints for women and men between regions and value chains, it roles in production and is possible to identify common trends and insights. Most post-harvest processing notably, women play significant roles in production and post-harvest processing that are often key determinants that are often key determinants of the size and quality of the final commodities produced. 3 FIGURE 2: Select Business Benefits of Closing Gender Gaps Value Chain Input Production Post-Harvest Transportation, Provision Processing and Marketing, and and Use Storage Sales New input Increased Reduced Concentrated Select markets yield losses supply base Business Benefits Improved Improved Strengthened New production quality supplier base markets Overall Business Benefits Improved market linkages, and transparent and reliable supply chains 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY CONTINUED PRIVATE SECTOR INITIATIVES with the goal of empowering women smallholders while increasing the output and quality of commodity For businesses that depend heavily on agricultural production. commodities, gender gaps remain a persistent barrier to growth, profitability, and sustainability. Gender gaps in Further private sector initiatives can reinforce investments inputs and production can reduce the quantity and quality at all stages of the value chain to open up new business of the harvest; gender gaps in post-harvest processing opportunities, and strengthen value chains and the sector and storage can lead to post-harvest losses; and gender as a whole. gaps in transportation, marketing, and sales can result in fragmented and inefficient markets. Companies that These opportunities are not limited to large-scale apply gender-smart solutions such as those outlined in this agribusinesses, or to brands or retailers. While investments report can reduce their barriers and open a wide variety of have largely been led by international, customer-facing benefits, as highlighted in Figure 2. companies, a key message of this report is that numerous opportunities exist for small- to mid-scale businesses Recognizing this business case, leaders in the private to benefit from closing gaps between men and women. sector have undertaken initiatives to support women in The case studies of agri-input micro-franchise Krishi smallholder value chains. However, to date the majority of Utsho (Section 2.5) and commodity exchange and storage investments have been dedicated to women in agricultural company Africa Exchange Holdings (Section 4.5) both production, with fewer targeted investments in other demonstrate how a wide range of companies are applying stages of the value chain. In large parts, these companies gender-smart solutions. have invested in smallholders’ production capabilities, Private sector investments in closing gaps between women and men can open up new business opportunities and strengthen value chains. 5 1. Introduction I n a rapidly changing global economy—where women farmers continue to face a range of challenges, affecting the agricultural sector’s productivity—agribusiness companies have the opportunity to strengthen their value chains by closing gaps between men and women. Many of the labor, supply chain management, market fragmented, informal, and underdeveloped nature of these access, or sustainability and performance challenges chains, as well as the unique difficulties women face within faced by agribusiness companies are, on closer inspection, them, makes clear guidance for companies particularly revealed to be challenges associated with hidden gender relevant. gaps. This report summarizes and simplifies the extensive body of literature on value chain development and gender, This section outlines the trends that are driving increased presenting key entry points for agribusiness companies investment in gender-smart solutions and the approach that want to close gaps between men and women. It used here. The subsequent sections highlight specific describes how companies at all stages of the agribusiness actions that companies can take to harness business value chain can solve these challenges by understanding benefits for input provision and use; production; post- and implementing gender-smart solutions, with a focus on harvest processing and storage; and transportation, companies working in smallholder-led value chains. marketing, and sales. While many publications on gender and value chains 1.1 Emerging Trends in Agribusiness address policy makers, this report is focused on the private The agricultural sector is a significant contributor to the sector, and importantly, it takes a holistic view, presenting global economy, particularly in emerging markets. About the rationale for companies to invest in women at every 75 percent of the world’s poor live in rural areas, and stage. the majority rely on agriculture as There are many differences between SMALLHOLDER 75% OF their main source of income and FARMS WORLD’S livelihood.1 agribusiness value chains dominated POOR LIVE by smallholders and other small-scale IN RURAL AREAS There are approximately 500 million businesses and those dominated by smallholder farms worldwide. large-scale, industrial production (see 500 MILLION Most of them grow their crops box 1). While gender-smart solutions SMALLHOLDER on less than two hectares of land, are relevant for both, this document FARMS and currently produce 80 percent focuses on the former. The often of the food consumed in Asia and PRODUCE Sub-Saharan Africa.2 In low- and 80% OF FOOD CONSUMED 6 BOX 1: ANOTHER REPORT IN IFC’S SERIES OF PUBLICATIONS, “THE BUSINESS CASE FOR WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT IN AGRICULTURE” IFC’s publication “The Business Case for Women’s Employment in Agriculture” middle-income countries, farms smaller than five hectares focuses on directly employed women account for most of the land and produce significant and waged labor, predominantly among amounts of food. As a result, the sustained productivity larger-scale agribusiness employers. It of these smallholders is essential in meeting the growing highlights that when companies invest agricultural demand worldwide. in women workers, they help improve their labor and talent pool, lower Yet, the agricultural sector, particularly the portions reliant recruitment and turnover costs, increase on smallholders, underperforms and does not achieve innovation, and provide opportunities its full potential. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, for diverse perspectives in the workforce it accounts for two-thirds of the labor force and 30 and management. Moreover, high labor percent of gross domestic product (GDP),3 yet agricultural standards and quality employment challenges lead to declining agricultural contributions to can increase access to quality buyers. GDP. 4, 5, 6 Companies thereby improve their business gains while ultimately supporting Smallholders are a heterogeneous group that includes inclusive growth for women workers in farmers lacking the potential to succeed in commercial agribusiness. farming. Ultimately, it can be advantageous for this Source: “The Business Case for Women’s specific group of farmers to receive support in leaving Employment in Agriculture”, by International the agribusiness sector and look for other employment Finance Corporation (2016). opportunities.7 However, enabling small-scale farmers with the potential to succeed in commercial farming can support the performance and development of the sector as a whole. According to World Bank estimates, food production and processing in Africa currently generates over $300 billion annually, but that figure could rise to $1 trillion a year by 2030 if farmers were given the right access to inputs and resources.8 7 INTRODUCTION CONTINUED Making this transformation means navigating a rapidly In addition, greater attention will be paid to agriculture shifting, and in some ways, an increasingly challenging, because of its substantial environmental impact. context for agribusiness that may determine the future of Agriculture generates 19 percent to 29 percent of total smallholder farming. Key trends include: greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, a substantial climate change contributor.16 Moreover, 70 percent of global Increased demand for agricultural freshwater use is attributed to agriculture, greatly products, which has led the United impacting the scarcity of global freshwater resources. Nations (UN) to call for a doubling of food production by 2050;9 1.2 Women in Agribusiness Developing gender-smart solutions in agribusiness A drop in agricultural commodity prices represents a crucial strategy to address an increasingly which, though benefiting consumers, volatile global context and to open new opportunities for cuts into the profits of producers;10 smallholder value chains. A decline in the availability of arable Women play fundamental roles in agriculture, comprising land due to factors ranging from soil over 40 percent of its labor force worldwide.17 Sector-wide degradation to urban expansion;11 women’s labor force participation differs across and within A shift from global to regional value countries and regions, from 20 percent in Latin America to chains, offering new markets for 50 percent in parts of Africa and Asia.18 Their involvement smallholders and other small- to mid- and success is critical to the sector’s competitiveness.19 scale actors who may not be able to Yet small-scale women farmers continue to face specific compete globally;12 constraints that limit their contributions, including: Technical advances that may either drive • Limited access to hired labor, equipment, technology, a shift to large-scale industrial farming13 training, finance, and markets; or provide small-scale actors with the • Restrictions on land ownership and tenure that limit platforms they need to gain increased expansion opportunities and lead investors to deal primarily efficiency; and 14 with men;20 Climate change that makes farming • Sexual harassment and violence; and and the businesses that depend upon it • Household, community, and care responsibilities, which are more variable and high-risk, particularly essential to rural wellbeing but have an important effect on for small-scale and poor farmers who women’s time use.21 are already likely to be concentrated in Moreover, women traditionally participate in value chain vulnerable environments.15 nodes with lower economic return than men. Women’s participation in the production of a specific crop is oftentimes related to the crop’s assumed value, and is thereby usually limited to local consumption and the local market. Men are more likely to participate in export commodities, or in markets where there is a greater economic return.22 8 BOX 2: WOMEN AND CARE One of the less frequently cited constraints for women in agribusiness is By addressing those direct and indirect constraints, that of care. Women’s disproportionate firms can turn these challenges into successful business responsibility in supporting children and opportunities. Investing in women can increase their elders can substantially impact their contributions, and positively impacts the performance productivity by reducing the number of of agribusiness companies by reducing the industry’s hours they have to dedicate to income- productivity gaps. Among other benefits, it can: generating activities. For instance, a • Increase the productivity of a company’s labor force and/or study in Uganda found that care activities supply chain; accounted for half of the difference in productivity between male- and female- • Improve the quality of company operations and access to owned average plots, after taking factors premium markets; like increased access to inputs into • Widen the available talent pool; and account. • Strengthen brand reputation and customer loyalty through Source: “Investigating the Gender Gap in ethical sourcing and compliance with environmental and Agricultural Productivity: Evidence from Uganda” by Daniel Ali, Derick Bowe, Klaus Deininger, and social standards. Marguerite Duponchel (2015). 1.3 Methodology and Approach This report provides the rationale for agribusiness companies to recognize the market value and business benefits of closing gaps between men and women and investing in women smallholder farmers across their value chains. It is global in scope but primarily addresses small- scale farming in emerging markets, where economies depend heavily on agriculture. The report findings are primarily based on desk research of gender, agriculture, and value chain literature, as well as on case studies that highlight specific examples of successful gender initiatives in agribusiness companies. The report has been informed by interviews with more than 100 stakeholders, ranging from companies to non- governmental organizations (NGO). It further reflects IFC client and company experiences in closing gaps between men and women in agriculture at each value chain step. The report benefited greatly from insights and peer reviews by more than 15 practitioners and subject-matter experts. Agribusiness value chains are complex and highly variable by region and commodity. As a result, business 9 INTRODUCTION CONTINUED drivers, constraints that women face, and company • Recommendations for companies on how to reap economic recommendations vary according to the geographic and benefits by closing gaps between men and women. local context. To address this complexity and still represent Specific case studies highlight how companies have a global scope, this report is based on four simplified successfully put gender-smart solutions into practice. value chain steps: input provision and use; production; Companies that wish to leverage business benefits can post-harvest processing and storage; and transportation, draw on this report, combined with individual value chain marketing, and sales (see Figure 3). It outlines: mapping as a first step to determine which action might • Challenges that businesses face; be best suited to the distinct needs of the value chains in which they operate. Still, due to value chain complexity, • Key activities and roles of women; further in-depth research is required to provide • Specific constraints women face; and customized client solutions and reflect specific market needs and socio-cultural norms. FIGURE 3: Reducing Gender Gaps— How the Private Sector Can Help Increased Supply chain Reduced post- Concentrated consumer loyalty stability harvest losses supplier networks Business Secured Improved product Strengthened Increased supply Benefits sales quality supplier base chain stability Access to new Increased crop New or improved New markets for consumer base yield markets agricultural goods Value Chain Input Production Post-Harvest Transportation, Provision Processing and Marketing, and and Use Storage Sales Gender- Support access Ensure women are Ensure women Engage Smart to credit, land actively involved are paid for men to open and inputs in training harvesting networks Solutions 10 11 2. Input Provision and Use 2.1 Overview Agribusiness companies need to ensure the availability, access, and correct usage of their products to increase One major factor that determines agricultural productivity harvest and production volume for farmers. This ulti- is the access to high-quality inputs. Limited access mately maximizes companies’ profits and returns on in- represents a key barrier to women. Improving women’s vestment through increased sales, consumer satisfaction, access to the right inputs not only strengthens production and brand loyalty. processes but also, for input sellers and marketers, opens up new markets. In some contexts, input suppliers are challenged by counterfeit agricultural inputs and difficult access to rural Agricultural inputs include resources used in farm and small-scale farmer communities. Strategic ways of production, such as seeds, fertilizer, equipment, and addressing those challenges and accessing the consumer energy sources. All play an important role for agricultural market of women farmers can be leveraged through the value chain performance and sustainable growth for use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT), agribusinesses. agro-dealerships, and targeted marketing. FIGURE 4: 2.2 Women’s Key Value Chain Activities in Input Provision and Use A Closer Look at Input Provision and Use In many value chains, women may be responsible for input application but may not have direct access to high-quality inputs or knowledge of best practice. Increased consumer loyalty In input provision and use, women play a variety of roles: Business Secured They are active as small-scale farmers who sell and Benefits sales provide to agricultural input supply companies, they act as Access to new agro-input retailers and agro-dealers, and they are hired consumer base as extension workers and rural agro-agents.23 Women’s activities are well-suited to assist input supply companies and enable an effective and wide reach of companies’ products to large consumer markets. Women represent significant potential to upgrade value chain performance and build input markets, benefiting women and input Value supply companies at the same time. Chain Input Provision and Use 12 To improve the quality of their yields, women farmers productivity and outputs.28 Reasons for this are related to need access to inputs and knowledge of best practice for the affordability of inputs and intra-household choices, input application, which ultimately benefits agribusiness which can limit access to financial means and credit companies as it leads to secured quality and sustainable to purchase higher quality inputs, and also to limited supply of outputs. While limited access to inputs and access to knowledge and extension services. Addressing knowledge impacts most smallholders to some degree, those challenges and inviting women to participate in women’s comparative disadvantages multiply this demonstration plots, for example, allows input supply constraint. Companies can take advantage of this market companies to secure customer loyalty of female farmers. niche as women and smallholders are traditionally underserved markets for agricultural inputs.24 ACCESS TO TECHNOLOGY AND MACHINERY 2.3 Constraints Women Face in Input Modern farming machinery can drastically improve farm Provision and Use productivity but purchase costs are high. Credits and loans Small-scale women farmers face a number of constraints are, in many contexts, subject to collateral requirements at the level of input provision and use. They have which due to land title sensitivities oftentimes do not proportionately less access to high-quality inputs, lie with the woman. Typically, household members with equipment and technology, technical information economic decision-making power and access to credits on appropriate usage (e.g., quantity and timing of and loans purchase laborsaving tools and machines. application), hired labor, and knowledge of modern Enabling women’s increased access to machinery and tools farming practices.25, 26 For instance, research presented in can reduce the need and amount of labor on their farms, the World Bank Group’s Levelling the Field report has shown which frees up time for other responsibilities or leisure. that women not only have unequal access to inputs but This can also be a way of bypassing the difficulties of hiring also face unequal returns from their inputs. 27 labor, which in some cultural contexts is a constraint for women farmers.29 Supporting the creation of women ACCESS TO INPUTS AND THEIR farmer associations can help members to lend or purchase CORRECT USAGE such machines as a group. Women tend to use lower quality inputs, such as poor- quality seeds or fertilizer, ACCESS TO and have restricted access INFORMATION, AGRICULTURAL TRAINING, AND to knowledge of their EQUIPMENT INPUTS appropriate use, which KNOWLEDGE translates into unequal According to World Bank research, returns from those inputs. women farmers have less access RESOURCES In Ethiopia, the World Bank USED IN to agricultural information SEEDS ENERGY FARM found that women use overall and extension services. Rather, PRODUCTION less fertilizer than men, use they receive information on lower-quality fertilizer, and farming techniques through their apply it incorrectly, which husbands or informal sources, as FERTILIZER leads to lower agricultural training is often directed at head 13 INPUT PROVISION AND USE CONTINUED of households.30 Training can be more effective when Increasing the number of female extension agents is one adapted to women’s capacities, literacy rates, schedules, way of improving women’s access to extension services, and needs as they may otherwise not be able to attend as cultural norms may otherwise restrict women farmers due to conflicting domestic responsibilities or limited from engaging with male agents. Still, the United States mobility. Providing training on farm management and an Agency for International Development (USAID) states that understanding of farming as a family business benefits globally “only 15 percent of extension agents are women”.35 male and female farmers. The Food and Agriculture Some of the challenges in recruiting women officers are Organization (FAO) found that women received only 5 institutional biases and the low number of female students percent of extension services.31, 32 Though this figure can with agricultural science degrees; the remote location of vary, it inevitably reflects gender gaps: for instance, in field assignments, which can pose security threats, such Ethiopia and India, 20 percent and 18 percent of extension as threats of sexual harassment; and socio-cultural norms services reach women respectively, yet in Ghana only 2 affecting women’s mobility or interaction with men.36 percent of such services do so.33, 34 14 BOX 3: BUSINESS BENEFITS FOR COMPANIES FROM CLOSING GENDER GAPS IN INPUT 2.4 Recommendations for Company PROVISION AND USE: Actions in Input Provision and Use • Increased consumer loyalty Input supply manufacturers can benefit from supporting • Secured sales the smallholder consumer segment’s growth as an input market by increasing the capacity of women farmers • Access to new consumer base to access and efficiently use their inputs. The result, • Connection of farmers to output recognizable augmentation of production and profits, and markets increased professionalism and management of farms as a (family) business, can ultimately move smallholders from subsistence farming to increased market-orientation and commercialization.37 When input companies ensure that their products are accessible, affordable, and safe, they are receive training on the application of modern farming likely to realize increased input sales. Agro-dealerships, inputs. For example, in Bangladesh, Cultivating New franchise networks, and extension agents represent ways Frontiers in Agribusiness (CNFA) has increased the for input companies to access remote rural communities availability and quality of inputs for farmers by and ensure the correct application of their input products. establishing a network of agri-input retailers (AIRN) Addressing women’s needs and preferences in training and that provides training on the safe application and storage marketing can increase consumer loyalty. The following of inputs to over 1 million farmers, reaching $100 million solutions can support companies and farmers to meet in sales. To increase women’s participation as dealers, market demand and reach improved performance and training classes have been specifically adjusted to women’s production: needs, reaching 300 female retailers.41 Trends lean toward using shops of agro-dealers as service and information SUPPORT WOMEN IN OPENING hubs for women and men farmers, and as training facilities AGRO-DEALERSHIPS AND PROVIDE in which dealers train farmers on input use.42 Training TRAINING ON THE USE OF INPUTS women as agro-dealers, potentially in partnership with an experienced NGO, allows companies to have a presence Agro-dealers represent the link between input suppliers in remote and rural areas. This is likely to increase brand and farmers, and can link farmers with output markets loyalty due to the correct use of products, creating and traders.38 Depending on their size and focus, agro- product demand. It also allows the company to have direct dealers can provide a variety of products, ranging from access to its consumer base because women farmers high-quality seeds, machinery, and fertilizer, to agricultural may prefer the interaction with other women in some information and veterinary services.39 Further, they can cultural contexts. Moreover, enabling men and women buy in bulk produce from farmers, and sell it to commodity as agro-dealers and agents can increase the availability marketing companies further up the value chain. In Kenya of products, improves women’s access to inputs, and the for example, women make up 30 percent of the 10,000 connection of farmers with output markets. agro-dealers in the country, a relatively high number in comparison to other countries in the region.40 Using the direct link to their customers, agro-dealers are a reliable contact point for farmers to access certified inputs and 15 INPUT PROVISION AND USE CONTINUED DEVELOP TARGETED companies to manage distribution networks and provide ICT OUTREACH AND PRODUCTS technical support to clients. It can further trigger cross- FOR CONSUMER LOYALTY sectoral partnerships, such as with telecommunication providers, which enables companies to reach farmers by Counterfeit and low-quality agricultural input products using mobile SMS features for product updates, farming are a significant problem to input supply companies, tips, and information on retailer locations,44 and ultimately challenging their consumers’ brand loyalty. To address create input markets. Farmers are able to receive real-time this problem, and enhance loyalty and connections to information on current market prices, weather forecasts, customers, the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate and pest outbreaks. The digital divide between men and Service, or KEPHIS, provides the following solution: women in access to ICT still persists.45 Companies that Farmers can verify that they bought from a licensed address this information gap, and target male and female dealer by sending a Short Message Service (SMS) consumers equally, will be able to reach their entire with the input dealer’s license number to KEPHIS, consumer base.46 which the system then confirms or declines.43 ICT helps 16 ENABLE USE OF MOBILE BANKING ADJUST TRAINING CONTENT AND APPLICATIONS AND PRE-PAID TIMING VOUCHERS Demonstration plots and farmer field days are a common Mobile banking applications have the potential of freeing way for input supply companies to market new products up time for farmers by eliminating the need to travel long and provide technical information on the appropriate use distances to pay for agricultural inputs or services. This can and storage of their products. To reach the maximum have a significant positive impact on women farmers who number of farmers, the timing, language, and location face an increased risk because of lack of transport safety, should be adjusted to women farmers’ needs, as domestic restricted mobility due to socio-cultural norms in some responsibilities can restrict them from traveling far contexts, and time constraints from domestic responsibilities. from their homes. Arranging safe transport, along with MRI Agro Zambia, a seed input supplier, uses an electronic community or farm-based childcare, could also encourage pre-paid voucher system, which allows farmers to women’s participation. Companies can offer training pre-pay for inputs at a time during the year when cash conducted by female and male trainers on the proper use is available, leading to increased and secured sales for of inputs, and can adapt these classes to the needs of men companies in that period. As farmers have to register for the and women farmers, thereby leading to greater yields and voucher system, it allows the company to create a customer improved quality crops, and logically, to a more sustainable database for targeted marketing and product promotion. 47 supply chain. Using gender-disaggregated data collection allows companies to further distinguish their customer needs and INCREASE SALES BY TAILORING specifically target women as a new consumer base. PRODUCTS AND PACKAGING TO WOMEN FARMER NEEDS INCREASE CONSUMER REACH Women farmers should be understood and identified THROUGH WOMEN AGRO-AGENTS as a consumer segment, with specific preferences and Input supply companies need to enable quality and spending potential, which requires targeted marketing availability of their agricultural inputs for farmers and 48 and promotion. Depending on the local context, the role have the opportunity to effectively reach their women’s of women in household budgets and spending can range consumer market through women agents. Owing to from playing no role at all to a joint or main role. When norms of social contact, companies have found it useful women farmers are included in marketing activities along to check with women farmers whether they prefer with their husbands or in social activities that involve being trained by women or men. For example, women 49 women, then they are more likely to make informed agents trained as salespersons or extension officers can purchase decisions. To increase the willingness of engage with women farmers, thereby attracting new both men and women farmers to purchase new clients, creating brand loyalty, and ensuring the correct brands, companies such as Bayer, BASF, and Syngenta use of inputs and outreach of key agricultural services. 50 are breaking down the bag size for fertilizers and Land O’Lakes, for example, trained women as para- pesticides.52 Selling those through an input supply hub53 veterinarians in artificial insemination for their makes it affordable for small-scale farmers to purchase operations in Tanzania, and as a result not only reached quality inputs and allows input manufacturers to reach a women farmers but moreover identified that women’s greater number of customers, especially women farmers insemination efforts were highly successful, reaching high who can face limited access to funds.54 Companies may pregnancy rates in cows.51 use promotional coupons to introduce new products and 17 INPUT PROVISION AND USE CONTINUED increase customer uptake. A study in Kenya found that women buy smaller amounts over a certain time, but 2.5 CASE STUDY: end up purchasing the same quantity as men over time.55 Selling smaller quantities strengthens the technique of Krishi Utsho Builds Markets micro-dosing, which allows productivity increases at low for Agricultural Inputs through costs, and supports climate-smart agribusiness as a rise in greenhouse gases can occur from fertilizer over-use.56 Micro-Franchising B angladesh’s small-scale farmers, those who INCREASE ACCESS TO own two hectares or less, operate 96 percent AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES of the nation’s farms.59 However, these farmers AND MACHINERY often lack access to crucial inputs and services. This is Improving women farmers’ access to agricultural particularly true for women farmers, who do not have technologies and time-saving machinery can significantly the freedom of movement to travel to regional markets, increase their contributions to agricultural growth. To are less likely to have the knowledge of best practices, support women farmers in accessing machinery and and are less likely to have the funds to pay for inputs improve the overall adoption of technology in Bangladesh’s or services, yet provide the majority of farm work. agribusiness sector, the Cereal Systems Initiative of In addition to decreasing farmers’ productivity, this South Asia (CSISA), developed a seeder fertilizer drill asymmetry limits growth for input and service providers. (SFD). Compared to traditional drills, SFD works with high precision and simultaneously prepares the land, and The Krishi Utsho social enterprise built a new business plants and fertilizes crops, saving cultivation costs for the that provides agricultural inputs and services to small- farmers. Private sector partner RFL, a local agricultural scale and women farmers to reverse this market failure. retailer, markets the drill at discounted prices under The company used several methods to open new the project’s umbrella to make agricultural machines markets. affordable to the rural population and popularize the use of machines in local agribusiness—particularly among women farmers. The project enables, for example, local women cooperative leaders to purchase the drill at subsidized prices and its female cooperative members to rent and use it. Returns are then shared in 51 percent for the owner, and 49 percent for the user.57, 58 The project further trained over 400 women in the use of agricultural machinery, which led to female training participants renting machinery and providing farmers with access to time-saving technologies and equipment. 18 FIGURE 5: Microfranchise Model, as Used by Krishi Utsho in Bangladesh Output Vet Drug Animal Feed All Service Seeds and Agricultural Financial Market and Companies Companies Providers Fertilizers Tools Services Logistics Partners 1. Market and Demand Creation 2. Franchise Operating Manual and Processes CARE 3. Training and Certification 4. Information, Capacity Building and Education 5. Technology Platform 6. Monitoring and Evaluation Shops Vet Drug Animal Feed All Service Seeds Tools Tools Services Farmers • First, it established a series of local shops using a micro- Krishi Utsho’s model has proven a success for the business franchise model that allowed stores to be owned and and for local farmers. It currently operates 112 stores across operated by entrepreneurs already embedded in rural Bangladesh, with plans for expansion to 230 stores by 2018. farming communities while maintaining standards under the Agricultural input providers have also benefited through Krishi Utsho brand. a successful path for last-mile distribution, through Krishi Utsho’s sales of over $500,000 in its first three years of • Second, it negotiated with key input providers to create operations. Finally, women and small-scale farmers benefit dedicated products, such as small feed or fertilizer packets, through reliable, affordable, and accessible inputs and that were of guaranteed quality while being affordable and services. accessible for small-scale farmers. • Third, it linked farmers with key services such as veterinary The Krishi Utsho franchise network is a social enterprise owned care or sales points for dairy farmers by hosting them at the and operated by CARE International Bangladesh. For more franchise locations. information, visit http://www.carebangladesh.org/ or write to Maruf Azam, General Manager, Krishi Utsho at • Fourth, it targeted customers, particularly women, whose Maruf.azam@care.org. needs were not met by existing markets. 19 3. Production 3.1 Overview Specific challenges that small-scale farmers face include: For this report, agricultural production includes land • Secured access to good-quality inputs and input financing; preparation, cultivation, and harvesting. Looking into • Lack of market information and access; smallholder production patterns is specifically relevant for agribusiness firms that source predominantly from • Increasing weather unpredictability arising from climate smallholders for their production in sectors such as change; cocoa or rice. 60 Smallholders can represent either the • Outmigration of farm workers from rural to urban areas; primary source of supply or significantly supplement the production of large-scale farms. • Aging farming communities; and • Increased demand for food products from growing emerging markets. These challenges require efficient and sustainable agricultural solutions, which agribusiness lead firms need to ensure for the sustainability of their supply chains. FIGURE 6: A Closer Look at Production 3.2 Women’s Key Value Chain Activities in Production Women comprise over 40 percent of the agricultural labor force worldwide61 as farmers, entrepreneurs, and laborers, Supply chain stability and are significant contributors to agribusiness supply chains. In addition to women’s roles and employment Business Improved product opportunities on large commercial farms, the perspective of Benefits quality women as small-scale farmers brings compelling business Increased crop opportunities. Women’s activities in agricultural production yield vary greatly across commodities and regions. For example, Indonesian women provide the majority of the labor in rice farming, but less than one-third of the labor for rubber.62 Moreover, women are oftentimes paid less than men for the same work, and are over-represented in informal, unpaid, part-time, and seasonal work.63 Value Chain Production Because women are an important source in agricultural production, leveraging their potential and providing them with full access to assets, as well as training, land, 20 and inputs, can help the agribusiness industry to scale its ACCESS TO FINANCE AND MOBILE productivity and meet its growth targets.64 BANK ACCOUNTS 3.3 Constraints Women Face in Production Women farmers tend to have limited access to financial services and products (e.g. loans, insurance, equity) which Women’s agricultural productivity and yields are 20 prevents them from investing in their farm, purchasing percent to 30 percent lower than men’s because of well- critical inputs and equipment, and hiring additional labor documented constraints such as restricted access to to enhance productivity. For example, in Africa, women quality seeds, equipment, hired labor, technology, training, receive “less than 10 percent of the credit offered to small- and markets.65 These constraints limit the contributions scale farmers.”68 The limited access to finance is often women make to supply chains and ultimately affect the related to lack of collateral (land or other assets) needed chain’s stability. It is important to note that some of these to borrow money from financial institutions, enforced by constraints affect men as well, but generally to a lower limited financial literacy.69 In addition, the lack of bank extent because of factors such as socio-cultural norms. branches in many rural areas further limits their networks Most of the constraints that women face are interlinked: and access to financial products. For example women’s lack of land titles and collateral limits their access to finance, and women’s lack of finance ACCESS TO LAND OWNERSHIP affects their ability to purchase agricultural inputs. According to the World Bank Group’s Women, Business and ACCESS TO TRAINING, the Law report 2016, 155 economies have at least one legal EXTENSION SERVICES, AND restriction on women’s economic opportunities, such as TECHNICAL INFORMATION limitations on owning property.70 In many economies, women face restricted access to land ownership, and Lower levels of access to education and training hinder overall own smaller plots with lower quality of soil. For women farmers’ productivity. Although indicators on example, in Côte d’Ivoire, while women legally have girls’ school attendance have improved, literacy rates for equal land ownership rights, in practice they are rarely rural women can be as low as 30 percent in some African landowners due to customary practices and a lack of countries.66 This is partially related to the relatively high awareness of these rights. Further, marrying under average age of farmers, as younger generations look for common law, which most couples do, gives men the employment opportunities outside sole right to administer common of farms. Low literacy rates and AGRICULTURAL property held in the marriage. The limited access to cooperatives make PRODUCTION lack of land and collateral, as well as agricultural and business training for LAND PREPARATION lack of formal personal identification women more difficult. In Africa for documents, prevent women from example, women receive less than claiming ownership on the land they 10 percent of agricultural extension work. As a result they find it difficult services.67 As a result, women CULTIVATION to get credit.71 Research by the World farmers are often unable to benefit Bank Group shows that when women from knowledge exchanges about own land, it gives them an incentive improved agricultural practices, to invest in their land. 72 HARVESTING sustainable farming, correct use of inputs, and industry trade practices. 21 PRODUCTION CONTINUED BOX 4: BUSINESS BENEFITS FOR COMPANIES FROM CLOSING GENDER GAPS IN ACCESS TO COOPERATIVE PRODUCTION LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION • Increased supply chain stability Cooperatives and farmer associations play a vital role • Improved product quality in establishing bargaining power for their members, creating avenues for resource sharing, providing training • Increased crop yield facilities for good agricultural practices, creating networks, and encouraging access to markets. As cooperative membership oftentimes requires collateral and land ownership, women’s participation and leadership tends ACCESS TO ICT AND MOBILE to be limited. Cooperative access varies across the world, TECHNOLOGY although disproportionately low participation by women Through Internet access and mobile technology, farmers are is widespread. In Ethiopia, for example, women comprise able to receive and search market information. Women in about 20 percent of cooperative membership, despite rural areas of developing countries remain less connected women making up approximately half of the farmers in because of barriers of mobile phone ownership and usage, the country.73 In 2012, a census of Paraguayan cooperatives to the detriment of their productivity. According to the undertaken by the Observatorio del Sector Cooperativo International Telecommunication Union, the Internet Paraguayo, demonstrated that out of 45 surveyed gender gap is about 25 percent in developing countries agricultural cooperatives, only one was led by a woman.74 overall, but higher in Central Asia (30 percent) and Sub- LIMITATIONS ON TIME AND Saharan Africa (40 percent). Further, women are 23 MOBILITY percent less likely than men to own mobile phones in Africa; the number climbs to 24 percent in the Middle On average, rural women in Africa, Asia and the Pacific East and 37 percent in South Asia.77 When women are work about twelve hours per week more than men. This technologically connected, they receive vital information is a result of the additional time they spend tending to such as commodity prices and weather information, unpaid domestic responsibilities (e.g., collecting water which is a significant support in becoming fully productive and fuel, caring for children and other family members, members of the agribusiness value chain. The Groupe preparing food, and cleaning) in addition to on-farm Spéciale Mobile Association (GSMA), which represents the and off-farm work.75 A study in Mozambique found that interests of major mobile operators worldwide, identified women spent an additional six hours per day, relative to mobile-enabled agricultural services (“mAgri services”) for men, performing domestic tasks—in spite of spending women in developing countries as being the upcoming and nearly the same amount of time performing non-domestic substantial, but yet underserved, market opportunity for the work.76 These responsibilities curtail how long women mobile industry.78 can be away from home, where they can travel, and leave women “time-poor,” not only limiting their time to ACCESS TO LABOR-SAVING perform farming duties but also limiting their availability TECHNOLOGIES and mobility for activities that would enhance their Instead of labor-saving technologies such as agri- farming, such as training, acquiring inputs, supervising processing tools and mechanized farm equipment, hired labor, building extended networks, and reaching which can ease farmers’ workload and increase labor markets. The need for more equitable use of time in productivity, many women smallholders depend on labor- households becomes clear. 22 BOX 5: THE COCA-COLA COMPANY, PROJECT NURTURE From 2010 to 2015, Coca-Cola implemented intensive hand tools and human labor for their work.79 a program in Kenya and Uganda—in The main constraints to changing this pattern rest in partnership with Technoserve and the Bill and scaling up the availability, accessibility, and adoption by Melinda Gates Foundation—to help mango women of such technologies.80 Reasons for their limited and passion-fruit farmers improve their access to technology and energy, and ultimately use and production and link local food processors to adaption of agricultural production tools is manifold. markets. As part of the program, the farmers, They stem from lower educational levels and information many of whom were women, adopted new on labor-saving technologies and tools, socio-cultural technologies and practices—boosting their norms, and limitations in the acceptance of women using revenue by an average of 142 percent. In specific technologies, affordability, and handiness and addition, two processors were approved as manageability of certain tools for women.81, 82 suppliers, adding to Coca-Cola’s supply chain. Successes can be found, however. For example, a village Source: “Project Nurture” by The Coca-Cola Company in Zimbabwe’s Honde Valley invested collectively in village and Technoserve (n.d.). pipes and sprinklers to irrigate crops. Since women and girls are responsible for fetching water in this cultural context, their collective investment had a significant impact on women’s time, enabling them to engage in women’s (partially untapped) potential. Companies can further income-generating activities.83 act in many ways to increase women’s productivity, and thereby improve their own business. Lifting constraints to women’s participation and equally including women into value chains allows companies 3.4 Recommendations for Company to add value to their operations and take advantage of Actions in Production Companies can undertake a variety of actions at the production stage. An integral part of each intervention is a gender mapping, a tool aimed to identify the distinct roles which men and women play in a company’s value Companies can chain. Through targeted training, access to finance and undertake a variety of insurance, and partnerships, agribusiness firms are able to achieve various business benefits at the production actions at the production stage: Increased farmer productivity, higher quality and stage. An integral part quantity of produce, and a stable supply chain. Further recommendations are highlighted below: of each intervention is a gender mapping, a tool ASSESS “WHO DOES WHAT” AMONG MEN AND WOMEN IN THE aimed to identify the VALUE CHAIN distinct roles which men Value-adding activities and roles that women and men and women play in a farmers perform in companies’ value chains vary across countries and commodities. While conducting a value company’s value chain. chain analysis and assessment of labor allocations, 23 PRODUCTION CONTINUED companies are able to identify the specific actors in their coffee supply chains. Based on its results, ECOM their value chains and scale the value they add to the and IFC developed gender-specific training materials, processes. Companies are thereby able to develop and provided training for trainers for ECOM staff and targeted interventions and maximize their impact and local communities (see Box 6).84 profitability. Through the assessment of labor allocations in their value chains and use of gender diagnostics, INCREASE SUPPLY CHAIN IFC clients such as ECOM Agroindustrial Corp. Ltd or SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH Mondelēz International Inc. have been able to detect TRAINING ADAPTED TO WOMEN’S challenges in their value chains and make informed SCHEDULES AND MOBILITY decisions to address those. ECOM, for example, used To increase small-scale farmers’ productivity and a gender-mapping tool to identify women’s roles in professionalism in companies’ supply chains, farmers need to understand their farm management as a business. To include men and women in business and financial training, content should be adapted to their skill sets and capacities. BOX 6: Depending on the context, women and men can benefit greatly from receiving trainings separately from one ECOM AND IFC another. Moreover, it can be beneficial for women if their Ecom Agroindustrial Corp. (ECOM) is one training sessions are delivered by female trainers, and of the world’s top three coffee traders as adapted to women’s schedule, mobility, their level of well as one of the world’s largest coffee literacy and language skills. Improving women farmers’ millers. However, ECOM realized that in capacities through training in modern farming order to meet growing demand, it needed techniques is a practical way to increase crop yield and to partner with the entrepreneurs that quality, as seen in Coca-Cola’s program85 (see Box 5). provided the company’s coffee. Working with IFC in Indonesia, ECOM identified SEEK TARGETED WAYS TO gender gaps amongst the coffee producers INCREASE WOMEN’S ACCESS TO who the company sourced from as a key FINANCE barrier to growth. Though women make up Collateral is often required by financial institutions for 80 percent of coffee workers in Indonesia, loan products, which can put women at a disadvantage, they are often excluded from trainings on based on limited land ownership. Agribusiness lead coffee cultivation, processing or marketing. firms can cooperate with financial institutions to revise By developing gender-specific trainings collateral requirements and develop alternative loan for its staff and local suppliers, ECOM, with programs. There are many different ways to increase support from IFC, was able to drastically access to finance, such as micro-finance and micro- increase the productivity of coffee farmers. loans, risk and micro-insurance facilities, and mobile Productivity increased 131 percent for payments. In many cases, greater access to finance will groups which trained both men and women, lead to greater access to key inputs and equipment. whereas it increased 95 percent for men- Giving women the capital needed to invest in these can only groups. lead to improved quality of their outputs, which benefit agribusiness firms. 24 BOX 7: MARS AND CARE INTERNATIONAL Facing a future cocoa demand-supply To address financing challenges faced by farmers, gap that could negatively impact its institutions such as IFC have developed agri-finance chocolate business, Mars has implemented a instruments, such as risk sharing facilities. For example, to comprehensive program to secure its supply support 70 coffee farmer cooperatives in accessing loans chain, with increasing inclusion of women as in Ethiopia, IFC has partnered with NIB International a key feature of this program. The company Bank S.C., and extended a risk-sharing facility worth has partnered with CARE International up to $10 million to NIB. The facility aims to generate to provide loans and access to finance for $17 million in export revenues and create 2,000 jobs, of women in 25 cocoa communities. At the which over 50 percent will likely be occupied by women. same time, Mars has also developed Farmer It will allow more farmers to qualify for loans as IFC Field Schools and technical support service and NIB are sharing the risks related to financing and for women farmers. These activities have lending to coffee producers.86 Farmers can be assessed added women farmers into Mars’ supply based on a risk evaluation that categorizes them into low-, chain, while also improving the productivity medium-, and high-risk groups. High risk is indicated by of women farmers already in its supply low crop diversification, and generation of only seasonal chain, which has added diversification and income, which can depend on harvest variations. This stability to Mars’ cocoa supply, and better limits farmers’ ability to repay interests and loans with positioned the company to increase its equal repayment rates and structures, instead leading to chocolate production. payments of lump sums at the end of crop cycles.87 This demonstrates that it is crucial for financial institutions to Source: “Mars Women’s Empowerment Plan” by develop targeted products for high- and low-risk farmers, Mars Chocolate (2015). depending on farmers’ needs. They can further close the finance gap and tap into the women’s market with targeted offers. Receiving access to mobile bank accounts and payments can increase women’s economic decision-making and spending, creating new markets and independent consumers for companies and financial institutions.88 COOPERATE AND LEVERAGE EXPERTISE OF PARTNER ORGANIZATIONS In many contexts, there are already organizations in place that support women farmers—these include cooperatives, NGOs, government extension services, and other types of associations. Partnering with these organizations can help companies to quickly achieve impact and save costs. NGOs may have developed significant subject-matter expertise on the customs and culture of the local community, which helps to maximize effectiveness when designing and implementing programs. 25 PRODUCTION CONTINUED CREATE ECONOMIC INCENTIVES SOURCE FROM COOPERATIVES AND THROUGH TRAININGS AND DIRECT FARMER ORGANIZATIONS WITH PAYMENTS EQUITABLE LEADERSHIP Receiving economic incentives can allow women to Participation in cooperatives enables its members to access participate in training, integrate what they have learned farming inputs and equipment, as well as markets to sell their into their farming, and especially allocate sufficient time products. Owing to women’s greater limitations in access and labor to their tasks, which in return influences both to land titling and other assets, which can be requirements the quality and quantity of outputs. Often, because of for cooperative membership, women can face challenges in a lack of control over income, there is a gap between becoming part of such organizations. the work that women do on the farm and the benefits received from it. To address this, companies can establish Companies can take advantage of the fact that enterprises direct payment systems and support women in opening with women in leadership positions outperform those bank accounts, and, if technologically possible, facilitate without female leaders. For instance, a research piece from electronic payments, giving women more decision-making the nonprofit organization ACDI/VOCA on women farmers in power over their income.89 Paraguay found that the same is valid for farmer organizations; that participation of both men and women in membership and leadership strengthens the cooperative due to the diversity of perspectives.90 Some companies such as IFC client Mondelēz International are taking advantage by BOX 8: increasing women’s leadership roles in cocoa cooperatives and in the communities from which they source. Through INDEX-INSURANCE targeted programs female leadership in cooperatives increased This insurance type “pays out benefits to approximately 30 percent, which has enabled Mondelēz to on the basis of a predetermined index for establish stronger relationships with women in the cocoa- loss of assets and investments, primarily farming communities in which they operate.91 working capital, resulting from weather and catastrophic events, without requiring LEVERAGE WOMEN FARMERS AS the services of insurance claims assessors. BUSINESS OPPORTUNITY FOR A statistical index is developed before the INSURANCE COMPANIES start of the insurance period to measure Agribusiness and disaster insurance is a common practice for deviations from normal for such parameters farmers in advanced economies, but oftentimes unavailable in as rainfall, temperature, seismic activity, emerging markets. The lack of insurance increases small-scale wind speed, crop yield or livestock mortality farmers’, and particularly women’s, vulnerability to unforeseen rates. The Global Index Insurance Facility weather events and results in more risk aversion and fewer (GIIF), managed by the World Bank Group, investments in farms and production. Providing index-insurance has been leading and supporting index- is one way for insurance companies to tap into the niche of agri- insurance programs since 2009.” insurance.92 To make insurance more affordable, the Global Source: “Index-Insurance: Protecting Women Farmers Index Insurance Facility (GIIF), makes arrangements to Against Weather Risk” by World Bank (2015). enroll groups of farmers in insurance programs, benefiting both farmers and insurers like Swiss Re and AXA. 26 3.5 CASE STUDY: Mondelēz International’s Cocoa Life Program in Indonesia N inety percent of the world’s cocoa production • Establishing village savings and loans associations to relies on smallholders with farms measuring less increase women’s access to finance; than two hectares. These smallholders need to • Promoting women’s membership and leadership in cocoa be prepared to meet any growth in cocoa demand, a cooperatives; and demand propelled by increased consumption that could • Improving women farmers’ access to critical inputs. come from emerging markets like China and India. Overall, however, cocoa supply faces challenging trends: Mondelēz measures Cocoa Life’s progress through rural cocoa farmers are switching to more lucrative ten key performance indicators, four of which focus crops; young adults migrate to cities; productivity is directly on women: gender-disaggregated net income being hindered by ageing trees and outdated farming; from cocoa, gender-disaggregated net income from and limited access to key inputs, training, and financing non-cocoa sources, gender-disaggregated cocoa for farmers. Gender gaps also limit the knowledge of productivity, and women’s participation in decision- women cocoa farmers. making processes. Without cocoa there is no chocolate, and without the Mondelēz partnered with IFC and CARE International next generation of cocoa farmers there is no cocoa. in Indonesia to evaluate gender gaps and opportunities. As the world’s largest chocolate company, and one of IFC (in partnership with Global Affairs Canada), the largest buyers of cocoa worldwide, Mondelēz has used its gender mapping expertise to create easy- an interest in securing a sustainable supply of quality to-read visuals on the gender division of roles in the cocoa. To help meet long-term targets and improve cocoa production process. This informed the design the sustainability of cocoa-growing communities, of Mondelēz’s program commitment in Indonesia, Mondelēz established the Cocoa Life program. allowing it to define specific interventions for women. The program aims to reach 40,000 farmers by 2022. Mondelēz’s $400 million Cocoa Life program is present in six major cocoa-growing countries: Côte D’Ivoire, Ghana, The gender mapping found that women farmers Indonesia, India, Dominican Republic and Brazil. To have relatively equal say over finances but less of a increase its sustainable cocoa supply, Cocoa Life works role in farm decision-making and project training, directly with cocoa farmers to provide training and meaning that they had relatively little access to community planning skills. Through increased knowledge farmer groups and training, as well as comparatively on for example farming practices and access to inputs, low access to land. Because women play key roles farmers can increase their productivity, resulting in in cocoa production such as sorting and drying that higher yields and income, helping to make cocoa farming determine the quality of cocoa, gender gaps in training more attractive to the next generation of farmers. reduce the potential of the country’s cocoa industry. Further, because women were not much involved in The program also puts an emphasis on closing gender the marketing and pooling side of selling cocoa, they gaps and empowering women and youth in cocoa lacked access to a full range of market opportunities, production and trade. Under Cocoa Life’s farming focus potentially reducing their income. However, the areas, the company implemented a series of activities mapping also found substantial regional variation that are inclusive of women farmers including: within Indonesia, highlighting the need to define and • Capacity-building for farmers through farmer field survey farmer populations carefully. schools; As a result of this initial mapping, the program has • Demonstration farms and training videos; defined specific interventions to address these gaps • Specifically educating women about business and ensure access for women to critical elements like management and financial services; training and cocoa marketing activities. 27 4. Post-Harvest Processing and Storage 4.1 Overview While different commodities require different post-harvest processing procedures, for this report, post-harvest Investments in gender-smart post-harvest processing and activities include initial handling; primary processing, storage are not as common as those in production. Yet, which preserves the product; secondary processing, as one study notes, post-harvest operations “are time- which transforms the product into another form; and consuming, repetitive and arduous, and are principally packaging. These activities occur in conjunction with the carried out by women.”93 Furthermore, good-quality transportation discussed in the following section. storage, while essential to retaining the value of produced goods, is often out of reach for women. Understanding Before, during, and after processing, storage and how agribusiness can improve an often-neglected stage of protection are crucial to reduce losses, ensure safety, the value chain can open up new opportunities to improve and retain value. As a report for the Food and Agriculture quality and safety, while reducing waste. Organization (FAO) notes, “the role of post-harvest protection in the food chain is often underestimated.”94 In almost all value chains, substantial damage occurs following harvesting but before transport to market. This FIGURE 7: represents a loss for farmers, who have already invested A Closer Look at Post-Harvest time and funds in production, a limitation on agricultural market growth, and a potential food security risk. All are Processing and Storage likely to increase as a result of climate change because of obstacles such as faster reproduction of insect pests, Reduced post- diseases, and increased risk of rot, all of which necessitate harvest losses improved storage.95 Business Strengthened Benefits supplier base 4.2 Women’s Key Value Chain Activities in New or improved Post-Harvest Processing and Storage markets While women are generally, though not universally, responsible for key processing activities, specific roles in post-harvest and storage are highly variable across regions and value chains. However, a few cross-cutting lessons emerge. Research has found that women are more likely to participate in processing activity as employees of larger Value firms, rather than as individual entrepreneurs.96 Also, Chain Post-Harvest Processing and Storage 28 where post-harvesting activities are not mechanized, they ACCESS TO QUALITY STORAGE are more likely to be carried out by women. Lack of access to storage, and the high post-harvest Post-harvest processing is typified by high levels damage and loss of market opportunity associated with of variation between men and women in different it, have been described as a “hidden tax” on farmers.100 commodities, even within the same region. For instance, Because women are less able to access quality storage, “in Bangladesh, women may provide 5 percent of the they experience higher levels of damage to crops. They labor in harvesting and threshing for rice, while in Assam, also face more pressure to sell during harvest season, India, women provide 60 percent. For other post-harvest when prices are comparatively low. Since women are more activities, Bangladeshi women provide 51 percent of the likely than men to require storage for short-life vegetables, labor, while women in Assam provide 90 percent.”97 A their need for good storage is particularly high. gendered value-chain mapping should pay particular attention to the divisions of labor within each stage. ACCESS TO KNOWLEDGE OF BEST PRACTICES As a rule, women’s activities can be divided into energy- Women processors are often not considered as full heavy and time-heavy activities, with prominent energy- contributors to production at the same level as men. heavy activities including milling and de-hulling of grains, Globally, only 15 percent of agricultural extension and walking with loads, and with prominent time-heavy service workers are women, meaning that women activities, including walking, waiting, and manual milling.98 are often left out of key knowledge networks.101 Lack In particular, “the major staple crops, maize, paddy, of specialized knowledge for women processors is a sorghum, millet, and cassava constitute a group of core particular disadvantage for downstream companies in crops for which production and manual processing is those commodities where quality, and thus value, is highly significant,” with a high involvement of women in post- dependent on processing. In the West African cocoa harvest activities.99 Also, as a rule women’s access to sector, for instance, women are responsible for cocoa storage tends to be lower than that of men because of the drying, a key determiner of final cocoa quality,102 but are required access to transport and financing. not necessarily considered formal workers and typically have limited access to knowledge-sharing. 4.3 Constraints Women Face in Post- Harvest Processing and ACCESS TO FINANCE Storage POST-HARVEST Financing, or rather the lack thereof, The constraints that women face OPERATIONS contributes to the other gaps noted TIME- in processing are similar to those CONSUMING here. Lack of financing impacts the faced in production: lack of access ability of women entrepreneurs to to knowledge and resources due obtain inputs, leverage appropriate to informal or unacknowledged REPETITIVE technology, maintain operating AND roles, or low-value employment capital, and access storage. ARDUOUS opportunities. In storage, the main Ultimately, insufficient capital keeps constraints women face are access women processors from being able PRINCIPALLY and affordability. to scale operations. It may also offer CARRIED OUT BY WOMEN 29 POST-HARVEST PROCESSING AND STORAGE CONTINUED an impediment for women to enter processing at all; for 4.4 Recommendations for Company instance, a women producer may sell her goods in raw Actions in Post-Harvest Processing and form rather than at a higher value post-processing. Storage ACCESS TO TECHNOLOGY A variety of gender-smart solutions can benefit women processors and strengthen supply chains. At the Technology in this instance does not refer only to processing level, the business case is strongest when information and communication technologies, but rather the specific roles that women perform in the process to a broader set of tools to improve the efficiency and contribute substantially to final quality or total output. outputs of the post-harvest process. Women’s low use The types of companies that are most likely to benefit of technology increases the time and energy associated from the investment include traders that are buying from with post-harvest activities. Men associate low use of processors, who will be able to claim a higher margin technology and low access to advanced tools with low- once goods are sold, and any end-buyers who rely on high status work, reinforcing gender segregation in job roles. quality or are suffering from shortages. A strong business For women, lack of technology also presents a time case is also applicable where other actors do not offer burden, keeping them from other income-generating adequate processing services or where women are being activities. locked out of processing roles. Understanding how agribusiness can improve an often-neglected stage of the value chain can open up new opportunities to improve quality and safety, while reducing waste. 30 BOX 9: BUSINESS BENEFITS FOR COMPANIES FROM CLOSING GENDER GAPS IN POST- TRAIN IN BEST PRACTICES HARVEST PROCESSING AND For many commodities, the role of women can be quite STORAGE significant, even when accounting for a relatively small • Reduced post-harvest losses percentage of the overall labor required. For instance, an • Strengthened supplier base IFC study in Papua New Guinea found that “women are directly engaged at critical stages of coffee and cocoa • New and improved markets production and processing; in coffee: picking (often strip- picking) cherry, pulping, fermenting, and drying; in cocoa: harvesting, breaking the pods, sorting of beans, transport of wet beans for fermenting, putting wet beans in the fermentary, and managing the drying.” In both sectors, these tasks substantially determine the quality of the coffee and cocoa delivered to the exporter.103 In another while improving quality and reducing losses. For instance, case, the Unilever Hibiscus Supply Chain program in Tanzania a new machine helped a peanut-shelling enabled women farmers to enhance their processing group reduce the shelling time of 20 kilograms of peanuts techniques, such as drying, and improve their seeds from a whole day to five minutes and a rice thresher to before sowing, giving their produce better quality and a village in Uganda eliminated the 5 percent spillage loss value. 104 that had occurred previously.107 It should be noted that in transferring technology it is particularly important to SUPPORT UPGRADING ensure that women will be able to maintain access to the technology rather than simply shifting roles, now easier Involving women in, or improving the status of women’s and more profitable, to men. For instance, an initiative existing involvement in processing activities can increase to introduce the mechanized rice transplanter to villages farmers’ earnings, open employment opportunities, and in rural Bihar, India, was successful in part because out- provide an alternative use of production oversupply.105 migration of men had left women as the dominant labor Common approaches include the addition or improvement force.108 of packaging; further processing steps, such as chopping, trimming, or mixing; and infrastructure improvements, FACILITATE ACCESS TO FINANCE such as cold storage.106 For companies downstream, the main argument for supporting the upgrading of activities Financing is particularly relevant in processing and storage, is to improve the quality or consistency of the products as both can require investments in technology. High levels supplied. As with training, the business case is strongest of interdependency within agricultural value chains mean when the company making the investments has a direct “weakness at any link in the chain can increase financing relationship with the processors. risk at all levels.”109 As a result, women’s inability to access financing and to scale their endeavors has an impact on FACILITATE ACCESS TO downstream actors through increased fragmentation TECHNOLOGY and low quality. While financial actors such as banks or micro-financing institutions certainly play a leading Many of the processing roles that women manage are role, individual non-financial actors can also facilitate intensely time-consuming. Access to basic processing tools access for women.110 Providing forward financing with can reduce this burden and help women produce more 31 POST-HARVEST PROCESSING AND STORAGE CONTINUED future production or processing as collateral allows increasingly working in wage-paid agro-processing roles. women to leverage their assets and to increase their “Women appear to be migrating out of unpaid family labor liquidity. The case of AFEX (see section 4.5.) also outlines into wage labor or entrepreneurial roles. With upgrading a way of agricultural value chain financing in practice. into packing and processing occurring in more developing For companies that source from women processors, countries, the presence of commercial pack houses in rural facilitating financing for processors can be an effective and urban areas is attracting young, unmarried females supplement to other forms of investment as it allows them as waged laborers.”111 This benefits women through more to provide women with access to knowledge, technology, consistent, often better-paid labor; however, this is only and storage without making a direct investment. the case if decent labor standards are maintained. In companies with direct employees, investing in gender- EMPLOY WOMEN smart solutions can provide returns including, among While this report focuses largely on women as other benefits, increased access to labor and talent; smallholders and as independent entrepreneurs, decreased recruitment and (re)training costs through companies already involved in processing can also reduced labor turnover; and improved innovation through apply gender-smart employment solutions. Women are a more diverse workforce and management teams. Lack of specialized knowledge for women processors is a particular disadvantage for downstream companies in those commodities where quality, and thus value, is highly dependent on processing. 32 4.5 CASE STUDY: Africa Exchange Holdings Builds a Market for Agricultural Warehousing and Exchange A frica Exchange Holdings (AFEX) is a regional As of 2016, 45,000 farmers have been added to commodity exchange. In Nigeria, AFEX AFEX’s warehousing and exchange system through manages a warehouse facility and exchange a thorough registration process, with an intended where farmers can store their harvest without loss scale-up to 150,000 farmers by 2018. While AFEX of value while capitalizing on maximum commodity recruited male farmers with relative ease, recruiting prices. Implemented with the national Ministry of women required a dedicated outreach effort. Through Agribusiness, the system aims to reach 300,000 cooperatives, AFEX invested a large amount of metric tons of storage capacity annually. However, resources in sensitizing women farmers to the services building a warehousing network requires a consistent and benefits of the program. supply from farmers; in other words, a strong customer base. In Nigeria, this is a challenge because Farmers who have accessed AFEX services through markets are fragmented and much of the agricultural their cooperatives have an average positive profit production remains informal and small-scale. Women margin of 2 percent, up from a prior average farmers in particular are likely to lack the knowledge, operating loss. The women in particular benefited financing, and access to warehouses and exchanges. through increased access to commodity markets Another challenge is the limited freedom of movement that distance and social mores would have otherwise for women in northern Nigeria. made unreachable. AFEX itself also benefited due to access to large volumes of commodities for sale at In the Propcom Mai-Karfi program, AFEX partnered their warehouses. Engaging with the cooperatives with development consultancy Palladium to drive reduced the costs of targeting individual farmers and national market demand for warehousing by enabling ensured access to remote farming communities. By access to storage for the country’s small-scale farmers, the project’s completion, Propcom farmers will use 40 including women-led farmer cooperatives in maize percent of AFEX’s storage capacity. and soy. To do this, the partners used two different tactics. First, the partnership supported cooperatives Propcom Mai-Karfi is run by Palladium and funded by in organizing, formalizing, and scaling commercial the UK Department for International Development, in transactions with AFEX, in order to demonstrate partnership with and contributions from AFEX. More their proven ability to serve local communities. The information about the Propcom Mai-Karfi program can be intervention enabled farmers to have access to an accessed at http://www.propcommaikarfi.org/. alternative market that not only gave them better prices but also saved costs associated with small, repeated transactions. Second, AFEX pre-financed the immediate payment of the cooperatives’ purchase from farmers. 33 5. Transportation, Marketing, and Sales 5.1 Overview within agribusinesses that were previously closed to them. It also rests on targeting the women’s consumer market In input provision, production, post-harvest and building a strong marketing narrative around working processing, and storage, women play crucial but often with women in agribusiness. unacknowledged roles, meaning that gender-smart solutions generally involve formalizing their roles and 5.2 Women’s Key Value Chain Activities in facilitating access to improved tools and knowledge. In Transportation, Marketing, and Sales transportation and sales, women tend to be excluded or confined to low-value, local markets.112 Women are Women in agribusiness are likely to be excluded from underrepresented in engagements with informal or formal transportation of goods to market or from marketing markets in cooperatives, with traders, or in other market- or sales roles of goods, even when women are the main facing roles. This means the business case for gender- producers of those goods. Where women are involved, smart solutions rests on helping women enter sectors their sales opportunities are more likely to be confined to local markets rather than regional or international ones. This results in poor access to networks and is reinforced by infrastructure and trade systems that tend to FIGURE 8: inadvertently disadvantage women. A Closer Look at Transportation, Marketing, and Sales In contrast, women’s role as consumers in comparison to that of men is quite prominent. Women make the majority of customer decisions globally and are even more likely Concentrated supplier networks to be key purchasers of family necessities such as food. Unilever, for instance, states “Women comprise over 70 Business Transparent and percent of our consumers,”113 and Nestle has noted that Benefits reliable supply chains “women represent 80 percent of our consumer spending New markets for decisions.”114 agricultural goods 5.3 Constraints Women Face in Transportation, Marketing, and Sales Women are widely excluded from transportation and marketing in agribusiness, driven by limited freedom of movement, low access to infrastructure, low access to Value information and networks; and restrictive regulatory Chain Transportation, frameworks. These constraints keep women from Marketing, and participating in or benefiting from what are often the Sales 34 most profitable parts of the value chain. This is particularly scale farmers find it harder to negotiate for access to the the case when cultural norms restrict women’s freedom required “elaborate cold chain from packing shed to final of movement or where there is limited or high-risk destination,” and ended up paying higher costs or missing transportation. out on sales opportunities.118 FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT ACCESS TO INFORMATION AND Possibly the most challenging social barriers for women NETWORKS in transportation, marketing, and sales are restrictions on Women often lack access to informal business networks freedom of movement that limit women to local, low- that facilitate sales opportunities. Without access to value markets. These restrictions can be explicit but are high-value sales, they sell their goods to local middlemen more often a result of de facto divisions of labor between without exploring wider market opportunities. More men and women that confine women to home-based broadly, low access to information resulting from, for activities. For instance, family care responsibilities restrict instance, low use of technology means women may not be women’s access to markets by keeping their obligations able to act on the latest market information. Harassment focused on the house or immediate community. This has in public spaces can also undermine women’s ability a direct impact on women’s profits. A World Bank study to access local information sources. Improving safety of farmers and traders of the eru vegetable in Cameroon features, such as lighting or women’s toilets, can improve found that “profits along the value chain increase the women’s ability to participate in markets. further away they are from the growing area (forest), with exporters enjoying the highest profit margins,” but that EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP only men were able to access more distant markets.115 Women face two challenges in obtaining leadership roles in key sales groups, including cooperatives, businesses ACCESS TO INFRASTRUCTURE associations, or commodity boards. The first challenge “Not having access to transport services means that is obtaining leadership roles and the second is acting in women are largely excluded from key downstream more than a nominal capacity rather than as stand-ins activities along the supply chain,” the World Bank research for male family members. In either case, the group can has noted. 116 Gaps in infrastructure unintentionally limit fail to address the challenges that women face in a given use for women. For instance, buses sector when women as a group are that run only during peak hours WOMEN ARE not able to effectively voice concerns conflict with women’s household UNDER- or propose solutions. For instance, responsibilities or transportation REPRESENTED IN CO- Nestlé noted, “Women do more than OPERATIVES that exposes women to a high two-thirds of the work involved in likelihood of harassment reduce coffee farming in Kenya. However, user rates.117 Since women tend fewer than 5 percent of leadership WITH to trade in perishable goods, this roles in coffee cooperatives in the TRADERS circumscribed movement affects country are currently held by women. them disproportionately. In one We are encouraging them to move instance, a study of the Brazilian IN OTHER into leadership roles, so they can be MARKET- grape sector noted that small- FACING adequately represented in decision- ROLES making.”119 35 TRANSPORTATION, MARKETING AND SALES CONTINUED BURDENSOME REGULATORY 5.4 Recommendations for Company FRAMEWORKS Actions in Transportation, Marketing, and Complex or burdensome regulations disproportionately Sales affect women, largely because of the low access to Gender-smart solutions in transportation, marketing, and information and increased risk of being subject to sales include buying from and paying women directly; payments for “expedition.” These extra costs apply to drawing on ICT to overcome transportation challenges; processes to formalize businesses, pay taxes, and in building on women’s strengths in indigenous, local, and particular, to trade across international borders, which organic crops; marketing investments in gender-smart often require specific permits or elaborate customs solutions; and supporting investment climate reforms. forms.120 Complex requirements on health and safety The business case for investments at the transportation certification, often crucial to enter global markets, can also and marketing stages rely largely on long-term market- leave women behind. building opportunities. While most solutions can be adopted by individual companies, supporting investment The business case for gender-smart solutions in transportation, marketing, and sales rests on helping women enter new roles and targeting the market for ethically sourced goods. 36 BOX 10: BUSINESS BENEFITS FOR COMPANIES FROM CLOSING GENDER GAPS climate reforms is a long-term commitment that can IN TRANSPORTATION, benefit companies at any stage of the value chain but is MARKETING, AND SALES best undertaken through multi-stakeholder platforms. • Concentrated supplier networks BUY FROM AND PAY WOMEN • Transparent and reliable supply chains DIRECTLY • New markets for agricultural goods Creating direct linkages with women in the supply chain is the best way to ensure that women benefit from their work, maintain control over their assets, and can expand their businesses. For instance, the Café Femenino brand buys coffee exclusively from women, charging a premium that is passed on to farmers. Also, whereas Mobile phones enabled women to circumvent middlemen male farmers usually collect payment on behalf of women, and obtain higher prices.122 For agribusinesses, expanding women are required to collect payment directly.121 Creating ICT applications brings a larger and more diverse group direct market linkages also ensures that companies of commodity producers and suppliers to companies can capture the marketing premium for gender-smart downstream. solutions (see 5.5 Primark case study). Buying directly from women is a particularly useful strategy where Potential applications are varied and numerous. For there are existing networks of cooperatives or business instance, sales through farmers’ organizations are more organizations that already include women. This allows easily aggregated, reducing fragmentation for downstream sourcing companies to partner with a large number of buyers, which is a key barrier in sourcing from small- women without having to establish individual linkages scale and marginalized farmers. In Zambia, the “National and to develop concentrated supplier networks, ultimately Farmers Union’s SMS-based service allows farmers to reducing costs and enhancing corporate responsibility. coordinate their delivery times and organize a single location for traders to pick up goods in bulk.”123 In India, the USE ICT TO OVERCOME Rural Distribution Network (RUDI), a network of women TRANSPORTATION AND agricultural processors, uses a mobile management TRANSPARENCY CHALLENGES information system (MIS) to reach over 1 million households annually.124 In Kenya, Kenya Nut, a nut- While technology adds value to every stage of the value processing company, uses mobile alerts to inform its chain, ICT applications have particular utility in access farmers of the current market price of their produce, to transportation, marketing, and sales, because they to avoid having the produce sold under market price to can help overcome the restrictions on movement and customers.125 For sourcing companies, these investments home-based care responsibilities that are oftentimes not only improve access to goods but also make supply barriers for women. Because of the obvious benefits chains more transparent and reliable. of ICT solutions, examples show that women seize on technology agribusiness applications even in the face As the World Bank’s Digital Dividends notes, “Basic price of difficulty in accessing basic products and services. In and market information systems can improve efficiency Uganda, for example, “female farmers were more likely and welfare,” but “even when farmers are seemingly better to use mobile phones to access agricultural information informed, they may not necessarily be able to act on that than men, even though they used the phones less overall.” 37 TRANSPORTATION, MARKETING AND SALES CONTINUED information because of the inaccessibility of alternative ENABLE MARKET INVESTMENTS IN markets and the complex interlinked relationships GENDER-SMART SOLUTIONS between buyers and sellers.”126 Therefore, ICT solutions The business case for gender-smart solutions largely relies should be applied in conjunction with the other solutions on maximizing the potential quality and productivity of mentioned in this report. agribusiness value chains. However, the same investments BUILD ON WOMEN’S STRENGTHS can be leveraged to draw on the increasing demand for ethically sourced and women-friendly products. The IN HIGH-VALUE, INDIGENOUS, AND market for ethically sourced products is global, with 40 ORGANIC CROPS percent of American and European consumers willing While women face many constraints in transportation, to pay more for ethical products, and over 60 percent of marketing, and sales, they also have several advantages. consumers in Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and the Middle Capitalizing on these can help open networks and East and North Africa saying the same.130 opportunities that would otherwise be closed. World Bank research notes three possibilities to do so: through Women also make 60 percent to 80 percent of consumer high-value, indigenous, and organic crops. In the former, decisions.131 Of the growing number of companies “high-value crops require labor-intensive production that have recognized this, relatively few have been techniques, such as pruning and trellising, which cannot in agribusiness. There is strong growth potential for be mechanized and in which women often specialize.” 127 companies that are successfully able to build on consumer Investing in women working in these commodities can interest in gender-smart solutions. For instance, Twin value their work while increasing quality and quantity Trading has invested in a “women’s coffee” product of available crops. Second, many indigenous, non-cash that has come to be recognized for its superior quality, crops tend to be the exclusive purview of women. and that therefore commands a price above the fair-trade Commercializing these crops can benefit women while premium.132 building new markets, such as in Rwanda, where Ikirezi Natural Products worked to develop a market for SUPPORT INVESTMENT CLIMATE natural geranium oils, working with women’s co- REFORMS operatives to create the products.128 Finally, because Business can make a real difference in helping women women typically use lower levels of pesticide than men, overcome entrenched challenges in the operating women may find it comparatively easier to obtain organic environment. By advocating for gender-smart solutions certification.129 Working with women organic farmers with relevant policy makers, coalitions and multi- offers particular potential for commodities such as cotton, stakeholder initiatives are particularly suited to addressing for which global demand outstrips supply, opening up challenges that impact the women of an entire region what are currently niche markets. or sector, such as burdensome customs procedures.133 In Uganda, for instance, IFC worked with a coalition of businesses on a Gender and Growth Assessment. The resulting analysis informed the Private Sector Development Strategy, National Gender Strategy, and several labor regulations that supported growth for the country as a whole.134 38 5.5 CASE STUDY: Primark, CottonConnect, and the Self-Employed Women’s Association Build a Sustainable Cotton Supply Chain with Female Farmers in India F or brands and retailers, one of the biggest amount of pesticide used, and a dramatic increase challenges is the length and complexity of global in the average amount of profit—over 200 percent. supply chains. In cotton, for instance, farmers Results show the farmers were successfully trained sell to local traders, ginners, and spinners, who in to produce more sustainable cotton, reduce the turn then sell fabric to garment manufacturers. Most environmental impact of their work, and improve their brands and retailers buy from manufacturers, and are livelihoods through increased income. therefore rarely directly connected to cotton farmers. By working directly with women cotton farmers, YEAR 1 AND YEAR 2 RESULTS FROM PRIMARK’S SUSTAINABLE COTTON PROGRAM European fashion retailer Primark increased the company’s social and environmental sustainability. Year 1 Year 2 Yield +11.5% +12.6% Primark has the long-term ambition of ensuring that Fertilizer Usage –19.5% –13.5% all the cotton in its supply chain is sustainably and Pesticide Usage –52.2% –53.5% responsibly sourced. The company realized that work- Average Profit +176% +211% ing with women could help achieve both goals. This is why in 2013, Primark used its relationships to bring The first three years of the program were so successful together agricultural experts CottonConnect and the that Primark has decided to extend the program Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) to create for another six years to reach an additional 10,000 Primark’s Sustainable Cotton Program. This program female farmers and their families, and provide further was initially created to train 1,251 female smallholder business development skills-training for the 1,251 farmers in Gujarat, India, through classroom sessions, already trained. in-field training, and learning groups. Primark is working towards incorporating this Primark chose to work with only female smallholders sustainably sourced cotton into its supply chain. The because women farmers play important but often program also provided Primark with a valuable insight unacknowledged roles in cotton production. Alison into the cotton supply chain and the lives of the Ward, CEO of CottonConnect, notes that “engaging smallholder cotton farmers. with women farmers is critical to creating thriving cotton communities.… Women do their share of the Primark’s Chief Executive Paul Marchant said: “As a hard work, but often receive a much smaller portion of growing business with an international supply chain, income.” The program gave this often neglected group at Primark, we work hard to ensure that our products access to formal training, with the aim of improving are made with respect for workers’ rights and the their livelihoods, empowering them, and helping to environment. This program goes right to the heart narrow the gender inequality gap in their community, of our supply chain and illustrates our desire to make while benefitting the environment and the wider a genuine difference to the lives of people working community through the adoption of more sustainable within developing markets.” farming methods. For more information on the program please visit: http:// The program’s benefits were delivered in the form of www.primark.com/en/our-ethics/news/press- increased yields, more efficient water usage, a more releases/primark-partnership-cottonconnect- than 10 percent reduction in the amount of fertilizer sewa-india used, and a greater than 50 percent reduction in the 39 Conclusions W hile each of the four 3. Consider hidden solutions: Initiatives that can have business impact may at first glance not look like initiatives sections in this report that would support women’s access to value chain highlights specific gender opportunities. This is particularly the case for initiatives gaps and potential areas that make markets more transparent and accessible, such for private sector investment, a number of as ICT-enabled commodity-aggregation platforms or streamlining customs and border processes, both of which cross-cutting insights can inform companies are gender-neutral at face value but can help women on when and how best to implement access opportunities or participate fully. gender-smart investments. 4. Support an enabling environment: Although a 1. Identify the most relevant interventions and single company can effectively undertake some gender- opportunities through gender value chain mapping: smart solutions, many require joint action. The latter Business opportunities from closing gender gaps are is particularly true when it comes to challenges best most likely to occur when the company is directly addressed on a pre-competitive or sector-wide basis. affected by shortages in a given commodity or product; For instance, investment climate reforms that address where women play a crucial role in product output or women’s access to finance or access to transportation—or quality; or where there is substantial untapped market which seek to reduce customs requirements—are best opportunity. The business case is further strengthened addressed through consortia and through partnership with where companies making the investments have direct the public sector. commercial relationships that guarantee they will receive 5. Consider long-term investments: Two types of the improved commodity, such as in contract farming. investments will pay long-term dividends: increasing These opportunities are best identified after completing a sustainability and building new markets. Mondelēz has detailed gender value chain mapping. invested in increased sustainability by recognizing gender 2. Engage non-farm actors: Non-farm actors often have equality on cocoa farms as a prerequisite to meeting a strong business rationale for investing in women and growing global demand for cocoa and has committed to a can be key players in strengthening a value chain as a decade of investments through its Cocoa Life program.135 whole. The featured case studies of Krishi Utsho and AFEX AFEX showed how building new markets can be (Sections 2.5 and 4.5), focusing on agricultural inputs in accomplished by working with women-owned or women- Bangladesh and on warehousing in Nigeria, respectively, run cooperatives, which could catalyze wider demand for offer two examples of how businesses that serve warehousing in Nigeria. women farmers can leverage gender-smart solutions by recognizing women as consumers whose demands often go unmet or underserved. 40 41 Annex A: Summary of Gender-Smart Solutions in Agribusiness Input Provision and Use Production Post-Harvest Processing Transportation, and Storage Marketing, and Sales Women’s Roles include Activities in agricultural Women’s roles are highly Women are often limited roles production vary greatly varied but they often play to local transport and • Agro-dealers across commodities and crucial roles in processing, excluded from regional regions determining quality of final markets and sales networks • Agro-agents output but play prominent roles as Women are over- consumers • Small-scale farmers represented in informal, unpaid, part-time, seasonal work Constraints Access to inputs and their Access to training, extension Access to quality storage Freedom of movement faced by correct usage services, and technical women information Access to knowledge of best Access to infrastructure Access to technology and practices machinery Access to finance and Access to information and mobile bank accounts Access to finance networks Access to information, training, and knowledge Access to land ownership Access to technology Effective leadership Access to cooperative Burdensome regulatory leadership and participation frameworks Limitations on time and mobility Access to ICT and mobile technology Access to labor-saving technologies Gender- Support women in opening Assess “who does what” Train in best practices Buy from and pay women smart agro-dealerships and among men and women in directly solutions provide training on the use the value chain Support upgrading of inputs Use ICT to overcome Increase supply chain Facilitate access to transportation and Develop targeted ICT sustainability through technology transparency challenges outreach and products for training adapted to Facilitate access to finance Build on women’s strengths consumer loyalty women’s schedules and mobility in high-value, indigenous, Employ women Enable use of mobile and organic crops banking applications and Seek targeted ways to pre-paid vouchers increase women’s access to Enable market investments finance in gender-smart solutions Increase consumer reach through women agro- Cooperate and leverage Support gender-informed agents expertise of partner investment climate reforms organizations Adjust training content and timing Create economic incentives through trainings and direct Increase sales by tailoring payments products and packaging to women farmer needs Source from cooperatives and farmer organizations Increase access to with equitable leadership agricultural technologies and machinery Leverage women farmers as business opportunity for insurance companies 42 Input Provision and Use Production Post-Harvest Processing Transportation, and Storage Marketing, and Sales Business Improved availability of Increased supply chain Reduced post-harvest losses Concentrated supplier benefits products sustainability networks Improved quality of Connection of farmers with Maximized impact and production Transparent and reliable output markets through profitability through supply chains agro-dealers targeted interventions Strengthened supplier base New or strengthened Increased consumer loyalty Improved quality of produce New or improved markets markets for agricultural and outputs goods Increased and secured sales Increased crop yield and Improved access to women quality through trainings as a new consumer base Cost saving through partnerships and exchange of expertise Case Krishi Utsho, Bangladesh Mondelēz International, Africa Exchange Holdings & Primark, CottonConnect & studies Indonesia Palladium, Nigeria SEWA, India 43 Annex B: Bibliography Akter, Sonia. 2016. “Women Introduce Mechanized Farming CARE International. 2014. “Cocoa Life in Cote-d’Ivoire: Gender in Bihar.” IRRI.org. 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Accessed at: https://feedthefuture. gov/article/time-saving-technologies-open-doors-female- leadership-zimbabwe 53 ENDNOTES CONTINUED 93 Gordon, A., A. Swetman, and K. Albright. 2002. “Women in 105 Staritz, Cornelia and José Guilherme Reis, Eds. 2013. Post-Harvest Operations: Reducing the Drudgery.” Issues Global Value Chains, Economic Upgrading, and Gender: Case Paper – 6. Kent, England: Department for International Studies of the Horticulture, Tourism, and Call Center Industries. Development. Accessed at: http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/ Washington, DC: The World Bank. Accessed at: http://www. Outputs/CropPostHarvest/Issuepaper6.pdf capturingthegains.org/pdf/GVC_Gender_Report_web.pdf 94 Rahman, M. Sulfikar, Suraia Akhter, Md. Atikur Rahman, 106 Ibid. Must. Effat Sharmin. 2009. Capacity Strengthening of Rural 107 Aris, Giselle. 2014. “Want to Empower Women in Agriculture? Women in Carrying out Post Harvest Activities of Vegetables Use Technology.” Impact Blog. Washington, DC: USAID. and Fruits towards Food Security. Mymensingh, Bangladesh: Accessed at: https://blog.usaid.gov/2014/03/want-to- Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Bangladesh empower-women-in-agriculture-use-technology/ Agricultural University. Accessed at: http://fpmu.gov.bd/ agridrupal/sites/default/files/PR_8_of_07_Final_Technical_ 108 Akter, Sonia. 2016. “Women Introduce Mechanized Farming Report-Approved.pdf in Bihar.” IRRI.org. Irrigated Rice Research Consortium. Accessed at: http://irri.org/blogs/gender/women-introduce- 95 Stathers, Tanya, Richard Lamboll, and Brighton M. Mvumi. mechanized-farming-in-bihar 2013. “Post-Harvest Agriculture in a Changing Climate.” In Rural 21: Focus. Accessed at: http://www.rural21.com/uploads/ 109 Miller, Calvin and Linda Jones. 2010. Agricultural Value Chain media/rural2013_01-S12-14.pdf Finance: Tools and Lessons. Warwickshire, UK: FAO and Practical Action Publishing. Accessed at: http://www.fao.org/ 96 Staritz, Cornelia and José Guilherme Reis, Eds. 2013. docrep/017/i0846e/i0846e.pdf Global Value Chains, Economic Upgrading, and Gender: Case Studies of the Horticulture, Tourism, and Call Center Industries. 110 Miller, Calvin. 2012. “Agricultural Value Chain Finance Strategy Washington, DC: The World Bank. Accessed at: http://www. and Design.” Technical Note. Rome, Italy: IFAD. Accessed at: capturingthegains.org/pdf/GVC_Gender_Report_web.pdf https://www.ifad.org/documents/10180/8d74b792-33e4- 4f57-96b4-e348af035a3c 97 Kenney, Grace. 2015. “Women and Postharvest Loss.” In Preventing Postharvest Loss (blog). September 30. Urbana- 111 Staritz, Cornelia and José Guilherme Reis, Eds. 2013. Champaign, Illinois: ADM Institute for the Prevention of Global Value Chains, Economic Upgrading, and Gender: Case Postharvest Loss. Accessed at: http://publish.illinois.edu/ Studies of the Horticulture, Tourism, and Call Center Industries. phlinstitute/2015/09/30/women-and-postharvest-loss/ Washington, DC: The World Bank. Accessed at: http://www. capturingthegains.org/pdf/GVC_Gender_Report_web.pdf 98 Gordon, A., A. Swetman, and K. Albright. 2002. “Women in Post-Harvest Operations: Reducing the Drudgery.” Issues 112 Muchoki, Lucy. 2015. “Empowering African Agriculture’s Paper – 6. Kent, England: Department for International Biggest Actors: Women.” Development Policy Forum, Friends Development. Accessed at: http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/ of Europe. Accessed at: http://www.friendsofeurope.org/ Outputs/CropPostHarvest/Issuepaper6.pdf global-europe/empowering-african-agricultures-biggest- actors-women/ 99 Ibid. 113 Unilever. n.d. “Opportunities for Women: The Advancement 100 USAID. 2012. “Gender Mainstreaming in ICT for Agriculture.” of Women’s Rights and Economic Inclusion is a Business Briefing Paper. Washington, DC: USAID. Accessed at: http:// Priority.” Part of The Unilever Sustainable Living Plan. Unilever www.ngoconnect.net/documents/592341/749044/Gender+M Global. Accessed at: https://www.unilever.com/sustainable- ainstreaming+in+ICT+for+Ag.pdf living/the-sustainable-living-plan/enhancing-livelihoods/ 101 Ibid. opportunities-for-women/ 102 Marston, Ama. 2016. “Women’s Rights in the Cocoa Sector: 114 Nestlé Annual Report. 2014. Accessed at: https://www.nestle. Examples of Emerging Good Practice.” Oxfam Discussion com/asset-library/documents/library/documents/annual_ Papers. Oxfam International. Accessed at: https://www. reports/2014-annual-report-en.pdf oxfam.org/en/research/womens-rights-cocoa-sector 115 Ndumbe, Louis Njie. 2013. “Unshackling Women Traders: 103 Blackden, C. Mark, and Maxie Makambo Dominic. Cross-border Trade of Eru from Cameroon to Nigeria.” 2014. The Fruit of Her Labor: Promoting Gender-Equitable African Trade Policy Notes, #38. Washington, DC: World Bank. Agribusiness in Papua New Guinea. Washington, DC: World Accessed at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ Bank and IFC. Accessed at: https://openknowledge. en/262591468292477021/pdf/797110BRI0PN380Box0377384B0 worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/21085/ 0PUBLIC0.pdf ACS100040REVIS0ank0rev0March0202015. 116 Blackden, C. Mark, and Maxie Makambo Dominic. pdf?sequence=5&isAllowed=y 2014. The Fruit of Her Labor: Promoting Gender-Equitable 104 Unilever. n.d. “Social support for women hibiscus farmers in Agribusiness in Papua New Guinea. Washington, DC: World Sudan.” Webpage. Unilever Global. Accessed at: https://www. Bank and IFC. Accessed at: http://www-wds.worldbank. unilever.com/sustainable-living/the-sustainable-living-plan/ org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/20 enhancing-livelihoods/inclusive-business/mapping-our- 15/03/03/000333037_20150303171709/Rendered/PDF/ farmer-programmes/hibiscus.html ACS100040REVIS0ank0rev0March0202015.pdf 54 117 Clark, Mari. 2010. “Social Development & 127 World Bank. 2008. Gender in agriculture sourcebook. Agriculture Infrastructure: Making Transport Work for Women and Rural Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. and Men. Tools for Task Teams.” Washington, DC: Accessed at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ The World Bank. Accessed at: http://siteresources. en/799571468340869508/Gender-in-agriculture-sourcebook worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/ 128 Ibid. Resources/244362-1265299949041/6766328-1270752196897/ Making_Transport_Work_for_Women_and_Men.pdf 129 Ibid. 118 World Bank. 2008. Gender in agriculture sourcebook. Agriculture 130 Nielsen. 2014. “Global consumers are willing to put their and Rural Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. money where their heart is when it comes to goods and Accessed at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ services from companies committed to social responsibility.” en/799571468340869508/Gender-in-agriculture-sourcebook Nielsen Press Room. Accessed at: http://www.nielsen.com/ us/en/press-room/2014/global-consumers-are-willing-to- 119 Nestlé. 2013. “Nestlé Empowers Female Coffee Farmers.” Case put-their-money-where-their-heart-is.html Study: Kenya. Accessed at: http://www.nestle.com/csv/case- studies/AllCaseStudies/women-coffee-farmers-kenya 131 Nielsen. 2013. “U.S. Women Control the Purse Strings.” Nielsen Newswire. Accessed at: http://www.nielsen.com/ 120 Simavi, Sevi, Clare Manuel, Mark Blackden. 2010. 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License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO. Accessed at: http://documents.worldbank. org/curated/en/896971468194972881/pdf/102725-PUB- Replacement-PUBLIC.pdf 55 PHOTO CREDITS Cover: A’Melody Lee / World Bank Inside Front Cover: Maria Fleischmann / World Bank iii: Arne Hoel / World Bank iv: Lakshman Nadaraja / World Bank p. 2: Maria Fleischmann / World Bank p. 4: Chor Sokunthea / World Bank p. 5: Curt Carnemark / World Bank p. 7: Photo courtesy of Afrifresh Group, South Africa p. 9: Arne Hoel / World Bank p. 11: Chor Sokunthea / World Bank p. 14: Ray Witlin / World Bank p. 16: Arne Hoel / World Bank p. 18: CARE Bangladesh/Krishi Utsho p. 25: Jonathan Ernst / World Bank p. 30: Photo courtesy of Biosev, Brazil p. 32: Daniella Van Leggelo-Padilla / World Bank p. 36: Markus Kostner / World Bank p. 41: Chor Sokunthea / World Bank p. 43: Simone D. McCourtie / World Bank p. 49: A’Melody Lee / World Bank Inside Back Cover: Visual News Associates / World Bank 56 October 2016 Investing in Women along Agribusiness Value Chains