69651 Financial Performance and Soundness Indicators for the South Asia Region Phase III Getting Finance in South Asia An Analysis of the Commercial Banking Sector August 31, 2006 Simon C. Bell Sector Manager Kiatchai Sophastienphong Senior Financial Sector Specialist Anoma Kulathunga Consultant Finance and Private Sector Development Unit South Asia Region World Bank ABSTRACT This report is the third in a series of regional studies published annually on the Financial Performance and Soundness Indicators—commonly known as the Getting Finance Indicators. Examining data for 2001–05, analysis of the indicators reveals that commercial banking sectors in the five South Asian countries covered—Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—have generally been expanding access to finance and improving their performance and efficiency, stability, and corporate governance. But as reflected in the country rankings on the indicators, some countries have fared better than others. Because the indicators chosen for the analysis are limited in coverage to commercial banks, however, the report’s findings provide only a partial picture of the soundness and robustness of financial sectors. The general applicability of the findings on access to finance also is limited: as a result of comparability and data issues, the indicators of access ignore a range of other deposit-taking financial institutions. In India cooperative banks and post offices have more than 150 million deposit accounts. Similarly, in Bangladesh microfinance institutions have a client base of around 16 million. And in Sri Lanka post offices and the National Savings Bank have saving accounts amounting to 8.9 percent of GDP. By 2005 in the South Asian region microfinance had extended to at least 35 million of some 270 million households, meeting around 15 percent of the credit needs of low-income households. Coverage was particularly impressive in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, where microfinance services reached more than 60 percent of the poor (Sinha and others 2006). Moreover, assessing the health of the financial system on the basis of a limited number of indicators is fraught with technical and practical difficulties. The rules on loan classification and loan loss provisioning vary from country to country. The data used for comparisons sometimes refer to different periods. The definitions and concepts used may differ from country to country (while a compilation guide has been prepared to address this issue, it is hard to ensure that central banks strictly follow this guide in providing data). Accounting principles and practices vary across the countries (though all have taken steps in recent years to bring local accounting standards in line with international ones, the extent to which these standards are actually followed leaves much to be desired). And finally, the financial ratios do not always show a consistent trend or pattern, and correctly interpreting them requires much skill and knowledge of local circumstances. Notwithstanding these caveats, the results presented in this report—through ratings, cluster analysis, and radar graphs—should help supervisory agencies in South Asia to better understand the health of their country’s commercial banking sector. The results should also help them spot vulnerabilities and weaknesses and thus take preventive measures, and identify gaps in data collection and so improve their off-site supervision capability. 2 Acronyms and Abbreviations AA Articles of Association AGM Annual general meeting ATM Automated teller machine BB Bangladesh Bank BOD Board of directors CAR Capital adequacy ratio CBSL Central Bank of Sri Lanka CEO Chief Executive Officer CFO Chief Financial Officer FPSI Financial Performance and Soundness Indicators GDP Gross domestic product GNI Gross national income IAS International accounting standards IASC International Accounting Standards Committee IMF International Monetary Fund NPL Non-performing loans NRs Nepal rupees OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development PRs Pakistan rupees RBI Reserve Bank of India ROSC Report on the Observance of Standards and Codes Rs Indian rupees SBP State Bank of Pakistan SLR Statutory liquidity requirement SL Rs Sri Lanka rupees TOR Terms of reference Tk Bangladesh taka 3 Contents FOREWORD ................................................................................................................................................ 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................................ 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................... 5 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 8 THE INDICATORS ........................................................................................................................................ 8 Access to Finance ................................................................................................................................. 9 Performance and Efficiency .................................................................................................................. 9 Stability ................................................................................................................................................10 Corporate Governance ........................................................................................................................10 THE METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................................11 2. ANALYSIS OF THE GETTING FINANCE INDICATORS .............................................................12 BANGLADESH ............................................................................................................................................13 Access to Finance ................................................................................................................................14 Performance and Efficiency .................................................................................................................14 Stability ................................................................................................................................................14 Corporate Governance ........................................................................................................................15 INDIA .........................................................................................................................................................17 Access to Finance ................................................................................................................................17 Performance and Efficiency .................................................................................................................17 Stability ................................................................................................................................................18 Corporate Governance ........................................................................................................................19 NEPAL .......................................................................................................................................................21 Access to Finance ................................................................................................................................21 Performance and Efficiency .................................................................................................................22 Stability ................................................................................................................................................22 Corporate Governance ........................................................................................................................23 PAKISTAN ..................................................................................................................................................25 Access to Finance ................................................................................................................................25 Performance and Efficiency .................................................................................................................25 Stability ................................................................................................................................................26 Corporate Governance ........................................................................................................................27 SRI LANKA ................................................................................................................................................29 Access to Finance ................................................................................................................................29 Performance and Efficiency .................................................................................................................30 Stability ................................................................................................................................................30 Corporate Governance ........................................................................................................................31 3. COUNTRY RANKINGS ON THE GETTING FINANCE INDICATORS .....................................33 OVERALL RANKINGS AND PERFORMANCE.................................................................................................33 RANKINGS ON INDIVIDUAL INDICATORS....................................................................................................35 Access to Finance ................................................................................................................................36 Performance and Efficiency .................................................................................................................36 Stability ................................................................................................................................................37 Corporate Governance ........................................................................................................................37 4. AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ............................................................................................38 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF FINANCIAL RATIOS ..............................................................................38 INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF ACCESS TO FINANCE ............................................................................39 1 5. FINDINGS AND OBSERVATIONS ....................................................................................................42 ACCESS TO FINANCE .................................................................................................................................42 PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY ...............................................................................................................42 STABILITY .................................................................................................................................................42 CORPORATE GOVERNANCE .......................................................................................................................43 ANNEXES ...................................................................................................................................................44 ANNEX 1. COMPILATION GUIDE FOR THE GETTING FINANCE INDICATORS FOR SOUTH ASIA ....................45 ANNEX 2. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................52 ANNEX 3. GETTING FINANCE INDICATORS FOR SOUTH ASIA, BY COUNTRY AND YEAR ............................56 ANNEX 4. CORPORATE GOVERNANCE MATRIX: QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES, 2005 ................................66 ANNEX 5. MAJOR POLICY DEVELOPMENTS IN THE PRUDENTIAL REGULATIONS OF SOUTH ASIA, 2004–05 ..................................................................................................................................................................76 ANNEX 6. COUNTRY RANKINGS ................................................................................................................87 ANNEX 7. INTERNATIONAL BEST PRACTICES IN CORPORATE GOVERNANCE .............................................89 ANNEX 8. CROSS-COUNTRY COMPARISON OF BANKS ...............................................................................90 REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................91 2 FOREWORD The South Asia Region, Finance and Private Sector Development Unit of the World Bank has embarked on a regional initiative to develop standard indicators to measure the performance and soundness of the financial sector. In phases I and II of this initiative, completed with active support and assistance from regulatory authorities in South Asia, the World Bank developed and compiled indicators to assess the financial performance and soundness of the banking sector in each of five countries—Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—against its prudential regulations and against its South Asian peers. While these first two phases addressed the performance and stability of the financial sector, they failed to address the two equally important issues of access to finance and efficiency. Thus a third phase was initiated to investigate these issues as well as the previously untouched issue of corporate governance. This phase III study, “Getting Finance Indicators: FPSI III,� has analyzed indicators under four categories: access to finance, performance and efficiency, stability, and corporate governance. Data on these indicators have been compiled and analyzed only for the commercial banking sector. This report, the third in a series published annually by the Bank’s South Asia Finance and Private Sector Development Unit, reaffirms the World Bank’s commitment to working with developing member countries to promote financial sector development and create financial systems that are sound, stable, supportive of growth, and responsive to people’s needs. It also gives impetus to the Bank’s efforts to expand its monitoring and evaluation work. The Getting Finance Indicators and the country rankings based on them are expected to become an increasingly important tool for the Bank in monitoring and evaluating development objectives and outcomes in its financial sector operations. They should also prove to be a valuable tool for financial sector supervisory agencies in South Asia. The updated indicators and country rankings should better equip these agencies to monitor the health of their country’s banking system and to assess its robustness and sustainability relative to those of others in South Asia as well as in more developed economies. Barbara Kafka Acting Director Finance and Private Sector Development South Asia Region 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The World Bank team of Kiatchai Sophastienphong (Senior Financial Sector Specialist) and Anoma Kulathunga (Consultant) wishes to acknowledge the invaluable contributions of many individuals to this report. Several members of World Bank country teams facilitated the research and operational visits and commented on the study, including Shamsuddin Ahmad (Senior Financial Sector Specialist) and Sadruddin Muhammad Salman (Extended Term Consultant) for Bangladesh; Priya Basu (Lead Financial Sector Specialist), Niraj Verma (Financial Specialist), and K. R. Ramamoorthy (Consultant) for India; Sabin Raj Shrestha (Financial Sector Specialist) for Nepal; Isfandyar Zaman Khan (Research Analyst) for Pakistan; and Sriyani Hulugalle (Economist) and Malathi Vishni Kumari Ratnayaka (Team Assistant) for Sri Lanka. The team offers special thanks to the representatives of central banks and other authorities who participated: from Bangladesh Bank’s Department of Offsite Supervision, Md. Golam Mostafa (Deputy General Manager); from Nepal Rastra Bank’s Bank and Financial Institution Regulation Department, Surendra Man Pradhan (Executive Director), Bhisma Raj Dhungana (Director), and Ramesh Kumar Adhikari (Assistant Director); from the State Bank of Pakistan’s Banking Supervision Department, Jameel Ahmad (Director), Muhammad Anwar Saeed (Senior Joint Director), Zahid Mahmood (Joint Director), and Rizwana Rifat and Ayaz Ali (Regulating Officers); and from the Central Bank of Sri Lanka’s Bank Supervision Department, Joan de Zilva (Director) and H. D. Ajith (Senior Examiner). The team is also indebted to Stijn Claessens, Tadashi Endo, Anjali Kumar, Yibin Mu, and Rodney Lester (all of the World Bank’s Financial Sector Operations and Policy Department), and to Kyoo-Won Oh and Samuel Munzele Maimbo (both of the South Asia Region’s Finance and Private Sector Development Unit), all of whom provided invaluable inputs as peer reviewers of the concept note and the report. Last but not least, the team would like to express its thanks to Shanthi Divakaran (Consultant) and Maria Marjorie Espiritu (Program Assistant), who provided invaluable technical and typesetting support. 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Countries in South Asia have undertaken reforms to reduce government ownership of financial institutions, bring prudential regulations into line with international norms, and strengthen banking supervision. These reforms have borne results. Analysis of the Getting Finance Indicators shows that commercial banks in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka generally expanded access to finance and improved their performance and efficiency, stability, and corporate governance in 2001–05. But results vary widely across and even within these areas. Rankings of the countries on the indicators help pinpoint where performance is strong and where improvements are most needed. How Do the Countries Rank? Overall, India ranks at the top on financial soundness, followed by Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Nepal. But rankings differ in each of the four areas assessed. On access to finance Sri Lanka ranks at the top, followed by India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Over the five-year period Sri Lanka did well both in providing physical access to financial services and in encouraging their use. The adult population with bank accounts is the only indicator on which Sri Lanka scores low, as a result of full data not being available. India similarly lacks data on the availability of automated teller machines (ATMs) for some years. Access is lowest in Nepal. On performance and efficiency the top ranking goes to India, followed closely by Pakistan and then by Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Nepal. India’s superior performance is thanks to the higher returns and the cost and technological efficiency of its banks. Nepal confronts problems of negative regulatory capital and low technological efficiency. And Bangladesh must deal with high operating costs, though returns appear to be reasonable. On stability India once again emerges at the top, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. India has higher capital adequacy ratios, lower non-performing loans ratios, and stable liquidity positions. Bangladesh also has a good liquidity situation. Sri Lanka faces a tight liquidity position and lacked data on large loans. Nepal has a negative capital adequacy ratio and capital but lower non-performing loans ratios. On corporate governance Pakistan takes the lead, followed by India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Nepal. The key to Pakistan’s better performance here is the detailed governance guidelines its regulatory authorities have issued, demonstrating better disclosure and greater shareholder rights. Indeed, Pakistan outperforms the other countries in all areas of corporate governance that are covered, though India follows closely behind. The other three countries have performed fairly well, though better in some areas than in others. All countries appear to have done well in the categories of investor rights and board structure and demonstrate increased compliance with international accounting and auditing standards. Where Does Each Country Score Highest—and Where Lowest? Where do the five South Asian countries perform best? Overall, most receive their highest scores on corporate governance and their lowest on access to finance. 5 India, which leads the overall ranking, gets its highest score on stability (97 percent), followed by corporate governance. The lowest score for India was on access to finance (67 percent). Pakistan, ranked second overall, receives its highest score on corporate governance (90 percent) and also leads in this category. Its lowest score is on access to finance (65 percent). Sri Lanka, ranked third overall, gets its highest mark on access to finance (80 percent) and its lowest on stability (40 percent). Bangladesh scores its best on corporate governance (68 percent) and its lowest on stability (50 percent). Nepal also gets its highest score on corporate governance (68 percent), with its lowest on access to finance (27 percent). Rankings of the countries’ scores pinpoint the areas most needing attention. For Sri Lanka the area most needing improvement is stability. For Bangladesh and Nepal results show a need to improve their positions on all fronts. How Do the Countries Compare with Others? How well do the banking systems in South Asian countries fare in comparisons with systems outside the region? To find out, data were compiled on a set of indicators for a sample of developed countries—Australia, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and for a peer group in Asia—China, Hong Kong (China), Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. On most financial indicators the South Asian countries lag behind. Both the developed country group and the Asian peer group have higher capital adequacy ratios than the South Asian group, though these higher ratios are matched by India and Pakistan. The two comparator groups have significantly lower non-performing loans ratios, ranging from 0.3 percent in Australia to 11.7 percent in Malaysia—compared with a range in South Asia from around 7.2 percent in India to 17.6 percent in Bangladesh. (While the ratios for China, Indonesia, and the Philippines are also on the high side, they do not cover all commercial banks.) But the South Asian countries have returns on equity and assets ratios that are comparable to those in developed countries. Access to finance is also greater in the comparator groups. Most countries worldwide have less than 20 bank branches per 100,000 people, and the South Asian group falls within this range. But some developed countries, clearly the outliers, have more than 600 branches per 100,000 people. So it is not surprising that the developed country group has greater branch penetration than the South Asian group, as does the Asian peer group. ATM penetration is also higher in both comparator groups. * * * This study is a preliminary one, limited to commercial banks, and it attempts to draw conclusions only on the basis of the indicators selected. Interpretation of these indicators involves many assumptions, however, and as discussed in the report, these assumptions impose a number of limitations. The findings should be viewed in this light and not as definitive. Still, the study’s results should help banking authorities in South Asia better assess the relative strengths of their country’s banking system. Moreover, benchmarking the performance of the banking system against that of peers in the region as well as comparators 6 elsewhere can help identify appropriate corrective measures where weaknesses and vulnerabilities are spotted. 7 1. Introduction The financial crises of the late 1990s underlined the importance of sound financial sectors to countries’ macroeconomic stability and, in an increasingly integrated world, to the broader international financial order (see Hilbers 2001). In response to these financial crises, both the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank have increased their efforts in assessing and supporting the stability of financial systems. In addition, the Bank has continued its traditional support to the development and strengthening of countries’ financial sectors, in recognition of the importance of well-functioning financial systems for economic growth and thus for poverty reduction (see Hilbers 2001). In South Asia the World Bank has launched a regional initiative to develop standard indicators to measure the performance and soundness of the financial sector—the Financial Performance and Soundness Indicators (FPSI), now commonly known as the Getting Finance Indicators. Phases I and II of this initiative developed and compiled such indicators to analyze the banking sector in five countries—Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—assessing the sector’s performance against the country’s prudential regulations and against its peers in South Asia. In addition, phase II provided a comprehensive set of indicators for non-bank financial institutions comparable to those for commercial banks (see World Bank 2005b). Phases I and II investigated the performance and stability of the financial sector, but did not address two equally important issues: access to finance and corporate governance. This third phase, “Getting Finance Indicators, FPSI III,� covers these two dimensions of banking sector robustness along with the more traditional measures of stability and performance and efficiency. The study uses fewer indicators in each category than the earlier studies, however, to permit a time-series analysis, a cluster analysis, and country rankings based on the indicators. To ensure comparability of the indicators across the region and aid consistent interpretation and analysis, a compilation guide was prepared, setting out definitions and underlying concepts for both the compilers and the users of the indicators (see annex 1). Definitions for indicators that also appeared in the previous FPSI reports remain the same (see World Bank 2004 and 2005b). The Indicators As noted, this study analyzes indicators in four categories: access to finance, performance and efficiency, stability, and corporate governance. Each category includes six indicators except for corporate governance, for which a questionnaire was developed to assess four topics. Only financial indicators relating to commercial banks have been compiled and used for the comparative analysis. 8 Access to Finance Access to financial services gives people an opportunity to improve their standard of living. In almost every part of the world limited access to finance is considered a key constraint to private sector growth (see Beck, Demirgüç-Kunt, and Martinez Peria 2005). This is especially true in developing countries, where people have little influence over policy reforms and where financial sector development often disproportionately benefits the poor. In countries seeking to develop financial markets, it is important to monitor and measure the level of access to finance. This knowledge helps provide a more balanced picture of financial sector development. It also helps policymakers and regulatory authorities better target the development efforts. As an initial step, the study analyzes access to finance using data relating to providers of finance (supply-side data). Building a more complete set of data would require collecting demand-side data as well, but this was ruled out by time and resource constraints. Access to finance is measured in terms of the physical availability, use, and sectoral distribution of financial services using the following six indicators:  Branch penetration (branches per 100,000 people).  ATM penetration (automated teller machines per 100,000 people).  Deposit accounts per 1,000 people.  Loan accounts per 1,000 people.  Sectoral distribution of loans (sectoral loans as a percentage of total loans).  Adults with bank accounts (percentage of total). Branch and ATM penetration indicate physical access to financial services, while deposit and loan ratios show the use of such services. Performance and Efficiency The efficiency of banks is important for the robustness and resilience of the financial sector. The study uses traditional measures of bank efficiency: returns efficiency, cost efficiency, and technological efficiency. Two of the most popular measures of efficiency are used to assess the scope for banks’ earnings to offset losses relative to capital or assets and to assess banks’ efficiency in using their capital or assets:  Return on equity.  Return on assets. Two ratios measure banks’ efficiency in terms of operating expenses:  Staff cost ratio (personnel expenses as a percentage of operating expenses).  Operating cost ratio (operating expenses as a percentage of net interest earnings). And two ratios measure the technological efficiency of the banking sector: 9  Banks with computerized systems (commercial banks with computerized systems as a percentage of the total number of banks).  ATMs per bank (average number of ATMs available per commercial bank). Stability Maintaining stability in a financial system—that is, avoiding significant disruptions to the system and its functions—is key to achieving low inflation as well as sustainable economic growth. In a stable financial system markets function without disruptions, financial institutions can operate efficiently, and asset prices are realistic. To measure the stability of financial systems, the study uses ratios on capital adequacy, asset quality, and liquidity. The capital adequacy ratios measure the capacity of a financial institution to absorb losses and thus indicate the level of its financial strength. The asset quality and liquidity ratios reflect vulnerabilities relating to credit risk and liquidity risk, respectively. The study does not measure market risk, a third source of vulnerability, due to lack of data across countries and over a reasonable period, a problem also experienced in compiling data for FPSI I and II. The following ratios are used:  Capital adequacy ratio (regulatory capital funds as a percentage of risk-weighted assets).  Large loans ratio (large loan amounts/own funds).  Gross non-performing loans ratio (gross non-performing loans as a percentage of total advances).  Net non-performing loans ratio (non-performing loans net of provisions as a percentage of total assets).  Liquid assets ratio (liquid assets as a percentage of total assets).  Liquid assets to liabilities ratio (liquid assets as a percentage of liquid liabilities). Corporate Governance Sound corporate governance creates an environment that promotes banking efficiency, mitigates financial risks, and increases stability and therefore the credibility of financial institutions. Developing countries have much to gain by improving their corporate governance standards, still mostly in the development stage. The basic principles of sound corporate governance are the same everywhere: fairness, transparency, accountability, and responsibility are the minimum standards that provide legitimacy to banks, reduce vulnerability to financial crisis, and broaden and deepen access to capital. Corporate governance scoring is challenging and must be approached with care. Unlike other forms of financial analysis, where quantitative measures can provide “hard� benchmarks to guide more qualitative aspects of analysis, assessment of corporate 10 governance is largely a qualitative exercise (see Standard & Poor’s 2004). This study developed a questionnaire to assess sound corporate governance in terms of four important topics: ownership structure and influence of external stakeholders, investor rights, transparency and disclosure, and board structure and effectiveness. Because corporate governance is assessed through a series of straightforward questions, no definitions or guidelines are provided in the compilation guide for those questions or the resulting indicators. In addition, because the study’s collection of data for the corporate governance analysis was confined to a simple questionnaire, the observations on corporate governance in this report should be viewed as preliminary at best. The Methodology For this study, just as for the phase I and II studies, South Asia is represented by Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Annual data on the commercial banking sector of each of the countries were compiled for the five years from 2001 to 2005. These five years of data were then analyzed to assess the performance and soundness of the financial system in each country using a ranking methodology. (For more on the collection of data and the choice of indicators, see annex 2.) The compilation of comparable data for a set of financial sector soundness indicators in South Asia was an important contribution of the FPSI I and II reports. These time-series financial data, coupled with a comparative study of the prudential banking regulations of South Asian countries as well as international best practices, provide a useful tool for supervisory authorities, enabling them to assess their prudential norms relative to those of their regional peers and of more advanced countries so that they can bring those norms, and their country’s financial indicators, in line with international best practices. This report adds another useful tool to supplement those already available to supervisory agencies in the region: a ranking of South Asian countries based on a selected set of financial and corporate governance indicators that reflect the soundness of the financial system. A simple-average ranking method is used. (For more on the ranking methodology, see annex 2. For the ranking results, see section 3.) The rankings and analysis presented in this report are based mainly on the data gathered from each country. Thus the findings, interpretations, and conclusions in the report depend on the accuracy of these data as well as on the indicators selected. It is hoped that the results of the analysis help draw attention to the importance of sound corporate governance, broad access to finance, and stable, efficient, and well-performing banks for maintaining a sound and robust financial system—a financial system that has the capacity not only to prevent financial crises from occurring but also to contain the effects of those that do occur and prevent them from spilling over into the real economy. Thus rather than serving as a reference, this and similar studies, it is hoped, will prompt the regulatory authorities in South Asia to reflect on their country’s position within the dynamic international financial arena and make timely adjustments needed to stay ahead of the game. 11 2. Analysis of the Getting Finance Indicators Analysis of the indicators of financial performance and soundness, by providing a new and more holistic perspective on getting finance in South Asia, should help improve the understanding of the financial systems in the region’s countries. As noted, the scope of the analysis is limited to commercial banks, by far the main actors in South Asian financial systems and the main instruments for transmitting the monetary policy. The analysis here, covering the period 2001–05, updates and expands the assessment of financial institutions by the two previous FPSI reports, which covered the years 2003 and 2004 (for the data underlying the analysis, see annexes 3 and 4). This report also provides an update of major policy developments in prudential regulations in the South Asian countries, covering 2004–05 (see annex 5). The previous FPSI reports discussed the prudential regulations of each country in detail and also benchmarked the prudential norms of South Asian supervisory authorities against international best practices (see World Bank 2004 and 2005b). South Asia is the world’s poorest region, and among the five countries included in the analysis, all except Sri Lanka are classified as a low-income country (Sri Lanka is classified as lower middle income).1 Populations range from 19 million in Sri Lanka to more than a billion in India, which accounts for around 75 percent of the region’s population and 78 percent of its GDP (table 2.1). Together, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh account for around 95 percent of the region’s population and GDP (World Bank 2006). Banks continue to dominate the financial sector in South Asia. But India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka have fared better than Bangladesh and Nepal in stimulating their capital markets. Table 2.1 Key Economic Indicators for South Asian Countries, 2004 Indicator Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Population (millions) 139 1,080 27 152 19 Gross national income (GNI) (Atlas method; billions of U.S. 61.3 673.2 6.5 90.6 19.5 dollars) Gross national income (GNI) per 440 620 250 600 1,010 capita (Atlas method; U.S. dollars) GDP (billions of U.S. dollars) 56.6 691.1 6.7 96.1 20.0 Average annual growth in GDP 6.3 6.9 3.5 6.4 5.4 (percent) Average annual growth in GDP 4.3 5.4 1.2 3.9 4.2 per capita (percent) Gross capital formation 24 — 26.5 17.3 25.0 (percentage of GDP) 1 Economies are divided among income groups according to 2003 gross national income (GNI) per capita, calculated using the World Bank Atlas method: low income, US$765 or less; lower middle income, US$766–3,035 (see World Bank 2005c for the entire list). 12 Gross national savings 24.7 24.6 30.3 23.0 19.5 (percentage of GDP) Total debt (percentage of GDP) 35.4 17.6 49.9 37.1 54.3 Structure of the economy (percentage of GDP) Agriculture 21.0 21.2 39.9 22.3 17.8 Industry 26.6 27.0 21.7 24.9 26.8 Services 52.4 51.8 38.4 52.8 55.4 Market capitalization (percentage 6 56 9 30 18 of GDP) Banking assets as a percentage of 87 58 75 74 77 total financial assets Commercial banks 44 90 17 36 22 Specialized banks/development 5 9 23 9 14 finance institutions Non-bank financial institutions 27 605 58 85 27 — Not available. Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators Database; World Bank 2005b. Bangladesh Bangladesh ranks third on both population and GDP in the South Asian region, behind India and Pakistan. In 2004, with a population of around 139 million, it had a gross national income (GNI) per capita of US$440. GDP was US$56.6 billion, with an average annual growth rate of 6.3 percent. Bangladesh has a high gross national savings rate, at 24.7 percent of GDP in 2004, and total debt equal to 35.4 percent of GDP. The economy is still heavily agrarian, with agriculture accounting for 21.0 percent of GDP. Services dominate, however, at 52.4 percent of GDP. In 2004 the market capitalization of listed companies was 6 percent of GDP. In Bangladesh commercial banks dominate the financial sector, with more than 87 percent of total financial assets. The country’s 4 nationalized commercial banks dominate the banking system, accounting for more than 54 percent of deposits and operating 54 percent of branches (3,388) in December 2004. Besides the 4 nationalized banks, Bangladesh’s 44 commercial banks in 2004 included 30 private banks and 10 foreign banks (World Bank 2005b). Analysis of the indicators for Bangladesh suggests that it needs to focus mainly on stability (improving the capital base) and corporate governance (bringing local accounting and auditing standards in line with international best practices and improving the corporate governance policy). 13 Access to Finance Access to finance through commercial banks appears to have improved only marginally between 2001 and 2005.2 Branch penetration showed little change, dropping slightly from 4.83 bank branches per 100,000 people in 2001 to 4.64 in 2005. ATM penetration grew by 100 percent, though from a low level—rising from 0.1 per 100,000 people to 0.2. There was little gain in the use of finance, despite considerable growth in GDP over the period. Deposit accounts rose gradually from 231.97 per 1,000 people in 2001 to 237.32 in 2005. Loan accounts per 1,000 people grew by about 7 percent. The share of adults with bank accounts grew marginally, from 50.18 percent in 2001 to 51.77 percent in 2005. The sectoral distribution of credit shows a considerable share invested in agriculture (though it dropped from 11.1 percent to 7.36 percent over the period). Performance and Efficiency The overall efficiency of the banking system seems to have improved. Both return on equity and return on assets initially dropped from 2001, then improved except in 2004, when a loss was registered due to the charging of accumulated provisioning shortfall for one nationalized bank. The improvement in performance occurred mostly in private banks, which now have a greater share of banking deposits than public banks and are rapidly catching up in the loan market. The banking system appears to have made gains in both cost and technological efficiency. The staff cost ratio rose over the years, from 44.75 percent in 2001 to 65 percent in 2005. But the operating cost ratio fell by almost 54 percent, from 236.78 percent to 107.91 percent. Gains in technological efficiency were reflected in growth in both the share of banks with computerized systems and the ATMs available per bank. Stability The regulatory capital adequacy ratio is below the required 8 percent, a result of the negative retained earnings position of one large state-owned bank (figure 2.1). The large loans ratio fluctuated around 7 times its own funds throughout the period, a matter of concern. In contrast, the gross non-performing loans ratio declined by a healthy 55 percent over the period, to 13.55 percent in 2005. The net non-performing loans ratio also fell, by about 50 percent, reflecting an improvement in credit quality. These improvements came thanks to measures taken by the authorities to improve prudential regulations, permit the entry of more private banks (including foreign banks), improve the regulatory framework and the capacity of Bangladesh Bank (the central bank) in bank supervision, strengthen the loan recovery regime through an amendment to the Money Loan Courts Act of 2003, and implement the reform program for the nationalized commercial banks. This program, initiated in 2004, included actions to curtail the activities of the inefficient nationalized banks while preparing them for privatization, improved the governance of the sector, and created space for private banks to expand. 2 As noted, the report’s findings are confined to the commercial banking sector. Bangladesh has a well- developed microfinance sector serving around 16 million people. 14 The liquid assets ratio declined by about 31 percent over the period, while the liquid assets to liabilities ratio showed a small reduction. Banks are generally liquid given the need to maintain 20 percent of their total deposits as Statutory Liquidity Requirement, which includes a 4 percent Cash Reserve Requirement. Figure 2.1 Bangladesh's Banks Need to Expand Their Capital Base 30 25 20 15 10 Capital adequacy Percent ratio 5 0 Return on assets -5 -10 Return on equity -15 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Source: Annex 3. Corporate Governance Corporate governance is still new to Bangladesh, as it is for many other developing countries. To strengthen corporate governance in banking, Bangladesh Bank has issued guidelines for banks. But these guidelines are still at the development stage, with vast room for improvement. In particular, the guidelines need to be augmented by legal provisions governing beneficial ownership, the remuneration of directors, and the roles and responsibilities of external and internal auditors. Bangladesh also needs to work toward full conformity with international accounting and auditing standards. So while it is encouraging that the process has started, more work needs to be done to boost public confidence in the banking system. Some issues relating to ownership structure and the influence of stakeholders have been addressed. No individual or family can hold more than 10 percent of the shares of a banking company, and under the Bank Companies Act banks must disclose their shareholding structure in their Articles of Association. But there seems to be no legal provision identifying a threshold of share ownership to be disclosed to the general public. The government 15 determines the nominations of directors for government-controlled banks, while the central bank regulates the remuneration of directors. The preemption rights of minority shareholders are protected by the Companies Act. There are no provisions for establishing stakeholders’ rights. Nor are there legal provisions governing the disclosure of beneficial ownership by shareholders other than the requirement that shareholders disclose their portfolios in their tax returns. Investor rights in terms of voting procedures and shareholder meetings appear to be in place. Adequate information is disclosed to shareholders in a timely fashion, and they are able to vote in absentia. There are no rules governing third-party verification of voting. Shareholders may vote on a range of issues including related-party transactions. Special voting rights of individual shareholders other than the government are capped at 5 percent of the total votes. In contrast, basic ownership rights need improvement. Shareholders can vote on appointments and dismissals of directors, and in the government-controlled banks it is evident that the government exercises control over such outcomes. There is a clear dividend policy. But there are no structural defenses to prevent takeover bids. And minority shareholders cannot easily nominate a director, pointing to a need for legal provisions to safeguard their interests in the appointment of directors. Finally, there is no evidence showing that shareholders exercise any of these basic ownership rights. Questionnaire responses on transparency and disclosure requirements indicate that financial statements are prepared annually and in accordance with local generally accepted accounting standards, which are in material conformity with international accounting standards. Yet other studies on financial reporting and standards have revealed gaps remaining between the two sets of standards (see World Bank 2003). Preparation of accounting and auditing standards in line with the international standards should thus be a priority. In addition, audit functions need to be spelled out in detail. Banks are required to appoint audit committees, but it is unclear whether the committees’ mandate includes determining the process for selecting auditors. Contrary to internationally accepted standards, external auditors can perform other, non-audit services for banks. And while auditing standards are said to conform with international standards, here again other reports point to areas needing improvement (see World Bank 2003). Moreover, there are no provisions governing the roles and responsibilities of the internal auditor. Responses on the structure and effectiveness of boards of directors show that Bangladesh banks follow a unitary structure, with around 13 directors on average. Minimum qualifications for directors are governed by the guidelines for “fit and proper� tests issued by the central bank. And the roles and responsibilities of boards of directors are clearly defined. Compensation policies need to be reviewed, however. Contrary to accepted standards, shareholders have no say on the remuneration of directors, and the board sets the remuneration of the bank’s CEO with approval from the central bank. There is no provision for performance-based compensation in the remuneration package of directors, widely 16 accepted as a positive incentive in today’s competitive world, nor is there any requirement to disclose the compensation of directors. India India has both the largest population and the highest GDP in the region. With a population of around 1,080 million in 2004, its GNI per capita was US$620, above the average of US$510 for low-income countries. In 2004 GDP was US$691.1 billion, with an average annual growth rate of 6.9 percent. India has a high gross national savings rate, at 24.6 percent of GDP in 2004; total debt was only 17.6 percent of GDP. India’s agricultural sector is still significant, at 21.2 percent of GDP, though services dominate the economy at 51.8 percent. In 2004 the market capitalization of listed companies was 56 percent of GDP, or US$387 billion. India has a well-developed stock market and a commercial banking system that is a major player in the financial sector. Banking assets account for more than 58 percent of total financial assets. India’s 90 commercial banks in 2004 included 27 public sector banks (8 state and 19 nationalized banks), 30 private sector banks (21 old ones and 9 new ones), and 33 foreign banks (World Bank 2005b). Among the four areas analyzed, the one most needing attention in India is access to finance, mainly to improve physical access. In addition, the difference in corporate governance practices between public and private banks should be examined. Access to Finance With rapid GDP growth in recent years, physical access to finance needs to be further improved to keep up with the pace of economic development in India. Between 2001 and 2005 branch penetration dropped slightly, from 6.42 bank branches per 100,000 people to 6.33. ATM penetration, available only for 2005, stands at 1.63 per 100,000 people, which is on the low side. One reason for these outcomes is the large population and its growth, averaging around 1.6 percent a year. Indicators of the use of financial services show a more positive picture, though here too there is need for improvement. Deposit accounts per 1,000 people increased slightly over the period, from 416.77 to 432.11. Loan accounts per 1,000 people grew by about 40 percent. The share of adults with bank accounts grew marginally, from 62.48 percent in 2001 to 64.78 percent in 2005. The sectoral distribution of credit shows a significant share invested in agriculture (12.6 percent in 2005) and a good overall distribution. Performance and Efficiency Overall, Indian banks appear to be operating efficiently and able to control costs, as shown by their healthy returns. Returns on both equity and assets improved over the period except in 2005, when they fell slightly. Returns rose steadily as banks made extraordinary gains in trading government securities under a regime of continuously declining interest rates. Conversely, with the reversal in the interest trend in the second half of 2005, banks’ returns 17 fell as trading profits disappeared and banks had to make provisions as a result of “marking to market� their trading securities portfolio. Cost efficiency improved as Indian banks reduced both staff and operating costs. The gains may be attributable to the introduction of voluntary retirement schemes in public banks, greater automation and computerization, and growth in business activity. Technological efficiency appears to be high: 100 percent of banks have computerized systems, and the average number of ATMs per bank is an impressive 203 in 2005. Stability The regulatory capital adequacy ratio remained well above the required 8 percent in all years from 2001 to 2005 (figure 2.2). This record reflects banks’ continual efforts to improve their capital positions to cushion against unforeseen risks in their operations and to maintain a capital charge against market risk for their investments in both “held for trading� and “available for sale� categories, required by the Reserve Bank of India (the central bank) since March 2005. Banks maintained the large loans ratio around 3 times the own funds, which, together with the growing capital base, indicates stability. The gross non-performing loans ratio showed a healthy reduction over the period, falling by 55 percent, and was at a satisfactory 5.1 percent in 2005. The net non-performing loans ratio also declined, to 0.92 percent, showing improved credit quality. Driving the decline in non- performing loans were aggressive efforts by banks to restructure and settle corporate debt. These efforts were aided by changes to the loan recovery laws empowering banks to foreclose on assets mortgaged or pledged as collateral against the loans. In addition, the capital gains from the sale of government securities enabled banks to write off loans that were irrecoverable. The liquid assets ratio remained stable at around 44 percent, while the liquid assets to liabilities ratio showed a small reduction. The liquidity position seems to be well balanced, thanks to a stringent Statutory Liquidity Ratio and Cash Reserve Requirement imposed by the Reserve Bank of India. 18 Figure 2.2 India's Commercial Banks Demonstrate Stability 60 50 Liquid assets ratio 40 Percent 30 Capital adequacy ratio 20 Non-performing loans ratio 10 Net non-performing loans ratio 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Source: Annex 3. Corporate Governance India has taken large strides in establishing good governance practices in the banking sector, with the Reserve Bank of India issuing guidelines that are both comprehensive and commendable. Yet several areas need further review, the main one being the difference between the governance rules applying to government-controlled banks and those applying to private banks. Understanding the importance of corporate governance in banking, the Reserve Bank of India, under the guidance of the government, laid out a comprehensive policy framework for ownership and governance of private banks in February 2005. These, along with a series of legal and regulatory reforms, have increased the responsibility and accountability of banks, placing India in a favorable position. Legal provisions are in place to cover most major issues of ownership structure and stakeholder influence. Those relating to government ownership and rights and the disclosure of beneficial ownership could be further strengthened, however. The regulatory guidelines of both the central bank and the stock exchange require disclosure of the shareholdings of promoters as well as the top 10 shareholders in the annual report. The threshold for reporting prescribed by the central bank is 5 percent and over. In addition, private banks are required to disclose holdings of 1 percent and over in their annual reports, to which both 19 shareholders and market participants have access. For public banks, government ownership is disclosed. But special privileges need not be disclosed, since the privileges of the government stem from statute. For private banks, shareholders select the board of directors; for public banks, the government controls nominations. There are provisions for establishing stakeholders’ rights, including representation of labor unions on the board of government-owned banks. The preemption rights of minority shareholders are protected by the Companies Act, with any alteration requiring approval by a supermajority (75 percent). Legal provisions governing the disclosure of beneficial ownership of shareholders are available, though no thresholds are prescribed. Shareholders are required to disclose such ownership to the company. Investor rights appear to be in place in terms of voting and shareholder meetings. Adequate information appears to be disclosed to shareholders in a timely fashion, and shareholders can vote in absentia, though postal and electronic voting is not permitted. Third-party verification of voting is done. Shareholders can vote on a range of issues, including related- party transactions. Separate guidelines on disclosure of special voting rights and caps on voting rights are deemed unnecessary, as these are already mandated by the Banking Regulations Act. Basic ownership rights, however, need improvement. Again it is government control of voting rights that needs to be looked into, along with minority shareholder rights in selecting directors. In private banks shareholders can vote on appointments and dismissals of directors, while in state-owned banks the government controls the outcomes. There is a clear dividend policy. There are no specific structural defenses to prevent a takeover bid other than the requirement that any transfer of shares exceeding 5 percent of total paid-up capital be subject to registration and regulatory scrutiny. But the central bank reserves the right to approve such transfers. There is no specific provision ensuring that minority shareholders can elect directors in public banks. India appears to be doing well overall on transparency and disclosure. But policy improvements are needed on disclosure requirements for audit fees and on the internal audit function. Financial statements are prepared in accordance with local generally accepted accounting principles, which are in material conformity with international accounting standards. Financial reporting is done quarterly, semiannually, and annually. There are no provisions requiring disclosure of audit fees paid to external auditors. The Reserve Bank of India has issued clear guidelines on the appointment of audit committees and has clearly delineated their roles and responsibilities. In private banks these committees control the process of selecting external auditors, while for government-owned banks the central bank appoints the auditors from a pre-approved list. External auditors do not perform other, non-audit services for the banks they audit. The central bank has also issued clear guidelines on the roles and responsibilities of internal auditors. The internal audit function is performed by bank staff with the requisite 20 professional qualifications and work experience. But internal auditors face no requirement to report to the board of directors rather than to management, raising questions about their independence. Indian banks follow a unitary structure for their boards, with around 8–10 members on average. Requirements on the qualifications and experience of board members are governed by the Bank Regulations Act. The roles and responsibilities of the board are clearly defined. But tasks and objectives are not individually assigned to board members. And there are no provisions for instituting formal, systematic training for directors, an issue that warrants attention. Questionnaire responses on compensation policies suggest a need to review those policies, particularly the differences in practices between private and public banks. In private banks shareholders can vote on the remuneration of the board of directors, while in public banks the government has the right to set remuneration. As in most South Asian countries, performance-based compensation for the board of directors exists only in private banks, not in public ones. And while private banks disclose directors’ compensation in detail, public banks disclose only the aggregate compensation. Nepal In 2004 Nepal had a population of around 27 million and a GNI per capita of US$250, well below the low-income country average of US$510. GDP was US$6.7 billion, and the average annual GDP growth rate 3.5 percent. Nepal has the lowest GDP among the five countries covered in this study. But it had the highest gross national savings rate in 2004, at 30.3 percent of GDP. Its total debt was almost half of GDP, at 49.9 percent. The economy is essentially agrarian, with agriculture accounting for more than 39.9 percent of GDP. The average annual growth rate for agriculture is 3.9 percent. Services accounted for 38.4 percent of GDP in 2004. The market capitalization of listed companies was 9 percent of GDP, at US$576 million. In Nepal the commercial banking system again dominates the financial sector. In 2004 banking assets accounted for more than 75 percent of total financial assets. Nepal’s 17 commercial banks in that year included 2 public banks, 9 private banks, and 6 foreign banks (World Bank 2005b). Analysis of the four aspects of financial soundness suggests that Nepal needs to focus on all four areas to strengthen its financial system. Particularly important, however, is to address the capital shortfall in government-controlled banks and to ensure compliance with and enforcement of applicable rules and regulations. Also important is to expand physical access to finance. And a range of corporate governance issues need attention from Nepal Rastra Bank, the country’s central bank. Access to Finance Access to finance appears to be heading in the wrong direction. Physical access to finance improved slightly between 2001 and 2005: while branch penetration dropped from 1.94 bank 21 branches per 100,000 people to 1.67, ATM penetration grew from 0.06 per 100,000 people to 0.24. Yet this progress was marred by adverse trends in the use of financial services: deposit accounts fell from 112.71 per 1,000 people to 89.55 over the period, and loan accounts per 1,000 people dropped by about 45 percent. Data on the share of adults with bank accounts are not available. But if deposit accounts per 1,000 are indicative, the trend in that indicator too would probably be negative. The sectoral distribution of credit shows an almost equal allocation of lending among commerce, services, and other sectors. Performance and Efficiency The successful restructuring of Nepal’s two state-owned banks—Nepal Bank Limited and Rastriya Banijya Bank—improved the performance of the entire banking sector. After continuous losses in 2001–03, the sector turned around to post net profits in 2004 and 2005. But the huge retained losses of the two banks resulted in negative core capital for the period as a whole, depressing both return on equity and return on assets (figure 2.3). With the negative capital base and the lower returns, both the performance and the efficiency of the commercial banking sector suffered. Still, there appeared to be some improvement in cost efficiency. After rising in the early part of the period, the staff cost ratio fell to 77.34 percent in 2005. Meanwhile, the operating cost ratio declined by almost 23 percent, from 66.58 percent in 2001 to 50.92 percent in 2005. On technological efficiency, the share of banks with computerized systems remained low at 40 percent, while the ATMs available per bank rose from 1.07 to 3.52. So there is room for improving technological efficiency as well as for monitoring and further reducing staff and operating costs. Stability The regulatory capital adequacy ratio remained well below the required 8 percent in 2001–05 and negative for the last four years of the period. Two main factors contributed to this: the huge retained losses of the two public banks and the consequent negative core capital, and the operational losses suffered in the first three years. The negative core capital also affected the ratio of large loans to own funds. But closer examination of the data reveals that the value of large loans more than doubled over the period. Thus beyond strengthening returns and the capital base, another priority for Nepal’s banks is to improve their large loans situation by maintaining a healthy balance between large loans and own funds. Thanks to successful loan recoveries by the two public banks, which were under professional management during the past three years (2003–05), the gross non-performing loans ratio showed a healthy reduction of almost 35 percent over the period, to 17.10 percent in 2005. The net non-performing loans ratio fell by about 91 percent, from 4.72 percent to 0.4 percent. These changes reflect commendable gains in credit quality. Banks’ liquidity position did not appear to pose a concern. The liquid assets ratio remained around 19 percent over the period, while the liquid assets to liabilities ratio declined by around 22 percent. 22 Figure 2.3 Nepal's Banking Sector Needs Immediate Capital Improvements 20 Return on assets 0 Capital adequacy ratio -20 -40 Percent Return on equity -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Source: Annex 3. Corporate Governance As part of financial sector reforms in Nepal, Nepal Rastra Bank issued detailed guidelines on corporate governance for banks—a positive step toward establishing good governance practices and ensuring greater compliance with prudential regulations. These guidelines, however, need to be broadened to include investor rights and disclosure rights. A key improvement would be better adherence to international accounting and auditing standards, since that would help strengthen the central bank’s surveillance and supervision of banks. Also needed are greater transparency and disclosure on share ownership and beneficial ownership, and legal provisions for establishing the rights of external stakeholders and minority shareholders. The regulatory guidelines contain no provision relating to disclosure of ownership. Although the central bank requires disclosure of shareholdings above 0.5 percent, this requirement is seldom enforced, so in practice the public has no access to such information. There are no provisions for establishing the rights of external stakeholders, an issue that some labor unions have raised at the annual general meetings of banks from time to time. There are no rules or regulations protecting the preemption rights of minority shareholders. And there are no legal provisions governing the disclosure of beneficial ownership of shareholders. 23 Clear provisions and guidelines establishing shareholders’ rights, including their right to attend and vote at shareholder meetings, need to be formalized. Also important is to examine the practices of shareholders to see whether they in fact exercise their rights. Information is disclosed to shareholders in a timely fashion, shareholders can vote in absentia, by proxy or by post, and third-party verification of voting is permitted. But shareholders are unable to vote on a range of issues, including related-party transactions. Banks are required to disclose special voting rights and caps on voting rights in their Memorandum of Association and Articles of Association. Shareholders can vote on appointments to the board of directors, though some members are appointed by the board itself. For the government-controlled banks the government is likely to have control over the appointment of directors. There is no clear dividend policy; instead, the policy is set by the board and approved by the annual general meeting. There are no specific structural defenses to prevent a takeover bid other than the legal requirement for regulatory approval of any transfer of promoters’ shares. Nor is there any specific provision ensuring that minority shareholders can elect directors. Banks’ financial statements are prepared in accordance with local generally accepted accounting principles. Yet other studies have revealed that accounting and auditing standards are still being issued and do not yet fully conform with international accounting standards (see World Bank 2005a). Still, to the extent that Nepal Rastra Bank has issued guidelines, it is safe to conclude that banks are meeting the reporting standards to a certain extent. Financial reporting is done on a quarterly basis, and banks are required to disclose audit fees paid to external auditors. Nepal’s auditing standards appear to be at the development stage, as evidenced by other reports (see World Bank 2005a). It is advisable that Nepal Rastra Bank issue detailed guidelines on the appointment of both external and internal auditors. The central bank has issued guidelines on the appointment of audit committees as well as on their primary roles and responsibilities. But it is not clearly shown whether the selection process of external auditors is under the audit committees. Moreover, the guidelines do not cover the frequency of their meetings and other pertinent details. They do, however, prohibit external auditors from performing other, non-audit services for the banks they audit. External auditors are appointed with the approval of the annual general meeting. Central bank guidelines require that the internal auditor be appointed by management and report to the audit committee. Nepal Rastra Bank has issued detailed guidelines on the structure of boards and on the directors’ roles and responsibilities. These guidelines appear to be adequate as long as they are strictly enforced something that this study could not confirm. Banks in Nepal follow a hybrid structure, with boards averaging five to nine members. The guidelines do not specify detailed requirements for directors’ qualifications and experience, though they do outline such requirements for the chief executive officer. There is no requirement for directors to attend any special training on their fiduciary duties and responsibilities, pointing to a need to develop a systematic training program. Shareholders can vote on the remuneration of directors. Compensation of directors can be performance based and must be disclosed in detail. 24 Pakistan Pakistan ranks second on both population and GDP in South Asia, behind India. In 2004 it had a population of around 152 million. Its GNI per capita was US$600, above the low- income country average of US$510. GDP was US$96.1 billion, with an average annual growth rate of 6.4 percent. Pakistan’s gross national savings rate was 23 percent of GDP, and its total debt was 37.1 percent of GDP. Agriculture remains a major contributor to the economy, accounting for around 22.3 percent of GDP. Services dominate, however, at 52.8 percent. In 2004 the market capitalization of listed companies was about 30 percent of GDP, amounting to US$3.6 billion. In Pakistan, as in the rest of South Asia, the commercial banking system dominates the financial sector: banking assets make up more than 74 percent of total financial assets. Pakistan had 36 commercial banks in 2004: 4 public sector banks, 21 local private banks, and 11 foreign banks (World Bank 2005b). Among the four areas analyzed, the one on which Pakistan most needs to focus is access to finance—improving physical access to banking facilities, encouraging the use of financial services provided by commercial banks, and expanding outreach. Access to Finance Indicators of physical access to finance in Pakistan suggest a need to further improve the provision of banking facilities. Branch penetration is low, hovering around 5 bank branches per 100,000 people in 2001–05. Data on ATM penetration, though unavailable for the first two years of the period, reflect gains, however, with the number of ATMs rising from around 0.4 per 100,000 people to 0.8 in 2005. Data on use of financial services also reflect some improvement. While deposit accounts declined from 1,997.99 per 1,000 people in 2001 to 1,715.11 in 2005, loan accounts per 1,000 grew by almost 85 percent. Yet the share of adults with bank accounts fell from 36.59 percent in 2001 to 30.25 percent in 2005. The sectoral distribution of credit shows a large share invested in commerce and industry (73.3 percent in 2005). Performance and Efficiency Returns on both equity and assets showed impressive growth over the period due to the strong profitability of the private banks, including the three nationalized commercial banks that were privatized in recent years (figure 2.4). A shift in the asset mix toward high-yield assets and strong credit growth coupled with the gradual rise in interest rates in the past two years contributed to the higher returns. For the nationalized commercial banks, reforms undertaken after 2001, in which they downsized their workforce and rationalized their branch networks, helped to improve overall cost structure and profitability. The reform program also liberalized bank branching, rationalized the tax structure, and paved the way for the privatization of two of the three 25 largest of these banks—United Bank and Habib Bank—as well as the sale of 75 percent of the shares of Allied Bank to local investors. The overall efficiency of the banking system is high and appears to be improving. The staff cost ratio remained stable at around 51 percent, while the operating cost ratio fell by about 37 percent over the period. Again, the strong growth in earnings and larger volume of business were the main contributing factors. Pakistani banks show high technological efficiency: 100 percent have computerized systems throughout, and ATMs per bank are increasing rapidly. Stability The overall stability situation of Pakistan’s banking sector in 2001–05 was favorable and also improved significantly over the period. The regulatory capital adequacy ratio remained above the required 8 percent and showed a healthy increasing trend due to the sector’s strong profitability as well as an increase in subordinated debt and revaluation surplus on shares. The ratio of large loans to own funds showed a declining trend, falling from 7.4 in 2001 to 4.3 in 2005, though it should be monitored closely to detect any sign of unusual behavior. The gross non-performing loans ratio fell from 19.6 percent in 2001 to 6.7 percent in 2005, a 66 percent reduction. Similarly, the net non-performing loans ratio fell by almost 84 percent over the period, to 0.75 percent, a sign of the banking system’s good credit quality. But to maintain the high quality of loans, particularly in the consumer loans sector, banks will have to closely adhere to the risk management and credit appraisal and monitoring standards. Banks’ liquidity position was relatively stable, with the liquid assets ratio declining marginally to around 34 percent. 26 Figure 2.4 Pakistan's Banks Show Steady Gains in Performance and Stability 30 Return on equity 25 20 Non-performing loans ratio 15 Percent 10 5 Net non-performing loans ratio 0 Return on assets -5 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Source: Annex 3. Corporate Governance Pakistan has taken positive steps to establish good corporate governance practices. Its central bank, the State Bank of Pakistan, has issued a comprehensive handbook of corporate governance for banks. In addition, in late 2005 Pakistan established the Pakistan Institute of Corporate Governance to further strengthen the corporate governance culture by providing training and awareness.3 Still, some areas need review, including further disclosures on beneficial ownership, safeguards on stakeholders’ rights, transfer of ownership and management, and competitive compensation packages. Pakistan has legal provisions covering most aspects of banks’ ownership structure and the influence of stakeholders, though the provisions relating to beneficial ownership could be further strengthened. The central bank’s regulatory guidelines, the Banking Companies Ordinance of 1962, and the Companies Ordinance of 1984 all require disclosure of share ownership, with the threshold set at 10 percent, through means available to both the market and the public. In addition, banks must disclose shareholdings of 3 percent or above to the State Bank of Pakistan, and share acquisitions of 5 percent or more require its prior approval. Government ownership is disclosed in the same manner. 3 The Pakistan Institute of Corporate Governance was incorporated in December 2004 and started to function in 2005. 27 Bank directors can be appointed only by the board and the company, and their remuneration is set at an annual general meeting. Directors of government-controlled banks, however, can be nominated by the government. Certain provisions appear to exist for establishing the rights of stakeholders such as labor unions, though no details were available for an assessment. The preemption rights of minority shareholders are protected. The State Bank requires disclosure of beneficial ownership of shareholders, with the threshold set at 3 percent, but this information is not available to the public. Investor rights relating to voting and shareholder meetings appear to be in place. Adequate information is disclosed to shareholders in a timely fashion before shareholder meetings, and shareholders can vote in absentia, though postal and electronic voting is not used. Voting is verified by a third party. Shareholders can vote on a normal range of issues, including related-party transactions. And banks are required to disclose special voting rights and caps on voting rights. Basic ownership rights also seem to be in place, though regulatory control over share transactions and management changes warrants review. Appointments and dismissals of directors are subject to a vote by shareholders, though the State Bank has the power to remove directors and managers. The government can appoint directors to government- controlled banks, though only by virtue of its shareholdings. There is a clear dividend policy. There are specific structural defenses to prevent a takeover bid, including the requirement that the State Bank of Pakistan give prior approval for share acquisitions exceeding 5 percent of total paid-up capital. The central bank also must approve any change in bank management, and in the case of a privatization it assesses the prospective investors to determine whether they meet its “fit and proper� test for owners and managers. All companies are encouraged to protect the interests of minority shareholders. Provisions for transparency and disclosure appear to meet the main criteria, though there is room for further improvements on the internal audit function. Banks’ financial statements are prepared in accordance with international accounting standards as issued by the International Accounting Standards Committee and interpreted by the Standing Interpretation Committee. Financial reporting is done quarterly, semiannually, and annually. Disclosure of audit fees paid to external auditors is required. The State Bank has issued clear guidelines on the appointment of audit committees and clearly outlined their roles and responsibilities, which include controlling the selection of auditors. External auditors are not permitted to perform other, non-audit services for the banks they audit. The State Bank has also issued guidelines relating to internal auditors. The internal audit function is performed by bank staff members who meet “fit and proper� criteria set out in guidelines. Internal auditors are independent, reporting to the audit committee, though the frequency of such reporting is not defined. Pakistani banks follow a unitary board structure with a minimum of around seven directors. Board members’ qualifications and experience are governed by the “fit and proper� criteria outlined in prudential guidelines. The board’s roles and responsibilities are clearly defined, but tasks and objectives are not individually assigned and are left to be defined by the board. While the code of corporate governance issued by the Securities and Exchange Commission 28 of Pakistan recommends orientation courses for directors, no formal, systematic training process has been established. Developing a systematic training program for directors is thus important. Remuneration of the board of directors is subject to a shareholder vote at annual general meetings. There is no performance-based compensation for directors, suggesting a need to review compensation policies with a view to attracting and retaining qualified and competent staff. Banks are required to disclose the compensation of directors in detail, and compliance with this requirement seems to be fair. Sri Lanka Sri Lanka has the smallest population among the five South Asian countries, at 19 million in 2004. GNI per capita was US$1,010, below the average of US$1,580 for lower-middle- income countries. In 2004 GDP was US$20.1 billion, with an average annual growth rate of 5.4 percent. Sri Lanka’s gross national savings rate was high, at 19.5 percent of GDP, and its total debt was 54.3 percent of GDP. The economy has moved away from an agrarian base to a service and industrial orientation. Services dominate the economy, at 55.4 percent of GDP. In 2004 the market capitalization of listed companies was 18 percent of GDP, at US$3.7 billion. In Sri Lanka banking assets account for more than 77 percent of total financial assets. The country’s commercial banking system consisted of 22 banks in 2004: 2 state commercial banks, 9 private banks, and 11 foreign banks (World Bank 2005b). Analysis of the four core areas suggests that the most important ones for Sri Lanka to focus on are stability and corporate governance. The large loans position and liquidity situation need careful monitoring. And the corporate governance guidelines need review and revision to reflect more comprehensive disclosure requirements and guidelines. Still, it must be said that the banking sector performed commendably in 2005, even with the adverse effect of the tsunami. Striking Sri Lanka on December 26, 2004, the tsunami caused damage estimated at around US$1 billion (4.9 percent of GDP) and the loss of around 31,000 human lives. The banking industry proved resilient in the face of this economic blow despite the disruptions in major industries like fishing and tourism. Access to Finance Measures of access to finance in Sri Lanka are positive and continuing to improve. The number of bank branches per 100,000 people rose from 6 in 2001 to 7.1 in 2005, while ATMs increased from 2.5 per 100,000 to 4.5, a significant rise (figure 2.5). Meanwhile, deposit accounts per 1,000 people grew by nearly 14 percent, and loan accounts per 1,000 by about 34 percent. Credit seems to be fairly distributed across sectors. 29 Figure 2.5 Sri Lanka's Banks are Increasingly Accessible 1200 8 7 1000 Deposits 6 Branches Per 100,000 people (branches, ATMs) Per 1,000 people (deposits, loans) 800 5 600 4 3 ATMs 400 Loans 2 200 1 0 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Source: Annex 3. Performance and Efficiency The overall efficiency of the banking system also appears to be improving. Returns on both equity and assets rose in 2001–05. Cost efficiency increased, with the staff cost ratio declining over the period to around 39.5 percent in 2005. The operating cost ratio also fell, though it remained on the high side. Almost 90 percent of banks are computerized, leaving room for improvement in technological efficiency. The availability of ATMs increased over the period. Stability The capital adequacy ratio for the banking sector as a whole rose to 11.5 percent in 2005, a healthy sign. The ratio for the state commercial banks also improved, following recapitalization of the People’s Bank. The restructuring of the bank, Sri Lanka’s second largest, has so far yielded limited (though positive) results, with progress slower than expected. Data on the ratio of large loans to own funds were not provided; however, previous FPSI reports suggest that this ratio would be on the high side. The perceived credit risk of banks declined in 2004–05 with a reduction in non-performing loan volumes and ratios. Non-performing loans were reported to be 7.9 percent of total loans in 2005, reflecting a reduction of almost 48 percent over the period 2001–05. The net non-performing loans ratio also declined sharply, by about 69 percent. The gains in loan quality came thanks to banks’ writing off bad loans, restructuring and rescheduling loans, 30 and increasing loan loss provisioning—and to generally improved prudential regulations. But high credit growth and rising interest rates may pose some risks to the banking sector. Banks generally maintained liquid assets above the statutory minimum of 20 percent of liabilities. Still, the ratio of liquid to total assets declined over the period, and the ratio of liquid assets to short-term liabilities also showed a small reduction. The country’s real-time gross settlement and scripless securities settlement systems have minimized payment and settlement risks and may have further aided efficient liquidity management by enabling banks to reduce their liquid assets ratio from unnecessarily high levels in the past few years. Even so, banks need to manage their liquidity positions very carefully when doing so within such narrow margins. Corporate Governance In 2002 the Central Bank of Sri Lanka issued a code of corporate governance for banks and other financial institutions. This code was compiled by the National Task Force on Corporate Governance in the Financial Sector, set up to promote best practices in corporate governance at the national level. Issuing this code of conduct for banks was a step in the right direction. Yet disclosure requirements and detailed guidelines are still needed on many issues, such as stakeholder rights, beneficial ownership, special voting rights, rights of shareholders to vote on bank operations, regulatory and government control of share transactions, and minority shareholder rights. These issues should be reviewed, with necessary changes incorporated into regulatory guidelines and legal statutes. Under the guidelines and regulations issued by the Colombo Stock Exchange, publicly listed companies must disclose the share ownership of their top 20 shareholders in their annual reports, available to both the market and the general public. In addition, banks must disclose holdings of 5 percent and above to the Central Bank. Government ownership is disclosed in the same manner. Only the board of directors and the company can appoint directors and decide on their remuneration at annual general meetings. For government-controlled banks, however, the government can nominate directors. There are rules protecting the preemption rights of minority shareholders. But there are no provisions for establishing stakeholders’ rights. Nor are there rules requiring disclosure of beneficial ownership of shareholders. The ownership structure, stakeholders’ rights, and rules governing beneficial ownership should be clearly defined, with legal provisions to ensure proper disclosure. Investor rights relating to voting procedures and shareholder meetings need further strengthening. Adequate information is disclosed to shareholders in a timely fashion before shareholder meetings, and shareholders can vote in absentia. Yet there are no provisions for third-party verification of voting. Shareholders are unable to vote on a normal range of issues, including related-party transactions. And disclosure of special voting rights and caps on voting rights is not mandated. Basic ownership rights also need improvement, particularly with respect to shareholders’ right to vote on the operations of banks, regulatory and government control of share transactions, and the rights of minority shareholders. Board appointments and dismissals are not subject to shareholder vote, while the government can control these outcomes in state 31 banks. The ability of minority shareholders to appoint directors depends on banks’ internal rules. There is a clear dividend policy. There are also structural defenses against takeover bids: the acquisition of a material interest in a bank (10 percent or more of its shares) requires prior approval of the Central Bank and the Ministry of Finance. And the Securities and Exchange Commission requires any investor acquiring more than 30 percent of a listed company to make a mandatory offer to all other shareholders. Banks’ financial statements are prepared in accordance with local generally accepted accounting principles, which are in material conformity with international accounting standards. Financial reporting is done monthly, quarterly, and annually, and audit fees paid to external auditors must be disclosed. The Central Bank has issued clear guidelines on the appointment of audit committees and defined their roles and responsibilities, though it is unclear whether these committees control the selection of auditors. External auditors are not permitted to perform other, non-audit services for the banks they audit. Guidelines have also been issued on internal auditors, though there is room for further improvements. Internal auditors are independent, reporting to the audit committee, but the frequency of such reporting is not defined. Sri Lankan banks follow a hybrid board structure with around 5–11 members on average. Board members’ qualifications and experience are governed by the “fit and proper� criteria set by prudential guidelines. The roles and responsibilities of boards are clearly defined, and tasks and objectives are defined and individually assigned. In addition, the corporate governance code details the need for systematic training for directors. Banks are permitted to disclose merely the aggregate compensation of their directors in their annual reports. No information is available on whether banks offer performance-based compensation to their directors or whether shareholders can vote on directors’ remuneration—both practices that should be incorporated into policy. 32 3. Country Rankings on the Getting Finance Indicators The five South Asian countries are ranked on their performance in the four core areas of financial performance and soundness to help their regulatory authorities assess their position relative to their peers. The country rankings also are intended to help pinpoint the key issues in each country. In considering the rankings, however, it must be kept in mind that the results reflect the indicators selected, the information collected, and the methodologies used. (For a description of the ranking methodology, see annex 2.) Overall Rankings and Performance On access to finance Sri Lanka ranks at the top, followed by India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal (table 3.1). On performance and efficiency the top ranking goes to India, followed by Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Nepal. On stability India once again emerges at the top, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. And on corporate governance Pakistan takes the lead, followed by India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Nepal. When each country’s composite scores for the core categories of indicators are averaged, India emerges with the highest overall rank for financial soundness, followed by Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Table 3.1 Ranking on the Getting Finance Indicators for South Asian Countries Sri Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Lanka Access to finance Composite score 0.51 0.67 0.27 0.65 0.80 Indicator rank 4 2 5 3 1 Performance and efficiency Composite score 0.51 0.73 0.40 0.70 0.66 Indicator rank 4 1 5 2 3 Stability Composite score 0.50 0.97 0.43 0.68 0.40 Indicator rank 3 1 4 2 5 Corporate governance Composite score 0.68 0.84 0.68 0.90 0.69 Indicator rank 4 2 4 1 3 Total points 2.20 3.21 1.78 2.93 2.55 Score (total points/4) 0.55 0.80 0.45 0.73 0.64 Overall rank 4 1 5 2 3 Source: Annex 6. 33 These rankings tell only so much about financial soundness in the five countries. What are the most important issues for each country? One way to spot the key issues is to depict the composite scores for each category of indicators in a radar graph (figure 3.1). That highlights both where each country has its strongest performance and where it needs to focus efforts to improve its performance. The overall results show that most of the countries have done well on corporate governance (on the criteria assessed), less well on access to finance. Figure 3.1 The South Asian Countries Mostly Do Best on Corporate Governance Bangladesh 0.68 0.50 Sri Lanka India 0.67 0.97 0.80 Access to finance 0.40 Performance and efficiency Stability 0.27 Corporate governance 0.65 0.68 Pakistan 0.90 Nepal Source: Annex 6. India, which leads the overall ranking, gets its highest score on stability (0.97, or 97 percent), followed by corporate governance. India receives its lowest score on access to finance (67 percent). Pakistan, ranked second overall, receives its highest score on corporate governance (90 percent) and its lowest on access to finance (65 percent). Sri Lanka, ranked third overall, scores best on access to finance (80 percent) and lowest on stability (40 percent). Bangladesh gets its highest mark on corporate governance (68 percent) and its lowest on stability (50 percent). Nepal also receives its highest score on corporate governance (68 percent), with its lowest on access to finance (27 percent). Another radar graph clearly shows the relative strengths of each country (figure 3.2). India ranks first in two areas—in performance and efficiency and in stability—while Pakistan 34 follows closely. Pakistan leads on corporate governance. Sri Lanka ranks better on access to finance than both leaders while showing a need for improvement on stability. Bangladesh and Nepal show a need to improve their positions on all fronts. Figure 3.2 India and Pakistan Lead the Rankings Access to finance Sri Lanka Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Nepal Sri Lanka Pakistan Corporate governance Performance and efficiency Nepal Nepal India Sri Lanka India Stability Source: Annex 6. Rankings on Individual Indicators Rankings on each indicator within the four categories give a more detailed picture of the strengths and weaknesses of each country. 35 Access to Finance Sri Lanka’s superior rank on access to finance comes thanks to its good Figure 3.3 Sri Lanka Leads on Most Indicators of Access to Finance performance over the five-year period in 30 providing physical access to financial services and encouraging their use (figure 25 3.3). The share of adults with bank accounts is the only indicator on which Sri 20 Lanka scores low, this because of lack of Bangladesh Composite score full data. India similarly lacks data on the India Nepal 15 availability of ATMs for some years. Pakistan Sri Lanka Access is lowest in Nepal. 10 5 0 Branch penetration ATM penetration Deposit accounts Loan accounts per Sectoral Adults with bank per 1000 people 1000 people distribution of accounts Loans Source: Annex 6. Performance and Efficiency India’s top rank on performance and efficiency is due to the higher returns and Figure 3.4 India's Top Rank on Performance and Efficiency Reflects High Returns the cost and technological efficiency of its 30 banks (figure 3.4). Pakistan is not far behind. Nepal confronts problems of 25 negative capital and low technological efficiency. And Bangladesh must deal with 20 high operating costs, though returns Composite score Bangladesh appear to be reasonable. 15 India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 10 5 0 Return on Return on Staff cost ratio Operating cost Banks with ATMs per bank equity assets ratio computerized systems Source: Annex 6. 36 Stability India’s top performance on stability Figure 3.5 India Shows Consistently Strong Performance on Stability reflects higher capital adequacy ratios, 30 lower non-performing loans ratios, and stable liquidity positions (figure 3.5). 25 Pakistan comes second. Bangladesh also has a good liquidity situation. Sri Lanka 20 fares the worst, with tight liquidity Composite score Bangladesh India positions and higher non-performing 15 Nepal Pakistan loans ratios. Nepal has negative capital Sri Lanka adequacy ratios and capital but lower non- 10 performing loans ratios. 5 0 Capital adequacy Large loans ratio Gross non- Net non- Liquid assets Liquid Assets to ratio performing loans performing loans ratio labilities ratio ratio ratio Source: Annex 6. Corporate Governance Pakistan does well in all areas of corporate Figure 3.6 Pakistan Performs Strongly on All Corporate Governance Indicators governance, but the keys to its superior 1 performance are the detailed governance 0.9 guidelines issued by its regulatory authorities, demonstrating better 0.8 disclosure and greater shareholder rights 0.7 (figure 3.6). India follows closely behind. Composite score 0.6 Bangladesh The other three countries have performed 0.5 India Nepal fairly well, though better on some Pakistan indicators than others. All countries 0.4 Sri Lanka appear to have done reasonably well on 0.3 investor rights, board structure, and 0.2 accounting and auditing standards. 0.1 0 Ownership structure and Investor rights Transparency and Board structure and influence of external disclosure effectiveness stakeholders Source: Annex 6. 37 4. An International Perspective How well do banking systems in South Asia fare in comparisons with systems outside the region? To find out, the performance of South Asian countries on selected indicators is compared with that of economies in two comparator groups: a sample of developed countries—Australia, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and a peer group in Asia—China, Hong Kong (China), Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. The comparisons look at financial ratios and access to finance.4 International Comparison of Financial Ratios To ensure consistency in comparing performance on financial ratios, the data, for 2004, are taken from the International Monetary Fund’s Global Financial Stability Report (IMF 2006). (See annex 8 for comparable data from this study shown alongside the IMF data.) The results show that, with a few exceptions, the South Asian countries lag behind. The South Asian countries record returns on both equity and assets that are comparable to those in the developed countries. But both the developed country group and the Asian peer group have higher capital adequacy ratios, though these higher ratios are matched by India and Pakistan. The two comparator groups also have significantly lower non-performing loans ratios: the ratios range from 0.3 percent in Australia to 11.8 percent in Thailand, while those in South Asia range from around 7.2 percent in India to 17.6 percent in Bangladesh. (While the ratios for China and Indonesia are also on the high side, they do not cover all commercial banks, instead referring mostly to state-owned banks. And in the Philippines non-performing loans include the value of other properties acquired, resulting in higher ratios.) Among the South Asian countries, data on loan loss provisions are available only for Pakistan and Sri Lanka, where they amount to 71.6 percent and 60.7 percent respectively, of non-performing loans. Among the developed countries, two have provisions exceeding 100 percent of non-performing loans, Australia at 182.9 percent and the United States at 168.1 percent. Indeed, developed financial systems have accumulated considerable capital funds and large provisioning to cushion against unforeseen market disruptions and asset price fluctuations. This is possible because these systems follow sophisticated risk management procedures to identify market risks. That is an area on which South Asian countries need to focus. Their banking systems would clearly benefit from conducting risk assessment and sensitivity analysis to prepare for adverse market conditions. 4 For a detailed note on international best practices on financial indicators and a detailed comparison of South Asian prudential norms with international standards, see World Bank (2005b). For a summary of international guidelines on corporate governance, see annex 7. 38 International Comparison of Access to Finance An earlier World Bank study on access to financial services (Beck, Demirgüç-Kunt, and Martinez Peria 2005) used indicators similar to some of those used in this report, thus making it possible to carry out a cluster analysis to identify the South Asian countries’ position relative to countries worldwide. Data for 99 countries in 2003–04 are used for this purpose. Physical access in most countries, as measured by bank branches relative to the population, is limited. Most seem to have less than 20 branches per 100,000 people, and the South Asian countries fall within that range (figure 4.1). Some developed countries, clearly the outliers (not shown in the figure), have more than 600 branches per 100,000 people. Figure 4.1 Access to Finance in South Asia Falls within the Typical Range Branches per 100,000 people 40 Branches per 100,000 20 countries India Sri Lanka Bangladesh Pakistan Nepal 0 Source: Adapted from Beck, Demirgüç-Kunt, and Martinez Peria 2005. The Asian peer group (except for China) has better branch access than the South Asian countries, and most of the developed countries (Canada, the United States, and Australia) have even denser networks of branches (figure 4.2). The United Kingdom and Japan have fewer branches per 100,000 people than the other developed countries, though still more than in the South Asian countries. 39 Figure 4.2 South Asian Countries Lag Behind Comparator Groups in Branch Penetration Branches per 100,000 people 50 45 Canada 40 35 Branches per 100,000 United States 30 Australia 25 20 United Kingdom 15 Korea Japan 10 Philippines Singapore Indonesia Malaysia Sri Lanka Thailand India 5 Bangladesh Pakistan Nepal China 0 Source: Adapted from Beck, Demirgüç-Kunt, and Martinez Peria 2005. On the number of ATMs per 100,000 people, most economies in the Asian peer group again show better access to financial services than the South Asian countries, as does the developed country group (figure 4.3). The figures on ATMs for the United Kingdom and Japan are much higher than those for branches, suggesting that physical access is achieved with Internet banking and improved technology. 40 Figure 4.3 South Asian Countries Also Lag Behind in ATM Penetration Number of ATMs per 100,000 people Canada 130 United States Japan 110 90 Korea ATMs per 100,000 70 Australia 50 United Kingdom Singapore 30 Thailand Malaysia Indonesia Philippines 10 Bangladesh Nepal Sri Lanka Pakistan China India -10 Source: Adapted from Beck, Demirgüç-Kunt, and Martinez Peria 2005. 41 5. Findings and Observations Governments in South Asia perceive financial sector reform as central to their growth and poverty reduction strategies. They seek to develop a financial sector that intermediates effectively and serves all segments of society—and thereby contributes to higher growth and lower poverty in the long run. Building a stable financial system is among the key requirements for achieving greater economic well-being; a weak financial system can destabilize the entire process. As South Asian countries work to achieve financial soundness, it is hoped that this report can serve as a point of reflection in the reform process. Access to Finance Even where other indicators are favorable, most countries in South Asia appear to face issues relating to access to finance in the commercial banking sector. India and Pakistan, for example, both score high on performance and corporate governance indicators. Yet indicators of financial access suggest that both countries need to further improve physical access and use of financial services. This is an important aspect for poverty reduction. Nepal needs to work on improving access to financial services through banks. The commercial banking sector is just one source of financial services; other schemes and sectors—savings banks, microfinance institutions, non-bank financial institutions—also provide such services. Yet the commercial banking sector is nonetheless an important source in South Asia, where commercial banks dominate the financial sector. Performance and Efficiency Commercial banking sectors in South Asia have improved their performance and efficiency over the years. Healthy returns have helped reduce non-performing loan balances by allowing banks to make adequate provisions. That in turn has strengthened the quality of the asset base, by allowing banks to augment the capital cushion needed to meet unexpected losses. In addition, most of the region’s banking sectors have managed to bring down their staff and operating cost ratios considerably, though there is room for further improvement. And most banks have used technological advances to their advantage. Both India and Pakistan have banking systems that are almost 100 percent computerized. Stability Capital adequacy ratios are generally favorable, and countries have worked hard to reduce non-performing loans through better provisioning and credit management. India and Pakistan have achieved greater stability than the other three countries. Sri Lanka needs to monitor its high large loans ratio (as reported in World Bank 2005b) and its liquidity position. Bangladesh has a capital adequacy ratio below the required level, pointing to a need to monitor its capital position. And with capital constraints, large loans also should be monitored carefully. Nepal is still plagued with a negative capital position, which affects its 42 performance on almost every indicator. Nepal needs to improve its capital position significantly. Stability brings the issue of risk-weighted capital to the forefront—and the importance of adherence to the Basel system. The benchmarking exercise highlights the higher capital adequacy and provisioning ratios maintained by developed countries—ratios that reflect provisioning for market risk. All the South Asian countries need to think seriously about implementing risk management techniques to measure and manage their market risks effectively, if they have not already done so. And banks should examine their risk models and develop one that is compatible with their lines of operation. Corporate Governance All the South Asian countries have made attempts to incorporate corporate governance guidelines. Indeed, India and Pakistan have issued detailed guidelines. Still, all countries need to review their corporate governance guidelines and to strengthen them in various areas. Bangladesh and Nepal need to further develop their corporate governance guidelines and work toward improving their accounting and auditing standards to conform to international standards. Sri Lanka needs to improve its corporate governance guidelines mainly as they relate to stakeholders’ rights and disclosure of beneficial ownership. India needs to review differences between governance rules applicable to government-controlled banks and those applicable to private banks. And all countries need to improve transparency and disclosure requirements. Moreover, all countries need to ensure that their guidelines and regulations are enforceable. Even the best of guidelines are of limited use if they are not strictly enforced. 43 Annexes 44 Annex 1. Compilation Guide for the Getting Finance Indicators for South Asia Contents Access to Finance 46 1. Branch penetration 46 2. ATM penetration 46 3. Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 47 4. Loan accounts per 1,000 people 47 5. Sectoral distribution of loans 47 6. Adults with bank accounts 47 Performance and Efficiency 48 7. Return on equity 48 8. Return on assets 48 9. Staff cost ratio 48 10. Operating cost ratio 49 11. Banks with computerized systems 49 12. ATMs per bank 49 Stability 49 13. Capital adequacy ratio 49 14. Large loans ratio 50 15. Gross non-performing loans ratio 50 16. Net non-performing loans ratio 50 17. Liquid assets ratio 50 18. Liquid assets to liabilities ratio 51 Corporate Governance 51 45 Compilation Guide for the Getting Finance Indicators for South Asia As part of the World Bank’s regional initiative to develop standardized indicators to measure the performance and soundness of the financial sector, this study—“Getting Finance Indicators, FPSI III�—uses indicators under four categories: access to finance, performance and efficiency, stability, and corporate governance. Initially these indicators will be computed only for commercial banks. Interpretation and analysis of these indicators is likely to vary unless banking supervisors adopt a common methodology for computing them. Since most of the indicators take the form of ratios, understanding the nature of the underlying data is imperative. This guide is aimed at providing common definitions, data sources, and concepts for both compilers and users of the indicators. For indicators appearing in previous FPSI reports, the definitions are the same as those given in the compilation guide issued under those studies. Access to Finance In countries seeking to develop financial markets, it is important to monitor and measure the level of access to financial services. This knowledge provides a more balanced picture of financial sector development. It also enables policymakers and regulatory authorities to better target the development efforts. Initially it is expected that access to finance will be analyzed using data relating to providers of finance (supply-side data). 1. Branch penetration Bank branches per 100,000 people = Number of bank branches x 100,000 Total population Number of bank branches: Number of commercial bank branches in the country at year-end. Total population: Total population at year-end. This indicator measures the demographic penetration of the banking sector in terms of access to banks’ physical outlets. Higher penetration means more branches and thus easier access. 2. ATM penetration ATMs per 100,000 people = Number of ATMs x 100,000 Total population Number of ATMs: Number of automated teller machines (ATMs) of commercial bank branches in the country at year-end. Total population: As defined in 1 above. 46 This indicator too measures the demographic penetration of the banking sector in terms of access to physical outlets. Higher penetration means more ATMs and thus easier access. 3. Deposit accounts per 1,000 people Number of deposit accounts per 1,000 people = Number of deposit accounts x 1,000 Total population Number of deposit accounts: Number of deposit accounts in commercial banks in the country at year-end. Total population: As defined in 1 above. This indicator measures the use of banking services. Higher values mean greater use of services. 4. Loan accounts per 1,000 people Number of loan accounts per 1,000 people = Number of loan accounts x 1,000 Total population Number of loan accounts: Number of loan accounts granted by commercial banks in the country at year-end. Total population: As defined in 1 above. This indicator also measures the use of banking services, with higher values indicating greater use. 5. Sectoral distribution of loans Sectoral distribution ratio = Lending to each economic sector Total loans Total loans: Gross loans and advances, including non-performing loans, before deducting specific loan loss provisions. Calculated for each economic sector in turn, this ratio shows the distribution of total loans across various economic sectors. The sum of all sectoral ratios should be 100 percent. Each country may have its own set of sectors, depending on its economic activity, for which the ratio is calculated. The sectoral distribution of loans helps in assessing whether the availability of finance is evenly distributed among all important economic sectors. 6. Adults with bank accounts Adult population with bank accounts = Adult population with bank accounts Total adult population Total adult population: People age 18 and above (or people who have reached the legal age for being classified as an adult). Adult population with bank accounts: People age 18 and above with a deposit, checking, or savings account in a commercial bank. This ratio gives an indication of use of finance. 47 Performance and Efficiency Bank efficiency has become critically important in an environment of increasingly competitive international markets. Thus comparative data on the efficiency of banks are important both to regulators and to banks, which can use the data to adjust their operating policies. For this study three types of efficiency are analyzed: returns efficiency, cost efficiency, and technological efficiency. 7. Return on equity Return on equity = Net income Average value of total equity Net income: Net profit before tax and other extraordinary adjustments. Average value of total equity: Can be calculated by taking the beginning- and end-period values for total capital and finding the average. Total capital: Also called regulatory capital funds or own funds. Defined as tier 1 (core) capital + tier 2 (supplementary) capital. Tier 1 capital: Equity capital and disclosed reserves that are freely available to meet claims against the bank. Tier 1 capital comprises paid-up shares, share premiums, retained earnings, statutory reserves, and general reserves. Goodwill should be deducted because its value may fall during crises. Tier 1 capital should be at least 50 percent of the total capital funds. Tier 2 capital: Undisclosed reserves, revaluation reserves, general loan loss provisions, and hybrid instruments that combine the characteristics of debt and equity and are available to meet losses and unsecured subordinated debt. Tier 2 capital should be less than or equal to tier 1 capital. Subordinated debt should not exceed 50 percent of tier 1 capital. Loan loss provisions should not exceed 1.25 percent of the total risk-weighted assets. This ratio measures the efficiency with which a bank uses capital and, over time, the sustainability of its capital position. 8. Return on assets Return on assets = Net income Average value of total assets Net income: As defined in 7 above. Average value of total assets: Can be calculated by taking the beginning- and end-period values for total assets and finding the average. This ratio measures the efficiency with which a bank uses assets. 9. Staff cost ratio Staff cost ratio = Personnel expenses Operating expenses Personnel expenses: Total remuneration payable to employees. Operating expenses: All expenses other than interest expenses and provisions. This ratio measures personnel cost as a share of total administrative expenses and reflects cost efficiency. 48 10. Operating cost ratio Operating cost ratio = Operating expenses Net interest earnings Operating expenses: As defined in 9 above. Net interest earnings (net interest income): Interest earned less interest expenses. This ratio measures efficiency in controlling administrative and operating expenses in relation to net interest income. 11. Banks with computerized systems Computerized banks = Number of commercial banks with computerized systems Total number of commercial banks This ratio measures the technological efficiency of the banking sector. 12. ATMs per bank ATMs per bank = Average number of ATMs available Total number of commercial banks Average number of ATMs available: This can be calculated by taking the beginning- and end-period number of ATMs available in the country and finding the average. This ratio measures the technological efficiency of the banking sector. Stability Financial stability means avoiding significant disruptions to the financial system and its functions. It is key to achieving both low inflation and sustainable economic growth. While different indicators measure different aspects of financial sector stability, this study uses capital adequacy, asset quality, and liquidity ratios. The capital adequacy ratios measure the capacity of an institution to absorb losses and thus indicate its financial strength. The asset quality and liquidity ratios measure major vulnerabilities relating to credit risk and liquidity risk. 13. Capital adequacy ratio (CAR) Capital adequacy ratio = Regulatory capital funds Risk-weighted assets Regulatory capital funds: Also called own funds or total capital funds, as defined in 7 above. Risk-weighted assets: Each class of assets and off–balance sheet exposures are weighted using weights related to the credit risk associated with each type of assets. The standard risk weights used as international best practice are as follows:  Cash, gold, and government or treasury securities, 0 percent.  Government agencies, 20 percent.  Mortgage loans, 50 percent.  Others, 100 percent. The capital adequacy ratio provides an assessment of how well the capital cushions fluctuations in earnings and supports asset growth. The ratio should be calculated on a consolidated basis. Under 49 international best practice 8 percent of total risk-weighted assets on a consolidated basis is considered adequate capital. 14. Large loans ratio Large loans ratio = Large loans Own funds Large loans: The amount of lending represented by large loans, assessed in the context of lending to entities by asset size—loans above a certain amount (such as above 10 million units of the local currency)—or by the 10 largest loans in each group of banks. Own funds: Total capital funds, as defined in 7 above. This ratio is a measure of asset quality, intended to identify vulnerabilities arising from a concentration of credit risk. 15. Gross non-performing loans ratio Gross non-performing loans ratio = Gross non-performing loans Total advances Gross non-performing loans: The amount of non-performing loans before specific loan loss provisions are deducted. According to prudential norms, loans are classified as non-performing when payments of principal and interest are past due by three months. Total advances: Gross loans and advances, including non-performing loans before deducting specific loan loss provisions. This ratio is a measure of asset quality and indicates the credit quality of a bank’s loan portfolio. 16. Net non-performing loans ratio Net non-performing loans ratio = Net non-performing loans Total assets Net non-performing loans: The amount of non-performing loans, as defined in 15 above, net of specific loan loss provisions. Total assets: Total assets on the balance sheet without risk weighting. This ratio also is a measure of asset quality. It is intended to identify problems with asset quality by identifying the amount of net exposure in terms of total assets. 17. Liquid assets ratio Liquid assets ratio = Liquid assets Total assets Liquid assets: Cash, demand deposits, and other financial assets that are available on demand or within three month or less. Total assets: As defined in 16 above. 50 This ratio measures stability. It indicates the liquidity available to meet expected and unexpected short-term demands for cash—and thus the vulnerability of the banking sector to loss of funding sources. 18. Liquid assets to liabilities ratio Liquid assets to liabilities ratio = Liquid assets Liquid liabilities Liquid assets: As defined in 17 above. Liquid liabilities: Short-term debt liabilities and the net market value of financial derivatives positions (short term). This ratio also measures stability. It captures the liquidity mismatch between short-term assets and liabilities and indicates the extent to which a bank can meet its short-term obligations without incurring liquidity problems. Corporate Governance Sound corporate governance creates an environment that promotes banking efficiency, mitigates financial risks, and increases the stability and therefore the credibility of financial institutions. Developing countries have much to gain by improving their corporate governance standards. The basic principles are the same everywhere: fairness, transparency, accountability, and responsibility are the minimum standards that give banks legitimacy, reduce vulnerability to financial crisis, and broaden and deepen access to capital. Scoring performance on corporate governance is hugely challenging and must be done with care. Unlike other types of financial analysis, where quantitative measures can provide “hard� benchmarks to guide the more qualitative aspects of analysis, assessing corporate governance is a largely qualitative exercise. Since corporate governance is assessed in this study through a series of straightforward questions, no definitions or guidelines are provided here. 51 Annex 2. Methodology Data Availability Recognizing that appropriate data on financial and corporate governance indicators for South Asia might be available in the World Bank, the study undertook a stocktaking of all known sources to avoid duplication of work (table A2.1). The exercise revealed that while a number of sources and databases provide valuable inputs—in terms of indicators, data, and methodology—a need remained to compile data from the South Asian regulatory authorities covering a five-year period and using common definitions. Table A2.1 Stocktaking of Relevant World Bank Data Sources Relevant work, sites, and Salient features databases Financial Sector Availability: under construction Development Indicators Frequency: annual data (FSDI) Nature of indicators: size, access, performance, stability Sample indicators: more than 200 Countries covered: more than 100 to be covered Indicators of Financial Availability: indicators under development Access (household surveys) Frequency: indicators under development Nature of indicators: access to finance Sample indicators: demand side Countries covered: indicators under development Doing Business indicators Availability: the three years up to 2005 Frequency: annual Nature of indicators: getting credit, starting a business, and the like Sample indicators: depth of credit information index Countries covered: 155 Investment Climate Availability: country reports Assessments (ICA) Frequency: depends on the surveys Nature of indicators: investment climate assessment Sample indicators: demand side Countries covered: various Country Policy and Availability: for at least the past five years Institutional Assessments Frequency: annual (CPIA) Nature of indicators: financial indicators (9) Sample indicators: stability, efficiency, access Countries covered: most World Bank Group members Developing Indicators of Availability: one year of survey data (for 2003) Access to Financial Services Frequency: annual (working paper and database; Nature of indicators: access to finance see Beck, Demirgüç-Kunt, Sample indicators: ATMs per 100,000 people and Martinez Peria 2005) Countries covered: 71 52 Regulation and Supervision Availability: survey data for one period of Banks (working paper and Frequency: varies from country to country database; see Barth, Caprio Nature of indicators: regulatory and supervisory related Jr., and Levine 2001) Sample indicators: entry, ownership, capital Countries covered: 151 Country Assessment of Availability: individual reports confidential Corporate Governance Nature of indicators: questionnaire based Sample indicators: similar to OECD template Reports on the Observance A template developed to assess corporate governance of Standards and Codes (ROSC), OECD corporate governance assessment template Financial Structure Database Availability: 1960–2004 (working paper and database; Frequency: annual see Beck, Demirgüç-Kunt, Nature of indicators: financial structure indicators and Levine 2000) Sample indicators: net interest margin, central bank assets as a share of GDP Countries covered: 175 Data Compilation Accordingly, annual data on the commercial banking sector in each of the five countries representing South Asia (in this study as well as the phase I and II studies)—Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—were compiled for the five years from 2001 to 2005. The data for the financial indicators were collected using a data collection template (for the results, see annex 3), while the data on corporate governance were collected through a questionnaire (see annex 4). In completing the questionnaire the supervisory agencies were asked to substantiate their responses with relevant legal references or sources. Choice of Indicators The financial indicators were selected on the basis of the structure of financial systems in South Asia, just as for FPSI I and II. The corporate governance indicators are based primarily on the guidelines issued by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, which in turn rely on the principles of corporate governance published by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (see annex 7). Although market-based indicators such as credit ratings and market volatility would serve better for macroprudential analysis, such indicators were not selected for this study. The reason is that the effectiveness of such indicators depends on the quality and depth of the financial markets, characteristics that in most South Asian countries are directly affected by the ownership structure of the commercial banking sector (with government-owned or government-controlled banks accounting for a large share of banking sector assets) and by the lack of stringent public disclosure requirements (for a detailed discussion of the 53 advantages and disadvantages of macroprudential analysis, see World Bank and IMF 2005). It was therefore believed that microprudential indicators would be better measures of the soundness of financial sectors in South Asia. Method for Country Rankings The ranking of countries by the financial and corporate governance indicators is based on a simple-average ranking system. Given the limited size of the sample, ranking based on percentile averages is not warranted. Simple-average ranking also appears to be appropriate given the lack of sufficiently detailed data to assess the impact of each variable on financial soundness and thus permit different weights to be assigned to the variables (see Djankov and others 2005). Thus the use of simple-average ranking has made it possible to overcome some of the shortcomings associated with the type of analysis and indicators used in this report. Financial Indicator Scores For the rankings on each financial indicator, for each year each country is ranked relative to the others, with 1 representing the lowest ranking and 5 the highest. The lowest score of 1 is also given for any year for which no data are available (indicated in the data tables in annex 3 by a dash). Except in instances where no data are available for more than one country or where more than one country reports the same ratio, each country receives a different score. These scores are aggregated across the years to arrive at the score for the five-year period on each indicator—and the scores for the indicators within a category are added to arrive at the aggregate score for that category (access to finance, performance and efficiency, or stability). This aggregate score is then divided by the maximum “possible� total score for the category. That maximum score is 150, derived by multiplying the number of indicators in the category (6) by the highest possible score (5), then multiplying that by the number of years (5). Dividing the aggregate score by the maximum “possible� total score of 150 gives the composite score for each category. Corporate Governance Scores For corporate governance each country is individually ranked on the two major sections of each of the four topics on a scale from 1 (not observed) to 5 (largely observed), based on the responses to the questionnaire (see annex 4), the country’s corporate governance guidelines, and various reports. Here again a score of 1 is given if no data are available. Since the countries are not ranked comparatively, more than one country can receive the same score in a category. With four topics and two major sections in each, and with the highest possible score being 5, the maximum “possible� score on corporate governance is 40. Since the information on corporate governance was obtained with 2005 as the cutoff date and no similar data are available for the previous four years, the scores cannot be aggregated over the five-year period. So the total scores are simply divided by the maximum “possible� score to arrive at the composite score for corporate governance. 54 Financial Soundness Ranking To ease comparison and interpretation, the composite scores range from 0 to 1. The composite scores for each of the four categories of indicators are then averaged for each country. These simple averages are then arranged from the highest to the lowest to identify the overall financial soundness ranking for each country. (See table 3.1 for the overall ranking.) 55 Annex 3. Getting Finance Indicators for South Asia, by Country and Year Table A3.1 Getting Finance Indicators for South Asian Countries, 2001 Sri Indicator Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Lanka Access to finance Branch penetration (branches per 100,000 people) 4.83 6.42 1.94 4.98 6.00 ATM penetration (ATMs per 100,000 people) 0.1 — 0.06 — 2.50 Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 231.97 416.77 112.71 1,997.99 939.30 Loan accounts per 1,000 people 56.56 50.99 18.98 163.60 256.90 Sectoral distribution of loans (percent)a Adults with bank accounts (percentage of total) 50.18 62.48 — 36.59 — Performance and efficiency Return on equity (percent) 17.12 13.80 –124.89 –0.30 5.20 Return on assets (percent) 0.74 0.89 –3.43 0.00 0.80 Staff cost ratio (percent) 44.75 68.50 109.38 52.58 47.30 Operating cost ratio (percent) 236.78 91.40 66.58 90.91 115.90 Banks with computerized systems (percent) 90.20 97.90 24.20 100.00 90.00 ATMs per bank 2.64 — 1.07 — 19.00 Stability Capital adequacy ratio (percent) 7.02 19.68 6.28 11.30 8.60 Large loans ratio (large loans/own funds) 6.75 3.75 4.69 7.45 — Gross non-performing loans ratio (percent) 30.25 11.40 26.27 19.60 15.30 Net non-performing loans ratio (percent) 13.86 2.35 4.72 4.63 5.40 Liquid assets ratio (percent) 30.03 48.20 19.00 39.90 22.80 Liquid assets to liabilities ratio (percent) 122.90 260.00 105.80 44.13 26.30 — Not available. a. For details on the sectoral distribution of loans, see tables A3.6–3.10. Source: Bangladesh Bank, Reserve Bank of India (various publications), Nepal Rastra Bank, State Bank of Pakistan, and Central Bank of Sri Lanka. 56 Table A3.2 Getting Finance Indicators for South Asian Countries, 2002 Sri Indicator Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Lanka Access to finance Branch penetration (branches per 100,000 people) 4.74 6.33 1.90 4.85 6.70 ATM penetration (ATMs per 100,000 people) 0.14 — 0.09 — 3.30 Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 234.75 420.84 108.27 1,998.11 989.90 Loan accounts per 1,000 people 57.14 53.93 14.23 153.11 257.70 Sectoral distribution of loans (percent)a Adults with bank accounts (percentage of total) 50.74 63.09 — 35.87 — Performance and efficiency Return on equity (percent) 12.40 17.30 –57.38 14.30 6.40 Return on assets (percent) 0.54 1.12 –4.24 0.80 1.10 Staff cost ratio (percent) 66.53 64.80 91.04 50.75 47.40 Operating cost ratio (percent) 187.63 85.10 141.72 85.81 100.20 Banks with computerized systems (percent) 92.00 97.90 26.50 100.00 90.00 ATMs per bank 3.16 — 1.47 — 24.00 Stability Capital adequacy ratio (percent) 7.60 26.30 –5.17 12.60 10.30 Large loans ratio (large loans/own funds) 6.92 3.6 –6.29 7.53 — Gross non-performing loans ratio (percent) 28.01 10.40 27.57 17.70 14.50 Net non-performing loans ratio (percent) 12.75 2.03 2.43 3.30 4.40 Liquid assets ratio (percent) 25.84 47.40 24.42 48.10 18.80 Liquid assets to liabilities ratio (percent) 121.46 250.00 118.03 54.58 21.70 — Not available. a. For details on the sectoral distribution of loans, see tables A3.6–3.10. Source: Bangladesh Bank, Reserve Bank of India (various publications), Nepal Rastra Bank, State Bank of Pakistan, and Central Bank of Sri Lanka. 57 Table A3.3 Getting Finance Indicators for South Asian Countries, 2003 Sri Indicator Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Lanka Access to finance Branch penetration (branches per 100,000 people) 4.67 6.25 1.85 4.70 6.90 ATM penetration (ATMs per 100,000 people) 0.14 — 0.10 0.38 3.70 Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 234.60 418.67 103.66 1,943.77 1,000.50 Loan accounts per 1,000 people 56.87 55.84 12.91 192.36 344.20 Sectoral distribution of loans (percent)a Adults with bank accounts (percentage of total) 50.69 62.77 — 34.90 — Performance and efficiency Return on equity (percent) 12.39 21.00 –11.05 20.30 6.60 Return on assets (percent) 0.59 1.47 –1.08 1.20 1.40 Staff cost ratio (percent) 64.53 62.70 149.10 51.48 45.80 Operating cost ratio (percent) 161.86 80.90 82.17 83.20 101.80 Banks with computerized systems (percent) 93.88 100.00 30.90 100.00 90.00 ATMs per bank 3.71 — 1.41 14.92 30.00 Stability Capital adequacy ratio (percent) 8.42 21.21 –10.59 11.10 10.30 Large loans ratio (large loans/own funds) 6.26 3.48 –3.44 6.10 — Gross non-performing loans ratio (percent) 21.06 8.80 25.79 13.70 12.50 Net non-performing loans ratio (percent) 11.28 1.92 1.85 2.27 3.00 Liquid assets ratio (percent) 24.67 48.70 21.09 46.10 17.30 Liquid assets to liabilities ratio (percent) 127.19 260.00 96.78 51.72 20.00 — Not available. a. For details on the sectoral distribution of loans, see tables A3.6–3.10. Source: Bangladesh Bank, Reserve Bank of India (various publications), Nepal Rastra Bank, State Bank of Pakistan, and Central Bank of Sri Lanka. 58 Table A3.4 Getting Finance Indicators for South Asian Countries, 2004 Sri Indicator Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Lanka Access to finance Branch penetration (branches per 100,000 people) 4.67 6.26 1.71 4.71 7.10 ATM penetration (ATMs per 100,000 people) 0.17 — 0.15 0.53 4.20 Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 233.63 426.11 102.30 1,829.83 1,023.60 Loan accounts per 1,000 people 60.24 61.88 11.18 248.77 304.10 Sectoral distribution of loans (percent)a Adults with bank accounts (percentage of total) 51.13 63.88 — 32.27 — Performance and efficiency Return on equity (percent) –13.39 23.00 –26.04 19.60 6.50 Return on assets (percent) –0.63 1.69 2.32 1.30 1.40 Staff cost ratio (percent) 66.24 61.00 84.16 51.97 42.50 Operating cost ratio (percent) 141.89 77.30 69.95 83.62 107.70 Banks with computerized systems (percent) 95.92 100.00 35.70 100.00 90.00 ATMs per bank 4.2 — 2.12 19.11 35.00 Stability Capital adequacy ratio (percent) 7.41 24.19 –9.35 11.40 10.30 Large loans ratio (large loans/own funds) 7.31 3.24 –3.81 5.49 — Gross non-performing loans ratio (percent) 16.70 7.20 21.76 9.00 9.30 Net non-performing loans ratio (percent) 9.21 1.24 0.94 1.37 1.90 Liquid assets ratio (percent) 23.50 48.70 21.01 37.00 20.30 Liquid assets to liabilities ratio (percent) 121.94 260.00 91.08 41.96 23.10 — Not available. a. For details on the sectoral distribution of loans, see tables A3.6–3.10. Source: Bangladesh Bank, Reserve Bank of India (various publications), Nepal Rastra Bank, State Bank of Pakistan, and Central Bank of Sri Lanka. 59 Table A3.5 Getting Finance Indicators for South Asian Countries, 2005 Sri Indicator Bangladesha India Nepal Pakistan Lanka Access to finance Branch penetration (branches per 100,000 people) 4.64 6.33 1.67 4.77 7.10 ATM penetration (ATMs per 100,000 people) 0.20 1.63 0.24 0.79 4.50 Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 237.32 432.11 89.55 1,715.11 1,066.20 Loan accounts per 1,000 people 60.45 71.42 10.49 302.80 344.20 Sectoral distribution of loans (percent)b Adults with bank accounts (percentage of total) 51.77 64.78 — 30.25 — Performance and efficiency Return on equity (percent) 28.63 16.90 –42.67 25.40 7.20 Return on assets (percent) 1.30 1.30 2.78 2.00 1.60 Staff cost ratio (percent) 65.00 59.00 77.34 50.73 39.50 Operating cost ratio (percent) 107.91 74.50 50.92 57.73 97.20 Banks with computerized systems (percent) 95.83 100.00 40.30 100.00 90.00 ATMs per bank 5.2 203 3.53 28.61 39 Stability Capital adequacy ratio (percent) 7.65 23.39 –5.76 11.90 11.50 Large loans ratio (large loans/own funds) 6.64 3.20 –6.24 4.30 — Gross non-performing loans ratio (percent) 13.55 5.10 17.10 6.70 7.90 Net non-performing loans ratio (percent) 7.05 0.92 0.40 0.75 1.70 Liquid assets ratio (percent) 20.61 44.20 19.24 33.90 19.60 Liquid assets to liabilities ratio (percent) 104.60 220.00 82.54 39.08 22.10 — Not available. a. Provisional data for 2005. b. For details on the sectoral distribution of loans, see tables A3.6–3.10. Source: Bangladesh Bank, Reserve Bank of India (various publications), Nepal Rastra Bank, State Bank of Pakistan, and Central Bank of Sri Lanka. 60 Table A3.6 Getting Finance Indicators for Bangladesh, 2001–05 Indicator 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005a Access to finance Branch penetration (branches per 100,000 people) 4.83 4.74 4.67 4.67 4.64 ATM penetration (ATMs per 100,000 people) 0.1 0.14 0.14 0.17 0.20 Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 231.97 234.75 234.60 233.63 237.32 Loan accounts per 1,000 people 56.56 57.14 56.87 60.24 60.45 Sectoral distribution of loans (percent)b Agriculture 11.10 9.97 8.16 7.94 7.36 Commerce and industry 65.09 66.77 67.85 66.36 65.37 Real estate 5.68 8.95 Services Others 23.81 17.58 15.04 25.70 27.27 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Adults with bank accounts (percentage of total) 50.18 50.74 50.69 51.13 51.77 Performance and efficiency Return on equity (percent) 17.12 12.40 12.39 –13.39 28.63 Return on assets (percent) 0.74 0.54 0.59 –0.63 1.30 Staff cost ratio (percent) 44.75 66.53 64.53 66.24 65.00 Operating cost ratio (percent) 236.78 187.63 161.86 141.89 107.91 Banks with computerized systems (percent) 90.20 92.00 93.88 95.92 95.83 ATMs per bank 2.64 3.16 3.71 4.2 5.2 Stability Capital adequacy ratio (percent) 7.02 7.60 8.42 7.41 7.65 Large loans ratio (large loans/own funds) 6.75 6.92 6.26 7.31 6.64 Gross non-performing loans ratio (percent) 30.25 28.01 21.06 16.70 13.55 Net non-performing loans ratio (percent) 13.86 12.75 11.28 9.21 7.05 Liquid assets ratio (percent) 30.03 25.84 24.67 23.50 20.61 Liquid assets to liabilities ratio (percent) 122.90 121.46 127.19 121.94 104.60 a. Data for 2005 are provisional. b. Blanks indicate that the sector is included in another category. Source: Bangladesh Bank. 61 Table A3.7 Getting Finance Indicators for India, 2001–05 Indicator 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Access to finance Branch penetration (branches per 100,000 people) 6.42 6.33 6.25 6.26 6.33 ATM penetration (ATMs per 100,000 people) — — — — 1.63 Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 416.77 420.84 418.67 426.11 432.11 Loan accounts per 1,000 people 50.99 53.93 55.84 61.88 71.42 Sectoral distribution of loans (percent) Agriculture 11.10 11.30 11.00 11.80 12.60 Commerce and industry 56.50 53.50 55.70 55.00 52.70 Real estate 3.80 4.70 6.40 7.50 8.80 Services 5.50 5.60 5.50 5.50 5.40 Others 23.10 24.90 21.40 20.20 20.50 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Adults with bank accounts (percentage of total) 62.48 63.09 62.77 63.88 64.78 Performance and efficiency Return on equity (percent) 13.80 17.30 21.00 23.00 16.90 Return on assets (percent) 0.89 1.12 1.47 1.69 1.30 Staff cost ratio (percent) 68.50 64.80 62.70 61.00 59.00 Operating cost ratio (percent) 91.40 85.10 80.90 77.30 74.50 Banks with computerized systems (percent) 97.90 97.90 100.00 100.00 100.00 ATMs per bank — — — — 203 Stability Capital adequacy ratio (percent) 19.68 26.30 21.21 24.19 23.39 Large loans ratio (large loans/own funds) 3.75 3.6 3.48 3.24 3.20 Gross non-performing loans ratio (percent) 11.40 10.40 8.80 7.20 5.10 Net non-performing loans ratio (percent) 2.35 2.03 1.92 1.24 0.92 Liquid assets ratio (percent) 48.20 47.40 48.70 48.70 44.20 Liquid assets to liabilities ratio (percent) 260.00 250.00 260.00 260.00 220.00 — Not available. Source: Reserve Bank of India (various publications). 62 Table A3.8 Getting Finance Indicators for Nepal, 2001–05 Indicator 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Access to finance Branch penetration (branches per 100,000 people) 1.94 1.90 1.85 1.71 1.67 ATM penetration (ATMs per 100,000 people) 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.15 0.24 Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 112.71 108.27 103.66 102.30 89.55 Loan accounts per 1,000 people 18.98 14.23 12.91 11.18 10.49 Sectoral distribution of loans (percent)a Agriculture — — 3.31 3.39 3.10 Commerce and industry — — 37.95 38.33 42.32 Real estate — — Services — — 38.43 38.21 40.66 Others — — 20.30 20.08 13.92 Total — — 100.00 100.00 100.00 Adults with bank accounts (percentage of total) — — — — — Performance and efficiency Return on equity (percent) –124.89 –57.38 –11.05 –26.04 –42.67 Return on assets (percent) –3.43 –4.24 –1.08 2.32 2.78 Staff cost ratio (percent) 109.38 91.04 149.10 84.16 77.34 Operating cost ratio (percent) 66.58 141.72 82.17 69.95 50.92 Banks with computerized systems (percent) 24.20 26.50 30.90 35.70 40.30 ATMs per bank 1.07 1.47 1.41 2.12 3.53 Stability Capital adequacy ratio (percent) 6.28 –5.17 –10.59 –9.35 –5.76 Large loans ratio (large loans/own funds) 4.69 –6.29 –3.44 –3.81 –6.24 Gross non-performing loans ratio (percent) 26.27 27.57 25.79 21.76 17.10 Net non-performing loans ratio (percent) 4.72 2.43 1.85 0.94 0.40 Liquid assets ratio (percent) 19.00 24.42 21.09 21.01 19.24 Liquid assets to liabilities ratio (percent) 105.80 118.03 96.78 91.08 82.54 — Not available. a. Blanks indicate that the sector is included in another category. Source: Nepal Rastra Bank. 63 Table A3.9 Getting Finance Indicators for Pakistan, 2001–05 Indicator 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Access to finance Branch penetration (branches per 100,000 people) 4.98 4.85 4.70 4.71 4.77 ATM penetration (ATMs per 100,000 people) — — 0.38 0.53 0.79 Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 1,997.99 1,998.11 1,943.77 1,829.83 1,715.11 Loan accounts per 1,000 people 163.60 153.11 192.36 248.77 302.80 Sectoral distribution of loans (percent)a Agriculture — — 1.93 1.80 2.80 Commerce and industry — — 75.73 77.80 73.30 Real estate — — 0.67 0.60 1.70 Services — — Others — — 21.67 19.80 22.20 Total — — 100.00 100.00 100.00 Adults with bank accounts (percentage of total) 36.59 35.87 34.90 32.27 30.25 Performance and efficiency Return on equity (percent) –0.30 14.30 20.30 19.60 25.40 Return on assets (percent) 0.00 0.80 1.20 1.30 2.00 Staff cost ratio (percent) 52.58 50.75 51.48 51.97 50.73 Operating cost ratio (percent) 90.91 85.81 83.20 83.62 57.73 Banks with computerized systems (percent) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 ATMs per bank — — 14.92 19.11 28.61 Stability Capital adequacy ratio (percent) 11.30 12.60 11.10 11.40 11.90 Large loans ratio (large loans/own funds) 7.45 7.53 6.10 5.49 4.30 Gross non-performing loans ratio (percent) 19.60 17.70 13.70 9.00 6.70 Net non-performing loans ratio (percent) 4.63 3.30 2.27 1.37 0.75 Liquid assets ratio (percent) 39.90 48.10 46.10 37.00 33.90 Liquid assets to liabilities ratio (percent) 44.13 54.58 51.72 41.96 39.08 — Not available. a. Blanks indicate that the sector is included in another category. Source: State Bank of Pakistan. 64 Table A3.10 Getting Finance Indicators for Sri Lanka, 2001–05 Indicator 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Access to finance Branch penetration (branches per 100,000 people) 6.00 6.70 6.90 7.10 7.10 ATM penetration (ATMs per 100,000 people) 2.50 3.30 3.70 4.20 4.50 Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 939.30 989.90 1,000.50 1,023.60 1,066.20 Loan accounts per 1,000 people 256.90 257.70 344.20 304.10 344.20 Sectoral distribution of loans (percent) Agriculture 4.70 4.60 4.80 3.80 4.30 Commerce and industry 50.90 49.40 47.10 45.70 42.30 Real estate 13.70 14.30 14.10 14.30 14.40 Services 12.80 13.70 14.20 13.40 13.30 Others 17.90 18.00 19.80 22.80 25.70 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Adults with bank accounts (percentage of total) — — — — — Performance and efficiency Return on equity (percent) 5.20 6.40 6.60 6.50 7.20 Return on assets (percent) 0.80 1.10 1.40 1.40 1.60 Staff cost ratio (percent) 47.30 47.40 45.80 42.50 39.50 Operating cost ratio (percent) 115.90 100.20 101.80 107.70 97.20 Banks with computerized systems (percent) 90.00 90.00 90.00 90.00 90.00 ATMs per bank 19.00 24.00 30.00 35.00 39 Stability Capital adequacy ratio (percent) 8.60 10.30 10.30 10.30 11.50 Large loans ratio (large loans/own funds) — — — — — Gross non-performing loans ratio (percent) 15.30 14.50 12.50 9.30 7.90 Net non-performing loans ratio (percent) 5.40 4.40 3.00 1.90 1.70 Liquid assets ratio (percent) 22.80 18.80 17.30 20.30 19.60 Liquid assets to liabilities ratio (percent) 26.30 21.70 20.00 23.10 22.10 — Not available. Source: Central Bank of Sri Lanka. 65 Annex 4. Corporate Governance Matrix: Questionnaire Responses, 2005 1. Ownership Structure and Influence of External Stakeholders 1.1 Identification of substantial majority holders Question Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 1.1.1 What are the rules that govern disclosure of share ownership? Is the ownership structure transparent? In AA √ x √ √  Top 10 shareholders and percentage of ownership to be disclosed? √ √ x only to √ Top 20 regulator 10% 1% 10%; 5%  Threshold of share ownership that needs to be disclosed (e.g., 5% 0.5% 3% to SBP and over)?  Is government’s ownership disclosed with its special privileges? √ in AA √ √ √ √  Does government control the nomination and remuneration process √ for √ nom public x √ for state x for the board of directors (BOD)? sector bks bks  Is there evidence of influence from external stakeholders such as x but √ for x x public x regulator can labor unions or banking and securities regulators? sector bks  Are the preemption rights of minority shareholders firmly protected, x √ √ √ e.g., enshrined in the company law and requiring a supermajority √ (75%) to disapply them? 66 1.2 Indirect and beneficial ownership Question Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 1.2.1 Are there rules that govern the disclosure by shareholders of ultimate beneficial ownership? x √ x √ x  If so, please specify the threshold for disclosure of ownership. (only in ind. x 3% 10% for tax returns) ind.; 15% for co.;  Are shareholders required to disclose their ownership to an 20% agg. authority? √ √ x monitored Annual a/c  Where, when, by whom, and to whom are such disclosures to be To bank and reports to x made? SBP √  Do shareholders have access to this information? √ √ √ on  Does the market have access to this information? √ s/holdings thru’ AR  Please specify monitoring and enforcement provisions, including Fines Penalties from BCO x penalties for noncompliance. & PRs a — x  How many cases of noncompliance have been recorded in the Action past 5 years, and what actions were taken? taken case by case 67 2. Investor Rights 2.1 Shareholder meetings and voting procedures Question Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 2.1.1 Shareholder meetings  Are shareholders informed of shareholder meetings? √ √ √ √ √  How much notice is given (e.g., 4 weeks before the meeting)? 3 weeks 21 days 3 weeks 21 days 21 days  Do banks provide detailed agendas and explanatory circulars along √ √ √ √ √ with the notice of meetings? 2.1.2 Voting procedures Proxy Proxy Proxy, Proxy Proxy  Can shareholders vote by proxy, by post, or electronically? post  Is the counting of votes verified by a third party? x √ √ √ x  Can shareholders vote on a normal range of issues, including √ √ x √ x major and related-party transactions?  Are banks required to disclose special voting rights and caps on √ Not reqd. 5% cap as it is √ √ x voting rights? except for specified govt in Banking Reg’n Act 68 2.2 Basic ownership rights Question Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 2.2.1 Are all directors’ appointments and dismissals subject to a √ √ only for x √ x pvt bks shareholder vote? subject to RBI  Can the government control such outcomes due to higher — x By virtue of Possible s/holding percentage of ownership (where applicable)? √ for public bks 2.2.2 Is there a clear dividend policy? √ √ x √ √ 2.2.3 Are there structural takeover defenses that would prevent a x √ x √ √ legitimate takeover bid? Purchases Purchases of over 5% of over  Can the government or regulators reserve the right to approve x √ x need SBP 10% need approval CBSL such transactions? Promoters’ approval. share Bank mgt If over transfers changes 30%, must need reg. need SBP make offer approval approval to all s/holders 2.2.4 Can minority shareholders easily nominate independent directors? x x not in x √ Depends public bks on internal bank rules 69 3. Transparency and Disclosure 3.1 Adherence to internationally accepted accounting standards Question Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 3.1.1 Do banks prepare their financial statements in accordance √ √ √ x √ IASC stds with local generally accepted accounting principles and provide (ROSC Rpt)b as adopted reconciliation with international accounting standards? by country 3.1.2 Are accounting standards in material conformity with √ √ √ √ √ international accounting standards? (ROSC Rpt)b Mostly (ROSC Except IAS 39 & 40 Rpt)b 3.1.3 What is the frequency of reporting of financial statements Annual Quarterly, Quarterly Quarterly, Monthly, semiannual semiannual quarterly & (e.g., quarterly)? & annual & annual annual 3.1.4 Are bank financials available to the general public? If yes, √ √ √ √ √ how? On the Web, in newspapers, upon request? All All All All All 3.1.5 Is disclosure of audit and non-audit fees paid to the external √ x √ √ √ auditor required? 3.1.6 Must the Chief Executive Officer, Chief Financial Officer, or √ √ √ √ √ directors sign and certify bank’s annual accounts? CEO + 3 CEO + CEO + CEO + 3 directors CFO CFO + directors dirs. 70 3.2 Independent internal and external auditors and audit committee Question Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 3.2.1 Audit committee √ √ √ √ √  Has the bank appointed an audit committee?  If banks appoint such a committee, is there a mandate or charter √ √ √ √ √ that clearly delineates its responsibilities?  How often does the committee meet? 3-4/yr min. Quarterly x Quarterly Not (min.) specified x  Does the committee control the selection of auditors? x √ for pvt √ bks. Not clear  Does the committee chair attend shareholder meetings, and is √ √ √ √ Not clearly the chair available to address questions on the audit? stated but RBI has Not Not clear directed clearly but chair expected as stated but may be chair is a expected nonexec director as chair is member a director of board 3.2.2 External auditors √ √ √ √ √  Has the bank appointed a reputed and experienced external auditor?  Does the bank’s auditor rotation policy conform to the √ √ √ √ √ requirements set by the regulator? 3 yrs 3 yrs 3 yrs 3 yrs  Does the auditor perform any non-audit services for the bank? √ (under x x x X separate  Are local auditing rules and practices in line with international TOR) √ standards and practices? √ √ (ROSC √ (ROSC √ Rpt)b Rpt)b 71 Question Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 3.2.3 Internal auditor  Has the bank appointed a qualified internal auditor? √ x √ √ √  Is the internal auditor independent? Does he report to the audit committee, board of directors, or other governing authorities? √ x √ √ √  Does the internal auditing program include clearly defined policies, processes, and metrics as performance benchmarks? √ (ROSC √ √ √ √ Rpt)b  Does the internal auditor provide periodic reports on the risk √ √ √ √ √ management, control, and governance processes to the audit committee?  If so, what is the frequency of such reports? Quarterly Annual Quarterly Not specified Not clear 72 4. Board Structure and Effectiveness 4.1 Role and effectiveness Question Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 4.1.1 Structure  What is the average structure of the board (unitary, two-tiered, Unitary Unitary Hybrid Unitary Hybrid or hybrid)?  What is the average size of the board? 13 8–10 5–9 7 min. 5–11  Are there minimum qualification requirements for appointment √ x √ √ √ of board members by law, regulation, and recommended practice? 4.1.2 Role and responsibility  Is the scope of the powers and responsibilities of the board √ √ √ √ √ clearly defined?  Are tasks and objectives individually allocated to board √ x √ √ defined √ by BOD members, including the chair and the board secretary?  Does the board have a process to identify all the laws and √ √ √ √ regulations it must comply with? √  Is there a process in place for director induction, training, and √ x x √ √ continuing education? orientation courses 73 Question Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 4.1.3 For two-tier boards, do key responsibilities include the — — — — Code of following? (Please specify whether required by law or regulation or best recommended by a code.) practice issued by  Reviewing and guiding corporate strategy and major plan of CBSL requires action. BOD to handle  Risk policy. these issues  Business plans.  Setting performance objectives.  Monitoring implementation and corporate performance.  Overseeing major capital expenditures, acquisitions, and divestitures. 74 4.2 Compensation Question Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka 4.2.1 Determination of board remuneration √ √ √ √ x  Is there a law or regulation that sets board remuneration?  What role do shareholders play in determining board — In pvt Approve Approve remuneration? sector bks it at AGM it at AGM —  Who sets remuneration for the CEO? Govt for BOD, with public BOD, BOD — BB bks, approve it approval s/holders at AGM for pvt bks 4.2.2 Does the board of directors receive some performance-based x x compensation in the form of an annual cash bonus, stock, or the √ x — As per co. like? ordinance; approved at AGM 4.2.3 Do banks disclose the board’s compensation? √ √ √ √ Public, Detailed Detailed Aggregate  If so, is disclosure aggregate or detailed? x aggregate; private, detailed — Not available. Note: For definitions of acronyms and abbreviations, see the list at the beginning of the report. a. BCO is Banking Companies Ordinance; PR is prudential regulations. b. The ROSC Report provides information that is contradictory to questionnaire responses (for Bangladesh, see World Bank 2003; for Nepal, see World Bank 2005a). Source: Bangladesh Bank, Reserve Bank of India, Nepal Rastra Bank, State Bank of Pakistan, and Central Bank of Sri Lanka. 75 Annex 5. Major Policy Developments in the Prudential Regulations of South Asia, 2004–05 Bangladesh Bangladesh Bank (the central bank) has implemented a number of reform measures to strengthen the banking sector. These include:  Raising the minimum capital requirement (CAR) on a risk-weighted basis from 8 percent to 9 percent, and the minimum capital requirement from Tk 400 million to Tk 1 billion (US$17 million).  Introducing tighter conditions for rescheduling loans.  Putting a limit on dividend payouts.  Instituting strict measures on loan loss provisioning.  Issuing loan write-off guidelines.  Making more effective use of the Credit Information Bureau.  Introducing large loan limits (limits on single-party exposure).  Linking total of banks’ large loans to their non-performing loans ratios.  Revamping the Money Loan Courts Act.  Enhancing corporate governance measures.  Introducing an early warning system. These reforms have resulted in greater floating of banks’ shares in the stock market and a healthy increase in the share prices of banks. The banking sector’s share in market capitalization rose from 10 percent in June 1998 to 47 percent in December 2004. Private banks’ capital adequacy ratio increased from 11 percent in 1998 to 12.2 percent in 2004. Gross and net non-performing loans ratios improved for all banks. The ratio of gross non-performing loans to total advances for private banks declined from 28 percent to 8 percent in 1998–2004, while the ratio of net non- performing loans to net loans declined from 16 percent to less than 3 percent. Similarly, the gross non-performing loans ratio of nationalized commercial banks declined from 40 percent to 25 percent, and the net non-performing loans ratio from 27 percent to 18 percent. Bangladesh Bank has also introduced a number of corporate governance measures, including:  Tightening the “fit and proper� test for CEOs of banks.  Introducing a “fit and proper� test for bank directors.  Making it mandatory for banks to have independent directors representing the interests of depositors.  Reducing the maximum number of directors for a bank to 13.  Limiting directorships of banks to two consecutive terms of three years each.  Allowing only one director from each shareholding family.  Requiring the establishment of an independent audit committee on each bank’s board to assist in financial reporting, auditing, and internal control.  Requiring significantly enhanced annual financial disclosures, including publishing financial information in newspapers and ensuring its availability for public view in bank branches. In addition, Bangladesh Bank has introduced risk management guidelines covering credit, market, and operational risks. It has also issued prudential guidelines for consumer credit and for small business lending. Bangladesh Bank has demonstrated its willingness to enforce its prudential regulations over the past three to four years. A number of banks have been fined for violating regulations. As many as 65 bank directors and Chairpersons have lost their directorships because of loan default, insider lending practices, or other violations. Four Managing Directors (CEOs) of banks have been removed since 2000. Guidelines on the early warning system and problem 76 banks have been introduced. A systems audit has been instituted, and audits have been completed in different risk areas, producing a risk rating for the bank. Bangladesh Bank has also initiated an information technology audit for banks, with 25 banks audited so far. A draft Financial Reporting Act, including provisions for setting up a Financial Reporting Council, has been prepared. The key features of the new legal and regulatory framework were discussed with stakeholders at a workshop on March 13, 2006. After broad consultations the draft act and the design of the council were to be finalized and presented to key stakeholders for their final review in May 2006, followed by internal government reviews and vetting processes. Cabinet approval of the act was expected by June 2006, to be followed by presentation to the Parliament before October 2006. Despite a late start, good progress is being made overall, with adequate focus on quality and consultation for this important reform measure. Prudential guidelines issued by Bangladesh Bank in 2004–05 include the following.  January 2004: Banks are free to fix their rates of interest on lending except for export credits, which were fixed at 7 percent per annum with effect from January 10, 2004.  May 2004: Bangladesh Bank issued a circular making it mandatory to include a credit rating report in the prospectus of banking companies floating general shares through an initial public offering (IPO) at par or face value like shares issuable at premium or right share.  May 2004: Bangladesh Bank issued a circular allowing netting to be done in respect of interest in suspense when calculating risk weighting of balance sheet assets.  November 2004: Guidelines for Consumer Financing and Small Enterprise Financing: Banks have been advised to implement the guidelines by December 31, 2005. Bangladesh Bank will monitor the progress of implementation of these Regulations/Guidelines through its on-site inspection teams through routine inspection.  February 2005: Accounting of the interest of classified loans: A continuous credit, a demand loan, or a term loan that will remain overdue for a period of 90 days or more will be put into the “Special Mention Account,� and interest accrued on such loan will be credited to the Interest Suspense Account instead of crediting the same to the Income Account.  April 2005: In the circular where qualitative judgment is used as basis for loan classification it is stated that if any loan is classified by the Inspection Team of Bangladesh Bank, the same can be declassified with the approval of the Board of Directors of the bank. However, before placing such a case before the Board, the CEO and concerned branch manager shall certify that the conditions for declassification have been fulfilled.  April 2005: Bangladesh Bank issued a circular revising the policy on single borrower exposure. Among other things it has been decided to reduce the single borrower exposure limit from 50 percent to 35 percent. The total outstanding financing facilities by a bank to any single person or enterprise or organization of a group shall not at any point in time exceed 35 percent of the bank’s total capital subject to the condition that the maximum outstanding against fund-based financing facilities (funded facilities) do not exceed 15 percent of the total capital. Under the same guidelines, non-funded credit facilities (for example, a letter of credit or guarantee) can be provided to a single large borrower. But under no circumstances shall the total amount of the funded and non-funded credit facilities exceed 35 percent of a bank’s total capital.  April 2005: For the loans that have already been disbursed with the approval of Bangladesh Bank, and that have exceeded the limit as stipulated, banks shall take necessary steps to bring down the loan amount within the specified limit. In order to meet this condition, banks may, if necessary, arrange partaking with other banks. However, for continuous loans the limit has to be brought down as per Section 02 by December 2005. For term loans the deadline is December 2006. 77 India Developments in India’s financial sector in 2004–05 centered on making commercial banks, regional rural banks, and the cooperative sector financially stronger and more stable. The pace of integrating international practices, standards, and codes has been hastened for commercial banks, considered to be systemically important. Noticeable improvements have been brought about in payments and settlement systems, banking supervision, accounting standards, corporate governance, the legal system, and the like. Some of the key developments since April 2004 aimed at enhancing financial stability, improving performance and efficiency, expanding access to finance, and strengthening governance standards are summarized below. Key Developments Financial Stability. The Reserve Bank of India as regulator, in consultation with the government, has been bringing about improvements in the financial performance, systems, and governance standards of the banking sector through a phased introduction of international best practices and standards. Asset classification norms have been brought into line with the international norm of 90-day delinquency except for agricultural advances. Provisioning norms are being tightened. The government has helped by enacting legislation that speeds recovery proceedings by banks. Risk management is receiving special attention from both the regulator and the players. And commercial banks are moving away from transaction-based audit toward risk-based audit. Basel II Compliance. The Reserve Bank of India advised banks to draw up a road map by the end of 2004 for migration to Basel II norms and to prepare a quarterly review of their progress. It also issued detailed prudential guidelines on capital adequacy for implementation of the new capital adequacy framework under Basel II. To maintain consistency and harmony with international standards, the regulator advised banks to adopt the Standardized Approach for credit risk and the Basic Indicator Approach for operational risk. Under the new framework, banks adopting the Standardized Approach would use only the ratings assigned by the credit rating agencies recognized by the Reserve Bank. The regulator also required banks to focus on formalizing and operationalizing their internal capital adequacy assessment process. Finally, it issued a revised guidance note for banks on managing operational risk. Risk Management. The Reserve Bank has emphasized that the design of banks’ risk management systems should be oriented toward their own requirements, as dictated by the size and complexity of their business, risk philosophy, market perception, and expected level of capital. Moreover, these systems should be adaptable to changes in business, size, and market dynamics and to the introduction of innovative products. The Reserve Bank extended its country risk management guidelines to cover countries where a bank has net funded exposure of 1 percent or more of its assets effective from the year ending March 31, 2005. It also advised banks to put into place a business continuity plan, including a robust information risk management system, within a fixed time frame. Risk Weights and Capital Charge. The risk weight for banks’ exposure to public financial institutions was changed on par with other exposure norms and raised to 100 percent for credit risk and 2.5 percent for market risk. Boards of banks, under exceptional circumstances, were allowed to raise the single or group exposure limit by 5 percent of capital funds. Signaling its concern about players aggressively rushing in to expand their residential mortgage loan and consumer loan portfolios, the Reserve Bank stepped up the capital charge prescribed for residential mortgage loans from 50 percent to 75 percent and that for consumer credit, personal loan, credit card, capital market, and commercial real estate exposures from 100 percent to 125 percent. Banks were directed to provide for a capital charge for market risk on trading book exposures (including derivatives) effective March 31, 2005. Effective March 31, 2006, banks also are to maintain a capital charge for securities under the “available for sale� category. The Reserve Bank advised banks to have a board-mandated policy for real estate exposure covering exposure limits, collateral to be considered, margins to be kept, sanctioning authority or level, and sector to be financed. Banks have to report their real estate exposure under certain heads and disclose both their gross exposure and the breakdown in their annual reports. Access to Finance. As part of efforts to expand access to finance, the government has set up a committee to examine ways of improving financial inclusion. To provide basic banking services, banks now offer “no frills� accounts with 78 minimum charges, for which the “know your customer� requirements have been simplified. The Reserve Bank has asked banks to formulate a detailed, medium-term (three-year) plan for branch expansion approved by their boards. The plan should cover all categories of branches and offices with customer contact, including specialized branches, extension counters, and ATMs. The plan should be based on districts, giving the number of branches proposed for metropolitan, urban, semi-urban, and rural areas. This plan should be submitted to the Reserve Bank by December each year. Corporate Governance. Corporate governance is another area where such regulators as the Reserve Bank and the Securities and Exchange Board have taken proactive steps. The standards for disclosure are improving fast. On February 15, 2005, the Reserve Bank issued comprehensive guidelines on ownership and governance in private sector banks, encompassing the minimum capital requirement, diversified ownership, procedures for acquisition and transfer of shares, and “fit and proper� criteria for the directors and major shareholders. Effective March 31, 2005, commercial banks were directed to disclose a minimum framework on their risk exposure to derivatives. Prudential Guidelines Among the prudential guidelines issued by the Reserve Bank of India in 2004–05 are the following.  February 2004: The restriction on banks to provide finance up to Rs 50,000 or six months’ salary, whichever is less, to assist employees to buy shares of their own companies, was withdrawn. However, these advances would form part of the capital market exposure of the bank.  February 2004: Prudential guidelines on banks’ investments in non–Statutory Liquidity Requirement (SLR) debt securities issued to contain risks arising out of the non-SLR investment portfolio of banks, in particular through private placement, investment in non-SLR securities of original maturity of less than one year and also unrated debt securities and unlisted shares of All India Financial Institutions were prohibited. These guidelines are to be fully complied with before March 31, 2004.  February 2004: Private sector banks to ensure, through an amendment to the Articles of Association, that no transfer takes place of any acquisition of shares of 5 percent or more of the total paid-up capital of the bank without a prior acknowledgment by the Reserve Bank of India. Boards of private sector banks are required to take the guidelines into account while seeking acknowledgment for transfer or allotment of shares.  April 2004: The eligibility criteria (inclusive of the fulfillment of norms related to the capital to risk-weighted assets ratio, non-performing assets, and compliance with other regulations) for declaration of dividend without the prior approval of the Reserve Bank of India have been modified. Norms were also laid down for the quantum of dividend payable (with ceiling at 33 1/3 percent dividend payout ratio) along with prescription of the methods of compliance.  April 2004: Banks to ensure strict compliance with the three accounting standards relating to discounting operations, intangible assets, and impairment of assets as recommended by the Working Group.  May 2004: Banks advised to strictly maintain the confidentiality of information provided by the customer for Know-Your-Customer compliance.  May 2004: Margin/security requirement for agricultural loans up to Rs 50,000 and agribusiness and agri- clinics for loans up to Rs 500,000 were waived.  June 2004: Boards of banks, under exceptional circumstances, may permit banks to raise their single or group exposure limit by 5 percent of capital funds.  June 2004: The risk weight in respect of exposure by banks to public financial institutions was raised to 100 percent for credit risk and 2.5 percent for market risk effective April 2005.  June 2004: The guidelines on country risk management issued by the Reserve Bank of India were extended to cover countries where a bank has net funded exposure of 1 percent or more of its assets with effect from the year ended March 31, 2005. 79  June 2004: Banks to provide for capital charge for market risk in respect of trading book exposures (including derivatives) effective March 31, 2005. Capital charge would be introduced for securities under AFS (Available for Sale) category with effect from March 31, 2006.  June 2004: Unsecured exposures were redefined to attract 20 percent provisioning.  June 2004: Banks were advised by the Reserve Bank of India to draw a road map by the end of 2004 for migration to Basel II norms and prepare a quarterly review of the progress made.  June 2004: Graded higher provisioning requirement according to the age of non-performing loans in the “doubtful for more than three years� category was introduced for scheduled commercial banks with effect from March 2005. In the case of doubtful assets for more than three years as at March 2004, a time period of three years is allowed to make progressive increase in provisions to reach 100 percent. In respect of non- performing assets moving into the category of “doubtful for more than three years� effective March 2005, prudential regulations mandate 100 percent loan provisioning.  July 2004: Prudential norms on income recognition, asset classification, and provisioning with respect to agricultural advances were modified with a view to aligning the repayment dates with harvesting of crops. Effective September 30, 2004, loans granted for short-duration crops were required to be treated as non- performing assets if the installment of the principal or interest thereon remains unpaid for two crop seasons beyond the due date. A loan granted for longer-duration crop (with crop season longer than one year) is to be treated as non-performing assets if the installment of principal or interest thereon remains unpaid for one crop season beyond the due date.  August 2004: Banks to convert all their equity holdings into dematerialized form by the end of December 2004.  September 2004: Banks were permitted to exceed the 25 percent limit under the Held to maturity (HTM) category provided that the excess comprises only SLR securities and the total SLR securities in the HTM category are not more than 25 percent of their Net Demand and Time Liabilities. No fresh non-SLR securities permitted to be included in the HTM category.  October 2004: Guidelines relating to the process of issue of subordinated debt instruments under tier 2 and tier 3 capital were issued.  October 2004: Banks were allowed to extend direct finance to the housing sector up to Rs 1.5 million irrespective of location as part of their priority sector lending.  November 2004: Banks were advised by the Reserve Bank of India to restructure crop loans and agricultural loans only in respect of their overdue installments including interest thereon as of March 31, 2004. The farmers whose accounts are restructured as above would be eligible for fresh loans. The restructured loans as also the fresh loans to be issued to the farmers may be treated as current due and not treated as non- performing assets.  December 2004: Risk weight on housing loans extended by scheduled commercial banks increased from 50 percent to 75 percent and in the case of consumer credit, including personal loans and credit cards, increased from 100 percent to 125 percent from December 23, 2004.  February 2005: Detailed prudential guidelines were issued by the Reserve Bank of India to banks on capital adequacy for implementation of the new capital adequacy framework under Basel II. In order to maintain consistency and harmony with international standards, banks were advised to adopt the Standardized Approach for credit risk and the Basic Indicator Approach with effect from April 2006. Approach for operational risk: Under the new framework, banks adopting the Standardized Approach would use the ratings assigned only by those credit rating agencies that are identified by the Reserve Bank of India. Banks were also required to focus on formalizing and operationalizing their internal capital adequacy assessment process (CAAP), which would serve as a useful benchmark while undertaking parallel run with effect from April 2006. 80  March 2005: Draft guidelines on implementation of the new capital adequacy framework were issued by the Reserve Bank of India for comments on management of operational risk.  April 2005: Banks were advised by the Reserve Bank of India to put in place a Business Continuity Plan including a robust information risk management system within a fixed time frame.  April 2005: Banks with capital adequacy of 9 percent for both credit risk and market risk for both AFS (Available for Sale) and HFT (Held for Trading) may treat the balance in the Investment Fluctuation Reserve in excess of 5 percent as part of tier 1 capital.  July 2005: The risk weight for credit risk on capital market and commercial real estate exposures was increased to 125 percent from July 26, 2005.  October 2005: Banks that have maintained capital of at least 9 percent of the risk-weighted assets for both credit risks and market risks for both AFS and HFT categories as on March 31, 2006, would be permitted to treat the entire balance in the Investment Fluctuation Reserve as tier 1 capital. For this purpose banks may transfer the entire balance in the Investment Fluctuation Reserve below the line in the Profit and Loss Appropriation Account to Statutory Reserve, General Reserve, or balance of Profit and Loss account.  October 2005: Revised guidance note on management of operational risk issued by the Reserve Bank of India to banks. The design of a risk management framework should be oriented toward a bank’s own requirements, dictated by the size and complexity of business, risk philosophy, market perception, and the expected level of capital. The risk management systems in the bank should be adaptable to change in business, size, market dynamics, and introduction of innovative products. Nepal In Nepal the financial sector is dominated by banks, with assets accounting for around 75 percent of total financial sector assets. The banking system is dominated in turn by three public banks, accounting for 47 percent of banking assets. Two of these are commercial banks, with non-performing loans exceeding 50 percent of their total loans and a combined negative net worth equal to around 7 percent of GDP. Before enactment of the Central Bank (Nepal Rastra Bank) Act in 2002, the regulatory and supervisory body operated under the authority of the Ministry of Finance. The resulting lack of autonomy hindered its ability to supervise and regulate the banking system. The 2002 act improves the central bank’s autonomy, governance, and accountability. A recent amendment to this act further empowers the central bank to deal expeditiously with errant banks. In addition, the new Banking and Financial Institutions Ordinance, enacted in 2004, replaced fragmented pieces of legislation. But while well intended, the ordinance lacks the scope and application to provide an appropriate legal framework for the 25 core principles of effective supervision. Moreover, it has increased the regulatory burden of the central bank while providing it with too little power to implement prudential and supervisory requirements, and adversely affects microfinance institutions. The ordinance needs to be reviewed with a view to improving its scope, application, and comprehensiveness. Nepal Rastra Bank is making amendments to the ordinance. With very weak supervisory and monitoring capacity, the central bank faces widespread breach of prudential norms that is not easily detected and places the entire system at risk. Moreover, the central bank has been unable to take prompt corrective actions against financial institutions that are in violation of rules. The inclusion of microfinance institutions under its purview has added to its regulatory burden—with no clear benefits—and has contributed to the underdevelopment of these institutions. The Securities Commission of Nepal has a severe lack of capacity, technical know-how, and resources. Enforcement of legal contracts and creditors’ rights in Nepal is weak. Large, willful defaulters avoid repaying loans by taking refuge behind courts, which lack capacity for handling commercial cases and a system for preventing bribes from debtors seeking favorable judgments. This weakness hinders debt recovery, increases banks’ reluctance 81 to extend credit without collateral (especially to small borrowers), and consequently increases the cost of financing by forcing borrowers to rely on alternative sources (moneylenders). The Debt Recovery Tribunal, set up to address these problems, has failed to fulfill its mandate because of weak capacity, underfunding, and legal impediments inherent in the law establishing the tribunal. Prudential guidelines issued by Nepal Rastra Bank in 2004–05 include the following.  July 2004: The rates for refinancing facilities provided by Nepal Rastra Bank to banks and financial institutions have been fixed as follows. All previous procedural arrangements relating to refinancing facilities remain unchanged. a. Rate of Refinance provided under Sick Industries Rehabilitation Program: 1.5 percent. b. Rate of Refinance to Rural Development Banks and Export Credit and Agriculture Credit in local currency: 3.0 percent. c. All other arrangements except those mentioned in (a) and (b) remain unchanged.  Further, the commercial banks, at the time of making a request for refinance under the Sick Industries Rehabilitation Program, shall provide certification as to the fulfillment of criteria set by the Sick Industries Rehabilitation Main Committee and the rate of interest charged to the borrower be fixed at 4.5 percent.  August 2005: All finance companies licensed by Nepal Rastra Bank (“C� category licensed financial institutions) may, by obtaining a license from the Public Debt Department of Nepal Rastra Bank, carry out the function of “buying and selling or accepting the bonds issued by His Majesty’s Government (HMG) or Nepal Rastra Bank.�  August 2005: The bank rate/refinance rate has been fixed as follows. Other conditions and procedural arrangements with respect to bank rate/refinance rate facilities to be provided to the bank and financial institutions by this bank remain unchanged. a. The existing bank rate of 5.5 percent has been increased to 6.0 percent. b. The existing refinance rate of 3.0 percent for export credit and agriculture credit to be availed in local currency has been increased to 3.5 percent. c. Other than above (a) and (b), all other arrangements remain unchanged.  August 2005: The loans provided by any commercial banks currently under the coordination of the Bank of Kathmandu to the workers going for foreign employment under the HMG Youth Self- Employment and Employment Training Program, as well as the loans extended by any licensed financial institutions by obtaining loans from the commercial banks for the purpose of providing foreign employment loans, will be considered for inclusion under the Deprived Sector loans of the respective commercial banks.  September 2005: Additional actions against willful defaulters should be implemented as per the provisions of the decision of HMG (Council of Ministers) regarding actions to be initiated against the willful defaulters of bank and financial institutions.  October 2005: Existing clause 2 of the Consolidated Directives issued by Nepal Rastra Bank to the Bank and Financial Institutions concerning the branches/offices is replaced by the following: “The “A�, “B� and “C� Class licensed institutions, fulfilling the minimum paid-up capital as prescribed by Nepal Rastra Bank, shall apply for opening of a branch office within the approved working area with a business plan to Nepal Rastra Bank’s Bank and Financial Institutions Regulation Department.� Pakistan 82 An independent assessment by a joint World Bank–IMF Financial Sector Assessment Program team concluded that the Pakistani banking system is robust and able to withstand exogenous shocks. Compliance with internationally accepted standards and codes was found to be quite high. Stringent measures are enforced on the classification of non-performing loans, loan loss provisioning, tier 1 and tier 2 capital adequacies, write-off of unrecoverable debt, and allocation of capital against market risk. The State Bank of Pakistan, in consultation with banks and businesses, has issued three sets of regulations specifically tailored to manage the risk profiles of corporate, consumer, and small enterprise lending. To weed out weak banks and encourage mergers and consolidations so that fewer but stronger banks operate in the system, minimum capital requirements for banks and development finance institutions were raised twice in the past four years—to PRs 1.5 billion by December 2004 and PRs 2 billion by December 2005. Banks are required to progressively increase their paid-up capital to PRs 6 billion by the end of December 2009 by adding PRs 1 billion each year. To prepare banks and development finance institutions for Basel II, the State Bank imposed an additional capital charge for market risk. Recently the State Bank of Pakistan decided to formally adopt Basel II. It issued a circular setting out the following time frame for adopting different approaches under Basel II:  Standardized Approach for credit risk and Basic Indicator and Standardized Approach for operational risk from January 1, 2008.  Internal Ratings–Based Approach from January 1, 2010, with banks and development finance institutions permitted to implement it sooner if the State Bank approves their internal risk management systems. Banks and development finance institutions will be required to adopt a parallel run of one and a half years for the Standardized Approach starting July 1, 2006, and two years for the Internal Ratings–Based Approach starting January 1, 2008. Among the prudential guidelines issued by the State Bank of Pakistan in 2004–05 are the following.  January 2004: Section 33-A Fidelity and Secrecy, The Banking Companies Ordinance, 1962 (BPD Circular 2).  February 2004: Prudential regulations (BPD Circular 4).  February 2004: Undertaking of brokerage business by banks and development finance institutions (BPD Circular 5).  March 2004: Establishment of subsidiary for banks and development finance institutions (BPD Circular 7).  April 2004: Collated instructions on margin restrictions (BPD Circular 10).  May 2004: “Fit and proper� test for appointment of presidents, CEOs, and boards of directors (BPD Circular 13).  May 2004: Scheme for long-term financing of export-oriented projects (BPD Circular 14).  May 2004: Prudential regulations for corporate and commercial banking (BPD Circular 15).  June 2004: Guidelines on dealing with customer complaints (BPD Circular 17).  June 2004: Anti–money laundering measures (BPD Circular 20).  June 2004: Branch licensing policy (BPD Circular 19).  June 2004: Prudential regulations (BPD Circular 18).  July 2004: Regulations for financing of brokers by banks and development finance institutions (BPD Circular 22).  July 2004: Release of security or margin held against bank guarantee (BPD Circular 23).  July 2004: Receipt and processing of applications for subscriptions (BPD Circular 24).  October 2004: Prudential regulations for consumer finance (BPD Circular 32).  January 2005: Establishment of subsidiaries or brokerage companies by banks and development finance institutions (BPD Circular 1).  March 2005: Prudential regulations for corporate and commercial banking (BPD Circular 8). 83  March 2005: Relaxation of the regulatory framework for housing finance (BPD Circular 10).  March 2005: Placement of funds under Fe-25 deposits (BPD Circular 9).  April 2005: Establishment of subsidiaries or brokerage companies by banks and development finance institutions (BPD Circular 13).  April 2005: Prudential regulations for corporate and commercial banking (BPD Circular 14).  April 2005: Rates of return on deposits (BPD Circular 16).  May 2005: Prudential regulations (BPD Circular 19).  July 2005: Guidelines for infrastructure project financing (BPD Circular 23).  September 2005: Prudential regulations (BPD Circular 25).  October 2005: Classification of dormant or inoperative accounts (BPD Circular 26).  October 2005: Amendment of Regulation M-1 on prudential regulations for corporate and commercial banking (BPD Circular 29).  October 2005: Withdrawal of redundant or old instructions (BPD Circular 28).  October 2005: Prudential regulations for agricultural financing (BPD Circular 27).  November 2005: Guidelines for Higher Education Financing Scheme (BPD Circular 31).  November 2005: Introduction of basic banking account (BPD Circular 30). Sri Lanka The Central Bank of Sri Lanka has taken steps to tighten prudential norms relating to capital standards, loan classification and provisioning, and exposure limits; to strengthen public disclosure and market discipline; and to develop off-site surveillance, consolidated supervision, a safety net, a crisis resolution framework, and a framework for assessing financial sector stability. Bank supervision is conducted by qualified staff through an appropriate mix of on-site examination and off-site analytical activities. The Central Bank has improved the turnaround time for bank examination and met the legal requirement of carrying out on-site examination of a bank every other year. Financial indicators compiled by the Central Bank show that the banking sector has a capital adequacy ratio higher than the required minimum and continues to improve asset quality, profitability, and liquidity. Tightening of Prudential Norms Capital Requirements. The risk-weighted capital requirement was introduced in 2003 for finance companies, which, along with licensed commercial banks and licensed specialized banks, are now required to meet the minimum capital adequacy ratio of 10 percent. Recently the Central Bank has taken steps to prepare banks for Basel II. It held several awareness programs for bank CEOs and senior officers. And it has requested all banks to assess their capital adequacy ratio under Basel II using the Standardized Approach for credit risk and Basic Indicator Approach for operational risk. The Central Bank expects to implement the Standardized Approach in 2007. Moreover, effective from April 2005, the minimum capital requirement was increased to SL Rs 2.5 billion for licensed commercial banks and to SL Rs 1.5 billion for licensed specialized banks. Existing banks are required to have tier 1 capital equal to this amount, while new entrants will be required to bring in the higher capital as assigned or paid-up capital. Existing banks that need to increase their capital have until the end of December 2007 to meet the requirement, though they must meet at least 50 percent of the requirement by the end of December 2006. Loan Classification and Provisioning Norms. The Central Bank has amended the provisioning requirement with effect from January 2004 by introducing a 25–40 percent haircut over the value of property depending on how long the non-performing loans remain in the loss category. Exposure Limits. Effective from March 2005, the single-borrower limit was made uniform at 30 percent of capital funds for all banks, domestic and foreign alike. Foreign banks needing to augment their capital to meet existing facilities were given until December 31, 2005, to bring in the capital, though they were required to remit at least 50 percent of the shortfall by June 30, 2005. Strengthening of Public Disclosure and Market Discipline 84 Effective from February 2005, all banks are required to disclose prudential ratios—such as the capital adequacy, statutory liquid assets, and non-performing assets ratios—in their published financial statements. A program to increase public awareness has published six brochures: “A Guide to Financial Services in Sri Lanka,� “Central Bank of Sri Lanka: Objectives, Functions and Organization,� “Financial System Stability,� “A Guide to Foreign Exchange Transactions,� “Price Stability,� and “Pyramid Schemes.� Development of Regulatory and Supervisory Capability Consolidated Supervision. To pave the way for introducing consolidated supervision, a system was established for exchanging information among the Central Bank departments engaged in supervision. The focus is on supervisory information relating to the subsidiaries and associate companies of licensed banks engaged in finance, primary dealer activities, and leasing, all of which come under the Central Bank’s supervision. In addition, the government has taken measures to foster coordination and cooperation among the regulatory agencies. The Insurance Board and the Central Bank have signed a memorandum to formalize the exchange of regulatory information. And a steering committee consisting of all regulators has been set up and meets regularly to ensure consolidated supervision. Off-Site Surveillance. The Central Bank of Sri Lanka has commenced an online database to facilitate the transmission of periodic data by banks and finance companies to various departments of the Central Bank. As the first phase of implementation of the database, 17 returns for the off-site surveillance of the Bank Supervision Department (BSD) are being done on a parallel basis. The Central Bank has commenced on the second phase with making the Non- Bank Supervision Department (SNBFI) off-site returns in line with Bank Supervision Department off-site returns so that they can be incorporated into the database. Development of a Framework for Assessing Financial Sector Stability. The Monetary Law Act was amended in December 2002 to include financial stability as a major objective along with economic and price stability. And in November 2003 a study group was set up to prepare the first financial stability report, which provides updates on developments in the financial system and assesses the risks to, and resilience of, the system under different scenarios. Among the strategies recommended by the report to achieve a stable financial system is monitoring and surveillance of these risks through micro- and macroprudential indicators. The report was released to the public at the end of May 2005. Development of a Safety Net and Crisis Resolution Framework. The Monetary Board has approved a proposal for mandatory deposit insurance, which is slated for implementation. The Payments Reforms Steering Committee has implemented a program to monitor and assess the business continuity plans of banks and primary dealers for the payments system, and the Central Bank has already collected such plans. And the Financial Stability Committee will explore the policies and measures necessary for developing a safety net and crisis management framework and for ensuring coordination and cooperation among the regulatory agencies. Other Prudential Norms. The Central Bank has taken steps to improve the quality and independence of statutory audits by amending the guidelines for external auditors, effective from April 2004, and requiring all banks to obtain a credit rating, effective from January 2004. Amendments to the Banking Act passed in February 2005 require that all bank directors, chief executive officers, and other bank officers performing executive functions meet the “fit and proper� criteria. The Bank Supervision Department has improved its supervision capability, one indicator of this being the faster turnaround time for bank examination. The time taken for detailed, on-site examination of banks—from examination to the bank’s receipt of the inspection reports—has been shortened from 18 months to less than 8 in the most recent cases. Moreover, the Central Bank is now able to comply with the statutory requirement to conduct an on-site examination of a bank at least once every two years and there is currently no backlog of banks waiting for on-site inspection. Prudential Guidelines Among the prudential guidelines issued by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka in 2004–05 are the following.  January 2004: Determination of capital adequacy ratio.  January 2004: Interpretation of capital funds.  January 2004: Guidelines on credit rating of banking institutions.  April 2004: Guidelines for external auditors relating to their statutory duties.  May 2004: Monthly statement of liquid assets for the domestic and offshore banking units. 85  July 2004: Classification of advances and specific provisioning criteria (selection of valuers).  July 2004: Single-borrower limit.  September 2004: Classification of bad and doubtful advances for provisioning purposes.  December 2004: Shipping guarantees issued by banks.  December 2004: Valuation of securities for provisioning purposes.  December 2004: Accounting for properties acquired by foreclosure of collateral.  December 2004: Withdrawals from savings accounts.  January 2005: Licensed specialized banks: deposit direction (amendment).  February 2005: Direction under section 46 (1) of the Banking (Amendment) Act.  February 2005: Order published under section 47 (4) of the Banking Act.  February 2005: Security to be obtained for an accommodation granted to a director.  February 2005: Banking (Amendment) Act: Issue of directions, etc.  February 2005: Public disclosure by publication of bank accounts in the press.  February 2005: Submission of the monthly and quarterly compliance reports.  March 2005: Banking Act (Single-Borrower Limit) Direction No. 2 of 2005.  March 2005: Accommodation to directors and related companies.  March 2005: Banking Act (Single-Borrower Limit) Direction No. 3 of 2005.  March 2005: Affidavit to be submitted under section 42 (2) of the Banking Act.  March 2005: Appointment of directors of banks (amendment).  March 2005: Declaration to be submitted by person proposed as a director.  April 2005: Enhancement of minimum capital requirement for banks (licensed commercial banks).  April 2005: Enhancement of minimum capital requirement for banks (licensed specialized banks).  May 2005: Introduction of products based on Islamic principles.  July 2005: Request to maintain capital in foreign currency.  August 2005: Annual license fee for licensed specialized banks.  August 2005: Single-Borrower Limit Direction No. 4 of 2005.  August 2005: Request to maintain capital of banks in foreign currency.  September 2005: Publication of quarterly financial statements of banks in the press.  October 2005: Banking Act: Single-Borrower Limit. 86 Annex 6. Country Rankings Table A6.1 Composite Scores on the Getting Finance Indicators for South Asian Countries Sri Indicator Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Lanka Access to finance 1 Branch penetration 10 21 5 15 24 2 ATM penetration 15 8 12 13 25 3 Deposit accounts per 1,000 people 10 15 5 25 20 4 Loan accounts per 1,000 people 13 12 5 20 25 5 Sectoral distribution of loans 9 20 9 10 21 6 Adults with bank accounts 20 25 5 15 5 Total points 77 101 41 98 120 Composite score (total points/150) 0.51 0.67 0.27 0.65 0.80 Performance and efficiency 1 Return on equity 17 22 5 18 12 2 Return on assets 10 21 13 13 18 3 Staff cost ratio 13 14 5 19 24 4 Operating cost ratio 5 20 21 18 11 5 Banks with computerized systems 15 23 5 24 10 6 ATMs per bank 16 9 11 13 24 Total points 76 109 60 105 99 Composite score (total points/150) 0.51 0.73 0.40 0.70 0.66 Stability 1 Capital adequacy ratio 10 25 5 20 15 2 Large loans ratio 17 25 8 17 5 3 Gross non-performing loans ratio 8 25 7 17 18 4 Net non-performing loans ratio 5 21 22 17 10 5 Liquid assets ratio 15 24 8 21 7 6 Liquid assets to liabilities ratio 20 25 15 10 5 Total points 75 145 65 102 60 Composite score (total points/150) 0.50 0.97 0.43 0.68 0.40 87 Table A6.1 Composite Scores on the Getting Finance Indicators for South Asian Countries (continued) Sri Indicator Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Lanka Corporate governance 1 Ownership structure and influence of external stakeholders 1.1 Identification of substantial majority holders 3.6 5 2.6 4.2 3.6 1.2 Indirect and beneficial ownership 1 3.8 1 3.8 2 2 Investor rights 2.1 Shareholder meetings and voting procedures 4 5 4.2 5 2.6 2.2 Basic ownership rights 3.4 3.6 2.4 4.2 3.6 3 Transparency and disclosure 3.1 Adherence to internationally accepted accounting 4 4.2 4.4 5 5 standards 3.2 Independent internal and external auditors and audit 3.6 4.4 3.2 4.4 3.6 committee 4 Board structure and effectiveness 4.1 Role and effectiveness 5 4 4.4 4.4 5 4.2 Compensation 2.4 3.6 4.8 4.8 2 Total points 27 33.6 27 35.8 27.4 Composite score (total points/40) 0.68 0.84 0.68 0.90 0.69 88 Annex 7. International Best Practices in Corporate Governance Corporate governance refers to the structures and processes for the direction and control of companies. It is concerned with the relationships among the management, board of directors, controlling shareholders, minority shareholders, and other stakeholders. Good corporate governance contributes to sustainable economic development by enhancing the performance of companies and increasing their access to outside capital. The OECD Principles of Corporate Governance (OECD 2004) provides the framework for the work of the World Bank Group in this area and identifies the key practical issues: the rights and equitable treatment of shareholders and other financial stakeholders, the role of non-financial stakeholders, disclosure and transparency, and the responsibilities of the board of directors.5 The good governance practices outlined by the OECD also serve as the basis for the questionnaire developed to assess the corporate governance of South Asian countries in this report (table A7.1). Table A7.1 OECD Principles Applied in the Corporate Governance Questionnaire Principle Explanation 1. The rights of the shareholder A corporate governance framework should protect shareholders’ rights. 2. The equitable treatment of All shareholders, including minority and shareholders foreign shareholders, should be treated equally. 3. The role of the stakeholders in Good corporate governance recognizes that it corporate governance is in the long-term interest of the corporation to respect the rights and interests of the stakeholders. 4. Disclosure and transparency There is a need to ensure timely and accurate disclosure of all material matters regarding the corporation, including financial aspects, performance, ownership, and governance. 5. The responsibilities of the board The board is key to the strategic guidance of the company and the effective monitoring of the management. It should be fully able to undertake its tasks and responsibilities and be fully accountable to shareholders. Source: Enterprise Development Impact Assessment Information Service 2003. 5 The World Bank’s Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes, Corporate Governance. 89 Annex 8. Cross-Country Comparison of Banks Table A8.1 Financial Ratios for South Asian Countries and Comparator Groups, 2004 (percent) Economy Regulatory Non- Provision to Return on Return on capital to risk- performing non-performing assets equity weighted assets loans to total loans loans GFSR FPSI GFSR FPSI GFSR FPSI GFSR FPSI GFSR FPSI South Asia Bangladesh 8.8 7.41 17.6 16.7 — — 0.7 –0.63 13.0 –13.39 India 12.9 24.19 7.2 7.2 — — 1.2 1.69 20.8 23 Nepal — –9.35 — 21.76 — — — 2.32 — –26.04 Pakistan 10.5 11.4 11.6 9 71.6 — 1.2 1.3 19.5 19.6 Sri Lanka 8.5 10.3 9.1 9.3 60.7 — 1.4 1.4 18.4 6.5 Asian peer group Chinaa — 15.6 — 0.8 13.7 Hong Kong 15.4 2.3 — 1.7 20.3 (China) Indonesiab 20.9 14.2 43.1 2.6 25.4 Korea, Rep. of 12.1 1.9 — 0.9 15.2 Malaysia 14.3 11.7 39.9 1.4 16.6 Philippinesc 18.4 24.7 33.2 0.9 7.1 Singapore 16.1 5.0 76.6 1.0 9.6 Thailand 12.4 11.8 71.7 1.3 19.8 Developed countries Australia 10.5 0.3 182.9 1.2 18.2 Canada 13.3 0.7 47.7 0.8 17.4 Japan 11.6 2.9 44.0 0.2 4.3 United 12.7 1.9 80.7 0.7 10.9 Kingdom United States 13.2 0.8 168.1 1.3 13.2 — Not available. 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