Tanzania 2019 Country Environmental Analysis TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 1 Tanzania 2019 Country Environmental Analysis Environmental Trends and Threats, and Pathways to Improved Sustainability © 2019 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved 1 2 3 4 19 18 17 16 This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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Contents Foreword 10 Acknowledgments 1 1 Acronyms 1 2 Executive Summary 1 4 1 Introduction 24 1.1 Tanzania’s Unique Environmental and Natural Resources 25 1.2 Environmental and Natural Resources Under Threat 27 1.3 Trends That Compound the Need for Improved Environmental Management 29 1.4 National Legal and Institutional Framework for Environmental Management 31 1.5 Objectives and Scope of the Country Environmental Analysis 32 2 Rural Environmental and Natural Resources Challenges 34 2.1 Significance of Environmental and Natural Resources and Key Challenges 35 2.2 Deforestation and Forest Degradation 40 2.3 Land Degradation 46 2.4 Degradation of Water Resources 49 2.5 Loss of Biodiversity 54 2.6 Degradation of Freshwater and Marine Fisheries 60 2.7 Climate Change and Tanzania’s development 65 3 Urban and Industrial Environmental Challenges 70 3.1 Environmental Pollution and Key Trends 71 3.2 Air Pollution 74 3.3 Water Pollution 78 3.4 Industrial Pollution 82 3.5 Pollution from Solid Waste 86 Municipal solid waste 86 E-waste 89 Healthcare waste 92 3.6 Pesticide Pollution 94 3.7 Degradation from Mining 97 4 Toward Cleaner, Greener Development 100 4.1 Pathway 1: Conservation of Biodiversity and Marine and Freshwater Resources 104 4.2 Pathway 2: Promotion of Resilient Landscapes 114 4.3 Pathway 3: Access to Modern Fuels and Low-Impact Urbanization 120 4.4 Pathway 4: Strengthened Institutions for Pollution Management 128 References 134 List of Figures Figure 1.1: Annual Growth of Wealth, by Country 28 Figure 1.2: Projected Rural and Urban Population in Tanzania 29 Figure 2.1: Degree of Land Degradation in Hotspot Areas in Tanzania 46 Figure 2.2: Renewable Freshwater per Capita by Country 50 Figure 2.3: Renewable Freshwater Resources per Capita 50 Figure 2.4: Number of International Visitors to Tanzania 55 Figure 2.5: Overview of IUCN Red List Categories 55 Figure 2.6: Comparison of Number of Threatened Species in Tanzania 56 Figure 2.7: Average Annual Temperature for Tanzania 65 Figure 2.8: Average Monthly Temperature and Rainfall 66 Figure 3.1: Estimated E-Waste Generation in Africa 90 Figure 3.2: Number of Computers Used in Tanzania 91 Figure 3.3: Estimated Percentage of Population Owning Cellphones in Tanzania 91 List of Boxes Box 2.1: Role of Ecosystems in Providing Vital Goods and Services 35 Box 2.2: Sustainable Charcoal Production and Use 45 Box 2.3: Protecting the Environment Through Sustainable Agriculture 48 Box 2.4: The Competing Water Needs of The Great Ruaha River 51 Box 2.5: Water Pricing 53 Box 2.6: The Rufiji Hydro-electric Power Project in the Selous Game Reserve 56 Box 2.7: Namibia’s Success with Sustainable Community-Based Wildlife Conservation 59 Box 2.8: Tanzania and the Great Lakes 60 Box 2.9: Marine Litter and Plastic Pollution 61 Box 2.10: Successful Eradication of Blast-Fishing In Tanzania 63 Box 2.11: Increasing Climate Resilience in Agriculture 67 Box 3.1: Water Access and Sanitation Definitions 78 Box 3.2: Rehabilitating the Msimbazi River for Dar es Salaam 88 Box 3.3: Mitigating Pollution Initiatives Throughout Africa 89 Box 3.4: Definition of Electronic Waste 90 Box 3.5: Healthcare Waste in a Nutshell 92 Box 4.1: Implementing the Landscape Approach in Tanzania through the REGROW Project 116 List of Tables Table 2.1: Key Environmental Challenges in Tanzania 38 Table 2.2: Annual Net Loss of Forest Area – East Africa 41 Table 2.3: Annual Net Loss of Forest Area – Top Countries in the World 41 Table 3.1: Sources and Effects of Pollutants in Tanzania 72 Table 3.2: Estimated Premature Deaths from Pollution and Economic Cost 75 Table 3.3: Premature Deaths from PM Pollution in Tanzania and Other Countries 75 Table 3.4: Sources of Contaminants Affecting Water Quality in Tanzania 81 Table 3.5: Polluting Industrial Subsectors in Tanzania 83 Table 3.6: Municipal Solid Waste Generation by Country 86 Foreword Tanzania’s rich and diverse natural capital is at the basis of the country’s national wealth. As centuries of experience have shown, development should not be done at the expense of liquidating natural capital to build other assets but should be anchored around sound management and efficient use of this capital – renewable natural resources such as agricultural land, forests, water, protected areas or biodiversity, can produce long-lasting benefits and become an engine of growth and sustainability. The good news is that Tanzania is both capable and determined to manage its natural resources sustainably and for the benefit of all Tanzanians. Multiple examples exist on how the country is pursuing this goal: from its renowned tourism sector, which manages to attract hundreds of thousands of visitors to world-class Protected Areas, to success stories such as the fight against poaching and the suppression of dynamite fishing along the coast; from water resources management and conservation efforts in Pangani and Rifuji basins, to improvements in solid waste disposal. However, despite positive, localized efforts, the country is depleting its natural capital at speed. Tanzania has one of the highest deforestation rates in the world; quickly-degrading land resources; dwindling water resources threatening agriculture, hydropower and human consumption; increasing levels of environmental pollution (air, water and soil pollution); and high vulnerability to climate change impacts. These trends, combined with a rapidly-growing expanding population whose livelihoods depend, to a great extent, on the natural resources-base, place Tanzania in a challenging situation along its development trajectory. Penye nia pana njia. As the Tanzanian proverb wisely says, when there is a will, there is a way. Trends can be reversed, and environmental degradation can be curbed. The country faces a fascinating, one-time opportunity to harness its unique natural resources to the long-term benefit of its economy and its people. The task might appear daunting given the magnitude of the challenge, but the Government of Tanzania remains fully determined to the environmental management agenda, and the World Bank remains fully committed to providing support along the way. JANUARY MAKAMBA BELLA BIRD Minister of State, Union and Environment Country Director for Tanzania, Vice President’s Office Burundi, Malawi and Somalia Acknowledgments This Tanzania Country Environmental Analysis was prepared by the Environment and Natural Resources Global Practice, World Bank, in close coordination with the Government of Tanzania and the University of Dar es Salaam. It was developed by a Tanzania-based team led by Daniel Mira-Salama (senior environmental specialist, World Bank) and Veruschka Schmidt (environmental specialist, World Bank), under the guidance of Julia Bucknall (director for environment and natural resources), Magda Lovei (practice manager for environment and natural resources), Iain Shuker (practice manager for environment and natural resources), and Bella Bird (country director for Tanzania, Burundi, Malawi and Somalia). The team is grateful to the Embassy of Sweden, who provided generous support through the Environment for Development (EfD) initiative at the Department of Economics, University of Dar es Salaam. Significant contributions to the report were provided by the team at the University of Dar es Salaam led by Prof. Razack Lokina, including Remidius Ruhinduka, Byela Tibesigwa, and Martin Chegere, and from Gunnar Köhlin and Haileselassie Medhin. Special thanks go to Latif Amars for all his efforts and contributions. Valuable input and comments were received from World Bank peer reviewers Giovanni Ruta, Delphine Arri, Ann Jeannette Glauber and Anjali Acharya, as well as from Carter Brandon, Charlotte de Fontaubert, Andre Bald, Yutaka Yoshino, Denis Biseko, Elizabeth Talbert, Iain Menzies, Sarah Simons, Ferhat Esen, Edward Anderson, Eric Dickson, Nike Doggart, Jason Rubens, Jane Kibbassa, Ernesto Sanchez-Triana, Ignace Mchallo and Jiyun Gim. Especial thanks to Theresia Mmasi, our graphic designer, for her creativity. Thanks to Priscilla Zengeni and Judith Mziray for their support. The team is grateful to Hon. Min. January Makamba for his vision and leadership, and his continued support. The CEA benefitted from close engagement and detailed feedback from the Vice-President’s Office Division of Environment, and the National Environment Management Council. Other stakeholders engaged for discussions and validation of findings included the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, President’s Office – Regional Administration and Local Government, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministry of Water, National Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children, Dar es Salaam City Council, Government Chemist Laboratory Agency, Tanzania Meteorological Agency, Ministry of Industry, Trade and Investment and others. Civil society organizations participated in the working groups and provided valuable inputs, including WWF, TNC, ForumCC, Agriculture Non-State Actors Forum, Economic and Social Research Foundation, and Tanzania Forest Conservation Group. Local development partners in Tanzania also provided inputs, including the Embassy of Sweden, U.K. Department for International Development, the Royal Embassy of Norway, USAID, the German Embassy, GIZ and others. Acronyms BMU Beach Management Unit BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand BRT Bus Rapid Transit BWBs Basin Water Boards CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBFM Community-Based Forest Management CEA Country Environmental Analysis CFMA Collaborative Fisheries Management Area CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora COD Chemical Oxygen Demand DoE Divison of Environment DP Development Partner DSFA Deep Sea Fishing Authority EAC East African Community EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EMA Environmental Management Act FAO Food and Agriculture Organization (of the UN) FYDP II Tanzania’s Second Five Year Development Plan GDP Gross Domestic Product GHG Greenhouse Gas HCW Healthcare Waste ICT Information and Communications Technology IPPS Industrial Pollution Projection System ISIC International Standard Industrial Classification (of All Economic Activities) IWRMP Integrated Water Resources Management Plan IWT Illegal Wildlife Trade JFM Joint Forest Management LGA Local Government Authority LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas MALF Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries MNRT Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism MOFP Ministry of Finance and Planning MoHCDGEC Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children MoHSW Ministry of Health and Social Welfare MoW Ministry of Water MSW Municipal Solid Waste NBS National Bureau of Statistics NCAA Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority NEMC National Environment Management Council NEP National Environmental Policy NGO Nongovernmental Organization NTSCIU National and Transnational Serious Crimes Investigation Unit PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl PFM Participatory Forest Management PM Particulate Matter PO-RALG President's Office Regional Administration and Local Government POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants PPP Public-Private Partnerships RCP Representative Concentration Pathways REGROW Resilient Natural Resource Management for Tourism and Growth (Project) SDG Sustainable Development Goal SO2 Sulfur Dioxide SWIOFish South West Indian Ocean Fisheries Governance and Shared Growth SWM Solid Waste Management TaFF Tanzania Forest Fund TANAPA Tanzania National Parks Authority TAWA Tanzania Wildlife Authority TFS Tanzania Forest Service Agency UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization URT United Republic of Tanzania VPO Vice President's Office WHO World Health Organization WRG Water Resources Group WRM Water Resources Management Executive Summary 14 WORLD BANK GROUP Tanzania is endowed with valuable renewable and fisheries represent about 30 percent of gross natural resources such as forests, freshwater, domestic product (GDP)1 (NBS, 2017c). The total fisheries, abundant land, and unparalleled GDP contribution of the travel and tourism sector, wildlife. Over 50 percent of total land area in which is largely based on biodiversity and wildlife, Tanzania is covered by forests and woodlands was about 13 percent in 2016, and is expected to (URT, 2017), which provide vital habitat for grow by about 7 percent per year (WTTC, 2017). biodiversity, protect watersheds and deliver The sector’s total contribution to employment, ecosystem services. The Northern Highlands of including jobs directly supported by the industry, Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru, and the Southern was about 12 percent in the same year (WTTC, Highlands near Mbeya provide fertile soils 2017). In addition, natural resources–based for agriculture and species rich forests. The exports—including traditional goods (mainly Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests are biodiversity tobacco, cashew nuts, and coffee), gold, metals, hotspots that contain some of the highest and other minerals—constituted more than 40 densities of endemic plant and animal species percent of total exports in 2017 (NBS, 2017c). in the world. Throughout the country, a network of freshwater rivers and lakes provide drinking water and nutrients, sustain agriculture and Natural resources form a core pillar of enable hydropower. Tanzania hosts diverse, Tanzania’s economy and play a pivotal distinct, and iconic ecosystems and species. Lake role in sustaining the livelihoods of Victoria, the largest lake in Africa, is recognized its population. for its high levels of endemic fish species, supports a large fishing industry and provides This rich natural endowment, and the strong food security and jobs for surrounding residents. inter-linkages between the national economy Tanzania’s coastline hosts numerous fringing and the environment, provide a unique, rapidly- and patch reefs, important both ecologically and shrinking opportunity for Tanzania to harness its socio-economically as major fishing grounds and natural resources in a way that enables sustained, tourist attractions. long term benefits for its people. Existing land Natural resources form a core pillar of Tanzania’s and water resources, if properly conserved and economy and play a pivotal role in sustaining the livelihoods of its population. Agriculture, forestry, 1 On February 15, 2019, NBS announced a new GDP series rebased to 2015 as the base year. Figures presented in this report are, however, pre-rebased. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 15 managed, can boost Tanzania’s ability to become differentiated and intensifying, have resulted in the bread-basked of the region. Thriving wildlife three key negative trends: loss of ecosystems, and unspoiled protected areas can continue to competing demands for land and water, and bring significant profits from international nature- environmental pollution. based tourism. Sustainably-harvested forest, Tanzania’s total wealth per capita—that is, the forest products and fish stocks, and unspoiled sum of all types of physical, human, and natural coastal areas, can provide more and better capital—has declined between 1995 and 2014, livelihood opportunities for millions of Tanzanians. despite robust and sustained economic growth Clean water, clean air, and functioning cities in absolute terms.2 Tanzania is one of only and energy systems are necessary to sustain a 10 countries in Africa, and of only a few more healthy population and become catalytic to enable countries in the rest of the world, that this holds economic activity and development. true for (Lange, Wodon and Carey, 2018). However, several trends suggest that the country might be shifting toward an unsustainable development trajectory. Tanzania hosts one Tanzania’s total wealth per capita— of the largest poor populations in Africa, with that is, the sum of all types of approximately 21.3 million Tanzanians living physical, human, and natural capital— below the global poverty line (World Bank, 2017b), has declined between 1995 and many of which depend on natural resources for 2014, despite robust and sustained their livelihoods. While the poverty rate declined from 59.9 percent in 2007 to an estimated 43.0 economic growth in absolute terms. percent in 2016 (World Bank, 2017b), the absolute number of poor is still rising due to population A positive growth rate for total wealth per capita is growth. Around 70 percent of the population live considered an indicator of sustainability, as it shows in rural areas and rely on natural resources for that a country is saving for the future.3 However, food, fuel, and fodder (World Bank, 2018). There are clear indications that natural resources are 2 Measuring national wealth is part of an ongoing effort by the at serious risk, with four key forces identified World Bank to monitor the long-term economic well-being of nations. Comprehensive wealth is calculated by summing up estimates of each as underlying causes of the country’s natural component of wealth: produced capital, natural capital, human capital, resources degradation: rapid population growth, and net foreign assets. Observing changes in time of total wealth provides a comprehensive picture of the ability of nations to promote economic growth, increasing urbanization rate, growth in a sustainable manner. and climate variability and change. The impact of 3 This is one of the assumptions underlying the “wealth accounting these dynamic factors, which are geographically framework,” which the World Bank uses to assess a country’s long-term 16 WORLD BANK GROUP 138 million loss. This challenge is surmountable if tackled effectively and the underlying causes and drivers of environmental degradation are addressed TOTAL PROJECTED POPULATION strategically: connecting the dots between BY 2050 deforestation in upper catchments and a higher 70% flood risk in a coastal city, or between illegal ivory trafficking and a lower number of international tourists visiting the country (and thus a lower GDP) requires multisectoral coordination and a common, integrated approach to development. OF THE POPULATION CURRENTLY LIVES IN RURAL AREAS, BUT THE COUNTRY IS This CEA has identified spatially and temporally RAPIDLY URBANIZING differentiated approaches and solutions toward ensuring sustainable resource management for long-term use. To achieve this goal, six key variables need to be understood and tackled: A. Sustainable natural forest management will help ensure continued forest resources and services. Tanzania has one of the highest deforestation rates in the world. It ranks among Tanzania’s wealth per capita has declined because its the top five countries with the highest annual rapid population growth has outpaced investment. forest net loss, with an estimated forest area This decline in wealth is almost entirely accounted loss of 483,859 ha per year (URT, 2017). The for by its “renewable natural capital” loss, consisting key contributing factors to deforestation are of the country’s agricultural land, cropland, forests, agricultural expansion and demand for wood forest products, and protected areas. The country’s fuels (such as charcoal). human capital per capita is stable while its physical B. Land conservation and restoration are capital per capita has risen by 13 percent. Yet its critical to achieving economic growth and degrading natural capital base clearly illustrates conserving the biodiversity and ecosystems the magnitude of its sustainability problem: that are vital for ensuring human well-being. the total renewable natural capital per capita Land degradation, one of the most critical has fallen by 35 percent over the past 20 years, environmental issues both in Tanzania and whereas the non-land renewable natural capital worldwide, should be looked at in combination per capita has declined by 47 percent (that is, with biodiversity loss and climate change. almost halved in 20 years). Tanzania cannot afford Deforestation, poor farming practices, and another 10 years of the same negative trends in overgrazing are some of the key causes of land resource degradation. degradation in Tanzania. The opportunity Tanzania faces is to reconcile the C. With improved planning, management, use of natural resources to meet the demands and monitoring of water resources, the of the population and economy with the need sustainability of Tanzania’s water resources to maintain functioning ecosystems. Reaching can be ensured. While the country still has this balance will catalyze sustained growth. a reasonable per capita water resource However, the current trend in the use of natural endowment, Tanzania recently became a resources is not sustainable, leading to persistent water-stressed country (World Bank, 2017b). degradation and loss of ecosystems, which Projections suggest that the situation will constitute the main cause of the natural capital get worse because of inadequate water management, increased agricultural demand, sustainability. rapid population growth, and climate change TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 17 impacts. It is expected that the decreasing events becoming more frequent. Enhancing supply of water and the growing competing resilience to climate change is vital to demands for it, will also negatively affect protecting the country’s food security (with an water quality. The gaps in the knowledge of urgent need to further promote and implement water resources—related to quantity and climate smart agricultural practices), jobs, and quality, use, and hydrometeorology—and the economic growth, especially in the rural areas. limited availability of monitoring networks Estimated economic costs of climate change hinder informed decision making. to Tanzania could amount to 1 to 2 percent of GDP/year by 2030, in addition to existing costs D. The protection of ecosystems, biodiversity resulting from climate variability (Watkiss et conservation, and the largely positive al., 2011). international reputation as a hotspot for wildlife are crucial for Tanzania to realize its Environmental pollution is an additional, full tourism potential. Despite being one of overarching threat, which calls for anticipating the most biodiverse countries in the world, impacts and combining stringent command Tanzania faces significant loss of biodiversity. and control measures with incentives: the right This is turn affects a broad range of services policies and technologies today can prevent—and critical to the supply of food, water, and energy, minimize the cost of—future impacts. In Tanzania, and that particularly the poor depend on for the estimated economic cost of premature deaths their livelihoods. The poaching of elephants attributed to pollution (i.e., ambient and household and other species, the degradation and loss air pollution, and unsafe water and sanitation) of habitat, climate change impacts, among was over $28,7 billion in 2013 (Roy, 2016). others, have significantly reduced wildlife This estimate factors in the risks associated numbers, thereby threatening the long-term with ambient and household air pollution from sustainability of the tourism sector and the particulate matter (PM), unsafe water, and unsafe livelihoods of many Tanzanians. sanitation. These high pollution-related costs are an underestimation of the overall problem, E. As Tanzania approaches, or even surpasses, as health impacts caused by other sources (for the sustainable limit of exploiting its fisheries example, ozone exposure and lead exposure) are resources, attention needs to be shifted not included. toward livelihood opportunities in post-harvest value added, aquaculture, and recreational fisheries or other sectors. Approximately 10 Preventing pollution today avoids million people depend directly on the integrity tomorrow’s costly cleanup and offers of coastal and marine natural resources for their livelihoods. However, environmental no-regret options toward alleviating degradation, overfishing, and the use of illegal, poverty, and creating opportunities destructive fishing methods are threatening for a healthier and more productive Tanzania’s fisheries. population. F. Tanzania is highly vulnerable to climate change due to its reliance on natural Awareness of the negative impacts of resources. Impacts caused by climate change environmental pollution has increased, but are an additional pressure to already stressed significant knowledge gaps in data and information systems. Tanzania has little influence over the persist about its causes, magnitude, and effects global causes of climate change but urgently in Tanzania. Accurate and regularly updated data needs to adapt to its impacts. Trends show are critical for developing sustainable policies an increase in temperatures and changes in and management solutions. Additional research precipitation (although the extent of these and systematic data collection on the sources, changes is uncertain), and extreme weather 18 WORLD BANK GROUP distribution, dispersion, and health effects of C. Improving pollution regulations and pollution form the basis for better management. enforcement today is an early and cost- effective investment in preventing higher Preventing pollution today avoids tomorrow’s pollution loads in the medium term. Tanzania’s costly cleanup and offers no-regrets options industrialization is still in its early stages, toward alleviating poverty, and creating however, there is growing concern of increased opportunities for a healthier and more productive pollution if the process is not properly population. Improved pollution management managed. An analysis at the regional and can enhance competitiveness through, for local levels revealed that the pollution load is example, job creation, increased energy efficiency, concentrated in a few geographical areas, with sustainable development in Tanzania’s urban and Dar es Salaam producing about 88 percent of rural spaces, and improved infrastructure and all industrial pollution. All other regions have transport. It can also be effective in contributing industrial pollution loads well below those of toward climate change mitigation. Dar es Salaam. Using and effectively applying The CEA has identified improved management the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) activities toward addressing six key pollution- tool is key to curb industrial pollution. related challenges that need attention: D. Managing waste effectively and in an A. A multipronged approach is needed to curb environmentally sound manner is critical to air pollution. A detailed study concluded that minimizing associated environmental and around 26,000 Tanzanians died prematurely in health impacts. It is estimated that in 2012, 2013 from causes attributable to air pollution Tanzania generated 2,425 metric tons of (Roy, 2016). Most of these deaths (over 22,000) municipal solid waste (MSW) per day. Even were caused by household air pollution, which though solid waste management (SWM) is is associated with the widespread use of regulated, less than 40 percent of households solid biomass fuels (wood and charcoal) as are estimated to have access to waste domestic energy source. Curbing household collection services (Huisman, Breukelman, air pollution requires increasing access to and Keesman, 2016). MSW is a root cause of alternative energy sources, which in turn will the devastating floods witnessed in Dar es contribute to reducing deforestation and land Salaam. These floods are not only caused by degradation. a changing climate or by the intensity of rains B. Providing the population with access to alone, but by upstream deforestation and sustainable clean water and sanitation land degradation, combined with insufficient services reduces the spread of diseases such and failing urban drainage, frequently clogged as cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, by MSW. Other types of waste, like e-waste and typhoid fever. In 2013, health-related and healthcare waste (HCW), are becoming costs associated with unsafe water and a growing concern as more Tanzanians gain sanitation in Tanzania were estimated to be access to technology and more healthcare about $10 billion and $7.6 billion, respectively facilities become operational around the (Roy, 2016). It is estimated that food and country. There is an opportunity to legislate waterborne diseases, as well as water-contact and control these issues early-on, before they diseases, affect millions of people in the become a larger liability, more complex to country’s urban areas. Key causes of water tackle and more expensive to remediate. pollution are rapid and unplanned growth of E. Other growing and increasingly more urgent urban areas, untreated wastewater discharge issues to tackle refer to pesticide waste and from households, inadequate solid waste mining pollution. Rapid population growth and management, widespread and unplanned growing demand for food result in increased farming and cattle ranching, and industries’ pesticide use. Despite a comprehensive legal effluents. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 19 framework, the safe handling of pesticides natural capital into other forms of capital. At the in Tanzania is not always ensured. The same time, it should strictly limit the use of natural release of pesticides into the environment resources; try to halt ecosystem degradation; contaminates soil and water bodies, affecting strongly regulate environmental pollution loads nearby ecosystems, habitats, and wildlife and the quality of water, air, and soil; and strictly species. Pesticides are frequently extremely enforce environmental regulations to prevent toxic substances and take long to degrade. lock-in situations of “pollute now, clean up Establishing a mine requires clearing land, later.” In addition, there is a need for continued causing the loss of forests and biodiversity, communication with the wider public about which affects the local surroundings and the effect individual behavior can have on the communities. Mining operations can generate environment, and sensitization about low impact significant pollution through leakages and practices and lifestyles. Awareness raising on the mineral waste that is dumped in nearby interlinkages between an unspoiled nature and a rivers, and by highly polluting additives higher quality of life, and advocacy campaigns on required in the extraction process. Especially the importance of preserving healthy ecosystems, the use of mercury poses significant health are fundamental parts of the process. and environmental risks. Tanzania has the Four development paths are suggested for opportunity to establish adequate regulations Tanzania, based on the drivers and characteristics and management controls to prevent pollution of the environmental challenges discussed in from toxic chemicals (thus preventing this CEA. The first two paths relate to the more significant impacts to human health and “traditional” environmental and natural resources the environment), and to save resources, as challenges, which include degradation of land and avoiding emissions is significantly less costly water resources, deforestation, and biodiversity than cleaning up later. loss. These issues are most relevant for rural For Tanzania to realize its economic potential and areas, where natural resources are subject to achieve its ambitious development goals, it will competing demands (biodiversity conservation, have to give priority attention to these issues. The agricultural expansion, cattle raising, human country will need to continue building on recent settlements, hydropower production). If not achievements, such as the fight against poaching properly addressed, they can have impacts and the suppression of dynamite fishing, and across landscapes and watersheds—degrading replicate these successes in other priority areas. ecosystems and the services they provide to Tanzania’s environmental priorities should be rural and urban economies and livelihoods. based on the structural transformation of its rich 20 WORLD BANK GROUP The other two paths relate to a set of pollution- Climate change emerges as a strong “multiplier” related issues, more frequently associated across all paths and dimensions of natural with urban settlements, industrialization, and resource issues, and as a driver of more complex agglomeration, some of which have only recently urban management issues such as flooding, started drawing concern, and the importance of poor sanitation, and the growing threat of water strong institutions in the control and management pollution and toxic waste. Tanzania is highly of environmental performance. vulnerable to climate change, and impacts will be felt across the board. There is, thus, an impending Pathway 1 – Conservation of biodiversity need to build resilience across all sectors, and and marine and freshwater resources promote healthy natural systems that act as Pathway 2 – Promotion of resilient landscapes buffers against those impacts. Of particular Pathway 3 – Access to modern fuels and concern, given its importance for employment and low impact urbanization wealth creation, is the agricultural sector. Tanzania is already implementing climate smart agricultural Pathway 4 – Strengthened institutions for practices and approaches, and their consolidation pollution management and expansion is more urgent than ever. Climate Climate change emerges as a strong change can be considered as a stand-alone priority that Tanzania needs to tackle, or as a conditioning “multiplier” across all paths and factor that affects every aspect of development, dimensions of natural resource issues, imposing additional pressure on already stressed and as a driver of more complex urban systems. This report takes the latter approach, management issues such as flooding, mainstreaming climate change into the analysis of environmental challenges, instead of treating the poor sanitation, and the growing threat issue as a stand-alone challenge. of water pollution and toxic waste. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 21 Four Pathways For Tanzania 1 Pathway 1 Conservation of Biodiversity and Marine and Freshwater Resources Wildlife-based tourism has the potential to become a key engine of growth and prosperity, bringing jobs and livelihoods to areas with few other options. The blue economy can facilitate the conservation and sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth and prosperity to a large percentage of the Tanzanian population. TOWARDS THE WILDLIFE ECONOMY TOWARDS THE BLUE ECONOMY Focus: Sustainable revenue from wildlife Focus: Sustainable revenue from oceans Curb deforestation and habitat loss Conserve marine biodiversity and protect endangered species Allocate additional sources of funding for conservation Reduce fisheries’ post-harvest losses and add value Diversify tourism locations and products Build the private sector, PPPs, and infrastructure business plans Improve benefit-sharing with rural communities Better harness the value from deep sea fishing Support alternative livelihoods and rural development Prevent the reemergence of blast fishing and fight Improve business environment destructive fishing methods Promote Public-Private Partnerships Remain engaged in regional cooperation Further promote co-management and improved coastal livelihood opportunities Pathway 2 Promotion of Resilient landscapes 2 The landscape approach is a powerful tool to address challenges in the rural space. Rural areas are undergoing transformative changes as natural resources such as forests, water, land, and biodiversity face increasing pressure and the ecosystem services they provide continue to degrade. Rural areas that successfully balance ecosystem, economic, and social functions are more resilient to shocks and uncertainties. Such a balanced approach can sustain livelihoods, address food security issues, protect vital ecosystem services, and enable humans and landscapes to adapt to current and future impacts of climate change. LANDSCAPE APPROACH Focus: The Ten Principles Adaptive Management Participatory and user friendly monitoring Common Entry Point Resilience Multiple Scales Strengthened stakeholder capacity Multi-functionality Multi-shareholder Negotiated and transparent change logic Classification of rights and responsibilties 22 WORLD BANK GROUP 3 Pathway 3 Access to Modern Fuels and Low Impact Urbanization Widespread use of firewood and charcoal has implications with multiple issues, including deforestation and forest degradation, erosion and land degradation, air pollution and human health, gender, and climate change. Due attention should be given to urban settlements, where most Tanzanians are expected to live (Dar es Salaam will become a mega-city by 2030), and where environmental conditions can either become a catalyst that empowers citizens, or an impediment to well-being. Environmental risks in urban settlements are potentially large and impacts rooted in agglomeration and poor environmental conditions bring about thousands of premature deaths per year attributed to air pollution, and millions of people affected by food and waterborne diseases or devastating urban floods, to name a few. ACCESS TO MODERN FUELS LOW IMPACT URBANIZATION Start with a focus on Dar es Salaam Improve urban planning Establish multi-stakeholder platform Maintain healthy urban ecosystems and green space Conduct detailed analysis of the value chain Promote the construction of low-impact housing Prepare a plan to progressively limit Transition to modern energy sources for cooking to charcoal utilization limit household air pollution Promote sustainable charcoal production Improve urban mobility and tackle outdoor air pollution during the transition Improve water supply and sanitation Improve solid waste management Pathway 4 Strengthened Institutions for Pollution Management 4 The importance of strong, well-trained and sufficiently-resourced institutions for sound environmental management cannot be overstated. A pathway towards improving the ability of institutions to regulate, monitor and control pollution, will lead to a reduction in environmental pollution loads, and thus, to better quality of public goods such as air, water, and soil. The benefits of a non-polluted environment are many, and become essential if the country is to further develop in a sustainable way. Further develop and fill in the gaps in Implement / improve monitoring systems the regulatory framework Strengthen quality control laboratories Promote cross-coordination and Seek citizen engagement and establish inter-government collaboration feedback systems Boost enforcement capacity Continue capacity building efforts TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 23 1 Introduction 24 WORLD BANK GROUP 1.1 Tanzania’s Unique Environmental and Natural Resources Tanzania is endowed with valuable renewable Tanzania’s coastline hosts numerous fringing natural resources such as forests, freshwater, and patch reefs, important both ecologically and fisheries, and coral reefs. The Northern Highlands socio-economically as major fishing grounds and of Kilimanjaro and Mt. Meru, and the Southern tourist attractions. These resources are key to Highlands near Mbeya provide fertile soils for maintaining healthy and productive landscapes, agriculture and species rich forests. The Eastern and are intricately linked with energy generation, Arc and Coastal Forests are globally recognized agriculture, and human consumption. biodiversity hotspots that contain some of the The country’s biodiversity and unparalleled wildlife highest densities of endemic plant and animal are globally renowned. Tanzania hosts diverse, species in the world. Forests and woodlands cover distinct, and iconic ecosystems and species. About over 50 percent of mainland Tanzania and provide a third of the country’s total land area is officially vital habitat for biodiversity, protect watersheds under protection, one of the world’s highest ratios. and deliver ecosystem services (URT, 2017). Tanzania boasts 19 national parks, including the Ruaha National Park – the largest national park The country’s biodiversity and in East Africa (with an area of 20,226 km2), the unparalleled wildlife are globally famous Kilimanjaro National Park, and the Serengeti renowned. National Park. The latter is well-known for its large herds of wildebeest, and their annual migration, one of Africa’s most spectacular natural events. Throughout the country, a network of freshwater Tanzania also hosts 25 game reserves including the rivers and lakes provides drinking water, sustains Selous game reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage agriculture and provides hydropower. Lake Site and Africa’s largest game reserve (with an Victoria, the largest lake in Africa and recognized area of over 50,000 km2). The country has three for its high levels of endemic fish species, marine parks, 15 marine reserves, and multiple supports a large fishing industry and provides forest reserves and woodlands. food security and jobs for surrounding residents. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 25 Tanzania also hosts a wide range of nonrenewable Tanzania’s economy has had a robust natural resources such as minerals and natural macroeconomic performance over the past 10 gas. It is endowed with a variety of mineral years. GDP per capita (at current prices) increased deposits including gold, tanzanite, diamond, from $661 in 2008 to $910 in 2017 (World Bank nickel, copper, uranium, kaolin, titanium, cobalt 2019). Despite overall slow growth in Sub-Saharan and platinum. In 2016, a large liquefied natural Africa, Tanzania’s GDP has grown at an average gas deposit was found along the east coast. annual rate of 6.6 percent in real terms over Tanzania is currently developing extraction and the past decade according to the Government’s export capabilities for this energy resource official statistics (World Bank, 2019).6 (Deloitte, 2017). Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries represented 30 percent of gross ECONOMIC DEPENDENCE ON domestic product (GDP) in 2017. NATURAL RESOURCES Natural resources form a core pillar of Tanzania’s Despite this sustained positive macroeconomic economy and play a pivotal role in sustaining the trend, approximately 21.3 million Tanzanians livelihoods of its population. Renewable natural are living below the global poverty line. Tanzania resources are a core asset for the achievement hosts one of the largest poor populations in Africa. of growth in Tanzania. Agriculture, forestry, and While the poverty rate (based on the $1.90 per fisheries represented 30 percent of gross domestic day international poverty line) declined from 59.9 product (GDP)4 in 2017 (NBS, 2017c). The total percent in 2007 to an estimated 43.0 percent in GDP contribution of the travel and tourism sector, 2016 (World Bank, 2017b), the absolute number which is largely based on biodiversity and wildlife, of poor is still rising due to population growth. It was about 13 percent in 2016, and is expected to is estimated that the number of poor increased grow by about 7 percent per year (WTTC, 2017),5 from 20.6 million in 2012 to 21.3 million in 2016 The sector’s total contribution to employment, (World Bank, 2017b). Using the national poverty including jobs directly supported by the industry, threshold, around 12 million people were living in was about 12 percent in the same year (WTTC poverty in 2012, earning less than US$1.4 per day ,2017). In addition, natural resources–based per capita (at 2011 PPP) (World Bank, 2017b). exports—including traditional goods (mainly Most of Tanzania’s poor depend on natural tobacco, cashew nuts, and coffee), gold, metals, resources. About 70 percent of the population and other minerals—comprised about 40 percent live in rural areas and rely on natural resources for of total exports in 2017 (NBS, 2017c). food, fuel, and fodder (World Bank, 2018). More than half of Tanzania’s poor depend on agriculture 4 On February 15, 2019, the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) for their livelihoods (AfDB, 2018). Only around 17 announced a new GDP series rebased to 2015 as the base year. However, note that figures presented in this report are pre-rebased. percent of the rural population have access to electricity, and about 85 percent of Tanzania’s 5 The direct contribution of travel and tourism to GDP reflects the ‘internal’ spending on travel and tourism (total spending within energy needs are met through biomass use in the a particular country on travel and tourism by residents and non- residents for business and leisure purposes) as well as spending by form of charcoal and firewood, predominantly for government on travel and tourism services directly linked to visitors. cooking and heating (NBS, 2017a). The five coastal The total contribution of travel and tourism includes its wider impacts on the economy. The ‘indirect’ contribution includes the GDP and jobs regions of Tanzania are home to approximately 10 supported by (i) travel and tourism investment spending; (ii) government million people who depend directly on the integrity ‘collective’ spending, which helps travel and tourism activity in many different ways as it is made on behalf of the ‘community at large’ – e.g., of coastal and marine ecosystems. Most of the tourism marketing and promotion, aviation, administration, security country’s fish production is based on small-scale services; and (iii) domestic purchases of goods and services by the sectors dealing directly with tourists – e.g., purchases of food and cleaning services by hotels. The ‘induced’ contribution measures the 6 On February 15, 2019, NBS announced a new GDP series rebased GDP and jobs supported by the spending of those who are directly or to 2015 as the base year. However, note that figures presented in this indirectly employed by the travel and tourism industry (WTTC 2017). report are pre-rebased. 26 WORLD BANK GROUP fishing, which accounts for about 10 percent of fish the major lakes (Lokina, 2009; Rothuis et al., 2014). exports, making it one of the main occupations of the populations living in coastal areas and around 1.2 Environmental and Natural Resources Under Threat Competing demands for and open access to many (Lange, Wodon, and Carey, 2018).7 Growth of of Tanzania’s natural resources are causing the total wealth per capita is considered an indicator resources’ degradation and are limiting their ability of sustainability that complements GDP, since it to continue to provide goods and services. Demand shows that the country is saving for the future. for water is increasing faster than available supply, with conflicts over water becoming increasingly 7 Measuring national wealth and changes in wealth is part of an common as a result. Tanzania’s renewable per ongoing effort by the World Bank to monitor the long-term economic well-being of nations. Comprehensive wealth is calculated by summing capita freshwater resources have declined from up estimates of each component of wealth: produced capital, natural more than 3,000 m3 in the nineties to around capital, human capital, and net foreign assets. This method represents a shift from a ‘top-down’ approach used in earlier estimates to a ‘bottom- 1,600 m3 in 2014, which is less than 1,700 m3 up’ approach, which is possible because human capital is now measured per capita, the threshold below which a country as an explicit component of the wealth accounts for each country. The World Bank has developed a unique global database of more than 1,500 is considered water-stressed by the United household surveys, which provides the foundation for a first-of-its-kind global implementation of the well-known Jorgenson-Fraumeni lifetime Nations (World Bank, 2017b). Poor land use and earnings approach for human capital. watershed management practices have led to the degradation of forests and watercourses, threatening the very natural resource base upon which Tanzania’s economy and the poor depend on. Deforestation rates are among the highest in the world, with an estimated annual net loss of 483,859 ha over the period 2002-13 (URT, 2017). The country’s unique wildlife assets have experienced an unprecedented crisis due to poaching, overcrowding, and the associated degradation of biodiversity. Overfishing and uncontrolled small-scale fishing are threatening the sustainability of fisheries, the resource base that many poor coastal communities depend on for their livelihood. Tanzania is one of only 10 countries in Africa—and of only a few more countries in the rest of the world—where total wealth per capita has declined. Tanzania is one of only 10 countries in Africa— and of only a few more countries in the rest of the world—where total wealth per capita has declined TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 27 Tanzania’s total wealth per capita—the sum of all specifically, the total per capita renewable natural types of physical, human, and natural capital—has capital fell by 35 percent over the past 20 years. declined between 1995 and 2014, despite robust This number is somewhat distorted because it and sustained economic growth in absolute includes agricultural land whose value has gone up terms.8 Countries raise their total wealth by (which was to be expected, given the rising demand reinvesting savings in all forms of capital, whether for agricultural products). The nonagricultural physical, human, or natural capital. Any country renewable natural capital per capita declined by showing declining per capita wealth will find it 47 percent (thus was almost halved) in 20 years. increasingly difficult to grow or even maintain its per capita income (figure 1.1). Despite sustained positive macro- Tanzania’s decline in wealth is almost entirely economic trends, approximately 21.3 accounted for by “renewable natural capital” loss, million Tanzanians are living below the consisting of the country’s forests and forest products, protected areas, agricultural land, and global poverty line. cropland. The country’s human capital per capita is stable, and its physical capital per capita has The poor are most affected by the degradation risen by 13 percent over the past 20 years, but its of natural resources. Land degradation has been degrading natural capital base clearly illustrates found to increase the likelihood of household the magnitude of its sustainability problem. More poverty, as it reduces agricultural productivity. Deforestation—among others caused by 8 Note that the natural capital estimates are not comprehensive— smallholder farmers’ shifting cultivation and tree for instance, they do not include the value of fisheries and some cutting for fuelwood and charcoal production— minerals, and the protected area value estimates are very conservative (representing the opportunity cost of not converting that land to reduces water availability, thereby worsening pasture land). FIGURE 1.1: ANNUAL GROWTH OF WEATLH, BY COUNTRY 10.00 8.00 6.00 PERCENT 4.00 2.00 0.00 -2.00 Zimbabwe Burundi Congo, DR Comoros Madagascar Tanzania C. African Rep. Gambia, The Niger Mozambique Cote d'Ivoire Guinea Malawi Ethiopia Sierra Leone Rwanda Nigeria Kenya Swaziland Senegal Zambia Cameroon Togo Burkina Faso Ghana Congo, Rep. Mauritania Gabon South Africa Mauritius Botswana Liberia Mali Chad Uganda Namibia LOWER INCOME LOWER MIDDLE INCOME UPPER MIDDLE INCOME W E A LT H , A V E R A G E A N N U A L G R O W T H 1 9 9 5 - 2 0 1 4 W E AT L H P E R C A P I TA , A V E R A G E A N N U A L G R O W T H 1 9 9 5 - 2 0 1 4 SOURCE: LANGE, WODON, AND CAREY, 2018. 28 WORLD BANK GROUP poverty levels. Degraded fisheries, due to open Yet sound management of and key investments access and insufficient regulation, limit the in natural capital can stabilize and even boost availability of fish protein for the coastal and great economic growth. As a resource-based economy lakes’ communities. Lake Tanganyika is a prime with a high urbanization rate, Tanzania’s example of an area marked by a significant decline environmental degradation undermines economic of fish catches due to overexploitation. Other forms growth and quality of life, and disproportionately in which the poor are disproportionately affected affects the poor. Rapid economic growth through by natural resources degradation is through the liquidation of natural capital provides a increased burden of disease: contaminated water, temporary boost to the economy but fails to attributable to the lack of proper sanitation create a base for sustained advances in wealth facilities, causes cholera outbursts (Penrose et al., and human well-being. On the other hand, 2010) and increases the proliferation of disease development that focuses on the efficient and vectors such as mosquitoes. This is especially sustainable management of natural capital lays common in the burgeoning informal communities. the foundation for long-term inclusive growth. 1.3 Trends That Compound the Need for Improved Environmental Management Trends that emphasize the need for improving be sorely tested to support these figures—not to the management of Tanzania’s environment and mention the increased numbers of livestock. The natural resources include: (i) rapid population projected pressure on rural natural resources is growth; (ii) an increasing urbanization rate; probably a larger threat to the sustainability of (iii) a growing economy driven by the country’s Tanzania’s economic growth than any other issue. industrialization agenda; and (iv) climate variability and change. While Tanzania’s dependence on natural resources and the need for improved FIGURE 1.2: PROJECTED RURAL AND URBAN environmental management have been discussed POPULATION IN TANZANIA in the previous section, the following paragraphs discuss the trends that make this need even more 160 important. Understanding these trends is the key to identifying and implementing innovative 140 approaches to the sustainable management of 120 environment and natural resources. 53% 100 MILLIONS By 2050, Tanzania’s rural population is expected 80 48% to have grown by more than 80 percent, which 42% will intensify pressure on natural resources. The 60 35% share of the population living in rural areas is 40 28% 52% 47% 58% expected to drop from 72 percent in 2010 to 47 20 72% 65% percent in 2050, as people continue to migrate 0 to urban areas (figure 1.2). However, due to high 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 population growth, the absolute number of people in rural areas is expected to increase from 33 to 65 million people over the same period. Since R U R A L P O P U L AT I O N U R B A N P O P U L AT I O N there is limited new land to absorb this increase SOURCE: WORLD BANK, 2018a in population, the productivity of existing land will TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 29 Tanzania’s population growth will be most same period. At the same time, the government noticeable in its growing cities. The country’s projects that the industrial sector’s contribution urban population is expected to grow from about to GDP will increase from 20 percent in 2010 to 42 22 million in 2020 (35 percent of the total) to percent in 2030 (NBS, 2017c). To what extent the over 70 million, or 53 percent of the total, by higher level of industrialization will be intensive 2050 (figure 1.2). Tanzania’s total population is in the use of natural resources will depend on the projected to reach 138 million by 2050 (almost future profile of industrial growth. As the country triple its current level). New urban settlements industrializes, there is an opportunity to leapfrog are emerging, and existing cities and towns are toward cleaner production technologies. Doing so rapidly developing. Dar es Salaam is expected to would minimize environmental degradation and become a megacity by 2030, with a population limit the resulting pollution from industries. projected to exceed 10 million (United Nations, 2014). Key related areas demanding immediate Dar es Salaam is expected to become attention will be the increasing air pollution and poor water supply and sanitation. Air pollution has a megacity by 2030, with a population been identified by the World Health Organization projected to exceed 10 million. (WHO) as the world’s single largest environmental health risk, causing 3.8 million deaths each year Climate variability and change will exacerbate from indoor air pollution and 4.2 million deaths the environmental problems and tackling these from outdoor air pollution globally. Managing the issues will require comprehensive environmental expected increase of both air and water pollution planning and management tools. Rising in Tanzania’s main cities could save many lives and temperatures and changing rainfall patterns will prevent significantly higher future costs. have multidimensional effects on the Tanzanian economy—affecting agricultural productivity, By 2050, Tanzania’s rural population energy use, water availability and dynamics, is expected to have grown by more ecosystems, and ecosystem services. With than 80 percent, which will intensify projections varying, temperatures in Tanzania are expected to be between +1˚C and +3.4˚C higher pressure on natural resources. throughout the country by 2100, with warming being most pronounced in the Southwestern Economic growth is expected to be accompanied Highlands (URT-VPO, 2014a). Rainfall is projected by structural changes in the economy, toward to increase to up to 28 percent, particularly in the industries and services—but pressures on the Lake Victoria Basin and North-Eastern Highland environment will persist. If projections are (URT-VPO, 2014a). Projected rainfall reductions realized and the current effort to industrialize inland could make water scarcer, meaning that the country succeeds, the share of agriculture Tanzania will need to feed more people with and forestry will decline while the share of less rainwater in some key agricultural areas. industry, construction, and services will rise Infrastructure and informal settlements along and become the economy’s dominating sectors. the coast are particularly vulnerable to heavier The share of agriculture, forestry and fishing in rains, storm surges, and flooding. Incorporating the country’s GDP is projected to decrease from climate adaptation and mitigation measures into about 30 percent in 2010 to 23 percent in 2030 environmental management policies and practices (NBS, 2017c).9 Still, with a growing economy, will increase resilience to climate change and allow this implies that total agricultural output would the climate-related risks to be managed. need to increase by 25 percent or more over that 9 On February 15, 2019, NBS announced a new GDP series rebased to 2015 as the base year. However, note that figures presented in this report are pre-rebased. 30 WORLD BANK GROUP 1.4 National Legal and Institutional Framework for Environmental Management Tanzania’s Second Five Year Development Plan performance—that is, setting environmental (FYDP II) sets positive environmental goals standards and quality levels—also depends alongside development goals. By 2020, the FYDP II directly on the devolved responsibilities to key calls for expanding energy derived from renewable sector ministries in charge such as mining, resources by 50 percent; increasing natural forest transportation, agriculture, water, energy, cover by 130,000 ha; planting 100 million trees natural resources, and tourism. The National countrywide; reducing charcoal consumption in Environmental Management Council (NEMC), urban areas by 60 percent; and increasing the under the Vice President’s Office, is the command proportion of districts with climate change and and control agency in charge of environmental disaster risk reduction strategies to 60 percent compliance, while the President’s Office Regional (MOFP, 2016). All these goals are consistent with Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG) future growth that is clean, green, and resilient to is responsible for coordinating the implementation climate change. of all governing policies, acts, and regulations regarding environmental conservation at the local Tanzania’s Second Five Year Development government authorities (LGAs), and monitoring Plan (FYDP II) sets positive environmental the performance of LGAs. Sector ministries are responsible for ensuring that all activities are carried goals alongside development goals. out in an environmentally sustainable manner. The NEP and EMA are implemented through The overarching laws governing Tanzania’s secondary legislation, regulations, guidelines, environmental management are the National standards, etc. However, not all the laws and Environmental Policy (NEP) of 1997 and the documents necessary for implementation have Environmental Management Act (EMA) of 2004. yet been developed and/or adopted. While the The NEP, which is currently under review, enables EMA is the main instrument for environmental sectoral and cross-sectoral policy analysis to management, it is incomplete, with a significant mainstream environmental considerations into number of secondary legislation pieces still all aspects of planning and development. The required for its full implementation (e.g., EMA outlines principles for management, impact regulations, rules, notices, orders, guidelines, and risk assessments, prevention and control of and environmental quality standards). An pollution, waste management, environmental analysis of the budgetary resources and gaps in quality standards, public participation, capacity identified incomplete legal frameworks, compliance, and enforcement. It assigns inadequate cross-sectoral coordination, and environmental management responsibilities to insufficient funding as institutional barriers sector ministries and their departments and to the full implementation and enforcement agencies, including regional and local authorities. of environmental policies. Recommendations A National Environmental Advisory Committee include further analysis of, and investments in, advises all sectoral ministries, while the Minister the capacity needed for the implementation of Environment has the power to approve or framework, along with developing and sharing disapprove projects on environmental grounds. of necessary environmental information and key performance indicators. The existing legislation The key administrative responsibilities for also needs to be harmonized across sectors. environmental management in Tanzania rest with the Minister of Environment under the Vice President’s Office. However, environmental TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 31 1.5 Objectives and Scope of the Country Environmental Analysis The main objective of the country environmental More specifically, the CEA analyzes various analysis (CEA) is to support the government of environmental and natural resource issues Tanzania in analyzing the critical environmental Tanzania faces and discusses their current status, and natural resources challenges that are main causes, drivers, and trends, as well as influencing the country’s development and insights into their possible future developments. poverty reduction efforts, and to provide policy It includes an overall evaluation of existing recommendations on how to address these. The institutions and policies, and suggestions for CEA has been conducted in close collaboration the strengthening of the enabling environment. with the Government of Tanzania (the Department Given the size of the country, the diversity of of Environment of the Vice President’s Office) ecosystems and economies, and the wide range and reflects inputs from various stakeholders, of challenges, this report focuses on the key including representatives from different relevant action areas, and singles out a few for government ministries and agencies, LGAs, immediate action. nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and civil This paper is structured as follows: society. It further draws on literature produced by the World Bank, government entities, academia, SECTION 1: Introduction. This section gives NGOs and development partners (DPs), and uses an overview of the contribution of natural data and inputs collected during the process. resources and the environment to various sectors and discusses the country’s growth trajectory by highlighting the economy’s dependence on natural resources. SECTION 2: Rural Environmental and Natural Resources Challenges. Given the importance of environmental and natural resources for the country’s economy, this section first examines the current state of natural resources in rural areas and discusses how environmental degradation is stifling the growth of the rural economy. It goes on to review existing natural resources policies and management and institutional capacity, and finally offers recommendations for the sustainable development and use of these resources. SECTION 3: Urban and Industrial Environmental Challenges. This section summarizes the country’s pollution and environmental health issues, including air and water pollution, solid waste, and toxic waste issues. SECTION 4: Toward Cleaner, Greener Development. This section proposes areas for action that can help pave the way toward inclusive and sustainable growth in Tanzania. 32 WORLD BANK GROUP 2 Rural Environmental and Natural Resources Challenges 34 WORLD BANK GROUP 2.1 Significance of Environmental and Natural Resources and Key Challenges Natural resources play a vital role in sustaining are put in place to manage the resources provided by the livelihoods of Tanzania’s rural population. these assets. Conversely, the continued degradation Currently, approximately 70 percent of the and overexploitation of Tanzania’s natural capital will population live in rural areas and depend on the decrease resource availability, negatively affect the country’s natural capital in form of freshwater, quality of life, and continue to lower per capita wealth. productive land, forests, or biodiversity. In the Natural resources provide life-sustaining benefits. next 30 years, the country’s rural population Ecosystem services are often “invisible” to is expected to grow by more than 80 percent, people, but they are in fact critical to preserving reaching 65 million people by 2050 (World livelihoods, through services such as air and water Bank, 2018a). Tanzania’s natural assets have the filtration, flood protection, or habitat for fisheries potential to support the needs of this growing and wildlife (box 2.1). population if sustainable practices and policies BOX 2.1: ROLE OF ECOSYSTEMS IN PROVIDING VITAL GOODS AND SERVICES Degraded ecosystems cannot perform the following tasks as efficiently as robust ecosystems: 1 PROVISIONING SERVICES Products obtained from 2 REGULATING SERVICES Benefits obtained from the 3 SUPPORTING SERVICES Services necessary for the ecosystems regulation of ecosystem processes provision/production of all other ecosystem services Food Pollination Nutrient recycling Fuel Water Purification Photosynthesis Building Materials Erosion & Flood Control Soil Formation Medicines Climate Regulation Water cycling Raw Materials TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 35 Most ecosystem goods and services have The opportunity Tanzania faces is to reconcile the traditionally been considered “free” to society. use of natural resources to meet the demands This undervaluation can lead to environmental of the population and economy with the need degradation and the disruption of important to maintain functioning ecosystems. Reaching functions that rely on healthy, thriving ecosystems. this balance will catalyze sustained growth. However, the current trend in the use of natural resources is not sustainable, leading to persistent degradation and loss of ecosystems, which TANZANIA’S ENVIRONMENT constitute the main cause of the natural capital AND NATURAL RESOURCES ARE loss. This challenge is surmountable if tackled DEGRADING effectively and the underlying causes and drivers of environmental degradation are addressed Population and economic growth are driving strategically: connecting the dots between the depletion of natural resources, and the deforestation in upper catchments and a higher degradation of ecosystems and habitats. The flood risk in a coastal city, or between illegal ivory ecosystem services these resources provide are trafficking and a lower number of international vital for the country’s population. Particularly tourists visiting the country (and thus a lower rural communities will be negatively affected GDP) requires multisectoral coordination and a by their degradation and overexploitation, as common, integrated approach to development. natural resources are a primary source of food This CEA has identified spatially and temporally and energy for them. differentiated approaches and solutions toward ensuring sustainable resource management for long-term use. To achieve this goal, six key variables need to be understood and tackled (see table 2.1): A. Sustainable natural forest management will help ensure continued forest resources and services. Tanzania has one of the highest deforestation rates in the world. It ranks among the top five countries with the highest annual forest net loss, with an estimated forest area net loss of 483,859 ha per year (URT, 2017). The key contributing factors to deforestation are agricultural expansion and demand for wood fuels (such as charcoal). Forests provide over 85 percent of Tanzania’s energy supply (NBS, 2017a). The sector’s contribution to the economy is projected to go up further due to increased demand from a growing population. However, without major reinvestments in the country’s agricultural land and forests to offset the natural capital losses taking place across the country, continued deforestation will lead to significant national economic losses. B. Land conservation and restoration are critical to achieving economic growth and conserving the biodiversity and ecosystems 36 WORLD BANK GROUP that are vital for ensuring human well-being. livelihoods of many Tanzanians. Land degradation, one of the most critical E. As Tanzania approaches, or even surpasses, environmental issues both in Tanzania and the sustainable limit of exploiting its fisheries worldwide, should be looked at in combination resources, attention needs to be shifted with biodiversity loss and climate change. toward alternative livelihood opportunities Deforestation, poor farming practices, and in post-harvest value added, aquaculture, overgrazing are some of the key causes of land and recreational fisheries or other sectors. degradation in Tanzania. Approximately 10 million people depend C. The sustainability of Tanzania’s water directly on the integrity of coastal and marine resources can be ensured with improved natural resources for their livelihoods. However, planning, management and monitoring. While environmental degradation, overfishing, and the country still has a reasonable per capita the use of illegal, destructive fishing methods water resource endowment, Tanzania recently are threatening Tanzania’s fisheries. officially became a water-stressed country. Projections suggest that the situation will get worse because of inadequate water management, increased agricultural demand, rapid population growth, and climate change impacts. It is expected that the decreasing water avaliability and the growing competing demands for it, will also negatively affect water quality. The substantial gaps in the knowledge of water resources—related to water quantity and quality, water use, and hydrometeorology—and the limited availability of monitoring networks prevent informed decision making. D. The protection of ecosystems, biodiversity conservation, and the largely positive international reputation as a hotspot for wildlife are crucial for Tanzania to realize its full tourism potential. Tanzania is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, however it is experiencing a significant loss of its wildlife. This is turn affects a broad range of services critical to the supply of food, water, and energy, and that particularly the poor depend on for their livelihoods. The tourism industry, which is mostly based on wildlife, is an important and growing economic sector that accounted for about 13 percent of the country’s GDP in 2016 (WTCC, 2017). The poaching of elephants and other mammals, the degradation and loss of habitat, climate change impacts, among others, have significantly reduced wildlife numbers, thereby threatening the long-term sustainability of the tourism sector and the TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 37 F. Tanzania is highly vulnerable to climate change due to its reliance on natural resources. Impacts caused by climate change are an additional pressure to already stressed systems. Trends show an increase in temperatures for Tanzania and changes in precipitation (although the degree and extent of these changes is uncertain), and extreme weather events becoming more frequent. Enhancing resilience to climate change is vital to protecting the country’s food security (crops, livestock, and fisheries), jobs, and economic growth, especially in the rural areas. Estimated economic costs of climate change to Tanzania could amount to 1 to 2 percent of GDP per year by 2030, in addition to existing costs resulting from climate variability (Watkiss et al., 2011). TABLE 2.1: KEY ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN TANZANIA IS S UE M A J O R C AU S ES MA J OR CON SEQU E N CES Deforestation and • Agricultural expansion • Reduced environmental services forest degradation • Fuelwood harvesting and charcoal production • Loss of ecosystem services • Increasing demand / population growth • Soil erosion, water loss, and water pollution Land degradation • Agricultural expansion • Loss of soil fertility • Inefficient farming practices • Reduced food production • Overgrazing • Desertification • Deforestation Degradation of water • Excessive agricultural use • Water scarcity resources • Uneven distribution • Reduced water quality • Increasing competing water demand / population growth Loss of biodiversity • Habitat loss and degradation • Loss of tourism income • Poaching • Reduction of food supplies • Overexploitation • Loss of ecosystem services Freshwater and marine • Overfishing • Reduced food production fisheries depletion • Degradation of aquatic environment • Economic losses • Destructive fishing methods • Unemployment Climate change • Worldwide increase in emissions of greenhouse gases • More frequent extreme weather events • Deforestation (removing carbon reservoirs) • Reduced food security • Environmental and human health issues 38 WORLD BANK GROUP TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 39 2.2 Deforestation and Forest Degradation Forests are important to the population because Tanzania’s forests are also home to renowned they not only provide various direct and indirect biodiversity. About 28 million ha of the country’s benefits, they also contribute to the country’s forests are considered critical as biodiversity climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. hotspots or as water catchment areas. For By sequestering and storing carbon, healthy example, the montane forests in the Eastern Arc forests are key for climate change mitigation. Mountains are known for their biodiversity and high Forests also act as “natural infrastructure” that water catchment value for major rivers. The East minimizes runoff, soil erosion, and nutrient loss, Usambara forests are globally recognized for their and provides communities with a safety net. unique biodiversity, including 27 vascular plant From this perspective, they are also fundamental species and 40 vertebrate species endemic to the for climate change adaptation. By providing area (TFCG, 2017). Recognizing the value of these resources and services, forests contribute to areas, the Government of Tanzania is protecting long-term economic growth and environmental them to conserve their unique natural resource stability, and sustain sectors such as agriculture, potential, and high carbon storage capacity — in energy, water, tourism, and transport. Forests 2017, 12 Nature Forest Reserves were declared and also provide habitats for biodiversity, protect gazetted (TFCG, 2017).10 communities from natural disasters such as floods and landslides, and generally protect watersheds. 10 Of the 12 Nature Forest Reserves, eight are found in the Eastern Arc Mountains, one is found in the coastal forests in southern Tanzania, one encompasses the forests of a recently dormant volcano, Mount Tanzanians depend on the country’s large Hanang, and another one includes areas of lowland swamp forest close forested areas for their livelihoods. Forests to the Uganda border. are an important source of energy for cooking, construction materials, traditional medicine, tourism, fodder, and water catchments protection. Total forested land is 48.1 million ha, representing over 50 percent of total land area (URT, 2017). The majority, or more than 90 percent, of Tanzania’s forests consist of woodlands, followed by lowland and montane forests, forest plantations, and mangrove forests. 5th HIGHEST ANNUAL FOREST NET LOSS WORLDWIDE AREA LOSS 372,000 ha/y RATE 0.8% 40 WORLD BANK GROUP TABLE 2.2: ANNUAL NET LOSS OF FOREST AREA – EAST AFRICA FOREST AREA (THOUSAND HA) AVERAGE ANNUAL CHANGE RATE (%) 1990 2015 1990-2000 2000-2010 2010-2015 Kenya 4,724 4,413 -2.8 1.7 0.9 Malawi 3,896 3,147 -0.9 -0.1 -0.6 Mozambique 43,378 37,940 -0.5 -0.6 -0.5 Tanzania 55,920 46,060 -0.7 -0.7 -0.8 Uganda 4,751 2,077 -2.0 -3.3 -5.5 SOURCE: FAO, 2015 TABLE 2.3: ANNUAL NET LOSS OF FOREST AREA – TOP COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD ANNUAL FOREST AREA NET LOSS (2010–15) Area (thousand ha) Rate (%) Brazil 984 0.2 Indonesia 684 0.7 Myanmar 546 1.8 Nigeria 410 5.0 Tanzania 372 0.8 Paraguay 325 2.0 Zimbabwe 312 2.1 SOURCE: FAO, 2015 The contribution of the forest sector to Tanzania’s However, despite their crucial role in development, economy has been steadily rising. While it was the country’s forest areas have declined estimated to account for about 2 percent of GDP significantly. Tanzania’s Forest Reference in 2011 (i.e., $613 million), it accounted for almost Emission Level submission to the United Nations 4 percent in 2010 (FAO, 2014; NBS, 2017b). As Framework Convention on Climate Change (URT, the population continues to grow, and demand 2017) reported an estimated annual loss from for forest resources along with it, the sector’s deforestation of 483,859 ha over the period contribution to the economy is projected to 2002–13.11 FAO (2015) reports slightly lower, yet increase further. still significant data, with forest areas in Tanzania having declined with an estimated annual forest Tanzania’s Forest Reference Emission area net loss of 372,000 ha, from nearly 56 million ha in 1990 to 46 million ha in 2015. Using Level submission to the United the latter and comparing it with other countries in Nations Framework Convention on the world, Tanzania has the highest annual forest Climate Change (URT 2017) reported area net loss in East Africa (table 2.2), and the an estimated annual loss from 5th highest annual forest area net loss worldwide deforestation of 483,859 ha over the (table 2.3). period 2002–13. 11 Note that Tanzania’s Forest Reference Emission Level submission to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change measures gross deforestation, which excludes regeneration, afforestation, etc. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 41 EXPANDING AGRICULTURAL firewood, predominantly for cooking and heating ACTIVITY AND FUELWOOD (NBS 2017a). Nationally, about 79 percent of urban households use charcoal as their largest source of HARVESTING ARE KEY household energy, as it is considered cheap and DEFORESTATION DRIVERS easy to transport, distribute, and store. In Dar es Salaam, this number is higher with approximately Expanding agricultural activity—for subsistence 88 percent of households using charcoal (NBS, crops, livestock, and cash crops—is considered the 2017a). Charcoal is currently produced either illegally key driver of deforestation and forest degradation in forest reserves or from forests/woodland on in Tanzania. Between 70 and 80 percent of the village land for which no sustainable harvesting is country’s deforestation is estimated to result in place (TFCG, 2018). Charcoal consumption levels from converting forest land to agricultural land. are expected to increase further due to population Driven by the insufficient use of agricultural inputs growth coupled with urbanization and relative price needed to increase farm yield and productivity increases of other fossil fuel–based energy sources (e.g., limited extension services, challenges in (World Bank, 2009). According to Tanzania’s accessing affordable credit, and limited access to National Energy Policy (2015), demand for charcoal inputs), traditional shifting cultivation commonly will double by 2030, from approximately 2.3 million takes advantage of virgin forest soils12 and has a metric tons in 2012. significant impact on Tanzania’s forest resources. About 30 percent of Tanzania’s land is used for Tanzania has taken important steps toward agriculture, with about 7 percent of the land reforming the forestry regulatory framework area being classified as shifting cultivation (TFS, in the past. Following a global shift toward 2015). Shifting cultivation areas contain forests decentralized forest management in the 1990s, in various stages of regrowth, which are often Tanzania conducted a major review of its forest not expected to recover fully (TFS, 2015). The policy and legislation to transfer forest resource cultivation of major agricultural cash crops— ownership and management responsibilities to primarily maize but also cassava, cotton, and local communities.13 The Forest Act No 14, Cap tobacco—have led to vast clearances of the 323, which was enacted in 2002 and became miombo woodland over the past decades. Land operational through the Forest Regulations is also converted for raising livestock. Tanzania encompasses large herds of cattle that often 13 The preparation of a National Forest Policy in 1998 enabled the establishment of new institutions. New institutions include for example exceed the area’s carrying capacity and negatively the Tanzania Forest Service Agency (TFS), the Tanzania Tree Seed affect the country’s forests and woodlands Agency (TTSA), the Eastern Arc Mountains Conservation Endowment Fund (EAMCEF), and the Tanzania Forest Fund (TaFF). through overgrazing. An estimated 85 percent of Tanzania’s energy needs are met through biomass use in the form of charcoal and firewood, predominantly for cooking and heating. 88% OF HOUSEHOLDS Fuelwood harvesting, and charcoal production, IN DAR ES SALAAM especially if followed by agriculture, further drive forest degradation and in some cases USE CHARCOAL deforestation and biodiversity loss. An estimated 85 percent of Tanzania’s energy needs are met through biomass use in the form of charcoal and 12 Virgin soils are considered more fertile and productive, thus requiring less weeding, pesticides, and tillage before planting. 42 WORLD BANK GROUP Government Notice 153 of 2004, subsequently SUSTAINABLE NATURAL FOREST allowed participatory forest management (PFM), a MANAGEMENT WILL HELP community-based approach toward securing and managing forests, to emerge as a central element ENSURE CONTINUED FOREST in promoting the sustainable management of RESOURCES AND SERVICES forest resources.14 Forests and woodlands will continue providing resources and services to support Tanzania’s Tanzania has taken important steps growing population if managed and harvested toward reforming the forestry sustainably. Improved forest and woodland regulatory framework in the past. management will require investment and commitment toward sustainable natural forest management, in addition to improving agricultural But despite these efforts, uncontrolled forest practices. Tackling these issues at a landscape exploitation continues to be widespread, and level—from local to regional—and involving structural governance issues remain. Insufficient stakeholders working at different scales, will coordination of policy implementation across support the transition to sustainable practices sectors, and across the different government in an integrated way. The involvement of village institutions responsible for forest management, representatives and communities is particularly has led to continued uncontrolled access of forest crucial considering most deforestation occurs resources.15 In addition, the Tanzania Forest on village land. Tanzania’s National Five Year Service Agency (TFS) is largely dependent on Development Plan (MOFP, 2016) has set ambitious revenue generated from forest products, often energy and forestry goals, which should be built unsustainably harvested from village land forests, on; by 2020, energy derived from renewable while having no mandate to manage or reinvest resources should be 50 percent higher; natural revenue in those forests. Implementation of forest cover should be 130,000 ha larger; an community-based forest management has not yet additional 100 million trees should be planted received the required investment and prioritization. countrywide, and charcoal consumption in urban Tanzania initiated the REDD+ Readiness process in areas should be 60 percent lower. These goals, 2007, and prepared a National Framework Strategy although hard to achieve, set the stage toward and Action Plan, and created the National Carbon improved forest management. Monitoring Centre for monitoring, reporting, and The development of additional institutional and verifying greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from operational policies combined with strengthened deforestation and forest degradation. The REDD+ enforcement will improve the effective process has not yielded significant results to management of forest resources. These policies date. The National Forest Policy is currently being include the establishment of an effective biomass reviewed, with an update expected in 2019. policy, a framework governing the sustainable production of charcoal (with an emphasis on strengthening afforestation and reforestation), and detailed forest fire management guidelines, 14 Two PFM models are being applied in Tanzania—community-based and the integration of climate change effects forest management (CBFM) and joint forest management (JFM). Both into forest policy and planning (MNRT, 2018). transfer local forest tenure to communities or share the costs and benefits of state-owned forests between the government and communities. Strengthening the capacity of the institutions 15 Responsibility for the management of forests lies with the TFS, a responsible for forestry management, parastatal government agency. Forests at the district level are under coordinating the implementation of national plans the mandate of the Prime Minister’s Office for Regional Administration and Local Governance, with the District Forest Officers managing the and programs, and clearly defining land tenure sector. Finally, according to the National Forest Monitoring Assessment and protection status will further facilitate the (TFS 2015), about 22 million ha, or 46 percent of the country’s forests and woodlands, are owned by villages, and about 2.7 million ha (or 5.7 overall effectiveness of new and existing policies. percent) forests are on general land. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 43 National financial allocations toward effective ecologically sustainable woodland management forest management and conservation principles; and generating funds for villages and mechanisms need to be increased, and donor local government (box 2.2). support aligned to address Tanzania’s national Sustainable forest management needs to be priorities. While community-based forest integrated into the development decision- management is considered a key policy tool making process. Protecting and optimizing the toward reducing deforestation and safeguarding use of forests is key to sustaining livelihoods ecosystem services for local communities, and generating economic opportunities and only about 13 percent (i.e., 4.1 million ha) of the jobs. Investments in sectors such as agriculture, country’s forests are under such management, energy, mining, and transport should reinforce due to insufficient national funding allocations. and encourage sustainable forestry practices. The In addition, the financial sustainability of the establishment of forest nature reserves should be country’s national forest reserves should be prioritized in terms of forest protection. strengthened. To ensure sustainable sources of revenue for both the management of the reserves Improving agricultural efficiency and productivity and to help support the development needs of will decrease the pressure to convert forested surrounding communities, the development of lands to agriculture. This is a clear example of a business plans should be encouraged to attract solution that meets the needs of both farmers private sector investment for tourism and and the environment. Tanzania is already engaging recreational activities. Potential revenue through in numerous sustainable agricultural projects and public-private partnerships can be reinvested in is well situated to build on the success of these the reserves (TFCG, 2017). projects and implement them on a wider scale. National financial allocations toward effective forest management and conservation mechanisms need to be increased, and donor support aligned to address Tanzania’s national priorities. Charcoal production that uses sustainably- managed resources and improved technologies offers further opportunities for reducing deforestation. Banning charcoal is considered ineffective in the absence of affordable, accessible alternatives for communities to cook with, hence there is a need to sustainably produce charcoal from natural woodlands, alongside other strategies to reduce charcoal dependence in the medium- to long-term. Research has shown that miombo woodlands can be managed for charcoal production with regeneration occurring rapidly and maintaining the original tree species. The Mjumita present a sustainable charcoal model that has succeeded in producing charcoal at a price that is competitive in urban markets; reducing deforestation in the participating villages; establishing a harvesting protocol in line with 44 WORLD BANK GROUP BOX 2.2: SUSTAINABLE CHARCOAL PRODUCTION AND USE - THE MJUMITA SUSTAINABLE CHARCOAL MODEL Since 2012, the Tanzania Forest Conservation Group and Mjumita have successfully assisted 30 villages in the Morogoro Region toward integrating sustainable charcoal production into the management of village forest reserves. HOW DOES IT WORK? The villages prepare a village land use plan that includes a village land forest reserve. Approximately 10 percent of the area of each village forest reserve is designated for charcoal production. The remaining 90 percent is for protection, beekeeping and, in some cases, selective timber harvesting. Grazing of livestock is controlled, and agriculture is prohibited. The harvesting rotation period is 24 years. This means that an area harvested in the first year will only be harvested again after 23 years. The charcoal areas are divided up into 50m x 50m blocks known as ‘coupes’. 4.17 percent of these coupes can be harvested each year. The average yield per coupe is calculated based on an assessment of available biomass. The sustainable yield per coupe multiplied by the number of coupes harvestable per year establishes the annual charcoal quota and potential revenue for the village. Potential annual village revenues range from about $4,000 to $23,000 per village. Trees are cut at knee height (~50 cm) leaving behind a stump and the roots, encouraging coppicing. WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS? Sustainable charcoal producing villages earned a cumulative revenue of $200,000 between June 2013 and September 2018 from the fees (this is in addition to the income earned by the producers). How the revenue to the village is spent, is decided in village assembly meetings. Some revenue will be used to cover the costs of managing the village forest reserve and overseeing the sustainable charcoal model, while the remainder is invested in community development projects. For example, Ihombwe Village constructed a house for the doctor working in their health clinic; whilst Ihombwe and Ulaya Mbuyuni villages purchased health insurance for all residents of the village. “We were taking charcoal and wood from various areas without regulation. This practice created several problems. But now we are operating sustainably, and we receive great benefits from our forest in this village. For example, the construction of a school, classrooms, houses for teachers, teachers’ colleges, hospitals, and health insurance for every individual. All this is now possible thanks to our sustainable measures.” SHABANI K. KINGAIRE Farmer in Kilosa, Morogoro SOURCE: TFCG 2018. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 45 2.3 Land Degradation Land degradation is one of the world’s most absorption and storage functions. Deforestation pressing environmental issues. Land degradation is responsible for about 10 percent of all results in soil erosion, and may lead to human-induced GHG emissions (IPBES, 2018). A desertification, salinization, or acidification. As negative feedback mechanism is at play because the soil loses its water-holding capacity, surface climate change impacts may also exacerbate water runoff is accelerated, which in turn leads land degradation. to siltation downstream, further soil erosion, and decreased groundwater recharge. Degraded lands TANZANIA’S LAND IS DEGRADED have lost their life-supporting capacity, affecting MAINLY DUE TO AGRICULTURAL food production and associated livelihoods, forest cover and associated energy provision, EXPANSION biodiversity support, and overall degradation of In Tanzania, the percentage of land considered ecosystem services. degraded increased from 42 percent in 1980 to almost 50 percent in 2012 (URT-VPO, 2014b). Tanzania’s third repor t on the Tanzania’s third report on the implementation implementation of the United Nations of the United Nations Convention to Combat Convention to Combat Desertification Desertification (UNCCD) showed that nearly two showed that nearly two thirds of thirds of the country’s drylands are seriously degraded. The extent and magnitude vary across the country’s drylands are seriously regions, depending on the type and intensity of degraded. the economic activities that drive the degradation. Rapid expansion and unsustainable management of agricultural land is considered the most critical FIGURE 2.1: DEGREE OF LAND DEGRADATION direct driver of land degradation. At least 3.2 billion IN HOTSPOT AREAS IN TANZANIA people worldwide are estimated to be affected by land degradation impacts and, by 2050, this number is expected to reach 4 billion (IPBES 2018). Decreasing land productivity is projected to make global communities more vulnerable in the future, particularly in dryland areas. Africa’s drylands, which comprise about 43 percent of land surface and account for about 75 percent of land used for agricultural activities, are particularly affected by land degradation, with associated communities being extremely vulnerable ecologically, economically, and socially (World Bank, 2017c). Biodiversity loss and climate change are closely interlinked with land degradation. Agricultural land covers more than one third of the world’s land surface, mostly at the expense of forests, grasslands, and wetlands. Land degradation substantially contributes to climate change, SOURCE: MODIFIED FROM MAJULE, 2017 given the importance of the soil’s carbon 46 WORLD BANK GROUP For example, the agroecological zones in the in search of greener pastures, is considered plateau, semiarid, and southern highlands, are detrimental to drought-prone, semi-arid far more degraded than the other agroecological environments and can lead to desertification zones in the country, as illustrated in figure 2.1. through soil compaction, and wind and water erosion (Pietikäinen, 2006). The area under permanent cropland increased by almost 73 percent between 2000 and 2010, with the data suggesting that, among other LAND CONSERVATION factors, land for crop production is increasing AND RESTORATION at the expense of forest lands, often because farmers encroach on forest land as they develop Tanzania has taken important steps toward their agricultural activities (Majule, 2017). In line addressing land degradation. The government with global trends, deforestation, agricultural enacted new policies and strategies to address expansion coupled with poor farming practices, land degradation following the United Nations and overgrazing are among the key causes of Conference on Environment and Development land degradation in Tanzania. High deforestation (UNCED), the Earth Summit held in 1992 in Rio rates and unsustainable agricultural practices— de Janeiro. The National Action Program to including slash and burn and steep slope Combat Desertification (2000) was developed, cultivation—have degraded the land in many and relevant policies and action programs were areas of the country (National Audit Office, reviewed and updated to include environmental 2018b). Soil fertility is being lost, which in turn and land degradation issues.16 In addition, the undermines smallholder farmers’ food security. REDD+ National Strategy (URT-VPO, 2012a) Soil samples from different parts of the country and the Climate Change National Strategy show significant weathering, exposing the land’s (URT-VPO, 2012b) were enacted with a view inability to support plant growth to sustain to addressing land degradation in combination subsistence agriculture (Funakawa et al., 2012). with the impacts of climate change.17 Tanzania is also part of the African Forest Landscape Tanzania has one of the largest livestock Restoration Initiative (AFR100), an effort to populations in Africa, with over 100 million restore 100 million hectares of deforested and livestock in 2016 (MoLF in NBS, 2017b), marked degraded landscapes across Africa by 2030, by low productivity rates. Keeping large herds but is yet to prepare its commitment. of livestock, coupled with seasonal movements Continued efforts are needed as land conservation and restoration are critical to achieving economic growth. Continued efforts are needed as land conservation and restoration are critical to achieving economic growth. Attaining sustainable land management includes not only avoiding further agricultural expansion into native habitats by promoting more sustainable agricultural practices and less 16 Updated and reviewed policies and action programs include the National Strategies for Growth and Poverty Reduction (NSGRP), the National Environmental Policies (1997), the National Land Policy (1997), the National Forest Policy (1998), the Agriculture and Livestock Policy (ALP) of 1997, and the National Water Policy (2002). 17 This included the Agricultural Sector Development Strategy (ASDS) of 2001 and the Strategy for Urgent Actions on Land Degradation and Water Catchments (SUALDWC) of 2006. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 47 land-degrading activities, but also emphasizing the importance of land restoration. Efforts should focus on supporting farmers in reducing soil loss and improving soil health, and in using integrated crop, livestock and forestry management systems (box 2.3). The application of appropriate fire regimes and the development of local livestock management practices and institutions have proven successful in rangelands with traditional grazing (IPBES, 2018). When it comes to wetlands, the improved management of polluting sources and integrated landscape approaches have shown to be effective. In urban areas, the development of green infrastructure, urban spatial planning, river channel restoration, and the remediation of contaminated soils constitute effective measures (IPBES, 2018). Working closely with communities that are directly affected is fundamental when updating policies and designing on-the-ground interventions. BOX 2.3: PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT THROUGH SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE The challenge facing farmers today, and in the coming decades, is how to increase production levels to feed a rapidly growing population. Currently, agricultural expansion is the main driver of deforestation, land degradation and water use. Sustainable agricultural methods provide effective tools to strengthen food security by growing crops within the means of the local ecosystem without degrading the soil, water, and biodiversity that support that growth. There are a number of successful programs and projects in Tanzania and throughout Africa that focus on the pillars of sustainable agriculture, including: BUILDING AND MAINTAINING HEALTHY SOILS • Crop rotation, intercropping, cover crops • Agroecology (integrating livestock and crops) and agroforestry (integrating trees and shrubs into farming systems) • Integrative pest management techniques to control pests while minimizing the use of chemicals INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY AND ECONOMIC GAINS • Incentives such as providing low cost access to improved seed and livestock breeds, agricultural intensification and irrigation 48 WORLD BANK GROUP 2.4 Degradation of Water Resources Tanzania boasts multiple rivers and lakes that this stress by altering hydrological cycles, are economically and ecologically unique. Some making water availability more unpredictable, of the major lakes in Tanzania include the Lake and increasing the frequency and intensity of Victoria, the largest tropical lake in the world by floods and droughts. Damage incurred by floods extension, Lake Tanganyika, the deepest lake in is estimated at $120 billion per year globally, and Africa and the second largest freshwater body droughts disproportionately affect the rural poor, in the world by volume, or Lake Nyasa/Malawi. who depend on rainfall variability for subsistence. Important river lifelines include the Rufiji, Ruvuma, and Great Ruaha. Lakes and rivers are Tanzania is considered water- critical for the country’s economic activities such stressed, as its water resources are as fishing and farming. They are fundamental currently estimated to be less than to sustain rural livelihoods, for water supply and irrigation purposes, nutrient and sediment 1,700 m3 per capita. movement, hydropower generation, and Tanzania is no exception. There is a common transportation. They also provide the required misconception that the country has sufficient habitats for various flora and fauna. Lake and abundant water resources, given its annual Manyara, Lake Rukwa, or the Great Ruaha river, renewable water resources are estimated at are fundamental sources of water on which 96 million cubic meters per year. However, as unique, world-renowned biodiversity hotspots the country’s population and economy grow, depend. Adequate quantity and quality of water freshwater demand increases and availability per in these lake and river systems is the cornerstone person inevitably declines. Tanzania’s renewable that enables these hotspots to exist and thrive. per capita freshwater resources have declined Water is at the center of sustainable development. from more than 3,000 m3 in the nineties to around Its availability and quality are critical for 1,600 m3 in 2014, which is less than 1,700 m3 per socioeconomic development, energy and food production, job creation, healthy ecosystems, and human health. Unless the management of water resources is improved, it will be difficult 1600m3 AVERAGE WATER to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) targeting human development, livable AVAILABITY PER CAPITA cities, climate change, food security, and energy IN TANZANIA, 2014 security. TANZANIA IS CONSIDERED LESS THAN 1700m3 IS THE THRESHOLD WATER-STRESSED BELOW WHICH COUNTRY IS CONSIDERED WATER Water resources are under unprecedented STRESSED pressure worldwide, with more than 40 percent of the global population being affected by water scarcity. By 2030, it is estimated that the world Approximately 1.8 billion will be facing a 40 percent shortfall between the PEOPLE ARE PROJECTED TO BE LIVING IN AREAS WITH ABSOLUTE WATER increased demand for and available supply of SCARCITY BY 2025 WORLDWIDE water. By 2025, it is projected that approximately 1.8 billion people will be living in areas with absolute water scarcity. Climate change is compounding TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 49 capita, the threshold below which a country is water in the country’s various lakes and wetlands considered water-stressed by the United Nations are important. (World Bank, 2017b). Tanzania still has a higher per capita water resource endowment than its neighboring countries; however, it is rapidly Agriculture is the main user of water declining because of its growing population in Tanzania. (figure 2.2). In addition, water and development are unevenly distributed across Tanzania’s nine The amount of groundwater extracted in river basins. Water stress differs geographically, Tanzania is unknown but expected to be high which means that water is not always available and, in some cases, above the recharge rate. The when and where people, businesses, and the hydrogeology of Tanzania has not been thoroughly environment need it. Storage and retention of studied and therefore the quantity and quality of groundwater resources is unknown (Kashaigili, 2010). Problems associated with exploitation of FIGURE 2.2 RENEWABLE FRESHWATER water resources have already been witnessed, PER CAPITA BY COUNTRY and include depletion of the groundwater table, land salinization, groundwater contamination C U B I C M E T E R S P E R C A P I TA ( 2 0 1 4 ) 6,000 (e.g., from arsenic, fluoride, and ammonium), and 5,134 5,000 saline intrusion. Climate change impacts may put 4,000 3,686 further pressure on groundwater resources— 3,000 both directly, by affecting the recharge rates and 2,255 2,000 1,608 indirectly, by increasing groundwater demand due 1,253 450 827 946 1,004 to increased variability of precipitation. 1,000 Agriculture is the main user of water in Tanzania. Kenya South Africa Malawi Uganda Ethiopia Tanzania South Sudan Mozambique Zambia The estimates vary slightly, depending on the source, but around 89 percent of Tanzania’s water is used by the agricultural sector (to put SOURCE: WORLD BANK, 2017b this into perspective, the global average is around 70 percent). Domestic consumption uses around 10 percent, and only 1 percent is used by industry (World Bank, 2017b). FIGURE 2.3: RENEWABLE FRESHWATER The sustainable management of water resources RESOURCES PER CAPITA IN TANZANIA in Tanzania is not only threatened by depletion 3,500 of water sources, increasing competing water 3,086 demands, and climate change impacts, but also C U B I C M E T E R S P E R C A P I TA 3,000 2,655 2,500 2,326 by pollution. To date, little is known at the national 2,000 2,004 1,711 level about the quality of water resources and its 1,608 1,500 evolution over time. There are no networks and 1,000 1,400 only limited control points, making systematic 500 assessments challenging. More information is needed on the effects of concentrations of organic 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 matter resulting from industrial discharges, fertilizers and pesticides (associated with poor F R E S H W AT E R P E R P E R S O N farming practices), and other sources of pollution. Artisanal mining, often unregulated, inefficient, C O M M O N D E F I N I T I O N O F ' W AT E R S T R E S S ' and marked by poor or inexistent handling and SOURCE: WORLD BANK, 2017b disposal of effluents, uses high concentrations of 50 WORLD BANK GROUP significantly toxic substances, such as mercury and cyanides (see also section 3.3). Some of these BOX 2.4: THE COMPETING WATER NEEDS OF THE bio-accumulate and increase their concentration GREAT RUAHA RIVER along the food chain. The Great Ruaha River once flowed year-round, feeding the Ruaha National Park, one of the last Tanzania’s limited water resources strongholds of major elephant and lion populations in Africa, before flowing into the Mtera-Kidatu will come under further pressure as hydropower system (which constitutes around demand increases with a rapidly growing 50 percent of the country’s installed hydropower capacity). population and high urbanization rates. Large, unregulated water abstraction for agricultural irrigation upstream caused the river to start drying Projections show that per capita availability of up a few weeks per year in the 90s. The situation, water resources will continue to decrease, and today, is dramatic, with up to several months of water quality may deteriorate because of both zero-flows in the river, causing disease and death natural and human pressures. Generally, river of animals in the park (with consequent impacts on tourism, a key source of income for the country), flows and lake levels in Tanzania are declining. and significant challenges to electricity production This is reportedly due to a range of natural and in the dam (World Bank, 2015c). man-made factors such as declining rainfall, unsustainable water uses (e.g., operational rules at hydropower plants and over abstraction of rivers), and unsustainable agricultural expansion (2030 WRG, 2014). It is estimated that by 2025, water availability in Tanzania will be 1,400 m3 per capita, only slightly above the 1,000 m3 per capita—the internationally accepted threshold for absolute scarcity (figure 2.3). Tanzania’s limited water resources will come under further pressure as demand increases with the rapidly growing population and high urbanization rates. The population is projected to more than triple by 2050 and domestic water use is set to Satellite picture of water uses and widespread irrigation consumption in the Ihefu Wetlands, upstream Ruaha National Park significantly rise. In addition, the experience of many other countries shows that as the quantity of water becomes stressed, the quality deteriorates more rapidly because multiple users compete to extract the most from the water they have (World Bank, 2017b). The Great Ruaha River is running dry several months a year due to unregulated water abstraction upstream (box 2.4), and key watersheds that act as supply sources for Dar es Salaam such as the Pagani or Wami Ruvu, are under stress due to periodic shortages and water quality challenges. As the city continues to grow and demand for human consumption increases, the use of water resources in these basins will Ruaha National Park (left, forested side of the picture) and rice paddy plots (right side of the picture) have to be significantly improved. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 51 IMPROVED PLANNING, will significantly upgrade water management. MANAGEMENT, AND MONITORING LGAs play a central role in WRM and development in their areas of jurisdiction. However, said role TO PROMOTE SUSTAINABILITY is not explicitly emphasized under the existing Tanzania has a comprehensive regulatory framework and consequently, most LGAs regard framework related to water resources WRM as the responsibility of BWBs. Given the management (WRM). This framework includes the technical and financial challenges of BWBs, National Water Policy (2002), the Water Resources WRM functions are best implemented by legally Management Act (2009), and several policies and allocating distinct, but mutually reinforcing roles to laws for water-related sectors (wetlands, lands, various levels of government. Insufficient staffing, forestry, fisheries, agriculture, livestock, and especially at the BWBs and LGAs, limits the ability energy). An important principle of the water policy to deal with water allocation, monitoring, and is the requirement that each basin (the country development. Areas that require strengthening has been divided into nine of them), catchment, include monitoring, financial management, and sub-catchment prepare an integrated water environmental management and social sciences, resources management plan (IWRMP) and that conflict resolution, and transboundary waters. all water uses within that geographical space Several committees, associations, and community comply with said plan. The 2009 Act is at the groups have been established at the village level18 core of WRM in Tanzania, and its objective is to deal with WRM. ‘‘to ensure that the nation’s water resources are Noncompliance with water permit regulations protected, used, developed, conserved, managed occurs frequently and is caused by inadequate and controlled to meet the basic human needs technical and financial capacity of the BWBs, of present and future generations‘‘. The Ministry inadequate water users’ awareness of their rights of Water (MoW) has the legal mandate for core and obligations under the Act, lenient penalty WRM tasks, while the authority for planning, structures that are insufficient to deter offenders, monitoring, and enforcement is devolved to the weak water user associations unable to monitor nine basin water boards (BWBs). illegal water use, and the limited availability of Improvements to the regulatory framework, such monitoring networks and information systems. as specifying the role of LGAs and creating stronger implementation and enforcement mechanisms 18 These include land committees, forest committees, environmental committees, and water management committees. 52 WORLD BANK GROUP Improved government intersectoral particularly given the government’s ambitious coordination for planning, management, plans to duplicate the extension of land under and monitoring of water resources will cultivation, large gains in efficiency will need to be achieved to secure sufficient allocation be needed to ensure the sustainability for other uses (hydropower production, water of the country’s water resources. supply, industrialization, ecological flows). With such increasing competing water demands, Robust data on water availability, water use, and environmental flows will need to be carefully water quality are indispensable to plan effectively captured in water allocation processes. Rivers for the future. Reliable and objective information with sufficient flow will have to provide water about the state of water resources, and their use for ecosystems; wetlands and estuaries should and management are often limited or unavailable. be able to maintain a minimum flow volume to There is inadequate technical capacity and perform their natural functions; underground financing at the BWBs to operate water resources aquifers need to be recharged at least to a balance monitoring networks and regulate water point if they are to be used sustainably; and lakes resources. There are also gaps in the availability must maintain their volume and extension to of hardware and software for collection and continue to provide services. management of hydrometeorological data. According to the MoW, the country’s estimated 500 operating rainfall stations, 60 climatic stations, 12 agrometeorological stations, 2 marine BOX 2.5: WATER PRICING weather stations, and 2 radar stations are only partly operational (due to equipment breakdown, Efficient water pricing can increase the vandalism, and poor maintenance) and most sustainability of the water supply by creating catchments within basins lack gauging stations incentives for saving water and disincentives for (MoW, 2014). There is also an overall lack of water wasting it. quality monitoring. Most of the basins lack water There is considerable scope for progress in pollution control programs for effectively abating Tanzania, as water is currently sold at a rate far point and non-point pollution sources. below its value. In fact, bulk water costs are so low that running a tap for an entire year would cost Improved government intersectoral coordination around $2.60. for planning, management, and monitoring of water resources will be needed to ensure the sustainability of the country’s water resources. Tanzania’s WRM institutions need to strengthen coordination based on more and higher-quality information, capacity, resources, and authority on the one hand, and investment prioritization through budgetary allocations and multisectoral planning on the other hand. Water pricing will need to meet Tanzania’s social, environmental, and economic objectives (box 2.5). Major water users—such as agriculture, energy, environment, fisheries, livestock, and industry—should play a major role in WRM and ensure that during the preparation of their respective sector development plans, a thorough consultation and SOURCE: WORLD BANK, 2017b coordination process takes place. As the agricultural sector continues to expand, TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 53 2.5 Loss of Biodiversity Tanzania is one of the most biodiverse countries 3 marine parks, 15 marine reserves, and multiple in the world. The country has a variety of forest reserves and woodlands, of great ecological, ecosystems including rivers, mountains, social, and economic importance to the country, wetlands, drylands, grassland savannahs, coastal and providing life-enabling ecosystem services to and marine ecosystems, islands and sandbanks. the country’s population. Hundreds of endemic species and subspecies of Large numbers of tourists visit Tanzania each primates, antelopes, reptiles, amphibians, and year to experience the country’s wildlife. The invertebrates thrive in these ecosystems, as well number of international visitors has significantly as over 11,000 species of plants, mostly endemic increased over the past two decades, reaching (IUCN, 2017). The Eastern Arc Mountain forests over 1.2 million in 2016 (figure 2.4). The direct for example are an area of high endemism, with GDP contribution of travel and tourism, which is about 100 vertebrates that can only be found largely nature-based, stood at about 5 percent there. Recognizing this wealth, about a third of the in 2016, while its total contribution was about 13 country’s total area is officially under protection, percent in the same year (WTCC, 2017). Tourism one of the world’s highest ratios. Tanzania boasts continues to be a critical component of Tanzania’s 19 national parks, including the world-renowned economic strategy, and the sector’s contribution Serengeti National Park, the Kilimanjaro National to GDP is expected to continue to grow (WTTC, Park, and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, the 2017). The sector also accounted for over 21 three of which are United Nations Educational, percent of total export earnings in 2016. In Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) terms of employment, travel and tourism’s direct World Heritage Sites and in most people’s bucket contribution to employment was about 4 percent, list to visit. It is also home to the Ruaha National and total contribution nearly 12 percent (WTTC, Park—the largest national park in East Africa. 2017). In addition, Tanzania hosts 25 game reserves including the Selous Game Reserve, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site and Africa’s largest game reserve. The country has further established 54 WORLD BANK GROUP FIGURE 2.4: NUMBER OF INTERNATIONAL VISITORS TO TANZANIA 1,400,000 N U M B E R O F I N T E R N AT I O N A L V I S I T O R S 1,200,000 1,000,000 800,000 600,000 400,000 200,000 1995 1996 1997 2001 2008 2009 2010 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 SOURCE: WORLD BANK, 2018b IN LINE WITH GLOBAL TRENDS, PRESSURES ON BIODIVERSITY HAVE FIGURE 2.5 OVERVIEW OF IUCN RED LIST BEEN INCREASING IN TANZANIA CATEGORIES - TOTAL FOR SELECT AFRICAN NATIONS Habitat degradation, fragmentation and destruction, invasive species, overexploitation 800 747 of biological resources, and pollution, have been 700 on the rise worldwide, including in Tanzania N U M B E R O F S P E C I E S U N D E R T H R E AT (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological 600 Diversity, 2010). Despite the country’s efforts 511 500 under various international instruments to 449 reverse these trends,19 increasing pressures on 400 and threats to biodiversity are gradually driving 300 species to extinction. According to the IUCN Red 262 List of Threatened Species (IUCN, 2018), Tanzania 200 202 157 has the second highest number of threatened 100 species in Africa with 511 (figure 2.5). Between 1996 and 2018, the number of mammals and 0 reptiles under threat increased substantially Madagascar Tanzania South Africa Kenya Mozambique Uganda (figure 2.6). SOURCE: IUCN, 2018 19 Tanzania is party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), NOTE: the categories summarized are: Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Critically Endangered, Endangered, and Vulnerable. Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Convention on Migration Species (CMS), the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, and the World Heritage Convention. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 55 Biodiversity loss degrades and disrupts a broad FIGURE 2.6 COMPARISON OF NUMBER OF THREATENED SPECIES IN TANZANIA range of services on which people, particularly 1996 2018 the poor, depend for their livelihoods, since rich biodiversity and diverse ecosystems supply food, 200 water, energy, health, and other livelihood options. 180 179 Climate change is expected to exhacerbate these NUMBER OF SPECIES 160 140 136 negative impacts. Even if the Paris Agreement 2°C 120 target is met, some of the world’s most naturally 100 rich areas, including the Miombo Woodlands in 80 Southern Africa, are at risk of losing about 25 61 60 41 49 46 percent of their species (Warren et al., 2018). 40 33 34 30 20 19 4 0 Tanzania has the second highest 0 Mammals Birds Reptiles* Amphibians Fishes* Other Invertebrates number of threatened species in Africa with 511. SOURCE: IUCN, 2018 NOTE: The species have been grouped by taxonomic groups between 1996-2018. *These groups have not been fully assessed. Their number is based on those that have been assessed so far (applies only to the 2017 data). BOX 2.6: THE RUFIJI HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PROJECT IN THE SELOUS GAME RESERVE With a view to meeting the country’s energy needs, Tanzania is planning to double its electricity generation through the construction of the Rufiji hydro-electric power project. The hydropower dam, which would generate a lake spanning approximately 1,500 km2, is planned to be built in the Selous Game Reserve. This reserve is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and home to elephants, rhinos, lions, giraffes, and other species, constituting the world’s largest game reserve and one of the last remaining wilderness in Africa. The project will dam the Rufiji river in the area known as Stiegler’s Gorge. The Rufiji river forms the largest of Tanzania’s river basins, covering around 184,000km2 (about 20 percent of Tanzania’s area and 30 percent of its water runoff). Despite its envisaged positive contribution to Tanzania’s electricity production capacity, the project is likely to have significant impacts on the Selous Game Reserve during the construction period (both direct and indirect), and thereafter through improved access roads, power lines, and human presence. The reservoir is also expected to affect downstream water flows as it will trap large amounts of sediment and nutrients which are currently deposited downstream and in the Rufiji delta. Changing flows will in turn affect downstream livelihoods and sensitive environmental sites—for example, a recent report has estimated potential downstream impacts on the livelihoods of about 200,000 people who depend on the natural river regime for their subsistence (UNESCO, 2018). For these types of large infrastructure investments, state-of-the-art Strategic Environmental and Social Assessments need to be carried out, and it becomes crucial that they are implemented with high standards, to mitigate potential impacts as much as possible. 56 WORLD BANK GROUP HABITAT DEGRADATION AND use of unsustainable agricultural practices, as OVEREXPLOITATION OF ANIMAL well as the harvesting of forestry and other environmental products have reduced or are SPECIES AMONG DRIVING FORCES threatening the habitat available to wildlife. The largest threat to biodiversity is the Human expansion into natural areas for conversion, degradation, fragmentation, infrastructure contributes to the conversion, and loss of natural ecosystems. Tanzania’s loss, degradation, and fragmentation of growing population increasingly requires natural ecosystems. Conflicts for water and natural resources to support its subsistence land between pastoralists and farmers also and economic needs. Population density and frequently lead to additional land degradation growth rates are high around many protected and habitat loss. The Selous Game Reserve, areas, where some of the country’s poorest one of the world’s last remaining wilderness, communities have settled. This may well be represents an example of where infrastructure because the availability of resources around projects such as uranium mining, potential oil protected areas attracts individuals who have and gas concessions, or the construction of the few other employment opportunities (World Rufiji hydro-electric project, are threatening Bank, 2015c). Agricultural expansion and the the ecosystem (box 2.6). Tanzania lost two-thirds of its elephant population in a period of only five years: from about 109,000 in 2009 to about 43,000 in 2014. Driven by the demand for ivory, poaching has significantly reduced Tanzania’s elephant herds. Tanzania lost two-thirds of its elephant population in a period of only five years: from about 109,000 in 2009 to 43,000 in 2014 (EIA, 2014). Most of this decline in the elephant population, around 60 to 90 percent, was attributed to poaching in wildlife reserves (EIA, 2014), with the Mikumi- Selous ecosystem registering the highest decline. The situation in Tanzania is worse than that of its regional neighbors—Rwanda, Uganda, and Kenya—where elephant populations have remained stable or even increased since 2006 (CITES, 2017). A study using DNA methods to assign population of origin for 28 large ivory seizures made in Asia and Africa found that most came from South East Tanzania (Wasser et al., 2015). South Eastern Tanzania and northern Mozambique were considered major poaching hotspots and critical components of the global illegal ivory trade. Harvesting wildlife for meat is widespread, particularly around national parks. The wildlife TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 57 that resides in and around protected areas MAINSTREAMING CONSERVATION provides readily accessible protein to the rural population living there. Primarily motivated by INTO DEVELOPMENT OPERATIONS subsistence needs, bushmeat is an essential Increased financial resource allocations are source of protein of the diet of the rural poor living needed toward effective conservation. Tanzania’s close to protected areas. adherence to international conventions and Illegal wildlife trade (IWT) of animal parts and other instruments has helped the country to trophies is also severely affecting other animal mobilize resources. These instruments are populations, driving some of them toward critical to consolidating the financial, staffing, endangered status. This is the case, for example, and technological resources the country needs to of the pangolin, which is illegally sold in China as reverse its biodiversity loss trend (Debonnet and traditional medicine because of the belief that Nindi 2017), and allow the setting of ambitious its scales have special properties. Aggressive biodiversity targets to ensure sustainable commerce of pangolin has driven all eight species utilization and sound conservation.20 Despite to the brink of extinction. The Oxford Martin political commitment, conservation efforts are Program on the IWT estimates that “the illegal highly underfunded. In total funding, Tanzania and unsustainable wildlife trade is a major and only received about $176/km2, compared to South growing threat to biodiversity, estimated to be Africa with $3,014/km2, Kenya with $1,688/km2, worth $8–10 billion (excluding fish and timber), Malawi with $690/km2, and Uganda with $418/ making it one of the highest valued illicit trade km2 (Lindsey et al., 2018). Given the exceptionally sectors in the world.” large contribution of land to conservation in The Government of Tanzania is devoting Tanzania, additional donor support is needed to significant efforts to the fight against poaching help fill these gaps. Without significant funding and IWT, and a reduction of poaching incidences increases, protected areas will struggle to fulfill is already apparent. Under the auspices of the their ecological, economic, or social objectives Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (Lindsey et al., 2018). (MNRT), the staff of the three main institutions Higher investments in conservation will pay off in charge of conservation—the Tanzania National in the form of increased tourism revenue for the Parks Authority (TANAPA), the Tanzania country. Facing competition from agriculture Wildlife Authority (TAWA), and the Ngorongoro and other land uses, the pressure on protected Conservation Area Authority (NCAA)—have been areas to provide economic returns is growing. transformed into “paramilitary” officials, after Given the high rate of population growth, it is receiving intensive training and serious capacity prudent that protected areas be well managed building efforts around anti-poaching. The MNRT to provide support to wildlife species and their has also set up a dedicated wildlife crime unit, which habitats, whilst also ensuring they encourage operates with the National and Transnational the development and bring about benefits to Serious Crimes Investigation Unit (NTSCIU). By surrounding communities. For instance, investing using an integrated multi-agency approach to in the protected areas in the Southern Circuit to wildlife protection, the NTSCIU investigates and open tourism opportunities is a step in the right prosecutes environmental crimes. Efforts include direction to generate funds that can be used to intelligence-based tactics to uncover criminal protect wildlife biodiversity in these areas. It is syndicates, the implementation of sniffer dogs at equally important to support the livelihoods of the ports and airports, and training for investigation surrounding communities, creating employment and prosecution of IWT cases. Positive results are noted, with both TANAPA and TAWA reporting 20 For example, under the auspices of the Convention on Biological decreases in the incidence of poaching. Diversity (CBD), Tanzania has committed to 20 ambitious Aichi Biodiversity Targets through the National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan (2015–20) to address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss (URT 2015). 58 WORLD BANK GROUP and economic opportunities in activities that plans, environmental education and awareness drive them away from intensive and unsustainable programs, or the promotion of environmental natural resources use. Beyond investments that offsets to counterbalance specific impacts generate economic opportunities, complex land caused by infrastructure. management, land tenure issues, and building While tourism provides important benefits to resilience to climate change need to be addressed. the Tanzanian economy, its proceeds do not Mainstreaming conservation into the design adequately trickle down to local communities. and operation of infrastructure projects can Creating strategic policies and economic both substantially reduce the associated cost incentives that enhance local capacity for to and impact on the environment and facilitate providing goods and services to the tourism conservation. The use of sustainable designs, industry will promote a more equitable sharing innovative engineering construction and of revenue. Namibia is internationally recognized operational techniques, can reduce the affected for its successfully implemented community- area, minimize the extend of unavoidable based conservation model. By empowering impacts, and mitigate the remaining impacts. communities to manage the country’s natural Additional actions that can be integrated into resources, supported by legislation that created infrastructure projects should be based in the linkages between conservation and economic "avoid, minimize, mitigate, compensate" principle, opportunity, Namibia was able to significantly and could include restoring affected areas, increase its wildlife numbers and benefits from preparation of endangered species conservation tourism (box 2.7). BOX 2.7: NAMIBIA’S SUCCESS WITH SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY-BASED WILDLIFE CONSERVATION In 1990, when Namibia became independent, the country’s wildlife numbers were at historical lows. Wildlife was a state-controlled asset which local communities did not benefit from. Human-wildlife conflict was prevalent. However, in 1996, the government took the strategic decision to pass legislation, the Nature Conservation Act, which legally authorized communities to manage their own local natural resources including wildlife and benefit from it. Under the Act, communities can establish and register a communal conservancy, and generate income from it through for example tourism, trophy hunting, harvesting, and marketing natural products. Communal conservancies are self-governing, democratic entities, run by their members with fixed boundaries, recognized but not governed by the government. Today, Namibia has about 80 registered conservancies covering nearly 20 percent of the country. This community-based natural resources management model allowed wildlife numbers to recover, and now the country has some of the largest free roaming black rhino and cheetah populations worldwide. Wildlife is seen as an economic asset to be managed, as communities are benefiting from it. Conservancy activities have become a major source of income for communities in the form of cash, employment and others. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 59 2.6 Degradation of Freshwater and Marine Fisheries Fisheries play an important social, economic, and a vital source of food security, employment and nutritional role. The fisheries sector in Tanzania income, and, combined with agriculture, is a directly employs over 200,000 fishers, and another mainstay of livelihoods. 4 million people are obtaining an income through Approximately 10 million people depend directly fisheries-related jobs such as boatbuilding or fish on the integrity of coastal and marine natural processing (MALF, 2016). About 363,000 metric resources for their livelihoods. Most communities tons of capture fisheries products were produced along Tanzania’s 1,424 km coastline are engaged in 2016, with most of the production coming from in fishing to some extent. The country has rich inland fisheries (85 percent) (MALF, 2016). The fishing grounds, where more than 1,755 species fisheries sector contributes about 2 percent to have been recorded, of which 46 are commercially GDP, while the fishery industry accounts for about important (Froese and Pauly, 2019). Marine 10 percent by value of national exports (Economic fisheries primarily occur within 40 miles of the Survey Report 2016 in MALF, 2016). While this coast, using handlines, gillnets, and drag nets, and contribution may appear limited, the sector is in water depths of less than 500 meters. BOX 2.8 TANZANIA AND THE GREAT LAKES Tanzania is the only African country where all three of the African Great Lakes—Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyassa/Malawi —are found. These are some of the largest lakes in the world and they contain the largest numbers of endemic fish species. At the same time, these lakes are a prime example of how pressures on natural resources mount with an increasing population, both in terms of increasing pollution loads within the lake basins and direct pressure on the important fisheries that these lakes sustain. The Lake Victoria Basin is a major population center in Africa, home to around 35 percent of the East African Community (EAC) population, even though it covers less than 12 percent of the EAC’s land area. The basin would be the 6th largest country in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with over 46 million inhabitants, and its mean population density is an order of magnitude higher than that of SSA as a whole. 50 percent of the basin’s population (around 23 million)—approximately 32 percent of EAC’s total poor population—are living on less than $1.25/day. The poor are concentrated in the densely settled areas (especially uplands) and around lake shores (drawn by fishery opportunities). Given these high numbers, the importance of thriving ecosystems and a healthy lake cannot be overstated. 60 WORLD BANK GROUP Inland freshwater bodies comprise about 37 and Zanzibar encompass about 15 percent of the percent of Tanzania’s land area and support country’s land area and are home to approximately both domestic consumption and international 25 percent of the population, which is growing exports. Tanzania has thirteen major lakes, at a steeper rate than the rest of the country. including the Lake Victoria, Lake Nyasa/Malawi, Environmental degradation coupled with pollution and Lake Tanganyika. Lake Victoria is the along the coastlines and in the marine areas second largest freshwater body in the world (box 2.9), together with a decline in biodiversity, and supports the largest fishery in the country are both evidenced by decreasing yields of fish, and one of the largest in East Africa, with deteriorating conditions of coral reefs, and a fishing operations ranging from small-scale steady reduction of the coastal areas covered by subsistence fishing to large-scale operators mangroves and forests. Inland, Lake Victoria’s selling both locally and internationally. Poverty watershed has one of the highest population levels are high around Lake Victoria, with most densities in the world. The Basin’s population people relying on the basin’s natural resources has grown from 35 million in 2006 to 45 million for their livelihoods (box 2.8). in 2017. Urbanization is driving populations to cities along the lakeshore, with the population ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION, of Mwanza, for example, having increased by OVERFISHING, AND THE USE OF 40 percent in the 10-year period of 2002–12. Pollution from industrial and agricultural sources ILLEGAL, DESTRUCTIVE FISHING has increased, as their waste is discharged METHODS ARE THREATENING untreated into the lakes, degrading water quality TANZANIA’S FISHERIES and affecting aquatic life. Water pollution is further exacerbated by the high sediment load caused by unchecked erosion in upper catchments Inland pollution and degradation of coastal and the discharge of untreated municipal and and aquatic environments are threatening the industrial waste associate with unsustainable sustainability of Tanzania’s fisheries resources, land management, rural subsistence livelihoods, and their capacity to provide food and generate and dense population centers. income. The coastal areas of mainland Tanzania BOX 2.9: MARINE LITTER AND PLASTIC POLLUTION Marine pollution comes from a wide variety of sources, from non-point sources (e.g., agriculture) to point sources such as wastewater, solid waste, and lost fishing gear. There are currently an estimated 150 million metric tons of plastics in the oceans worldwide, with 5 to 13 million metric tons added every year. Marine plastic pollution has become a global concern. International institutions, countries, and multiple non-governmental organizations recognize the severity of this issue, and the European Union, G20 and G7 have made specific commitments and/ or adopted action-plans on combatting marine litter. Marine pollution and marine plastics have adverse impacts on fish populations, coral reefs, ocean health, and possibly human health, food chains and other essential economic and social systems, as they have on human livelihoods through tourism, fisheries, and access to water. Solutions to tackle this global issue require new policies, behavior change by consumers and industries, investments, innovation and private sector interventions, customized to each country and with an essential role given to communities. Detailed data on marine litter is limited in Tanzania. There is a need for baseline studies to identify the sources and pathways of plastic pollution, policy reviews toward strengthening the regulatory framework, and establishing a circular economy by reducing, recycling, and reusing plastic waste. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 61 Overfishing, both by industrial vessels and by with growing pressure from coastal communities uncontrolled small-scale fishing, progressively increase the occurrence of illegal, unreported, and undermines the resource base that many poor unregulated fishing, which in turn might further communities depend on. While Lake Victoria- deplete stocks and incur in further revenue loss for wide Nile perch production was estimated at the country. 400,000–500,000 metric tons in the 1990s and early 2000s, the catch has probably declined to about 230,000 metric tons (MALF, 2016). ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOOD Several fish-processing factories have closed, and OPPORTUNITIES ARE NECESSARY TO fishing is shifting to lower-value species and local REDUCE PRESSURE ON FISHERIES markets. Similarly, marine fisheries have declined, and there is evidence of fishermen noting poor The development of the fisheries sector faces catches and smaller fish. There is little room for several constraints on harnessing its full potential. expanding capture fisheries production, as more These need to be tackled by strengthening the fishing effort is unlikely to increase catches. Some legal and institutional frameworks; developing increase may be gained from fishing deeper ocean human capacity and infrastructure; establishing waters and from improved efficiency in the smaller strategic coordination between the mainland pelagic fisheries. The limited potential of many and Zanzibar legislations, policies, and programs; coastal fisheries requires that fishing efforts be improving knowledge of the environmental, social, reduced to become sustainable. and economic state of the fisheries; improving the business climate and raising private investments; Overfishing, both by industrial vessels and improving maritime safety. and by uncontrolled small-scale fishing, progressively undermines the resource base that many poor communities depend on. Pressure from overfishing and the use of destructive fishing methods have greatly undermined the marine ecology and changed species composition. Destructive fishing techniques, such as blast fishing or beach seines, have significantly contributed to degrading fish habitats and ecosystems (box 2.10). It is estimated that about a third of regional marine fish stocks are overexploited or depleted, while a further 40 percent are fully exploited. About 20 percent of the Lake Victoria Basin’s 651 freshwater species are currently threatened with extinction. Of the 204 fish that are endemic to Lake Victoria, 76 percent are presently at risk of extinction. Many of these species are important to local livelihoods as they provide food and generate income. The country is implementing measures to better monitor, control, and surveil its vast resources, but many challenges related to limited funding, staffing, equipment, and others remain. The difficulty of monitoring compliance coupled 62 WORLD BANK GROUP Over 10 million constraints. Knowledge and capacity gaps, combined with deficient transportation, storage, PEOPLE DIRECTLY DEPEND ON THE and processing facilities and markets limit the INTREGITY OF COASTAL AND MARINE sector’s potential development. RESOURCES FOR THEIR LIVELIHOODS Part of the domestic demand not covered by capture fishery can be supplemented by aquaculture activities. Tanzania’s aquaculture sector remains underdeveloped and has significant potential for expansion in both small-scale inland ponds and coastal locations. There are sufficient As Tanzania approaches, or even surpasses, water resources in many areas to support fish the sustainable limit of exploiting its fisheries production. Policy and technical support of resources, attention needs to be shifted toward programs that encourage smallholders to work alternative livelihood opportunities in post- together will empower communities and give harvest value added, aquaculture, and recreational access to larger markets. Seaweed cultivation is fisheries or other sectors. There is large potential also growing and over 15,000 women are engaged for increasing the efficiency of current systems in this activity, producing 5,000 metric tons (dry and for value addition, rather than continue weight) per year. Capacity building, investments increasing the fishing effort. Post-harvest in infrastructure, inputs, and technology, and losses amount to 20 percent of the total catch reliable access to finance are fundamental for this due to insufficient infrastructure and capacity sector to realize its potential. BOX 2.10: SUCCESSFUL ERADICATION OF BLAST-FISHING IN TANZANIA Blast-fishing refers to the use of explosives to kill or stun fish, for food. Globally, it has mostly been prevalent in south-east Asia, notably the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. In the western Indian Ocean, the only country where the practice has significantly taken root is Tanzania. Blast-fishing in Tanzania dates from the mid-1960s and was first made illegal in the Fisheries Act of 1970. Nonetheless, blast-fishing became increasingly widespread during the 1980s and 1990s, causing significant damage to coral reef habitats and fish communities (Bryceson, 1978; UNEP, 1989). Blast-fishing was successfully suppressed for a 5-year period (from 1998–2002), thanks to government enforcement action led by the Tanzania Navy, with support of project-based initiatives in Mtwara, Tanga, and Mafia Island. As those initiatives wound down, blast-fishing resurged from 2002 onward along the entire mainland coast, particularly around the urban centers of Tanga, Dar es Salaam, Lindi, and Mtwara. By 2014–15, when monitoring initiatives started, sites in Kilwa and Mtwara, for example, were averaging 10–20 blasts per day, with a high of 90 recorded blasts in a single day in Songosongo Islands (Rubens, 2016). The period 2015–16 witnessed several turning points, including the establishment of a government Multi-Agency Task Team (MATT) on environmental crime in June 2015 under the leadership of the Tanzania Police; related enforcement capacity building; and the announcement of a zero-tolerance policy by the government in August 2016. A series of interventions followed along the mainland coast over a 16-month period. By December 2017, the incidence of blast- fishing had been reduced by 88 percent since the peak levels during mid-2016 (Tanzania Blast Monitoring Network). Interventions ranged from public assertions of authorities by national, regional, and district leaders to intelligence- led enforcement operations by relevant national agencies, with financial support from the government and the World Bank through the South West Indian Ocean Fisheries Governance and Shared Growth (SWIOFish) Project. A highly destructive and illegal fishing practice that had flourished for most of the past 50 years, has been brought under control, at least for the time being. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 63 If Tanzania is to sustain growth and development monitoring, control and surveillance, patrolling, in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors, it is and data on fishing statistics. important to protect the natural resource base Greater regional cooperation will be needed on which these depend. Efficient management, to reinforce sustainable growth in the sector. supervision, and enforcement of legislation to avoid Tanzania’s fisheries sector is part of an even larger overexploitation and destruction of the aquatic marine ecosystem—the South West Indian Ocean. resource base in the country are mandatory. A The whole region can benefit from activities that good example on how this can be achieved is given help protect and sustain that sector. Regional by the government's aforementioned success in coordination is therefore essential to ensure that effectively combatting blast fishing (box 2.10). the responsibilities and benefits are shared by the Investments to help strengthen the country’s countries concerned. This is especially relevant capacity to sustainably manage priority fisheries for highly migratory species such as tuna and can further increase productivity and foreseeable tuna-like, where one large stock migrates from opportunities for adding value in the sector for country to country. Integrated management the benefit of the national economy. of these stocks at the regional level is crucial As fisheries are not considered a Union matter, to prevent overfishing, and Tanzania is part of mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar manage their regional bodies and treaties that facilitate this fisheries resources separately. The Deep Sea regional integration (such as the Indian Ocean Fishing Authority (DSFA) is responsible for Tuna Commission). Furthermore, countries can the management of fisheries in the country’s profit from economies of scale through a more Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), including the cohesive approach in terms of monitoring, control issuing of tuna fishing licenses to foreign vessels. and surveillance, joint patrolling, and safety Coordination between mainland and Zanzibar at sea. A more regionally coordinated fisheries legislations and programs on fisheries must also sector can likewise provide platforms for sharing be improved, for example by defining common of knowledge and technology, which can help management measures of shared stocks (a prime countries address national constraints and other example is the anchovy fishery, whose stocks issues that significantly affect the region. are shared by both), sharing information on 64 WORLD BANK GROUP 2.7 Climate Change and Tanzania’s development Tanzania is highly vulnerable to climate change, Temperatures are rising. Past climate records imposing an additional risk to already stressed show an increasing trend in average annual natural resources. As temperatures continue to temperature for Tanzania (figure 2.7). This is rise globally, drought conditions that already affect consistent with the latest Intergovernmental Tanzania are likely to become worse, affecting Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Report, which water availability. Erratic rainfall patterns and establishes that temperatures in Africa, including higher frequency of intense rainfalls with large East Africa, have seen an increase in seasonal inter-seasonal variability will affect smallholder mean values in many areas. Projections of future farmers, pastoralists and local economies. Over temperatures vary across the different models, the long term, sea level rise threatens coastal but there is strong agreement that temperatures areas and infrastructure. Climate change is a will continue to increase. The URT-VPO (2014a) “multiplier” of existing challenges, as its effects cut projects that temperatures across Tanzania will across all aspects of natural resource productivity increase by 2100, though to varying degrees. and management. Efforts to promote climate Temperatures are projected to increase by up resilience in key natural asset–based sectors to 3.28°C in the northern coast regions and will be essential to protect rural livelihoods, food northeastern highlands, by up to 3.3°C in the security, jobs, and economic growth. Fortunately, Lake Victoria zone, and by up to 3.18°C in the the cost of investments in climate resilience are southern coast. Temperature increases will be lower than the cost of disaster recovery and fully most pronounced in the southwestern highlands aligned with good development practices. (up to +3.4°C). FIGURE 2.7: AVERAGE ANNUAL TEMPERATURE FOR TANZANIA 23.6 23.4 23.2 23 T E M P E R AT U R E ( 0 C ) ℃ 22.8 22.6 22.4 22.2 22 21.8 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 SOURCE: Author’s own analysis using data from the WBG Climate Change Knowledge Portal. Dataset produced by the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) of the University of East Anglia TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 65 FIGURE 2.8 AVERAGE MONTHLY TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL FOR TANZANIA 200 30 180 25 160 140 20 T E M P E R AT U R E ( 0 C ) 120 R A I N FA L L ( M M ) 100 15 80 10 60 40 5 20 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 MONTHS P R E C I P I TAT I O N 1 9 0 1 - 1 9 2 5 P R E C I P I TAT I O N 1 9 9 1 - 2 0 1 5 SOURCE: Author’s own analysis using data from the WBG Climate Change T E M P E R AT U R E 1 9 0 1 - 1 9 2 5 Knowledge Portal. Dataset produced by the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) of T E M P E R AT U R E 1 9 9 1 - 2 0 1 5 the University of East Anglia Precipitation is expected to change, but to what coast zones, even though to a lesser extent (URT- extent is uncertain. Historical records point at VPO, 2014a). decreasing trends nationally for mean annual Extreme weather events are becoming more rainfall and increasing dry spells (figure 2.8). Parts frequent, and they need to be considered during of northeast and southern Tanzania have become strategic planning. As climate evolves, an drier, central Tanzania has become moderately overall increase in the frequency and intensity wetter, and the northwest has been experiencing of heatwaves is expected. The number of days stronger wet trends. While precipitation is exceeding 35°C, signifying heat stress, is predicted increasingly unpredictable, projections suggest to increase. There will also be a higher likelihood some parts of the country may experience an of dry spells and intense rainfall events is also increase in mean annual rainfall of up to 18-28 expected, as well as higher potential for flooding. percent by 2100, especially pronounced over the Lake Victoria Basin and North-Eastern Highlands Climate change is already having significant with up to 28.3 percent, and 16.3 percent, impacts on marine and coastal ecosystems respectively. An increase in mean annual rainfall in Tanzania and on related fisheries. Impacts is also projected in the south western highlands of climate change on fisheries can be grouped and western zones, and the north and southern into: acidification, sea level rise, higher water 66 WORLD BANK GROUP temperatures, and changes in ocean currents. concentration (Representative Concentration While our understanding is constantly improving, Pathways (RCP) 8.5), areas classified as these impacts, however, are unequally known and drylands in East and Central Africa are likely hard to model, both in terms of scope—where they to be 20 percent larger by 2050 (Cervigni and will occur and where they will be felt the most—and Morris, 2016; World Bank, 2017c). Under these severity. Impacts will be felt at two fundamental scenarios, rain-fed agriculture will be affected. levels: first on fish stocks themselves, and second, Some places will experience more rainfall than and perhaps more important, on the critical usual, while other areas might experience longer marine and coastal ecosystems fish depend on. dry spells punctuated by intense rainfall (World Bank, 2015a). Pastoralists will also be adversely The agriculture sector will be affected by affected, being forced to move to other areas in changing weather patterns. Using Coupled Model search of greener pastures, adding to possible Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) data land conflicts. Projections show that a 2°C under the scenario of fastest growth of GHG increase in temperature by 2050 will reduce yields of important grain crops—such as maize, sorghum, and rice—by 13 percent, 8.8 percent, and 7.6 percent respectively (Rowhani et al., 2011). BOX 2.11: INCREASING CLIMATE RESILIENCE IN AGRICULTURE Further, temperature increase and erratic rainfall both cause increases in pests and diseases, and a Climate-smart agriculture is an approach to developing the necessary technologies, policies, shortening of the growing seasons. and investments to achieve sustainable agricultural Wildlife will be affected by climate change and development for food security under climate thus translate into impacts on the tourism sector. change. Examples include the following: Prolonged droughts affect availability of food and • Soil management and erosion control water necessary for survival. In Tarangire National • Promoting intercropping, low-tillage Park, for instance, severe drought conditions led farming, and mulching to the death of a high number of elephant calves, • Improved, efficient irrigation systems, affecting subsequent generations (Foley et al., water conservation, rainwater harvesting 2008). This adds further pressure on animal • Exploring drought-tolerant crop varieties species that are already facing anthropological threats. A study on 321 reptile species in Tanzania • Supporting alternative livelihoods such as beekeeping. found that over 99 percent of the species were highly vulnerable to climate change, based on Agroweather tools improve farmers’ and the RCP 8.5 emissions scenario for the period pastoralists’ access to climate and weather information. This enables them to make more of 2071–2100. In turn, species extinction due to informed decisions about the timing and type climate change would be detrimental to Tanzanian of crops to plant and when and where to graze ecosystems and its economy. their herds. While uncertain, aggregate models suggest that net economic costs from climate change could be equivalent to 1 to 2 percent of GDP per year by 2030, in addition to existing costs resulting from climate variability (Watkiss et al., 2011). TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 67 EARLY ACTION TO BETTER good natural resources management. Current and MANAGE CLIMATE IMPACTS IS future impacts of climate change make the case IMPORTANT AND COST-EFFECTIVE for prompt action stronger than ever. Using climate-smart agriculture and landscape The cost of avoiding climate impacts is typically approaches together can address multiple much lower than that of projected associated environmental issues, increase agricultural damages. In dryland Africa, mitigating climate productivity, and contribute to enhanced food impacts demonstrated that the benefit-cost ratio security and incomes. These will help build of resilience investments in most cases exceeds resilience to climate change among the poorest 5 (Cervigni and Morris, 2016). The climate households. As per FAO definition, pursuing adaptation responses that were modeled covered climate-smart techniques and technologies three different pathways toward improving would require a transformation of agricultural resilience—raising rural productivity, introducing systems to effectively support development and safety nets, and facilitating alternative actions ensure food security in a changing climate (box such as economic diversification or internal 2.11). If effectively implemented, climate-smart migration. There is a wealth of knowledge and agriculture has proven to be a win-win solution experience accumulated around climate resilience in many countries, increasing productivity and in key sectors such as agriculture, transport, minimizing losses. Tanzania has also significant water resources or human settlements. potential to better harness renewable energy These experiences point at the importance of solutions. Exploring ways to increase the mainstreaming climate change considerations country’s access to climate finance from a during the identification and design of activities. variety of sources is recommended to help meet Climate change adaptation should be heavily the increasing demand for (renewable) energy. promoted in Tanzania, and be fully consistent with 68 WORLD BANK GROUP 3 Urban and Industrial Environmental Challenges 70 WORLD BANK GROUP 3.1 Environmental Pollution and Key Trends Environmental pollution has increased globally and household air pollution, and unsafe water and over the past few decades, and nowhere more sanitation) was over $28,700 million ($28,7 billion) rapidly than in developing countries. In 2015, in 2013 (Roy, 2016). This estimate factors in the approximately 9 million premature deaths, or 16 risks associated with ambient and household percent of all deaths worldwide, were attributed air pollution from particulate matter (PM), to diseases caused by air, land, and water pollution unsafe water, and unsafe sanitation. These high — significantly more than those caused by AIDS, pollution-related costs are an underestimation tuberculosis, and malaria combined (Landrigan of the overall problem, as health impacts caused et al., 2017). Over 90 percent of pollution-related by other sources (for example, ozone exposure deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries and lead exposure) are not included. In addition, (Landrigan et al., 2017). The poor, the marginalized, environmental pollution impacts are often not the elderly and the young are particularly directly attributed to their source and remain vulnerable groups. Despite its significant impact hidden in other statistics. on human health and the environment, pollution Awareness of the negative impacts of is still often neglected in policy- and decision- environmental pollution has increased, but making processes. significant knowledge gaps in data and information persist about its causes, magnitude, and effects In Tanzania, the estimated economic in Tanzania. Accurate and regularly updated data are critical for developing sustainable cost of premature deaths attributed to policies and management solutions. Additional pollution (i.e., ambient and household research and systematic data collection on the air pollution, and unsafe water and sources, distribution, dispersion, and health sanitation) was over $28,700 million effects of pollution are needed, they constitute ($28,7 billion) in 2013. the basis from where Tanzania should further build improved management systems. The main sources and effects of specific environmental The estimated economic cost of premature deaths pollutants are explained in table 3.1. attributed to pollution in Tanzania (i.e., ambient TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 71 TABLE 3.1: SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS IN TANZANIA P OLLU TA N T M EDIU M PR IM ARY SOURCES E NV I RON ME NTAL/HE ALTH E FFECTS Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Air • Industry (cement, lime, plaster) • Respiratory problems, eye irritant • Fossil fuel combustion (thermal • Converts to sulfuric acid in the atmosphere plants, vehicle exhaust) (acid rain), which damages plants, aquatic life and concrete structures • Precursor of particulate matter (PM) Particulate Air • Biomass burning (such as • Respiratory problems matter (PM) cooking with charcoal or wood, • Cardiovascular diseases but also forest fires or solid • Carcinogenic wasteburning) • Industrial emissions (cement, lime, and plaster) • Fossil fuel combustion Heavy metals (mercury, Air • Industrial emissions (iron and steel) • Damaging to nervous system, carcinogenic arsenic, cadmium) Water • Gold mining • Mental and physical birth defects Soil • E-waste • Bioaccumulates (builds up) in organisms over time • Biomagnifies in food chain, leading to significantly higher concentrations in predators (including humans) Chemicals Air • Industry (particularly plastic • Carcinogenic (including a wide range Water production) • Endocrine disruptors of chemicals that have Soil • Agriculture (pesticides, • Mental and physical birth defects (particularly in herbicides, and fungicides) children of agricultural workers) varying health effects and risks and should be individually evaluated) Organic waste Air • Agricultural waste and runoff • Eutrophication of water bodies (leading to Water • Sewage runoff depletion of oxygen in water) Soil • Industrial emissions • Waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Preventing pollution today avoids tomorrow’s (over 22,000) were caused by household costly cleanup actions and offers no-regret (sometimes referred to as indoor) air pollution, options toward alleviating poverty and creating which is associated with the widespread use opportunities for a healthier and more productive of solid biomass fuels (wood and charcoal) as population. Improved pollution management domestic energy source. Curbing household can enhance competitiveness through, for air pollution will require increasing access to example, job creation, increased energy efficiency, alternative energy sources, which in turn will sustainable development in Tanzania’s urban and contribute to reducing deforestation (one of rural spaces, and improved infrastructure and the key precursors of forest degradation is transport. It can also be effective in contributing fuelwood collection and charcoal production). toward climate change mitigation. The CEA Outdoor or ambient air pollution, primarily has identified improved management activities in the form of vehicle exhaust, industry toward addressing six key pollution-related emissions, and forest fires, should be challenges that need attention: monitored and properly regulated to keep it from getting worse. A. A multipronged approach is needed to curb air pollution. A detailed study concluded that B. Providing the population with access to around 26,000 Tanzanians died prematurely sustainable clean water and sanitation services in 2013 from causes attributable to PM air reduces the spread of diseases such as cholera, pollution (Roy, 2016). Most of these deaths diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, and typhoid 72 WORLD BANK GROUP fever. In 2013, health-related costs associated of the main causes of the devastating floods with unsafe water and sanitation in Tanzania witnessed in Dar es Salaam. Floods are not were estimated to be about $10 billion and $7.6 only caused by a changing climate or by the billion, respectively (Roy, 2016). It is estimated intensity of rains alone, but by upstream that food and waterborne diseases, as well deforestation and land degradation, combined as water-contact diseases, affect millions of with insufficient and failing urban drainage, people in the country’s urban areas. Key causes frequently clogged by MSW. of water pollution are rapid and unplanned E. While e-waste generation is relatively low in growth of urban areas, untreated wastewater Tanzania in comparison with other African discharge from households, inadequate solid countries, low collection rates and informal waste collection and disposal, widespread and disposal points pose significant environmental unplanned farming and cattle ranching, and and health risks. Tanzania generated around industries’ effluents. 38,000 metric tons in 2016, with a rising C. Improving industrial pollution regulations, trend (Baldé et al., 2017), most of which is monitoring and enforcement are highly cost- disposed of informally (Magashi and Schluep, effective investments to prevent higher 2011). Informal recycling practices, for pollution loads in the medium term. Tanzania’s example open-air burning to retrieve valuable industrialization drive is still in its early stages, components such as gold, pose significant however, there is growing concern of increased health risks and are common in Tanzania. pollution if the process is not properly managed. Developing an adequate regulatory and An analysis at the regional and local levels management framework is important in view revealed that industrial pollution loads are of the rapidly increasing use of electronics. concentrated in a few geographical areas, with F. As healthcare waste (HCW) is more likely to Dar es Salaam producing about 88 percent of cause an infection and/or injury than any all industrial pollution. All other regions have other type of waste, and its nature requires industrial pollution loads well below those of very specific collection and disposal practices, Dar es Salaam. Using and effectively applying its adequate management is critical. In its the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) absence, HCW can not only be expected to tool is key to curb industrial pollution. have serious public health effects, but also D. Managing municipal solid waste (MSW) significant environmental impacts—in terms effectively and in an environmentally sound of air, water, and land pollution. Given the manner is critical to minimizing associated rapidly growing population and the expanding environmental and health impacts. In provision of healthcare, the environmental and Tanzania, projections suggest a significant health risks stemming from inadequate HCW increase from current MSW levels. It is management will become larger and need to estimated that in 2012, Tanzania generated be addressed. No reliable data are available on 2,425 metric tons of MSW per day—a higher the amounts of HCW generated in Tanzania, amount, in absolute terms, than generated and despite the National Standards and by Kenya and Uganda. Even though solid Procedures for HCW Management requiring waste management (SWM) is regulated, less that records be kept on HCW generation than 40 percent of households are estimated and disposal, most of the estimated 3,760 to have access to waste collection services healthcare facilities fail to do so. While Tanzania (Huisman, Breukelman and Keesman, 2016). has a solid regulatory HCW framework, its In urban areas, as much as 80-90 percent of implementation needs strengthening. MSW is not collected (NBS, 2017b). In addition G. Rapid population growth and the associated to significant effects on the environment and growing demand for food have resulted in health, poor solid waste management is one increased pesticide use worldwide, Tanzania TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 73 being no exception. Despite a comprehensive and fuel minerals. By their very nature, legal framework, the safe handling of small- and large-scale mining operations are pesticides in Tanzania is not always ensured. unsustainable, and inherently detrimental to The release of pesticides into the environment the environment. Establishing a mine requires may contaminate soil and water bodies, clearing land, causing the loss of forests affecting nearby ecosystems, habitats, and and biodiversity, which in turn affects the wildlife species. In addition, pesticide exposure local surroundings and communities. Once can cause a variety of adverse human health established, mining can generate significant effects, from simple skin and eye irritation to pollution through leakages and mineral waste more severe effects on the nervous system. that is dumped in nearby rivers, mine tailings, Training farmers on safe usage and handling and by highly polluting additives required in the of pesticides can significantly reduce the extraction processes. Use of toxic substances associated environmental and health risks. such as mercury poses significant health and environmental risks. H. Mining and quarrying activities include the extraction of metals, industrial minerals, 3.2 Air Pollution The World Health Organization (WHO) PM is classified based on its size. PM10 particles states that air pollution is the largest single can pass through the respiratory system into environmental health risk, causing millions of the lungs while the smaller PM2.5 particles are deaths annually around the globe. Air pollution, even more dangerous because they can enter the defined by WHO as “contamination of the blood stream. The adverse health effects from indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, PM exposure are well documented and include physical or biological agent that modifies the respiratory problems, cardiovascular disease, natural characteristics of the atmosphere,” and cancer. Prolonged exposure causes sickness represents one of the biggest environmental and premature death. Globally, between 1990 challenges to development. Pollutants of major and 2013, the total number of annual deaths public health concern include particulate matter attributed to outdoor PM pollution rose by 36 (PM), carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, percent, to around 250,000 worldwide, while and sulfur dioxide. the total number of deaths attributed to indoor household air pollution rose by 18 percent, to over In Tanzania, over 3,845 and 22,729 450,000 (Roy, 2016). For all countries in Africa premature deaths were attributable where data was available, in 2013, the estimated to outdoor and indoor PM air pollution, economic cost of premature deaths from outdoor pollution was approximately $215 billion, and from respectively, in 2013. household air pollution about $232 billion. PM is among the most harmful air pollutants. PM is a AIR POLLUTION IN TANZANIA IS mixture of extremely small solid particles and liquid MOST SEVERE INDOORS droplets that are suspended in the atmosphere. The sources of PM can be natural (dust, forest fires, Global estimates suggest the impact of air pollution marine aerosol) as well as anthropogenic (residential caused by PM is high in Tanzania. Over 3,845 and wood and charcoal burning, agricultural burning, 22,729 premature deaths were attributable to trash incineration, fossil fuel combustion, vehicle outdoor and indoor PM air pollution, respectively emissions, industrial emissions). in 2013 (table 3.2). These mortality figures are 74 WORLD BANK GROUP higher than those of neighboring countries (table exacerbating the problem. Women and girls, 3.3). In economic terms, this costed the country traditionally the most involved in household tasks, around $11 billion in 2013. are particularly exposed to smoke and PM. Household air pollution is mainly caused by 50% widespread use of solid biomass fuels (such as charcoal and fuelwood) for cooking. Poor housing conditions, with limited ventilation, and traditional, inefficient cookstoves compound the problem. Tanzanian households, as in most of Sub-Saharan Africa, continue to depend on solid OR MORE OF THE COUNTRY'S fuels — for instance, wood, dung, charcoal, and TOTAL CHARCOAL agricultural residues—for their energy needs. An estimated 85 percent of Tanzania’s energy CONSUMPTION OCCURS needs are met through biomass use in the form IN DAR ES SALAAM of charcoal and firewood, predominately for cooking and heating (NBS, 2017a). Dar es Salaam accounts for approximately half of Tanzania’s total annual consumption of charcoal and its consumption is expected to increase, thus TABLE 3.2: ESTIMATED PREMATURE DEATHS FROM POLLUTION AND ECONOMIC COST IN 2013 AMBIENT PM HOUSEHOLD AIR UNSAFE UNSAFE POLLUTION POLLUTION WATER SANITATION Premature deaths (in 2013) 3,845 22,729 23,919 18,384 Economic cost of premature 1,603 9,477 9,973 7,665 deaths ($, millions) SOURCE: ROY, 2016. TABLE 3.3: PREMATURE DEATHS FROM PM POLLUTION IN TANZANIA AND OTHER COUNTRIES 2013 COUNTRY AMBIENT PM POLLUTION HOUSEHOLD AIR POLLUTION Tanzania 3,845 22,729 Kenya 3,952 15,440 Mozambique 1,117 11,750 Uganda 5,933 16,630 SOURCE: ROY, 2016. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 75 A MULTIPRONGED APPROACH IS the impact of the unreliable electricity supply), NEEDED TO CURB AIR POLLUTION the combustion of coal or petroleum products by IN TANZANIA industries and power stations, and the seasonality and spatial distribution of air quality. More systematic data collection and knowledge Limiting the use of solid biomass fuels is the key creation are essential for better informed decision to solving the main air pollution challenge that making. The government has signed several global Tanzania faces. Fuelwood and charcoal are the initiatives to reduce air pollution—among others, main sources of energy at the household level. the Clean Air Initiative of Sub-Saharan Africa— Combustion of these two solid fuels is inefficient but given the range of issues faced by developing and generates large quantities of smoke, countries, including Tanzania, concrete action particulate matter, soot, and other harmful to tackle air pollution has so far received limited products. Households use these fuels indoors, thus attention. This is at least in part due to insufficient causing the inhalation of the smoke, which in turn knowledge about the magnitude of the problem. causes morbidity and, in the long term, mortality. As previously stated, ambient and household Helping households transition from biomass to air pollution combined caused over 26,000 modern fuels, such as gas bottles or cylinders premature deaths in 2013 alone. These estimates of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), or natural gas, are based on global data and firmly anchored in is a key step toward reducing mortality and the well-known air pollution science. However, more associated costs. specifics are needed for Tanzania: What are the main sources of PM pollution in the country? What Charcoal use for cooking is deeply rooted in is their concentration in the air in different areas Tanzanian households, and any strategy to of the main cities? How do they vary between day reduce its use would need to consider technical, and night? What type of emissions do different economic, and cultural aspects. Estimates vary, fuels generate? These and many other questions but the National Bureau of Statistics’ data on are fundamental for a better understanding of charcoal use in Dar es Salaam show that around the air pollution challenge in Tanzania. With more 88 percent of households use charcoal at some systematic assessments of the magnitude of the point for cooking. While the reasons for this air quality problem—for instance, based on the use vary, price seems to be a major one, as charcoal of online air pollution monitoring systems—better is the cheapest fuel currently on the market. The and more comprehensive data can be generated, pricing system, the taxation regime on charcoal and consequently, targeted and tailored policy production, transportation, and wholesale, and actions can be taken. the royalty system would have to be reviewed to gain insights into existing loopholes and facilitate A network of air quality monitoring stations, the adoption of more environmentally friendly strategically placed in and around the major cooking methods. Charcoal is going to remain population centers, is needed to collect long- part of the energy mix for years to come, and term real data on the concentration of pollutants any strategy that tries to limit its use should also in the outdoor environment. Due to the lack of consider an improvement in the cooking conditions monitoring stations, the data used in this section of those households that still use it: improved are collected through remote sensing. Given the cookstoves for better combustion efficiency and rapidly evolving context, decisions made today, less emissions, and improved ventilation within especially those related to hard infrastructure and households, are relatively easy measures that can the associated planning processes, will determine yield immediate positive results. future exposure risks. Effectively prioritizing interventions requires dealing with issues such While limiting charcoal use will have significant as the respective contributions to air pollution benefits, it may also have negative impacts that of vehicles, road dust resuspension, biomass need to be considered. On the one hand, less burning, the use of backup generators (to mitigate charcoal production will alleviate the pressure on 76 WORLD BANK GROUP forests and help reduce the country’s alarming worldwide, and Tanzania is in a position to plan deforestation rate. It might also contribute ahead to prevent costly abatement measures to climate change mitigation, by curbing in the future. This would include improved deforestation and preventing the release of traffic measures and promotion of mass public CO2 into the atmosphere. On the other hand, transit systems (such as the Bus Rapid Transit the charcoal business is large and currently system), control of vehicular emissions and fleet sustains thousands of people, from producers management, adoption of industrial technologies to transporters to sellers. Careful consideration that minimize gas emissions, and promotion of of alternative livelihoods and options for those alternative energy sources such as wind and making a living out of charcoal will need to be solar, which generate virtually no gas emissions, a part of the transition to other fuels. Some compared to other power generation options such of Tanzania’s forests are still in place because as diesel and coal, both of which generate large communities derive a livelihood from them by quantities of airborne pollutants. producing charcoal. If charcoal demand decreases, More strategic collaboration across government the forest loses its value and may ultimately be authorities and improved enforcement is needed. lost to agricultural expansion. Tanzania is already The Vice President’s Office (VPO) is the institution exploring ways to bring value to the forest, for responsible for dealing with pollution, through its example, through the production of sustainable Division of Environment (DoE), as a crosscutting charcoal, obtained by using only a fraction of issue. Other ministries also have direct or indirect a well-managed forest to produce charcoal, as competencies related to the environment and featured in section 2 (box 2.2). human health. Enforcement of the legal provisions Ambient air pollution causes less damage in related to air pollution, however, is weak. While Tanzania than household air pollution, however the 1997 environmental policy framework still it might increase rapidly. Sources of ambient applies today, it needs to be updated. Developing air pollution include vehicle exhaust, industrial a sustainable urban energy strategy for Dar emissions, power generation, and others. As the es Salaam (the main charcoal consumer in the country develops, the economy expands, and the country) would provide a useful framework government pursues its industrialization strategy, for stakeholders to work together to achieve a more airborne pollutants will be released into the more economically, environmentally and socially atmosphere. Ambient air pollution is already a sustainable energy mix for the city. major public health concern in many megacities TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 77 3.3 Water Pollution Providing the population with access to sustainable clean water and sanitation services BOX 3.1: WATER ACCESS AND SANITATION reduces the spread of diseases such as cholera, DEFINITIONS diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever. WATER ACCESS It is estimated that the cost of poor sanitation Basic: drinking water from an improved source, to countries runs in the billions of dollars— provided collection time is not more than 30 representing the cost of premature deaths and minutes for a round trip, including queuing. healthcare treatment, time and productivity lost Limited: drinking water from an improved source due to the need to seek medical treatment. for which collection time exceeds 30 minutes for a round trip, including queuing. Tanzania has made significant progress in improving access to drinking water and sanitation Unimproved: drinking water from an unprotected dug well or unprotected spring. services, but a large proportion of the population still has no access to these services. In 2015, about Surface water: drinking water directly from a river, 50 percent of the country’s 53 million people dam, lake, pond, stream, canal, or irrigation canal. still lacked access to basic water supply and 76 SANITATION SERVICES percent had no access to sanitation services Safely managed: use of improved facilities (WHO and UNICEF, 2017). that are not shared with other households and where excreta are safely disposed of in situ or Further increasing access to improved and transported and treated offsite. sustainable drinking water and sanitation services (box 3.1 for definitions) is vital for rural and urban Basic: Use of improved facilities that are not shared with other households. residents. Access to at least basic drinking water increased from 21 percent in 2000 to 37 Limited: use of improved facilities shared between two or more households. percent in 2015 for rural areas, while that figure increased from 69 percent to 79 percent in urban Unimproved: use of pit latrines without a slab or areas over the same period (WHO and UNICEF, platform, hanging latrines, or bucket latrines 2017). However, in urban unplanned settlements, Open defecation: Disposal of human feces in fields, access to water is limited and sold at high prices forests, bushes, open bodies of water, beaches, or by residents with access to water, kiosks, cart other open spaces, or with solid waste. operating vendors, and delivery tankers. These SOURCE: WHO & UNICEF, 2017 78 WORLD BANK GROUP services tend to be unreliable, delivering water of diarrhea (e.g., dysentery and cholera), hepatitis varying quality, depending on its source. A, and typhoid fever, as well as water-contact diseases, affect millions of people in the country’s Access to basic sanitation facilities lags further urban areas. Sewers, pit latrines, and other behind; it has increased from 12 percent in urban areas with stagnant wastewater are breeding areas in 2000 to 37 percent in 2015 (WHO grounds for malaria-transmitting mosquitoes, and UNICEF, 2017). Access for the rest of the and malaria control is estimated to have cost the population however, remains fairly limited. Only 10 health system in Tanzania approximately $2.87 cities in Tanzania are considered having a sewerage per capita (in 2013 U.S. dollars), between 2011 system, covering approximately 20 percent of the and 2015 (Shretta, Avanceña, and Hatefi, 2016). population (MoWI, 2016). In addition to the public The main sources of contaminants that affect health risks associated with the lack of sewerage water quality in Tanzania’s urban settings are systems, water resources and associated presented in table 3.4. ecosystems are also severely affected by pollution resulting from wastewater and fecal sludge. Poor people living in informal settlements are especially vulnerable to heavy rains and diseases In 20 13 , he alth-rel ated cos t s that spread in the wake of floods. Heavy rains associated with unsafe water and increase the runoff of pollutants—such as leachate sanitation in Tanzania were estimated from dumpsites and sewage from septic tanks or pit latrines—into storm water that flows into to be about $10 billion and $7.6 billion. streams and rivers and pollutes water basins. Poor drainage systems allow the polluted water While systematic monitoring of water quality at to remain undrained in settlements for extended the national level is limited, various case studies periods and further contribute to the spread of point to low water quality levels in Tanzania’s infectious diseases. The magnitude and occurrence urban areas. Water is often polluted by a variety of pollution in the water is therefore highly of substances (including toxic substances such influenced by the season (World Bank, 2016a). as lead, arsenic, cyanide, and cadmium). An emblematic example is the Msimbazi. This river is a critical water source for Dar es Salaam’s Poor people living in infor mal population, but analyses have shown significant settlements are especially vulnerable pollution levels and high organic and nutrient to heavy rains and diseases that concentrations. In addition, some studies found spread in the wake of floods. heavy metals such as cadmium and lead in vegetables grown along its banks, posing a health risk for nearby residents (Leonard et al., 2012). The increasing frequency and intensity of climate- Another study found heavy metal contamination related events exacerbate water pollution and in water and sediment downstream of municipal need to be considered. Climate change does not wastewater treatment plants in Dar es Salaam. only affect water availability by causing floods and This situation might cause prolonged pollution droughts, but also water quality. Heavier rains, and potential adverse health effects in humans expected in parts of the country because of climate through their consumption of vegetables and change, will increase flooding and runoff and the animals that drank polluted water, washing with associated water quality deterioration. Conversely, polluted water, and fishing (Kihampa, 2013). extended hot and dry periods will boost water demand and decrease water supply. The depletion In 2013, health-related costs associated with of aquifers lowers the water table and leads to the unsafe water and sanitation in Tanzania were intrusion of salt water into fresh water bodies, estimated to be about $10 billion and $7.6 billion, degrading water quality and threatening their long- respectively (Roy, 2016). It is estimated that term viability as a water source. food and waterborne diseases such as bacterial TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 79 The provision of sanitation and hygiene services in coordination, the responsible ministries signed a Tanzania involves multiple actors, and thus effective memorandum of understanding to standardize coordination is key. The National Water Policy of definitions and guidelines relating to sanitation 2002 promotes the sustainable development of the and hygiene in the country.22 Additional financial sector and its expansion to reach more Tanzanians. resources and technical capacity, in combination In 2006, the government adopted the National with the implementation of a national sanitation Water Sector Development Strategy, the biggest and hygiene policy will improve the efficiency of sector-wide approach to planning in Sub- and synchronization between these agencies. Saharan Africa, which led to the reorganization of the sector. Four ministries bear the fiscal and of sanitation and hygiene activities in schools. PO-RALG is responsible implementation responsibility for sanitation for LGAs to be entrusted with providing sanitation and hygiene at the local level, in consultation with MoHCDGEC. At the LGA level, water and hygiene at the national level.21 To improve supply and sewerage authorities provide sewerage services. For example, the Dar es Salaam Water and Sanitation Authority (DAWASA) is responsible for providing water supply and sewerage services in Dar 21 The Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly es Salaam, previously through the Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage and Children (MoHCDGEC) is responsible for setting water monitoring Corporation (DAWASCO). regulations and standards and for drafting legislation to manage the water sector. It also provides guidelines and technical assistance to 22 Through the agreement, different working groups were formed local authorities on the provision of sanitation and hygiene services. to support the work. The National Sanitation and Hygiene Sanitation The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology coordinates science Committee provides policy directions, while the National Sanitation and and hygiene services in schools, while the President's Office of Regional Hygiene Technical Committee provides support for the implementation Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG) handles the provision of policy and strategic programs. 80 WORLD BANK GROUP TABLE 3.4: SOURCES OF CONTAMINANTS AFFECTING WATER QUALITY IN TANZANIA 1 2 Rapid and unplanned growth Domestic wastewater of urban areas In many informal settlements, New and unplanned settlements and roads built along the rivers wastewater is often discharged directly around Dar es Salaam affect water quality through deforestation, into streams due to lack of sewerage river bank erosion, sediment, sand, and onsite sanitation systems that facilities and/or pit latrines (World flood during the rainy season. It is anticipated that the footprint of Bank 2016a). This blackwater is often unplanned development will cause water quality to deteriorate further, contaminated with coliforms and other including because of the lack of drainage and sewerage infrastructure in infectious microorganisms, leading to unplanned settlements (World Bank 2016a). outbreaks of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid (NBS and MOFP 2015). In 2007, 60–80 percent of the diseases requiring hospital attendance in Inadequate solid Tanzania were caused by poor water and 3 waste management sanitation (NBS and MOFP 2015). A 2014 study compared the number of coliforms upstream and downstream of Dar es Salaam. At the entry point (Kisarawe), In Dar es Salaam, the high organic composition of the city’s the water quality was relatively high, with solid waste is a major driver of water quality degradation, only 75 to 100 coliforms per 100 mL, but leading to high levels of organic nutrients in rivers (World further downstream the coliform count Bank 2016b). In 2014, about 60 percent of Dar es Salaam’s reached between 250,000 and 400,000 solid waste remained uncollected and uncontrolled, often per 100 mL—that is, 1,000 times the level ending up in rivers (World Bank 2016a). Dumpsites are also considered safe for swimming (NEMC and potential hazards to water quality, especially when located UNEP cited in World Bank 2016a). close to water sources. 4 Industrial effluents 5 Farming A 2011 study showed that annual pollution Runoff from agricultural fields contains loads in the Msimbazi River from industries nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. that discharged their effluents directly into When these nutrients reach water bodies, the river ranged from 17.7 to 141.56 metric excessive algae growth follows, harming aquatic life through eutrophication. Carbon- tons. Heavy metal leachates from dumpsites based, organic compounds from different and industries, for example, have made the agricultural activities—such as pesticides, Msimbazi River toxic, with pollutant levels polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and animal exceeding both WHO and Tanzania potable waste—are also serious pollutants. Animal water standards. As several agricultural excreta released into the water pose additional activities take place along the river's flood health risks. plain, these heavy metals are likely to contaminate produce for human consumption (Leonard et al. 2012). TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 81 3.4 Industrial Pollution Tanzania’s industrialization is still in its estimate the amounts and types of pollution early stages, however, given the current generated by the country’s industrial sector. industrialization drive, there is growing concern of increased pollution if the process is not In terms of overall pollution, the five properly managed. The government of Tanzania has an interest in better understanding the “dirtiest” sectors in Tanzania are: environmental and health related implications (i) basic iron and steel; (ii) plastics of the industrialization agenda, and in defining products; (iii) basic chemicals; (iv) steps toward its integrated management. vegetable and animal oils and fats; This CEA report has thus made an attempt and (v) cement, lime and plaster. to provide initial figures and estimates of this growing environmental challenge. To quantify Five industrial sectors were found to account for the current scale of industrial pollution is the highest pollution loads. Using 2013 Tanzania challenging because very limited data is industrial census data, estimates were made at available. Several studies have attempted to the district level for five pollutant clusters (two estimate it within specific regions and areas. 23 air pollutants, one water pollutant, and two types While these studies give useful insights in of toxic waste),24 as shown in table 3.5. In terms parts of the country, none have looked across of overall pollution, the five “dirtiest” sectors in regions, industry types, and specific pollutants Tanzania are: (i) basic iron and steel; (ii) plastics to derive nationwide industrial pollution figures. products; (iii) basic chemicals; (iv) vegetable and To address this gap, a World Bank industrial animal oils and fats; and (v) cement, lime and plaster. pollution projection system (IPPS) model has been used in the preparation of this study to 24 The purpose of this modeling was twofold: (i) to estimate the most prevalent types of industrial pollution, by type of industry and 23 Mwanuzi (2000) estimated organic matter loads released in size; and (ii) to compare pollution loads across districts to better identify Pangani River from Arusha and Kilimanjaro industries. Mato (2002) industrial pollution hotspots. Five pollutants are estimated—SO2, illustrated that more than 122 industrial establishments in Dar es PM10, BOD, toxic chemicals, and toxic metals. Emission standards are Salaam generate about 127 tonnes/day of hazardous waste which is based on U.S. industry data, so results are only partially applicable to about 40% of the total industrial solid waste production. Blinker (2006) the Tanzanian industry. Nevertheless, it is assumed in this context that assessed industries in Tanga for estimating water pollution. Mwenda (i) the model’s parameters are still useful because the technologies used (2014) conducted a study estimating the levels of industrial pollution in Tanzania are not the most advanced ones; and (ii) what matters in this in Arusha. Elisante and Muzuka (2017) found concentrations of nitrate context is not the absolute level of air, water, and toxic pollution (which higher than 400mg/l in some aquifers in urban areas of Dar es Salaam, is unknowable), but rather the approximate relative pollution intensities Dodoma and Tanga. for different districts and industries. 82 WORLD BANK GROUP TABLE 3.5: POLLUTING INDUSTRIAL SUBSECTORS IN TANZANIAa # OF POLLUTANTS SHARE OF TOXIC TOXIC ISIC ISIC DESCRIPTION SO2b PM10c BOD d CONTRIBUTING EMPLOYMENT CHEMICALS e METALSf >5% 1040 Vegetable and animal oils 5.02 16.88 24.51 2.58 5.14 1.45 3 and fats 2220 Plastics products 8.40 7.52 0.01 2.51 38.75 15.26 3 2410 Basic iron and steel 3.05 5.69 3.63 0.03 5.48 52.01 3 2394 Cement, lime, and plaster 2.01 34.49 66.24 0.00 0.10 0.46 2 2011 Basic chemicals 0.70 1.69 0.13 4.73 10.55 5.96 2 1920 Refined petroleum products 0.56 7.32 0.17 0.75 4.61 1.27 1 1072 Sugar 4.18 4.98 0.24 13.50 0.61 0.04 1 1701 Pulp, paper, and paperboard 1.09 4.39 0.58 19.30 2.76 0.18 1 1702 Corrugated paper and 1.00 4.01 0.53 17.62 2.52 0.17 1 paperboard and of containers of paper and paperboard 1104 Soft drinks; production of 6.15 3.35 0.11 11.77 0.61 1.18 1 mineral waters and other bottled waters 2029 Other chemical products n.e.c. 0.50 1.21 0.09 3.38 7.54 4.26 1 2012 Fertilizers and nitrogen 0.41 0.98 0.08 2.75 6.13 3.46 1 compounds 2420 Basic precious and other 0.15 0.73 0.02 0.46 0.51 5.56 1 non-ferrous metals 1050 Dairy products 1.38 0.04 0.00 18.83 0.22 0.00 1 Totals 34.59 93.27 96.33 98.21 85.53 91.25 Note: BOD = biological oxygen demand; ISIC = International Standard Industrial Classification (of All Economic Activities); n.e.c. = not elsewhere classified; PM10 = particles that have aerodynamic diameters less than or equal to 10 microns (μm); SO2 = sulfur dioxide. 1. All figures shown represent percentages. 2. SO2 in the air affects the respiratory system and irritates the eyes. 3. PM10 in the air raises mortality and morbidity rates. 4. BOD is a measure of the amount of organic compounds in water (and a proxy for the degree of organic pollution of water). 5. The toxic chemicals indicator is an aggregate indicator of the industrial outflows of over 240 chemicals that are toxic to humans. 6. The toxic metals indicator is an aggregate indicator of the industrial output of toxic metals that bioaccumulate in humans and often lead to mental and physical birth defects. These five most polluting industrial sectors • For air pollution, the cement, lime, and plaster account for over 90 percent of PM10 emissions; sector contributes an estimated 66 percent of over 75 percent of toxic metals; 66 percent of SO2 total PM10 and 34 percent of total SO2; and 60 percent of total toxic emissions. However, • For organic water pollution, the pulp, paper, they release only 10 percent of BOD (a measure of and paperboard sector contributes 19 percent organic pollution), which is much more prevalent of total BOD; in the effluent of the food and paper industries25 (table 3.5). • For total toxic chemicals, the plastics products sector contributes about 39 percent; and Further analysis of the results shows that: • For toxic metals, the basic iron and steel sector contributes about 52 percent. 25 The sugar, dairy, and soft drink industry emits about 44 percent of total national BOD, while the paper/container industry emits about 37 percent. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 83 INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION IS (with more than 300 employees) emit more than CONCENTRATED IN A FEW half of all pollutants except for BOD—more than GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS half of BOD is emitted by firms with fewer than 300 employees. In Ilala, large firms emit more than half An analysis of industrial pollution at the regional of all pollutants except for toxic metals, which are and local levels revealed that the pollution load primarily emitted by smaller firms in the “basic iron is concentrated in a few geographical areas. and steel” subsector. Dar es Salaam produces about 88 percent of all Overall, the modeling not only shows that Dar industrial pollution in Tanzania, reflecting the high es Salaam is the primary hotspot for industrial concentration of industries that are located in the pollution in Tanzania, but it also estimates a profile area. It also shows the highest pollution intensity of firm and pollution type by subdistrict as a basis across all five pollutants (defined as the total for improving the government’s industrial pollution pollution load per unit of area). All other regions monitoring and enforcement systems. The analysis have industrial pollution loads well below those of Dar es Salaam. For example, PM10 emissions in Dar es Salaam produces about 88% of Tanga are only 6 percent of Dar es Salaam’s; BOD effluent in Kilimanjaro is likewise only 6 percent all industrial pollution in the country of Dar es Salaam’s; and the remaining pollutant reflecting high concentration of loads of all other regions individually are less than industries and agglomeration. 3 percent of Dar es Salaam’s. There are important variations across the three Dar of pollutants by sectors and regions facilitates es Salaam municipal councils (Temeke, Ilala, and the prioritization of measures, tailoring them to Kinondoni). Temeke has the highest concentration those sectors with a higher weight in the total of SO2 (50 percent of the district total), toxic pollution load. The National Development Plan for chemicals (65 percent), and bioaccumulative metals the period 2016/17–2020/21 targets expansion in (65 percent). The “refined petroleum products,” the the petroleum, petrochemicals, pharmaceutical, “plastics products,” and the “basic iron and steel” building and construction, agro and agroprocessing subsectors are the heaviest polluters in Temeke. (cotton to clothing, textiles and garment, and For PM10, Kinondoni emits 57 percent of the total leather), coal, iron, and steel subsectors. Therefore, and the “cement, lime and plaster” industry is the as the country’s industry scales up, the regulatory main contributor. For BOD, Ilala emits 52 percent, authorities have a good idea of its technical capacity primarily driven by the “corrugated paper and and hardware needs to improve its monitoring and paperboard and containers of paper and paperboard” compliance activities. industry. In both Temeke and Kinondoni, large firms 84 WORLD BANK GROUP EARLY AND EFFECTIVE new industries to adopt sound environmental INVESTMENTS CAN CURB performance practices and processes. POLLUTION Using and applying the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) tool is key to curb industrial Improving pollution regulations and enforcement pollution. Each industry is mandated to prepare today is an early and cost-effective government an EIA to obtain an operating license. These EIAs investment in preventing even higher pollution analyze the possible impacts to humans and loads in the medium term. It is easier to have the environment, identify alternatives that are adequate industrial pollution regulations in place less impactful, define mitigation measures, and before new investments are made, as opposed to establish monitoring and evaluation programs. trying to get firms to retrofit at a later stage. In Ensuring an appropriate implementation of the Dar es Salaam area, efforts should be focused the mitigation measures defined in the EIA on: (i) promoting self-reporting by industries, is a fundamental task of the environmental especially those with the size and resources management agency (the National Environmental to do it; (ii) improved monitoring of polluting Management Council, NEMC). Another task is to emissions, both at the source and in key areas; periodically monitor the environmental and social (iii) clean production promotion, using a variety performance of the industry, and to implement of command and control mechanisms, and also penalties and fines whenever the EIA license and well-designed incentives; and (iv) exploring its details are not appropriately followed. For principles of the “circular economy” through NEMC to carry out this important mandate, it is which the byproducts of an industry become the thus fundamental to ensure sufficient staffing, inputs of another. Facilitating access to cleaner with well-trained inspectors that carry out visits fuels, offering solid and liquid waste collection to polluting facilities, and who are equipped with and processing solutions, and requesting end- state-of-the-art instrumentation and technology of-pipe technologies in cases where pollution for the control and measurement of effluents. A cannot be avoided, are key to reducing industrial combination of command-and-control through pollution impacts in Dar es Salaam, which is the the establishment of emission limits and largest settlement in the country. In other less- monitoring, together with incentives for self- developed regions, efforts should be focused in reporting, have proven to give good results when clean production technologies, and supporting controlling industrial pollution. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 85 3.5 Solid Waste Other studies suggest even higher amounts, with MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE for example Breeze (2012) reporting that in 2011, As the global population grows, countries urbanize, Dar es Salaam alone generated approximately and their economic wealth increases, the amount 4,200 metric tons per day (0.92 kg/capita/day), of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated also and NBS (2017b) referring to 4,700 metric tons increases. While in 2002 about 0.68 billion per day in 2017. As the country continues to metric tons of MSW were estimated to have been record high rates of economic growth, projections generated globally per year (or about 0.64 kg/ suggest total MSW generation in Tanzania will capita/day), by 2012, this estimate had increased reach about 12,000 metric tons per day by 2025, to 1.3 billion metric tons per year, or 1.2 kg/capita/ almost five times the 2012 estimated amount. day (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). By 2025, 2.2 billion metric tons of MSW are expected to be generated globally per year. Globalization has facilitated the rapid movement of goods to places that are least equipped to manage such an increase in waste. Moreover, the proliferation of the use of packaging materials and the dramatic decrease in the lifespan of products, together with the sizeable amount of imported cheap but inferior goods, have all added to MSW generation in developing countries. In Tanzania, projections suggest a significant increase from current MSW levels. It is estimated that in 2012, Tanzania generated 2,425 metric tons of MSW per day (0.26 kg/capita/day)—a higher amount, in absolute terms, than generated by Kenya (2,000 metric tons) and Uganda (1,179 metric tons), but a lower amount when the countries’ per capita figures are considered (table 3.6). TABLE 3.6: MSW GENERATION BY COUNTRY – AVAILABLE DATA AND PROJECTIONS FOR 2025 AVAILABLE DATA FROM 2012 PROJECTIONS FOR 2025 MSW generation Total MSW MSW generation Total MSW per capita generation per capita generation (kg/capita/day) (tons/day) (kg/capita/day) (tons/day) Tanzania 0.26 2,425 0.55 11,566 Kenya 0.30 2,000 0.60 10,171 Uganda 0.34 1,179 0.65 6,313 SOURCE: EDITED FROM HOORNWEG AND BHADA-TATA, 2012. 86 WORLD BANK GROUP EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT management infrastructure is poor, and urban OF MSW IS CRITICAL planning is limited—over 70 percent of Dar es Salaam’s population lives in unplanned or Managing MSW effectively and in an underserviced areas (DMDP, 2011; Breeze,2012). environmentally sound manner is critical to Only one dumpsite serves the city, the 65-hectare minimizing associated environmental and health Pugu Kinyamwezi site, and basic environmental impacts. In most Sub-Saharan African countries, standards for formal landfill design and only 30–60 percent of MSW is collected, leading development, leachate management, landfill gas to high environmental and health-related risks management, fencing, and regular monitoring from informally disposed MSW. Solid waste often of waste by type and source are often not met includes infectious and hazardous waste, which (Breeze, 2012). Nearby communities are at risk, can contaminate the soil, groundwater, and surface as are those who are encroaching and scavenging water through leachates and pollute the air with for waste (Prime Minister’s Office, 2013, cited toxic gases released when such waste is burned. in World Bank, 2014). Landfills in the Dar es In addition, uncollected MSW serves as breeding Salaam region that have been closed, pollute ground for insects and scavenging animals and the environment through leachate flowing into generates vectors of air- and waterborne diseases. nearby watercourses (World Bank, 2014). Data In areas where MSW is collected infrequently or and information on economic impacts of MSW in not at all, the incidence of diarrhea is twice as high Tanzania are currently not available. and acute respiratory infections six times higher than in areas with regular collection (UN-Habitat Improved waste collection and disposal will 2009 cited in Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). significantly decrease environmental and health risks from waste. In 2006, the Ministry of A reliable MSW collection and transportation Health and Social Welfare (MoHSW) reported system is critical for good-quality waste that between 60 and 80 percent of hospital management services. In Dar es Salaam, the admissions were due to sanitation-related largest waste producer in the country, waste diseases (Palfreman, 2014). In addition, MSW collection services and disposal facilities are primarily consists of organic waste, representing insufficient, putting communities at risk. Even a source of nutrients. In Dar es Salaam, as a result though solid waste management (SWM) is of MSW being dumped in open areas, rivers and regulated,26 less than 40 percent of households water bodies across the city show high nutrient are estimated to have access to waste collection concentrations, further degrading water quality services (Huisman et al., 2016). In urban areas, as (NEMC and UNDP 2014 in World Bank, 2014). much as 80-90 percent of MSW is not collected (NBS, 2017b). This is because waste collection Poor SWM is one of the main causes of the is unaffordable for many residents, the waste devastating floods witnessed in Dar es Salaam. Contrary to popular belief, floods are not only 26 SWM comprises essential services “provided to protect the caused by a changing climate or by the intensity environment and public health, promote hygiene, recover materials, of rains. These floods, in urban centers, are also avoid waste, reduce waste quantities, decrease emission and residuals and prevent spread of diseases” (URT 2004, p. 17). The President’s caused by upstream deforestation and land Office -Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-RALG) is degradation, combined with insufficient and failing responsible for drawing up and instituting the SWM system that is used by LGAs. The Department of Prevention of the Ministry of Health, urban drainage (box 3.2). The built environment Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children (MoHCDGEC) (house roofs, paved roads) is not permeable, hence formulates environmental health control, hygiene, and sanitation policies that address SWM, among other health-related challenges. rainwater fails to seep into the ground, running Moreover, mandated by the Public Health Act, the Department of Prevention is responsible for monitoring and assessing the status of to the surface toward the urban drainage system. environmental health and sanitation aspects. The Bureau of Standards This system, if properly designed and maintained, (TBS) oversees the setting of standards for SWM while the Division of Environment (DoE) under the Vice President’s Office develops manages to accumulate rainwater and carry it into environmental policies and regulations for SWM in the country. natural water bodies downstream of the city. SWM services are coordinated at the LGA level. The authorities can outsource activities they are responsible for to private companies or community organizations. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 87 BOX 3.2: REHABILITATING THE MSIMBAZI RIVER FOR DAR ES SALAAM The Msimbazi River Valley in Dar es Salaam is important for the city’s infrastructure, mobility, commerce, and flood control. Two of Dar es Salaam’s main traffic arteries cross the main flood plain near the river’s discharge to the sea. One of them, the bus rapid transit (BRT) corridor, supports communities at the lower reaches of the river. These communities depend on close access to Dar es Salaam’s central business district for their livelihoods, and benefit from social services within walking distance. The river catchment is also important due to its significant environmental assets, including forests in the headwaters down to wetlands and mangrove forests in the lower reaches. However, Dar es Salaam has experienced rapid and unplanned growth over the last three decades, as have many other African cities. Encroachment in the river valley poses a significant challenge, trees are being cut down as land use changes, soils are eroding, and the basin cannot naturally retain water the way it used to. In addition, solid waste and industrial effluents find their way into the river, clogging the city’s drainage systems and polluting the water. The environmental degradation in combination with a changing climate and more intense rainfall, has resulted in a higher risk of extreme weather events. Floods have become more frequent and severe in Dar es Salaam, often bringing the city to a standstill. In April 2018, for example, Dar es Salaam experienced heavy rains and extensive flooding, with at least 15 people killed and more than 2,000 families in the Msimbazi Basin displaced. Dar es Salaam’s population is expected to reach 10 million by 2030. It is thus critical that the river be rehabilitated so that the benefits of its many services can be restored. A healthy river is an efficient natural “infrastructure” able to drain water and buffer extreme rains. The Msimbazi Basin could perform at least eight vital functions for the city of Dar es Salaam: (i) discharge stormwater; (ii) provide drinking water and grey water; (iii) offer space and suitable conditions for biodiversity rich coastal forest and mangrove vegetation; (iv) provide safe and healthy locations for settlement; (v) include space for public and private infrastructure assets; (vi) provide space for serviceable roads and bridges that cross the basin as essential transport corridors; (vii) offer lands for growing healthy food in the flood plains; and viii) provide public and open spaces for sports and leisure activities. PO-RALG, in partnership with the World Bank through the Tanzania Urban Resilience Program, have been championing the Msimbazi Charrette initiative, an urban design process that draws on the views and experiences of various stakeholders, including community leaders, engineers, planners, and high-level government officials, who foresee a more resilient basin. The initiative is expected to produce a framework to guide a basin investment program, and a detailed plan for the lower basin, to help catalyze investment from government, private sector, and development partners to restore the highly-vulnerable flood plain, and turn it into a city asset. “I have lived in this area for 28 years. I have seen the increase of the amount of rubbish as the population increases. Along with it, various diseases appear. When the flood comes, the whole area is filled with water like an ocean. It becomes a big problem, workers and families struggle a lot. My thoughts about tackling this issue are that greater education needs to be given to the public; also, strong laws should be put in place so that people can be aware.” ELIZABETH MASAWO Chairperson Kawawa Local Government Hananasifu Ward, Dar es Salaam 88 WORLD BANK GROUP However, the indiscriminate dumping of solid global population had access to mobile networks waste clogs drainage canals and sewers, rendering and services and used the Internet (Baldé et al., the storm water drainage systems ineffective and 2017). Disposable incomes are rising and the leading to devastating floods in the rainy seasons, growing middle class in developing countries is causing the destruction of houses, death, sickness, spending more on electronics, with the use of and millions of dollars’ worth of damages. Stagnant information and communications technology water around clogged drains is ideal breeding ground (ICT) devices constantly on the rise. At the same for mosquitoes, which spread diseases such as time, the replacement cycles of cell phones, malaria, further adding to the health hazards caused computers, and other electronic devices are by improper disposal of solid waste. becoming shorter, thus raising the volume of e-waste (see box 3.4 for definition). Multilateral and bilateral donors, and NGOs, have been working with PO-RALG and Dar es In comparison with other African Salaam to strengthen SWM. UN HABITAT/ UNEP, the World Bank, JICA, and others have countries, Tanzania is among those helped prepare strategic plans that support the generating the lea s t e-wa s te. development of institutions, a legislative and However, the overall trend of e-waste regulatory framework, infrastructure (collection generation is rising. and transportation systems, transfer stations, material recovery facilities and landfills) and Globally, around 44.7 million metric tons of overall capacity. Various examples of creating e-waste are generated annually, or an equivalent of incentives or disincentives through fiscal policy 6.1 kg per person. Of those, only 8.9 million metric measures have demonstrated positive results in tons, or 20 percent of all e-waste generated, are SWM across Africa (box 3.3). collected and recycled, and it is estimated that 1.7 million metric tons are disposed of as residual waste in high-income countries. The remaining E-WASTE 34.1 million metric tons, or 79 percent of all e-waste, are informally disposed of—dumped, The rapidly advancing information technology traded, or recycled under inadequate conditions. sector and the increasing number of technology The global amount of e-waste is expected to users worldwide has resulted in a growing increase to 52.2 million metric tons, or 6.8 kg per amount of e-waste. In 2017, about half of the person by 2021 (Baldé et al., 2017). BOX 3.3: MITIGATING POLLUTION INITIATIVES THROUGHOUT AFRICA Creating incentives or disincentives through fiscal policy measures has demonstrated positive results in solid waste management and other environmental management priorities: Plastic bag levies: This levy has been successfully implemented in several African nations. In Botswana, overall plastic bag use fell by 50 percent in just 18 months after its introduction. Pollution charges: These include disposal fees, effluent permit fees, and emission fees. A waste discharge levy can act as a deterrent to waste discharge, while a waste mitigation charge can provide funding for waste mitigation measures. Tax exemptions on alternative fuels: The value added tax (VAT) on liquid petroleum gas (LPG) has been removed in several African countries including Uganda, Senegal, and Botswana. In Senegal, the lifting of import duties on gas canisters and cookers, and of subsidies on LPG, has resulted in a decline in wood fuel dependence and annual savings of approximately 70,000 metric tons of wood fuel and 90,000 metric tons of charcoal. Payment for ecosystem services: The Equitable Payments for Watershed Services (EPWS) scheme in the Uluguru Mountains of Tanzania involves major industrial water consumers paying upstream villages to adopt water-friendly agricultural practices to protect downstream water quality and help cover treatment costs in Dar es Salaam. The productivity of participating farmers has increased threefold and sediment levels in the catchment have fallen. SOURCE: WHITE, TURPIE, AND LETLEY, 2017. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 89 Despite the relatively small amounts of e-waste, BOX 3.4: DEFINITION OF ELECTRONIC WASTE the low collection rates and informal disposal points pose significant environmental and health risks. Electronic waste (e-waste) refers to all electrical Only 4,000 of the 2.2 million metric tons of e-waste items and electronic equipment that have been generated in Africa, or less than 0,5 percent, discarded as waste without the intent of reuse. are documented as collected (Baldé et al., 2017). It includes a diverse array of equipment such Tanzania is no exception. Most e-waste is disposed as cell phones, air conditioners, computers, and of informally—dumped, traded, or recycled (Magashi refrigerators. E-waste often contains hazardous materials and improper disposal poses significant and Schluep, 2011). Informal recycling practices, human health risks from direct contact or inhalation for example open-air burning to retrieve valuable of toxic elements and from the accumulation of components such as gold, pose significant health chemicals in soil, water, and food. risks and are common in Tanzania. SOURCE: BALDÉ ET AL., 2017. The health risks derive from direct contact with lead, cadmium, chromium, brominated flame retardants, or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), E-WASTE GENERATION IS or through inhalation of the toxic fumes released when e-waste is burned (WHO, 2017). In addition, RELATIVELY LOW BUT INFORMAL the dismantling of e-waste containing hazardous DISPOSAL POSE SIGNIFICANT RISKS materials such as lead, mercury, and cadmium causes chemicals to accumulate in soil and water, E-waste generation in Tanzania is relatively low. thereby posing significant environmental risks. It is estimated that Africa generates 2.2 million metric tons of e-waste per year, while Tanzania generated around 38,000 metric tons of e-waste Despite the relatively small amounts of in 2016, or 0.8 kg per person. In comparison with e-waste, the low collection rates and other African countries, Tanzania is among those informal disposal points pose significant generating the least e-waste (figure 3.1). However, the overall trend of e-waste generation is rising. environmental and health risks. The use of ICT equipment has been rising rapidly FIGURE 3.1: ESTIMATED E-WASTE in Tanzania, meaning that e-waste generation is GENERATION IN AFRICA expected to increase in the near future. While it is estimated that the global average annual growth rate of e-waste generation is 4 to 5 percent, Tanzania’s growth rate could be as high as 33 percent (URT, 2013; Baldé et al., 2015). The lifting of a computer taxation system in 1984, which included the removal of all taxes and duties on computers and their components, contributed to the increase in computer use—from approximately 700 computers and three computer vendors in 0 - 1 K G/ I N H 1986 (Ndamagi, 1988) to more than 800,000 1 - 3 K G/ I N H computers and hundreds of computer vendors 3 - 6 + K G/ I N H in 2010 (figure 3.2) (Magashi and Schluep, 2011). 6 - 1 0 + K G/ I N H The number of cell phone subscribers increased 1 0 + K G/ I N H by a factor of 100 between 2000 and 2005. Approximately 94 percent of Tanzanians owned SOURCE: MODIFIED FROM BALDÉ ET AL., 2017. a cell phone in 2015, representing millions of cell NOTE: inh= inhabitant 90 WORLD BANK GROUP FIGURE 3.2: NUMBER OF COMPUTERS USED IN TANZANIA, 1986–2009 1400,000 1200,000 1000,000 800,000 600,000 400,000 200,000 - 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 NUMBER OF COMPUTERS USED EXPONENTIAL TRENDLINE SOURCE: OWN ESTIMATES USING SEVERAL DATA POINTS phones, batteries, and chargers (figure 3.3). The Consumer Technology Association27 estimates cell phones have a lifespan of 4.7 years at best, FIGURE 3.3: ESTIMATED PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION OWNING CELL PHONES IN implying that cell phones and accessories are TANZANIA most likely the main drivers of e-waste growth in the country. 100 DEVELOPING AN APPROPRIATE REGULATORY AND MANAGEMENT 90 93.5 80 70 79.3 FRAMEWORK IS KEY 67.2 60 50 57.0 Developing an adequate regulatory and 40 48.3 management framework to ensure the effective 41.0 30 34.8 management of e-waste is important in view 20 25.0 29.5 of the rapidly increasing use of electronics. In 10 Africa, only Madagascar (2015), Kenya (2016), 0 and Ghana (2016) have formally passed draft 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 e-waste bills into law. While Tanzania has a few policies and regulations aimed at protecting the SOURCE: AUTHORS’ OWN CALCULATIONS BASED ON NBS environment and human health, a specific policy HOUSEHOLD BUDGET SURVEY REPORT. or regulation related to e-waste management is still forthcoming. In addition to an overall lack 27 https://www.cta.tech/News/Blog/Articles/2014/September/The- Life-Expectancy-of-Electronics.aspx. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 91 of adequate disposal facilities for waste, there of waste generated per bed per day. None of them is also no designated facility for environmentally had a waste management plan in place, and waste sound treatment and/or disposal of e-waste in the segregation principles, as outlined in national country (URT, 2013). Creating a good data portal guidelines, were not followed to the extent required and monitoring mechanism would be of value (National Audit Office, 2014). as the country designs a suitable framework to manage the e-waste. No reliable data are available on the HEALTHCARE WASTE amounts of HCW generated in Tanzania. As healthcare waste (HCW) is more likely to cause As the number of central waste collection points an infection and/or injury than any other type is limited, HCW is often disposed of through open of waste, and its nature requires very specific pit burning, burying, or incineration. Of the 33 collection and disposal practices, its adequate healthcare facilities surveyed in 2014, more than management is critical. In its absence, HCW 50 percent did not have central waste collection can not only be expected to have serious public points to allow for secure and adequate storage. health effects, but also significant environmental Waste was often stored in open and unfenced impacts—in terms of air, water, and land pollution areas on the health facilities’ premises. (see box 3.5 for definition). Factors that contribute to poor HCW management include insufficient waste management and disposal systems or BOX 3.5: HCW IN A NUTSHELL the lack thereof, limited awareness of the health Healthcare waste (HCW) is waste generated hazards, and inadequate training of relevant by hospitals and other healthcare facilities, workers in safely handling waste.28 The lack of research centers and laboratories, related to landfills prepared for HCW leads to it often being medical procedures, mortuary and autopsy dumped in uncontrolled areas, contaminating the centers, blood banks and collection services, and individual households engaged in healthcare. soil and water sources. Most HCW is comparable to municipal solid No reliable data are available on the amounts of waste, and non-hazardous. It is mostly generated HCW generated in Tanzania. In 2007, the MoHSW by administrative, kitchen and housekeeping functions at healthcare facilities, and does not estimated that approximately 4,745 metric tons pose a higher risk than municipal or general were generated nationwide, with an estimated waste. About 15–25 percent of HCW is, however, 0.41 kg per bed per day generated in the country’s considered hazardous material that may be healthcare facilities (National Audit Office, 2014). infectious, toxic, or radioactive, and may pose For 2017, it was estimated that healthcare facilities a variety of substantial environmental and generated approximately 0.75 kg per bed per health risks, if managed improperly. Hazardous materials include infectious waste, pathological day (Minoglou et al., 2017). The actual amounts waste, sharps, chemicals, pharmaceutical waste, are probably much higher, given that healthcare genotoxic waste, and radioactive waste. facilities often operate above full capacity. Despite the National Standards and Procedures for HCW Management requiring that records be kept on HCW generation and disposal, most of the estimated 3,760 healthcare facilities fail to do so. In 2014, it was established that only 3 out of 33 surveyed healthcare facilities recorded the amount 28 Direct health-related risks range from harmful microorganisms that can infect hospital patients, health workers, and the general public, to radiation burns, sharps injuries, and poisoning caused by pharmaceutical products or waste water (WHO 2015). 92 WORLD BANK GROUP The risks associated with waste being dispersed LGAs are tasked to carry out inspections and visit to nearby communities and/or water and soil healthcare facilities but fail to do so regularly. The through wind, were considered high. In addition, chance of HCW containing hazardous waste being average storage times of different kinds of HCW, illegally dumped together with other municipal including hazardous waste, prior to incineration, wastes is therefore high across the country were considered high (up to a week), posing a (National Audit Office, 2014). high risk of waste decaying and polluting the Given the rapidly growing population and air (National Audit Office, 2014). The dedicated the expanding provision of healthcare, the incinerators are often out of service and, as a environmental and health risks stemming from result, HCW is dumped in pit latrines and open pits, inadequate HCW management will become or buried (Manyele and Lyasenga, 2010). As open larger and need to be addressed. The government pit burning releases chemical pollutants, including of Tanzania is increasingly aware of this and heavy metals, it contributes to air pollution and taking action. In November 2016, the National the incidence of respiratory diseases. In addition, Environment Management Council (NEMC) the ashes and residue from incinerators are conducted a preliminary evaluation of healthcare disposed of in open spaces or in unlined sections facilities in Dar es Salaam, specifically assessing of dumpsites that remain uncovered, posing their HCW management. The scope of this significant risks to the environment and nearby evaluation is planned to be extended to other communities. cities. Strengthening the monitoring of healthcare While Tanzania has a solid regulatory facilities’ compliance with the requirements laid framework to guide the management of HCW, out in the regulatory framework would generate its implementation needs strengthening. HCW data on the generation, segregation, transport, management is subject to a comprehensive set of and disposal of HCW. Sufficient funding to laws and regulations that provide clear guidance facilities should be allowed, and continued on the safe and adequate handling of HCW.29 The capacity building implemented, to better manage MoHSW and PO-RALG are expected to ensure the risks associated with HCW. an appropriate monitoring and control system for HCW management is in place. They are also responsible for monitoring the management of HCW at the different levels, and for ensuring that all relevant stakeholders prepare and implement monitoring plans. In practice, however, such 3 out of 33 plans are often not developed or lack the critical SURVEYED HEALTHCARE information necessary to comprehensively FACILITIES RECORDED assess the management of HCW nationwide THE AMOUNT OF WASTE (National Audit Office, 2014). In addition, limited GENERATED PER BED PER DAY information is available on how the LGAs, regional IN 2014 administrations, and others monitor HCW management in their respective areas. 29 MoHSW and PO-RALG are jointly responsible for the management of HCW, more specifically, policy formulation and the development of guidelines to facilitate policy implementation. The LGAs (through the Council Health Management Team), are responsible for planning, implementing, supervising, monitoring, and evaluating HCW management, while the Regional Secretariat plays a coordinating role. In addition, Tanzania is a signatory to three international treaties that aim to ensure the adequate management of hazardous waste: the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and Their Removal, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, and the Minamata Convention on Mercury TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 93 3.6 Pesticide Pollution Pesticides are potentially toxic to humans and being no exception. Most pesticides in Tanzania, the environment and should be safely used and about 80 percent, are used in the agricultural disposed of. Pesticides are a key agricultural input, and livestock sector. The remainder is used in the fundamental to the modernization of agriculture. public health sector, about 20 percent —mainly for In a rapidly expanding population, well-applied malaria vector control—and in other sectors. The pesticides play a key role in food security. However, rising demand for food and the implementation given their toxic nature, they also pose a severe of government extension programs have led to risk if not properly handled. Approximately 5 billion an increase in imports and use of pesticides and kg of pesticides are used worldwide annually, agrochemicals in agricultural activities. Following threatening environmental and human health the agrochemical trade liberalization in 1992, through their effects on biodiversity, nontarget the value of pesticide imports increased from organisms, and the food chain. The release of $10 million in 2001 to $34.3 million in 2013. pesticides into the environment may contaminate The registration of pesticide products has also soil and water bodies, thereby indirectly affecting increased, from 448 products in 2007 to a total of nearby ecosystems and wildlife. Pesticide 1,390 in 2015 (TPRI, 2015). Pesticide application exposure can cause a variety of adverse human varies across Tanzania’s regions and types of health effects, ranging from simple skin and eye crops. While some regions apply more pesticides irritation to more severe effects on the nervous than the national average (e.g., Shinyanga and system. Farm workers are particularly exposed Iringa), the reverse applies to other regions. to pesticides and the associated risks, through inhalation and skin contact during the preparation Despite the critical role pesticides and application of pesticides to crops. play in the agriculture and health Rapid population growth and the associated sectors, they are potentially toxic to growing demand for food have resulted in humans and the environment, and increased pesticide use worldwide, Tanzania should be safely used and disposed of. 94 WORLD BANK GROUP Despite a comprehensive legal framework, the of the risks stemming from the improper use of safe handling of pesticides in Tanzania is not pesticides exposes farmers and the environment always ensured.30 Tanzania has ratified the to significant risks (National Audit Office, 2018a; Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Lekei et al., 2014b). For example, in a case study Pollutants (POPs)31 and the Basel Convention conducted among Arumaru farmers in the Arusha on Transboundary Shipment of Hazardous region, Lekei et al. (2014a) found that 79 percent Wastes and Their Removal. The Plant Protection of their sample reported keeping pesticides inside Act (1997) and its Regulations (1998), describe their homes, often in rooms used by several family the roles of and requirements for all relevant members, while 5 percent used drinking water stakeholders in view of the management of containers to mix pesticides in, and more than quality of pesticides, import requirements, 40 percent applied pesticides without proper registration, certification, and approval, as well personal protection equipment. Many farmers as requirements associated with licensing and discard leftover pesticides on their farms— labeling, packaging, and storage. However, despite pouring them on the ground or burying them. In statutory obligations being imposed on registered addition, 55 percent of the sample left empty retailers,32 unregistered pesticides are found pesticide containers behind on their farm or threw across the country, especially in regions and them in waste pits and most farmers washed districts bordering other countries (National Audit the sprayers in a river at the end of the exercise. Office, 2018a; Lekei et al., 2014a). Illegal pesticide Ngowi et al. (2007) found that about 68 percent imports due to a lack of modern control tools at of farmers reported sometimes feeling sick after the country’s borders and infrequent inspections routine application of pesticides, with symptoms are considered key underlying reasons, together including skin and neurological problems. with a significant shortage of skilled and qualified inspectors, weak implementation of sanctions to pesticide sellers and importers that do not Training farmers on safe usage and comply with legislation, and registered pesticides handling of pesticides can significantly not being available to key users (National Audit reduce environmental and health risks. Office, 2018a). Training farmers on safe usage and handling of Significant pollution levels are attributed to pesticides can significantly reduce environmental pesticides in Tanzania. Comprehensive national and health risks. The widespread lack of awareness data on pesticide residues and contamination is not available, however, several case studies 30 The responsibility for pesticides management lies with the have recorded pesticide residues in various parts Tanzania Pesticides Research Institute (TPRI). TPRI registers and inspects pesticide business entities, provides pesticide importation permits, of Tanzania,33 with pesticides often severely inspects and registers the imported pesticides, and monitors/manages deteriorated, poorly stored, and close to urban the handling and disposal of unwanted/obsolete pesticides and empty containers. The National Plant Protection Advisory Committee (NPPAC) and rural settlements and public infrastructure, consists of members from various government, nongovernment, and including water supplies. Despite pesticides research institutions provides guidance on and approves the disposal of obsolete/unwanted pesticides; the Occupational Safety and Health and (obsolete) pesticide stockpiles presenting a Authority (OSHA) controls and monitors occupational safety and health serious risk, environmental impact assessments in workplaces, including safe use and handling of pesticides. 31 POPs are chemical substances that persist in the environment, bioaccumulate through the food chain, and pose a risk for human health 33 Pesticide residues have been recorded in rivers and lakes in the and the environment. Kilimanjaro Region (Henry and Kishimba 2003, Hellar and Kishimba 2005), in several districts south of the Lake Victoria Basin (Henry and 32 For example, registered retailers must have premises for the Kishimba 2003), in the Kilolo District in the Udzungwa Mountains storage of pesticides that are adequate and well-equipped—with the in the Iringa Region and in the Eastern Usambara Mountains in the necessary storage facilities to prevent exposure of humans, animals, and Tanga Region (Henry and Kishimba 2003). Pesticide residues in soils the environment and suitable for preserving the pesticides’ properties. from leaking storage facilities were also found in the Manyara Region, Other requirements are to distribute only authorized products and Zanzibar, the Mbarali and Mbozi Districts in the Mbeya Region, and the to maintain safe practices when handling and distributing pesticides. Kibaha District in the coast region (Mihale and Kishimba 2004). Pesticide Finally, the retail firm must have sales staff with sufficient knowledge residues including DDT and higher than the recommended environment about pesticides, allowing them to safely handle the products and permissible limits for soil standards, were also reported in Morogoro advise end users appropriately. and Tengeru (National Audit Office 2018a). TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 95 are not systematically carried out by the relevant appropriate integrated pest management government institutions (National Audit Office, practices. These practices target the suppression 2018a). A stocktaking of obsolete pesticides and of pests below the level termed as economic injury associated wastes conducted in 2009 recorded level, by applying a set of measures based on nearly 600 metric tons of obsolete pesticides systematic monitoring of the pest, its life cycle, and more than 2,500 metric tons of associated and its precursors. Integrated pest management waste (particularly contaminated soils). While the uses traditional knowledge, for example by government of Tanzania successfully disposed of combining different types of crops able to most of the obsolete pesticides under the Africa suppress each other’s pests, or by rotating them; Stockpiles Program in 2012, large amounts of good prevention strategies; and pest control and contaminated soil remain. Adequate technical, suppression using the least impactful methods. institutional, and financial capacity are needed to Spraying or widespread use of pesticides are used effectively manage the cleanup of such wastes. as last resort. When application of pesticides is unavoidable, these should be applied in the correct Investing in better management practices and dosage, and in a way that minimizes exposure to technologies can significantly reduce the costs humans and all other forms of life not targeted by of pesticide pollution. The first principle is to the pesticide. minimize the need to apply pesticides, through 96 WORLD BANK GROUP 3.7 Degradation from Mining By their very nature, small- and large-scale natural gas were recently discovered, accounting mining operations are inherently detrimental to for a total of 55.08 trillion cubic feet in 2015, and the environment. In developing countries, mining extraction for domestic electricity and commercial companies are not only attracted by the wealth and industrial activities has started. This is likely of mineral resources, but also by the relatively to further increase the contribution of the mining low safety and environmental standards under sector to the economy. which they are required to operate. Establishing Large-scale mining generates considerable a mine requires clearing land, causing the loss of amounts of toxic waste. In Tanzania, large-scale forests and biodiversity, which in turn affects mines mainly extract gold, tanzanite, coal, and the local surroundings and communities. Once diamonds (MEM, 2015).36 Because of practices established, mining can generate significant such as open-pit mining and cyanide heap pollution through leakages and mineral waste34 leaching,37 38 about 60 metric tons of toxic waste that is dumped in nearby rivers, and by highly are produced for every ounce of gold, with the polluting additives required in the extraction waste including cyanide and toxic heavy metals.39 process (for example, the extraction of gold Mines construct tailing dams where toxic waste requires the use of cyanide, which can have is stored, but the waste often leaches into the particularly severe effects on the environment). groundwater and nearby streams and water bodies, affecting available drinking water for The use of mercury by artisanal and neighboring communities. Around 90 percent of the gold produced in Tanzania originates from the small-scale mining poses significant Lake Victoria region, and the pollution generated environmental and health risks. poses major problems not only in the surrounding areas but also in the lake itself. Large mines In Tanzania, mining and quarrying activities include also affect the air quality—through particulate the extraction of metals, industrial minerals, and fuel emissions40 —and contribute to land degradation minerals. Mining is an important foreign exchange and deforestation because of the expansive nature earner. Between 2005 and 2015, the sector on of mining activities and related infrastructure. average represented 36 percent of the total value The use of mercury by artisanal and small-scale of Tanzania’s exports, with gold accounting for 90 mining poses significant environmental and percent of the total (NBS, 2015); the contribution of mining to GDP over the same period has averaged 36 Large-scale mining is done by large corporations and is often labor- 4 percent.35 According to Tanzania’s Development intensive and dependent on advanced extraction technology. These Vision 2025, the mining sector is planned to account companies tend to mine at large sites and usually operate until the mineral is completely extracted. for 10 percent of the country’s GDP by 2025. Mining operations are conducted both on a large 37 Open-pit mining is a type of mining in which the ore deposit lies at a substantial depth (underground) and necessitates the removal of and small scale, with informal, small-scale gold several layers of rock, creating a pit that extends deep underground. mining estimated to account for 10 percent of total 38 Cyanide heap leaching is a technique commonly used to extract national production (UNEP, 2012). Large reserves of gold, where the ore is first crushed into fine particles and then heaped into large piles that are sprayed with cyanide, which trickles down through the ore and bonds with the gold. 34 Mining waste includes tailings (also called mine dumps, culm dumps, slimes, tails, refuse, or leach residue)—the materials left 39 Large- and medium-sized mining activities generate mining waste over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the in the form of overburden, tailings, and waste rock that can be toxic and uneconomic fraction of an ore. Tailings are distinct from overburden, contaminate the environment, as they can include hazardous chemicals which is the waste rock or other material that overlies an ore or mineral and highly toxic metals. body and is displaced during mining without being processed. 40 Mining operations emit gaseous pollutants and dust through their 35 This percentage fluctuates due to the uncertain nature of mineral operations. These particles may fall within the respirable dust range extraction and the price of gold on global markets. that can be hazardous to human health and cause dust-related diseases. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 97 health risks.41 In Tanzania, small-scale mining of those EIAs systematically. In addition, mining has boomed in recent years, particularly around projects are often geographically concentrated, Lake Victoria in the central and southwestern as is the case of the Lake Victoria Basin, yet every regions, where between 0.5 and 1.5 million people project is subject to a separate EIA, which means are estimated to be involved in small-scale mining the cumulative impacts are not considered. Most (World Bank, 2012; UNEP, 2012; Mdee, 2015).42 artisanal and small-scale mining is of a subsistence Open air burning of gold amalgam produces nature and driven by immediate concerns mercury fumes, while in other instances, the rather than potential long-term consequences amalgam is burned in poorly ventilated rooms, and impacts. Small-scale miners often cannot exposing miners to the dangers of mercury conduct their activities in a sustainable way due contamination (URT-VPO, 2014c). Gold processing to the lack of resources and knowledge, and their through amalgamation is usually done near rivers, failure to meet all relevant legal requirements. which entails health risks for residents further Mining operations can mitigate their environmental downstream, as mercury contaminates water impact through sustainable practices. Globally, sources and ultimately the food chain. Mercury mining operations are increasingly conducted in exposure can lead to neurological and cognitive a way that minimizes the environmental impacts disorders in miners and physical and mental and rehabilitates the land to the extent that it disabilities in children. Tanzania ranks among can be reused by the population or ecosystems. the 10 leading countries in mercury consumption Tanzania has an opportunity to manage the sector for artisanal and small-scale gold mining, with in a way that promotes appropriate technologies an estimated annual consumption of 45 tons and practices for limited water and energy per year. Assuming an emission factor of 0.75, consumption and land degradation, reduced these figures suggest that 33.75 metric tons of waste production and adequate decommissioning. mercury are released every year through artisanal Command and control mechanisms and incentives and small-scale gold mining in Tanzania (AMAP/ for good performance should be thoroughly UNEP, 2013). implemented. Ensuring that both large-scale mining and small- scale and artisanal mining operations comply with environmental regulations is critical. The sector is regulated by the Environmental Management Act of 2004, the Mining Act of 2010, the Petroleum Act of 2015, and the Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines, which fall under the mandates of the Ministry of Energy and Minerals and the NEMC. Most large-scale mining companies conduct the required environmental impact assessments (EIAs) before starting mining activities. However, once mining begins, companies do not necessarily follow nor take into account the recommendations and results 41 Gold extraction at artisanal and small-scale mining is done in a rudimentary fashion, and mercury amalgamation is the most commonly used method. The process involves mixing mercury with gold-containing materials and then heating the resulting mercury-gold amalgam to obtain the gold. For every gram of gold, about two grams of mercury are released into the environment. 42 Artisanal and small-scale mining involves small groups of people engaged in simplified forms of exploration, extraction, processing, and transportation, at low cost, and using low technologies and labor- intensive methods. 98 WORLD BANK GROUP 4 Toward Cleaner, Greener Development 100 WORLD BANK GROUP Tanzania is making significant strides toward together with specific policy recommendations, growing its economy with a view to reducing where relevant. The results of the assessment poverty and improving its citizens’ quality of life. and the recommendations are based on Considering the economy’s dependence on natural consultations with multiple practitioners from resources, maintaining functional ecosystems different disciplines and organizations. During and safeguarding the environment can provide a the consultations, attempts were made to sustainable path toward this goal. Tanzania has prioritize the subsectors requiring more urgent, already made headway by implementing important concerted action. environmental laws, policies, and actions, and by However, priorities are best set by each protecting large areas of land. government agency with some responsibility for environmental management. Identifying priority Tanzania has already made headway issues is not a “zero-sum” game, where directing attention to one set of natural resource issues by implementin g impor t ant (e.g., land degradation) implies that agencies environmental laws, policies, and cannot in parallel also address other issues (e.g., actions, and by protecting large areas industrial pollution). All relevant agencies—from of land. municipalities responsible for SWM to regulatory agencies responsible for conducting EIAs to those responsible for managing land use in and around The previous sections have systematically national parks—can take steps to improve their assessed the key environmental challenges contribution to environmental management. Tanzania needs to consider when planning its Therefore, this study does not propose a prioritized future development. Each challenge has been list of issues requiring attention in decreasing discussed in terms of its magnitude, recent trends, order—all issues can have large environmental and future projections as well as its possible and social impacts—but, instead, proposes impacts and costs (quantified whenever possible), development pathways that include building TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 101 blocks of Tanzania’s development strategy. make it easier for the country to preserve its natural capital and thereby safeguard current Four development paths are suggested, based growth as well as its future sustainability. on the drivers and characteristics of the environmental challenges discussed in this CEA. These paths are: (1) conservation of biodiversity Climate change emerges as a strong and marine and freshwater resources; (2) “multiplier” across all paths and promotion of resilient landscapes; (3) access dimensions of natural resource to modern fuels and low impact urbanization; and (4) strengthened institutions for pollution issues, and as a driver of more management. The first two paths relate to the complex urban management issues more “traditional” rural environmental and natural such as flooding, poor sanitation, and resources challenges, which include degradation of land and water resources, deforestation, and the growing threat of water pollution biodiversity loss. These issues are most relevant and toxic waste. for rural areas, where natural resources are subject to competing demands (biodiversity conservation, This CEA highlights that the environmental agricultural expansion, cattle raising, human challenges are significant, widespread, and gaining settlements, hydropower production). If not urgency as the country develops. However, given properly addressed, they can have impacts the needs in basic sectors such as health and across landscapes and watersheds—degrading education, and the country’s limited financial ecosystems and the services they provide to rural resources, oversight and stewardship of natural and urban economies and livelihoods. The other resources are often insufficiently considered two paths relate to a set of pollution-related and budgeted for. While the call for action on issues, more frequently associated with urban environmental conservation and management settlements, industrialization, and agglomeration, may appear daunting to policy makers, integrated some of which have only recently started drawing approaches that simultaneously tackle the causes concern. of the identified challenges must be formulated. Moreover, the necessary interventions will need Climate change emerges as a strong “multiplier” to be properly sequenced and multi-agency and across all paths and dimensions of natural multi-stakeholder partnerships and approaches resource issues, and as a driver of more complex will have to be developed. urban management issues such as flooding, poor sanitation, and the growing threat of water pollution and toxic waste. Climate change can be considered as a stand-alone priority that Tanzania needs to tackle or as a conditioning factor in each of the environmental challenges. This report takes the latter approach, mainstreaming climate change into the analysis. The four paths are useful to match policies and investments with the root causes of environmental degradation and in the areas where the challenges are acute. They cover the most pressing environmental issues identified through extensive consultations and literature research. Addressing these issues is key to boosting Tanzania’s development without jeopardizing the livelihoods of generations to come. Doing so will 102 WORLD BANK GROUP TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 103 Pathway 1 Conservation of Biodiversity and Marine and Freshwater Resources Conservation of biodiversity – The Wildlife Economy ...there are mounting pressures As pointed out elsewhere, wildlife-based tourism represents an important share of Tanzania’s on the sector, arising from economy. Acknowledging this importance, around poaching and illegal wildlife one third of the country’s land area is under some form of environmental protection (national parks, trade, human-wildlife conflict, game reserves, forest reserves, etc.). Significant deforestation and illegal timber resources are already being spent on maintaining the system of protected areas and combatting logging, land degradation, illegal activities. However, there are mounting coastal degradation, pressures on the sector, arising from poaching overfishing and destructive and illegal wildlife trade, human-wildlife conflict, deforestation and illegal timber logging, land fishing, expansion of the degradation, expansion of the agricultural frontier, agricultural frontier, and other and other threats associated with an expanding population and a growing economy. Moreover, threats associated with a poverty is pervasive in many of the communities growing economy. surrounding protected areas and nearby rural communities see protected areas as a barrier to their development and livelihood rather than as a source of wealth. One possible pathway for One possible pathway for Tanzania’s development would be to give an additional impulse to the Tanzania’s development would “wildlife economy.” Wildlife-based tourism has be to give an additional impulse the potential to become a key engine of growth and prosperity, bringing jobs and livelihoods to to the “wildlife economy” and areas with few other options. the "blue economy.” 104 WORLD BANK GROUP If Tanzania wishes to further benefit from the and especially charcoal, threaten protected wildlife economy, additional efforts will need to be areas such as forest reserves and can easily directed at the sector, in particular: lead to forest degradation and eventual deforestation. A dedicated study on how to A. CURB DEFORESTATION AND HABITAT LOSS. As effectively reduce the share of charcoal in the previously stated, Tanzania is one of the fastest energy mix is recommended, together with the deforesting countries in the world. Forests are creation of a multi-stakeholder platform to a key habitat for wildlife and species of critical oversee the process and guide decision making. importance, their degradation and loss affect the health of protected areas and their ability B. FUNDING FOR CONSERVATION. The Ministry to continue to produce ecosystem services. of Natural Resources and Tourism (mainly The root causes of deforestation in Tanzania through its Wildlife Division), together with are many, but the expansion of the agricultural TANAPA, TAWA, NCAA, and TFS, manage frontier is one of the main ones. Effective the system of protected areas. The latter command and control mechanisms should be four parastatal agencies rely mostly on put in place, combined with monitoring and their own ability to raise resources for their incentives and climate-smart agriculture, to operations. Most of these agencies face curb the current, unsustainable deforestation multiple funding challenges (for example, the trend. In addition, a factor causing forest bulk of TANAPA’s national parks run at a loss degradation (frequently the step preceding and are “subsidized” by the profits of just complete deforestation) is the extraction three parks—the Serengeti, Kilimanjaro and of fuelwood and charcoal for cooking, as Tarangire National Parks). For Tanzania to discussed in more depth in pathway (3). continue reaping benefits from this system, Charcoal and fuelwood extraction are among adequate funding is essential to manage and the environmental challenges most often protect its resources. However, pressures on mentioned by stakeholders, not surprisingly the already stressed system are mounting, given that current estimates show fuelwood including the oscillating (and probably and charcoal are the primary fuels in over 85 declining) nature of the hunting business, percent of all households. The use of fuelwood, and the growing demand for resources due TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 105 to economic development and population location and product offering. There are good growth. The situation calls for the creation examples of how to pursue diversification, such of additional funding sources for wildlife as the REGROW Project, which allows Tanzania conservation, for example, government-led to develop destinations and attractions in the and/or independent conservation funds. These lush but unknown and underdeveloped Southern funds could be capitalized through different Circuit (box 4.1). Diversification into the south of mechanisms—taxes or environmental fines, the country requires investments, infrastructure, offsets, tourism levies, international donors, and the promotion of Iringa as a “gateway” city to and even philanthropists. Many such funds the area, similar to the role Arusha plays in the exist, with Brazil being a world leader and north. Developing other tourism products such neighboring Mozambique offering some good as beach tourism, adventure tourism, or cultural examples of how these can be established tourism, can complement the main, existing and implemented to maintain and innovate activities. conservation toward a “wildlife economy.” D. BENEFIT-SHARING. Some of the poorest C. DIVERSIFICATION. Tanzania’s most popular communities in Tanzania live around protected tourist destinations—among others, the areas, giving rise to pronounced inequality Serengeti and Ngorongoro Crater (in the so- between protected areas hosting tourists called Northern Circuit)—are already showing who pay large sums of money to spend a signs of overcrowding and degradation (World few nights and adjacent communities living Bank, 2015c). If the country aims to continue in poverty and not directly benefiting from increasing revenue from tourism by increasing those revenue sources. This gives rise to the number of tourist arrivals and nights spent encroachment, poaching, bush-meat hunting, in-country, while maintaining its successful human-wildlife conflicts and other tensions. high-value low-density model,43 diversification For wildlife to survive outside the protected is needed. If tourism in the Northern Circuit areas and for protected areas to thrive, continues to increase, there is a risk of communities must have strong incentives ecosystem degradation. Instead, tourism to embrace (or at least tolerate) wildlife as a should be diversified in terms of geographic land use. Approaches need to be adopted that seek to capture multiple benefits from wildlife 43 This model is based on Tanzania’s strategic decision to avoid conservation on state, private, and communal mass tourism and charge higher fees per tourist because visitors are lands. Existing benefit-sharing mechanisms willing to pay a premium for avoiding (over)crowding at the country’s principal attractions. (such as wildlife management areas or the 106 WORLD BANK GROUP government’s support for community-based can contribute to changing the perception of projects) need to be improved, in terms of protected areas as a competitor to a partner the share of revenue that is made available and engine of rural development. to communities, participation of beneficiaries F. BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT. As already in decision making on revenue collection and, established, the protected areas system in ultimately, a more effective devolution of Tanzania offers sanctuary to world-renowned power to beneficiaries. Innovative mechanisms ecosystems, and a rich and varied wildlife that for communities to own and operate resources attracts thousands of tourists from around exist elsewhere (box 2.7), and Tanzania has the world. Tourism is a key contributor to an opportunity to design its own initiatives the country’s GDP and the largest source of toward a more inclusive tourism sector. foreign currency. But tourism will only thrive E. ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS AND RURAL if the tourism-related private sector also DEVELOPMENT. While Tanzania’s population thrives. The contribution of the private sector is booming, economic progress and livelihood to the development of the industry cannot be opportunities tend to be concentrated around overstated. Yet studies show that tourism in development poles. Communities living around Tanzania is subject to multiple, fragmented protected areas continue to rely heavily taxes and levies. For example, tourism on natural resources and regard protected operators alone are subject to more than 20 areas as a competitor for the same resource. different taxes and fees (World Bank, 2015b; If Tanzania is to succeed in preserving its World Bank, 2015c); the taxes and fees in the unique wildlife and ecosystems, less natural tourism sector are unpredictable, uncertain, resource–intensive rural livelihoods need to be and often duplicative, reducing Tanzania’s promoted. The government is already moving in ability to compete with the industry in this direction, for example, through TANAPA’s neighboring countries and attract additional support for community-based projects, but investments. If Tanzania is keen to ensure the more efforts are needed. Investing in modern conservation of its wildlife to secure income and agricultural practices, promoting climate- jobs from tourism, the business environment smart agriculture and agroforestry, or shifting needs to be improved. Key elements in this to intensive cattle farming will provide context are establishing a level playing field alternatives in areas where economic options for local and foreign investors, setting taxes are limited. Skills development in areas such and fees on a rational basis, and introducing as hospitality and environmental conservation efficient collection mechanisms. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 107 G. PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS (PPPs). Setting up robust and clearly defined PPP THE WILDLIFE ECONOMY arrangements has proven to be an efficient and effective way to deliver quality services. While few PPPs exist in Tanzania in relation to protected areas and wildlife-based tourism, they are popular elsewhere (Brazil’s protected IS A KEY ENGINE OF areas offer some leading examples) and range GROWTH AND PROSPERITY, from specific concessions awarded to the BRINGING JOBS AND private sector to offer services (restaurants, LIVELIHOODS TO AREAS shops, tours) to arrangements for infrastructure maintenance within protected WITH FEW OTHER OPTIONS areas. Exploring mechanisms to efficiently deliver services through partners and the private sector will open new possibilities in the management of Tanzania’s extensive natural assets. 108 WORLD BANK GROUP Marine and Freshwater Resources – The Blue Economy Tanzania is endowed with rich coastal and marine The following actions and recommendations are environments, and large, productive freshwater key for Tanzania to unlock its potential to further bodies. If properly managed, these can be turned pursue and benefit from the blue economy44 and into a sustainable engine of development and job its lakes: creation, by amplifying the positive initiatives A. Conserve marine biodiversity and protect that are already underway and minimizing the endangered species. A first, necessary negative impacts and destructive methods. It step toward pursuing the blue economy is was estimated that lost economic benefits from to better maintain the rich marine and lake poorly managed fisheries worldwide stood at resources the country is endowed with. The about $83 billion in 2012 (World Bank, 2017d). Marine Parks and Reserves Unit (currently While Tanzania’s marine resources can provide managing Tanzania’s three marine parks and larger benefits than they currently do, the sector 15 marine reserves) needs to remain a strong needs careful planning, improved governance, and institution, with adequate funding to ensure sustained funding. The great Tanzanian lakes, ongoing future protection of high priority in turn, support some of the most productive biodiversity habitats, including the potential freshwater fisheries in Africa, but urgent measures are needed to curb overfishing and revert the degradation of water quality and water 44 Blue economy in this context refers to the range of economic sectors and related policies that together determine whether the basins. use of oceanic resources is sustainable. Certain aspects of the blue economy—such as coastal tourism, marine transportation, and energy generation—are not discussed in this section. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 109 extension of the system to offshore areas. In infrastructure, and market environments to parallel, continued efforts should be directed function properly. Yet there are opportunities to bridging research gaps about Tanzania’s in some of Tanzania’s priority fisheries and marine biodiversity, including in topics such as the country is already exploring several of distribution of coral reef biodiversity or status these through the World Bank–funded South of vulnerable species’ groups such as sharks, West Indian Ocean Fisheries Governance and rays, and marine mammals, as well as other Shared Growth Project (SWIOFish). relevant freshwater biodiversity. C. Strengthen the private sector, PPPs, and B. Reduce fisheries’ post-harvest losses and infrastructure business plans. International add value. Contrary to popular perception, best practices suggest that the private sector Tanzanian marine waters are not an is well equipped to run and operate fisheries inexhaustible source of fish. Estimates suggest enterprises, provided the government levels that many of the species of commercial the playing field and acts as a regulator. importance are fully exploited or overexploited. Efforts should focus on promoting private Therefore, the objective should be to reduce sector participation and/or the establishment post-harvest losses, instead of continuing of PPPs, because these measures have to increase fishing effort. Some of the root proven to yield economic benefits and create causes of the high post-harvest losses that jobs. Although building new infrastructure characterize the sector are current artisanal (markets, landing sites, cold storage) seems fishing practices; lack of cold chain; poor to be an obvious first step, it is fundamental landing, auctioning, and wholesale facilities; to identify and agree on the arrangements for and the lack of storage infrastructure. A the operation and maintenance (as experience concerted effort is needed to reduce losses has shown that improved landing and market by promoting access to ice and cold storage infrastructure, or even ice production, and improving landing facilities. There is also a alone, will be neglected and underused if the need to shift attention from increasing fishing operations and maintenance are not well efforts to improving post-harvest value defined and formally agreed, with participation addition and access to markets. Value addition of private sector) and to understand the is challenging, as it requires governance, incentives and disincentives for fishermen to 110 WORLD BANK GROUP use the available infrastructure. The market planning, sustained investment, appropriate structure often forces fishermen to sell all landing infrastructure and market chains, their produce to boat/ fishing gear owners partnerships with national and global private who would rather not see the fish auctioned. sector, and a solid understanding of regional And these transactions tend to take place and global market dynamics. A first step could away from landing sites and markets, to avoid be conducting a comprehensive feasibility paying taxes. assessment of the sector, and find entry points to become a player in a very competitive D. Better harness the value from deep sea regional and global environment. fishing in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Tanzania should adopt a double strategy. On E. Prevent the reemergence of blast fishing and the one hand, continue using taxes and levies fight destructive fishing methods. Tanzania to collect revenue from foreign fleets fishing in has recently succeeded, after a long history Tanzania’s EEZ. The licensing of foreign fishing of illegality dating back to the 1960s, to curb vessels is subject to peer competition, and one of the most destructive nearshore fishing Tanzania should ensure that the conditions methods—the use of explosives to kill or stun in its licenses do not impose unsurmountable fish (box 2.10). Blast-fishing was effectively burdens but remain competitive and attract controlled once before, from 1998 to 2002, activity. The government is finalizing the only to re-emerge thereafter. A monitoring review of a new policy framework (Deep Sea system needs to be put in place so as to Fishing Policy, Act and Regulations), and quickly identify if, when and where the practice its final, timely approval is crucial. On the might take root again. Continued training on other hand, Tanzania should start planning awareness as well as on investigation and for the medium-term aspiration of having prosecution are key in this regard. The current Tanzanian vessels fishing tuna and other monitoring, control, and surveillance system offshore fisheries stocks and/or encouraging to prevent illegal fishing should be reviewed foreign vessels to land their catch in Tanzania. and be made more efficient. Lessons can be This is a complex process requiring careful drawn from anti-poaching efforts, where TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 111 patrolling is conducted in response to specific, of beach management units (BMUs) and their intelligence-based information. The strong further aggregation into collaborative fisheries political will at the highest levels to end this management areas (CFMAs). This approach kind of destructive, illegal behavior needs to strengthens the ownership of decision making, be maintained. improves the governance of fisheries resources, and empowers communities to drive their own F. Remain engaged in regional cooperation. development. A factor that commonly affects As some of the most significant Tanzanian coastal fishing communities is the lack of fisheries are regional in nature, their diversity of income-generating opportunities monitoring, control, and surveillance outside of harvesting marine resources. A could benefit from economies of scale (for further factor that constrains entry into other example joint patrolling, data-sharing, joint types of livelihood such as trading, agriculture enforcement of safety at sea regulations, and and livestock, as well as secondary and technology). Adoption and implementation of tertiary education, and vocational training, is international protocols and agreements, such limited access to credit. Access to small loans as the Port State Measures Agreement, are can frequently make the difference between key to fight illegal, unreported and unregulated dependency on a hand-to-mouth existence fishing activity. The country should continue as a primary resource-harvester, and gaining participating actively in regional fora (such an entry-point into other livelihood options. as the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission and Tanzania has a tradition of microfinance and the South West Indian Ocean Fisheries self-savings groups, and the so-called village Commission) to further strengthen relations savings and loan associations have shown and improve collaboration. The environmental promise in the fisheries sector. problems faced by the Lake Victoria Basin are of a similar regional nature. Disease vectors and oxygen-depleting nutrients that enter the lake through one nation’s discharge of untreated wastewater affect the water quality of all countries that share the lake, ultimately depleting fish stocks because of deteriorating water quality. Addressing these challenges requires both local and national efforts in all countries concerned, jointly undertaken and coordinated at the regional level. Efforts under the Lake Victoria Basin Commission and the East African Community toward jointly managing the lake’s resources are essential, as are regional water quality and ecosystem monitoring platforms. G. Continue supporting co-management and improved coastal livelihood opportunities. The fisheries sector is an important source of jobs and livelihoods for coastal and lake communities, and Tanzania has been promoting co-management of resources for several decades. An additional impetus is needed for this process to be successful— supporting the creation and operationalization 112 WORLD BANK GROUP TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 113 PATHWAY 2 Promotion of Resilient Landscapes Rural areas that successfully The second pathway proposed under the CEA is a spatial one, a strategic work methodology balance ecosystem, economic, aimed at considering all environmental resources and social functions are available in a determined area (a landscape) and optimizing their use in a sustainable manner. As more resilient to shocks and such, recommendations in this section are broader uncertainties. than in the previous ones, more focused on ensuring that the overall risks and opportunities offered by landscapes are appropriately captured. A key feature of the landscape approach45 is the establishment of a multi-stakeholder platform. A key feature of the landscape The importance of this platform cannot be overstated, as it is the basis for identifying approach is the establishment challenges and opportunities in a comprehensive of a multi-stakeholder way, a task that cannot be accomplished by a single group. These platforms help stakeholders share platform. information, develop a common understanding of their landscape, build trust, negotiate trade-offs, monitor progress, and learn from each other’s experience. It is recommended that Tanzania carefully plans and implements these platforms, especially in remote and rural areas where community engagement and collaboration are fundamental to success. 45 Landscape approach refers to the management of multiple land uses in an integrated manner, considering both the natural environment and the human systems that depend on the landscape in question. 114 WORLD BANK GROUP The landscape approach is a powerful tool to socioeconomic repercussions and opportunities. address challenges in the rural space. Rural The essence of this approach is to focus on the areas are undergoing transformative changes as connection between the needs of people and the natural resources such as forests, water, land, environment on the one hand and the need to and biodiversity face increasing pressure and build the resilience of the overall system for the the ecosystem services they provide continue to benefit of the ecosystem and the community on degrade. A growing body of evidence shows that the other hand. rural areas that successfully balance ecosystem, Successful and sustainable interventions economic, and social functions are more resilient must involve collaborative actions by a multi- to shocks and uncertainties. Such a balanced stakeholder platform that includes agriculture, approach can sustain livelihoods, address food forestry, rural infrastructure, fisheries, water security issues, protect vital ecosystem services, resources, and tourism. and enable humans and landscapes to adapt to current and future impacts of climate change. The key aspect of the natural resources–related challenges is their fundamental interconnectivity. Land degradation, water scarcity, deforestation, and biodiversity loss, are all linked at the landscape level. Multiple pressures on the landscape often combine into larger, more detrimental impacts. For example, deforestation can lead to biodiversity loss, soil erosion, pollution of nearby waterways, and a decrease in stream flow. All these effects can have economic and social consequences for the people who rely on these resources for their livelihood. A landscape approach considers the complex interactions between human activities and the environment, including their physical and TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 115 Ecological and social processes interact on is a key driver of the economy, and an activity multiple spatial scales—from local practices that needs to be promoted. However, should and conditions (such as communities producing be carefully managed as it is not only the main food) to broader influences and effects (such as driver of deforestation and land degradation, upstream water use or water policy). Managing but also the largest freshwater consumer in these interlinked landscape systems thus requires Tanzania. Future demand for these resources will collaboration among stakeholders from different increase significantly. Meeting these demands sectors, interests, and levels. These stakeholders while maintaining functional ecosystems requires contribute knowledge of best practices in their complementary measures such as optimizing field as well as an understanding of the functions land use, raising crop yields, protecting soils and of ecosystems, the water cycle, land management, watersheds, recharging aquifers, restoring land, and the interaction between these processes. and reducing climate risks. These measures can be adapted to the ecological and social needs of More efficient management of land and water communities and the environment. Widespread resources at the landscape scale is critical to implementation of climate smart practices and achieving green and resilient growth. Agriculture approaches is a priority for the sector. BOX 4.1: IMPLEMENTING THE LANDSCAPE APPROACH IN TANZANIA THROUGH THE REGROW PROJECT Tanzania's diverse natural resources, especially wildlife, form the basis of its tourism development. However, limited infrastructure and management capacity, environmental degradation, land-use conflicts, climate change, and wildlife poaching are threatening the health of these natural assets and undermining the potential for tourism growth. Additionally, tourism remains heavily concentrated along the Northern Circuit, leading to overstress and carrying- capacity limitations. The Resilient Natural Resource Management for Tourism and Growth Project (REGROW) aims to improve the country's capacity to protect and manage its rich natural resources in the Southern Circuit, by developing key tourism assets to promote activities in the area. The project includes a landscape approach to the challenge of the Great Ruaha River: to reduce the number of days the river runs dry—through short-, medium-, and long-term interventions—a factor that is significantly affecting the environmental services that the river provides. At the same time, the project is assisting the government in addressing rural poverty around the Southern Circuit by enhancing the participation of communities in nature-based economic activities and exploring alternative livelihoods. The World Bank is partnering with the government of Tanzania to promote environmental sustainability and safeguard biodiversity in Ruaha, strengthen water resources management at the national and regional level, foster climate-smart agriculture practices, and facilitate dialogue and coordination among stakeholders. A landscape approach has been adopted and different stakeholders are involved in the activities being implemented across the watershed: (i) human settlements and livestock in the upper catchment areas, to reduce land degradation; (ii) farmers in the agricultural plains, to promote efficient water use in irrigation in the rice paddy plains, on-farm and drainage management, and water governance; and (iii) protected areas and tourism stakeholders in the Ruaha National Park, to implement infrastructure that will increase water availability during the dry season in the Ruaha National Park, in preparation for extremely dry years. 116 WORLD BANK GROUP Improving landscape productivity also requires Establishing a multi-stakeholder platform to strengthening property rights and motivating jointly identify challenges, define a vision for individuals, households, and communities to invest what the area should look like in the future and and manage resources in the most productive what services it should provide, and agree on and sustainable way possible. A large body of an implementation plan makes it much more evidence from international case studies shows likely that efforts to improve environmental that the design of user rights directly affects conditions and access to sustainable jobs will investment and productivity in both agriculture succeed. The government has a long history and forestry. Tanzania can also draw on its own of engagement in the area and the Lake history of community forestry reform, which Victoria Environmental Management Project, clearly shows the need to ensure communities are implemented in partnership with the World actively involved in the sustainable and productive Bank, offers valuable lessons on how to improve management of forests and plantations. The landscape management—for example, by integrated water and land management practices encouraging sustainable, climate-resilient land being implemented by REGROW (box 4.1) are and WRM through effective and well-targeted suitable in this context and represent a good livelihood support, ecosystem monitoring, and example of how Tanzania is implementing the natural resource management. landscape approach. B. Msimbazi River and similar water courses. Another fundamental step toward landscape- As illustrated in box 3.2, some of the problems scale investments is improved valuation of caused by the Msimbazi River as it flows environmental services. As shown in section through Dar es Salaam (such as floods, 2, current deforestation trends mainly reflect pollution, and siltation) originate outside the the fact that a mere fraction of the total value city, in the upper areas of the catchment. of forests is currently recognized. In addition, Deforestation, land degradation, sand mining, the fact that very few estimates exist of the and other anthropogenic activities at different nonmarket value of forest services, biodiversity, geographical locations of the water course are and broader ecosystem services accounts for root causes of the problematic downstream the drastic undervaluation of the actual costs of situation. Bringing all stakeholders together; environmental degradation. defining a joint vision; and reconciling human activity, environmental services, and their trade- Tanzania has multiple opportunities to implement offs would facilitate the management of what is resilient landscape-based interventions across a critical water source for Dar es Salaam. the country. Specific suggestions include: C. Arid and semi-arid areas, including the A. Watersheds around the great lakes. As surroundings of Dodoma. As Tanzania gives shown in box 2.8, lakes such as Victoria and renewed impetus to Dodoma as the country’s Tanganyika are a key source of livelihoods capital city and government’s headquarters, and development for the surrounding the city is expected to experience rapid communities because they sustain a rich and growth. Its dependence on environmental productive fishery and provide transportation services from its surroundings (additional opportunities. However, human-induced land for agriculture, clean water for human changes across the watersheds are consumption, food and fodder) will be more deteriorating water quality and threatening acute than ever. The area is also vulnerable their ability to provide services. Deforestation, to climate change. Identifying priorities for runoff from agriculture, and untreated action now through a resilient landscapes lens wastewater, as well as small and irregular is recommended, recognizing that it is easier mining activities are all linked to jobs and to plan ahead and prevent problems than livelihoods, and limiting or eliminating them, address them when they arise. in isolation, would be socially challenging. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 117 D. Implementing climate smart agriculture. resilience through boosting productivity and This recommendation has been included under reducing emissions. the landscapes pathway, but it could have Incentivizing and encouraging investment in been discussed in several other pathways and sound, resilient landscape-based projects will sectors. Agriculture remains a key contributor further accelerate the adoption of environmentally to GDP, and growth in agriculture is essential beneficial actions. Incentives provided through to the improvement of food security and policy, governance, and funding will promote the nutrition, and job creation, especially in rural transition to sustainable practices. For example, areas. However, many traditional agriculture incentivizing farmers to plant trees through the systems in Tanzania are currently extensive, adoption of conservation agriculture and other with practices that lead to deforestation and agroforestry practices will reduce deforestation land degradation. Climate change is expected while providing income and access to the resources to have the greatest impact through the they require. Several windows of financing could agriculture sector, and hence on the rural poor. be explored, including those under the Global Increased irrigation, especially small-scale Environment Facility, the Green Climate Fund, and efficient irrigation, can partially offset the REDD+, all of which are familiar to Tanzania. impacts of climate change. It will be important to ensure that the agriculture sector adopts Finally, designing and implementing the right set climate-smart strategies in order to achieve of policies for each context is a powerful tool to promote resilience and reconcile trade-offs. When weighing policy options, each government agency with responsibility for the environment should consider the four “I’s” and assess them for each priority issue within the landscape: 1 2 Information Institutions How information can be collected and made available, How institutions can be including the environmental data needed to design policies; the strengthened and effectively alternative cost and benefit streams of competing land, water, coordinate their activities with relevant agencies to build an and energy uses; and the future environmental liabilities that environment supportive of the could affect private investment in various sectors. vision agreed by stakeholders. 3 Incentives 4 Investments How incentives can be brought to bear at all How investments by the government, levels—individuals, firms, agencies, and civil domestic and foreign firms, and individuals— society—to ensure that they act in support physical, natural, productive, and human— of a sustainable and growing economy. can be promoted. This requires careful planning and the relevant institutions to provide the necessary incentives. 118 WORLD BANK GROUP TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 119 PATHWAY 3 Access to Modern Fuels and Low Impact Urbanization Access to modern fuels A recurrent environmental challenge Widespread use of fuelwood and charcoal as identified in stakeholder consultations biomass fuels has implications and interlinkages was the use of firewood and charcoal as with multiple issues already analyzed in this CEA, including deforestation and forest degradation, the main fuel for domestic consumption erosion and land degradation, air pollution and (primarily for cooking). Widespread human health, gender, and climate change. use of these two biomass fuels has Addressing this issue therefore arises as one of implications for deforestation and the most salient and immediate recommendations forest degradation, air polllution and of this CEA, as limiting the amount of biomass fuel consumed by households would have an human health, erosion and degradation, immediate positive impact on ecosystems and gender, and climate change. human health. There have been multiple efforts in the past to address this challenge, with uneven results. To date, most have focused on offering more efficient Tanzania is rapidly urbanizing, and it or more sustainable charcoal, promoting improved biomass cookstoves or internal ventilation and is important for this expansion to be gas exhaust systems, or a combination of these. compatible with environmental targets to Some initiatives such as the Tanzania Forest limit pollution, promote sustainable living Conservation Group and Mjumita’s approach conditions, and create infrastructure to sustainable forest and charcoal production and transport systems that are resilient practices show positive results and potential for scale-up in the production of sustainable charcoal to climate change. (box 2.2). 120 WORLD BANK GROUP Sustainably produced charcoal guarantees the agriculture, and so on). Therefore, the adoption of forests concerned are managed properly; the any policy measure aimed at regulating charcoal charcoal produced brings value to the community use should be carefully considered in advance. that owns it; and the process does not lead to A steady, progressive decline in the country’s deforestation or forest degradation. However, use of charcoal, steadily reducing the share of most of the charcoal produced in Tanzania does biomass in the overall domestic energy mix, is not follow those principles. Traditional cooking recommended to avoid forest degradation and the in Tanzania is based on the use of a few stones related deforestation. Given Tanzania’s vigorous (usually three) and the adoption of more modern economic growth, and especially considering its technologies would not only reduce the amount of steep population increase and acceleration of fuel needed but also the amount of exhaust gas economic activities, long-term forest degradation produced. Unfortunately, the country’s adoption and the related deforestation can only be rate of efficient cookstoves remains low. prevented by transitioning to a smaller reliance on Applying command and control methods charcoal consumption for cooking. only to manage charcoal demand could prove counterproductive. Charcoal production may have two, opposite kinds of impacts on Tanzanian forests. On the one hand, indiscriminate charcoal production and the installation of earth kilns will contribute to forest and land degradation; and once the forest is degraded, pressure for new lands for agriculture and other uses may result in complete deforestation. On the other hand, the production of charcoal accords forests a certain value, as producers derive their livelihood from it. Consequently, a ban or heavy taxation of charcoal production or consumption would eliminate the current value of a forest, increasing its vulnerability to other destructive uses (logging, TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 121 To this end, the following steps are suggested: Division of Environment. These stakeholders are critical, as it is vital to obtain high-level buy- A. Focus initially on Dar es Salaam and expand in and leadership from the Ministry of Energy, to other cities once solutions prove viable. since technically feasible and affordable Although estimates vary, studies conducted energy alternatives to charcoal must exist for to date estimate Dar es Salaam’s overall charcoal to become less prevalent in the energy charcoal consumption represents over 50 mix. National, regional and local governments, percent of the country’s total consumption. producers, users, forest and biodiversity In addition, around 88 percent of the capital’s stakeholders, NGOs, consumers’ associations, households use charcoal as part of their health professionals, development partners, cooking energy mix. Therefore, reducing the and academia should be convened regularly share of households using charcoal to cook in and consulted as the government charts a path Dar es Salaam would significantly alleviate the toward the progressive reduction of charcoal situation. Promoting alternatives to charcoal use. End users (heavily dominated by women) in a dense urban center like Dar es Salaam should also be engaged in this conversation. would benefit from economies of scale and could result in a quicker uptake of alternative C. Conduct a detailed analysis of the value cooking fuels in the capital than in rural or chain. Limiting the share of charcoal that small urban centers. Once solutions in the is used in Tanzania will affect production, capital have been proven valid, expansion to transportation, wholesale, and retail. Several other cities would be easier. hundreds of thousands of people participate in this trade and they must be part of the solution. B. Convene a multi-stakeholder platform. Understanding the value chain will provide Charcoal consumption is deeply rooted in valuable insights in the political economy Tanzanian culture. Despite decades-long and existing incentives and disincentives for attempts to reduce charcoal consumption charcoal consumption in Dar es Salaam. in the city, charcoal has remained popular. Traditionally, attempts to tackle the situation D. Conduct an in-depth review of the fiscal have been led by departments responsible policies, incentives, and loopholes related to for forestry and natural resources, and the biomass fuels and their alternatives. Fiscal 122 WORLD BANK GROUP measures are an efficient way to send signals that have lower environmental and health to producers and consumers and can gradually impacts. Immediate, obvious alternatives bring charcoal use down to the desired levels. seem to be LPG (the gas bottle already widely The government currently generates revenue used in Dar es Salaam), for the short and from charcoal primarily through the fees medium term, and electricity and natural collected by TFS from transporters and gas, for the medium and long term. However, traders. Fees are also collected by district and a detailed analysis of the alternatives is still village governments in producer areas as well lacking. This plan, ideally, should be based in as by municipal governments in consumption a sustainable urban energy strategy, to be areas (business license fees are due by those prepared by a multi-stakeholder group. involved in retail and wholesale). However, no F. Promote sustainable charcoal production VAT (of 18 percent) is paid on charcoal, one of practices. Based on current consumption the reasons mentioned by stakeholders is that patterns, cultural preferences, and the causes many enterprises involved in the charcoal trade of past failures, charcoal is likely to remain a remain below Tanzania Revenue Authority’s major component of the energy mix for years revenue thresholds. Some preliminary to come. Unsustainable charcoal production estimates suggest that Tanzania collects only is already adversely affecting forests, while about 10 percent of the total amount related its benefit for the surrounding communities to the charcoal business it could collect. A is unclear. Efforts should be made to ensure proactive enforcement of the VAT would level that current and future (hopefully decreasing) the playing field with other sources of energy charcoal demand in Dar es Salaam is met by for cooking. sustainably produced charcoal—in accordance E. Prepare and reach consensus on a with good forestry practices, generating comprehensive plan to progressively limit the benefits for communities, and in compliance amount of charcoal used in Dar es Salaam. with current fiscal policies. Tanzania already The plan should define a specific pathway has experience in this area and merely needs toward fuel substitution, focusing on fuels to scale up current practices (box 2.2). (United Nations 2014). Traditionally, Tanzania’s Low Impact Urbanization environmental agenda has been dominated by the urge to protect the country’s rich and Tanzania is rapidly urbanizing, and it is unparalleled natural resources. Equal attention important for this expansion to be compatible should be given to urban settlements, where with environmental targets to limit pollution, most Tanzanians are expected to live, and where promote sustainable living conditions, and create environmental conditions can either become a infrastructure and transport systems that are catalyst that empowers citizens and promotes resilient to climate change. The country’s urban good development, or an impediment to progress population is expected to grow from about 22 and citizen well-being. million in 2020 (35 percent of the total) to over 70 million, or 53 percent of the total, by 2050 (as shown in figure 1.2), making Tanzania the Urbanization is largely informal and fastest urbanizing country in Africa. New urban unplanned, with a large fraction of settlements are emerging while existing cities inhabitants residing in areas lacking and towns are rapidly developing. Dar es Salaam is expected to become a megacity by 2030, basic services such as clean water, its population projected to exceed 10 million sanitation, roads, and electricity. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 123 Environmental risks in urban settlements are The government is already taking important potentially large and impacts rooted in agglomeration steps in the preparation of plans—with and poor environmental conditions have been 29 LGAs developing Master Plans/General extensively documented. Some stark figures have Planning Schemes, and the emphasis should already been mentioned in this document—an now be given on how to translate these plans estimated 26,000 premature deaths per year into effective implementation (Huang et al., due to air pollution, millions of people in urban 2018). areas affected by food and waterborne diseases B. Maintain healthy urban ecosystems and or devastating urban floods. A single flood in April green space. Cities such as Dar es Salaam 2018, for example, claimed the lives of 15 people and have a significant degree of informality, with displaced more than 2,000 families living in the Dar unplanned settlements quickly arising. In es Salaam Msimbazi River basin. addition to other evident shortcomings, illegal Urbanization is largely informal and unplanned, settlements may cause the loss of open green with a large fraction of inhabitants residing in areas and other environmental zones that play areas lacking basic services such as clean water, an important role in sediment retention, water sanitation, roads, and electricity. Urban planning infiltration and flood prevention, recreational and reliable, quality services provision (modern use, and others. Limiting the loss of open green domestic energy sources, water supply and spaces, both from legal and illegal settlements, sanitation, solid waste collection and disposal) is essential for natural systems to be able to would go a long way in addressing pressing perform their regulating functions. environmental and public health issues. The C. Promote the construction of low-impact recommendations regarding this pathway are housing. There are well-known architectural cross-cutting, as they relate to services provision, solutions that minimize the energy and planning, and development. High-level suggestions material consumption of housing. For are offered below. example, tropical architecture can use natural A. Improve urban planning. Municipalities ventilation, traditional and locally sourced across Tanzania need to develop strategies to materials, and even alternative (green) sources curb degradation, prevent urban sprawl and of energy to provide affordable, low-impact encroachment on risk-prone areas, and address and sustainable housing solutions. Given the current development that is blocking natural location and weather conditions prevalent drainage systems. Unplanned settlements in Tanzanian cities, it is important to avoid tend to form in the urban periphery, expanding structures that require copious quantities the urban area while at the same time settling of energy for air conditioning. Rainwater in lands not suited for habitation such as harvesting for nondrinking water uses (toilet river valleys, rocky hillsides, and wetlands, flushing, garden watering, and others), solar which are cheaper but particularly vulnerable systems to heat and store water, and the use to extreme weather events. Promotion of of roofs with a natural cover, are all relatively urban densification is key, as vertical growth simple technologies that could be fostered of cities facilitates densification and offers and mainstreamed in urban centers. economies of scale. In a country so vulnerable D. Transition to modern energy sources for to climate events and given their overarching cooking to limit household air pollution. This intensification due to climate change, building priority has been documented in the previous resilience should be an integral part of urban pathway and is directly relevant to urban planning. Mainstreaming resilience into planning. The widespread use of biomass current planning systems should be combined fuels significantly deteriorates air quality, with technical assistance for approaches such affecting human health and raising mortality as green infrastructure and urban upgrading. and morbidity rates. Improved housing, better 124 WORLD BANK GROUP and more efficient cooking stoves, and most F. Improve water supply and sanitation. important, access to alternative, modern Although this CEA does not intend to elaborate fuels is fundamental to reducing household on this recommendation as the sector already air pollution. This is one of the main priorities receives plenty of attention and resources identified in this CEA. from the government, it is still important to highlight the negative feedback mechanisms E. Improve urban mobility and tackle outdoor that exist. Lack of access to safe water forces air pollution. Although only incipient in communities and families to drink polluted Tanzania, outdoor air pollution is a prominent water, a main source of environmental environmental challenge in urban centers damage worldwide. Improving access to around the world. Vehicle exhaust is usually clean water is thus a priority and constitutes one of the main contributors to outdoor air one of the United Nation’s SDGs and pollution, through the generation of PM and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable polluting gases. Given the rapid growth of Dar Development. In addition, agglomeration es Salaam and the emergence of secondary causes the concentration of human waste, cities, improving urban mobility is fundamental. and insufficient sanitation services lead to Tanzania is a regional leader in mass transport, polluted water being discharged into the best illustrated by the implementation of open, contaminating aquifers and other water its bus rapid transit system (BRT). The BRT bodies. This in turn causes environmental is a potentially transformative investment, degradation and acute episodes such as algal supporting pro-poor urban mobility. However, blooms and anaerobic conditions, which are to capitalize on this investment, the network detrimental to aquatic life and biodiversity, needs to be expanded and transport and land- and frequently have a direct negative effect use planning integrated. Enhancing overall on coastal areas. These polluted water bodies urban mobility will improve air quality and save are the sources for water that citizens use— travelers time and money. Another significant either directly, contributing to morbidity and advantage of mobility improvements and mortality or indirectly (after being treated mass transport systems is that they reduce to human consumption standards), implying GHG emissions, which are the main cause of costly potabilization processes that drain an climate change. already meager budget. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 125 G. Improve solid waste management. The toxic substances); reduced flood risks (as solid benefits of sound solid waste management waste clogs the drainage systems, reducing cannot be overstated, and Tanzania is already their efficiency); prevention of the propagation making significant efforts in the right direction, of pests (such as the Indian crow, an invasive with the construction of 7 sanitary landfills species that feeds on human garbage) and through the World Bank-financed Tanzania vector-borne diseases; and reduced spread of Strategic Cities project. Efficient solid waste garbage in sensitive areas (e.g., beaches) and management has multiple environmental of plastics in the ocean (box 2.9). The latter is benefits, including reduced soil, water, and air a key emerging environmental emergency that pollution (as solid waste often gets dumped in affects marine life, fisheries, and coral reefs, irregular dumpsites leaching into water bodies, as well as beach tourism. or burnt along the street producing highly 126 WORLD BANK GROUP TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 127 PATHWAY 4 Strengthened Institutions for Pollution Management The benefits of a non-polluted The importance of strong, well-trained and environment are many, and become sufficiently-resourced institutions for sound environmental management cannot be essential if the country is to further overstated. In this CEA, each environmental develop in a sustainable way. challenge has been analyzed from different angles, including from the description of mandates and institutions tasked to addressing them. Environmental conservation and management are crosscutting topics, demanding high levels of coordination of stakeholders. Given the large amount and complexity of government bodies and A pathway towards improving the ability institutions involved in the management of the more traditional “rural environmental and natural of institutions to regulate, monitor and resources challenges”, highlighted in section 2 control pollution, will lead to a reduction of this report, this pathway focuses on pollution in environmental pollution loads, and prevention, a mandate that is more narrowly thus, to better quality of public goods entrusted to the Vice President's Offcie (VPO) such as air, water, and soil. and National Environment Management Council (NEMC), and that was thoroughly discussed in section 3. A pathway towards improving the ability of institutions to regulate, monitor and control pollution, will lead to a reduction in environmental pollution loads, and thus, to better quality of public goods such as air, water, and soil. The benefits of a non-polluted environment are many, and become essential if the country is to further develop in a sustainable way. 128 WORLD BANK GROUP Tanzania’s government is boosting the country’s negative health effects associated with exposure industrialization process. Other sources of to degraded air and water. Reducing pollution is pollution—mining, quarrying, solid waste, e-waste, vital, as industrialization and population growth pesticides, among others—are all expected to are expected to accelerate in and around Dar es increase as a result. It has often been argued Salaam over the next few decades. that the “pollute first, clean up later” principle is economically less savvy than environmentally Improving pollution regulations and responsible practices and policies. It is always easier to implement adequate industrial compliance is an early and highly cost- pollution regulations before new investments effective approach for governments to are made, as opposed to trying to clean-up a avert even higher pollution loads in the polluted environment at a later stage. Therefore, medium term. improving pollution regulations and compliance is an early and highly cost-effective approach for Strong institutions and strengthened capacity to governments to avert even higher pollution loads manage environmental pollution are at the heart in the medium term. Tanzania is in the privileged of sound environmental performance. The VPO position of being able to plan its development in a has the mandate to take the lead in environmental way that reduces the overall negative impact by compliance aspects. The Division of Environment capturing the benefits associated with cleaner (DoE) within the VPO and NEMC are the ones industries, such as greater resource efficiency, fulfilling this mandate. The recommendations improved worker health, technological innovation, below focus on how VPO-DoE and NEMC can be and greener jobs. strengthened to further improve environmental Current research points to Dar es Salaam as the management and pollution control in Tanzania. center of pollution. The city and its surroundings A. Regulatory framework. The overarching account for 88 percent of air, water, and soil laws governing Tanzania’s environmental pollution, primarily from industrial outputs and management are the National Environmental urban waste production. Of concern are also the Policy (NEP) of 1997 and the Environmental emissions from vehicles, which continue to grow. Management Act (EMA) of 2004. The EMA is A concentrated monitoring and enforcement undergoing a review and has not yet been fully effort would significantly reduce pollution and the developed (a significant number of pieces of TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 129 secondary legislation is still required for its full of VPO-DoE and NEMC to carry out their implementation, including regulations, rules, mandate needs to be boosted, given current notices, orders, guidelines, and environmental and rapidly emerging new challenges (such quality standards). Elaborating these tools is as large infrastructure projects, oil, gas and key for the EMA to be fully effective and for alternative energy sources, medical waste, DoE and NEMC to be fully empowered to carry and climate change). The VPO-DoE and NEMC, out their mandate. as well as other sector ministries with a role in environmental performance, require sound B. Cross-coordination and inter-government institutional capacity in terms of competent collaboration. The implementation of EMA technical personnel, a conducive working requires the support and proactiveness of environment, regulatory environmental tools, all levels of government. To date, limited and well-functioning systems. An ambitious awareness of the sector ministries, LGAs, training program should be implemented on and the public of their role and responsibility topics ranging from environmental impact in implementing EMA is a challenge that assessments and strategic environmental needs to be overcome. A comprehensive and social assessments to operational health capacity-building and awareness-raising and safety, pollution control and monitoring campaign targeting sector ministries, techniques, and clean production technologies, LGAs, and government institutions on their to name a few. roles and responsibilities under the EMA in environmental management, enforcement, E. Monitoring systems. The establishment and compliance is recommended. and upkeep of a centralized environmental information system is recommended. This C. Enforcement. The VPO-DoE and NEMC play system would enable data storage and a leading role in carrying out inspections retrieval, allowing analysis and sharing of of polluting facilities. However, their ability environmental parameters and data collected to enforce legislation is jeopardized by across the country. This system could also insufficient resources, insufficient/obsolete become an important tool for data sharing tools and inspection kits, and a significant and engagement with civil society. In addition, shortage of environmental inspectors needed field-based monitoring networks are in dire to do the work. It is estimated that around need. Filling large data gaps of important 1,000 additional inspectors are needed. parameters for air and water pollution, land The DoE has the ability to train and appoint pollution, and industrial effluents should be a environmental inspectors from other parts of priority. Investing in monitoring networks has the government and has the ambition to train elsewhere proven to be cost-effective and a key and appoint 100 environmental inspectors aspect of smart development planning. These from sector ministries, 300 from government monitoring networks would feed the central institutions, and another 600 from LGAs. This information system and permit the analysis important step is necessary, and DoE will need of baseline levels and trends, and exposure to have access to the resources and staffing risks; facilitate compliance and enforcement; required to do so. and provide incentives for effective policy D. Capacity building. The EMA has introduced implementation. new, specific requirements regarding F. Quality control laboratories. Emissions from environmental management in the country vehicles should be regularly monitored and the that require either the consolidation and government has an array of measures at its upgrading of existing capacities and/or new disposal to regulate and limit pollution from capacities among environmental actors in exhausts. Sufficient and adequate facilities to government, LGAs, NGOs, and the private measure emissions are key to the preparation sector. As regulatory agencies, the ability 130 WORLD BANK GROUP of programs such as end-of-pipe requirements G. Citizen engagement and feedback (exhaust filters); quality requirements for the mechanisms. A key component of a dynamic, fuels (limiting sulfur or nitrogen content, octane constructive, and modern environment is the rating, and others); regulations on the types proactive participation of civil society in the of engines allowed and their environmental analysis, discussion, and decision making on performance; and measures that allow or limit environmental issues. Fostering feedback driving certain polluting vehicles in specific and reporting of grievances by affected areas or during specific periods. Some vehicle stakeholders is also internationally considered groups are generally more polluting than others good practice, as it strengthens institutions and targeted programs could be considered to, and accountability as well as good governance. for instance, facilitate access to better engines The VPO-DoE’s plans to establish a citizen for public buses or other initiatives that have engagement tool for reporting environmental proven successful elsewhere. Facilities to information is a step in the right direction and measure other types of pollution (water, soil), such a system should be built, tested, and and for quality control of food and consumption implemented countrywide. products, are key for the government to better regulate and legislate to minimize emission loads and reduce exposure. TANZANIA COUNTRY ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 131 References 2030 WRG (Water Resources Group). 2014. EIA (Environmental Investigation Agency). 2014. 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