35654 Africa Region Human Development Working Paper Series No. 101 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho A Country Status Report for Education Copyright © December 2005 Human Development Sector Africa Region The World Bank The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions or policies of the World Bank or any of its affiliated organizations. Cover design by The Word Express, Inc. Typography by The Word Express, Inc. Cover photo: Henk Meijerink, Group 5 ­ Netherlands Table of Contents Foreword ..................................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................xv Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Demographic and Macroeconomic Setting ............................................................... 11 Chapter 2: Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives ........... 23 Chapter 3: Patterns of Spending on Education ........................................................................... 47 Chapter 4: Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending.................................................................................................... 83 Chapter 5: Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education .............................................................................................. 105 Annexes .................................................................................................................................... 139 Annex 1.1: Lesotho Country Profile ....................................................................................... 141 Annex 1.2: Lesotho's Zones and Districts............................................................................... 145 Annex 2.1: Primary Syllabus in Lesotho Standards 1 through Standard 7 (1997) ................... 147 Annex 3.1: Summary of Primary School Feeding Programs in Lesotho................................... 149 Annex 3.2: Summary of Bursary Programs in Lesotho ........................................................... 155 Annex 3.3: Subvention for Government Secondary Schools ................................................... 161 Annex 4.1: Incidence of orphanhood among children below 15 years, Lesotho and other African countries circa 2000 ................................................... 163 Annex 4.2: Distribution of new entrants in Standard 1 by age in the school census, Lesotho 1999­2003 ............................................................................................. 165 Annex 4.3: Means of variables in the logit model of nonparticipation to school .................... 167 Annex 4.4: Promotion, repetition and dropping out rates by grade, Lesotho 2000................. 169 Annex 5.1: Primary teacher qualifications by school type (2003) ........................................... 173 Annex 5.2: Secondary teacher qualifications by school type (2003)........................................ 175 Annex 5.3: Average years of experience for current teachers .................................................. 177 Annex 5.4: Randomness of Teacher Deployment ................................................................... 179 Annex 5.5: Evolution of Teacher-Student Ratio from 1998 to 2003 ....................................... 189 Annex 5.6: Mean and standard error of students test scores by subject and country in the 2000­2003 SACMEQ survey ........................................................ 193 III IV Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho References................................................................................................................................. 195 Tables Table 1.1: Population by Location, Gender, Age, and District (2002) .....................................13 Table 1.2: Literacy Rate ..........................................................................................................13 Table 1.4: Prevalence of HIV/AIDS among Education Sector Staff..........................................14 Table 1.5: Trends in GDP and GNP since 1998 in Lesotho (in maloti) ...................................17 Table 1.6: GNI Per Capita in 2003 (in US$) ...........................................................................17 Table 1.7: Central Government Budgetary Operations (% of GDP)........................................18 Table 1.8: Education Sector Expenditures (1998/99 to 2004/05) ............................................19 Table 1.9: Sector-Specific GDP Contributions, 1980/81­2002/03 ...........................................21 Table 1.10: Composition of Employment and GDP, 1999 ........................................................21 Table 2.1: Duration of Compulsory, Primary and Secondary Education .................................24 Table 2.2: MOET Organizational Chart .................................................................................27 Table 2.3: Evolution of Enrollment by Level of Education in Lesotho ....................................30 Table 2.4: GER and NER in Lesotho Compared with Other Selected Countries and Regions ...........................................................................................................34 Table 2.5: Grade-Specific Enrollment Rates in Lesotho...........................................................37 Table 2.6: Overall Survival Rates ............................................................................................37 Table 2.7: Cohort Survival Rates (1999 and 2004) .................................................................39 Table 2.8: Intercycle Transition Rates .....................................................................................41 Table 2.9: Repetition Rate by Grade and Education Cycle......................................................41 Table 2.10: Efficiency of Student Flow in Primary Education in Lesotho, 2003 ........................42 Table 3.1: Comparing MOET Budgets with Actual Education Expenditures ..........................50 Table 3.2: Programs of Expenditure in MOET .......................................................................51 Table 3.3: MOET and NMDS Recurrent and Capital Expenditures .......................................55 Table 3.4: Actual Education Recurrent Expenditures by Program 1998­2005 ........................57 Table 3.5: Distribution of Government Recurrent Expenditure on Education .........................59 Table 3.6: Evolution of Recurrent Budget for Central Administration ....................................60 Table 3.7: MOET Staffing and Salary Bill ...............................................................................61 Table 3.8: Details of Primary Recurrent Expenditures in 2003/04 ..........................................61 Table 3.9: Regional Averages for Teacher Wages, Pupil-Teacher Ratio, and % of Recurrent Spending on Inputs other than Teachers........................................63 Table 3.10: Teacher Pay Scale ...................................................................................................63 Table 3.11: Comparing Salaries of Primary Teachers with those of other Public and Private Employees ...........................................................................................64 Table 3.12: Details of Secondary Recurrent Expenditure in 2003/04 ........................................66 Table 3.13: Secondary Average Teacher Pay and Official Pay Scale 2004..................................67 Table 3.14: Subventions to Higher Institutions in 2003/04 .......................................................69 Table 3.15: Government Recurrent Expenditure Per Student ....................................................72 Table 3.16: Public Expenditures Per Student as % of GDP Per Capita in 2001 .........................73 Table 3.17: Average Fees for Meals and Lodging at Secondary Level ........................................79 Table 3.18: Average Secondary "Other" Fees by Grade ............................................................79 Table 4.1: Grade-Specific Enrollment Rate by District in Primary Cycle, 2003...............................................................................................86 Table 4.2: Grade-Specific Enrollment Rate by District in Secondary Cycle .............................87 Table of Contents V Table 4.3: Children Between 6 and 14 Years Old Who Have Never Been to School, Lesotho 2000 and 2002 .........................................................................................88 Table 4.4: Children Who Have Never Been to School by Age and Income Groups, Lesotho 2000­2002 ...............................................................................................89 Table 4.5: Probability of Having Never Been to School Among Children Aged 6­14, Lesotho 2000­2002 ...............................................................................................91 Table 4.6: Distribution of Children by Distance to Nearest Primary School, Lesotho 2002 .........................................................................................................93 Table 4.7: Estimates of the Probability of Having Never Been to School, Lesotho 2002 .........................................................................................................95 Table 4.8: Promotion, Repetition, and Dropout Rates During Two Consecutive Years in a Cohort of Children Enrolled in Primary Education in 1999, Lesotho 2000 .........................................................................................................97 Table 4.9: Estimated Probabilities of Advancing, Repeating, and Dropping out in a Cohort of Children Aged 6 to14, Lesotho 2000 ..................................................99 Table 4.10: Incidence of Public Expenditure on Education by Income Quintile ......................102 Table 5.1: Distribution of Primary and Secondary Schools by Location and Management Type in 2003...................................................................................106 Table 5.2: Average Size of Primary Schools ...........................................................................108 Table 5.3: Average Size of Secondary Schools 2003 ..............................................................108 Table 5.4: Percentage of Schools Using Multigrade Teaching ................................................109 Table 5.5: Proportion of Multigrade Teachers by Number of Grades Taught........................109 Table 5.6: Proportion of Schools Offering an Incomplete Cycle of Instruction......................110 Table 5.7: Average Number of Pupils Per Primary Classroom...............................................111 Table 5.8: Average Number of Pupils per Secondary Classroom ...........................................112 Table 5.9: Proportion of Primary Pupils with no Seat or Desk ..............................................113 Table 5.10: Average Number of Books Per Primary Pupil .......................................................114 Table 5.11: Percent Distribution of Households by Time to Reach Nearest Primary and Secondary School 2002 .................................................................................115 Table 5.12: Primary Teacher Qualifications and Level of Education, 2003 .............................116 Table 5.13: Secondary Teacher Qualifications ........................................................................118 Table 5.14: Primary Teachers: Gender and Location...............................................................118 Table 5.15: Attrition of Primary Teachers, 2004 .....................................................................120 Table 5.16: Prevalence of HIV/Aids among Education Sector Staff .........................................120 Table 5.17: Percentage of Teachers who are Unqualified ........................................................123 Table 5.18: Theoretical Average Teaching Load Per Day, Based On Pupil-Classroom Ratio .........................................................................................124 Table 5.19: Primary School Leaving Examination Results, Lesotho 1999 and 2003 ...............128 Table 5.20: Disparities in Primary School Leaving Examination Results, Lesotho 1999 and 2003 .......................................................................................129 Table 5.21: Sample Characteristics of Pupils and Schools, Lesotho 2003 ................................131 Table 5.22: Correlates of PSLE Results, Lesotho 2003............................................................132 Figures Figure 1.1: Lesotho Total and School-Age Population..............................................................12 Figure 1.2: GDP Growth Rates in Lesotho, 1980­2003 ...........................................................16 VI Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 2.1: Education System in Lesotho..................................................................................25 Figure 2.2: Primary and Secondary Schools by Ownership (2004) ...........................................29 Figure 2.3: Lesotho Primary Enrollment 1998 to 2003 ............................................................33 Figure 2.4: Gross and Net Enrollment Rates in Primary and Secondary Education ..................34 Figure 2.5: Primary Entry Age in 2000 and 2002 .....................................................................35 Figure 2.6: Survival Rates in Primary and Secondary Education ..............................................38 Figure 2.7: Cohort Survival Rate to Grade 5 in Selected Countries (2001) ...............................38 Figure 2.8: Intercycle Transition Rates from 1994 to 2004 ......................................................40 Figure 3.1: Flow of Funds ........................................................................................................52 Figure 3.2: Lesotho Education Sector Expenditure (1998/99­2004/05)....................................54 Figure 3.3: Share of Lesotho's Budgets Devoted to Education ..................................................56 Figure 3.4: % of GDP Spent on Education in 2001 in Selected Countries and Regions ...........................................................................................................57 Figure 3.5: Total Expenditures on Education by Program 1998 to 2005. .................................58 Figure 3.6: Educational Development and Public Spending as % of GDP ................................71 Figure 3.7: Proportion of Schools Charging Fees for Standard 1 ..............................................74 Figure 3.8: % of Schools Charging Registration Fees by Type..................................................74 Figure 3.9: % of Schools Charging Book Fees for Standard 1 by Type .....................................75 Figure 3.10: % of Schools Charging Other Fees by Type ...........................................................75 Figure 3.11: Average Fees by Standard 1999 to 2003 (among the schools still charging) ...........76 Figure 3.12: Average Registration Fees among Schools that Charged such Fees in 2003 ............77 Figure 3.13: Average Book Fees among Schools that Charged Book Fees in 2003 ......................77 Figure 3.14: Average Other Fees among Schools that Charged Other Fees in 2003 ....................78 Figure 4.1: Primary Enrollment Ratios by Gender....................................................................84 Figure 4.2: Secondary Enrollment Ratios by Gender (Forms A through E)...............................84 Figure 4.3: Grade-Specific Enrollment Rates in Primary/Secondary Education, 1999 ...............85 Figure 4.4: Grade-Specific Enrollment Rates in Primary/Secondary Education, 2003 ...............85 Figure 4.5: Benefit Incidence Analysis by Income Quintiles ....................................................101 Figure 5.1: Number of Primary Schools and Classrooms .......................................................107 Figure 5.2: Primary Teachers: Number and Qualification ......................................................117 Secondary Teachers: Number and Qualification...................................................117 Figure 5.3: Primary Teachers and Gender 1999­2003............................................................119 Figure 5.4: Secondary Teachers and Gender 1999­2003 ........................................................119 Figure 5.5: Relationship Between Numbers of Teachers and Students in Primary School, 2003 ...........................................................................................123 Figure 5.6: Country differences in reading and mathematics achievement ..............................127 Annex Figures Figure 1: Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Mountain Areas, 2003 .........................................................................................179 Figure 2: Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Lowlands, 2003 ...................................................................................................180 Figure 3: Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Senqu River, 2003 ................................................................................................180 Figure 4: Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Foothill, 2003 ......................................................................................................181 Table of Contents VII Figure 5: Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Government schools 2003 ....................................................................................184 Figure 6: Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Community Schools, 2003 ...................................................................................184 Figure 7: Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Schools Governed by Lesotho Evangelical Church, 2003 ..................................................185 Figure 8: Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Schools Governed by Roman Catholic Church, 2003...........................................185 Figure 9: Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Schools Governed by Anglican Church of Lesotho, 2003 .....................................186 Figure 10: Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Schools Governed by African Methodist Church, 2003........................................186 Figure 11: Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Schools Governed by Private Schools and Other Schools, 2003 ...........................187 Boxes Box 2.1: Free Primary Education in Lesotho ........................................................................31 Box 3.1: Repayment of Loan Bursaries from the NMDS ......................................................70 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ACL Anglican Church of Lesotho IDA International Development ACL Anglican Church of Lesotho Association AGOA African Growth Opportunity Act IDM Institute for Development AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Management Syndrome IIPE International Institute of AME African Methodist Episcopal Educational Planning BED Bachelor of Arts in Education IMF International Monetary Fund BOS Bureau of Statistics JC Junior Certificate CEO Chief Education Officer LCE Lesotho College of Education COSC Cambridge Overseas School LDTC Lesotho Distance Teaching Certificate Center CWIQ Core Welfare Indicators LEC Lesotho Evangelical Church Questionnaire LHWP Lesotho Highlands Water Project DEP Diploma in Education (Primary) LP Lerotholi Polytechnic DES Diploma in Education MAED Masters in Education (Secondary) MDGs Millennium Development Goals DPE Diploma in Primary Education MEFMI Macroeconomic and Financial DRCs District Resource Center Management Institute DRT District Resource Teachers MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster DTE Diploma in Technological Survey Education MOET Ministry of Education and DTEP Distance Teacher Education Training Program MOFDP Ministry of Finance and ECCD Early Childhood Care and Development Planning Development MTEF Medium-Term Expenditure ECOL Examination Council of Lesotho Framework EFA Education For All NCDC National Curriculum EMIS Educational Management Development Center Information System NFE Non-Formal Education FDI Foreign Direct Investment NMDS National Manpower FPE Free Primary Education Development Secretariat FTI Fast Track Initiative NTTC National Teacher Training GDP Gross Domestic Product College GER Gross Enrolment Ratio NUL National University of Lesotho GNI Gross National Income PIEP Primary In-Service Education GNP Gross National Product Program GOL Government of Lesotho PRGF Poverty Reduction and Growth GSER Grade Specific Enrolment Rate Facility HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus PRS Poverty Reduction Strategy HQ Headquarters PSCU Project Support and IX X Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Coordination Unit SSU School Supply Unit PSLE Primary School Leaving TSD Teaching Service Department Examination TTI Thaba-Tseka Training Institute PTC Primary Teachers' Certificate TVD Technical and Vocational RCM Roman Catholic Church Department RSA Republic of South Africa TVET Technical and Vocational SACMEQ Southern African Consortium on Education and Training Measuring Education Quality UN United Nations SACU Southern African Customs Union UNESCO United Nations Educational SADC Southern African Development Scientific and Cultural Community Organization SSA Sub-Saharan Africa USA United States of America SSRFU School Supply Reliance Feeding WFP World Food Program Unit CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS (Exchange Rate Effective May, 2005) Currency Unit = Maloti Maloti 6.1 = US$1 US$1 = 1.35 SDR FISCAL YEAR April 1 ­ March 31 Foreword his Country Status Report on the edu- most effective weapons in the fight against HIV/ T cation sector in the Kingdom of AIDS. Education also contributes to social de- Lesotho is one of a series of reports velopment, allows the spread of new ideas, and sponsored by the World Bank in coun- supports the development of an open and demo- tries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Each re- cratic society. The Kingdom of Lesotho has a port is researched by a team from the relevant particularly long tradition of valuing education. ministries, the World Bank, and other develop- As a small country with limited natural re- ment partners. The immediate objective is to sources, it has relied on the skills of its people form a solid analytic foundation to inform as a source of income. More recently, the gov- policy makers in the education sector. More ernment of Lesotho has identified education as broadly, the publication of the report provides a central component of its development plans. a stimulus for an informed national debate on In recognition of the importance of educa- the education system. tion in determining the life-chances of young Such debate is particularly appropriate at this people, the global community has adopted an time, as governments and the international com- ambitious goal to ensure that all children have munity increasingly see education playing a cen- the benefit of a good primary education by 2015. tral role in development. In a global economy, This goal has mobilized national and interna- competitiveness depends heavily on skills. The tional resources. Throughout Africa, new growth of both domestic employment and in- schools have been constructed, more teachers ward investment depend on the availability of a have been employed, and user charges for pri- labor force with appropriate skills. Education mary education are being dropped. These efforts and skills development, in turn, are among the have resulted in significant increases in enroll- key investments which governments can make ment. Throughout Africa, there are now more to increase competitiveness and grow the children in school than ever before. But much economy. There is well documented evidence remains to be done. As education systems ex- that investments in education produce attrac- pand, a series of challenges are emerging. tive returns. But the value of education goes far beyond its economic importance. Education is · The first is the challenge of coverage, or a significant health intervention, and one of the "reaching the hard to reach". As participa- XI XII Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho tion in education has increased, most of the Lesotho already devotes a very high proportion easy to reach children have already been en- (roughly a quarter) of its national budget to edu- rolled. One implication of this success is that cation, making it unlikely that further increases more of the remaining children will be in the in budget can be found. This suggests that categories that are difficult and more expen- Lesotho must seek to improve the efficiency of sive to serve. These include children in remote its education system, to provide its people with rural areas, ethnic and linguistic minorities, better value for their expenditure. nomads, and orphans. This Country Status Report aims to help · The second is the challenge of quality. Edu- Lesotho meet these challenges. As a report, it cation is of little value unless the quality is has a number of noteworthy features. It goes sufficient to ensure real learning. Unfortu- beyond the basic indicators of enrollment and nately, maintaining quality at a time of rapid retention that are used in monitoring systems, expansion is a formidable task. In many Af- and offers a deeper insight into how the system rican countries rapid growth in numbers has is performing. In doing this it follows a struc- highlighted shortages of skilled teachers and ture developed by the World Bank which allows limited capacity in inspection, support and easy comparisons between countries. It is based management systems. In some cases, South- primarily on existing data, mostly from minis- ern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Moni- try sources and from the household data sur- toring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) tests veys. Other sources, where available, are used show that the quality of education is actually to corroborate its findings. falling. Also noteworthy is the process by which a · The third is the challenge of equality. Lesotho Country Status Report is prepared. In interna- is one of the few countries where girls' par- tional development, it is increasingly important ticipation is higher than boys'. But there re- that governments and donors work together to main significant inequalities in other areas. coordinate their efforts. An important step in Rural and poor families have lower partici- the process of coordination is the development pation in education. Even more important is of an agreed analysis of the situation, and a that in Lesotho as in many low-income coun- shared identification of the issues. With this in tries, conditions of schooling differ widely mind, a Country Status Report is conceived as a across localities and the result is to create dis- joint work, shared by the government and the parities in learning outcomes which typically donors. The report is developed with govern- put children from poor, rural families at a ment and donor cooperation, and should not disadvantage with regard to access to further be seen as an external evaluation of the system, education and well-paying jobs. but rather as a shared analysis of the sector. · Secondary education presents a fourth chal- The aim of the Country Status Report is to lenge. Traditionally, participation in second- inform policy making. As such, the report of- ary education has been limited to a relatively fers data, and an analysis of the difficulties, is- small proportion of the population. Expan- sues and key areas for action. It does not, how- sion of participation in primary education and ever, provide solutions. Formulating appropri- the increasing demands of the labor market ate policy responses comes as a subsequent step, both provide pressures for expansion of the and must be developed more slowly, to allow secondary sub-sector. sufficient time for thorough consultation with the stakeholders in education, if the proposed These challenges would be onerous in any solutions are to work effectively. country, but African countries must face them I hope and expect that this document will with limited resources. The government of make a timely and useful contribution to ongo- Foreword XIII ing discussions on and planning for the educa- tem at a particular time. If the report serves its tion system by the government and its develop- purpose in supporting policy development, it will ment partners. It is published at an opportune rapidly become dated, and so I look forward to time, when the target date of 2015 is near enough revisions and updates in the years ahead. to impose pressing demands, and yet far enough away to allow policies to have an impact. The report offers a valuable and comprehen- Yaw Ansu, sive resource for anyone interested in education Sector Director, Human Development, in Lesotho. It is, however, a snapshot of the sys- Africa Region, World Bank Acknowledgments his report is a product of joint part- Ntsoaole (the former supervisor of government T nership between the Ministry of Edu- schools who is now inspector for school man- cation and Training and the World agement) provided inputs on subventions for Bank. It is a stock-taking study of edu- government secondary schools; Ms. Mpho cation in Lesotho with particular fo- Morojele, Senior Research Officer, provided in- cus on primary and secondary education. puts to school census and related calculations Lesotho's Second Education Sector Development on enrollment ratios and facilitated overall data Project is currently in its second phase of imple- collection; Mrs. Liako Selokoma-Mofo provided mentation. Further, the government's summary descriptive comparison of various Free Primary Education policy which started in bursary and feeding programs (with support 1999 to gradually abolish fees is to be rolled from Mrs. Mamohau Mochebelele, Scholarship out completely in 2006. It was felt that such a Officer) and assisted in the collection of NMDS study would provide timely input for policy dia- related data; Mrs. Lerato `Matiisetso Moleko logue regarding the post-FPE and the next phase and Mr. Haleokoe Jopo assisted in the collec- of the education sector's development in tion of data from LCE, LP, and NUL and fur- Lesotho. ther supported the analysis of MOET status of The work was led on the Lesotho side by Mrs. funds. Mrs. Lerato further assisted in the analy- Ntsebe Kokome Principle Secretary for Educa- sis of JC and COSC results and developed the tion and Mr. Taole J. Masoabi, Director of Plan- acronym list for the report. Mrs. Puseletso ning. Dr. Kinandu Muragu, Project Coordina- Ntiisa-Letuka, Financial Controller of PSCU, tor, provided summary description of govern- provided assistance in the collection of status of ment budget process and implementation of funds and analysis of financial data related to MTEF within the education sector; Mr. FPE and subventions. Paramente Phamotse provided inputs and feed- On the World Bank side, the work is led by back related to primary education; Ms. Gladys Xiaoyan Liang, Senior Education Specialist Moeketsi, Director of Human Resources, pro- (AFTH1), under the overall guidance of Jee-peng vided information related to MOET staffing and Tan, Lead Economist, and Dzingai B. salaries; Mrs. Liteboho Maqalika-Lerotholi, Mutumbuka, Sector Manager for AFTH1. Mr. Chief Inspector Secondary, and Mr. S'khulumi Gerard Lassibille, Consultant, provided key in- XV XVI Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho puts on the determinants of coverage, student related to household survey and population pro- flow, and learning outcomes, analysis of service jections. delivery using school census, and provided over- This report shares a similar structure and con- all guidance on the report. Without Mr. tent with other education country status reports. Lassibille, it would not be possible to complete It draws particularly from the recently completed this report. Mr. Keiichi Ogawa, consultant, sup- report for Ethiopia, which was published in 2005 plied information related to the benefit incidence as a World Bank country study under the title analysis, grade-specific enrollment ratios, effi- "Education in Ethiopia: Strengthening the Foun- ciency of education spending, and analysis of dation for Sustainable Progress." teaching allocation by school and by district. Mr. The report has benefited from detailed feed- Aidan Mulkeen, Senior Education Specialist, back from Paud Murphy, Don Hamilton. Peer AFTH1, is another important member of the reviewers include Lianqin Wang and Harry team. He provided inputs on the teacher and Patrinos provided very constructive comments. teacher management section and also contrib- Very useful comments were also received from uted to the Executive Summary. Ms. Preeti Arora especially on the earlier con- Many people outside the Ministry of Educa- ceptual framework. The draft report was first tion also helped by sharing with the team data presented to the Senior Staff of the Ministry of and documents that would otherwise have been Education and Training and then reviewed by inaccessible. They include Mr Karabo Kenneth AFTH1 internally on June 6, 2005 and by the Mabote, Director of NMDS and Mrs Lesotho Country Team on June 21, 2005. Feed- Masuthang Mapitso Financial Controller of back from these events has helped to remove NMDS, Mr. Mafa Sejanamane, Vice Chancel- factual inaccuracies and improve our under- lor of the National University of Lesotho (NUL) standing of the report's findings. and Mr. Matsobane Putsoa, Bursar of NUL, Mr. The report was financed by the Government John N. Oliphant, Deputy Director Academic of Lesotho through contributions in staff time, Affairs and Dr. James Urwick, Director Aca- the World Bank and the Government of Nor- demic Planning, Research and Consultancy of way through a grant channeled via the Norwe- Lesotho College of Education. The Bureau of gian Education Trust Fund to support educa- Statistics was also helpful in answering questions tional development in Africa. Executive Summary Introduction and higher value manufacturing exports (diver- sified away from low grade garments) (Country The Kingdom of Lesotho is a small mountain Economic Memorandum, World Bank, 2005). country of 1.8 million people, landlocked by To improve the productivity of its abundant but South Africa with very limited natural resources. low skilled labor, the GOL, primarily through It experienced relatively fast economic growth its Ministry of Education and Training, needs in the 1990s, driven partly by the Lesotho High- to improve the delivery and outcomes of the edu- lands Water Project, and the growth of foreign cation and training sector. Given the limited investment in the garments industry. Overall natural resources available, future economic economic growth in the last two decades, how- growth is likely to depend heavily on human ever, has been sluggish and impact on poverty capital development. reduction has been limited. By 2003, GNI per The government of Lesotho recognizes the capita was about US$550 and approximately importance of education for the future of the 48% of total population live below US$1 per country. Education and training is identified as day. Lesotho further faces serious economic chal- a national priority in the recent Poverty Reduc- lenges. The high HIV infection rate (29%) is tion Strategy Paper (PRSP). Further, as a signa- having an impact on growth and poverty. The tory to the Millennium Development Goals garments industry is declining following changes (MDG), the government aspires to achieve in the international terms of trade. Retrench- 100% primary education completion and gen- ment of Basotho workers from the mining in- der equity in primary and secondary education dustry in South Africa is reducing income from by 2015. The government has also set its own remittances and increasing unemployment. In ambitious goals to improve the quality of edu- addition, the strength of the Rand is reducing cation at all levels. the competitiveness of exports. This report provides an analysis of the edu- The government of Lesotho, with technical cation sector up to 2003/04 (and, on some di- assistance from the World Bank, is beginning to mensions, up to 2004/05). The report is aimed adopt a broad-based, pro-poor growth and em- at Lesotho's policymakers and managers in the ployment strategy focusing on high value com- education sector. Therefore, the report is delib- mercial agricultural production and processing erately diagnostic in orientation, and aims to 2 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho assist in building a shared understanding of the like other civil servants, PSs in Lesotho are on a education sector. The report is focused mainly two-year contract. He or she is assisted at the on the primary and secondary sub-sectors, which executive level by a staff of officers and direc- constitute the bulk of the system. Within these tors. Almost all the decisions concerning educa- sub-sectors, the emphasis is on those aspects tion in Lesotho are made at the central office, most relevant in the PRSP context; costs, finance, despite the government's efforts to implement and service delivery and their impact on school- its decentralization policy. This is particularly ing outcomes, especially among the poor, or- true with regard to financial matters. phans, and other disadvantaged population. During the last decade and a half, Lesotho The report does not consider in detail techni- made progress on most quantitative measures cal and vocational training and education of coverage. The Free Primary Education policy (TVET), higher education, or non-formal edu- introduced in the beginning of 2000 was the cation. These are excluded for reasons of time most significant policy intervention adopted and availability of data, and should be exam- during this time period. Total primary enroll- ined in separate studies. ment increased from about 350,000 in 1990 to 430,000 in 2003/04, more than a 20% increase. Gross and net enrollment ratios in the primary Overview and Progress in the education cycle (127% and 85%, respectively) Education Sector now compare favorably with the regional aver- ages. In terms of student flow, gross entry rate Formal education in Lesotho follows a 7­3­2­ into Standard 1 increased from 105% in 1998­ 4 structure with 7 years of primary, 3 years of 99 to 120% in 2003/04. A higher proportion of junior secondary, 2 years of senior secondary, 6 year-olds are now entering grade 1 on time. and 4 years of tertiary education. There is also About 65% of each entering cohort of first-grad- a parallel technical vocational education and ers in 2003/04 was expected to reach the last training (TVET) sector which offer certificate primary grade of Standard 7, up from 56% in (primary + 3 years) and diploma (senior second- 1998­99. ary + 2 or 3 years of TVET) programs in TVET. Secondary and tertiary education has been For historical reasons, the majority of schools expanding even more rapidly. Between 1990 and (90%) in Lesotho are owned by churches, in- 2004, lower secondary enrollment increased by cluding Roman Catholic Mission (RCM), 83%, while upper secondary enrollment in- Lesotho Evangelic Church (LEC), Anglican creased by 155%. Tertiary enrollment increased Church of Lesotho (ACL) and African Method- from less than 2000 students in 1990 to almost ist Episcopal (AME). Church schools are under 10,000 students enrolled in both Basotho and the management of their respective church au- RSA tertiary institutions. thorities, but teacher salaries are paid by the government. There are a much smaller number, less than 10% of schools which are fully gov- Remaining Challenges in Achieving ernment owned, and also small numbers of true Quality Education for All private schools, funded entirely from fee income. The Ministry of Education and Training Despite the progress outlined above, there re- (MOET) is responsible for the management and main serious challenges in coverage, student regulation of education in Lesotho and is headed flow, quality, and equity: by a minister (assisted by an assistant minister). The principal secretary is the ministry's admin- Coverage. There remains about 15% of the pri- istrative head and chief accounting officer. Un- mary school age population who are still out- Executive Summary 3 side of the school system. Further, overall ac- and have higher student to teacher ratios and cess to secondary and tertiary levels of educa- higher proportions of unqualified and less experi- tion remains limited. Enrollment rates at the enced teachers, compared to those in the lowlands secondary level (GER of 35% and NER of 23%, and foothills. Multigrade schools, primarly respectively) lag behind most of its neighbor- located in rural mountain areas tend to be less ing countries which have achieved more than well-endowed in terms of facilities and teachers. 50% of secondary GER. Only about 2% of the In terms of educational outcomes, Basotho 18­25 year olds are enrolled in tertiary institu- children who live in rural poor households and tions. One simple index of value for money in whose parents are less educated, are less likely education is a ratio of the coverage to expendi- to attend school and more likely to repeat and ture. The lower the ratio is, the less value for drop-out. Boys in Lesotho are less likely to at- money. The ratio for Lesotho is 1:8 which is tend school and more likely to repeat and drop- much lower than that for neighboring countries out than girls. All else being equal, children in such as Botswana (4:2), Mauritius (8:3), South Quthing and Qacha's Neck were less likely to Africa (4:7), and Zimbabwe (3:3). This means attend school; children in Maseru were more that with such a high level of public investment likely to do so. While status as an orphan did in education (Lesotho spends about 12% of its not affect the likelihood that a child would at- GDP on education), the overall coverage of the tend school, it did increase their likelihood of education system could have been higher in dropping out (5 percentage points difference). Lesotho. Further, children who are in more crowded class- rooms and who are in multigrade classrooms Student flow indicators could be better too. Rep- tend to perform worse in the Primary School etition and dropout are causing serious wastage Leaving Exam (PSLE). Children in the elite of resources. On average, 20% of primary stu- "community"primary schools tend to have the dents are repeaters and this figure is 10% in sec- highest PSLE scores. ondary education. The efficiency rate in 2003 was only 57% due to both repetition and dropout. The most concerning is the low quality of Patterns of Spending on Education education. International comparisons place Lesotho in a very unfavorable situation. Between Government spending on education is extremely 2000 and 2003, the Southern Africa Consortium high by international standards, at 12% of GDP for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ) (compared to world average of 4%). This fig- conducted a study under the auspices of the In- ure includes all allocations to the Ministry of ternational Institute for Educational Planning Education and Training (MOET) and the bur- (IIEP) in 14 English-speaking African countries. saries under the National Manpower Develop- In it, Standard 6 pupils in Lesotho achieved very ment Secretariat. However Lesotho does not poor results compared to their counterparts. seem to be getting good value for this expendi- According to the SACMEQ data, the perfor- ture, as indicated by the challenges above. mance of Lesotho students falls well below the One important reason why the value for average, with scores of 451 on reading, and 447 money appears poor is that education expendi- on mathematics. The average score was 500. ture in Lesotho is weighted strongly towards higher education, where cost per student is Disparities in service delivery and educational higher, and participation is lower. This weight- outcomes. A serious challenge is the distribution ing towards higher education is actually increas- of service delivery. Schools in mountain areas and ing. Although nominal expenditure on primary the Senqu River Valley tend to be more crowded, and secondary education has increased since the 4 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho introduction of FPE, their combined share of wage bill consumes almost 90% of the total sec- education spending fell from 59% in 1998/99 ondary recurrent budget. The other significant to only 54% in 2004/05, while the share of cost items are secondary bursaries and spending on higher education rose from 30% subventions to government secondary schools. to 38.7%. In per pupil terms, in the financial It is important that these programs be examined year 2003/04 for example, the government of very carefully to ensure that the MOET can tar- Lesotho every year spends about M747 (about get the right population, get the most value for US$100) on each primary student, M2,093 its money, and ensure equity among all schools. (about US$300) on each secondary student, and At the very minimum, schools receiving govern- more than M36,000 (about US$5000) on each ment subventions should account appropriately university student. for the funds they receive, not just in financial One of the implications of this weighting of terms but also in terms of student learning re- expenditure is that public funding for educa- sults. And transparent criteria are needed for tion benefits richer families disproportionately. determining subventions. Another area that At the level of primary education, government needs close monitoring is the provision of lower subsidies are reasonably equally distributed secondary textbooks. The Ministry of Education among various income groups. At the second- and Training recently decided to include both ary level, the poorest 20% of households re- core and non-core textbooks in the new text- ceive only 12% of public spending, while the book rental program. This may result in exces- richest 20% receives 31% of public spending. sive payment requirements and may render the The magnitude of the disparity is even larger program unsustainable in the long run. for higher education. The poorest 20% of house- A third dimension is the manner with which holds receive only 7% of government spending, the public expenditures are managed in educa- while the richest 20% receive 47% of govern- tion. Within the MOET, public expenditures on ment subsidies. education are centrally managed. All teachers Further, the current pattern of spending are paid directly by the Teacher Service Depart- within primary and secondary education may ment, except for those in a few private schools need to be reviewed to ensure maximum that truly are separate from the government. The achievement of educational goals. Within pri- central government provides other school ne- mary education, the two major drivers of costs cessities including textbooks and stationery, in the primary sector are teacher salary and the meals, and even maintenance to primary schools school feeding program. The average primary for those grades covered by FPE (all grades will teacher salary in Lesotho is more than 5 times be covered by 2006). However, this centralized the GDP per capita, considerably higher than management leads to great inefficiency in the the average teacher cost in Anglophone African delivery of these services. It also forces inspec- countries of 4.3 times GDP per capita. The av- tors to spend their time overseeing and signing erage primary teacher pay, including allowances, various kinds of paperwork instead of monitor- is 1.5 times the average for public and private ing teaching and learning in the classrooms. At sector non-teachers with similar educational both the primary and secondary level, MOET is qualifications. The primary pupil to teacher ra- also providing grants and subventions to gov- tio of 47:1 is reasonable compared to those in ernment and community schools for special other countries. projects. Plans exist to channel funds directly to At the secondary level, the very high average schools to cover school maintenance and may teacher salary (more than 10 times GDP per even include some discretionary funds at the capita) combined with the low student to teacher school level. However, the lack of strong finan- ratio (about 23) means that the total teacher cial management and accountability remains a Executive Summary 5 constraint. Improvement in these areas will be HIV awareness components in teacher educa- crucial to improved efficiency. tion courses may be beneficial. In short, the current distribution, patterns of Local school management committees select the costs and financing of education, and the man- teachers to be employed. This system serves rural agement of education are indeed affecting cur- areas relatively well. However, the administra- rent levels of provision and quality and also con- tion of the system is complex and could be sim- straining further development of the system in- plified. Teacher selection is inequitable, and ru- cluding secondary and higher education. There- ral areas have fewer of the qualified and better- fore, Lesotho needs to consider education re- educated teachers. Although there is an incen- forms to improve its performance, particularly tive payment to encourage teachers to work in because of the following two reasons: remote schools, this is not seen as effective. Con- sideration should be given to ways to improve · Public spending on education is already high the assignment of teachers to rural areas. One and may not increase in the future. Given the possible action is to reorganize the classification macroeconomic conditions which seem to of schools, to ensure that the incentive is only predict an even less optimistic picture than paid in genuinely remote schools. Consideration that of the 1990s, it is likely that the govern- should also be given to non-financial incentives, ment will exercise more fiscal restraint in the including accelerated promotion (which has long years immediately ahead, with non-interest term financial implications), or even a require- recurrent expenditure projected to decrease. ment that newly qualified teachers work in ru- In this environment, increases in the real re- ral areas for a period. sources devoted to the Ministry of Education Teacher utilization is restricted by a shortage and Training from the government budget can of classrooms in some schools, which may en- come only at the expense of other sectors. courage teachers to reduce their working hours. · Better schooling outcomes are crucial to the This issue merits further examination, and may country's efforts to increase economic diver- explain why classrooms seem to play a signifi- sification and growth prospects. cant role in educational outcomes. Multigrade teaching is widely practiced, par- ticularly in mountain areas. As further expan- Teacher Qualification, Employment, sion of primary education is likely to be in Management, and Utilization sparsely populated areas, the use of multigrade teaching is likely to play an increasing role. De- By regional standards, primary and secondary spite the reliance on multigrade teaching, it is teachers in Lesotho are relatively well educated, poorly supported in curriculum documents and and the majority has completed secondary in teacher training. Better preparation of teach- school. Teaching is an attractive profession in ers for multigrade teaching could do much to Lesotho. However, the supply of trained teach- increase the quality of learning in multigrade ers (having a teaching certificate or diploma) has classrooms. not been adequate, and an increasing propor- tion of teachers are untrained. The current strat- egy is to train these teachers in-service, using a Areas for Policy Development distance education program. The incidence of HIV infection among teach- The data and analysis presented above provide ers appears high, and is forecast to rise. Teacher a rather comprehensive picture of the primary deaths already account for the loss of 1% of and secondary education systems in Lesotho, teachers annually. Measures to strengthen the and form the basis of policy development for a 6 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho post-FPE era. To help conceptualize and catego- Structure of Coverage Across Levels rize various areas of policy development for the of Education education sector in Lesotho, these issues are di- vided into structural policies and arrangements Lesotho has made the seven years of primary for system management. education free (the last grade of Standard 6 will be free in 2006) and has recently recommended Issues Pertaining to Structural and Overall to the Parliament that primary education should Policy Development be compulsory. However, it is not clear whether the government will also abolish the fees for Overall Level of Spending and its lower secondary and start implementing the 10- Distribution Across Levels of Education year basic education. The intention has been announced before but it was never imple- Since the overall level of education spending as mented. At the same time, the expectation that a proportion of GDP is unlikely to increase, ef- lower secondary education may become free is forts must be made to ensure that the distribu- already circulating among the public. It is im- tion of education spending across levels of edu- portant that the Government of Lesotho care- cation is equitable (hopefully progressive) in fully assesses the fiscal, pedagogical, and ad- terms of equalizing the playing field for the poor ministrative implication of such a move before and the rich, efficient and effective in terms of committing itself. achieving policy objectives. Current distribution of education recurrent spending (37% on pri- Structure of Spending Per Student mary, 20% on secondary, and 36% on higher Across Levels education) strongly favors the tertiary sector, especially given the much smaller student en- The current structure of public education spend- rollment in tertiary. ing per student is heavily skewed towards ter- The proportion of expenditure on primary tiary education. The US$5000 per tertiary stu- education is low by international standards. The dent subsidy is constraining the government's Education for All Indicative Framework recom- ability to increase the expenditure for primary mends devoting 55% of total education recur- and secondary students. It is important for the rent spending to primary education in order to government, at the macro level, to set the ceil- achieve goals of universal primary completion ings for per student expenditure and further to and gender equity in education. This suggests provide guidelines on the proportion of expen- that Lesotho should review the balance of ex- ditures for non-teacher teaching and learning penditure between the sub-sectors. related areas. At the primary and secondary lev- One of the factors in the high expenditure on els especially, it may be possible for Lesotho to tertiary education is the bursary program ad- move from an input-based education financing ministered by the National Manpower Devel- model towards capitation grants based on stu- opment Secretariat. This accounts for more than dent enrollment and accompanied by strength- half of the total expenditure on tertiary educa- ened accountability at the school level. tion. Some increases in efficiency could be made by strengthening the management of the NMDS, Pupil-Teacher Ratios and Implications and increasing its loan recovery rate. More fun- for Organization of Service Delivery damentally, a national dialogue on the future role and functions of the National Manpower Despite the introduction of Free Primary Edu- Development Secretariat should be organized, cation, the government of Lesotho has managed with a goal to clarifying its mission. to maintain the primary pupil-teacher ratio at Executive Summary 7 about 45:47 which seems to be reasonable com- to review its teacher recruitments standards and pared to other countries. However, there is a pay policy. wide variation in the number of teachers for schools enrolling a similar number of pupils. For School Construction Standards instance, there are between 100 and 750 pupils for 10 teachers at the school level; similarly, Despite the Government's effort to construct schools enrolling 500 pupils may have teachers more primary classrooms in recent years, numbering between 6 and 18. This wide range Lesotho still suffers from an overall primary suggests inequitable distribution of primary classroom shortage. The national average pu- teachers. Average pupil-teacher ratios tend to be pil-classroom ratio is about 7:1. In mountain higher in rural mountain areas where the prac- and Senqu River areas, however, this ratio could tice of multigrade teaching is more pervasive. be more than 8:0. The shortage of classrooms Close monitoring of the teacher allocation, de- creates the necessity for multigrade teaching in velopment of incentives for rural teachers, and these areas and further causes teachers to be support structure for multigrade teaching will utilized in a less than optimum way. Thus, con- be critical to ensure quality education in rural struction of primary classrooms will remain a areas. priority in the near future. At the secondary level, however, there are in- Standards for school construction represent dications that existing secondary schools may another area of concern. School construction is not be utilized to their full potential due to the costly and of high quality in Lesotho. An aver- low student teacher ratio and student classroom age 7-classroom school with associated facili- ratio (as compared to primary education). The ties currently costs about M2 million, about US initial focus of secondary expansion should be $300,000. The costs can rise even higher in re- improving the existing system. mote areas where delivery of materials is diffi- cult and the harsh terrain attracts only local con- Teacher Recruitment Standards tractors. Beyond issues related to Lesotho being and Pay Policy a small and not very attractive market and the strong rand, the standards for school construc- Cost of teachers will inevitably increase if the tion should be reviewed with the objective of current recruitment standards and pay policy bringing primary schools closer to the commu- remain the same. Although a full 30% of pri- nities while at the same time reducing the costs mary teachers are considered "unqualified," the and enhancing community ownership. The gov- overall formal qualification of Lesotho's teach- ernment has already begun to accept that it is ers (at least 12 years of general education) is possible to build a 4-classroom school in areas high compared to that in other developing coun- where the population is sparse. Further, the gov- tries. International evidence has shown very little ernment is also piloting community-based pri- direct relationship between teachers' formal mary construction in three districts. It must take qualification and student learning outcomes, further steps to reach the goal of bringing schools beyond a minimum qualification around 10­12 closer to the communities. Priority should also years of schooling. At the same time, the high be given to provision of chairs and desks for cost of teacher salaries constrains the govern- existing schools including church schools. ment in its effort to improve coverage. The Gov- ernment intends to upgrade all primary teach- Reducing Primary Repetition ers to Diploma degree holders. Such upgrading will result in an increase of 60% in wages for Efforts should be made to reduce primary rep- teachers. It may be advisable for the government etition. Evidence from other countries suggests 8 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho that repetition has little impact on educational Report cards for school districts and other outcomes, and may increase the dropout rate. higher levels of aggregation can also provide Reducing repetition would decrease the gross similar comparative information. The availabil- enrollment ratio, reduce overcrowding in lower ity of such information may be expected to im- classes, and increase overall efficiency. prove conditions in schools in two ways: by cre- The above areas for policy development pro- ating incentives for under endowed schools to vide rather general guidelines. It is important seek redress; and by pinpointing specific schools for the government to develop a simulation so in the system that warrants the attention of those that the potential tradeoffs can be evaluated and in charge. In Lesotho, as in other countries, the policies developed and fed into the annual ac- use of information on student achievement for tion plans and budgets. accountability purposes remains at an early stage. The country has already established a Issues Pertaining to the Arrangements for baseline, and this can be built on as part of the System Management: broader effort to mobilize appropriate informa- tion for better management. Another set of very important findings arising from the report are that the post-FPE policies Strategic Placing of New Construction need to pay more attention to improving the to Relieve Shortage of Classrooms and managerial efficiency to ensure equitable dis- Provision of School Desks and Chairs tribution of human and financial resources across schools and to ensure targeting of assis- It should be emphasized that an important find- tance to vulnerable groups to reduce social dis- ing of this report is that accessibility to schools parities. was a major determinant of participation: 30% of rural children who never attended school lived Preparing for Increased Decentralization at least 60 minutes away from a primary school. of Decision-Making to Schools (e.g. Among the other school characteristics, only the strengthened financial management and physical condition of the school--indexed by the accountability) percentage of pupils with neither seat nor desk - had significant impact on attendance. In fact, Despite the heavy investment in education by providing 10% more seats and desks could im- the government of Lesotho, most of the inputs prove attendance rates by 28%. Since FPE, the flowing to schools are in kind, rather than in government of Lesotho has focused primarily cash. Indeed, the introduction of FPE further on construction, equipping, and furnishing new reduced the schools' autonomy in raising and government schools. The strategic location of spending funds. While this may have ensured such schools is critical to ensuring education for short-term guarantee of some minimum services, all. Further, the government may consider reno- the system is rather inefficient and in the long vating existing church schools which are strate- term this may damage school-level management gically located and providing desks and chairs capacity which has proven to be key to ultimate to the church schools as well. learning outcomes. Strengthening accountability for results is dif- Clarifying Governance Structure at School ficult in education because many individuals are Level for Increased Focus on Results involved and the outcomes are typically multi- dimensional. Yet appropriate use of information By law, primary schools in Lesotho are managed can help improve performance by ensuring that by School Management Committees. For church resources are at least reaching schools. schools, each management committee can be re- Executive Summary 9 sponsible for a maximum of eight schools be- Targeting the Vulnerable Groups longing to the same proprietor. In an effort to encourage parents and community members to Fifteen percent of primary school age children become involved in the management of church in Lesotho are not yet enrolled in schools. In schools, the Education Act of 1995 also intro- almost every measure of educational outcome, duced School Advisory Committees in church the remote rural and mountain areas are more schools. The role of these committees is to ad- disadvantaged than other areas. Orphans are vise the management committee on all matters more disadvantaged than non-orphans especially related to education in the relevant school. Les- in repetition and dropout measures. The defini- sons learned from the implementation of School tion of existing "hardship" areas may have to Management Committees and School Advisory be refined to capture the true hardship areas. It Committees indicate that these two committees is important that for every new or existing policy, overlap substantially in membership as well as special consideration be made so that children in the role they play, thus creating confusion and and students in true hardship areas are not be- potential lack of accountability at the school ing left behind. These could include demand- level. Recent review of the Education Act has side incentives for households to send their chil- already recommended the consolidation of the dren to school. two committees into one. The recommendation has to be endorsed and the Act should be re- vised before implementation can begin. The Education Sector Strategic Plan (2005­2015) Supervision and Teacher Support, Particularly Regarding Multigrade During the course of developing this Report, the Teaching Ministry of Education and Training finalized its Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP) for 2005­ Beyond resource mobilization at the school level, 2015 and submitted the ESSP to the Education pedagogical management (administrative man- Development Partners in Lesotho for assessment agement and institutional structure of account- towards Fast Track Initiative Endorsement. The ability), is to be considered a major ingredient goals and strategies outlined in the ESSP are of any policy to improve the quality of educa- largely in line with the National Poverty Reduc- tional services. The outcomes of interest are the tion Strategy Paper and the Education Millen- children's schooling careers--as reflected in en- nium Development Goals. The Partners submit- try, survival, and repetition rates--and their ted the endorsement on June 29, 2005, with the learning achievement. In both domains, good following assessment to the Basic Education results will require teachers and school direc- chapter of the ESSP: tors to manage the pedagogical process effec- tively. Indeed, the analysis in this report shows · Strengths that only a very small proportion of the varia- ­ Interventions for improving quality (e.g. tion in student achievement (5.5%) can be ex- continuing and professional development plained by child, school, and teacher character- of teachers in literacy, numeracy, science istics. More emphasis should be placed on sup- and life skills) port and supervision of classroom level teach- ­ Comprehensive strategies to improve ac- ing and learning. This will be particularly im- cess and equity for Orphans and Vulner- portant to the schools currently practicing mul- able Children (OVC) and disadvantaged tigrade teaching and not receiving any support children in this area. ­ Priorities clearly articulated 10 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho ­ Partnerships formed with other ministries It is clear that the ESSP policies and strate- e.g. Health and Social Welfare gies could be re-worked in light of the findings · Concerns and the suggested areas for policy development ­ Lack of clarity regarding the policy on ba- from this report. In particular, the ESSP is silent sic education on the issues including the high tertiary expen- ­ Lack of a clear teacher replacement strat- diture and NMDS reform, reviewing teacher egy in the context of HIV/AIDS recruitment standards and pay policy, construc- ­ Data and analysis gaps (OVC, Special Edu- tion standards, support for multigrade teaching, cation needs, the data (2004) collected us- and specific strategies to reduce primary waste. ing the new Education Geographic Infor- The Ministry regards the ESSP as a "living docu- mation System still needs to be verified ment" and has expressed willingness to work against the 2005 data ) with the partners to develop annual work plans. ­ Focus on access provision has to be bal- Dissemination of this report and the subsequent anced with improved quality development of an education financing model ­ Sub-sectoral linkages are not adequately to simulate various policy tradeoffs and fiscal addressed in the objectives and strategies implications will support the Ministry's effort e.g. lifelong learning and primary educa- to develop annual work plans which are linked tion with its annual budgets. CHAPTER 1 Demographic and Macroeconomic Setting his chapter sets the stage for subse- (29%), the uncertainty concerning the terms of T quent chapters. It describes the demo- trade for the textile industry, the strong rand graphic and macroeconomic condi- which reduces the competitiveness of Lesotho's tions in Lesotho, which have a direct exports, and the reduction in numbers of mi- impact on, or are closely linked with, grant Basotho miners working in South Africa the development of the education sector. It also which lowered national remittances and in- points out key patterns and trends in govern- creased both unemployment and social unrest ment finance, including overall allocations of in Lesotho. The economic benefits from the public spending on education. Lesotho Highland Water Project also seem to As a small country with limited natural re- be leveling off. sources, Lesotho faces serious challenges to its Education and skills development is an inte- overall development. Primarily because the gral part of Lesotho's overall strategy for future Lesotho Highland Water Project (LHWP) ex- economic development and poverty reduction. ported water and electricity to South Africa, si- Its public expenditure on education is already multaneously creating employment opportuni- very high. More than 30% of total government ties in the construction sector, the 1990s wit- expenditure goes to the education sector. Total nessed an impressive average GDP growth of education expenditure amounts to almost 12% about 7%. The political upheaval in 1998, how- of GDP, extremely high compared to the world ever, took a huge toll on the nation's economy, average of 4% to 6%. This level of expenditure but peace and economic recovery ensued soon is unlikely to increase further especially when after the election in 2000. Further, the favor- the future prospect for economic growth is un- able trade conditions in textile exports attracted certain. Yet the high expectations and demands foreign investors, and, exports of garments made put on the education sector are increasing. Some in Lesotho boosted the economy and brought of these demands are explicitly stated in the the real GDP growth back to about 3% to 4% government's most recent Poverty Reduction per annum over the past couple of years. How- Strategy Paper and in the recently finalized Edu- ever, significant challenges are looming on the cation Sector Strategic Plan (2005­2015). horizon, including the significant loss of growth Among them are achieving equitable universal due to the high HIV/AIDS prevalence rate primary education, improving the quality of the 11 12 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho education system at all levels and training suffi- tion was 1.67 million. The latest population pro- cient workers with skills relevant to the country's jections are based on the 1996 census but with economy. The challenge for the managers of the revised mortality rates due to HIV/AIDS. They education system is how to use existing and ad- established that the population in Lesotho in ditional resources to deliver education services 2004 is about 1.8 million. Figure 1.1 depicts the effectively and thereby fulfill these expectations. actual evolution of the population since 1996. The annual rate of population growth is de- creasing. It increased from 2.3% between 1966 A. Demographic Profile and 1976 to 2.6 % between 1976 and 1986. However, between 1986 and 1996, the popula- The Kingdom of Lesotho is a mountainous land- tion growth rate declined to 2.1% primarily due locked country, entirely surrounded by the Re- to the impact of HIV/AIDS. Further, between public of South Africa (RSA). More than 99% 1996 and 2015 it is projected to be less than of Lesotho's population is ethnically Basotho; 1%. As in many developing countries, young other ethnic groups include Europeans and people make up a sizable share of the popula- Asians. The country's population is 80% Chris- tion, as Figure 1.1 shows. For example, children tian, with a majority Roman Catholic. Others of primary school age (6 to 12 years old) ac- are Moslems, Hindus, and followers of indig- counted for almost 19% of the total population enous beliefs. Sesotho and English are the offi- in 2004. The population of primary school-age cial languages; Zulu and Xhosa are among the children is also projected to decline slightly, from other languages spoken. 336,000 in 2004 to about 332,000 in 2008. The last census for Lesotho was carried out in However, it is projected that recovery will start 1996. It established that the country's popula- in 2008. Figure 1.1 Lesotho Total and School-Age Population 2000000 Ages 6-12 1800000 Total Population 1600000 1400000 1200000 1000000 800000 600000 400000 200000 0 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 Source: Survey Data. Missing data for one LGA (Ojoo) in 1999 Demographic and Macroeconomic Setting 13 Table 1.1 summarizes basic characteristics of lands, the Senqu River Valley, and foothills. For Lesotho's population by administrative district in administrative purposes, the Basotho territory terms of location, gender, and age. Data are from is divided into 10 districts: Butha Buthe, Leribe, the latest household survey: the Core Welfare In- Berea, Maseru, Mafeteng, Mohale's Hoek, dicator Questionnaire, administered in 2002. Quthing, Qacha's Neck, Mokhotlong, and More than three quarters of Lesotho's people re- Thaba Tseka. Each district is headed by a dis- side in rural areas, and less than one quarter in trict secretary. The definition of zones and their urban areas. Interestingly, more than half of the relationship with the districts is provided in the population (54%) is female, compared to 45.6% Annex 1.2 to this chapter. male. This is most likely due to the Basotho tradi- Table 1.1also indicates that the Maseru Dis- tion of men working in South Africa. trict, which includes the capitol of Lesotho, is Lesotho has a relatively young population, home to more than 38% of the total popula- with 32.4% of its population below age 15, and tion. The second most populated district is another 64.3% between 15 and 64. Qacha's Neck, home to 13.3% of the total The Basotho territory can be divided into four Basotho population. The remaining 49% of the geographic/ecological regions: mountains, low- population are scattered among the remaining eight districts. At almost 82%, the literacy rate in Lesotho is Table 1.1 high compared to the average of 64% for Sub- Population by Location, Gender, Age, and District Saharan African countries. The literacy rate is (2002) higher among women: almost 90% of women are considered literate as compared to only 73% of Weighted percentage men. The literacy rate is improving generation by Rural 76.5 generation. While only 58% of those 60 years old Urban 23.5 and older are literate, almost 90% of the 25­29 Gender year olds are literate, as shown in Table 1.2 Male 45.6 Incidence of Poverty Female 54.4 Age The incidence of poverty increased in Lesotho < 15 32.4 between 1986/87 and 1994/95. Approximately 15­64 64.3 58% of the population was poor in both sur- 65+ 3.3 District Table 1.2 Butha Buthe 8.1 Literacy Rate Leribe 7.7 Male Female Total Berea 3.6 Total 73.2 89.6 81.8 Maseru 38.1 15­24 80.5 96.3 88.6 Mafeteng 5.6 25­29 82.1 95.7 89.1 Mohale Hoek 3.9 30­39 77.2 95 86.2 Quthing 3 40­49 71 88.3 80.4 Qacha's Neck 13.3 50­59 63.5 87.5 75.9 Mokhotlong 8.6 60+ 44.6 66.9 58.1 Thaba Tseka 8.1 Source: CWIQ 2002 14 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho veys, but the percentage of households that were 2002. The goal is to reduce the under-5 mortal- denoted as ultra-poor increased from 35% to ity by two thirds. 39%. The poverty mapping exercise conducted in the 1990s seems to confirm this worsening HIV/AIDS and Orphanhood trend, despite the economic growth. In Lesotho, the Gini coefficient, which is widely used to Since Lesotho's first case of AIDS in 1986, preva- measure inequality, actually increased from 0.6 lence rates among adults aged 15 to 49 have to 0.66 in the period between 1986 and 1995. skyrocketed from approximately 4% in 1993 This is another example of how growth alone is to 29% in 2004. This is the fourth highest preva- not sufficient to reduce poverty. lence rate in the world, following Botswana However, no recent poverty analysis has been (38.8 %); Zimbabwe (33.7 %); and Swaziland conducted. A household budget survey, currently (33.4 %). being conducted, should provide an update to The high rate of HIV infection has had an the poverty profile in Lesotho. enormous impact on Lesotho's demographics. Additional vital statistics for Lesotho includ- In 1986 life expectancy in Lesotho was 55 years ing the progress toward achieving the Millen- and the expectation was that it would rise to 60 nium Development Goals can be found in An- years by 2001. As a result of HIV/AIDS, how- nex 1.1. Serious challenges remain for Lesotho ever, recent estimates of life expectancy have to achieve poverty reduction of 50%, primary dropped to below 37 years and are projected to net enrollment of 100%, primary completion drop further. of 100%, and complete gender parity by 2015. The impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic on the The health indicators are worse than those for education sector is significant. In 2003, the education. Hence the journey to achieve health MOET carried out a campaign of voluntary test- MDGs will be more difficult. For example, ing and counseling for all its headquarters staff within the 12 years from 1990 to 2002, progress and teachers in seven districts; of the teachers to reduce under-5 mortality has been very slow, and administrators who opted for testing, 22% dropping from 148 per 1000 in 1990 to 132 in were found to be HIV positive (see Table 1.4). Table 1.4 Prevalence of HIV/AIDS among Education Sector Staff Total # Tested Negative Positive of Staff Male Female Male Female Male Female Total HQ 90 260 58 226 32 34 66 Mohale's Hoek 1041 65 211 53 177 12 34 46 Thaba-Tseka 684 166 302 141 259 25 43 68 Berea 1053 112 185 94 139 18 46 64 Maseru 2810 94 266 33 170 61 96 157 Mafeteng 1427 11 52 8 45 3 7 10 Leribe 2150 18 57 16 51 2 6 8 Quthing 782 13 52 9 39 4 13 17 Total tested 1954 Prevalence 0.22 Source: MOET Demographic and Macroeconomic Setting 15 It is reasonable to expect that the overall preva- tor of economic performance is the Gross Do- lence rate among non-volunteers would be mestic Product (GDP); for Lesotho, however, it higher. Indeed, the government's 2003 impact is the Gross National Income or Product (GNI assessment study estimated that nearly 30% of or GNP), which represents the real economic teachers were affected by HIV/AIDS in 2003, situation. There is usually a gap between GDP with that percentage expected to increase. This and GNI because of the remittances that migrant translates into a death rate of approximately 1% Basotho workers in South Africa send back to of teachers annually. Lesotho. Furthermore, based on the 2002 Core Wel- Lesotho's economy is based on the water and fare Indicator Questionnaire survey, the num- electricity it sells to South Africa, along with ber of orphans in Lesotho is estimated to be manufacturing, agriculture, livestock, and earn- around 100,000, almost one third of the total ings both from the Southern African Customs primary school-age population. The education Union (SACU), and from laborers employed in sector faces the serious challenge of bringing South Africa. Lesotho also exports diamonds, these children into school and retaining them in wool, and mohair. The majority of households the system. subsist on farming or migrant labor, primarily The government of Lesotho was initially slow miners who work in South Africa for 3 to 9 to recognize the scale of the HIV/AIDS crisis, months each year. The western lowlands form and so far its efforts to combat the spread of the the main agricultural zone. Almost half the disease have met with limited success. In 1999, population earns some income through crop the government finalized its Strategic Plan on cultivation or animal husbandry, with over half HIV/AIDS, a program that would address the the country's income coming from the agricul- education, prevention, counseling, and treatment tural sector. needs of the populace. In late 2003, the govern- Figure 1.2 traces Lesotho's real GDP growth ment announced that it was forming a new Na- rate and GNI per capita. It is clear that the line tional AIDS Commission to coordinate society- depicting real GDP growth rate experiences wide anti-AIDS activities. Also in 2003 it hosted some fluctuation. Over the past decade, a SADC Extraordinary Summit on HIV/AIDS. Lesotho's real GDP growth has been relatively Most importantly, line ministries are required high, averaging 4%. High GDP growth rates in to spend about 2 percent of their recurrent bud- the late 1980s to early 1990s were primarily due gets on HIV/AIDS related activities. In the Min- to the Lesotho Highland Water Project (LHWP), istry of Education and Training, an HIV/AIDS which started in 1987 as a collaboration between coordination unit was established in 2003 which Lesotho and the RSA. The project has contrib- is staffed with one full-time coordinator and two uted to Lesotho's economy in two ways. First, it counselors. The unit developed an HIV/AIDS generated a massive demand for construction, Action Plan focusing on voluntary testing, coun- which led to the creation of employment in the seling, and treatment for all education sector construction industry and thus contributed to staff. the economic growth1 in Lesotho. Second, the project enabled Lesotho to generate electricity on its own and at the same time, export water B. Macroeconomic Trends to the RSA. Once the first phase of the project Lesotho's economy is strongly connected to that of its neighbor, the Republic of South Africa. Its 1Among the construction projects were a 185-meter currency, the maloti, is pegged to the South Af- high dam, a 45 kilometer transfer tunnel, and hy- rican rand. For most countries, the key indica- dropower stations (Redeby and Makume 2001). 16 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 1.2 GDP Growth Rates in Lesotho, 1980­2003 12 800 GNI per 10 capita 600 8 GDP growth 6 400 rate rate 4 capita 200 growth per 2 GDP GNI 0 0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 -2 -200 -4 -6 -400 Source: IMF Country Report (2004) was completed, LHWP made a smaller contri- over 50,000, marking the first time that manu- bution to GDP growth. Although the second facturing sector workers outnumbered govern- phase of the LHWP was carried out during the ment employees. Asian investors own most of late 1990s and the early years of the 2000s, its the factories. contribution to GDP has been minimal. However, in late 2004, Lesotho again began The negative GDP growth registered in 1998 to experience a significant downturn in eco- was primarily due to the political unrest that nomic performance driven largely by uncertainty resulted in massive destruction of infrastructure, in the textile sector due to several factors: un- especially in the Maseru area. In the late 1990s, certainty as to whether the US Congress would Lesotho's economy was further weakened by extend the AGOA, removal of textile quotas reductions in the amount of Basotho labor under the Multifibre Agreement on Textiles and needed in the South African mines. The total Clothing, and the weak US dollar against the number of Basotho miners working in South rand which made garments from Lesotho less Africa was almost 96,000 in 1997, but by 2002, competitive compared to those from Asia. had dropped to 62,000, according to an IMF These events provide the context in which to report. consider the country's GNI, GDP, and GNP. The The GDP has been recovering steadily since real GNI per capita has declined from $720 in 1999, primarily due to the boom in the textile 1997 to $470 in 2002, as seen in Figure 1.2. industry. Lesotho has taken advantage of the Table 1.5 lists Lesotho's gross domestic product African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) and gross national product at current prices. to become the Sub-Saharan region's largest ex- These figures indicate the magnitude of Lesotho's porter of garments to the US. Exports totaled economy and the actual gap between GDP and over $320 million in 2002. Employment reached GNI. On average, the GNI has been over 23 Demographic and Macroeconomic Setting 17 Table 1.5 Trends in GDP and GNP since 1998 in Lesotho (in maloti) 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Gross Domestic Product at current prices 4920.7 5564.9 5963.7 6564.8 7370 8143.8 8851.4 Gross National Product at current prices 6305.4 7057.4 7486 8071.1 9067.7 10017.2 10938 Population (millions) 1.71 1.73 1.74 1.76 1.78 1.79 1.81 GDP per capita (current maloti) 2878 3217 3427 3730 4140 4550 4890 GNP per capita (current maloti) 3687 4079 4302 4586 5094 5596 6043 Source: Statistical Report, No. 6, 2003 National Accounts 1980­2003, Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Finance and Development Planning percent higher than the GDP. However, the gap clined as compared to the level in 1997. Fur- has been diminishing recently as the interna- ther, the impact on poverty reduction has been tional gold price has dropped and the number limited (World Bank, Country Economic Memo- of migrant laborers has decreased dramatically, randum (CEM): Growth and Employment Op- from 127,400 in 1990 to 62,200 in 2002. tions Study, 2005). Several ominous develop- Table 1.6 compares Lesotho's GNI per capita ments in the early 2000s may lead to an even (using the atlas method) with those of its neigh- less optimistic picture for development in the bors and with averages for the world and for near future. These factors include the high HIV/ Sub-Saharan Africa in 2003. It is clear that AIDS rate, uncertainty in the textile industry, Lesotho's GNI per capita, though higher than the leveling off of benefits resulting from the Mozambique's, lags significantly behind those LHWP, the retrenchment of miners from South of Swaziland and South Africa. Because of its Africa, and the strong rand against the maloti, low GNI per capita, Lesotho is classified by the which made Lesotho's export prices less attrac- World Bank as a lower-income country, one that tive. The challenge for the GOL, as reflected in still qualifies for loans under IDA terms. its Poverty Reduction Strategy, is to ensure strong In short, there have been ups and downs in and sustainable growth with poverty reduction. Lesotho's economic performance during the last The World Bank CEM projected that major decade and a half. Overall growth rate has been poverty reduction in medium term for Lesotho sluggish and real GNI per capita has in fact de- will require much higher real growth (5­6%) Table 1.6 GNI Per Capita in 2003 (in US$) Sub-Saharan World Lesotho South Africa Swaziland Mozambique Africa (excl. S.A.) Average GNI per capita 590 2780 1350 210 490 5500 Source: World Development Indicators 2004 18 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 1.7 Central Government Budgetary Operations (% of GDP) 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 Revenue and Grants 45.1 42.6 43.9 44.0 45.3 Revenue 42.7 40.3 42.4 41.2 41.3 Grants 2.4 2.3 1.6 2.8 4.0 Expenditure 48.0 58.9 46.8 44.7 49.8 Recurrent 38.2 40.5 39.8 35.5 38.9 Capital 9.8 8.4 7.6 11.0 11.3 Net Lending 0.0 10.0 ­0.7 ­1.8 ­0.4 Balance w/o grants ­5.3 ­18.5 ­4.4 ­3.5 ­8.5 Balance w/ grants ­2.9 ­16.3 ­2.9 ­0.7 ­4.5 Source: Background to the budget 2004/05 and per capita growth (at least 4%). It further easy to locate this trade. Other sectors like ag- recommended a two-pronged growth strategy: riculture (especially crops consumed within the high-value commercial agricultural production household, rather than marketed), domestic and processing, and higher value manufactured trade, and services, are less easy to tax from exports (diversified away from low grade gar- the administrative perspective, compared to ments). Pivotal to this proposed growth strat- international trade. The Lesotho Highlands egy, among other things, is to ensure the deliv- Water Project (LHWP) has also contributed sig- ery of more and better educated and qualified nificantly to government revenue. In the aver- Basothos. To improve the productivity of its age SSA country, government revenue is usu- abundant but unfortunately low skilled labor, ally 21% of GDP; however, in Lesotho, gov- the GOL needs to improve the delivery and out- ernment revenue has recently been about 42% comes of both education and training. of GDP. This revenue increase has supported the Lesotho government in spending 47% of its GDP, as compared with 27% of GDP in the C. Public Spending, Issues of average SSA country.2 While a high government Debt Service, and Implications for revenue performance is often considered to be Spending in the Education Sector a blessing, it can also raise a risk that the gov- ernment will absorb too much of the national One consequence of Lesotho's small size is that income in relation to the prospects for private its international trade is large in relation to the sector investment and growth. size of the economy. Further, the fact that it's The Lesotho economy grew fairly rapidly dur- landlocked and surrounded by South Africa ing the middle 1990s, fueled by the LHWP. In also forces it to do more international trade. This fact makes it relatively easy for the gov- ernment to obtain revenue. It is easy to tax in- 2 ternational trade, because, by definition, the Comparative data are from the World Bank, Af- rican Development Indicators 2001. If GNP rather goods (either imports or exports) must cross than GDP were used as the denominator in these an international border, and there are only a ratios, Lesotho would still be an "outlier" on the limited number of border crossings. Thus it is high side, although not to as large an extent. Demographic and Macroeconomic Setting 19 1998, however, real GDP fell, inflation acceler- supported by the International Monetary Fund ated to 9 percent, the balance of payments weak- (IMF). Initially this was a "staff-monitored pro- ened, and the government's fiscal deficit (as gram" that did not draw upon IMF resources. shown in Table 1.7) ballooned to unsustainable Then, in early 2001, the IMF board approved levels. access to IMF resources under the Poverty Re- To correct the situation, in 2000 the govern- duction and Growth Facility (PRGF), a program ment began to implement an economic program that aims to reduce inflation, strengthen the Table 1.8 Education Sector Expenditures (1998/99 to 2004/05) Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual MOET Education ­ Recurrent 488 507 579 679 738 647 737 MOET Education ­ Capital 119 25 32 109 162 98 166 NMDS 65.2 77.2 80.5 120 177 217 270 Total Education Sector 672 609 692 908 1077 962 1173 GOL ­ Recurrent 1943 2319 2404 2312 2857 2533 3199 Of which: interest 129 183 258 203 220 216 156 Of which: non-interest Recurrent 1814 2136 2146 2109 2637 2690 3043 GOL ­ Capital, 496 480 554 626 802 635 756 GOL ­ Total, excluding interest 2310 2616 2700 2735 3439 2952 3799 Gross Domestic Product 4921 5565 5964 6565 7370 8144 8851.4 Gross National Income 6305 7057 7486 8071 9068 10017 10938 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 MOET Recurrent /GOL Recur., excl. interest 26.9% 23.7% 27.0% 32.2% 28.0% 24.1% 24.2% Education Total Recur./ GOL Recur., excl. interests 30.5% 27.4% 30.7% 37.9% 34.7% 32.1% 33.1% MOET Capital /GOL Capital 24.0% 5.2% 5.8% 17.4% 20.2% 15.5% 21.9% Education Total/GOL Total, excl.interest 29.1% 23.3% 25.6% 33.2% 31.3% 32.6% 30.9% Ed. Total/GDP 13.7% 10.9% 11.6% 13.8% 14.6% 11.8% 13.2% Ed. Total/GNP 10.7% 8.6% 9.2% 11.3% 11.9% 9.6% 10.7% 20 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho balance of payments, and achieve an economic On the other hand, the government has set growth rate of at least 4 percent annually. an ambitious agenda of expanding enrollment The government intends to limit its budget and improving quality in primary education, deficit to levels that can be financed by external which will require considerable funds. In the grants and concessional loans. It plans to imple- macroeconomic environment of fiscal restraint, ment a broad, long-term public sector reform it will be necessary to examine the allocation of program, which includes improving budgeting resources within the education sector, to explore and expenditure control as well as civil service whether efficiency can be improved in some ar- reform. eas, or whether the financial burden on the gov- ernment can be reduced through cost-sharing Implications for Spending reforms. on the Education Sector When considering education sector budgets and D. Economic Structure expenditures, it is important to note that in and000 Employment Patterns Lesotho the education sector includes not only the entire Ministry of Education and Training, There are three types of economic sectors in but also a small department called the National Lesotho. The primary economic sector includes Manpower Development Secretariat (NMDS) crops and livestock. The secondary economic within the Ministry of Finance and Development sector includes manufacturing including textiles, Planning. The NMDS administers bursaries and construction, LHWP construction, electricity student loans for both secondary and tertiary and water. And the tertiary economic sector in- students. Over the past few years, total budgets cludes wholesale and retail trade, public admin- for NMDS have been more than 20% of the istration and education. In the year 2002/03, the total budget of the Ministry of Education and primary economic sector contributed 13.7 % of Training. GDP, while the secondary and tertiary economic Over the past few years, the average recur- sectors contributed 42.0 % and 34.4 %, respec- rent expenditure on the education sector (includ- tively. As seen in Table 1.9, the share provided ing both MOET and NMDS) constituted more by agriculture declined significantly from 20.9% than 30% of total government expenditure ex- in the early 1980s to 13.7% in 2002/03. On the cluding interest. Aggregating both recurrent and other hand, the growth of the secondary sector capital expenditures, education sector expendi- has been overwhelming: from only 22.6% of tures still amount to an average of more than GDP in the early 1980s, it rose to 42.0% in 25% of total government expenditures over the 2002/03. last five years or so, equivalent to an amount between 11% and over 14% of total GDP. Employment Patterns However, given the above macroeconomic conditions which seem to predict an even less One of the most critical socio-economic situa- optimistic picture than that of the 1990s, it is tions in Lesotho is the large disparity in income likely that the government will exercise more fis- among economic sectors. As seen in Table 1.9, cal restraint in the years immediately ahead, with the country's economy is led by the secondary non-interest recurrent expenditure projected to and tertiary sectors, which each account for decrease. In this environment, increases in the about 41% of the GDP, with the remaining real resources devoted to the Ministry of Educa- 17.4% of the GDP being generated by the pri- tion and Training from the government budget mary sector--which accounts for 72.8 % of the can come only at the expense of other sectors. Basothos who are employed. On the other hand, Demographic and Macroeconomic Setting 21 Table 1.9 Sector-Specific GDP Contributions, 1980/81­2002/03 80/81­86/87 87/88­97/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 Primary 20.9 16.8 15.9 15.6 15.2 14.4 13.7 Secondary 22.6 31.4 35.6 38 39.9 40.5 42.0 Tertiary 43.4 37.0 38.6 37 35.6 35 34.4 Indirect taxes 13.1 14.8 9.9 9.4 9.3 10.1 9.9 TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Lesotho Growth Option Study (2003) World Bank. as Table 1.10 shows, only 8.8% and 18.3% of they were unemployed or underemployed, with Basothos work in the secondary and tertiary some regional variations. The highest rate, sectors, respectively. In rural areas, 83% of the 33.0%, was reported in Quthing District (a ru- population engages in the strictly low-yielding ral and mountainous area) and the lowest, primary sector; the majority is subsistence farm- 16.5%, in Mefeteng District (rural but non- ers. On the other hand, 21% and 52% of the mountainous). Of those who reported being urban population engage in the secondary and unemployed, 95.7% reported that no work was tertiary sectors, respectively. available. Another factor contributing to high unem- Unemployment ployment is the changing economic environment in Lesotho. Because demand for miners is drop- The most important aspect of employment pat- ping significantly and construction through terns in Lesotho is the high unemployment rate, LHWP is slowing down, many of those who which is directly linked to poverty. It is estimated once worked in the RSA gold mines and for that 27.1% of the population is either unem- LHWP are now unemployed. Even though the ployed or underemployed. Several factors con- demand for labor in the manufacturing sector is tribute to high unemployment in Lesotho. growing, these former miners and construction The first major factor is the lack of employ- workers often lack the skills needed to work in ment opportunities. Of those who answered the manufacturing. 2002 Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire A third reason for the high unemployment is (CWIQ), 23.0% and 3.7%, respectively, said low levels of investment from both local and Table 1.10 Composition of Employment and GDP, 1999 GDP Contribution Composition of Employment Sector Million US$ % share Total Urban Rural Primary 143.8 17.4% 72.8% 27.1% 83.0% Secondary 339.3 41.1% 8.8% 20.8% 6.2% Tertiary 341.6 41.4% 18.3% 52.1% 10.8% Total 824.7 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Source: Employment data from BOS (1999), and GDP data from Central Bank of Lesotho (2003). 22 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho foreign investors in sub-sectors other than tex- tional priorities identified in the recent Poverty tiles. For geographical reasons, Lesotho is gen- Reduction Strategy Paper. The government has erally not a very attractive country for foreign signed the MDGs which aim to achieve 100% direct investment (FDI) although the LHWP primary education completion and gender eq- generated some FDI from the RSA in the early uity in primary and secondary education by 1990s. After LHWP, nearly 90% of FDI goes to 2015. Further, the government has set ambitious the textile industry. The nation needs to develop goals to improve the quality of education at all a more diversified economic profile by creating levels. Consistent with its rhetoric, public ex- other industries to attract FDI. penditure on education amounts to more than A compounding factor is the seeming lack of 30% of total government expenditure (exclud- relevant skills among the Basotho labor force. It ing interest payments) and nearly 12% of its is conceivable that if people have solid basic skills GDP in 2003. in literacy, numeracy, and communication, if they The high rates of HIV/AIDS have profoundly are willing to be retrained, if the training is af- affected the demographic profile in Lesotho: the fordable and relevant, and if they have a suffi- population growth rate is declining because of cient degree of entrepreneurship, then more and falling fertility rates and life expectancy. HIV/ more jobs will be created either by the Basothos AIDS has also made orphans of many school- themselves or by increased foreign investment. age children. The government's 2003 impact Indeed, the government of Lesotho clearly rec- assessment estimated that nearly 30% of teach- ognizes the importance of the education and train- ers were affected by HIV/AIDS and that figure ing sector. It identified education as a priority in is expected to increase. In this situation, the gov- its recent Poverty Reduction and Strategy Paper. ernment will need to put more effort into train- The very high allocation of government expen- ing teachers in order to achieve national goals diture to education also attests to this. such as EFA and FPE. Educating orphans and This situation points to the purpose of this other disadvantaged children also places a seri- report: to determine how the Basotho nation, ous burden on the already over-stretched edu- through its Ministry of Education and Training cation sector. and other relevant agencies, can develop and From the macroeconomic perspective, the implement proper policies and other instruments Lesotho Highland Water Project (LHWP) con- to produce a better educated and better trained tributed significantly to government revenue, Basotho labor force. Unfortunately, a lack of allowing the country to enjoy a relatively high relevant data prevents this report from provid- rate of economic growth over the past 10 years. ing a full analysis of the linkages between the On the other hand, in the late 1990s, the education and training and labor market out- economy was weakened by the reduced need for comes including both the local and regional la- labor in the South African mines. In this macro- bor markets. For now, this report will assume economic context, the government has allocated that education and skills development is an in- a large share of public expenditure to educa- tegral part of Lesotho's overall strategy for eco- tion, quite appropriately for education and skills nomic growth and poverty reduction. development; however, the government is ex- pected to exercise fiscal restraint in the years to come. In order to achieve the national and in- E. Chapter Summary ternational goals (EFA, MDGs, and FPE), the challenge for Lesotho is to seek cost-effective The government of Lesotho, through its Minis- ways to allocate public resources within the edu- try of Education and Training, attaches high cation sector and to explore areas where effi- value to education. Education is one of the na- ciency can be improved. CHAPTER 2 Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives n this chapter we provide an overview education is marked by passage of the Primary I of the educational system in Lesotho. School Leaving Examination (PSLE), which In particular, we trace the expansion of measures students' basic knowledge of science, enrollment at different levels of educa- social studies, English, mathematics and Sesotho, tion, taking a historical perspective. at the end of the seven-year primary cycle. Fol- We examine the system's coverage, compare it lowing primary education, secondary education with that of other countries, and discuss key in- consists of two levels: the three-year junior sec- dicators of student flow with a special focus on ondary education level which is completed by four indicators: rates of entry to first grade, obtaining the Junior Certificate (JC), and the grade-specific enrollment rates, cohort survival two-year senior secondary education level which rates, and repetition rates in primary and sec- is completed upon attainment of the Cambridge ondary education. Overseas School Certificate (COSC). The senior secondary course of study (Forms D and E) is equivalent to the British "O" level education. A. Education Structure Tertiary education (also called post-COSC) includes technical and vocational education Lesotho's education system is divided into three (TVET), teacher training, and university educa- levels: 1) seven-year primary education (Stan- tion. In actual fact, the TVET in Lesotho offers dards 1 to 7); 2) five-year secondary education a mixture of certificate and diploma programs consisting of a three-year lower level (Forms A catering to both post-JC and post-COSC stu- to C) and two-year upper level (Forms D and dents. Lesotho has only one true tertiary level E); and 3) tertiary education, which takes a TVET institution, the Lerotholic Polytechnic, maximum of four years to complete. Lesotho which offers both certificate and diploma has yet to define legally the required duration courses. The other TVET institutions offer of compulsory education. Compared with other mostly certificate programs for post-JC students regions outside of Africa, Lesotho has more years and even some for post-PSLE students. of primary education (Table 2.1). The Lesotho College of Education (LCE) of- The official school age for primary education fers teacher training courses for primary and sec- is between 6 and 12 years. Completing primary ondary school teachers, with a Diploma in Edu- 23 24 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 2.1 Duration of Compulsory, Primary and Secondary Education Duration of compulsory schooling Duration of primary Duration of secondary Lesotho 7.* 7 5 Neighbors South Africa 9. 7 5 Botswana 10. 7 5 Swaziland 7. 7 5 Namibia 10. 7 5 Mozambique 7. 7 5 Other Regions East Asia & Pacific 6 Europe & Central Asia 4 Latin America & Caribbean 6 Middle East & North Africa 6 South Asia 5 Sub-Saharan Africa 6 Source: EdStats, World Bank *Lesotho recently announced that primary education is compulsory. cation (Primary) (DEP) for non-certified teachers, of South Africa. Over the last few years, on av- a Diploma in Primary Education (DPE) for certi- erage, more than 20% of the new tertiary stu- fied teachers, a Diploma in Education (Second- dent population has entered programs in RSA ary) (DES), and a Diploma in Technology Educa- and other institutions overseas. tion (DTE). In January 2002, the LCE began of- Last, but not least, is Lesotho's system of pre- fering a Distance Teacher Education Program school education. The Early Childhood Care and (DTEP) for primary teachers who wished to im- Development (ECCD) institutes offer pre-pri- prove their teaching qualifications while continu- mary schooling for children aged 3 to 5 years. ing to work. The LCE does not yet offer any de- All the center-based ECCD facilities are privately gree courses for teachers. The National Univer- owned. The Ministry of Education and Train- sity of Lesotho (NUL) also offers a Bachelor of ing (MOET) has started piloting a home-based Education degree which caters to undergraduates ECCD approach that relies primarily on volun- aspiring to be secondary school teachers. teers for the care of children although training Various undergraduate and post-graduate is provided by the MOET. degree programs are offered by universities. Lesotho's entire education system is depicted There is only one comprehensive public univer- in Figure 2.1. sity in Lesotho, the National University of Lesotho, which offers programs leading to sub- degree programs (certificates and diplomas), B. Education Governance and undergraduate degrees in agriculture, education, Management humanities, law, social sciences and the natural sciences, and postgraduate programs. There Because Lesotho was a British protectorate un- seems to be a tradition for Basotho COSC gradu- til 1966, it inherited the British system of edu- ates to enter tertiary institutions in the Republic cation. Its official languages are both Sesotho Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives 25 Figure 2.1 of primary and secondary education. Because Education System in Lesotho education was established by missionaries in Lesotho in 1883, the majority of primary school Age facilities in the country are still church-owned, 0 even though the government pays the majority 1 of teacher salaries and other recurrent fees. An 2 ECCD important achievement of the 1995 Education 3 1 4 2 Act was identifying the three main entities re- FPE 5 3 Primary sponsible for education in Lesotho: a) the gov- 6 1 ernment; b) community; and c) churches. The 7 2 Education Act also requires that communities 8 3 9 4 and parents be represented in school manage- 10 5 ment or advisory committees. 11 6 The Education Act is currently under review 12 7 Secondary TVET to ensure that it addresses issues stressed in a 13 A 1 PSLE number of other international programs--Edu- 14 B JC 2 15 C TVET 3 cation for All, the Convention on the Rights of 16 D 1 a Child, and the Millennium Development 17 E NUL LCE TVET 2 Goals--as well as several national priorities: 18 1 1 1 3 COSC Lesotho constitutional provision of free and 19 2 2 2 compulsory education, its Local Government 20 3 3 3 21 4 4 Act, the National Vision 2020 and the Poverty 22 Reduction Strategy Paper. The latter has the goal 23 of reducing and eradicating poverty by provid- Source: MOET ing basic education for all. As a result of this review, the Education Act will also regulate and set quality standards, and will foster broader and English but English is currently used in social participation in the management of edu- schools as the compulsory language of instruc- cation, at both the school and district level, by tion beyond primary Standard 3. While the Con- devolving more powers to local management stitution of Lesotho is the fundamental law that structures. lays out the legal foundation for providing edu- Lesotho recently passed a Local Government cation at all levels in Lesotho, the Education Act Act which stipulates that the districts will func- of 1995 and the Local Government Act consti- tion as "coordinating and administrative" bod- tute another important legal framework that ies responsible to the Ministry of Local Govern- governs the management of education. Further, ment. The government also developed a Strate- several laws have been enacted to guide policy gic Plan for Decentralization which has yet to and practice at different levels of education. be reviewed and implemented. The general im- Different legislation exists for primary and sec- pression, however, is that the districts have yet ondary education, technical and vocational edu- to be made fully aware of its tenets and implica- cation, and higher education. tions: they have not yet been given separate bud- get lines, nor have the line ministries really Legal Context started to decentralize their functions. Local government elections were conducted on April The Education Act No. 10 of 1995 (amended 30, 2005. Results have been announced and in 1996) was enacted to regulate the provision councils are being established. 26 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Several other laws have an impact on the man- other tests of knowledge or ability or have agement of education services. In 2002, the Min- performed other prescribed exercises in a ister of Education established the Teaching Ser- manner regarded as satisfactory. It is ex- vice Regulations which guide teacher manage- pected that the Act, once passed, will pro- ment and support, under the provisions of the vide a legal basis for the continuation of Education Act and the Teachers' Pensions Act. the Examinations Council of Lesotho, The Lesotho Technical and Vocational Train- providing for its administration and con- ing Act of 1984 governs programs for the de- trol and related matters. velopment of technical and industrial skills. Under this act, Technical and Vocational Edu- cation and Training (TVET) are the responsibil- Organization of Education Management ity of the Minister of Education and Training, acting on the advice of the Technical and Voca- The Ministry of Education and Training tional Training Advisory Board on all matters (MOET) is responsible for the management, relating to TVET. The law is also under review provision and regulation of education in Lesotho to provide for greater participation of the pri- and is headed by a minister (assisted by an as- vate sector in skills development, sustainable fi- sistant minister). The principal secretary, who nancing of skills development, and a more au- is the ministry's administrative head and chief tonomous management structure. accounting officer, is assisted at the executive The Higher Education Act, enacted in 2004, level by a staff of officers and directors. They addresses the provision of higher education in include a deputy principal secretary; five chief Lesotho. The act seeks to a) regulate higher edu- education officers responsible for primary edu- cation through the establishment and registra- cation, secondary education, teaching service, tion of both public and private institutions; b) curriculum services, and tertiary education; a establish a council on higher education, whose director of education planning, a director of main functions are accreditation and quality technical and vocational education, and the sec- assurance of higher education institutions; and retary general of the National Commission for c) provide guidelines on the governance and UNESCO. These senior managers head depart- funding of public institutions. The Higher Edu- ments composed of programs which form op- cation Council, established by this act, is pri- erational units of sector at the headquarters level. marily advisory and still in a nascent form; its Almost all the decisions concerning education effectiveness has not been established. in Lesotho are made at the central office, de- A bill for the governance and functions of the spite the government's efforts to implement its Examination Council of Lesotho (ECOL) has decentralization policy. This is particularly true been developed and is currently under review. with regard to financial matters. In 2002, ECOL became a semi-autonomous At the district level, education management agency from the MOET. The primary functions is housed within District Resource Centers of the ECOL are, according to the draft ECOL (DRCs) which are headed by senior education bill: officers. The DRCs are a separate structure from the District Office that houses the district secre- To arrange and control assessment for pri- tary. Several educational departments have been mary and secondary schools and such decentralized and relocated in the districts. These other bodies as the Minister may direct; include the Teacher Services Department, the and award certificates to persons who sat- Lesotho College of Education, the National isfy the Council that they have attained Curriculum Development Center, and offices an appropriate standard in assessment or overseeing early childhood education and non- Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives 27 Table 2.2 MOET Organizational Chart Minister Ministry of Education & Training Assistant Minister Principal Secretary Deputy Principal Secretary Examinations Council of Lesotho Human Resources Finance Council on Higher Education Administration National Curriculum Committee TVT Advisory Board Teaching Service Commission UNESCO Commission CEO Teaching Director Director CEO Primary CEO Secondary CEO Tertiary CEO Curriculum Service Planning TVT Central A TSD LP NCDC EMIS TVD Inspectorate Special TVET PIEP TSC LCE LDTC PSCU Education Providers Government Planning SSRFU TTI SSU Schools Section FPE Secondary NUL NFE IT Schools Advisory Field Services IDM ECOL Insp. Source: Lesotho MOET. formal education. The district education offic- bers elected from various School Advisory Com- ers have no real decision-making power espe- mittees: a) two members elected by representa- cially on matters related to finances and person- tives of the proprietor; b) three members elected nel; approval must be sought from the central by representatives of parents; c) one teacher office on every recurrent expenditure. elected by representatives of teachers; d) the prin- cipal elected by the principals of the schools; Primary Schools and e) one representative of chiefs under whose jurisdiction the eight schools which belong to All primary schools are headed by principals and one proprietor fall. This management commit- sometimes assisted by deputies. According to the tee supervises the schools for which it has been 1995 Education Act, a School Management constituted. Committee approved by the Minister of Educa- The majority of primary and secondary tion manages the school affairs. Each manage- schools in Lesotho are owned by churches of ment committee consists of the following mem- various denominations. For church schools, each 28 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho management committee can be responsible for ents of children in that school; c) one represen- a maximum of eight schools belonging to the tative of the teachers; d) a chief of the area where same proprietor. In an effort to encourage par- the school is situated; and e) the principal of the ents and community members to become in- relevant school who serves as secretary of the volved in the management of church schools, board. The board is responsible for managing the Education Act of 1995 also introduced the school, and for running it properly and effi- School Advisory Committees in church schools. ciently. The role of these committees is to advise the management committee on all matters related National Curriculum Committee to education in the relevant school. This com- mittee consists of the following members ap- The National Curriculum Committee reviews pointed by the proprietor: a) two representatives the curriculum for primary and secondary of the proprietor; b) one representative of the schools and advises the minister through the teachers; c) four members of the community principal secretary. The primary members of this served by the school who are elected by parents committee are: a) the chief education officers of that school's pupils; d) a chief of the area for secondary education and curriculum man- where the school is situated; and e) the princi- agement); b) the chief inspectors at headquar- pal of the relevant school. The appointment of ters and in the field services; c) the dean of the members of the Advisory School Committee is Faculty of Education of the National University subject to the approval of the minister. of Lesotho; d) the directors of the National Cur- However, lessons learned from the implemen- riculum Department Center, the Institute of Edu- tation of School Management Committees and cation, the Lesotho College of Education and School Advisory Committees indicate that these the Department of Technical and Vocational two committees overlap substantially in mem- Training; and e) the registrar of the National bership as well as in the role they play, thus cre- Examinations Council. Other members may be ating confusion and potential lack of account- appointed or elected. ability at the school level. Recent review of the The current primary and secondary curricu- Education Act has already recommended the lum used in Lesotho schools are from the 1997 consolidation of the two committees into one. NCDC publication. Details of the curriculum The recommendation has to be endorsed and and syllabus are attached in Annex 2.1. the Act should be revised before implementa- tion can begin. Lesotho Teaching Service Secondary Schools The 1995 Education Act states that no person can be employed as a teacher or can teach in Secondary schools are headed by principals, any school without being registered with the most of who are usually assisted by deputies. Teaching Services Department (TSD); similarly, The 1995 Education Act stipulates that a school no proprietor can allow a person to teach un- board appointed by the proprietor (in the case less they have registered with the TSD. The of church schools) and approved by the Minis- power to appoint a teacher and to promote, ter of Education manages every post-primary demote, transfer, discipline or remove teachers school. The member's appointment to the board from their positions is vested in the Teaching is subject to the minister's approval. The board Service Commission (TSC); however, this does should consist of: a) two representatives of the not apply to a teacher whose salary is not paid proprietor; b) three members of the community by the government. served by the school, who are elected by par- The current MOET management structure, Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives 29 and in particular the central office, is under re- ness in the definition of community school, since view, with the goal of bringing it more in line with community can mean an entire community lo- the Public Sector Improvement and Reform Pro- cated in a certain geographic area or an elite gram, whose main thrust is promoting profession- group of community members. This vagueness alism in public service. It remains a priority to has created situations where the very elite decentralize management and services in educa- Maseru English Medium School, for example, tion and training to improve service delivery. is considered a community school. The few "pri- vate schools" are either international or were established by private entities. C. Private and Public Partnership: Lesotho's macro economy discussed in Chap- The Role of Church/Community ter 1 has had important implications for its edu- Based Schools cation system. Shortly after their arrival in 1833, missionaries established schools in Lesotho; the Primary and secondary schools in Lesotho fall various churches have continued to dominate into four main categories: church-owned, gov- school ownership since then. A school census in ernment, community, and private. Among 2004 indicated that, out of a total of 1476 pri- church-owned schools are those affiliated with mary schools (both registered and unregistered), the Roman Catholic Mission (RCM), the only 126 schools were government schools. Simi- Lesotho Evangelical Church (LEC) ACL and larly, of over 264 secondary schools in the coun- AME. The distinction between government and try, only 31 were entirely under government community schools lies in whether or not the management. Figure 2.2 illustrates the owner- government provided infrastructure, to help ship pattern for both primary and secondary build the school. However, there is some vague- schools as of 2004. Figure 2.2 Primary and Secondary Schools by Ownership (2004) 600 Primary School Secondary School 500 400 300 200 100 0 ACL AME Community Government Govt and LEC Others Private RCM Community Source: MOET 30 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho It is noteworthy that despite these ownership the government wanted to make improvements patterns, the government pays for teachers in or changes that did not favor the church. There- all church-owned, community, and government fore, especially since independence in 1966, the schools, following agreements on staffing. All government has gradually been establishing its education personnel are under government pur- own schools. view through MOET: they are recruited through A public-private partnership, similar to that the Teaching Service and are obliged to follow between the government and church organiza- the government's rules and regulations. Besides tions, exists in the Technical and Vocational paying teachers' salaries, under the FPE, the Education and Training (TVET) sector. Pre-vo- government subsidizes school fees, and provides cational training is offered in secondary high some teaching and learning materials. schools, while vocational training is available However, the government does not pay for at the post-junior and senior secondary school teachers or provide any other forms of assistance levels in Technical Training Institutes (TTIs). Of for private schools. Further, any school in the eight TTIs, six are church or privately-owned Lesotho that can find the resources is free to and two publicly-owned. These schools provide employ additional teachers. vocational training in traditional skill areas (e.g. Thus, both the government and the churches commercial, electrical, woodwork, bricklaying, have generally assumed that all schools are pub- etc.); no formal records of the employment suc- lic schools, an understanding that remains in ef- cess of their graduates are kept. The salaries of fect as long as cordial relationships continue instructors in public and private TTIs are paid between the government and the church. How- by the MOET with limited in-kind support in ever, friction has arisen in a few instances when the form of equipment and supplies from do- Table 2.3 Evolution of Enrollment by Level of Education in Lesotho General Secondary Higher Education ECCD Primary Lower Upper TVET LCE NUL RSA & Others 1990 -- 351,652 37,600 8,701 1,560 572 1,360 1991 -- 361,144 37,653 8,919 1,600 540 1,421 1992 -- 362,657 42,024 9,871 1,590 615 1,612 1993 -- 354,275 45,217 10,095 1,575 644 1,798 1994 -- 366,569 50,664 10,951 1,697 651 1,866 1995 33,059 378,011 53,086 13,368 1,623 704 2,001 1996 -- 374,628 53,104 14,350 1,571 807 2,054 1997 35,124 368,895 49,518 15,957 1,589 866 2,147 1998 36,079 369,515 49,390 15,872 1,509 948 2,242 1999 -- 364,951 55,996 16,441 1,722 925 2,527 2000 30,540 410,745 55,241 17,751 1,859 970 2,844 2001 34,507 415,007 58,036 19,883 1,939 999 3,266 2002 41,469 418,668 60,841 20,289 1,859 1,751 4,195 2003 -- 429,720 62,489 20,615 1,837 1,739 -- 2000* 2004 -- 428,727 68,696 22,214 1745 2326 7153 *rough estimate from NMDS Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives 31 nors like GTZ. Fees charged to students and their students at the Lesotho College of Education and parents cover other costs. This public-private the National University of Lesotho. Another partnership has allowed an expanded access to 2,000 or so tertiary students were enrolled in skills development beyond what the public sec- institutions in the Republic of South Africa and tor could provide alone. other countries. In total, about 0.6 million were enrolled in various educational institutions, out Turning to higher education, Lesotho's of a total population of 1.8 million. sector is small. The only public university, Enrollment at all levels of education has in- the National University, enrolls more than creased steadily over the last decade although 60% of tertiary students. About 20% of the rate of increase varies by level of education. the total tertiary enrollment is in the Comparing 2004 with 1990, primary enrollment Lesotho College of Education and the re- increased by 21%, lower secondary enrollment maining 20% or so attend private institu- by 83%, and upper secondary enrollment by tions in Lesotho, South Africa, and other 155%. Higher education (at both LCE and institutions overseas. NUL) more than doubled. The slowest growth was seen in the technical and vocational educa- tion sector which increased by only 17%. In fact, D. Overview of Enrollment Trends the TVET sector has been experiencing some decline over the last few years. Table 2.3 presents the overall school enrollment Primary enrollment was expanding until pattern in Lesotho. As of 2003, the education 1995, when it started to decline. Many believe system enrolled more than 41,000 children in that the decline was due to poverty and increased ECCD centers, almost 429,000 primary stu- school fees. This trend reversed in 2000 when dents, 82,000 secondary students, 1,800 students the government introduced Free Primary Edu- in TVET institutions, and a total of almost 6,000 cation (Box 2.1). Box 2.1 Free Primary Education in Lesotho Education in Lesotho only became free in 2000 when the government started to implement the Free Primary Education Policy which abolished school fees for one grade a year starting in 2000 until 2006 when all the primary grades would be free. The notion of introducing universal primary education dates back to the National Education Dialogue of 1978. While the affordability of such a venture was the main hindrance, Lesotho, as a member of the United Nations, subscribes to the objectives of Education for All as es- poused at the Jomtien Conference in 1990. Lesotho went further to ratify the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1990, thereby pledging to make primary education compulsory and free to all. Section 28-b of the Constitution of Lesotho (1993) affirms the intention to adopt free primary education, stating that "primary education is compulsory and available to all." In 1999, the Education for All Assessment study revealed drastic declines in the net enroll- ment as a result of deepening poverty; this compelled the prime minister to announce on April 24th, 1999 that the government intended to introduce Free Primary Education beginning in January 2000. (continued on next page) 32 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Box 2.1 (continued) Preparations for its implementation began soon after the announcement. Government offi- cials visited Malawi and Uganda, which have recently introduced similar programs. In these countries, the programs cover tuition and fees, textbooks, examination fees, and school meals, and extended to all primary grades from the beginning. This resulted in a huge influx of pupils which proved difficult to handle. Therefore Lesotho's implementation of the FPE started out with only one grade, with plans to increase the coverage by one grade per year. In addition to abolishing fees, under the FPE program the Lesotho government also helps schools pay for textbooks, paper supplies, meals, and maintenance. One provision in the MOET circular declaring free primary education was that the government would not pay any money directly to schools. Therefore textbooks and other supplies are procured centrally and distrib- uted to schools. Food is provided either through existing program like the World Food Pro- gram or through a catering system: schools contract with local caterers who are paid directly by the ministry at about M2 per student per day. School maintenance is also managed and paid centrally at a nominal allocation of M5 per student directly to contractors. Unfortunately, to date, the school maintenance component of the FPE has not been managed successfully, due to a combination of factors. These include budget constraints, the burden of signing vouchers, and individual schools' inability to account for funds received. Moreover, the maintenance expenditure categories are so rigidly set that individual school needs can not be met. In the 2005 budget, MOET introduced a primary school development grant for all gov- ernment and community schools which will provide approximately M11,500 with broad guide- lines on school development. There is also a proposal for the MOET to allocate some budget- ary resources for school maintenance directly to schools as well, though it has not yet been approved or implemented. Even the simple step of disbursing the school development budget to government and community schools will require a considerable amount of training for school committee members so they can develop proper accounting procedures. As a central provision of the FPE, fees for primary grades since 1998. Clear spikes in en- primary Standard 1 were abolished in 2000. The rollment are associated with the cohort which FPE was then expanded to Standards 1 and 2 in entered P1 in 2000. There were 120,000 new 2001, and to Standards 1, 2 and 3 in 2002; by entrants into Grade 1 that year, creating a huge 2004, students in Standards 1 through 5 were spike in the enrollment pattern. However, the enjoying its benefits. When we compare enroll- enrollment for Standard 2 and to some extent ment in primary education before and after the Standard 3 in 2000 actually declined in abso- implementation of FPE, we find that the num- lute terms. Anecdotal evidence suggests that ber has increased significantly. As seen in Table some parents whose children were about to en- 2.3, the enrollment in primary education was ter Standard 2 held them back in Standard 1 so 365,000 in 1999 but it increased to 429,000 in that they could continue to enjoy the benefits of 2003, an increase of nearly 20% over 4 years. FPE. In 2001, the spike occurred in Standard 2, Because its implementation is occurring in in 2002 in Standard 3 and so forth, until 2004 phases, the impact of the FPE seems to be pro- when Standard 5 enrollment began to spike. ducing an interesting pattern. Figure 2.3 below Evidently, the huge cohort of students who en- illustrates the fluctuation of enrollment in the tered Standard 1 in 2000 is slowly passing Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives 33 Figure 2.3 Lesotho Primary Enrollment 1998 to 2003 140000 P1 120000 P2 P3 100000 P4 P5 80000 P6 P7 60000 40000 20000 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 through the system; this pattern is consistent 2000 is much larger--a 22% increase--even with the gradual introduction of the FPE. By though the rates declined between 1996 and 2006, we expect the spike to occur in Standard 1999. 7 and thereafter the primary enrollment pattern At the secondary level, both the GER and should stabilize, unless other dramatic policies NER declined between 1996 and 1998, but since are introduced. 1998 both rates have increased steadily. How- Enrollment ratios compare the educational ever, both the GER and NER at the secondary enrollment (or the enrollment of certain groups) cycle were still low in 2003­34.5% and 22.8%, with the total school-age population. The gross respectively. In Lesotho, the GER and NER are enrollment ratio (GER) compares the total en- very far apart, indicating that there are many rollment with the total school-age population overage children, which is the result of high rates and the net enrollment ratio (NER) compares of repetition. the school age enrollment with the total school age population. When we look at the enrollment Comparison with Other Countries ratios in primary and secondary education, we see that both rates have also improved in the As the information in Table 2.4 indicates, com- past eight years (see Figure 2.4). At the primary pared to Namibia and South Africa, Lesotho has level, the GER was 109% in 1996 but it in- a higher primary gross enrollment rate but a creased to 127% in 2003, mainly because FPE lower net enrollment rate for the primary cycle. was introduced. When we compare the GER The former is mostly due to the introduction of before and after the introduction of FPE, we see free primary education in Lesotho, and the lat- that the figure jumped 13.7 percentage points ter relates to many over-age primary students between 1999 and 2000. The magnitude of the who are enrolled in primary schooling in increase in net enrollment between 1999 and Lesotho. 34 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 2.4 Gross and Net Enrollment Rates in Primary and Secondary Education 140 Primary GER Primary NER 120 Secondary GER 100 Secondary NER 80 Percentage 60 40 20 0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Source: Education Statistics and Projected Population by the WB Table 2.4 GER and NER in Lesotho Compared with Other Selected Countries and Regions Primary Secondary GER NER GER NER Selected Countries 2003 Botswana 108.3 84.3 93.1 69.6 Lesotho 127.4 85.0 34.5 22.8 Namibia 114.9 89.1 67.3 48.3 S. Africa 111.4 88.9 87.3 57.2 Swaziland 118.0 -- 52.2 -- Groups (excluding high income countries) 2001 East Asia & Pacific 111.4 92.2 66.4 Europe & Central Asia 103.2 88.7 Latin Amer. & Carib. 128.7 94.4 89.4 65.1 Middle East & North Africa 96.3 83.3 70.3 54.4 South Asia 94.8 81.8 48 Sub-Saharan Africa 86.8 Source: World Bank (2004) Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives 35 Student Flow Profiles in Primary and Grade 1 is also called the intake or entry rate. Secondary Schools The primary entry rate in Lesotho has in- creased significantly since FPE was introduced In this section, we examine student flow pro- in 2000. As indicated in Table 2.5, the entry rate files in primary and secondary school by ana- in 1999, the year before FPE was started, was lyzing the grade-specific enrollment rates, co- 105% percent; that rate doubled in size in 2000 hort survival rates, and repetition rates. Sources (200%). Since then, the entry rate has stabilized of data include the schools census, the Multiple somewhat at 142% in 2001, 124% in 2002, and Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) 2000, and the 121% in 2003. These figures are persuasive in- Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaire (CWIQ dicators that the government's FPE policy is suc- 2002). cessful in attracting out-of-school children (re- gardless of age) to its schools. Grade-Specific Enrollment Rates Further, the FPE appears to have a positive impact on the age of entry. Based on data from The grade-specific enrollment rate (GSER) mea- the MICS 2000 and CWIQ 2002, only 13% of sures the proportion of children in each age the new entrants in 2000 were 6 years old (the group who are enrolled in a specific grade. It is official primary school entry age) as compared estimated by dividing the number of non-repeat- with more than 42% in 2002. There was also ers enrolled in a specific grade by the popula- a reduction in the proportion of new entrants tion in the age group for that grade. For instance, who were over 10 years of age, from 30% in the GSER in Grade 3 is estimated by dividing 2000 to only 8.8% in 2002. Figure 2.5 illus- the number of non-repeaters in Grade 3 by the trates this shift in entry age between 2000 and total population of 8-year-olds. The GSER for 2002. Figure 2.5 Primary Entry Age in 2000 and 2002 Distribution of new entrants in grade 1 by age, Lesotho 2000 30 Boys 25 Girls Both gender 20 15 % 10 5 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14+ Age Source: 2002 CWIQ (continued on next page) 36 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 2.5 (continued) Distribution of new entrants in grade 1 by age, Lesotho 2002 50 Boys 45 Girls 40 Both gender 35 30 25 % 20 15 10 5 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14+ Age Source: 2002 CWIQ The grade-specific enrollment rate (GSER) has (Grades A and B) was up to 35% in 2003, from also increased year by year in the other early 33% in 1999. The completion rate for the sec- primary grades (2, 3 and 4), as Table 2.5 shows. ond secondary level (Grades C-E) also im- For instance, the GSER for Grade 4 was 77% proved slightly, from 14% in 1999 to 17% in in 2002 and increased to 125% percent in 2003. 2003. On the other hand, the improvement at the up- per primary grades (5, 6, and 7) has been mini- Cohort Survival Rates mal. Since FPE will gradually extend its cover- age to all levels of the primary cycle, we can While the grade-specific enrollment rates mea- expect to see improvements in the grade-specific sure the proportion of children in each age group enrollment over the next few years. who attend school, cohort survival rates refer The GSER at Grade 7 increased slightly from to the schooling career of a particular cohort 64% in 1999 to 69% in 2003. These rates com- that had already entered the education system. pare favorably with the recent average of 58% More specifically, this ratio indicates the for low-income countries around 2000, espe- share of entrants to a given cycle of education cially considering that Lesotho's primary cycle who eventually reach a subsequent grade. In the contains 7 years, compared with 5 or 6 years in 7­3­2 structure of Lesotho's primary and sec- other countries. ondary education system, the relevant survival At the secondary level, the GSER has im- rates are between Grades 1 and 7, between proved steadily over the past five years. As Forms A and C, and between Forms D and E. Table 2.5 shows, the GSER in Grade A (first In order to make comparisons with other coun- year of secondary education) was 42% in 1999 tries, we also calculated the survival rate between and increased to 49% in 2003. The survival Grades 1 and 5. For the purpose of this report, rate for the first level of secondary education we used two methods of estimation for survival Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives 37 Table 2.5 Grade-Specific Enrollment Rates in Lesotho 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Grade 1 105 201 142 124 121 Grade 2 96 89 151 122 114 Grade 3 92 91 82 137 120 Grade 4 89 89 87 77 125 Grade 5 79 82 81 80 74 Grade 6 71 72 74 74 74 Grade 7 64 63 66 67 69 Grade A 42 42 47 50 49 Grade B 36 35 35 38 40 Grade C 27 26 28 27 29 Grade D 19 21 22 22 22 Grade E 14 14 16 16 17 Source: School census and World Bank estimated population rates: the UNESCO reconstructed cohort higher survival rates than the composite method, method and the composite cohort method. and the gap widens as they are computed for an The UNESCO reconstructed cohort method increasing number of grades. This is not surpris- employs grade-wise enrollment data for two ing since the former method involves repeating consecutive years and repeater data for the later the algorithm of repetition and promotion in of the two years to compute promotion, repeti- each grade for as many times as it takes for all tion, and dropout rates in the first year. These members of the cohort to exit the grade, either rates are then applied to a fictive cohort of 1,000 by being promoted to the next grade or by drop- students to simulate their grade-to-grade flow ping out. through the system. Because of the benefits of conservative esti- The composite cohort method uses the same mation, we use the composite cohort method in data but does the calculation in two steps, first this section to analyze the overall survival rates. computing survival rates between adjacent grades by relating the number of non-repeaters in grade X in year Y, to those in grade X­1 the Table 2.6 year before; and then computing survival rates Overall Survival Rates to a given grade by multiplying the relevant ad- jacent grade-to-grade survival rates. Effectively, 1999 2003 this method provides a simulation of the sur- Grade Grade Grade Grade vival rate in a hypothetical cohort that exhibits Method 1 to 5 1 to 7 1 to 5 1 to 7 the same grade-to-grade transition patterns as UNESCO currently observed in a cross-section of children Reconstructed in the various grades. Cohort Method 0.8 0.7 N/A N/A Table 2.6 presents a comparison of the over- Composite all survival rates in 1999 using both methods. Cohort 0.71 0.56 0.8 0.75 The UNESCO reconstructed method yields 38 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 2.6 Survival Rates in Primary and Secondary Education 1.00 Primary to Standard 5 Primary to Standard 7 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1.00 Lower sec. from A to C Upper Sec. from D to E 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 In Chapter 4 we will examine the equity issue, using the composite cohort method. Panel 2 and will use the results from the UNESCO re- shows the secondary survival rates. It is ex- constructed cohort method, which allows us to pected that, as the students move from grade estimate survival rates by gender, poverty and to grade, the survival rates will decline. There- orphan status. fore, the survival rate to Standard 7 is always Panel 1 in Figure 2.6 shows the primary sur- smaller than that to Standard 5. Comparing vival rates to Standard 5 and to Standard 7, the rates in 1999 with those of 2003, we real- Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives 39 ize that survival rates have improved (despite Table 2.7 a dip in 2001), though the increases are rather Cohort Survival Rates (1999 and 2004) modest. This is indeed very reassuring. FPE 1999 2004 seems to have a small but positive impact on Primary the cohort survival rates. In 2004, a few years Standard 1 1.00 1.00 into the implementation of the FPE, 80% of Standard 2 0.89 0.94 the children who entered Standard 1 survived Standard 3 0.83 0.95 until at least Standard 5; 75% survived until Standard 4 0.79 0.94 Standard 7. Standard 5 0.71 0.80 In secondary education, survival rates have Standard 6 0.64 0.78 been rather flat over the past 10 years. And the Standard 7 0.56 0.75 survival rate from Form A to Form C has al- ways been below the survival rate from Form D Secondary to Form E, though the two rates were very close Form A 0.37 0.57 to each other in 2004: 75% of the students who Form B 0.31 0.51 entered Form A survived until Form C and 80% Form C 0.24 0.43 of those who entered Form D survived until Form D 0.18 0.36 Form E, as compared with 71% and 56% in Form E 0.14 0.29 1999 respectively. It is worthwhile to note, however, that if we disregard the selection points at Grade 7 and the original cohort who had entered primary Form C and consider Grades 1 to 12 as a con- Grade 1 had survived to 2004 (see Table 2.7). tinuous system, we find that by the end of Form Figure 2.7 provides a cross-national compara- E, due to repetition and dropouts, only 29% of tive perspective. Lesotho's cohort survival rate Figure 2.7 Cohort Survival Rate to Grade 5 in Selected Countries (2001) Namibia Botswana South Africa Zambia Swaziland Lesotho Low-income Average Uganda Mozambique 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 Source: EdStats, World Bank 40 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho to Grade 6 (71%) is higher than the average of since 1996. The transition rate from Standard 7 67% for low-income countries worldwide. to Form A ranges from 60% to about 75%. The However, when compared with the neighbor- transition rate from Form C to Form D is higher ing countries of South Africa, Namibia, on average, ranging from 72% to about 83%. Swaziland and Botswana, Lesotho's cohort sur- Comparing the Lesotho inter-cycle transition vival rate to Grade 5 is clearly the lowest. rates in 1999 and 2003 with those of other coun- tries (figures from 2001; see Table 2.8), we see Intercycle Transition Rates that the Lesotho rates compare favorably with those of some Sub-Saharan African (SSA) coun- Intercycle transition rates are survival rates that tries such as Mozambique, Uganda, and Zam- measure students' movement from the final bia. However, Lesotho's transition rate from grade of one cycle or level of education to the primary to lower secondary is low when com- first grade of the next cycle or level. Because of pared with some its neighbors, including South testing requirements, movement to the next Africa, Swaziland, Namibia, and Botswana, level of education is not automatic. Therefore, where that rate has exceeded 80%. these rates exhibit different patterns from other grade-to-grade survival rates and are usually Repetition analyzed separately. Here we investigate the intercycle transition rates from Standard 7 to The pattern of repetition is also an important the lower secondary Form A, and from Form measure of student flow in Lesotho. When a stu- C to Form D. dent repeats a grade, it increases the probability Figure 2.8 below illustrates these two transi- of their dropping out, by signaling to the par- tion rates from 1994 until 2004. Despite the fluc- ents that their child is not progressing academi- tuations, both rates show an increasing trend cally. It also reduces the efficiency of student flow Figure 2.8 Intercycle Transition Rates from 1994 to 2004 0.9 Form C to Form D 0.85 Gr 7 to A 0.8 0.75 0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives 41 Table 2.8 ing only modest gains, if any, in terms of stu- Intercycle Transition Rates dent learning. In Lesotho, where there is no policy of auto- Primary Lower Sec. matic promotion, the repetition rate is relatively to Lower Sec. to Senior Sec. high in the primary cycle (see Table 2.9). Defin- Lesotho ing the repetition rate as the number of repeat- 1999 0.65 0.76 ers in Year 2 over total enrollment in Year 1, the 2003 0.72 0.81 average repetition rates in primary education Selected SSA have hovered around 20% over the past five Countries (2001) years. The rate at the primary cycle has wors- Botswana 0.94 ened slightly in recent years because of high rep- Mozambique 0.59 etition rates in Standards 1 and 2. Namibia 0.93 Repetition rates in the secondary cycle, rang- South Africa 0.94 ing from 7.5% to 11.7% in the lower forms and Swaziland 0.89 from about 7% to 14% in the upper forms, are Uganda 0.42 much lower than those in the primary cycle. Zambia 0.5 However, the rate has also increased in the past Source: MOET and World Bank EdStats five years. In junior secondary education, the average repetition rate was 8.8% in 1999 but rose to 11% in 2003. At the upper secondary in that a repeater costs at least twice as much level, the average repetition rate rose from 7.2% per grade attained as a non-repeater, while yield- in 1999 to 8.4% in 2003. Table 2.9 Repetition Rate by Grade and Education Cycle Cycle Grade 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 1 23.6 30 23.4 27.1 29 2 22.9 21.9 28.5 25.1 25.4 Primary 3 20.3 20 18.5 25.5 19.7 Cycle 4 21.2 20.4 20.3 19.7 25.4 5 16.8 15.8 15.7 14.7 16.4 6 12.1 12.4 12 12.6 12.9 7 19.9 17.4 11.3 11.9 19 Average 19.5 19.7 18.5 19.5 21.1 Junior A 7.5 7.9 8.5 8.8 10.3 Secondary B 9.7 10.2 8.9 10.9 11.7 Average 8.8 8.9 9.8 9.8 10.6 Upper C 9.3 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.3 Secondary D 8.2 10.3 12 12 13.9 Cycle E 4.1 3.7 4.4 3.9 3.9 Average 7.2 7.1 8 7.8 8.4 Source: School census and projected population 42 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 2.10 Efficiency of Student Flow in Primary Education in Lesotho, 2003 On 1000 pupils entering Grade 1 1999 2003 Reach Repetition Pupils Years Reach Repetition Pupils Years Grade Rate3 Invested Grade Rate Invested Gr 1 1000 0.31 1456 1000 0.42 1710 Gr 2 892 0.30 1275 905 0.35 1393 Gr 3 833 0.26 1121 885 0.23 1157 Gr 4 790 0.27 1079 802 0.33 1189 Gr 5 707 0.20 886 765 0.19 948 Gr 6 637 0.14 739 702 0.15 824 Gr 7 561 0.24 739 655 0.22 835 Total 5420 7294 5714 8055 Pupil years needed without repetition and dropout 3927 4585 Efficiency ratio Due to repetition 0.74 0.71 Due to dropout 0.72 0.80 Total efficiency ratio 0.54 0.57 Overall Student Flow Efficiency sources spent in Grade 1 would amount to 1710 pupil-years (1000/(1­0.42)). In Grade 2, only What do these patterns of cohort survival and 905 students would be left, so the resources spent repetition imply regarding the efficiency of stu- would be 1393 pupil-years (905/ (1­0.35)). Con- dent flow? This question can be answered by tinuing in this manner to Grade 7, the cumula- comparing two pieces of information: the re- tive resources spent would amount to 8055 pu- sources that the system currently uses to pro- pil years (1730+1393+1157+1189+948+ duce its graduates, and the resources that a sys- 824+835). Given that only 835 students would tem operating without drop-outs or repetition reach Grade 7, the resources needed to produce would need to produce the same number of them, without drop-out and repetition, would graduates. The ratio between these two figures equal 4585 pupil years (835*7). Thus consider- provides a measure of the system's student flow ing both sources of waste (repetition and drop- efficiency. The index can be further divided into out), the system currently operates only 0.57 (= two separate rates: one associated solely with 4585/8055) times as efficiently as a system in dropout rates and the other with grade repeti- which no one drops out or repeats a grade. If tion. we conduct this calculation using repetition Table 2.10 summarizes the calculation of the total efficiency ratio. Using the year 2003 as an example, we see that, given the 2003 rates of 3 Repetition rate here is defined as the number of cohort survival and repetition and calculating repeaters in one particular year over the NON- for a starting cohort of 1000 students, the re- REPEATERS in the previous year. Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives 43 alone and ignoring the drop-out rate, the effi- in countries where girls tend to marry quite ciency ratio is 71%. If we consider dropout young. With no positive impact on the quality alone, the efficiency rate is 80%. side, and a substantial negative impact on the Comparing the efficiency ratios of 1999 with quantity side, Mingat and Sosale see no justifi- those of 2003, we see a small improvement in cation for using grade repetition as a policy in- the overall efficiency ratio from 54% in 1999 strument. While reducing the repetition rate to 57% in 2003. However, the efficiency rate would not have a negative overall impact on the has worsened with respect to repetition. An edu- quality, it would reduce waste in resources and cation system that operates with a 57% rate of would improve equity since it would help to di- efficiency in 2003 is fairly inefficient. In Lesotho, minish the gap between girls and boys in their students repeating grades seem to put a heavier primary completion rate. burden on the system than do those who drop out. Overall, an educational system operating at a 57% efficiency rate is not using its resources G. Chapter Summary effectively. The education system in Lesotho is heavily in- fluenced by the British system. Its official lan- F. Policy Perspectives on Grade guages are both Sesotho and English, although Repetition and Dropout in Primary English is currently used in schools as the me- Education dium of instruction beyond Standard 3. The structure of education follows a 7­3­2­4 pat- Although no specific study has related Lesotho's tern, with 7 years of primary education, 3 years primary repetition rate with both quantitative of junior secondary, 2 years of senior second- and qualitative dimensions of its educational ary, and 4 years of higher education. Lesotho's outcomes, ample evidence suggests that repeti- education structure is similar to that of its neigh- tion has no discernable impact on the quality of bors including South Africa, Botswana, education. Indeed, a recent study by Mingat and Swaziland, Namibia, and even Mozambique. Sosale (2003) examined the relationship between However, unlike its neighbors, Lesotho has not grade repetition, student learning, and survival yet legally defined the duration of compulsory of students in primary education from an inter- schooling. national perspective. Using micro-level data and Since schools were established by missionar- international comparative macro-level interna- ies, the majority of primary schools in the coun- tional data for comparison, the authors demon- try are church-owned. However, despite the strated that grade repetition has no positive im- ownership pattern, all education personnel (ex- pact on student learning or on the quality of cept for those hired by private schools) fall un- education in general. However, grade repetition der the purview of the government through the was shown to have a substantial negative im- Ministry of Education and Training and are pact on the quantity dimensions (number of stu- obliged to follow the government's rules and dents enrolled) through both direct and indirect regulations.. The Education Act of 1995 stipu- effects. lates a tripartite government, church, and com- The direct effect is easy to understand, as re- munity management style for education in peaters use twice the amount of resources. A Lesotho. lesser known indirect effect is also worth con- Education is managed by a central office in sidering: repetition is associated with a higher Maseru, along with 10 district offices, and drop-out rate before the end of the primary cycle. school-level management committees. Despite This effect is larger for girls than boys especially the government's efforts at decentralization, the 44 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho management of education is still very central- 1. Structure of Coverage Across Levels of Edu- ized, particularly in the area of finances. cation. Lesotho has made the seven years of Enrollment at all levels showed an increasing primary education free (the last grade of Stan- trend until the mid-1990s when it started to dard 6 will be free in 2006) and has recently decline due to rising poverty and rising fees. The recommended to the Parliament that primary government introduced FPE as an explicit strat- education should be compulsory. However, egy to reverse this declining trend. The FPE has it is not clear whether the Government will improved access to schooling, especially in pri- also abolish the fees for lower secondary and mary education. Total primary enrollment in start implementing the 10-year basic educa- 2003/04 was 1.2 times that in 1990. Gross and tion. The intention has been announced be- net enrollment ratios in the primary cycle (127% fore but it was never implemented. At the and 85%) compare favorably with the regional same time, the expectation that lower second- averages, although those at the secondary level ary education may become free is already cir- are lagging behind (35% and 23%). culating among the public. It is important that However, the internal efficiency in the primary the government of Lesotho carefully assesses and secondary cycles has shown only slight im- the fiscal, pedagogical, and administrative provement. In terms of student flow, the primary implication of such a move before commit- entry rate was about 120% in 2003, compared ting itself. with 105% in 1998­99 before the introduction 2. Clarifying Governance Structure at School of FPE. About 65% of each entering cohort of Level for Increased Focus on Results. By law, first-graders in 2003/04 was expected to reach primary schools in Lesotho are managed by the last primary grade of Standard 7, up from School Management Committees. For church 56% in 1998/99. schools, each management committee can be While these trends are positive, there is no responsible for a maximum of eight schools room for complacency if the country is to belonging to the same proprietor. In an effort achieve the Millennium Development Goal of to encourage parents and community mem- universal primary school completion by 2015. bers to become involved in the management Repetition and, to a lesser degree, drop-out cre- of church schools, the Education Act of 1995 ate waste in the system and result in a low over- also introduced School Advisory Committees all efficiency rate of 57% for primary educa- in church schools. The role of these commit- tion. Reaching the last 15% of the primary tees is to advise the management committee school-age population and retaining them in on all matters related to education in the rel- school until the last primary grade may prove evant school. Lessons learned from the imple- to be much more difficult, particularly in a mentation of School Management Commit- mountainous country like Lesotho. The govern- tee and School Advisory Committee indicate ment needs to enact decisive policies to attract that these two committees overlap substan- all children to school and to reduce repetition tially in membership as well as in the role they and drop-out rates. play, thus creating confusion and potential lack of accountability at the school level. Re- cent review of the Education Act has already H. Areas for Policy Development recommended the consolidation of the two committees into one. The recommendation The analysis and summary in this chapter point has to be endorsed and the Act should be re- to a number of areas where the government may vised before implementation can begin. contemplate further policy development. These 3. Reducing Primary Repetition. Efforts should include: be made to reduce primary repetition. Evi- Overview of the Education Sector: Historical and Comparative Perspectives 45 dence from other countries suggests that rep- mal school system. Most of these students live etition has little impact on educational out- in rural, mountain areas and are from poor comes, and may increase dropout. Reducing family backgrounds. It is important that for repetition would decrease the gross enroll- every new or existing policy, special consid- ment ratio, reduce overcrowding in lower erations be made so that children and students classes, and increase overall efficiency. in true hardship areas are not being left be- 4. Identifying and Targeting the Vulnerable hind. These could include demand-side incen- Groups. Fifteen percent of primary school- tives for households to send their children to age children still remain outside of the for- school. CHAPTER 3 Patterns of Spending on Education s Lesotho strives to universalize pri- A. Budget Process, the Program of A mary school completion, further ex- Expenditures, and the Flow of Funds tend even universal basic education, and foster the growth of other levels The National MTEF Process and types of education and training, financing requirements are expected to grow. The government of Lesotho undertook a major The purpose of this chapter is to document revision of its budgetary approach for the fi- the current pattern of education spending to nancial year 2005/06 by introducing the Me- provide insights into the financial challenges dium Term Expenditure Framework. Up to this these goals pose. First, however, the govern- time the current budgeting system in Lesotho ment budgeting process is described, to pro- was based on line-item incremental budgeting vide necessary context. Because recurrent which focused exclusively on the allocation of spending is so central to the functioning of the expenditure with no linkage to service delivery system, the chapter focuses on this component outputs. Over the years this approach had im- of education expenditures. The discussion ex- plications for the accountability and transpar- amines the aggregate levels and trends in ency of public management. Communication spending as well as the evolution of its func- and coordination between the Ministry of Fi- tional composition. It presents an in-depth nance and Development Planning (MOFDP) analysis of education expenditures in 2003­ and other sector ministries has been weak, and 04, the most recent year for which the desired some policy priorities were not achieved. Plan- data were available at the time of data analy- ning appeared to take place in isolation from sis. Finally, it documents the volume and na- the budgeting process and no mechanism was ture of household spending on education. in place to ensure that policy objectives were Cross-country data are used, when available prioritized. Together with a lack of information, and appropriate, to provide an added perspec- this situation makes it difficult to ensure that tive on the patterns of education spending in appropriate trade-offs are made between com- Lesotho. peting needs. In addition, the current financial management systems have failed to produce the information required to monitor and evaluate 47 48 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho the actual spending on existing programs and the available resources, the spending ministries projects. tended to insist that the Ministry of Finance in- The government plans to address these issues crease the aggregate ceiling. Ministries tended by adopting the MTEF approach as the basis to set artificially high budgets and the budget for its annual planning and budget process. This process was a "game" of overestimation between approach will involve the preparation of an in- the ministries and the MOFDP. tegrated annual plan and budget covering three However, for 2005/2006, line ministries seem financial years. It will be an iterative top-down not to have assimilated the MTEF principles as and bottom-up process which will secure explicit intended. For 2005/2006, the initial bids again political endorsements on the recommended re- exceed the cabinet's recurrent budget ceilings. source allocations. The objective of adopting the For example, according to a recent World Bank MTEF approach is to improve the quality of mission, in 2005/06, total initial ministry bids public expenditure management through four exceeded the cabinet recurrent budget ceilings mechanisms: by 19% for year one (budget year), 15% for year two, and 14% for year three. Of the 27 · Ensure aggregate fiscal discipline by setting a ministries submitting bids, 25 exceeded their realistic and achievable resource envelope. ceiling. The average (unweighted) bid was 28% · Allocate resources in accordance with na- above ceiling. Initial ministry capital bids (which tional development objectives by identifying had no ceilings) exceeded the aggregate capital sectoral and intra-sectoral priorities. ceiling by 157% in year one (budget year), 173% · Improve operational efficiency in the imple- in year two, and 51% in year three. mentation of all recurrent programs. · Improve projects by setting targets and moni- The National Budget toring performance. Development Process The Lesotho government's financial year runs The MTEF annual budget cycle consists of six from April 1 to March 31. The MOFDP issues stages.4 a call circular in October and requires the line ministries to submit budgets in December. The 1. Set the resource envelope and secure cabinet circular outlines the government's policy frame- approval for the indicative medium-term fis- work and the ceilings for both recurrent and cal strategy. capital expenditures. Under the MTEF, the cir- 2. Conduct policy reviews to determine the op- cular will provide ceilings for three consecutive timal sectoral allocations to recurrent pro- financial years starting from 2005/06. A gov- grams and capital projects and to prepare in- ernment-wide capital ceiling was also estab- dicative cost estimates. lished, but this was not allocated by the minis- 3. Prepare detailed expenditure ceilings within try. Also, new forms and guidance are now in- the aggregate resource envelope. cluded as part of the circular. 4. Secure cabinet approval and issue the call cir- The MTEF is expected to make it easier for cular. ministries not only to set their priorities, but to 5. Prepare detailed estimate submissions, and have access to objective estimates of the resource work out agreements with line ministries. envelope. Under the previous budget system, the 6. Finalize the draft budget and secure legisla- call circular produced by the MFDP did set bud- tive approval. getary ceilings, but the chief accounting officers appeared not to feel bound by these ceilings. 4Medium-Term Expenditure Framework Sensitiza- Instead of reworking their priorities to fit within tion Action Plan (MOFDP--Unpublished) Patterns of Spending on Education 49 Budget Implementation will be more closely linked with the education sectoral goals. The new MTEF system recognizes the challenges Until this year (2005/06), the actual imple- inherent in the existing system. According to a mentation of the MTEF budget in education has study by MEFMI (2003)5 the current system is been hampered by the absence of a national not well geared towards ensuring effective bud- MTEF. Up till now, the MOFDP considered the get implementation. Budgets are released every education MTEF to be "for information only." quarter to the line ministries through the issue of Nevertheless, within MOET, an inspection of warrants (in the case of recurrent expenditures) the relationship between budgeted and actual or requests to incur expenditure (in the case of expenditure shows that recurrent budget and re- capital expenditures). The released warrants are current expenditure have been very close com- not in any way linked to the overall implementa- pared to the situation in other countries. Except tion plans of the ministries but still represent one for the financial year 2002/03 when the recur- quarter of the overall budget. Ministries are al- rent MOET budget was overspent by 5%, the lowed to spend only in line with the released war- recurrent budget is usually under spent by be- rants, which are controlled in most cases through tween 4% and 11% of total budget. In the last a manual process called vote books. Payments complete financial year of 2003/04, the MOET to the government for goods and services are cen- under spent by 11%--equivalent to 85 million tralized and handled by the MOFDP. MEFMI maloti! (2003) correctly notes that this process creates There is less consistency in the relationship some budgetary gaps of either real or apparent between capital budgets and expenditures over under/over expenditure. Since budgets are ap- the same time period. In 1998/99 the capital proved by Parliament, over-expenditure by any budget was overspent by 175%. In 1999/2000 one voter is not allowed. However, the so-called and 2000/2001, however, it was under-spent by virement process allows line ministries to move 71% and 55% respectively. Capacity then re- expenditure items from one category to another covered in financial year 2001/02 when the capi- as long as they are within the overall envelope. tal budget was under spent by only 21%. The Virements, however, still require MOFDP ap- nation's capacity to execute capital projects is proval. closely related to the capacity of the Education Planning Unit and the Project Coordination and Budget System in the Education Sector: Support Unit within the MOET. The MTEF and its Implementation In this report, "actual expenditure" refers to the end of the year (March) Status of Funds as The education sector has been preparing an recorded by the MOET votebook, rather than MTEF-based budget each year since 2002. The the budget estimates, because of the recurring MOET is now in its third year of implementing variances described above. the MTEF in its budget process. This frame- work has enabled the ministry to project its Programs of Expenditure in Education funding requirements for the next three years. Under this process, the ministry's programs have The programs of expenditure provide impor- been reprioritized to ensure that they match tant insights into Lesotho's education system both the National Vision and the areas identi- and its administration. To improve the clarity fied under the national Poverty Reduction Strat- egy (PRS). Further, the MOET has recently ap- proved its first Education Sector Strategic Plan 5 Report on the Implementation of a Medium-Term for 2005 to 2015. It is hoped that the budget Expenditure Framework (MTEF) in Lesotho 50 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 3.1 Comparing MOET Budgets with Actual Education Expenditures (Not including NMDS) 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 Recurrent Budget 439 462.2 601.2 514.8 700.8 742.3 787 Recurrent Actual Expenditure 423.4 427.7 579 489.1 738 657.9 737 Recurrent Variance ­0.04 ­0.07 ­0.04 ­0.05 0.05 ­0.11 ­0.06 Capital Budget 43 88 71 139 90.1 98.6 166 Capital Actual Expenditure 119 25 32 109 162 98 166 Capital Variance 1.75 ­0.71 ­0.55 ­0.21 ­79.8 0.61 0 of its budget presentation and to tie expendi- diture on education, because the National Man- tures with program implementation, the MOET power Development Secretariat (NMDS) oper- carried out an exercise in 2002 and developed ates a bursary program under the Ministry of a new program and sub-program structure. Finance and Development. Two acts established Compared to the old budget programs, the new this program in 1978: the National Manpower ones are more closely linked to the structure of Development Council Act and the Loan Bur- the newly approved Education Sector Strategic sary Act. A National Manpower Development Plan, which includes policy targets under each (MND) Secretariat was established to manage section. The main programs of expenditure now the affairs of NMDS. To date, NMDS is in- include administration, basic education (includ- volved in the administration of both tertiary ing the primary and junior secondary grades), and post-primary bursaries with an increasing secondary education, technical and vocational, annual budget. In 2004/05, it was allocated teacher education, higher education and spe- M270 million, more than 34% of MOET's to- cial education. Table 3.2 also lists the subpro- tal budget. Consequently, the discussion of edu- grams. cation sector budgets and expenditures in this As indicated earlier, the national MTEF was report also includes the budgets and expendi- instituted only in 2005/2006. Because expendi- tures for NMDS. When the discussion applies ture classifications had been improved in MOET only to the MOET budget and expenditures, but remained static at MOFDP, recurrent ex- the qualifier MOET will be used to avoid con- penditures had to be recorded using the MoFDP fusion. categories, a process that impacts negatively on budget monitoring and reporting. Subventions Flow of Funds to institutions, for example, are not treated con- sistently when the MOFDP releases the budget. Figure 3.1 attempts to capture the flow of funds This in turn makes it difficult to aggregate edu- in the education sector, particularly in primary cational expenditures by subsector. This prob- education. The MOFDP approves the budget lem has been minimized in 2005/06 although it and releases funds quarterly to the MOET. Re- has not been resolved for the capital budget current primary expenditures include teacher where some misclassification and misdescription salaries, administration of education in central is still being observed. and district offices, textbooks and other mate- In Lesotho, the MOET budget and expendi- rials, meals, maintenance, and the primary ture do not represent total budget and expen- sector's share of curriculum and examinations. Patterns of Spending on Education 51 Table 3.2 Programs of Expenditure in MOET Programs Subprograms 01- Administration Central District HIV/AIDS Coordination 02- Basic Education Administration Primary Teachers' Salaries Bursaries Free Primary Education School Self-Reliance & Feeding Subvention to GOL Primary School 03- Secondary Education Administration Post-Primary Teachers' Salaries Lesotho High School Subvention to Other Schools Bursaries Secondary Education Support Materials 04- TVET Administration (TVD) Lerotholi Polytechnic Thaba-Tseka Tech. Institute 05- Teacher Edu. Support & Sup Administration (teacher service) Teaching Service Commission Teacher Service Department Lesotho College of Education Distance Teacher Education Program School-Based Support and Advisory Services 06- Higher Education Administration Institute of Development Management National University of Lesotho Council on Higher Education Machabeng College 07- Curricu. Assess. & Edu. Supply Administration Curriculum Development Examination Council of Lesotho School Supply 08- Plan. Monitor. & Evaluation Primary Inspectorate Central Inspectorate Project Support and Coordination Education Plan Policy & Research 09- Special Programs Special Education National Commission for UNESCO Lifelong Learning Early Childhood Care&Development 52 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 3.1 Flow of Funds 1,355 Primary Schools Teacher Service salaries Primary school teaching services Department teachers Education construction and Maintenance Facility Contractors Ministry of Unit Finance & In Kind Development Planning School Self school feeding Reliance Local Caterers Ministry of Food Unit Education and Training (MOET) School supply Textbooks and stationery unit Field 10 District Inspection & advisory services Inspectorate Education Admin Development Bursaries for needy students (non-FPE) Partners MOET other and NGOs Departments subventions to government schools In Cash "Illegal fees for FPE students Parents Fees for non-FPE students Almost all of these items are provided in kind · The MOET procures textbooks and other to primary schools in a variety of ways. teaching and learning materials centrally, stores them in the School Supply Unit ware- · Primary teachers (except for those hired and house, and distributes them to schools paid directly by schools) are centrally man- through the district offices. aged by the Teaching Service Department, · School meals are currently provided by both which issues salary payments directly to the MOET and WFP. WFP covers schools in the teachers. mountain areas and lowlands for non-FPE · Administration of primary education includes grades. WFP has its own system for adminis- the Chief Education Officer Primary and his tering and distributing meals to schools. The team of inspectors. It also includes the devel- MOET covers school meals for lowland pri- opment and administration of primary cur- mary FPE students by paying local caterers riculum and examinations. These payments directly, M2 per student per day. are made directly from the Human Resource · School maintenance was also managed and Department. paid centrally at a nominal allocation of M5 Patterns of Spending on Education 53 per student per day directly to contractors. Schools further receive fees from students for Unfortunately, to date, the school mainte- various items including registration, books, and nance component of the FPE has not been other fees. As of 2005, schools are still allowed managed successfully for a combination of to charge such fees to students who are enrolled reasons. In addition to budget constraints, the in the non-FPE Standards including Standard 6 MOET central office is overburdened with and Standard 7. As if to complicate the picture signing vouchers, the maintenance expendi- further, a preliminary analysis based on school ture categories are too rigid to allow for indi- census data seems to indicate that about 3% of vidual school needs, and many schools are all primary schools--including government and not able to account for the government funds community schools--are in practice still charg- they receive. ing so called "illegal fees" for the grades already · Inspection and advisory services are provided covered by FPE. This will be discussed in more by the Field Inspectorate and an arm of Dis- detail below in the section on private education trict Resource Teachers (DRT). expenditure. The analysis in this section demonstrates that Given this combination of factors, most of indeed, schools have very little revenue raising the inputs directed to schools have been pro- authority since the FPE, possibly have negative vided in kind. Direct cash transfers to schools long term impact on school capacity and effi- are rare. In fact, one provision in the MOET ciency. The MOET is fully aware of this situa- circular describing the FPE policy was that the tion. Starting this year (2004/05), all schools government would not pay any money directly under FPE are supposed to have receive a utili- to schools (as described in Chapter 2 of this re- ties allowance instead of the centralized main- port). However, experience from the last few tenance arrangement. Further, the MOET is in- years of FPE implementation seems to indicate terested in transferring a small amount of dis- that because the non-teaching inputs to schools cretionary funds directly to all government and are now provided and managed centrally, the community schools (a total of 150). This situa- workload has increased for the inspectors and tion is reflected in the FY05-06 budget alloca- resource teachers whose job had been reduced tion which includes an amount of M11,500 for to approving procurement of vendors, contrac- every such school. tors and other paperwork. Now they have con- However, the MOET is greatly concerned that siderably less time to monitor the actual teach- the schools lack strong financial management. ing and learning in schools. For instance, in the case of the utility allowance An exception to this ruling that the gov- in 2004/05, few schools met the government re- ernment will not pay any money directly to quirement to submit their financial reports from schools is the grant or subvention to govern- the previous year before they could be given this ment primary schools for special projects. money. This indicates the crucial need to Government primary schools indeed receive strengthen financial management and account- subventions from the MOET in the form of ability at the school level. cash grants. It is not clear, however, how the Recent work on public expenditure tracking amounts of these subventions were determined, studies indicates that the GOL's concern is le- and whether and how these schools accounted gitimate. There are enormous variations in the for them. In 2002/03, a total of nine govern- degree to which public funds intended for ment primary schools in Lesotho received schools or health clinics actually reach them subventions of varying amounts (from Maloti (Kushnarova, Inna. 2005). However the same 10,000 for xxx to M105,000 for Maseru En- study also concludes that even in the same coun- glish Medium). try, results can vary substantially under pro- 54 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho % GDP Spent on Education in 2001 Health Education Ghana: non-wage transfers to primary schools (1997/98) 51% Ghana: non-wage transfers to health clinics (1998) 20% Madagascar: fixed per-school grant (2002/03) 62% Papua New Guinea: education subsidy (2001) 84% Tanzania: non-wage transfers to primary schools (1999) 43% Tanzania: non-wage transfers to health clinics (1999) 59% Uganda: per-student capitation grant (1991-1995) 13% Uganda: per-student capitation grant (2001) 82% Zambia: fixed per-school grant 90% grams with different designs. Leakage is not an the schools. By 2001, after a prolonged period inevitable feature of public expenditures. For of media coverage, that percentage increased to example, in Uganda, in the early 1990s, only 82%. 13% of student capitation grants were reaching Figure 3.2 Lesotho Education Sector Expenditure (1998/99­2004/05) 1400 MOET Education - Recurrent 1200 MOET Education - Capital 1000 NMDS 800 Total Education Sector 600 400 200 0 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Budget Patterns of Spending on Education 55 B. Public Spending: Aggregate Trends recurrent expenditure increased from M488 and Distribution Across Levels million in 1998/99 to more than M782 million in 2004/05. At the same time, actual expendi- National Aggregate Trends ture by the NMDS rose from M65 million in 1998/99 to M270 million in 2004/05, more than In Lesotho, overall government expenditure on a 400% increase. education is high, consistent with the fact that Lesotho's capital expenditures for education education is a priority area identified in the re- experience more fluctuation. The total capital cent Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. Table 3.3 expenditure on education was M119 million in displays the relevant expenditure data. In nomi- 1998/99, but it fell to only M25 million the fol- nal terms, both the MOET recurrent and NMDS lowing year and rose again in 2001/02 to M109 expenditures show an increasing trend. MOET million. This fluctuation reflects the capacity of Table 3.3 MOET and NMDS Recurrent and Capital Expenditures(current prices millions of Maloti) (1998/99­2004/05) Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual Actual MOET Education ­ Recurrent 488 507 579 679 738 647 737 MOET Education ­ Capital 119 25 32 109 162 98 166 NMDS 65.2 77.2 80.5 120 177 217 270 Total Education Sector 672 609 692 908 1077 962 1173 GOL ­ Recurrent 1943 2319 2404 2312 2857 2533 3199 Of which: interest 129 183 258 203 220 216 156 Of which: non-interest Recurrent 1814 2136 2146 2109 2637 2690 3043 GOL ­ Capital 496 480 554 626 802 635 756 GOL ­ Total, excluding interest 2310 2616 2700 2735 3439 2952 3799 Gross Domestic Product 4921 5565 5964 6565 7370 8144 8851.4 Gross National Income 6305 7057 7486 8071 9068 10017 10938 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 MOET Recurrent /GOL Recur., excl. interest 26.9% 23.7% 27.0% 32.2% 28.0% 24.1% 24.2% Education Total Recur./GOL Recur., excl. interests 30.5% 27.4% 30.7% 37.9% 34.7% 32.1% 33.1% MOET Capital /GOL Capital 24.0% 5.2% 5.8% 17.4% 20.2% 15.5% 21.9% Education Total/GOL Total, excl.interest 29.1% 23.3% 25.6% 33.2% 31.3% 32.6% 30.9% Ed. Total/GDP 13.7% 10.9% 11.6% 13.8% 14.6% 11.8% 13.2% Ed. Total/GNP 10.7% 8.6% 9.2% 11.3% 11.9% 9.6% 10.7% 56 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 3.3 Share of Lesotho's Budgets Devoted to Education 40.0% MOET Recur./ GoL Recur., 35.0% excl. interest 30.0% Ed. Total Recur./ GoL Recur., excl. interest 25.0% MOET Capital/ GoL Capital 20.0% Ed. Total/ 15.0% GoL Total, excl. interest 10.0% 5.0% 0.0% 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 the executing units more than the availability of 14% of its GDP on the educational sector as a finances. whole, the majority goes to recurrent expendi- Over the past few years, the average recur- tures, which are the focus of this analysis. rent expenditure on the education sector (includ- Several features characterize the composi- ing both MOET and NMDS) constituted more tion of recurrent public spending in Lesotho than 30% of total government expenditure ex- and its evolution since the financial year 1998­ cluding interest. Aggregating both recurrent and 1999. Comparing expenditures by category, it's capital expenditures, the total still amounts to clear that, at the aggregate level, a larger per- an average of more than 25% over the last 5 centage has been spent on primary education years or so, equivalent to between 11% and 14% (90% increase) and higher education subsectors of total GDP. (more than 400% increase) (see Figure 3.5.). Lesotho spends a higher proportion of its On the other hand, the expenditure on sec- national budget on education than any other ondary education has been very modest. Spend- nation. In 2001, worldwide, countries spent an ing on the other categories seems to have re- average of about 4% of total GDP on educa- mained stable. tion; the figure for Lesotho was over 11%, as The technical and vocational (TVET) Figure 3.4 shows. subsector which includes the Thaba-Tseka Tech- nical Institute (TTI) and Lerotholi Polytechnic Trends in the Functional (LP) has suffered a reduction in overall nominal Composition of Spending expenditures, from a high of M31.1 million in 2000/01 to only M15 million the following year. This section assesses government recurrent edu- The reduction was primarily due to reduced cation expenditure by function and level of edu- NMDS expenditures on bursaries for TVET stu- cation. While Lesotho spends about 11% to dents. Patterns of Spending on Education 57 Figure 3.4 % of GDP Spent on Education in 2001 in Selected Countries and Regions % GDP Spent on Education in 2001 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Asia Africa Africa Asia Africa Lesotho Uganda Botswana Swaziland South Mozambique South Asia&Pacific East East&North Europe&Central America&Caribbean Sub-Saharan Latin Middle Table 3.4 Actual Education Recurrent Expenditures by Program 1998­2005 (current prices in millions of Maloti, and including NMDS) 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 Govt. Recur. Expend. on Education 497.6 518.4 597.5 609.07 918.7 874.49 1006.7 Of which: ECCD 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.4 0.7 Primary 189.9 187.2 221.3 202.7 426.8 321.2 376.8 Secondary 104.4 113.0 126.3 135.5 143.8 173.9 189.8 TVET 24.2 25.9 31.1 15.0 17.5 21.7 23.2 NFE 3.9 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.6 4.4 3.9 LCE 12.4 13.1 15.7 16.4 16.7 18.2 21.5 Higher Education 143.7 151.2 154.0 222.5 280.5 319.0 375.4 of which NUL 106.6 114.5 123.1 150.0 165.6 179.3 202.0 Administration and other 10.4 10.4 6.7 13.5 29.0 15.7 15.4 Share 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 of which ECCD 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Primary 0.38 0.36 0.37 0.33 0.46 0.37 0.37 Secondary 0.21 0.22 0.21 0.22 0.16 0.20 0.19 (continued on next page) 58 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 3.4 (continued) Actual Education Recurrent Expenditures by Program 1998­2005 (current prices in millions of Maloti, and including NMDS) 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 TVET 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 NFE 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 LCE 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 Higher Education 0.29 0.29 0.26 0.37 0.31 0.36 0.37 of which NUL 0.21 0.22 0.21 0.25 0.18 0.20 0.20 Administration and other 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 Source: MOET End of the Year Status of Funds for relevant years. By 2004/05, the cumulative effect of these tion declined from 5.6% to 2.3% in 2004/05, trends had produced a noticeable shift in the primarily because bursaries for TVET students share of recurrent public spending by level of edu- were reduced. The share for non-formal educa- cation. The combined share of primary and sec- tion also declined from almost 1% to only 0.4%. ondary education fell from 59% in 1998/99 to Table 3.5 shows the total recurrent expendi- 56% in 2004/05, while the share spent on higher tures by category in Lesotho and the four other education rose from 30% to 38.7%. The share SADC (South African Development Commu- spent on teacher education and administration nity) countries. Compared to the other coun- remained about constant. On the other hand, the tries, Lesotho allocates the smallest percentage share spent on technical and vocational educa- to its primary subsector. Since primary educa- Figure 3.5 Total Expenditures on Education by Program 1998 to 2005. 450 ECCD 400 Primary Secondary 350 TVET 300 NFE 250 NTTC Higher Education 200 Administration 150 and other 100 50 0 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 Patterns of Spending on Education 59 tion in Lesotho consists of 7 years, and it is very Education and Training complicates both the difficult to achieve the MDGs target of a 100% sector spending pattern and its monitoring. completion rate by 2015, the nation would ben- efit by spending more of its public resources on C. A Closer Look at Recurrent the primary subsector. The EFA FTI's indicative Expenditure on Education in 2003/04 framework suggests that the government should allocate about 55% of recurrent spending to This section focuses more closely on the allo- primary education if that sector consists of 7 cation of recurrent public spending in 2003/04 years of schooling. Thus, the government may across economic categories and subsectors, es- need to consider a greater financial commitment pecially within central administration, primary, to the FPE in order to achieve the MDGs target secondary, and higher education. Within pri- by 2015. mary and secondary education, we analyze the It must be noted that the primary subsector share of total recurrent budgets spent on teacher receives 49% of MOET's total recurrent expen- salaries as compared to other inputs. ditures, and the secondary subsector receives 24%, for a total of nearly 70% of MOET re- Central Administration current expenditures. This figure is similar to those of other countries in the region. These fig- The Ministry of Education and Training has ures do not include the NMDS, however, its maintained a relatively stable management struc- administrative presence under the Ministry of ture, even as the system has expanded. This is Finance and Development Planning rather than commendable given that many countries tend Table 3.5 Distribution of Government Recurrent Expenditure on Education By level, in Lesotho and other Low-Income SADC Countries (percent of total) Lesotho Actual Mozambique Zambia Tanzania Malawi 4-country 2003/04 1998 1999 1999 1999/00 Average Years of Primary 7 6 6 6 6 6.2 Primary 37 47 54 62 60 56 Secondary 20 22 10 7 10 12 Vocational 2 6 -- -- -- -- Tertiary 36 17 18 26 19 20 Other 5 8 18 5 11 11 TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100 Notes: Tertiary in Lesotho does not include Teacher Training College or Lerotholi Polytechnic. In Zambia, where another ministry is responsible for TVE, the data are for Ministry of Education only. In Tanzania and Malawi, TVE expenditures are counted under secondary and tertiary. Sources: The percent distributions for other countries are from data made available to the World Bank by national authorities. Public Expenditure Review V1. 2002 60 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho to expand central administration as their pro- Primary Education grams expand. During the period from 1998 to 2004, actual expenditure on administration (in- At 36%, primary recurrent expenditures con- cluding district education offices) has been main- stituted the largest share of the total recurrent tained at about 13 million to 16 million maloti expenditures on education in 2003/04. Table 3.8 in nominal terms. In terms of share of total edu- details the allocation of the primary budget cation budget, administration consumes between within subprograms. Among the categories for 1% and 3% of total recurrent expenditure. primary education expenditures are teacher sala- A few features distinguish the pattern of ex- ries, school feeding, teaching and learning ma- penditures on administration. First, the total terials, teacher support, development of primary staff salary bill remained rather stable. In 2004, curriculum and examinations, salaries (basic MOET employed about 646 officials, includ- education administration and inspectors), trans- ing those at both the headquarters and district port, and other operational costs. offices. Table 3.8 also shows details on the share of Transport consumes the largest share of the each expenditure item. The largest item within total administration budget: about double the the primary subsector is teacher salaries: 66% total for staffing, although the allocation for of total primary expenditure in 2003/04. The transport was cut sharply in financial year 2003/ remaining 34% was spent on other inputs, in- 04. It is not clear if the high transportation costs cluding school feeding at 25%. Only 3% of to- were due to the geography of Lesotho or some tal primary recurrent was spent on teaching and other reasons. It is suspected that the central- learning materials (not including capital expen- ized vehicle operations have much to do with it. ditures). It will be interesting to examine whether this cut affected service delivery. A third noticeable Primary Teacher Salaries feature is that, starting in 2003/04, HIV/AIDS was introduced as a new program under central The total bill for teacher salaries in a given year administration in response to the government's is determined by two factors: the pupil: teacher call for every line ministry to devote 1% to 2% ratio (PTR) and the average teacher pay. Over of its recurrent budget to HIV/AIDS programs. the past few years, the PTR in Lesotho has been Table 3.6 Evolution of Recurrent Budget for Central Administration Central Administration 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 (Feb) 2003/04 2004/05 (Feb) Salaries 2.4 2.6 3.1 2.6 Transport 8.7 8.9 4.8 7.1 Maintenance and operating 1.1 16.0* 1.2 1.2 Office equip & furni. 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.2 HIV/AIDS 4.9 1.1 Special, UNESCO, others 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.4 Total 13.2 28.7 16.0 13.5 *Maloti 15 million was vired to Agriculture for famine relief that year. Patterns of Spending on Education 61 Table 3.7 MOET Staffing and Salary Bill Summary Inpost Budget Salary ACActual Salary Variance Administration 83 211,021 194246 10645 Basic Education Admin 1 3045 3045 S.s.r.f.u. 28 70864 65800 5254 Secondary Ed. Admin 2 16205 16205 T.v.e.t. 26 116647 116647 T.t.s.t.c. 38 99150 108775 9625 T.s.d. 86 170622 157928.5 12693.5 T.s.c. 8 47196 48996 900 P.i.e.p. 7 17743 17743 Higher Ed. Admin 2 7520 7520 Curr. Serv. Supply 1 9391 9391 N.c.d.c. 58 207325 207325 S.s.u. 60 118027 114471 3556 Field Inspectorate 87 314023 319799 5775 Central Inspectorate 37 126180 126180 Planning Unit 9 46010 46310 300 Special Education 11 39631 39631 L.d.t.c. 75 227824 220364 7460 E.c.c.d. 17 47820 48645 825 Unescom 10 27044 27044 Grand Total 646 1,923,288 1896065.5 57033.5 Table 3.8 Details of Primary Recurrent Expenditures in 2003/04 Primary Education 2003/04 Basic Education Administration 0.4 Primary Teacher Salaries 212.2 Free Primary Education Transport 0.9 Materials 8.9 Upkeep of Institutions (school feeding) 79.2 School Self Reliance Feeding Unit Salaries 0.8 Transport 0.3 Other running costs 0.6 School Supply Unit Salaries 1.3 (continued on next page) 62 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 3.8 (continued) Details of Primary Recurrent Expenditures in 2003/04 Primary Education 2003/04 Transport 0.3 Other Operational Costs 0.4 Field Inspectorate Salaries 3.5 Transport 0.5 Other Running Costs 2.4 Share of Teacher Service & Support 3.3 Share of Curriculum and Exam 7.7 TOTAL 322.7 % spent on teacher salaries 0.66 % spent on school feeding 0.25 % spent on teaching/learning materials 0.03 % of spent on admin and staffing (non-teacher) 0.02 % spent on curriculum and exams 0.02 % spent on transport, communications, etc. 0.02 % spent on teacher support 0.01 kept rather stable, at 44:1 to 47:1 despite the grade, they must be promoted before they can introduction of FPE in 1999. As of 2003, the be given a further salary increase. The official primary PTR was about 46.2, slightly higher pay scale seems to be compatible with the ag- than the average for Anglophone African coun- gregate average teacher pay, which is obtained tries (42) but much higher than the average for by dividing the total teacher wage bill by the Asia, Latin America, and Eastern and Central number of teachers. Asia (see Table 3.9). A further analysis compared the pay of pri- Turning to average teacher pay, the total wage mary teachers with that of their non-teaching bill for 2003/04 (including allowances) was counterparts in the public, parastatal, and pri- 212.2 million maloti. The school census reported vate sectors. Using the 1999 Labor Force Sur- a total of 9,294 teachers in 2003, making the vey, we selected only female teachers, as very average annual teacher salary in 2003, of 22832 few male teachers were included in the survey. maloti, which is about 5 times the GDP per From this subsample, we calculated the capita. Compared to the regional averages shown (weighted) average of monthly earnings (includ- in Table 3.9, this figure is very high, indicating ing allowances) for primary teachers as well as that teachers are being paid relatively well. private and public sector workers not working The official primary teacher pay scale (see as teachers. We compared the earnings of teach- Table 3.10) includes many teacher categories and ers and non-teachers with those of workers who 16 grades, with each grade including up to 6 have secondary education (Form D and Form points. Teachers move up one point each year; E) and the diploma/A level certificate only, be- when they reach the highest point within their cause the other groups contained too few data Patterns of Spending on Education 63 Table 3.9 Regional Averages for Teacher Wages, Pupil-Teacher Ratio, and % of Recurrent Spending on Inputs other than Teachers. Percentage of Recurrent spending Number Average Pupil­Teacher on Inputs other Country/Region of Countries Teacher Wagea/ Ratio / b than Teachers / c Lesotho (2003) Standards 1­7 1 5.02 46.2 346 Regional Averages, circa 2000 Francophone Africa 20 4.4 51.0 26.8 Anglophone Africa 13 4.3 41.6 20.2 South & East Asia 10 2.4 36.5 23.4 Latin America 4 4.3 33.6 18.5 Eastern Europe &Central Asia 5 1.2 18.2 31.3 Source: Ethiopia CSR. Table 3.10 Teacher Pay Scale Average Teacher Pay Total Teacher Pay/# of Teachers 22832 Official Pay Scale Minimum Maximum Unqualified Grades 1­5 9576 13980 Qualified Grades A-E 14988 21840 Experienced Grades F 22476 26688 Senior Teacher Grade G 26482 32640 Deputy Head Teacher Grade I 33624 39936 Head Teacher Grade J 40728 43212 District Resource Teacher Grade K 44508 46992 Senior District Resource Teacher Grace L 48396 52620 GDP Per Capita 4550 Ratio of Pay over GDP Per Capita 5.02 points. This calculation showed that the aver- much as their counterparts in the public and age monthly earnings of Lesotho's primary private sectors. For those primary teachers who school teachers in 1999 were 1.5 times more have a diploma/A level, their average pay is simi- than the average earnings of public and private lar to that of other equally educated workers in sector workers. To break this down by level of the private and public sectors. education: among those who have a secondary education, primary teachers are paid twice as 6 Including 25% for school feeding 64 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 3.11 Comparing Salaries of Primary Teachers with those of other Public and Private Employees Earnings of teachers and non teachers Earning premium of by level of education primary school teachers Earnings of primary school Non teachers teachers as a multiple of Primary Public and Public and Private school parastatal Private parastatal sector teachers sector sector Total sector workers workers Total Secondary education (Forms C & E) 1429 1032 549 722 1.4 2.6 2.0 Diploma/ A Level 1198 1153 1287 1213 1.0 0.9 1.0 Total 1320 1081 725 875 1.2 1.8 1.5 When broken down by sector, average pri- gram (WFP) school feeding program, the schools mary teacher pay is 1.2 times that of the public self-reliance program and the Free Primary Edu- and parastatal workers but 1.8 times cation (FPE) feeding program. The 25% of edu- that of the private sector workers with similar cation recurrent spending for school feeding re- levels of education (see Table 3.11). Teaching fers only to the recurrent expenditures incurred apparently is an attractive profession in Lesotho. by the MOET. It does not include the WFP ex- In short, the average primary teacher is paid penditures which are considered capital expen- well, relative to the GDP per capita. The attrac- ditures financed by donors. Detailed description tiveness of the teaching profession in Lesotho as and comparison of the three programs can be compared to other professions can be further found in Annex 3.1. confirmed by the fact that the system has many WFP and MOET have different systems for volunteer teachers who are teaching in the schools coverage and distribution. The intention is that hoping to become salaried or to gain access to all children under FPE in Lesotho will be cov- the Lesotho College of Education teacher train- ered by the school feeding program, generally ing programs. The pupil-teacher ratio is slightly one lunch per day. WFP covers all grades in all higher than the average for Anglophone Africa, highland primary schools and the non-FPE but most likely still within reasonable range. grades in the rest of the country. WFP imports food and has its own distribution system. Primary School Feeding MOET, on the other hand, hires local caterers and pays them directly from Maseru at 2 In 2003, about 25% of total education recur- malotis per child per day. This system, with its rent spending for the primary sector went for many vouchers, has generated tremendous school feeding, which includes the feeding ad- amounts of paperwork, so much that inspec- ministered by the School Self Reliance and Food tors seldom go out to the schools to conduct Unit as well as the Free Primary Education feed- inspections. Clearly this has a negative impact ing program. on school quality. Individuals in MOET have There are three school feeding programs that expressed an intention to send cash directly to exist in Lesotho. Those are the World Food Pro- schools but they worry that schools do not have Patterns of Spending on Education 65 the ability to keep accounts of such public grams on which funds are spent, the term "sec- funds. ondary education" includes expenditures on Food supplies are insecure in many areas of both junior secondary and high schools. How- Lesotho, and many children get no other meal ever, in terms of rhetoric and the newly approved than the one provided in school. Therefore, MOET Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP), school feeding is a crucial support. Still, the de- it appears that "secondary education" should partment would benefit by examining various only refer to senior secondary (Forms D & E), administration and distribution systems to de- with the lower secondary (Forms A, B, and C) velop one that is cost-effective and does not di- subsumed as part of "basic education." This vert inspectors from their vital tasks of inspect- confusion continues because the curriculum, ing schools and providing advice. teaching assignments, and general administra- tion make it hard to separate junior secondary Primary Teaching and Learning Materials education from senior secondary. In this report, the term secondary education includes both jun- In the financial year 2003/04, only 3% of total ior and senior secondary education. primary recurrent expenditures was on teach- In 2003/04, recurrent expenditures on second- ing and learning materials, namely the textbooks ary schools constituted 20% of the total educa- for pupils, teacher guides, and other stationary tion recurrent expenditure. Table 3.12 details items. Prior to the FPE, Lesotho used to operate the allocation of the secondary budget within a relatively efficient textbook rental program for subprograms. Expenditures on secondary edu- primary education. Fortunately for the country, cation include teacher salaries, teacher support, at the time of post FPE, there still remains in development and administration of secondary school a stock of textbooks. An average primary curriculum and examinations, salaries for ad- student in Lesotho has access to about 5.7 text- ministrators and inspectors, transport, and other books. The 3% recurrent is spent mainly to pro- running costs. cure stationery and to replenish some textbooks. As is true for primary, the largest expendi- However, most of these books were procured ture item within the secondary sector is teacher in the mid-1990s. Since then, there was some salaries: 87% of total secondary expenditure in revision to the primary curriculum. Annex XX 2003/04. The second largest item is bursaries details the primary curriculum and syllabus as for needy children administered by NMDS of 1997. The National Curriculum Development which constituted 7% of total secondary expen- Center, in collaboration with the Examination diture. Council, is developing an integrated curriculum and assessment framework. As the current stock Secondary Teacher Salaries of textbooks will need to be replaced soon, it is important that the MOET finalizes the curricu- As is true for primary teachers, the secondary lum and assessment policy and that the MOET teacher wage bill is determined by the pupil- should have a revised curriculum which is more teacher ratio (PTR) and the average teacher pay. integrated and cost-effective, with clear specifi- In Lesotho, the secondary PTR is much lower cations of the core package to be financed by than in primary schools. Over the last few years the government. it has been kept fairly stable at between 22.8:1 and 26:1; it was 26:1 in 2003. Compared to Secondary Education other countries, this ratio is quite comfortable and hence expensive. The term "secondary education" still causes Secondary teachers in Lesotho earn very de- some confusion in Lesotho. In terms of the pro- cent wages (see Table 3.13) compared to the 66 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 3.12 Details of Secondary Recurrent Expenditure in 2003/04 Secondary Education 2003/04 Secondary Administration Salaries 0 Other Overhead 0.7 Secondary Teacher Salaries 150.8 Subvention to Lesotho High School 2.3 Subvention to Other Schools 2.7 Secondary Inspectorate Salaries 1.06 Transport 0.19 Other 0.77 Share of Teacher Service & Support 1.27 Share of Curriculum and Exams 1.46 NMDS (postprimary exclu.TVET) 13.00 TOTAL 174.23 % spent on teacher salaries 0.87 % spent on NMDS bursaries 0.07 % spent on subventions 0.03 % spent on non-teacher staff 0.01 % spent on teacher support 0.01 % spent on curriculum & exams 0.01 % spent on transport, communication, and other 0.01 level of GDP per capita. The average pay in 2004 Secondary Bursary Programs was 47,496 maloti, equivalent to more than 10 times the GDP per capita for that year. With The government administers a total of three this in mind, the government needs to remain bursary programs. Two are managed by the mindful about the fiscal implications of second- MOET and the other by the Ministry of Health ary expansion. Most likely, it will have to pro- and Social Welfare through the National Man- vide for short-term expansion by increasing the power Development Secretariat. Of the two pupil-teacher ratio and by controlling average MOET bursary programs, one is financed jointly wage growth so that teacher salaries will grow by the World Bank and targets orphans and at a lower rate than GDP. It is reasonable to needy children in primary and lower secondary assume that these two actions will allow the grades. The other is financed by the Global Fund country to reasonably accommodate the FPE and targets orphans at the senior secondary influx. Nevertheless, a detailed education sec- grades Form D and Form E. The program un- tor financing model should be developed and der the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare policy simulations on various input indicators has provided bursaries for needy primary and and their relation to outputs should be under- secondary students. A detailed description and taken. comparison of the three programs can be found in Annex 3.2. Patterns of Spending on Education 67 Table 3.13 Secondary Average Teacher Pay and Official Pay Scale 2004 Average Teacher Pay Total Teacher Pay/# of Teachers 47496 Official Pay Scale Minimum Maximum Non Graduate Teacher Grade A 22476 23269 STTC&Equivalent Grade B 24072 24072 DIP.Ed. (1st prof.) Grade C 24924 26688 Non Graduate Senior Teacher Grade E 33624 46992 Degree Grade F 48396 48396 Degree+ PTC Grade G 49848 51348 BA Ed. Equiv., Degree+STC/Dip., BA+PGCE Grade H 54204 59220 MAED., BED, 2nd Prof. Grade I 60984 62508 Head of Department Grade J 60984 65676 Deputy Headmaster (sec) Grade K 67320 72492 Headmaster (sec) Grade L 72492 78072 Resource Teacher Grade M 74304 80016 Headmaster (high) Grade N 80016 84072 Educational Secretary Grade O 86172 90528 GDP Per Capita 4550 Ratio of Pay over GDP Per Capita 10.44 Since the two MOET programs are consid- covered student, directly to the school. Total fees ered capital projects, they are not included in paid per child were kept at M300 for primary the above analysis of secondary recurrent ex- and M3,000 for secondary. Because it lacked penditures. The 7% of expenditures on bursary the human resources and transport facilities to refers only to the bursary program by the Min- do so, the Ministry of Health and Social Wel- istry of Social Welfare through the NMDS. How- fare rarely monitored its program at the school ever, the MOET has decided to allocate an an- level, but instead used each student's End-of-Year nual allocation of M5 million to M7 million for Performance Report to renew the bursaries each bursaries for needy children as part of the on- year. going MOET program starting from financial Given Lesotho's situation of high poverty and year 2005/06. increasing numbers of orphans, the bursary pro- The existence of these various bursary pro- gram is likely to continue. However, it is critical grams has created much confusion among that the various bursary programs be consoli- schools and parents. In 2002, the Ministry of dated to reduce inefficiency. It is also crucial to Health and Social Welfare and NMDS stopped examine the current targeting criteria, the covering new students, both primary and sec- amount of bursary provided, and the chain of ondary. Assistance is now offered only to those administration. In the future it may be possible who had been covered earlier, and the individual for Lesotho to consider bursary programs that social worker has discretion to choose who is could offset the opportunity costs of attending included. In some cases bursaries also cover school and bring pecuniary benefits directly to uniforms. The programs pay all fees for each the household. To understand how various pro- 68 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho grams may work, it will be important to start ter and is only released after the school has pre- piloting some optimistic programs and monitor sented a clearly written report on how it spent the results carefully. the previous allocation. A few exceptional subventions should be Secondary Teaching and Learning noted. Lesotho High School started as a depart- Materials ment of the MOET and has remained so; in 2003/04 it received a large sum of about 2.3 MOET's recurrent budget does not provide for million maloti. Another exception is the any teaching and learning materials for second- Machabeng High School, now Machabeng Col- ary education. However, with support from the lege, established to educate the children of in- World Bank (for the stock), in 2003 MOET ternational diplomats assigned to Lesotho. It has started a junior secondary core textbook rental been administered differently from the other program. Starting from the financial year 2005/ secondary schools, with its subvention deter- 06, MOET has included in its recurrent budget mined by the cabinet in recent years. The amount continuous support for this program, at M7 mil- of the annual subventions given to other gov- lion per year. However, instead of limiting the ernment secondary schools varies from program only to the four core subjects, the gov- M100,000 to M170,000. No clear record shows ernment has decided to cover both core and non- how the original subvention figures were calcu- core subjects. This decision endangers the lated, but recent increases have resulted from program's financial sustainability. A curriculum higher levels of demand for funding when review is urgent to prevent it from becoming schools had special projects which, though jus- too expensive. tifiable, could not be met by their annual sub- vention allocation. Subventions to Secondary Schools These subventions to schools must be closely monitored. Despite sporadic auditing in the past, Subventions to government schools consume schools are not accounting for the funds prop- about 3% of total recurrent spending on sec- erly. Nor are they held accountable in terms of ondary education. Though it is not a very sig- academic results. MOET must establish clear nificant component, it carries significant policy expectations for the schools that receive implications. While government secondary subventions. Further, the history of the schools also charged school fees in a manner subventions to various schools reveals an equity they determine themselves, the government, issue, which is detailed further in Annex 3.2. through the Ministry of Education, found it nec- Moreover, the MOET recurrent budget has essary to provide them with small amounts of not treated subventions consistently over the cash to begin and maintain farming projects, past few years. Sometimes subventions are in- raising poultry, pigs, garden produce, etc. By serted under the central administration and around 1995, the first four government second- sometimes they are included under correspond- ary schools were receiving subventions of ing programs such as basic or secondary educa- M10,000 each. To monitor the use of funds, tion. This makes it very difficult to conduct any including subventions, in these schools, the investigation into subventions, including the one MOET appointed auditors to conduct annual for this report. In the future, subventions for audits of the individual schools' books. The au- the primary sector must be included in the ba- ditors they were paid by schools. Since then, the sic education program; those for secondary must amount of subvention has been increased. Now be included in the secondary program; and those all government schools are allocated a pre-de- for tertiary institutions must be included with termined subvention that is claimed each quar- higher education. Patterns of Spending on Education 69 Higher Education it is essentially a grant. See Box 3.1 for details on loan recovery. The definition of higher education in Lesotho is As mentioned earlier, the fact that NMDS is still vague, particularly in the case of Lesotho administratively under the MOFDP has made it College of Education (LCE) and Lerotholi Poly- very difficult for MOET to monitor, but it is technic (LP). LCE is sometimes referred to as still part of the education sector expenditure. being in the teacher education sector and LP is Moreover, the amounts of the bursaries are so sometimes referred to as belonging in the tech- high that in actual practice they have almost nical and vocational education sector. replaced private fees for tertiary students. A very Recurrent expenditures on higher education high proportion (check %) of tertiary students accounted for 36% of total recurrent expendi- in Lesotho (including Basotho students study- tures on education in 2003/04--excluding LCE ing in South Africa) receive the scholarship and (under teacher education) and LP (under as long as he or she passes exams at the end of TVET). If higher education is defined to include school year, the scholarship is renewed automati- all post-secondary institutions, thus including cally. For example, 5,247 students in NUL were LCE and LP, the tertiary sector will absorb a provided with NMDS scholarships out of a to- full 40% of the education budget! In this sec- tal of about 7,000 students. tion, we include LCE and LP as part of the This is highly inequitable considering the situ- higher education sector. ation in the other sectors. For example, pupils Government support for higher education at secondary schools pay an average of over institutions is given in the form of subventions M2000 annually for food, lodging, and other to autonomous higher institutions. The Na- fees. And we know that, overall, those who are tional University of Lesotho, along with LCE able to pass the Cambridge Overseas School and LP, are Lesotho's three largest institutions Certificate exams and proceed to higher educa- of higher education. Table 3.14 details the al- tion tend to be children from better-off house- location of the higher education budget by in- holds who are more likely to be able to afford stitution. education. And of course graduates of higher We observed that in 2003, NMDS tertiary education institutions will be able to enjoy bet- bursaries constituted the largest component un- ter working conditions and better pay in the der higher education recurrent expenditure future. (57%). In fact this proportion increased further The government is currently introducing pri- in 2004/05. This trend is a cause for concern. ority fields for consideration of scholarships to Even though this bursary is supposed to be a study in South Africa. These include general "loan bursary," its recovery rate is so low that postgraduate studies, along with health sciences, engineering, building technology, information technology, and tourism. It is also considering Table 3.14 strengthening the recovery of certain bursaries Subventions to Higher Institutions in 2003/04 (as loans) from the graduates. These are certainly positive steps forward. However, more drastic 2003/04 actions need to be taken to transform the ad- Higher Education (Millions of Maloti) ministration of NMDS and the allocation of ter- IDM 1.92 tiary bursaries. Many countries have moved to- NUL 117 wards continuing to provide need-based schol- Lesotho College of Education 17 arships while also introducing a tertiary program LP 14.55 for loans that will be repaid. The challenge is to NMDS Tertiary Bursaries 201.3 make sure that we improve cost recovery in 70 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Box 3.1 Repayment of Loan Bursaries from the NMDS A June 2000 audit conducted by the office of the Auditor General found that the National Manpower Development Secretariat (NMDS) does not keep a list of students who finish their studies in either Lesotho or the Republic of South Africa. Therefore it loses track of its borrow- ers. Nor do the students/borrowers always inform the NMDS when they find employment. NMDS started to rectify this situation by contacting the ministries' personnel sections to collect lists of their employees. But this approach is not systematic and does not ensure effective collec- tion of the loans. Furthermore, the NMDS makes no effort to locate those who work in the semi-state bodies or the private sector, or abroad, to get them to pay. As a result, most of those who repay their loans are those working for the government. Between 1995 and 1998, it was found that NMDS sometimes was not aware of how much it should expect to recover per year and when it recovered only 10% of the expected amount. Source: Office of the Auditor General: Performance Audit Report on the Structures and Systems for Payment and Repayment of Loan Bursaries in Lesotho and the Republic of South Africa. higher education where we know there will be ure by international standards. The EDI is 57 in private returns, while at the same time not jeop- South Korea, 43 in Malaysia, 36 in Argentina ardizing opportunities for children who are able and Tunisia, 34 in Chile, and 30 in Brazil. but who are poor. Among Lesotho's neighboring countries, the es- timated EDI is 28 in Botswana and South Af- rica, 33 in Mauritius, and 23 in Zimbabwe. D. Education Spending and To get a sense of how efficiently resources are Education Outcomes used to provide educational coverage, we can contrast this EDI with the amount of resources To assess the efficiency of public resource us- the country mobilizes for the sector. Total spend- age, we examined public spending on education ing on education in Lesotho was 12% of GNP as a percentage of GDP linked with educational in 2003. A very straightforward way to assess outcomes. Educational outcomes (based on an efficiency is to calculate the ratio of coverage educational development index) are measured (EDI) to spending; the figure obtained for using the average school life expectancy (the Lesotho is 1.6 (19/12). Compared to its neigh- average expected number of years of formal bors, Lesotho's level of efficiency on this mea- education). Specifically, school life expectancy sure is quite low: this statistic is 4.2 in Botswana, is calculated as the sum of age-specific enroll- 8.3 in Mauritius, 4.7 in South Africa, and 3.3 in ment rates for primary, secondary and tertiary Zimbabwe. From a wider international perspec- education. This analysis is exemplified in tive, Lesotho's level of efficiency is much lower UNESCO's Statistics, Education Indicators: than those of South Korea (15.2), Malaysia (8.0), Technical Guidelines and is also inherent in the Argentina (13.7), Chile (11.3), and Brazil (9.0). World Bank's country status reports for other A second way to assess a country's level of African countries. efficiency in using resources for educational cov- The educational development index [EDI] in erage is to plot a graph, placing the EDI on the Lesotho is estimated at 19, a relatively low fig- Y axis and education expenditure (measured as Patterns of Spending on Education 71 a share of GDP) on the X axis. Figure 3.5 shows and to track its evolution since 1998. Table 3.15 the location of selected Sub-Saharan African displays per-student government recurrent expen- countries on these two dimensions. It is inter- diture, ratios of expenditures to GDP per capita, esting to examine where Lesotho stands in this and ratios to primary expenditure per pupil. figure: the middle right corner. Primary expenditure per student rose nomi- This cross-national comparison also shows nally from M514 in 1998/99 to M879 in 2004/ that Lesotho uses public resources inefficiently. 05, despite a decline when FPE was first imple- Lesotho spent 12% of its public expenditure on mented and the enrollment suddenly increased. education as a percentage of its GNP and its However, as a proportion of GDP per capita, index of educational development is estimated the level of public expenditure per primary stu- as 19. The dot representing Lesotho is far from dent remained fairly constant at about 17% of the curve that represents the ideal. This freehand GDP per capita in 2004. It is commendable that envelope curve links the most efficient public the government of Lesotho has managed to resource users among the selected countries. The maintain its level of investment in primary edu- most efficient countries are those whose cover- cation to keep up with the increased enrollment age is maximum given what they spend. and economic growth. Secondary expenditure per student also rose nominally during the period, though at a slower E. Public Spending Per Student by rate. It increased nominally from 1600 to 1993 Level and Type of Education maloti per student. As a proportion of GDP per capita, however, secondary recurrent expendi- Using the information on total public expendi- ture per student actually declined from 56% in tures on education and student enrollment, it is 1998/99 to only 41% in 2004/05. possible to calculate government recurrent ex- Compared to other levels, expenditure per penditure per pupil for each level of education, TVET student experienced more fluctuation. Figure 3.6 Educational Development and Public Spending as % of GDP 450 Freehand envelope curve: the further under the 400 curve, the less efficient the country's education 350 system Index 300 250 Development 200 150 Educational 100 50 Lesotho 0 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 Public Ed Expenditure as % of GDP Source: World Bank (Namibia Education Report, 2004) 72 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 3.15 Government Recurrent Expenditure Per Student 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 Public Recurrent Exp. Per Student (Maloti) Primary 514 513 539 488 1,019 747 879 Secondary 1,600 1,560 1,731 1,739 1,773 2,093 2,088 TVET 16,037 15,041 16,729 7,720 9,419 11,807 13,307 LCE 13,080 14,162 16,186 16,416 9,520 10,483 9,243 NUL 47,547 45,311 43,284 45,928 39,478 N/A 28,240 Students at SA Universities/Technical 36,523 Ratio to GDP Per Capita Primary 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.13 0.25 0.16 0.18 Secondary 0.56 0.48 0.50 0.47 0.43 0.46 0.43 TVET 5.57 4.68 4.88 2.07 2.27 2.60 2.72 LCE 4.55 4.40 4.72 4.40 2.30 2.30 1.89 NUL 16.52 14.09 12.63 12.31 9.53 N/A 5.77 Students at SA Universities/Technical 8.03 Ratio to Expenditure Per Primary Student Primary 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Secondary 3 3 3 4 2 3 2 TVET 31 29 31 16 9 16 15 LCE 25 28 30 34 9 14 11 NUL 93 88 80 94 39 N/A 32 Students at SA Universities/Technical 49 There was a substantial decrease in 2001/02 and Maloti 47,547 in 1998/99, to about Maloti 2002/03 because NMDS bursaries for TVET 28,240 in 2004/05. In terms of share of the GDP students were reduced. As a share of GDP per per capita, expenditure per LCE student declined capita, investment in TVET per student declined from 4.6 times to 1.9 times GDP per capita, and from 5.6 to 2.6 times GDP per capita. per NUL student, expenditure declined from Public expenditures per student for those at more than 16 times to about 6 times GDP per the Lesotho College of Education and the Na- capita. tional University declined nominally during the However, when compared to other levels, the same period, due primarily to increases in en- government still spends far less per student in rollment. In 1998/99, it cost the government primary education, indicating an enormous im- Maloti 13,080 every year to educate one stu- balance in its financial support. In 1998/99, com- dent at LCE. By 2004/05, the cost declined to pared to one primary school student, the gov- Maloti 9243 per student. The annual figures per ernment spent three times as much on a second- student for the NUL dropped substantially: from ary school student, about 31 times as much on Patterns of Spending on Education 73 a TVET student, 25 times as much on a LCE types of fees must be considered, including reg- student, and 94 times as much on an NUL stu- istration fees, book fees, and fees for uniforms, dent. meals, buildings, exams, and salaries for private The situation has improved slightly since then. teachers who are hired and paid by schools. By 2004/05, compared to a primary student, the government spent twice as much on a student Primary Education in secondary school, and the multipliers for the tertiary level also fell: 15 times as much for the The most important finding from the fee analy- TVET student, 11 for one in LCE, and 35 for sis is the dramatic reduction in the proportion one in NUL. of schools charging fees since Free Primary Edu- How does Lesotho compare to other coun- cation was introduced. FPE abolished school fees tries and regions in terms of public expenditure for Standard 1 in 2000. At that time, an addi- per student by level? While Lesotho's level of tional class was added each year, so that in 2001 expenditure per primary student is not that dif- no fees were charged in Standards 1 and 2; in ferent from educational systems in other neigh- 2002, none in Standards 1, 2, and 3; and in boring countries and even other world regions, 2003, none in Standards 1, 2, 3, and 4. In 1999, its levels of expenditure for secondary and ter- almost half of the schools in Lesotho were charg- tiary are very high compared to other countries. ing registration fees for Standard 1, and more As Table 3.16 shows, in 2001, the government than 90% were charging for textbooks and other spent more than 12 times the GDP per capita items. By 2003, only 3.3% of schools (includ- for every student enrolled in the National Uni- ing private schools) were still charging registra- versity, compared to only 56% of the GDP in tion fees, with 2.3% charging book fees, and South Africa, 88% in Botswana, and about 2.5 11% charging other fees. times GDP in both Swaziland and Kenya. A second, related finding is surprising: al- though FPE stipulates that all fees charged to primary students should be abolished and no children should be denied schooling because of F. Private Expenditures on Education inability to pay, a fraction of schools still charge fees. These include government, community, and In this section, we examine the level of private church-owned schools (see Figure 3.7). The situ- expenditure that Lesotho households incur for ation seems to be the worst in the so-called primary schooling and how this level has evolved "community" schools. over time, especially after FPE was introduced As of 2003, a total of 3.3% of schools con- in 1999. The information used for analysis tinued to charge registration fees for Standard comes from the annual school census. Many 1. This included about 24% of community Table 3.16 Public Expenditures Per Student as % of GDP Per Capita in 2001 South East Asia & Latin America South Lesotho Africa Botswana Swaziland Kenya Pacific & Caribbean Asia Primary 13 14.3 6 10.4 0.9 5.7 13.1 8.7 Secondary 47 18.3 5.5 29.7 2.2 10.4 10.4 Tertiary 1200 56.8 88.6 253.2 256.7 44.9 60.4 74 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 3.7 Proportion of Schools Charging Fees for Standard 1 120 Registration Books 100 Other 80 60 40 20 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 schools and 5% of government schools, as Methodist Episcopal Church has abolished reg- shown in Figure 3.8. Church-owned schools, istration fees in all its schools. Of course, we on the other hand, seem to be abiding more expected to see 100% of private schools con- closely by the FPE rules: under 2% were still tinue to charge fees before and after FPE was charging a registration fee. Indeed, the African implemented. Figure 3.8 % of Schools Charging Registration Fees by Type 100.0% Government 90.0% Community 80.0% Lesotho Evangelical 70.0% Church 60.0% Roman Catholic Church 50.0% Anglican Church of 40.0% Lesotho 30.0% African Methodist Episcopal Church 20.0% Others 10.0% Private 0.0% 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Patterns of Spending on Education 75 Figure 3.9 % of Schools Charging Book Fees for Standard 1 by Type 100.0% Government 90.0% Community 80.0% Lesotho Evangelical 70.0% Church 60.0% Roman Catholic Church 50.0% Anglican Church of 40.0% Lesotho 30.0% African Methodist Episcopal Church 20.0% Others 10.0% Private 0.0% 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 A similar pattern can be observed with re- nity schools and 1.7% of government schools. gard to book fees for Standard 1 (see Figure 3.9). Again, the church schools seemed more respon- Overall only 2.3% of all primary schools in sive, with under 1% charging book fees in 2003. Lesotho were still charging book fees in 2003, For the payment of other fees--uniforms, but again, this figure included 20% of commu- meals, buildings, exams, and tutors--the pat- Figure 3.10 % of Schools Charging Other Fees by Type 100.0% Government 90.0% Community 80.0% Lesotho Evangelical 70.0% Church 60.0% Roman Catholic Church 50.0% Anglican Church of 40.0% Lesotho 30.0% African Methodist Episcopal Church 20.0% Others 10.0% Private 0.0% 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 76 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho tern is slightly different. Overall about 10% of than 1000 Maloti in 2001. The most striking all primary schools in Lesotho were continuing situation occurred in 2002 when the fees for to charge "other fees" after FPE, with the situa- Standard 3 were supposed to be abolished, but tion again the worst in community schools. Al- average fees for Standard 3 jumped to over most 40% of community schools and 8% of Maloti 1000! government schools continued to charge other Further, starting from 2003, the fees for Stan- fees after FPE was implemented, along with dards 1, 2, and 3 started to fall to between about 10% of Roman Catholic schools, 8% of Maloti 400 and 500, still much higher than in Evangelical Church schools, and 4% of African pre-FPE times. Compared to the GNI per capita Methodist Episcopal Church schools. of US $550 in 2002, families who had to pay fees for their children in Standards 1, 2, or 3 Average Amount of Fees were paying an average of 15% of their total household income for each child. And the bur- Among those schools that do still charge vari- den is heavier for poorer households. ous fees, the amounts charged in each grade These data present a puzzle: why is a higher exhibit a very interesting pattern in the context proportion of government and community of FPE. As the FPE was rolled out to a particu- schools charging fees, compared to church lar grade, the proportion of schools charging fees schools? Furthermore, among the schools that declined sharply. Among those schools that con- continue to charge fees since FPE, why do the tinue to charge fees, however, the average total community and government schools charge sub- fees charged per student increased for that par- stantially higher fees than the church-owned or ticular grade. For example, in 2000 when fees even the private schools? for Standard 1 were supposed to be abolished, To estimate the total primary fee revenue as a average fees for Standard 1 increased from share of total public spending on primary edu- Maloti 119 to 340, and jumped further to more cation, we can aggregate the total private expen- Figure 3.11 Average Fees by Standard 1999 to 2003 (among the schools still charging) 1200 Standard 1 1000 Standard 2 800 Standard 3 600 Standard 4 Standard 5 400 Standard 6 200 Standard 7 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Patterns of Spending on Education 77 Figure 3.12 Average Registration Fees among Schools that Charged such Fees in 2003 400 Government 350 Community 300 Lesotho Evangelical Church 250 Roman Catholic Church 200 Anglican Church of Lesotho 150 African Methodist 100 Episcopal Church Others 50 Private 0 Standard 1 Standard 2 Standard 3 Standard 4 Standard 5 Standard 6 Standard 7 diture on primary education among those schools diture on education was Maloti 874.5million. that continue to charge various fees. The aggre- Comparing the maloti 44.3 million to these fig- gate amount for 2003 is Maloti 44.3 million. ures, we conclude that private expenditures ac- For 2003, total primary recurrent spending was count for about 13.7% of total primary spend- Maloti 312.2 million and total recurrent expen- ing and 5% of total education spending. Figure 3.13 Average Book Fees among Schools that Charged Book Fees in 2003 300 Government 250 Community Lesotho Evangelical 200 Church Roman Catholic 150 Church Anglican Church of 100 Lesotho African Methodist Episcopal Church 50 Others 0 Standard 1 Standard 2 Standard 3 Standard 4 Standard 5 Standard 6 Standard 7 78 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 3.14 Average Other Fees among Schools that Charged Other Fees in 2003 4000 Government 3500 Community 3000 Lesotho Evangelical Church 2500 Roman Catholic Church 2000 Anglican Church of Lesotho 1500 African Methodist 1000 Episcopal Church Others 500 Private 0 Standard 1 Standard 2 Standard 3 Standard 4 Standard 5 Standard 6 Standard 7 Secondary Education The average lodging fees are the same for all grades but vary according to school management Nearly every secondary school in Lesotho type. On average, Roman Catholic schools charges some fees. At Lesotho High School, fees charge the highest lodging fees at M1095, while flow back into the government as revenue; oth- LEC schools tend to charge the lowest at only erwise secondary schools retain the fee revenue M338. and use it at the school level. About two years In addition, almost all schools charge other ago, the MOET attempted to introduce some fees in amounts that vary both by grade and by regulations by commissioning a study "ratio- school management type, but average between nalizing secondary school fees." But the attempt 773 maloti and 999 maloti (see Table 3.18). failed. Fees charged in secondary schools con- They seem to be highest in community and pri- stitute a significant obstacle to secondary cov- vate schools, and lowest in LEC schools. erage. As was true for primary fees, we can estimate Fees in secondary education can be catego- total secondary fee revenue as a share of total rized into meals, lodging, and other. Other fees public spending on secondary education by ag- include registration fees, government tuition, gregating the total private expenditure on sec- sports, library, and other categories of tuition, ondary education. The obtained aggregate textbooks, uniforms, and maintenance and amount for 2003 is Maloti 118.6 million (meals, building funds. Almost three quarters of Lesotho Maloti 33.8 million; lodging, Maloti 7.8 mil- secondary schools charge meal fees. Though they lion; and other, Maloti 77 million). When we vary by school management type, the average relate this figure to the total secondary recur- meals fee nationwide is between 500 maloti and rent spending of Maloti 173.9 million and total 600 maloti per student per year (see Table 3.17). recurrent expenditure of Maloti 874.5 million, About one third of Basotho secondary schools we conclude that private expenditures account are boarding schools which charge lodging fees. for about 68% of total secondary spending and Patterns of Spending on Education 79 Table 3.17 Average Fees for Meals and Lodging at Secondary Level 2003 School Meals Lodging # of Schools Amount # of Schools Amount Government 5 310 0 Community 4 404 1 730 Lesotho Evangelical Church 63 530 11 338 Roman Catholic Church 64 756 15 1095 Anglican Church of Lesotho 24 400 4 531 African Methodist Episcopal Church 1 200 Others 8 762 2 350 Total 169 597 33 718 13.5% of total education spending, two figures erty Reduction Strategy priorities and budget that are very significant. allocations needs to be much improved. Lesotho's government spends an average of 12% of its GDP on the education sector, includ- G. Chapter Summary ing the allocations to both MOET and NMDS. Though this level of expenditure is very high The government is starting to implement a three- compared to other countries, it has not resulted year Medium Term Budget and Expenditure in corresponding results in outcome. A very Framework in an attempt to link its priorities straightforward way to assess efficiency is to with budgets and expenditures in a way that calculate the ratio between coverage (the index improves predictability for all sectors. In prac- of educational development) and spending; the tice, however, the relationship between the Pov- figure obtained for Lesotho is 1.6 (19/12). Com- Table 3.18 Average Secondary "Other" Fees by Grade Form A Form B Form C Form D Form E Government 1010 923 883 1081 918 Community 1337 1295 1335 1930 2025 LEC 709 677 678 748 754 RCM 951 791 717 991 1071 ACL 883 811 787 905 924 AME 844 828 836 850 850 Others 1184 1101 1061 1361 1266 Private 1415 1230 1230 Total 896 806 773 974 999 80 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho pared to neighboring countries, Lesotho's level sonable compared to those in other countries. of efficiency is quite low: the comparable fig- The average primary teacher pay, including al- ures are 4.2 in Botswana, 8.3 in Mauritius, 4.7 lowances, is 1.5 times the average for other in South Africa, and 3.3 in Zimbabwe. From an public and private employees with similar edu- international perspective, Lesotho's level of ef- cational qualifications. ficiency is very low compared to South Korea For secondary education, the very high aver- (15.2), Malaysia (8.0), Argentina (13.7), Chile age teacher salary combined with the low pu- (11.3), and Brazil (9.0). pil-teacher ratio means that the total teacher What is very worrisome is that Lesotho's dis- wage bill consumes almost 90% of the total sec- tribution of expenditures by level of education ondary recurrent budget. The other significant greatly favors higher education. Although nomi- cost items are secondary bursaries and nal expenditures for primary and secondary edu- subventions to government secondary schools. cation have increased substantially since FPE was It is important that these programs be exam- introduced, the combined share of expenditures ined very carefully to ensure that the MOET on primary and secondary education actually targets the right population, gets the most value fell from 59% in 1998/99 to only 54% in 2004/ for its money, and ensures equity among all 05. Meanwhile, the share for higher education schools. At the very minimum, schools receiv- rose from 30% to 38.7%. Since a substantial ing government subventions should account proportion of the expenditures on higher edu- properly for the funds, not just in financial terms cation went for bursaries, which are adminis- but also in terms of student learning results. tered by the Ministry of Finance and Develop- Transparent criteria for determining subventions ment Planning rather than MOET, it is difficult are also needed. The provision of lower second- to monitor the total expenditures on higher edu- ary textbooks also needs to be closely monitored: cation and no one is really accountable for the the government recently changed its policy on expensive higher education. the textbook rental program to include core and In per pupil terms, far less is still spent on non-core subjects, an expensive change that may each primary student than on those at higher make the program unsustainable in the long run. levels, indicating an enormous skew in the Within the MOET, public expenditures on government's financial support. In 1998/99, education are centrally managed. All teachers are compared to a primary student, the government paid directly by the Teacher Service Department, spent three times as much on a secondary school except for a few true private schools. In primary student; about 31 times as much on a TVET education for those grades covered by FPE (all student; 25 times as much on a LCE student, grades will be covered by 2006), other school and 94 times as much on an NUL student. The inputs including textbooks and stationery, school situation has improved slightly since then. By meals, and even school maintenance are procured 2004/05, again taking the primary student as centrally. This leads to great inefficiency in the the unit, the multiples are 2 times as much for a delivery of these services and also forces inspec- secondary school student; 15 for TVET; 11 for tors to spend valuable time doing paperwork in- LCE, and 35 for NUL. stead of monitoring the teaching and learning in The major cost drivers at the primary level the classrooms. At both the primary and second- are teacher salaries which average five times the ary level, the MOET is also providing grants and GDP per capita, and the school feeding pro- subventions to government and community gram. The average cost for a teacher in schools for special projects. The government in- Anglophone countries is 4.3 times the GDP per tends to channel funds directly to schools to capita, compared to 5 in Lesotho. The nation's cover school maintenance and may even include primary level pupil-teacher ratio of 47:1 is rea- some discretionary expenditure at the school Patterns of Spending on Education 81 level. However, the ministry's lack of strong fi- private expenditures account for about 68% of nancial management and accountability remains total secondary spending and 13.5% of total a constraint. Improvement in school-level man- education spending. agement will be key to improved efficiency in Unfortunately data is not available on the the sector and should be a priority. private expenditure for higher education stu- An interesting finding related to private ex- dents, although private expenditures may be penditure on education is that compliance with minimal given that a high proportion of students FPE is neither automatic nor complete. On av- enjoy full scholarships from NMDS. erage, 3% of primary schools continue to charge registration fees, 2% continue to charge book fees, and 10% continue to charge other H. Areas for Further fees in FPE grades. The compliance is poorer Policy Development among community schools. Also interesting is the finding that among the schools that con- The following areas can be considered for tinue to charge them, fees increased during the further policy development from the above first two years of FPE implementation. analysis. Even after implementation, total primary fee revenue represents a significant share of total 1. Lesotho must reduce its overall expenditure public spending on primary education. We esti- on higher education. It must begin with a dia- mated the amount by aggregating the total pri- logue on NMDS and monitor its expenditures vate expenditure on primary education among as part of the overall spending on education. schools which continue to charge various fees; 2. GOL must make efforts to clarify the mis- for 2003 the figure is Maloti 44.3 million. When sion and objectives of NMDS, strengthen its we relate this figure to total primary recurrent management, and increase loan recovery rate. spending of Maloti 312.2 million and total edu- 3. The salary structure for teachers should be cation recurrent of Maloti 874.5 million, we reviewed, especially that of secondary teach- conclude that private expenditures account for ers. Salaries for lower secondary teachers about 13.7% of total primary spending and 5% should be brought more in line with those of of total education spending. primary teachers, especially in the context of In contrast, Lesotho's secondary schools are basic education. allowed to charge many kinds of fees. Almost 4. Financing of non-salary expenditures in pri- three quarters of them charge meals fees which mary education could be reviewed so that the average between 500 maloti and 600 Maloti per government moves from primarily input- student per year. The nation's boarding schools, based financing to capitation grants with about a third of the secondary schools, charge strengthened school-level management and lodging fees that average M718 annually. The accountability. other fees charged by secondary schools vary 5. The various bursary and school feeding pro- both by grade and by school type, but average grams must be harmonized to make them between 773 and 999 maloti, and seem to be more efficient and cost-effective. highest in community and private schools and 6. Capacity building at the school level is cru- lowest in LEC schools. cial, and would be in line with the Private expenditures are very significant at the government's overall decentralization. It is secondary level. Comparing the total of Maloti conceivable that MOET could start transfer- 118.6 million to total secondary recurrent spend- ring funds directly to those schools that have ing of Maloti 173.9 million and total education some minimum capacity, but they need clear recurrent of Maloti 874.5million, we see that guidelines. Another issue is transparency in 82 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho the use of school fees and other funding to ing school fees in Lesotho in general. Equity schools: the ministry must establish a strong and accountability should be the ultimate financial management system with strict regu- concern for public spending on secondary lations and enforcement agencies. Special education. auditors should be put in place to monitor 8. A thorough review of the curriculum is an- the use of funds and advise the ministry regu- other priority. This is important both for the larly. provision of teachers and textbooks under the 7. The financing of secondary education must textbook rental program. be discussed in a public forum. There is room 9. Finally, it is necessary to distinguish between to increase the pupil-teacher ratio from 26:1 schools that are truly public and private, and to 30:1. Fees at secondary schools constitute to establish a clear and separate strategy for the largest constraint to enrollment. The min- the financing of the two types of schools at istry must develop a clear and sustainable both the primary and secondary levels. For policy on fees. By making better use of both example, if the government indeed starts the fees and subventions in government schools, capitation grant, should it be provided to pri- the ministry could move toward rationaliz- vate schools as well, and if so, how much? CHAPTER 4 Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending hapter 2 briefly documents the perfor- fare Indicators Questionnaire (CWIQ). These are C mance of Lesotho's education system the most up-to-date household and educational in aggregate terms, without distin- data available for Lesotho. Although they do guishing outcomes across different suffer from some inevitable gaps, on the whole, population groups. The purpose of this they are of reasonable quality and provide the chapter is to focus on disparities in education, crucial documentation on educational trends that particularly as they pertain to these issues: the are needed for educational policy development. participation of primary school age children in school and student flow patterns throughout the primary cycle including promotion, repetition A. Disparities in Enrollment Ratios and dropout. For each of these topics, we first address descriptive questions: in which segments By Gender of society are children less likely to attend school? How have disparities in school atten- The concept of "gender equity" takes on a new dance evolved since the implementation of Free meaning in Lesotho. In most other developing Primary Education (FPE)? And, how does the countries, boys usually have higher enrollment performance of Lesotho's educational system ap- ratios than girls. However, in Lesotho, the en- pear in comparisons cross-nationally and over rollment ratio, regardless of how it is measured, time? Following that discussion, we focus on is higher for girls than boys in both primary and those factors that determine children's school secondary schools. Figures 4.1 and 4.2 illustrate participation and progression through the school this gender gap in gross enrollment and net en- system, using a framework which includes both rollment ratios for both primary and secondary demand and supply-side factors. Finally, we also schools between 1996 and 2003. Enrollment analyze the disparity in access to public spend- ratios of boys lag consistently behind those of ing among the five income groups by using ben- girls. However, the gap seems to have narrowed efit incidence analysis. since 1999. Since the gross enrollment ratios are We use the following data sources in investi- measured by dividing the actual enrollment over gating these issues: the 2000 Multiple Indicator the primary school age population (ages 6-12), Cluster Survey (MICS); and the 2002 Core Wel- it is possible that they exceed 100% sometimes. 83 84 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 4.1 Primary Enrollment Ratios by Gender 1.40 GER Male 1.20 GER Female NER Male 1.00 NER Female 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Figure 4.2 Secondary Enrollment Ratios by Gender (Forms A through E) 45 NER Male 40 NER Female 35 GER Male 30 GER Female 25 20 15 10 5 0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Figures 4.3 and 4.4 illustrate the grade-spe- the GSER for Standard 1 would be derived by cific enrollment ratios by gender for 1999 and dividing the total Standard 1 enrollment by the 2003, respectively. The grade-specific enroll- population of age 6. Again, it is possible for the ment ratios (GSER) are measured by dividing GSERs to exceed 100%. For Lesotho, the over- the total enrollment of a specific grade by the all trend of grade-specific enrollment in grades population of children of that age. For example, Standard 1 through Form E is a declining one. Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending 85 Figure 4.3 Grade-Specific Enrollment Rates in Primary/Secondary Education, 1999 120 Male 100 Female Total 80 60 Percentage 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A B C D E Grade Source: School census and projected population Figure 4.4 Grade-Specific Enrollment Rates in Primary/Secondary Education, 2003 140 Male 120 Female 100 Total 80 60 Percentage 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A B C D E Grade Source: School census and projected population Girls are enrolled at higher rates at all grades ing Standard 3, in order to engage in herding at than are boys. home. Formerly, the economy of Lesotho was This trend reflects the reality that boys tend dependent on remittances from migrant work- to drop out of school, especially after complet- ers in the gold mines of the Republic of South 86 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 4.1 Grade-Specific Enrollment Rate by District in Primary Cycle, 2003 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 Butha Buthe 112 120 137 145 89 84 76 Leribe 112 106 115 123 77 76 73 Berea 107 104 117 122 70 72 66 Maseru 122 113 123 131 83 84 80 Mafeteng 118 114 115 122 70 71 69 Mohale's Hoek 126 118 122 128 74 68 68 Quthing 122 112 111 119 62 63 54 Qacha's Neck 138 135 128 128 74 72 68 Mokhotlong 152 126 126 118 71 73 63 Thaba Tseka 146 125 117 109 61 64 53 Source: School census and World Bank projected population Africa. This was the most remunerative work the GSER declined in Standard s 5, 6 and 7. for boys. Since work in gold mines did not re- Further, regional disparities in GSER are clearly quire much education, boys were expected to visible: by the end of the primary cycle the GSER engage in herding until they were old enough to was around 80% in the districts of Maseru and work in the gold mines. Butha Buthe, but much lower in Thaba Tseka Comparing the grade-specific enrollments of (53%) and Quthing (54%). 1999 and 2003, we see that the GSERs for Stan- When we examine the GSER in the second- dards 1 to 4 are substantially higher in 2003 than ary cycle by district (Table 4.2), the magnitude those of 1999, most likely as a result of the in- of the disparity is much larger than that of pri- troduction of Free Primary Education (FPE) in mary education. The GSER in the entry grade 2000. During the same time period, grade-spe- of the secondary cycle (Form A) was around cific enrollment has not improved from Standard 60% in the districts of Butha-Buthe, Leribe, and 5 to Form E, which is not yet supported by FPE. Maseru. However, it was much lower in moun- tainous areas such as Thaba-Tseka (20%) and By District Mokhotling (35%). The GSER in all districts declined continuously from the beginning to the Table 4.1 presents the grade-specific enrollment end of the secondary cycle, where it hovered at rates (GSER) of the primary school cycle by dis- only around 20%. By the final grade (Form E), trict in 2003.7 While comparing by district pro- the GSERs in Butha-Buthe (22%) and Maseru vides important insights to the disparity, it should (22%) were among the two highest recorded; be noted that using the district as the geographi- cal unit attenuates variations within districts, which may be quite significant, as will be noted 7 School-aged population by district is estimated by in Chapter 5. the author. As soon as the revised projection at The overall trend shows that the GSER ex- the district level is available, the district level analy- ceeded 100% in the first four grades; however, sis will be updated. Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending 87 Table 4.2 Grade-Specific Enrollment Rate by District in Secondary Cycle A B C D E Butha-Buthe 62 51 35 30 22 Leribe 57 48 33 27 18 Berea 39 32 24 17 13 Maseru 62 50 38 29 23 Mafeteng 52 42 32 23 18 Mohale's Hoek 38 29 21 17 13 Quthing 39 33 21 17 12 Qacha's Neck 53 42 34 22 17 Mokhotlong 35 32 21 16 9 Thaba-Tseka 20 18 11 6 4 Source: School census and World Bank projected population the GSERs in Form E in districts like school attendance; however it has the advan- Mokhotlong (9%) and Thaba-Tseka (4% per- tage of supplying information on the distance cent) were extremely low. to the nearest primary school. By comparing the same indicators for 2000 and 2002 we were able to better understand the impact of FPE on these B. Non-Participation Among indicators. Primary School Age Children Socio-economic Disparities over Another measure of school participation is the the 2000­2002 Period proportion of children who have never attended school. This section gives an overview of the risk Table 4.3 summarizes the socio-economic dis- of non-participation in schooling among 6­14 parities in school participation for children be- year-old children. After discussing the incidence tween the ages of 6­14 over the period of 2000­ of non-participation and its trend over time, we 2002. We begin by examining the state of focus on the demand and supply-side factors children's school participation in 2002 and then which may influence the probability of never discuss the trends over time. attending school. In 2002, 10% of the children in Lesotho aged The empirical evidence discussed below is 6­14 had never attended school. This overall based on data from the 2000 MICS, the 2002 percentage masks wide gender differences: CWIQ and the 2000 primary school census. while13% of boys in this age group did not at- Each of these surveys contributes distinctive tend school, only 7% percent of girls did not. kinds of information. In addition to the data An even more striking disparity exists between about school registration, the MICS provides districts. For example, 20% of the children in detailed information on the grades children are Quthing and Taba Tseka never attended school attending in two consecutive school years. The as compared to only 5% in Leribe and around CWIQ contains less complete information about 7% in Berea and Maseru. 88 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 4.3 Children Between 6 and 14 Years Old Who Have Never Been to School, Lesotho 2000 and 2002 (Percentage) Differences with Respect to the 2000 2002 Difference Lowest Value in Each Category (1) (2) (2)­(1) 2000 2002 Lesotho 10.6 10.1 ­0.5 -- -- Gender Boys 13.6 13.3 ­0.3 6.0* 6.3* Girls 7.6 7.0 ­0.6 0 0 Income group Poorest 20.4 17.4 ­3.0* 15.8* 10.8* Second 13.3 12.5 ­0.8 8.7* 5.9* Middle 9.5 8.3 ­1.2 4.9* 1.7* Fourth 5.8 5.4 ­0.4 1.2 ­1.2 Richest 4.6 6.6 2.0* 0.0 0.0 Area Urban 6.8 5.1 ­1.7* 0 0 Rural 11.5 11.4 ­0.1 4.7* 6.3* District Butha Buthe 6.3 7.8 1.5 11.8* 4.1* Leribe 6.6 5.2 ­1.4 11.5* 6.7* Berea 8.3 7.0 ­1.3 9.8* 4.9* Maseru 9.9 7.5 ­2.4* 8.2* 4.4* Mafeteng 8.4 8.2 ­0.2 9.7* 3.7* Mohale Hoek 11.6 14.5 2.9* 6.5* ­2.6* Quthing 16.6 20.0 3.4* 1.5 ­8.1* Qacha's Nek 10.5 12.9 2.4* 7.6* ­1.0 Mokhotlong 18.1 11.9 ­6.2* 0.0 0.0 Thaba Tseka 17.5 19.1 1.6 0.6 ­7.2* *= difference statistically significant at 5%. Source: Author's calculation based on the 2000 MICS survey and the 2002 CWIQ survey Socioeconomic differences reflected in school phanhood is large in Lesotho--16% of children attendance are also large. The gap in the school below the age of 15 have lost one or both par- participation rate in 2002 was around 10 per- ents (see Annex 4.1)--results in Table 4.5 indi- centage points between children from the poor- cate that orphanhood did not prevent children est income quintile and those who belong to the from going to school. In 2000, the latest year richest families. Although the prevalence of or- for which information on orphans is available, Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending 89 Table 4.4 Children Who Have Never Been to School by Age and Income Groups, Lesotho 2000­2002 (Percentage) Age of New Entrants in 2000 2002 Standard 1 (in years) 6­8 9­14 6­8 9­14 Decrease years years Total years years Total 2000 2002 (%) Income Group Poorest 29.6 15.5 20.4 28.7 10.7 17.4 9.1 7.6 16.5 Second 23.6 8.6 13.3 19.6 8.9 12.5 8.8 7.2 18.2 Middle 18.6 5.7 9.5 16.1 4.6 8.3 8.7 7.3 16.1 Fourth 11.9 3.2 5.8 13.6 2.1 5.4 8.5 7.1 16.5 Richest 8.1 2.9 4.6 16.0 1.5 6.6 8 7 12.5 Total 18.2 7.0 10.6 19.0 5.7 10.1 8.6 7.3 15.1 Source: Author's calculation based on the 2000 MICS survey and the 2002 CWIQ survey. 10.6% of children who had lost at least one to have deteriorated (non-participation rate in- parent had never attended school as compared creased from 4.6% to 6.6% during the same with10.4% of children with both parents alive. time period). The difference is negligible and not significant In this regard, several points are noteworthy. statistically. Among the very poor, the increase in the school Did the implementation of the FPE in 2000 participation rate was evident among the oldest help reduce the socioeconomic disparities in children more than the youngest. As shown in schooling investments and attract out-of-school Table 4.4, in 2000, 15.5% of children aged 9 to children to school? Although it is probably too 14 from the poorest income quintile had never early to answer this question conclusively, re- attended school in 2000; this figure was 11% in viewing the patterns of school participation over 2002. For children younger than 9 years, how- the period 2000­2002 provides some insights. ever, these percentages remained practically un- As Table 4.3 illustrates, the percentage of changed at 29% to 30% at both time points. By pupils who never attended school remained prac- contrast, the youngest children in other socio- tically unchanged during the first three years of economic brackets gained more than the oldest, the implementation of the FPE. Over this pe- except for those belonging to the richest riod, neither boys' nor girls' participation rates quintiles. As a result, the age of new entrants in school made significant progress. However, into Standard 1 decreased significantly over the there was progress in narrowing the attendance 2000­2002 period, from 8.6% to 7.3% on av- disparity between the poor and the rich. The erage.8 While the decrease benefited the rich proportion of children from 20% of the poor- est families who had never attended school de- creased significantly from 20% to only 17%, 8 while interestingly, the proportion of children School census data also confirm that the age of new entrants in Standard 1 has diminished since from the top of the income distribution appears 2000; see Annex 4.2. 90 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho more than the poor, the age of new entrants in calculated the probabilities for 3 subgroups: Standard 1 among the children in 20% of the children aged 6­8, 9­12 and 13­14. The regres- poorest households decreased in a non-negligible sion models follow a logit specification. The re- proportion too, from 9.1 years old to 7.6 years sults for 2000 and 2002 are presented in Table old over the same period. 4.5 in terms of the marginal effects of the vari- With regard to geographical disparities, ables. Sample means are reported in Annex 4.3. Table 4.3 shows that the proportion of chil- These analyses yield interesting findings on dren from urban areas who have never attended school attendance in Lesotho. The results show school decreased significantly from 2000 to that, holding all other variables constant, boys 2002, albeit modestly. In the same period, the were less likely to attend school than girls. The participation rate of children in rural areas re- gender gap, estimated at 4.9 percentage points mained unchanged at about 11%. While the in 2000, decreased slightly over time and in 2002 school attendance situation in Maseru and was estimated to be 4.6 percentage points. As Mokhotlong districts improved in 2002 (by discussed earlier, orphans did not have a signifi- 2.4% and 6.2% respectively), attendance in cant risk of non-participation in school as com- Mohale Hoek, Quthing and Qacha's Neck ap- pared with non-orphans. peared to worsen (by 2.9%, 3.4% and 2.4 %, The education of the head of the household respectively). proved to be a significant predictor of children's school attendance. Holding all other variables The Determinants of School Participation constant, the children whose father/mother had a primary-school education showed a probabil- This section addresses the probability of never ity of attending school that was 3.8 percentage attending school for 6­14 year old children in points higher than children living with an illit- Lesotho, using multivariate survival analysis. A erate household head. The effect was even more first set of regression models attempts to explain pronounced--4.7 percentage points--for chil- the school participation in 2000 and 2002 by dren living with a household head who had a adjusting the probability of never attending secondary school diploma or higher. It is espe- school using child and household characteris- cially noteworthy that the education level of a tics and location, including the distance from child's mother or father appears to affect the the nearest primary school. In a second type of child's school participation rate at a very early specification, we include school quality variables age. As summarized in Table 4.5, the education among the determinants of school participation. level of the household head played a central role Due to inconsistencies in the data, we evaluated when children were 6­8 years old by reducing the impact of school quality for the year 2002 their non-participation rate by up to 12 percent- only, by merging the 2002 CWIQ survey with age points.9 the corresponding school census. Because match- Regarding household income, results show ing these two datasets is somewhat problematic, that children from poor families were more likely our results in this model are only speculative, as not to attend school. This result is consistent we explain in more detail below. with the evidence presented earlier. It is impor- tant to note, however, that the effect of poverty The Probability of Having Never Been on attendance appears to be diminishing over to School as a Function of time. The non-participation gap between chil- Demand-side Factors. dren from the bottom and the top quintiles of In estimating these probabilities, we used the whole sample of children aged 6­14. We also 9In 2002. Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending 91 ) *** * * page 13­14 years 0.003 0.053 0.003 0.000 0.027 0.029 0.004 0.011 next -- -- -- ­0.013 ­0.003 ­0.005 ­0.007 ­0.008 ­0.021 on * *** * ** *** *** *** continued( 9­12 years 0.026 0.012 0.000 0.031 0.009 0.003 0.009 ­0.005* -- -- ­0.015 ­0.026 ­0.003 ­0.015* ­0.027 ­0.030 2002 *** *** * *** *** * *** ** 6­8 years 0.051 0.001 0.006 0.011 0.075 ­0.111 -- -- ­0.027 ­0.091 ­0.117 ­0.035 ­0.043 ­0.069 ­0.088 ­0.064 *** *** ** *** *** *** *** * *** *** ** Whole Sample 0.046 0.001 0.084 0.067 0.004 0.029 ­0.018 -- ------ -- ­0.002 ­0.038 ­0.047 ­0.011 ­0.024 ­0.038 ­0.021 a effects *** * * ** ** ** *** *** 2000­2002 Marginal 13­14 years 0.065 0.013 0.007 0.000 0.038 0.013 ­0.003 ­0.027 ­0.003 ­0.020 ­0.024 ­0.016 ­0.018 ­0.030 ­0.042 -- -- Lesotho ** *** ** * *** *** *** *** *** *** 9­12 years 6­14, 0.040 0.022 0.034 0.000 ­0.006 ­0.001 ­0.025 ­0.038 ­0.040 ­0.020 ­0.032 ­0.044 ­0.038 ­0.003 ­0.032 -- -- 2000 Aged *** *** *** ** *** ** ** *** *** *** 6­8 years 0.052 0.002 ­0.095 ­0.007 ­0.028 ­0.050 ­0.024 ­0.036 ­0.073 ­0.040 ­0.056 ­0.099 ­0.126 ­0.052 ­0.231 -- -- Children Among *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** Whole Sample 0.049 0.014 0.012 0.001 ­0.017 ­0.015 ­0.016 ­0.034 ­0.047 ­0.027 ­0.039 ­0.059 ­0.067 ­0.012 ­0.063 -- -- School to (%) alive) (%) old Been old School parents education years (poorest) years Never dead dead 14 6 (both higher Group than Primary dead Characteristics or than Having Status schooling) education less more of alive-father alive-mother Head years) (no Income Composition Nearest parents (female) to 4.5 (Girl) (in minutes minutes Characteristics Primary Secondary minutes) Age Boy Mother Father Both Male Age Second Middle Fourth Richest Members Members Table Orphanhood (<15 15­29 30­44 Probability Child Household Education Household Household Distance 92 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho ** *** from 13­14 years 0.014 0.028 0.020 0.015 0.004 0.018 0.025 0.038 1,378 0.229 ­0.004 ­0.024 ­0.002 ­0.003 computed are changed is ** *** * 9­12 effects years 0.011 0.034 0.036 0.026 0.072 0.050 0.017 0.034 2,410 0.175 ­0.001 ­0.025 ­0.016 ­0.016 variable 2002 the Marginal as ** ** *** ** y 6­8 years 0.090 0.079 0.080 0.068 0.144 0.075 0.016 0.027 1,765 0.141 ­0.025 ­0.012 ­0.017 ­0.054 probabilit parentheses. in in ** *** *** * *** ** * Whole sample 0.032 0.048 0.028 0.000 0.049 0.098 0.059 0.024 0.043 5,553 0.170 ­0.010 ­0.003 ­0.005 change indicated the effects a ** * ** category indicate Marginal 13­14 years 0.005 0.042 -- -- ­0.030 ­0.024 ­0.009 ­0.028 ­0.016 ­0.017 ­0.002 ­0.004 1,589 0,169 2000­2002 . omitted the derivatives Survey * Lesotho 9­12 years with 0.002 0.017 0.009 0.053 0.051 0.083 0.018 0.045 0.066 3,126 0,134 -- -- ­0.017 CWIQ 6­14, 2000 probability 2002 variables the aged * ** the 6­8 years 0.004 0.003 0.036 0.138 0.040 0.167 0.070 0.085 0.041 2,178 0.135 and -- -- ­0.001 1%. Dummy children variables, at Survey * *** dummy among clustering. MISC Whole sample 0.012 0.047 0.016 0.034 0.107 0.027 0.047 0.048 6,893 0.138 for means. -- -- ­0.005 ­0.005 for their ***=significant 2000 school at to 5%; the adjusted variables; at on been errors variables based never continuous significant other = ) (urban) for all ** standard calculation having 10%; Area s with mean continued( of Hoek Neck at s Tseka holding Observations Rural 4.5 minutes (Butha-Buthe) of R? minutes in model sample while :Author' 59 Leribe Berea Maseru Mafeteng Mohale Quthing Qacha' Mokhotlong Thaba 1, Table 45­59 > Probability Living District Number Pseudo /Logit the to significant = a at 0 * Source Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending 93 Table 4.6 Distribution of Children by Distance to Nearest Primary School, Lesotho 2002 (Percentage) >30 minutes <15 15­29 30­44 45­59 >59 minutes minutes minutes minutes minutes Total Total Area Urban 25.3 34.9 23.9 7.6 8.4 39.8 100.0 Rural 19.2 21.4 23.0 12.9 23.5 59.4 100.0 Total 20.8 24.9 23.2 11.5 19.7 54.4 100.0 Currently Enrolled Urban 25.8 35.3 23.5 7.8 7.7 38.9 100.0 Rural 20.0 22.1 22.9 12.4 22.7 57.9 100.0 Total 21.6 25.8 23.0 11.1 18.4 52.5 100.0 Have Never Been to school Urban 24.7 19.2 24.7 6.9 24.7 56.2 100.0 Rural 13.2 17.6 23.8 15.2 30.2 69.2 100.0 Total 14.5 17.8 23.9 14.2 29.6 67.7 100.0 District Butha Buthe 28.6 25.8 24.9 9.8 10.9 45.6 100.0 Leribe 17.9 27.4 22.9 10.1 21.7 54.7 100.0 Berea 17.6 24.1 24.9 13.4 20.0 58.3 100.0 Maseru 22.8 25.0 17.0 9.7 25.6 52.2 100.0 Mafeteng 21.0 19.1 22.0 16.1 21.8 59.9 100.0 Mohale Hoek 8.1 23.5 32.4 8.5 27.5 68.4 100.0 Quthing 9.0 27.9 24.2 18.0 20.9 63.1 100.0 Qacha's Nek 31.6 24.8 23.6 9.7 10.2 43.5 100.0 Mokhotlong 32.3 28.0 19.8 8.4 11.6 39.8 100.0 Thaba Tseka 17.4 22.7 20.7 11.9 27.4 59.9 100.0 Total 20.8 24.9 23.2 11.5 19.7 54.4 100.0 Source: author's calculation based on the 2002 CWIQ Survey the income distribution was estimated at 6.7 least 30 minutes from a school (see Table 4.6). percentage points in 2000, but dropped to 2.1 In rural areas, the percentage of children living percentage points in 2002. 30 minutes or more from a school rises to around Accessibility to school is a major determinant 60% on average. It is noteworthy that 30% of of school participation. In Lesotho, in 2002, rural children who never attended school lived 54% of children of primary school age lived at at least 60 minutes away from a primary school. 94 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Regression results in Table 4.5 also confirm ratio, and the percentage of schools offering an that distance had a significant impact on incomplete cycle of instruction. children's school participation rate. Reducing Focusing only on the impact of the supply- the time needed to reach school from one hour side variables, the results in Table 4.7 show that to less than 15 minutes reduced the probabil- among the school characteristics included in the ity of never attending school by 3 percentage model, only the percentage of pupils with no points on average and by 9 percentage points seat and no desk is significant. According to our for children in the 6­8 age group. Reducing results, living in an area where schools are in the distance to school by building more schools bad physical condition significantly discourages makes it more attractive for families to send families from sending their children to school. their children to school at a younger age and The effect of this factor is quite important in probably reduces the probability that children the household decision of whether or not to send will drop out. a child to school, when differences across house- holds are held constant. Improving the physical The Impact of School Supply conditions of the schools by 10% increases the Characteristics on School Attendance school participation rate up to 28%. It is note- worthy that this factor matters more to families In this section, we examine the impact of school than other factors including the teacher's quali- characteristics on the probability of never hav- fications, pupil-teacher ratio, or the incomplete- ing attended school. The data are from the 2002 ness of the cycle of instruction offered by schools CWIQ survey and the 2002 primary school cen- in the neighborhood. Interestingly, using distance sus. These datasets were matched on the basis to school as a predictor in a regression model, of the enumeration area codes. The 2002 CWIQ we found that the physical conditions of the includes 255 enumeration areas. Unfortunately schools have a significant negative impact on however, for many primary schools in the cen- the participation rate of the children who live sus, enumeration area codes are unknown or in- close to the school. For those children living far- correct. Using only the accurate enumeration ther away, the distance itself is the barrier to codes made it possible to merge the two datasets school attendance; factors such as school for 122 enumeration areas. After excluding ar- physical condition, teacher qualifications, or the eas with no school (because we were not abso- pupil-teacher ratio become secondary. lutely sure that these areas had no school) we were left with a total of 2096 children aged 6­ 14 in 90 enumeration areas. C. Transition of Children Through Table 4.7 shows the results of the calculations and Out of School conducted on the whole sample of children as well as on the sub-samples of children living In this section we examine the movement of within 30 minutes of a primary school and those children through or out of school and the de- living farther away. We estimated a logit speci- terminants of that movement. The data for these fication with demand-side variables identical to analyses come from the 2000 MICS survey per- those considered in the previous section.10 The taining to those students who registered in supply-side variables include the averages of the school in 1999. Because the MICS survey gives following variables estimated at the enumera- tion area level: the percentage of pupils with no seat and no desk (which is a proxy indexing the 10 Location of the household is excluded because physical condition of the school), the percent- most of the enumeration areas included in the age of unqualified teachers, the pupil-teacher sample pertain to rural areas. Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending 95 information on the students' schooling status After presenting descriptive information on in two consecutive years (1999 and 2000), it is children's movement through school, we exam- possible to identify whether children enrolled ine the correlation of dropping out, repetition in 1999 drop out, advance, or repeat in 2000. and promotion. Because enumeration area Table 4.7 Estimates of the Probability of Having Never Been to School, Lesotho 2002 -- Children 6­14 years olda-- With School Characteristics-- Distance to nearest primary school Less or equal More than Whole Sample to 30 minutes 30 minutes Sample Marginal Sample Marginal Sample Marginal Average Effect Average Effect Average Effect Child Characteristics Age (in years) 10.12 ­0.019*** 10.11 ­0.015*** 10.13 ­0.022*** Boy (girl) 50.1 0.067*** 51.7 0.026*** 48.3 0.116*** Household Head Characteristics Male (female) 67.3 0.003 66.0 0.000 68.7 0.008 Age (in years) 50.4 0.001*** 49.4 0.001*** 51.5 0.001 Education (no schooling) Primary education 55.1 ­0.024** 53.8 ­0.001 56.5 ­0.048** Secondary or higher education 11.0 ­0.052*** 15.4 ­0.029*** 6.0 ­0.079*** Household Income Group (poorest) Second 24.5 ­0.009 23.5 ­0.022* 25.6 0.028 Middle 20.8 ­0.025* 22.1 ­0.008 19.3 ­0.036 Fourth 14.4 ­0.057*** 15.5 ­0.032*** 13.2 ­0.069*** Richest 8.7 ­0.031* 12.9 ­0.018 4.0 ­0.076** Household Composition Members less than 6 years old (%) 15.7 0.056 15.6 0.083* 15.7 ­0.043 Members more than 14 years old (%) 54.4 0.106*** 54.2 0.070* 54.5 0.105 District (Butha-Buthe) Leribe 8.0 ­0.021 6.8 0.011 9.3 ­0.059 Berea 6.1 ­0.002 7.5 0.064 4.4 ­0.084*** Maseru 7.8 ­0.045** 9.7 ­0.009 5.6 ­0.092 Mafeteng 7.2 0.024 8.8 0.005 5.4 0.046 Mohale Hoek 9.7 0.057 5.5 0.081 14.5 0.011 Quthing 5.3 0.137* 4.4 0.057 6.4 0.120 Qacha's Nek 16.8 0.086* 18.5 0.118** 14.8 0.020 (continued on next page) 96 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 4.7 (continued) Estimates of the Probability of Having Never Been to School, Lesotho 2002 -- Children 6­14 years olda-- With School Characteristics-- Distance to nearest primary school Less or equal More than Whole Sample to 30 minutes 30 minutes Sample Marginal Sample Marginal Sample Marginal Average Effect Average Effect Average Effect Mokhotlong 13.8 0.026 18.4 0.021 8.6 0.076 Thaba Tseka 19.6 0.040 13.0 0.060 27.2 0.031 Distance to Nearest Primary School (<15 minutes) 15­29 minutes 24.0 0.021 -- -- -- -- 30­44 minutes 21.7 0.041* -- -- -- -- 45­59 minutes 9.0 0.043 -- -- -- -- >= 60 minutes 15.9 0.072*** -- -- -- -- Quality of Education in the EA (average over schools) Pupils with no seat and no desk (%) 36.9 0.028* 33.5 0.044*** 40.7 0.015 Unqualified teachers (%) b 35.3 0.020 32.5 0.003 38.5 0.032 Pupils-Teacher ratio 52.27 0.000 51.81 0.000 52.80 0.000 Schools with incomplete cycle of instruction (%)c 20.7 ­0.002 0.16 ­0.019 26.4 0.026 Average dependent variable (%) 12.7 -- 9.1 -- 16.9 -- Number of observations 2,096 -- 1,119 -- 977 -- Pseudo R? -- 0.195 -- 0.234 -- 0.194 a/ Logit model with standard errors adjusted for clustering. Dummy variables with the omitted category indicated in parentheses. Marginal effects are computed at the sample mean for continuous variables; for dummy variables, the probability derivatives indicate the change in probability as the variable is changed from 0 to 1, while holding all other variables at their means. b/ Percentage of teachers with Primary School Education, Junior Certificate and Cambridge Overseas School Certificate c/ Percentage of primary schools in the enumeration not offering the full 7 grades of primary schooling * = significant at 10%; = significant at 5%; =significant at 1% ** * Source: Author's calculations based on the 2002 CWIQ survey and the 2002 primary school census codes are not fully documented in the MICS comes. For this reason, we focused in these survey, matching this survey with the school analyses only on the impact of the demand-side census was problematic and we could not ana- factors on the three school participation out- lyze the impact of school quality on school out- comes. Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending 97 Disparities in Student Flow Patterns rolled in primary education advanced to the next grade, 11% repeated and 6% dropped out. Table 4.8 presents an overview of Lesotho's stu- However, these averages hide a more nuanced dent flow profile through the seven-year primary story. Grade repetition occurred most frequently cycle for those children who were registered in in the first grade where fully 25% of the chil- 1999. Overall, 84% of the 6­14 years olds en- dren repeated the year and 6% dropped out. Table 4.8 Promotion, Repetition, and Dropout Rates During Two Consecutive Years in a Cohort of Children Enrolled in Primary Education in 1999, Lesotho 2000 (Percentage) Advance Repeat Drop Out Whole Sample 83.5 10.7 5.8 Grade in Previous Year Standard 1 69.2 25.1 5.8 Standard 2 88.9 7.2 4.0 Standard 3 87.2 7.1 5.8 Standard 4 92.0 4.3 3.7 Standard 5 91.7 5.5 2.8 Standard 6 85.1 5.4 9.5 Standard 7 69.2 10.0 20.8 Gender Boys 82.5 11.9 5.7 Girls 84.5 9.5 6.0 Income group Poorest 82.1 10.4 7.5 Second 80.3 9.3 10.4 Middle 83.0 10.7 6.2 Fourth 82.8 12.8 4.4 Richest 88.4 9.6 2.0 Orphanhood Statusa Both parents alive 84.4 12.5 3.2 Mother alive, father dead 86.3 10.2 3.5 Father alive, mother dead 82.9 11.4 5.7 Both parents dead 84.5 7.1 8.3 Area Urban 88.2 8.0 3.9 Rural 82.3 11.3 6.3 (continued on next page) 98 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 4.8 (continued) Promotion, repetition, and dropout rates during two consecutive years in a cohort of children enrolled in primary education in 1999, Lesotho 2000 (percentage) Advance Repeat Drop out District Butha Buthe 88.2 3.8 8.0 Leribe 81.6 13.4 5.1 Berea 83.3 9.6 7.2 Maseru 84.5 9.6 5.9 Mafeteng 82.1 13.2 4.7 Mohale Hoek 84.4 10.0 5.6 Quthing 81.3 10.9 7.7 Qacha's Neck 84.2 10.3 5.4 Mokhotlong 86.2 10.1 3.7 Thaba Tseka 81.9 13.5 4.6 a / Among children aged 6­14. Source: Author's calculation based on the 2000 MISC Survey Sixty-nine percent of first grade students moved sults reported in Annex Table A3 show, for ex- on to Standard 2. After Standard 1, repetition ample, that 10% of the children from the poor- and drop-out rates were generally much smaller. est families drop out of school at the end of Stan- However a large proportion of pupils--10%-- dard 1 compared with less than 1% of those left school at the end of Standard 6. Among those from the richest households. Even more dramati- children enrolled in Standard 7, around 70% cally, while 11% of the children from the rich- continued their secondary education, 21% est group left school at the end of Standard 7, dropped out and 10% repeated. more than 45% of the children from the poor- When comparing boys and girls, repetition est families left the education system at this stage. appears to be more frequent among boys than Orphans are more at risk for dropping out of girls. On average, 12% of boys repeated as com- school than non-orphans. The differences are pared with 9.5% of girls. However, girls seem particularly obvious at the beginning of the pri- to be more likely to drop out than boys espe- mary cycle. For example, 13% of the children cially at the end of Standard 6 and Standard 7. who have lost both parents dropped out at the On average, only slightly more girls than boys end of Standard 1 as compared with 5% for non- dropped out (5.7% as compared to 6%). How- orphans.12 ever, in Standard s 6 and 7, the differences be- Not surprisingly, geographic location is also tween genders are quite striking: 7% of boys an important factor in drop-out rates. As find- drop out of school at the end of Standard 6 com- ings in Table 4.8 indicate, students in rural ar- pared with 11% of girls; 23% of girls leave the eas are particularly prone to drop out or repeat education system at the end of Standard 7 com- compared with their urban counterparts. Simi- pared with 18% of boys.11 The effects of socio-economic status on drop- out rates are pronounced, particularly at the 11See Annex 4.4. beginning and end of primary education. Re- 12See Annex 4.4. Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending 99 lar differences are found across districts in the Regression Estimates of The Correlation patterns of student flow. While the repetition of Student Flow Patterns rate is low among students in Butha-Buthe (less than 4%), it varies between 10% and 14% in Table 4.9 shows the adjustment of the three others. On average, drop-out rates vary between school outcomes using a multinomial logit speci- 4% and 8% depending on the district; the low- fication. Because the regressions use a sample est are seen in Mokhotlong, Thaba Tseka and of children who registered for school in the pre- Mafeteng. vious year as described in the section above, these Table 4.9 Estimated Probabilities of Advancing, Repeating, and Dropping out in a Cohort of Children Aged 6 to14, Lesotho 2000a Marginal Effectsc Sample Averageb Advance Repeat Drop out Child Characteristics Age (in years) 11.2 0.016*** ­0.020*** 0.004*** Boy (girl) 47.5 ­0.026*** 0.025* 0.001 Orphanhood status (both parents alive) Mother alive, father dead 13.5 0.005 ­0.005 ­0.001 Father alive, mother dead 2.9 0.008 ­0.015 0.007 Both parents dead 2.0 ­0.014 ­0.022 0.036* Grade Standard 2 21.9 0.097*** ­0.081*** ­0.015*** Standard 3 17.9 0.076*** ­0.066*** ­0.010*** Standard 4 13.9 0.096*** ­0.078*** ­0.017*** Standard 5 9.9 0.086*** ­0.066*** ­0.020*** Standard 6 5.5 0.048*** ­0.031** ­0.017*** Standard 7 1.5 ­0.071 0.075 ­0.005 Household Head Characteristics Male (female) 72.7 ­0.009 0.003 0.006 Age (in years) 51.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 Education (no schooling) Primary education 61.7 0.022** ­0.038*** ­0.008** Secondary or higher education 17.3 0.028* ­0.017* ­0.011* Household Income Group (poorest) Second 18.4 0.005 ­0.003 ­0.002 Middle 21.9 0.001 0.002 ­0.003 (continued on next page) 100 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 4.9 Estimated probabilities of advancing, repeating, and dropping out in a cohort of children aged 6 to14, Lesotho 2000a Marginal effectsc Sample averageb Advance Repeat Drop out Fourth 23.3 ­0.017 0.029* ­0.012*** Richest 23.6 0.025 0.004 ­0.028*** Household Composition Members less than 6 years old (%) 10.6 ­0.032 0.010 0.023 Members more than 14 years old (%) 51.9 0.058 ­0.042 ­0.015 Living in rural area (urban area) 79.6 ­0.033*** 0.041*** ­0.008 Advance 88.7 -- -- -- Repeat 9.4 -- -- -- Drop out 1.9 -- -- -- Number of observations 3,617 -- -- -- Pseudo R? -- 0.123 a/ Probability of being in the indicated schooling status in 2000 among those enrolled in 1999. Multinomial logit model with standard errors adjusted for clustering. Dummy variables with the omitted category indicated in parentheses. b/ Sample means of dummies variables expressed in percentage. c/ Marginal effects are computed at the sample mean for continuous variables; for dummy variables, the probability derivatives indicate the change in probability as the variable is changed from 0 to 1, while holding all other variables at their means. * = significant at 10%; = significant at 5%; ** *** =significant at 1%. Source: Author's calculation based on the 2000 MISC Survey regressions are endogenously selected and are have lost both parents) and non-orphans had a not free from selectivity bias. As in the previous similar likelihood of attending school, orphans section, the three dependent variables are related had a higher probability of dropping out. The to child and household characteristics, and are differential rate of dropping out between or- controlled for the grade where the student was phans and non-orphans is around 4 percentage enrolled in the previous year. points. Many of the results summarized in Table 4.9 The education level of the head of a child's confirm the patterns found in the cross-tabula- household had a strong effect on child outcomes. tions presented earlier. Significant differences did Compared to the children with household heads exist across gender:--with the effect of all other with primary education, children coming from variables held constant, boys were more prone households where the household head was illit- to repeat than girls. After controlling for grade erate were much more likely to repeat and level, older students were significantly more slightly more likely to drop out compared with likely to repeat or drop out than younger stu- children from households where the household dents. While double orphans (i.e., children who head had a primary school education. House- Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending 101 Figure 4.5 Benefit Incidence Analysis by Income Quintiles 1 Primary 0.9 Secondary 0.8 Tertiary 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Poorest Richest Source: CWIQ estimated by author hold income made a difference too, but only formation on household income, a socioeco- between children from the richest 40% of house- nomic index was created based on the eight pov- holds and the rest of the population: the chances erty-indicating questions to measure the house- of dropping out were 3 percentage points lower hold economic level.13 The evidence shows that, among children from the most privileged back- overall, public spending on education and train- grounds compared with those in the rest of the ing in Lesotho is substantially skewed in favor distribution. Location of the residence was also of the rich. Nearly 35% of public education a significant factor: as compared with urban expenditures are spent on the richest 20% of children, rural children were less likely (by 3.3 the population, while only 13% are spent on percentage points) to advance in school and the poorest quintile. The second and third poor- more likely to repeat a grade (by about 4 per- est quintiles receive 14% and 17% respectively, centage points). of the public education expenditures, while the second richest quintile receives 23% of public spending. Clearly, the poor are not receiving E. Incidence of Public Spending adequate benefits from the government. by Income Group Figure 4.5 shows how public funds are allo- cated to different income groups by level of edu- Does Lesotho use its public resources for edu- cation to assist the poor? We used a benefit-in- cidence analysis to investigate how much disad- 13 vantaged groups of the society benefit from pub- The socio-economics indicator to define the in- come quintile was created based on the mix of lic spending on education. In this study, the ben- eight poverty predicting questionnaires. For ex- efit-incidence analysis was conducted using the ample, how often in the last year did you have 2002 Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaire problems satisfying the food needs of the house- (CWIQ) data. Because there is no available in- hold? Does the household own a heater? 102 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho cation. Government subsidies are almost equally Lesotho distributes public subsidies equally to distributed among the five different income each income quintile, Kenya provides extra fund- groups at the primary level. However, at the sec- ing to the poorest quintile (22%) while the rich- ondary level, the poorest 20% of households est 20% receives only 15% of government sub- receive only 12% of public spending, while the sidies. richest 20% receive 31% of public allocations. The disparity is even larger for tertiary educa- tion. The two poorest quintiles receive only 7% F. Chapter Summary and 8% respectively, of government spending, while the two richest quintiles receive 47% and The bivariate and multivariate analyses reported 24% respectively, of government subsidies. It is on in this chapter indicate patterns in school clear, then, that nearly 50% of the tertiary edu- participation and student flow in Lesotho's edu- cation subsidies go to the richest 20% of house- cational system which may provide directions holds. for future educational policies. When we compare the incidence of public Attracting students to school and keeping spending with other Anglophone African coun- them in school throughout the primary cycle tries, it is obvious that public spending on edu- remained a priority for Lesotho in 2003. As cation in Lesotho is more regressive. For in- shown in this report, up to 20% of primary stance, Kenya, Namibia, and Malawi have each school-age children never attended school in spent 17% (16% in Malawi) of their total pub- some districts despite the implementation of FPE. lic education budget on the poorest quintile Controlling for all other factors, boys were less populations--this is 4 percentage points higher likely to attend school than girls. The head of than the spending in Lesotho. Similarly, in Kenya household's level of education had a positive and Malawi, the richest 20% of households re- impact on children's school participation. Chil- ceive 21% and 25% respectively, of the total dren whose father or mother had a primary public education subsidies while in Lesotho the school education were more likely, by 3.8 per- richest 20% receives 33% of education fund- centage points on average, to attend school than ing. In primary education in particular, while children with illiterate parents. More impor- Table 4.10 Incidence of Public Expenditure on Education by Income Quintile All Education Primary Level Only Poorest Quintile Richest Quintile Poorest Quintile Richest Quintile Lesotho (2002) 13 33 20 20 Kenya (1992) 17 21 22 15 Madagascar (1993/94) 8 41 17 14 Malawi (1995) 16 25 20 16 Namibia (2003) 17 27 17 16 S. Africa (1994) 14 35 19 28 Tanzania (1993/94) 14 37 19 18 Uganda (1992/93) 13 32 19 18 Source: Lesotho ­ CWIQ 2002; Namibia; Deon (2003) Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence of Public Spending 103 tantly, this effect was strongest (12 percentage point difference).Older pupils were also more points) for children 6 to 8 years old. likely to repeat or drop out. Again, the house- Poverty, location, and constraints in the hold head's level of education was an important school supply played an important role in ex- factor. Children with less educated parents were plaining these patterns. Children from poor more likely to repeat or drop out. Poverty also families were less likely to attend school com- played a major role. Children from poorer pared with those from better-off families. All else households were more likely to repeat and drop being equal, children in Quthing and Qacha's out than children from wealthier households. A Neck were less likely to attend school; children disparity between rural and urban areas was in Maseru were more likely to do so. apparent too. Controlling for all other factors, Accessibility to schools was a major determi- rural children are less likely to be promoted by nant of participation: 30% of rural children who 3 percentage points, but more likely to repeat never attended school lived at least 60 minutes by 4 percentage points, as compared with their away from a primary school. Among the other urban counterparts. school characteristics, only the physical condi- Comparison of results of the 2000 and 2002 tion of the school--indexed by the percentage analyses indicate that, overall, the introduction of pupils with neither seat nor desk--had sig- of the FPE did not significantly reduce the pro- nificant impact on attendance. In fact, provid- portion of children who never attended school. ing 10% more seats and desks could improve However, some progress was made in reducing attendance rates by 28%. This variable is more the disparity among the poor and the rich. The important than teacher qualifications, pupil- gap between poor and rich children in school teacher ratio or the completeness of the educa- attendance decreased from 6.7 percentage tion cycle offered, variables which are not sig- points to 2.1 percentage points in 2002: the ef- nificant predictors of school attendance. Indeed, fect of poverty on attendance is diminishing over for children who live close to the school, the time. Moreover, the gender gap has decreased impact is paramount. For children living farther slightly over time. Unfortunately, the 2002 data away, the physical condition of the school had do not contain information on student flow. no effect on attendance. However, improving Therefore, trends in student flow before and both the accessibility to schools and the physi- after the FPE could not be established using this cal conditions of existing schools (i.e., the avail- type of analysis. However, the analyses of stu- ability of desks and chairs) could significantly dent flow in Chapter 2 did indicate that repeti- increase children's participation rate and their tion and dropout may have been reduced and progression through primary education. The overall efficiency improved since the FPE was impact of such measures could be more effec- implemented. tive in improving school participation than We used benefit incidence analysis to ana- equipping existing schools with better qualified lyze the equity of education expenditures. Pub- teachers. lic spending on education in Lesotho benefits In terms of student flow as measured by the the rich disproportionately. Governments probability of promotion, repetition, and drop- worldwide are expected to reduce educational out, up to 10% of those who attended school inequities among their citizens by targeting pub- dropped out at the end of Standard 1 and 25% lic funds so that they provide extra benefit to repeated this year of study. All else being equal, the poor. However, government subsidies for boys were more likely to repeat than girls. While primary education in Lesotho are generally status as an orphan did not affect the likelihood equally distributed among the five different in- that a child would attend school, it did increase come groups. Further, at the secondary level, their likelihood of dropping out (5 percentage the poorest 20% of households receive only 104 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho 12% of public spending, while the richest 20% tion, as very few of the poor actually proceed to receives 31% of public spending. The magni- higher education at all. tude of the disparity is even larger for tertiary More specifically, a combination of demand- education. The two poorest quintiles receive side and supply-side interventions must be de- only 7% and 8% respectively, of government vised to ensure 100% participation and comple- spending, while the two richest quintiles receive tion of primary education in Lesotho. We learned 47% and 24% of government subsidies, respec- from the analysis that boys from poor rural ar- tively. Clearly, nearly 50% of the tertiary edu- eas and those who live in Quthing and Qacha's cation subsidies go to the richest 20% of house- Nek appear to have the lowest school attendance holds. rate. Further, they are more likely to dropout. The implications of such findings should be care- fully discussed and incorporated into the MOET G. Areas for Further ongoing programs such as the bursary programs. Policy Development Further the MOET should start piloting vari- ous programs target to the heads of households A few general policy directions can arise from to bring these children to school. Orphans, also, the findings in this section. Overall, in conjunc- though having similar attendance rates as non- tion with the findings on education spending in orphans, are proven to be more likely to repeat Chapter 3, the GOL must make a conscious ef- and dropout. fort to target the public spending on education On the supply side, it is clear that bringing disproportionately more toward the poor and schools closer to the communities remains a high disadvantaged group. One of the important roles priority still for the GOL, bearing in mind that a democratic government must play is to redis- as the distance to schools is reduced, the overall tribute society incomes. The government must cost and unit cost will rise. It is important that make sure that the poorest 20% of the popula- MOET has a clear policy and support for small tion receives overall more than 20% of total and multigrade schools. Further, equipping the spending on education. The most effective way schools with sufficient desks and chairs also of achieving that is to increase the share of edu- makes a significant impact on student partici- cation spending on primary and secondary and pation. Thus, it is important that these items reduce the share which goes to higher educa- are provided to schools in an efficient way. CHAPTER 5 Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education his chapter presents an overview of the As briefly explained in Chapter 2, the system T network of primary and secondary at both the primary and secondary levels is com- schools and its characteristics, and posed predominately of church schools, with documents the supply of services as re- about 87% of all primary schools owned by flected in urban-rural and regional dif- various denominations. As of 2003, 37.6% of ferences in facilities, in provision of textbooks, primary schools were Roman Catholic, 35.5% in staffing patterns, and in teacher allocation were LEC schools, and another 13% were ACL across schools. It also documents the disparity schools. The remaining 12.3% are secular in service delivery between multigrade and schools, with roughly 4% each being govern- monograde schools. Whenever data is available, ment schools, community schools, and private it also compares the service delivery before and and other schools. The situation is similar at the after the implementation of Free Primary Edu- secondary level where close to 90% of the sec- cation (FPE). Further, it provides a detailed ondary schools were owned and managed by analysis of student learning outcomes with par- the churches in 2003. ticular emphasis on primary education. As mentioned in Chapter 1, the Basotho ter- ritory can be divided into four ecological regions: mountains, lowlands, the Senqu River Valley, A. Overview of the Network of Schools and foothills; 40% of primary schools are lo- cated in mountain areas and 36% in lowlands. As of 2004, Lesotho had a network of 1480 Government, LEC, and Roman Catholic pri- primary schools and 257 secondary schools mary schools are more likely to be in mountain spread all over the country. In this section we areas (more than 40%) compared to the com- provide an overview of the institutional com- munity and other schools, which are most likely position of the system, its growth over time, and to be in lower areas. The Senqu River Valley the instructional services the schools offer. Since has few primary schools, a total of only 45. the 2004 data has not yet been finalized, we will The distribution of secondary schools is draw on data from years up to 2003 for detailed skewed much more in favor of the lowlands area, analysis. Due to this data limitation, less detailed where 64% of all secondary schools are located. information is available for secondary schools By comparison, 17% are located in the moun- than for primary schools. tain areas, 16% in the foothills, and 3% in the 105 106 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 5.1 Distribution of Primary and Secondary Schools by Location and Management Type in 2003 Primary Government Community LEC RCM ACL AME Other Private Total Number of Schools 61 55 481 509 176 24 47 2 1.355 Percentage 4.5 4.1 35.5 37.6 13.0 1.8 3.5 0.2 100.0 Distribution of Schools by Location (%) Mountains 42.6 10.9 41.0 47.0 35.2 33.3 17.0 50.0 40.4 Lowlands 39.3 74.6 33.9 28.1 39.2 58.3 66.0 50.0 35.9 Senqu River Valley 4.9 0.0 3.5 3.9 2.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.3 Foothills 6.6 14.6 21.6 21.0 22.7 8.3 14.9 0.0 20.1 Unknown 6.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.1 0.0 0.4 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Secondary Government Community LEC RCM ACL AME Other Private Total Number of Schools 21 12 68 78 29 5 8 2 223 Percentage 9 5 30 35 13 2 4 1 100 Distribution of Schools by Location (%) Mountains 14 8 19 22 14 0 0 50 17 Lowlands 76 75 59 54 76 100 88 50 64 Senqu River Valley 5 0 6 3 0 0 0 0 3 Foothills 5 17 16 22 10 0 13 0 16 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Senqu River Valley. The Roman Catholic Church schools were set up. In 1999, there were only 5 runs 35% of the nation's secondary schools and non-denominational government and 40 com- LEC runs another 30%. munity primary schools. By 2003, these num- bers had grown to 61 and 55 respectively. In- deed, information from the 2004 school census B. Growth of the System indicates that there are now 126 government and almost 70 community primary schools. The Basotho school system has grown over time. The numbers of secondary schools is also With the government's commitment to propa- growing steadily but less quickly; 20 were set gate education, the number of primary schools up and registered between 1999 and 2004, along and classrooms has risen steadily since 1974 (see with another 23 unregistered secondary schools. Figure 5.1), and particularly over the last few This growth is a direct result of a conscious years. Since 1999, both the number of primary government effort and policy, starting in 1999, schools and the average school size has been to increase primary and secondary enrollment growing. The number of primary schools grew by establishing new non-denominational gov- by 7% between 1999 and 2003, largely because ernment and community schools. Before 1999, new government and community primary the government, with support from other part- Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 107 Figure 5.1 Number of Primary Schools and Classrooms 1400 10000 Classrooms 1200 Schools 8000 1000 6000 800 600 4000 400 2000 200 0 0 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 1 ners including the IDA, was also providing ad- all other types of primary schools have grown ditional classrooms to church-owned schools. larger over the same time period. Indeed the balancing of power between the gov- The average school size for secondary schools ernment and church-based organizations is cru- also increased slightly, from about 338 in 1999 cial to recent policy making in the education to 365 in 2003. As shown in Table 5.3, second- sector. The Education Act stipulates a tripartite ary schools in the mountain areas tend to be the management of Basotho schools: though schools smallest, averaging 253 students. By agency, the may be owned by church organizations or com- community schools tend to be the smallest. munities, the government pays for all the teach- Therefore, the community schools located in the ers (though schools may hire additional private mountain areas are the smallest, with an aver- teachers using their own funds). Tension has age enrollment of 91 students, raising the issue grown between the church and the government. of how efficient such small schools can be. The government feels the churches are not as responsive as they could be and are not suffi- ciently accountable for educational outcomes. C. Selected Characteristics of Schools The average school size appears to be increas- ing in Lesotho for both primary and secondary In this section, we discuss in detail the provi- schools (see Table 5.2). As of 2003, an average sion of educational services as defined by the Lesotho primary school had about 317 students. prevalence of multigrade teaching, the extent The government (and private) schools seem to of "incomplete" schools, average class size, be smaller on average than the community and availability of desks and chairs, average num- church schools. Interestingly, even though aver- ber of books per pupil, distance to school, and age school size is increasing, the size of the aver- staffing (non-teacher) patterns. Teachers and age government school actually decreased from teacher management will be discussed in Sec- 307 in 1999 to 218 in 2003. On the other hand, tion D. Whenever possible, we compare multi- 108 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 5.2 Average Size of Primary Schools 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Average Average Average Average Average School School School School School Schools Size Schools Size Schools Size Schools Size Schools Size Government 5 307 6 322 18 169 39 194 61 218 Community 40 280 46 281 49 281 54 295 55 326 LEC 478 291 479 328 480 330 481 328 481 330 RCM 508 283 508 318 508 318 509 313 509 316 ACL 176 300 176 333 176 333 176 329 176 333 AME 23 192 23 216 23 215 24 222 24 227 Others 42 278 42 311 47 309 47 306 47 311 Private 1 57 1 50 2 136 2 146 2 245 Total 1.273 287 1.281 320 1.303 318 1.332 314 1.355 317 Table 5.3 Average Size of Secondary Schools 2003 Agency Foothills Lowlands Mountain Senqu River Valley Total ACL 332 419 183 0 377 AME 0 363 0 0 363 Community 65 343 91 0 281 Government 98 516 231 97 420 LEC 300 368 202 576 337 Other 171 389 0 0 361 Private 0 293 508 0 364 RCM 378 412 303 525 383 Total 317 403 253 443 364 grade schools with monograde schools in terms (Table 5.4). Nationally, 62.4% of all primary of the equity of various inputs. More informa- schools practice multigrade teaching. The pro- tion is available for primary than for secondary portion is highest among government and AME schools. schools where more than 70% of schools use multigrade. As might be expected, multigrade Multigrade Teaching is most common in remote areas, which may have the greatest difficulty in attracting trained The majority of primary schools in Lesotho use teachers. Eighty-five percent of mountain multi-grade teaching for at least some grades schools and 69% of Senqu River schools prac- Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 109 Table 5.4 Percentage of Schools Using Multigrade Teaching Government Community LEC RCM ACL AME Other Private Total Mountains 73.1% 100.0% 85.8% 86.6% 83.9% 100.0% 62.5% 100.0% 85.4% Lowlands 66.7% 61.0% 39.3% 34.3% 40.6% 57.1% 64.5% 100.0% 43.4% Senqu River Valley 100.0% 64.7% 65.0% 80.0% 68.9% Foothills 75.0% 50.0% 51.9% 43.9% 52.5% 50.0% 42.9% 48.9% Unknown 50.0% 100.0% 60.0% Total 70.5% 63.6% 62.0% 62.1% 59.7% 70.8% 61.7% 100.0% 62.4% tice multigrade, as compared to 49% of foothill Grade 7, in response to parent dislike of incom- schools and 43% of lowland schools. plete schools. Where an unauthorized Grade 7 This is consistent with the government's policy is added, this is almost always done using a mul- that the number of classrooms constructed is tigrade approach. determined by the school-age population in the In most of the cases where multigrade is prac- catchment area. The Education Facility Unit in ticed, the teacher teaches 2 grades at the same the MOET has standard designs for 4-classroom time (Table 5.5). However, 21% of multigrade and 7-classroom schools to cater to the varying teachers teach 3 grades, and over 9% teach 4 or populations. Indeed, this policy is also encour- more grades. aged by the development partners as a cost-ef- Despite the widespread use of multigrade fective strategy for school construction. The teaching, there is little support or training pro- smaller school size allows schools to be located vided for multigrade teachers. The MOET closer to remote communities, which is particu- commissioned a study on multigrade teaching larly important in view of the impact of distance in primary schools in November 2004 on attendance. (Moshapane, 2004). This study reported that: Multigrade teaching is also found in some incomplete schools (schools which teach Grade · There was no official policy on multigrade 1-6). Some incomplete schools offer an "illegal" teaching and very little support is provided. Table 5.5 Proportion of Multigrade Teachers by Number of Grades Taught Government Community LEC RCM ACL AME Other Private Total 2 grades 70.0 54.9 71.6 70.4 72.9 68.3 66.7 62.5 69.9 3 grades 13.0 23.8 21.6 21.1 23.5 14.6 14.8 37.5 21.0 4 grades 11.0 8.2 3.2 5.5 2.0 9.8 9.9 0.0 4.9 5 grades 2.0 1.6 1.1 0.8 0.8 2.4 6.2 0.0 1.3 6 grades 0.0 2.5 1.1 0.8 0.0 2.4 0.0 0.0 0.9 7 grades 4.0 9.0 1.4 1.5 0.8 2.4 2.5 0.0 2.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 110 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho · The National Curriculum Development Cen- they are trying to keep up with the government's ter had no provision for multigrade teaching general commitment to improve the delivery of in the development of curriculum materials. educational services, a rising percentage of pri- · The Lesotho College of Education does not mary schools are offering the full seven years train teachers for multigrade teaching. of schooling; this percentage has risen from · Professional support to teachers did not dis- 35% in 1974 to 78% in 2002. However, as of tinguish between multigrade and mono-grade 2003, more than 20% of schools nationwide teaching. still were not offering the entire seven years of instruction. This means that multigrade teachers also rely As Table 5.6 reveals, there are strong regional on the support from District Resource Teachers disparities in this situation. While only 9% of who help the teams with record keeping, pro- schools in the lowlands are still offering incom- grams of work, lesson plans, time-tables, and plete cycles, over a third of those in the moun- school administration. Some multigrade schools tain areas do so (35%), followed by the Senqu in remote areas are also assisted by the Peace River Valley (22%). These disparities also ex- Corp Volunteers from the USA in an ad hoc way. tend to type of school: 75% of government schools do not offer complete cycles, though "Incomplete Schools" most offer up to the fourth grade. The majority of community schools (27% incomplete) and The primary school cycle in Lesotho is seven church schools (below 20% incomplete) offer years, but various constraints keep schools from classes through sixth grade. All private schools being able to offer the complete cycle. Because offer the complete cycle. Table 5.6 Proportion of Schools Offering an Incomplete Cycle of Instruction Schools Offering Incomplete Cycle of Instruction Government Community LEC RCM ACL AME Other Private Total Mountains 73.1% 66.7% 36.5% 31.8% 29.0% 12.5% 37.5% 0.0% 35.3% Lowlands 70.8% 17.1% 5.5% 2.1% 8.7% 7.1% 6.5% 0.0% 9.3% Senqu River Valley 100.0% 5.9% 20.0% 40.0% 22.2% Foothills 75.0% 50.0% 10.6% 11.2% 15.0% 50.0% 0.0% 13.6% Unknown 100.0% 0.0% 80.0% Total 75.4% 27.3% 19.3% 18.7% 18.2% 12.5% 10.6% 0.0% 21.3% Distribution of Schools According to Highest Grade Offered Grade 3 4.9 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.1 0.0 0.4 Grade 4 60.7 9.1 1.5 1.6 1.1 0.0 2.1 0.0 4.4 Grade 5 3.3 5.5 2.7 3.5 4.0 4.2 4.3 0.0 3.4 Grade 6 6.6 12.7 15.0 13.6 13.1 8.3 2.1 0.0 13.1 Grade 7 24.6 72.7 80.7 81.3 81.8 87.5 89.4 100.0 78.7 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 111 This situation may have evolved because of Students Per Classroom or the government's policy of constructing a num- Average Class Size ber of classrooms that is consistent with the number of school-age children in the catchment The number of students per classroom provides area. The Education Facility Unit in the MOET another important indicator for evaluating has standard designs for 4-classroom and 7- school and learning characteristics. Overall, de- classroom schools to cater to the variations in spite the government's recent efforts to build population. Indeed, development partners also classrooms, the average number of pupils per endorse this policy as being more cost-effec- primary classroom remains too high, at 71. Table tive. The smaller school size allows additional 5.7 also reveals a large disparity across the re- classrooms to be added in the future and to gions. Schools in the mountain and Senqu River bring education closer to the remote commu- Valley zones are most crowded, with an aver- nities. age of more than 80 students per classroom as Table 5.7 Average Number of Pupils Per Primary Classroom Pupils Per Classroom Government Community LEC RCM ACL AME Other Private Total All schools Mountains 53 107 83 84 84 72 75 21 82 Lowlands 41 51 65 59 68 52 55 31 60 Senqu River Valley 167 69 81 60 80 Foothills 39 44 68 78 59 60 54 69 Unknown 42 76 49 Total 52 57 73 75 71 59 59 26 71 Schools with multigrade teaching Mountains 45 107 84 86 88 72 82 21 84 Lowlands 34 51 56 62 64 43 55 31 56 Senqu River Valley 167 60 74 67 77 Foothills 44 38 67 80 46 87 51 67 Unknown 37 76 50 Total 50 60 74 80 72 59 60 26 73 Schools with monograde teaching Mountains 71 72 76 64 63 73 Lowlands 54 52 70 57 70 64 55 64 Senqu River Valley 87 93 40 86 Foothills 22 49 69 76 75 33 56 72 Unknown 48 48 Total 57 52 71 68 70 60 56 68 112 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho compared to 69 in the foothills and only 60 in Percentage of Students without the lowlands. Seats and Desks Private schools have the lowest pupil per class- room ratio, at only 26. Among the other types, Another challenge to the delivery of adequate government schools fare the best with about 52 education is the widespread lack of seats and pupils per classroom (except for the government desks for students (see Table 5.9). In 2003, schools in the Senqu River Valley which aver- 32.6% of pupils in primary schools had neither age 167 pupils per classroom). The more a seat nor a desk. This situation is particularly crowded classrooms can also be found in the severe in the mountain areas where it is true of RCM, LEC and ACL schools which average almost half the students (46.5%), as compared more than 70 pupils per classroom. to 32.8% in the Senqu River Valley, 28% in the Comparing multigrade with monograde foothills, and only 20% in the lowlands. schools, on average the multigrade schools have Looking at types of schools, the AME schools more crowded classrooms (73 vs. 68). As tend to have the highest proportion of students shown in Table 5.7, multigrade schools in with no seat or desk (40%) and the government mountain areas and monograde schools in the schools have the lowest proportion, at 28%. Senqu River Valley have the most crowded Comparing multigrade and monograde schools, classrooms (86 and 84 per classroom, respec- we find a huge a disparity in the provision of tively). desks and seats: 40.7% of pupils in multigrade At the secondary level, the national average schools have neither seats nor desks, compared class size is a very reasonable 40 students. How- to only 19.3% in monograde schools. ever, secondary schools located in the mountain areas tend to have fewer students per classroom Number of Books Per Primary Pupil (average 37). Community schools located in the foothills and mountain areas have the lowest In the past, Lesotho implemented a relatively class sizes, at about 22 or 23, indicating that successful primary textbook rental program. In the capacity of some secondary schools may be effect, however, the introduction of FPE abol- underutilized (see Table 5.8) ished this scheme since FPE promises to provide Table 5.8 Average Number of Pupils per Secondary Classroom Agency Foothills Lowlands Mountain Senqu River Valley Total ACL 40 40 30 0 39 AME 0 35 0 0 35 Community 22 39 23 0 38 Government 25 41 41 64 41 LEC 43 41 42 52 42 Other 21 39 0 0 37 Private 0 37 46 0 40 RCM 37 39 35 44 38 Total 38 40 37 50 40 Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 113 Table 5.9 Proportion of Primary Pupils with no Seat or Desk Pupils with no Seat or Desk (%) Government Community LEC RCM ACL AME Other Private Total All schools Mountain 41.6% 51.0% 44.2% 46.5% 55.0% 62.2% 40.5% 0.0% 46.5% Lowlands 13.3% 23.0% 19.3% 18.0% 20.0% 33.4% 28.1% 0.0% 20.0% Senqu River Valley 66.7% 29.6% 25.9% 51.1% 32.8% Foothills 25.0% 47.9% 26.2% 26.9% 31.4% 0.0% 38.3% 28.0% Unknown 2.5% 0.0% 2.0% Total 28.0% 29.7% 31.4% 33.6% 35.8% 40.2% 31.1% 0.0% 32.6% Schools with multigrade teaching Mountain 46.0% 51.0% 47.2% 50.2% 60.2% 62.2% 48.3% 0.0% 50.1% Lowlands 12.6% 23.9% 24.6% 28.9% 27.9% 39.3% 27.0% 0.0% 25.7% Senqu River Valley 66.7% 30.9% 34.5% 57.3% 39.3% Foothills 0.0% 61.0% 29.0% 33.7% 38.7% 0.0% 42.9% 32.6% Unknown 5.1% 0.0% 3.4% Total 29.9% 32.8% 38.5% 43.8% 47.2% 47.8% 31.4% 0.0% 40.7% Schools with monograde teaching Mountain 29.6% 25.7% 22.3% 28.4% 27.6% 25.1% Lowlands 14.7% 21.5% 16.0% 12.4% 14.6% 25.6% 30.1% 15.6% Senqu River Valley 27.3% 9.9% 26.4% 18.5% Foothills 100.0% 34.7% 23.2% 21.6% 23.4% 0.0% 34.9% 23.6% Unknown 0.0% 0.0% Total 23.6% 24.1% 19.8% 16.8% 19.1% 21.9% 30.7% 19.3% free textbooks and stationery for classroom At the secondary level, the availability of work as part of the package. Overall, compared books has also improved markedly since 1999, to other developing countries where several chil- when it was only 0.2 per student, to 1.9 in 2004. dren tend to share one textbook, the provision Obviously, 2004 saw a significant increase, as of textbooks looks very good in Lesotho and the government introduced a textbook rental the situation has improved since FPE was intro- program for lower secondary students. With duced. In 1999 the average pupil had 4.9 books; support from the World Bank, the program pro- this number rose to 5.7 in 2003. vides for a stock of core textbooks. The rental Evaluating schools by management type, the fee, set at M220 per packet of books, was meant government, community, and private schools to allow schools to replenish their book sup- average fewer books per pupil (3.6, 4.7, and 3.7) plies and to cater to increased enrollment. Ac- compared to church-owned schools which aver- cording to the consultancy report, the program age more than 5 books per pupil (see Table 5.10). is expected to be self-sustainable. However, the 114 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 5.10 Average Number of Books Per Primary Pupil 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Primary Government 3.7 8.1 3.2 3.1 3.6 Community 3.6 4.7 4.7 4.0 4.7 LEC 5.0 5.1 5.3 5.7 6.1 RCM 4.9 5.3 5.0 5.7 5.8 ACL 5.5 5.5 4.9 5.6 5.4 AME 3.4 5.6 3.7 4.7 5.9 Others 4.8 5.8 4.8 5.0 4.7 Private 0.0 6.6 0.0 0.5 3.7 Total 4.9 5.2 5.0 5.5 5.7 Secondary Government 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 2.1 1.9 Community 0.2 0.1 0.9 0.3 0.2 2.0 LEC 0.2 0.2 1.9 0.9 1.4 1.9 RCM 0.2 0.2 1.5 0.4 1.1 2.1 ACL 0.2 0.2 2.1 1.1 1.4 2.2 AME 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Other 0.2 0.2 2.9 0.2 0.2 0.5 Private 0.5 0.5 4.1 0.2 0.1 1.0 Total 0.2 0.2 1.6 0.6 1.2 1.9 unit cost of textbooks did not fall as much as for each district. According to the findings from expected, because Lesotho's relatively small the 2002 CWIQ, nearly 60% of primary school market for textbooks prevents it from attract- students in rural areas take more than 30 min- ing a sufficient number of publishers to bid. utes to get to school, compared to 40% of ur- Furthermore, instead of focusing on the core ban primary students. The situation is consid- textbooks for lower secondary, the government erably more difficult at the secondary level: decided to include all the subjects in the rental about 85% of rural students take longer than a program, resulting in about 14 core textbooks half hour to get to school, and nearly 60% need and another 3 to 5 non-core books. The situa- over an hour. On the other hand, 14% of the tion must be carefully monitored and the pro- urban secondary students say it takes them over gram reworked if necessary. an hour. Schools in the districts of Qucha's Neck, Butha-Buthe, Leribe, and Maseru recorded rela- Distance to Schools tively short distances from households to the nearest schools. On the other hand, in Mohale's Table 5.11 shows the average walking distance Hoek, Thaba-Tseka, Brea, Quthing, and to the nearest primary and secondary school Mafeteng, more than 20% of households are Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 115 Table 5.11 Percent Distribution of Households by Time (in minutes) to Reach Nearest Primary and Secondary School 2002 Primary Secondary (minutes) 15< 15­29 30­59 60+ 15< 15­29 30­59 60+ Districts Butha-Buthe 23.3 32.9 32.1 11.7 11.9 23 33.2 31.8 Leribe 20.8 27 33.4 18.8 14 19.2 29 37.8 Berea 16.2 19.7 39.9 24.2 5.7 9.9 35.7 48.8 Maseru 20 31.9 31.5 16.6 9.2 22.3 35.1 33.4 Mafeteng 18 21.8 39.2 21.1 5.7 9.6 22.4 62.4 Mohale's Hoek 11.2 22.1 37.5 29.1 2.9 9.2 18.1 69.8 Quthing 8.3 27.4 41.2 23.1 3.2 11.6 35.9 49.3 Qacha's Nek 35.5 28.5 28.8 7.3 13 23.8 26.4 36.8 Mokhotlong 35 26.7 26 12.2 7.3 16.1 26.4 50.3 Thaba-Tseka 21 21 31.1 27 9.8 13.7 17.6 58.9 Rural 18.3 22.9 34.7 24.1 5.4 10.8 25.2 58.6 Urban 25.4 35.5 31.8 7.2 16.7 31.3 38.3 13.7 Source: CWIQ 2002 located over an hour's walk from the nearest At the district level, education management primary school. is housed within district resource centers which are headed by senior education officers. In an Staffing Pattern (non-teacher) effort to decentralize, several educational de- partments now operate in the districts. These As described in Chapter 2, the education sys- include the field inspectorate, the Teacher Ser- tem is managed by the Ministry of Education vice Department, the Lesotho College of Edu- and Training (MOET) at the central, district, cation, the National Curriculum Development and school levels. At the central level, MOET is Center, and services in early childhood educa- headed by a minister (assisted by an assistant tion and non-formal education. District resource minister). The principal secretary, who is the teachers (DRTs) and senior resource teachers ministry's administrative head and chief account- (SRTs) are responsible for providing school-level ing officer, is assisted at the executive level by a support. The DRTs and SRTs were appointed staff that includes the deputy principal secretary; in the mid 1980s as part of a larger project, but five chief education officers responsible for pri- have since been mainstreamed into the ministry's mary, secondary, teaching service, curriculum activities. A DRT or SRT is a support person, services, and tertiary education; the directors of usually a former principal of a primary school, education planning and technical and vocational appointed to look after a small number of iso- education; and the secretary general of the na- lated rural schools. Not all schools have a re- tional commission for UNESCO. source teacher assigned, as the number is lim- 116 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho ited, and the aim is to support the most remote tion services, and they are the front-line work- schools. ers with direct responsibility for managing teach- Chapter 3, on education spending, docu- ing and learning processes in the classroom. Thus mented that less than 5% of total education the profiles of teachers, and of their deployment spending goes to administration, including both in the system across schools, are highly perti- central and district levels. However, the DRTs nent aspects of the education system. and the SRTs continued to be counted as teach- ers, rather than administrators. Lesotho has a Primary Teachers total of about 85 resource teachers. At the school level, administrative staff ac- Lesotho has a teaching force of 9,294 primary count for a very small share of government teachers (2003 data), of whom approximately spending on education. In fact, while all primary one third are untrained. The expansion of the schools are headed by principals--sometimes system following the introduction of FPE has assisted by deputies--the principals and their resulted in a shortage of teachers, and the num- deputies continue to share teaching with other ber of untrained primary teachers has increased teachers and they continue to be categorized as rapidly, rising from 1,809 in 1999 to 3,035 by teachers. In most schools the principal teaches 2003. Teachers are considered untrained if they one class. The ministry guidelines state that the do not have a formal qualification in teaching. principal should teach unless the school has more However, many of the untrained teachers do than 800 pupils. have a secondary education and a Cambridge Overseas School Certificate (COSC). Indeed in Lesotho, almost 90% of primary teachers (Table D. Teachers and Teacher Management 5.12) have at least a COSC qualification which is equivalent to more than 12 years of formal In this section, we will focus on teacher and education. And yet, more than 30% are still con- teacher management issues. Teachers are the sidered "unqualified" because of the lack of single most important item of public spending teaching qualification. on education. They are the main resource that Across school types, the distribution of teacher schools, particularly at the lower levels, have at qualifications remains similar and a majority of their disposal to organize the delivery of educa- teachers have at least a COSC. However, it is Table 5.12 Primary Teacher Qualifications and Level of Education, 2003 Teacher Qualifications % of Primary Teachers Primary school (7 years of formal education) 0.4 Junior Certificate (10 years of formal education) 11.1 COSC (12 years of formal education) 21.1 COSC and pre-service training 36.0 COSC and in-service training 24.0 Higher education and pre-service training 0.2 Higher education and in-service training 0.8 Unknown 6.5 Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 117 Figure 5.2 Primary Teachers: Number and Qualification 10000 Degree Certificate 8000 Unqualified 6000 4000 2000 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Source: MOET worth noting that there are no unqualified teach- not have teaching-specific certificates (See Ap- ers in the private schools. Government schools pendix 5.1). This may reflect the recent increase have the highest proportion of unqualified teach- in the number of government schools, coincid- ers since more than 51% of their teachers do ing with the shortage of qualified teachers. Figure 5.2 Secondary Teachers: Number and Qualification 4000 Qualified 3500 Unqualified 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Source: MOET 118 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 5.13 Secondary Teacher Qualifications % of Secondary Teachers Masters Degree 4 Bachelors Degree 50 Diploma 13 Advanced Certificates 1 Secondary Teachers Certificate 17 Secondary Technical Teachers Certificate 2 Teachers Certificate 1 Cambridge Overseas School Certificate 8 Joint Matriculation Board Certificate 0 Primary Teachers Certificate 1 Other Certificates 1 COSC & JC Plus In-Service Education 0 Associate of the College of Preceptors 3 Unknown 1 Comparing teachers in multigrade classrooms Table 5.13 indicates that over 50% of sec- with those in mongrade classrooms, 43% of ondary teachers in Lesotho are graduates, and multigrade teachers are unqualified, compared 4% hold masters degrees. Many of the non- with 29% of mono-grade teachers. Further, graduate teachers have a diploma or advanced among unqualified teachers, a higher propor- certificate (14%), while others hold either a Sec- tion of the multigrade teachers have junior cer- ondary Teachers Certificate or Secondary Tech- tificates or below qualifications (15% versus nical Teachers Certificate (19%). However there 10%). See Appendix 5.1. remain teachers with only a COSC (8%) or other An unusual feature of the system is the pres- school-level qualifications. ence of "volunteer" teachers in some schools. These volunteer teachers, who typically leave school at a young age, and who cannot find a job, volunteer to teach in the local schools in Table 5.14 the hopes of getting employed if a vacancy arises. Primary Teachers: Gender and Location Secondary Teachers % Female Teachers Foothills 79 Lesotho has 3,470 secondary teachers (2003 Lowlands 83 data). Although there are some unqualified sec- ondary teachers, the proportion has been de- Mountain 71 creasing slowly in recent years, and in 2003 only Senqu River Valley 74 11% of secondary teachers were unqualified. Total 79 Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 119 Teacher Gender 70% of the teacher population. Gender is more balanced for secondary teachers where only 55% Most of the primary teachers are female. Over- of secondary teachers are female and 45% are all, almost 80% of teachers are female. In moun- male. For both primary and secondary teach- tain areas there are slightly more male teachers, ers, the gender balance has remained fairly con- but even there, females account for more than stant over recent years. Figure 5.3 Primary Teachers and Gender 1999­2003. 8000 Females 7000 Males 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Figure 5.4 Secondary Teachers and Gender 1999­2003 Figure 5.4: Secondary Teachers and Gender 1999-2003 2000 Females Males 1500 1000 500 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 120 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Teacher Attrition Table 5.15 Attrition of Primary Teachers, 2004 Primary teaching is a relatively stable profession Cause Number % of a Attrition in Lesotho. Many teachers remain in the service until retirement age. Retirement is compulsory Retirement 104 27 at 65, but some teachers even request extensions Death 117 31 of service after that date. Current teachers have Dismissal 10 3 an average of 14.2 years of teaching service, Resignation 149 39 which, given the recent expansion of the num- ber of teachers, is an indication of the stability Total 380 of the profession. Female teachers have, on av- erage, 2.5 years more service than males. In 2004, 380 teachers left the profession paign of voluntary testing and counseling car- (Table 5.15), making an attrition rate of 3%. ried out by MOET. Voluntary testing was of- Attrition can be divided into three main causes. fered to headquarters staff and teachers in seven Teachers reaching retirement accounted for 27% districts. Only 6% of the staff was tested, but of attrition. A further 39% was attributed to the results showed that 22% of them were HIV teacher resignation before retirement, possibly positive. Infection rates were higher among moving to other employment. And death ac- males than females and higher in Maseru than counted for 31%. in other districts. The infection rate is expected to increase in HIV/AIDS and the Teaching Force the coming years. The impact of this high infec- tion rate can be seen directly in teacher attri- The HIV/AIDS epidemic has a significant im- tion. Teacher deaths, many of which are attrib- pact on the teaching force. Lesotho has an esti- utable to HIV, amount to 1% of the total teacher mated HIV prevalence rate of 29% (World Bank force each year. In addition, HIV is responsible Edstats, 2003). Some indication of teacher-spe- for increased teacher illness and loss of produc- cific infection rates are provided by a 2003 cam- tivity in the system. Table 5.16 Prevalence of HIV/Aids among Education Sector Staff Tested % HIV Positive Location Total # of Staff Male Female Male Female HQ 90 260 35.6 13.1 Mohale's Hoek 1,041 65 211 18.5 16.1 Thaba-Tseka 684 166 302 15.1 14.2 Berea 1,053 112 185 16.1 24.9 Maseru 2,810 94 266 64.9 36.1 Mafeteng 1,427 11 52 27.3 13.5 Leribe 2,150 18 57 11.1 10.5 Quthing 782 13 52 30.8 25.0 Total 9,947 569 1,385 27.6 20.1 Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 121 Teacher Training The government policy is to require all pri- mary teachers to have at least COSC plus pre- The main source of qualified primary teachers or in-service training in Diploma of Education is the Lesotho College of Education (LCE). LCE programs. The old primary teaching certificate operates a full time, three year course for school programs are being phased out both in pre-ser- leavers known as the Diploma in Education, vice as well as in in-service programs. The up- Primary (DEP). This is intended to have 250 stu- grading of unqualified teachers is currently be- dents per year, but because of limited capacity ing provided by programs at the Lesotho Col- at LCE, it has not reached that number. In 2004 lege of Education in its pre and in-service pro- there were 183 graduates. grams. An important consideration is that once At present the pre-service course is not train- teachers move from unqualified to qualified ing enough new primary teachers each year to teachers, their annual salary automatically in- replace the numbers lost through attrition. This creases by more than 60%, raising questions on is creating a shortage of qualified primary the cost and the fiscal sustainability of school teachers, which is likely to be exacerbated by expansion. reductions in the pupil-teacher ratio. As a re- Secondary teachers are trained in two insti- sult, increasing numbers of untrained teachers tutions. Lesotho College of Education provides have been recruited. In addition to the pre-ser- a Diploma in Education (Secondary) (DES), and vice course, LCE offers two programs aimed a Diploma in Technology Education (DTE). at providing training for unqualified primary The National University of Lesotho (NUL) of- teachers: fers a Bachelor of Education degree which ca- ters to undergraduates aspiring to be second- 1. Diploma in Primary Education (DPE) is a 2 ary school teachers. (need information on # of year full time course for teachers with some graduates). experience, usually unqualified teachers, or teachers with lower level qualifications. Last Teacher Deployment and Allocation year there were 60 graduates from this course. 2. In January 2002, the LCE started to offer the Teacher deployment is based on local hiring of Distance Teacher Education Program (DTEP). teachers. The Ministry "grants" teachers to This is a part time course for in-service teach- schools in response to school population and ers. It is offered by distance education, using budget considerations. Once the school is a mix of residential sessions, meetings with granted a post, the school management commit- tutors in locations around the country, and tee can select the teacher. When the teacher is text materials. In its first year the program identified, the papers are sent to the Teacher took in 500 teachers. A further 100 teachers Service Commission for approval. with COSC started at the beginning of year This local hiring system has a number of im- 2. This pattern has been continuing since, with plications. First, teachers apply directly to unqualified teachers starting at year 1 and schools where they would be willing to work. others joining at year 2. As the course is fairly There is therefore no pattern of teachers refus- new, the first graduates will not emerge until ing postings--individuals unwilling to work in 2006. There has been some dropout, but at a particular area do not apply for posts in that present, there are 536 in year 3, from the 600 area. Second, the ability to select teachers lo- taken in. Although the academic requirements cally makes it more likely that local people will for entry were lower than for the conventional be appointed, and encourages the volunteer course, the curriculum was designed to par- teachers, who may be more likely to get a post allel the full time course. if they are known in the school. 122 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho On the other hand, the local hiring system is school. In particular, church authorities may open to local influence. The ministry percep- be sensitive about erosion of their schools and tion is that, although posts are advertised, many resist teacher transfer. schools have a person in mind before they be- gin the selection process. In some cases this re- As Sesotho is the first language for the ma- sults in a local person being appointed in pref- jority of the population, language is not nor- erence to an outsider. There have even been cases mally a constraint on teacher deployment. How- of qualified teachers being rejected by commu- ever, a small number of the population does nities wishing to hire a local unqualified teacher. speak minority languages, and finding compe- In schools where there are volunteer teachers, tent teachers for them also presents challenges. there may be expectations of getting a paid po- To encourage teachers to locate in rural areas, sition when one becomes available. In some there is a hardship allowance paid as a flat fee of cases where these expectations have not been 275M per month. This is generally acknowledged satisfied, there have been tensions within the to be too small to encourage the more highly community. Further, strong local control may qualified teachers to locate in remote areas. As it also cause uneven deployment within schools. is a flat fee, it is proportionally more significant Teachers in powerful positions may be assigned for the lowest paid teachers. The hardship al- to the smallest classes, leaving the largest classes lowance is determined by very general classifica- to the least experienced teachers. tions of schools. Teachers in remote schools in In addition, the local recruitment system the lowlands do not receive the allowance, while makes the rational distribution of teachers dif- teachers in town in mountain districts do. ficult, for a number of reasons: Overall, analysis of the school census confirms that, across about 1,355 primary schools that · First, the process of appointing a teacher is existed in 2003, there is a general correlation fairly long, and involves different parts of the between enrollment size and the number of ministry, church authorities and local man- teachers (R2 = 81.8%), but there is also a wide agement committees. Inefficiency, poor com- variation in the number of teachers for schools munication and bureaucratic delays mean that enrolling a similar number of pupils (Figure 5.5). some schools do not take up the posts granted For instance, there are between 100 and 750 to them, or that there may be long delays be- pupils for 10 teachers at the school level; simi- fore a teacher is in place. larly, schools enrolling 500 pupils may have · Second, the ministry finds it difficult to trans- teachers numbering between 6 and 18. This wide fer teachers from schools where numbers are range suggests inequitable distribution of pri- falling. The construction of new schools in mary teachers. The random of teacher alloca- rural areas is causing a fall in numbers in some tion can be indicated by a randomness measure of the older schools. In addition, in some cases which is equal to 100 minus the R-square, which schools were built quite close to each other is about 18 in Lesotho. (often schools of different religious denomi- Analysis of teacher deployment by region in- nations) and now that these accept students dicates that the relationship between pupil and of any denomination they compete for stu- teacher numbers is weakest in the mountain ar- dents. Where a school is perceived to be of eas (See appendix 5.4). poor quality, parents may move their children to nearby schools, or withdraw them alto- Rural Teachers gether, causing falling enrolment in some schools. School authorities are reluctant to There are particular problems in rural areas. allow a teacher to be transferred out of a Lesotho has some very mountainous areas where Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 123 Figure 5.5 Relationship Between Numbers of Teachers and Students in Primary School, 2003 40 y = 0.0173x + 1.3749 35 R2 = 0.8178 30 25 Teachers of 20 15 Number 10 5 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Number of Students Source: School Census (2003) travel is difficult and infrastructure is poor. The ties makes rural areas unattractive to many ministry is trying to reach the children in these people, and the rural schools may find it more remote areas, using a sophisticated school map- difficult to attract qualified teachers. As a re- ping exercise. The aim is to provide a school sult, 51% of the teachers in mountain areas are within 3km of every child, on the assumption unqualified, compared with only 24% in low- that 3km is the equivalent of about one hour's land areas. Even these figures may mask greater walk. Given the dispersed population, schools teacher shortages in the most isolated schools. in rural areas are generally smaller than those In rural areas it is not uncommon to find schools in urban areas. with only one qualified teacher. Accurate data on the rural-urban disparities Teacher absenteeism is also reported to be a is difficult to obtain, as this is not tracked and problem in rural areas. These schools are very recorded in routine reports. The lack of facili- remote, and it can take a day's travel to reach a town. Most teachers leave the school to col- lect their checks, which can involve an absence Table 5.17 of three days. Other factors also cause absen- Percentage of Teachers who are Unqualified teeism. Even a visit to a doctor can take three by Location or four days. Where a teacher's home is some % Unqualified Female Male distance away from the school, travel home Total on weekends is difficult, and may result in teacher absenteeism on Monday or Friday. Foothills 35 58 39 Teacher absenteeism is compounded by pupil Lowlands 21 39 24 absenteeism, as pupils are withdrawn by their Mountain 47 60 51 families for domestic tasks and minding cattle. Senqu River Valley 26 59 35 124 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Teacher Utilization hours are reduced, as teachers share the time in the available classrooms. All primary teachers have the same official work- An indicator of the scale of teacher under- ing hours. Schools work from 8am to 2:30pm, utilization caused by classroom shortage can be with some local variations. All teachers are calculated from the relationship between pupil- trained to teach the entire curriculum without teacher ratio and pupil-classroom ratio. If teach- subject specialization. Within some schools there ers share the available classroom time, then the may be subject specialization arrangements, at national average workload is really 4.3 hours the discretion of the management. In most per day instead of the official 6.5 hours ((46/ schools the principal also teaches a class. The 71) * 6.5=4.2 hours). ministry guidelines require that the principal The under-utilization of teachers resulting should teach unless the school has more than from classroom shortage is greatest in moun- 800 pupils. Multi-shift teaching is not practiced, tain areas. Using the theoretical teaching load although mentioned in the original plan for FPE. calculation, teachers teach only 3.9 hours per The ministry guidelines suggest that the quali- day in mountain areas, compared with 4.8 hours fied teachers be assigned to the lowest grades, in lowlands. but this is not always followed in practice. Teacher Management--Quality Assurance Impact of Classroom Shortage There are a series of measures in place to man- While the official working hours involve 6.5 age teachers and ensure educational quality. hours of teaching per day for each teacher, this These include, school principals, school man- may be considerably reduced in some schools. agement structures, a school inspection service, In many schools there are more teachers than and a network of District Resource Teachers classrooms. Nationally the average pupil-teacher who provide support to rural schools. ratio is 4:7, while the average pupil-classroom ratio is 7:1. As there is not provision for multi- Inspection shift teaching, it is likely that the real teaching The school inspection service is organized at two levels: a central inspection service with 14 staff, and a district level inspection staff with an in- Table 5.18 tended staff of 5 inspectors in each district (50 Theoretical Average Teaching Load Per Day, in total). An external review of the inspectorate Based On Pupil-Classroom Ratio in 2002 revealed that the level of actual inspec- Teaching Load Total tions was low. The central inspectorate had com- pleted no inspections in 2001 and only 15 in Mountains 3.9 2000. The district level inspectorate had an ac- Lowlands 4.8 tual staff of 39 (78% of the intended level), giv- Senqu River Valley 3.8 ing a ratio of 26 schools per inspector. However, Foothills 4.5 it had performed only 74 inspections in 2001. Inspections were limited by lack of transport, Unknown 5.5 and by the involvement of inspectors in other Total 4.2 activities, such as serving on curriculum review Note: Average daily teaching load is calculated based panels. Further, the report raised questions about on (pupil-teacher ratio-pupil: classroom ratio, multiplied the expertise of the inspectors, and their ability by official hours of instruction per day) to provide valuable feedback to schools. The Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 125 report concluded that the inspectorate was many of the principals do not have this qualifi- "most unlikely to be contributing in any way to cation and so serve as acting principals, some- the quality of education provided in Lesotho's times for long periods. schools" (Multiserve, 2002, Review of the The role of school principals in supervision Schools Inspectorates of the Kingdom of of other teachers is unclear. Where the principal Lesotho). teaches a full timetable, monitoring of other teachers may be limited to monitoring teacher Support attendance. More proactive principals may of- fer guidance and support, particularly to un- Support is provided to some rural schools trained teachers. through a network of support staff known as School head teachers or principals are selected District Resource Teachers (DRT). Eighty DRTs by the school management committees. The pro- were recruited in 1988 as part of a project sup- cess of selection is not always transparent. While ported by USAID. Each was assigned to a clus- this process may ensure a good relationship be- ter of between 7 and 16 schools, and charged tween the principal and the community, it may with providing pedagogical support and in-ser- also limit the principal's ability to take disciplin- vice training for teachers. ary action against teachers who are from the The DRTs were well trained for their role and community. had good credibility, as many were previously head teachers. In general, visits by DRTs were Local School Management welcome at schools. However, delays in reim- bursement of travel costs (of up to 2 years) and Primary schools have local management com- other management issues lowered morale in the mittees. These serve to increase the involvement team, and restricted school visits. of the local community in the school. The com- An evaluation of the program in 2002 noted mittees have considerable power. They select the that the results were "most disappointing" and teachers to be appointed, and select the school the schools served by DRTs showed little gain principal. in performance. Moreover, the DRTs served only The details of the structure vary slightly with a limited number of schools. While initially it school type. In government schools there is one had been the intention that they would move to School Management Committee for each school. different clusters after a period, many DRTs This committee is comprised of eight people, in- stayed working with the same schools from cluding two representatives of the ministry, three 1988. The report recommended transforming representatives of parents, one teacher represen- the DRT system into an education advisory ser- tative, the principal and a representative of the vice (Multiserve, 2002).14 traditional leader/chief. In church schools, the School Management School Principals Committee is usually responsible for a cluster of up to eight schools belonging to the same Immediate daily supervision of teachers is the church. Each individual school has a School responsibility of the school principals. Most pri- mary school principals teach a class as well as carrying administrative responsibilities. The 14 Multiserve, Newth, Ash and Whalley, David ministry guidelines are that the principal should (2002). Evaluation of the Primary In-service Edu- teach unless the school has more than 800 pu- cation Programme (PIEP) of the Kingdom of pils. Principals are required to have a qualifica- Lesotho, Report to the Ministry of Education and tion in school leadership, but in rural schools, Training. 126 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Advisory Committee, which provides advice to DRT, the chances of having any support or ob- the School Management Committee, but the servation from outside the school are small. In decision making power resides with the School effect, the system relies on school principals to Management Committee. monitor and support their teachers. It is unclear Post-primary schools have a School Board to what extent they are prepared for, or fulfill, appointed by the proprietor (in the case of that role. church schools) and approved by the Minister of Education. The School Board consists of: a) two representatives of the proprietor; b) three E. Student Learning Outcomes in members of the community served by the school, Primary Schools in Lesotho who are elected by parents of pupils admitted in that school; c) one representative of teachers; The above sections in this chapter detail the ser- d) a chief of the area where the school is situ- vice delivery and its disparities across the coun- ated; and e) one principal of the relevant school try and across various types of schools. In this who is the secretary of the School Board. section, we try to relate the school inputs to the children's learning outcomes. Teacher Discipline In Lesotho, as in many other poor countries, primary education absorbs a major share of In the case of teacher absenteeism or misbehav- public resources. In such a context, how much ior, a complaint from a principal of a church students learn and how efficiently resources are school would be passed in sequence to the man- transformed into learning outcomes become key agement committee, the church authorities, the issues. ministry and the inspectorate, before any action After documenting student achievement from would be taken. Where the misbehaving teacher a cross-national perspective, we address these is popular or well connected locally (as may eas- issues by using data from the Primary School ily happen given the local hiring system), the Leaving Exam that Grade 7 pupils must com- principal and management committee may be plete to graduate. Based on this information, we reluctant to take action, causing even greater give an overview of the national examination delays before the difficulty comes to the atten- results, compare the performance of primary tion of the ministry. The number of teachers dis- education in Lesotho over time, and examine the missed for misbehavior is very small, totaling correlation of student learning in this country. only 10 teachers (of 9,000) in 2004. In short, schools are managed by a school International Comparisons principal, who reports to a local management committee or school board. There are two sys- With regard to student learning, international tem-level quality assurance services. The school comparisons place Lesotho in a very unfavor- inspectorate, is intended to inspect schools, but able situation. Between 2000 and 2003, the has limited ability in practice, and has been criti- Southern Africa Consortium for Monitoring cized for both the number and quality of inspec- Educational Quality (SACMEQ) conducted a tions. The District Resource Teachers are in- study under the auspices of the International tended as a support service for rural schools. Institute for Educational Planning (IIPE) in 14 They serve a limited number of rural schools, English-speaking African countries. In it, Stan- and although they provide pedagogical support, dard 6 pupils in Lesotho achieved very poor re- their impact on teaching quality has yet to be sults compared to their counterparts. demonstrated. The limited number of inspec- Figure 5.6 below presents the means for the tions means that, for a teacher not served by a reading and mathematics test scores of pupils in Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 127 Figure 5.6 Country differences in reading and mathematics achievement 600 Reading Mathematics 560 520 480 440 400 Botswana Kenya Lesotho Malawi Mauritus Mozambique Namibia Seychelles South Swaziland Tanzania Uganda Zambia Zanzibar Africa Source: SACMEQ II data each country included in the survey. In this fig- ure, test scores are standardized around a mean equal to 500.15 According to the SACMEQ data, 15 See Annex 5.6 for scores by countries. the performance of Lesotho students falls well 16 The Primary School Leaving Exam (PSLE) is a below the average, with scores of 451 on read- national test. It is administered by the Lesotho Ex- ing, and 447 on mathematics. Compared to amination Council and marked centrally in Maseru. Its scores are criteria based, rather than Seychelles, one of the highest-performing coun- nom-based. It is true that no systematic informa- tries in the sample, students from Lesotho had tion is availiable regarding the quality of the PSLE an absolute disadvantage of around 40 points over the years. This Report holds that the in both subjects, followed only by Malawi, comparision of PSLE results before and after FPE Namibia and Zambia. still provides important insights, though readers are cautioned not to make too much out of the Trends and Disparities in Student comparison. Further, several reports in the litera- ture which compare the PSLE results across time, Achievement: An Analysis of the Primary including the following: School Leaving Exam (PSLE) Results IBE, The EFA 2000 assessment: Lesotho country In this section we present empirical evidence on report in "http://www2.unesco.org/wef/ the performance of the students who took the countryreports/lesotho/rapport_2.html" 1999 and 2003 PSLE16. In both years, students PSLE 2003, Administrative Report, Examination took the examination on five subjects: English, Council of Lesotho, Maseru 2005 Muster (Multi-Site Teacher Education Research Sesotho, mathematics, science and social stud- Project), Lesotho, Discussion Paper 8, Centre ies. Here, however, we focus mainly on students' for International Education, University of Sus- overall performance by considering the simple sex, 2000, in "www.sussex.ec.uk/usie/muster/ average of their raw scores in each subject. Put pdf/mpd_8_11_02.pdf" 128 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho another way, this overall performance indicator dents' performances became more heteroge- corresponds to the average percentage of cor- neous. Second, a large proportion of the stu- rect answers for the five subjects and varies be- dents are failing to meet the curriculum objec- tween 0 and 100. tives. According to Table 5.24, 50% of pupils Table 5.19 summarizes the data on the PSLE answered less than half of the test questions cor- results for 1999 and 2003. During this period, rectly in 2003. The best students achieved mod- the students' overall performance remained prac- est scores in absolute terms: around 65% on tically unchanged: in 1999, Grade 7 students average in 2003 and 62% in 1999. scored 49.4% on average for the five subjects Table 5.20 contains some relevant informa- included in the examination, compared with tion on social disparities in learning for the two 50.7% in 2003. However, these averages mask years under consideration. It shows that boys wide differences between subjects: where their and girls achieved very similar results on aver- performance on English, Sesotho and science fell age, with a modest rising trend over time, and by up to 8% over time, they got better results in older students did less well. For example, those mathematics and social studies compared with who registered to take PSLE at age 12 in 2003 1999, increasing their scores in these two sub- scored 11 percentage points higher than those jects by 9 and 11 percentage points respectively. who registered at age 17. When the data is dis- Looking more closely at the distribution of aggregated by district it shows that students in performance between students, several features Butha-Buthe, Maseru, and Leribe outperform become clear. First, the variance in scores has their peers. Students attending community increased slightly over time, implying that stu- schools in 2003 obtained noticeably higher Table 5.19 Primary School Leaving Examination Results, Lesotho 1999 and 2003 1999 2003 Average Standard Deviation Average Standard Deviation Number of students who sat for PSLE 37,856 -- 40,146 -- Scores by Subject English 45.6 12.3 43.3 15.2 Sesotho 69.5 9.0 61.2 10.6 Mathematics 43.7 12.8 53.1 13.2 Science 47.3 12.4 43.6 11.8 Social studies 41.1 11.3 52.2 13.6 Average 49.4 9.4 50.7 10.5 Average Score by Quartiles of Score Worst students 38.4 5.8 37.7 5.2 2 46.5 1.7 47.1 2.0 3 52.3 1.7 54.3 2.3 Best students 61.6 4.9 65.0 5.2 Source: Author's calculations based on the 1999 and 2003 PSLE data. Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 129 Table 5.20 Disparities in Primary School Leaving Examination Results, Lesotho 1999 and 2003 1999 2003 Number of Standard Number of Standard Candidates Average Deviation Candidates Average Deviation Gender Girl 21,628 49.2 9.2 22,417 50.6 10.3 Boy 16,059 49.7 9.6 16,541 50.8 10.8 Age 12 yrs 2,946 54.7 9.6 2,812 57.5 10.8 13 yrs 6,155 52.0 9.0 6,517 54.7 10.3 14 yrs 7,722 50.1 8.6 7,601 52.0 9.6 15 yrs 7,459 48.8 8.7 8,438 49.7 9.7 16 yrs 5,751 47.3 8.7 5,815 48.4 9.8 17 yrs 3,778 46.4 8.9 3940 46.8 9.9 Location Mountains 7,085 47.7 8.6 7,978 48.3 10.0 Lowlands 21,595 50.4 9.5 22,327 52.0 10.7 Senq River Valley 1,092 48.2 8.7 1,041 49.2 9.9 Foothills 8,084 48.6 9.6 8,299 49.6 10.0 District Thaba Tseka 1,680 50.7 8.8 2,102 49.0 10.9 Butha-Buthe 2,284 51.5 8.9 2,510 53.1 9.7 Leribe 6,865 49.2 9.2 6,950 51.2 10.9 Berea 5,421 49.7 9.6 5,315 50.7 10.4 Maseru 8,475 50.4 9.7 8,990 52.0 11.0 Mafeteng 4,653 47.8 9.2 4,696 48.9 9.8 Mohale's Hoek 3,300 50.4 9.8 3,707 50.8 10.5 Quthing 2,199 47.2 8.9 2,126 49.1 9.2 Qacha's Nek 1,546 47.8 8.5 1,556 48.8 9.8 Mokhotlong 1,433 47.3 8.3 1,699 48.3 9.7 Owner Anglican Church of Lesotho 5,625 49.8 9.5 5992 49.9 10.0 African Methodist Episcopal Church 255 46.1 7.4 490 48.5 9.8 Community 1,030 55.0 12.1 1,638 58.1 11.8 Government 119 61.3 8.0 416 50.8 12.0 Lesotho Evangelical Church 14,267 49.1 9.0 14,534 50.3 10.1 Roman Catholic Church 15,146 48.8 9.1 15,018 49.7 10.3 Other 1,351 53.9 10.5 1,520 58.7 10.7 Source: Author's calculations based on the 1999 and 2003 PSLE data 130 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho scores compared to their counterparts, and were Turning to student and teacher characteris- 8 percentage points above the average among tics, 40% of the candidates are boys, and both students in schools run by the Roman Catholic boys and girls who sit for the PSLE are 15 years Church and the Lesotho Evangelical Church, old on average. Of the teachers, 62% are fe- which enroll more students. It is noteworthy that male, with about 16 years of professional expe- the achievement gaps between these various rience. The sample teacher characteristics are types of schools increased by around 6 percent- consistent with the average teachers in Lesotho age points between 1999 and 2003. as reported above. Regarding classroom characteristics, 15% of Correlates of Learning the teachers are teaching multi-grade classes, and 28 students are in the average Grade 7 class- What factors explain the disparities captured room. School conditions are measured as the in the broad-brush picture above? We address percentage of pupils who have no desk or seat: this issue by merging individual data from the on average 28% of the 521 schools in the 2003 PSLE with the 2003 school census. In or- sample. Finally, the great majority of these der to evaluate the impact of individual teacher schools are run by churches--Roman Catholic, characteristics on student performance, we fo- Evangelical, or Anglican--with only 3% com- cus only on the students who enrolled in schools munity schools. Their geographical distribution that have only one teacher in Grade 7. Doing is reasonably similar to that of the nation's pri- so reduces the sample size to 14,997 candidates mary schools. who were enrolled in 521 schools out of the We now turn to the regression analysis of the total of 971 schools that had Grade 7 in 2003. correlates of the 2003 PLSE results. Table 5.22 Because of data limitations, the students enrolled reports ordinary least squares estimates of the in government schools are excluded from the year-end test scores in two different ways: with analysis. and without using school inputs as separate re- Following common practice in the econom- gressors. The comparison of the two ways al- ics of education, students' performance is mod- lows us to understand the additional impact of eled as a function of three factors: students' per- school inputs on student learning. sonal characteristics; the conditions in schools The results reported in Table 5.22 indicate and classrooms, including teacher characteris- that student characteristics alone (age and gen- tics; and the type of school attended. It should der) explain a very small part of the performance be noted that the data we use have several short- variation in the sample (around 1%). Adding comings for the analysis attempted here. First, class- and school-level variables increases the they do not provide information on the pupils' explanatory power of the model by 4.5 percent- socioeconomic backgrounds. Second, because age points. This result suggests that schooling students are not tested at the beginning of the inputs matter somewhat more than other per- school year, it is not possible to model the deter- sonal characteristics in explaining variation in minants of learning as a dynamic process over the PSLE results. However, the overall impact the course of a school year. of these factors is apparently limited. Table 5.21 displays the variables employed With regard to influences on students' in the analysis and presents the summary statis- progress in learning, the regression results in- tics for our dataset, with means and standard dicate that, with everything else kept the same, deviations. Overall, students gave an average of older students perform significantly worse. For 49% correct answers for the five subjects, which example, pupils who participated in PSLE at is very close to the results reported at the na- age 12 have a score about 0.6 higher than those tional level. aged 15. Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 131 Table 5.21 Sample Characteristics of Pupils and Schools, Lesotho 2003 Mean Standard Deviation Average scorea 48.9 10.1 Student Characteristics Age (in years) 15.4 4.9 Boy (%) 40.4 49.1 Teacher Characteristicsb Female (%) 62.2 48.5 Length of service (in years) 16.1 10.4 Qualification (%) Primary education or JC 7.2 25.9 Secondary education COSC 16.7 37.3 Secondary education with pre-service training 41.7 49.4 Secondary education with in-service training 29.7 45.7 Classrooms Characteristics b Pupils in Grade 7 28.0 14.8 Multi-grade teaching in Grade 7 (%) 15.4 36.1 School characteristics b Pupils with no seat no desk (%) 27.6 32.9 Type of school (%) Community schools 3.2 17.7 Lesotho Evangelical Church 36.9 48.3 Roman Catholic Church 41.4 49.3 Anglican Church of Lesotho 13.6 34.3 African Methodist Episcopal Church 1.3 11.5 Other 3.6 18.8 Location (%) Mountains 37.4 46.3 Lowlands 34.9 47.7 Senqu River Valley 3.1 17.3 Foothills 24.6 43.1 Number of Students 14,997 -- Number of Teachers/Schools 521 -- a / Average scores on the following five subjects: English, Sesotho, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies. b / Sample means and standard deviations correspond to the sample distribution at the school level. Source: Author' calculations based on the 2003 PSLE data and the 2003 primary school census 132 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 5.22 Correlates of PSLE Results, Lesotho 2003a Excluding School Including School Inputs as Regressors Inputs as Regressors Coefficient t Coefficient t Student Characteristics Age (in years) ­0.224 8.12 ­0.191 7.57 Boy (girl) 0.436 2.56 0.244 1.46 Teacher Characteristics Female (male) -- -- 0.520 2.91 Length of service (in years) -- -- ­0.051 5.66 Qualification (primary education or JC) COSC -- -- 1.092 3.17 Secondary education with pre-service training -- -- 1.608 5.80 Secondary education with in-service training -- -- 2.446 8.57 Classrooms Characteristics Pupils in Grade 7 -- -- ­0.092 ­5.53 Pupils in Grade 7 (square) -- -- 0.001 6.24 Multi-grade teaching (mono-grade teaching) -- -- ­2.247 ­7.61 School Characteristics % Pupils with no seat no desk -- -- 0.414 1.46 Type of School (Community Schools) Lesotho Evangelical Church -- -- ­3.935 ­7.41 Roman Catholic Church -- -- ­4.374 ­8.20 Anglican Church of Lesotho -- -- ­3.789 ­6.82 African Methodist Episcopal Church -- -- ­5.869 ­7.22 Others -- -- 1.828 2.64 Location (Mountains) Lowlands -- -- 1.253 5.96 Senqu River Valley -- -- 0.811 1.66 Foothills -- -- 1.471 6.76 Intercept 52.206 123.4 55.269 68.22 Number of Students 14,997 -- 14,997 -- Number of Teachers/Schools 521 -- 521 -- R_ 0.012 -- 0.053 -- a/ Regressions with robust standard errors; dummy variables with the omitted category indicated in parentheses. Source: Author's calculations based on the 2003 PSLE data and the 2003 primary school census Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 133 Contrary to what one might expect, teachers nity school students.17 The finding that commu- with more years of experience tend to be less nity schools are more efficient underlines the effective; that is, their students score less well importance of community ownership in school on the exam. One possible explanation for this functioning--a finding that is consistent with finding is that without continuous in-service experience and expectations throughout the de- teacher training, the senior teachers may not veloping world. keep up with changes in the curriculum and thus are less effective than their younger colleagues. The results also suggest that teachers with a F. Policy Perspectives COSC are significantly more effective than on Service Delivery teachers with a primary education diploma or a Junior Certificate. The amount of teachers' pre- Lesotho faces several challenges in managing its and in-service training has a positive and sig- delivery of educational services. The analysis nificant impact on student performance. How- presented in this chapter highlights two issues ever, pre-service training adds less value than in- that warrant special attention. The first is the service training. One possible explanation is that structural policies, particularly those pertaining existing pre-service training programs are less to standards for teacher recruitment and deploy- effective in preparing teachers. This finding ment, and teacher salaries and school construc- probably indicates some scope for improving the tion that help define the tangible characteristics design of these programs. of the supply of services. The second has to do With regard to classroom characteristics, the with management weaknesses in the system that results in Table 5.27 indicate that class size has show up in the poor allocation of human and a significant negative effect on student perfor- financial resources across schools, and appar- mance. One possible reason may be that teach- ently also in the schools' disparate effectiveness ers do not adapt their pedagogy in response to in using their resources to deliver learning out- the size of the class they teach. A second class- comes. Adding further complexity, the majority room characteristic is multi-grade teaching: con- of schools are run by church organizations. Be- trolling for all other factors, in Grade 7 it seems low we discuss policy options pertaining to these to negatively and significantly influence exami- issues, drawing on international experience for nation results on the PSLE. Therefore, the way an added perspective. that teachers handle multi-grade teaching is a key issue in improving the performance of pri- Setting Appropriate Standards for Teacher mary education. Given that multigrade teach- Recruitment and Deployment, Teacher ing is practiced by a high proportion of unquali- Remuneration, and School Construction fied teachers, and that little support is provided, it is not surprising that pupils from multigrade In Lesotho, as in other countries, these stan- classes perform significantly less well in the dards create a network of schools with some (PSLE). key commonalities. While they are intended Focusing now on school characteristics, we to help schools function well, the opposite effect note that, all else being the same, students in may in fact occur when budget constraints are community schools perform significantly better ignored in the choice of standards. If standards than their counterparts. Schools run by the Af- exceed what the country can afford, schools rican Methodist Episcopal Church and the Ro- man Catholic Church are among the less effi- cient schools in Lesotho, with performances 17 This gap is equivalent to one standard deviation around 5 points lower than those of commu- from the mean. 134 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho may meet requirements in the areas explicitly ties currently costs about M2 million, about US specified, but do so through cutbacks elsewhere $300,000. The costs can rise even higher in re- that eventually compromise their ability to pro- mote areas where delivery of materials is diffi- vide effective services. That this has indeed hap- cult and the harsh terrain attracts only local pened in the Lesotho system can be seen from contractors. However, it seems obvious that the two key findings: the shortage of "qualified" government will find it hard to improve access primary teachers, especially in rural mountain to primary schools for remote populations if it areas; and the shortage of classrooms, espe- maintains such high standards. The government cially in the mountain areas and the Senqu has already begun to accept that it is possible to River Valley. build a 4-classroom school in areas where the These areas have responded to the situation population is sparse. It must take further steps by introducing volunteer teachers or unquali- to reach the goal of bringing schools closer to fied teachers to relieve the teacher shortage, and the communities. encouraged the emergence and growth of lower- Improving the whole system will require a cost alternatives, like tents, to serve as class- systematic review of national recruitment and rooms for remote rural populations. Multigrade deployment, teacher remuneration, and con- teaching is also a common reality in these schools struction standards. Such a review can be facili- but schools receive neither policy guidance nor tated by using simulation models to test the im- practical pedagogical support in this practice. pact of alternative options. While Lesotho's system for hiring teachers locally is considered to be a good model for Taking Advantage of Decentralization maintaining a stable supply of teachers for re- Based on Lessons from International mote areas, its disadvantages are also clear. Experience These include the tendency for rural teachers to have lower average qualifications and less ex- Apart from the system-wide structural issues perience and the difficulty in re-deploying teach- mentioned above, managerial weakness is also ers once they are involved with a particular type responsible for the disparity in service delivery of school management, especially a church. across the nation. Here two major challenges This report is the first to point out that the loom large: improving discipline in the alloca- high level of teacher remuneration in both pri- tion of resources across schools, so that human mary and secondary education potentially poses and financial resources are effectively channeled a fiscal risk to the government of Lesotho. Al- to the front lines (i.e., the school); and reducing though a full 30% of primary teachers are con- the disconnect between resources and learning sidered "unqualified," the overall formal quali- outcomes. fication of Lesotho's teachers (at least 12 years Despite the government's heavy investment in of general education) is high compared to that education, most of the inputs flowing to schools in other developing countries. International evi- are in kind, rather than in cash. Indeed, the in- dence has shown very little direct relationship troduction of FPE further reduced the schools' between teachers' formal qualification and stu- autonomy to raise and spend funds. While this dent learning outcomes. At the same time, the may have guaranteed the delivery of some mini- high cost of teacher salaries constrains the gov- mum services in the short term, in the long term ernment in its effort to improve coverage. this may damage the school-level management Standards for school construction represent capacity which has proven key to ultimate learn- another area of concern. School construction is ing outcomes. costly and of high quality in Lesotho. An aver- Although the process of decentralization is at age 7-classroom school with associated facili- an early stage, and roles, responsibilities, and Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 135 governance frameworks are still being defined · National education ministries frequently re- and refined, Lesotho might well note the accu- sist decentralization on the grounds that sub- mulated experience of other countries that are national governments, communities, and/or further along in education decentralization. schools lack the capacity to manage educa- Winkler and Gershberg (2003, p. X) distill the tion. In practice, this is seldom true. following lessons based mostly on experiences · Real decentralization is a long, evolutionary in Latin America and Eastern Europe: process. · Efficiency and effectiveness are most likely to Bearing this last point in mind, it is clear that improve under decentralization when service decentralization in Lesotho will also take time providers--schools, local governments, or to produce the expected results. While not all regional governments--are held accountable aspects of other countries' experiences are ap- for results. plicable--or indeed, even useful--the concepts · Accountability requires clear delineation of are highly relevant and the lessons from inter- authority and responsibility and understand- national experience can already be incorporated able information on results (both educational to cultivate the key characteristics and behavior and financial). patterns that characterize high-performance sys- · Decentralization of real decision making tems: clarity of mission, roles, and responsibili- power to schools or school councils can sig- ties; effective empowerment of relevant individu- nificantly increase parental participation in als; greater parent participation in schools; and, the school, and high levels of parental and above all, an emphasis on accountability for re- community participation are associated with sults. improved school performance. · Decentralization of education to sub-national Mobilizing and Using Information to governments does not in and of itself em- Enhance Accountability for Results power parents and improve school perfor- mance. Further decentralization to schools Strengthening accountability for results is dif- (school councils or school boards) or local ficult in education because many individuals are communities does empower parents and can involved and the outcomes are typically multi- improve school performance. dimensional. Yet appropriate use of informa- · For decentralization to schools to be success- tion can help improve performance by ensur- ful, principals must acquire new skills in ing that resources are at least reaching schools. leadership and management--financial, with In Uganda a large-scale public dissemination teachers, and with the community. of information on grants for education gave · The design of financial transfers to sub-na- schools and parents the information they tional governments or schools has powerful needed to monitor the grants. Over just six effects on both efficiency and equity. years, the leakage of funds fell from 80% to · Decentralization requires that national and/ 20%, and schools were able to use the resources or regional ministries of education be restruc- they now had available to purchase textbooks tured; failure to restructure ministries is a se- and other pedagogical inputs (World Bank rious obstacle to realizing the benefits of de- 2004a). Information flow can of course be centralization. channeled in other ways too. Report cards such · The decentralization of teacher management as those used in Parana State in Brazil are an is critical to creating accountability and re- interesting example (Servilla and Winkler alizing the potential benefits of decentrali- 2003). They provide schools with information zation. that compares indicators for the school (e.g., 136 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho pupil-teacher ratios, examination results, and not have seats or desks. And 70% of all pri- parent feedback) with reference averages at the mary schools practice multigrade teaching. national and relevant subnational levels. Re- A serious concern is the distribution of ser- port cards for school districts and other higher vice delivery. Schools in mountain areas and the levels of aggregation can also provide similar Senqu River Valley tend to be more crowded, comparative information. and have higher student to teacher ratios and The availability of such information may be higher proportions of unqualified and less ex- expected to improve conditions in schools in two perienced teachers, compared to those in the ways: by creating incentives for underendowed lowlands and foothills. Multigrade schools schools to seek redress; and by pinpointing spe- which are mostly located in rural mountain ar- cific schools in the system that warrant the at- eas tend to be less well endowed in terms of fa- tention of those in charge. In Lesotho, as in other cilities and teachers. countries, the use of information on student In terms of teachers, by regional standards, achievement for accountability purposes remains primary teachers in Lesotho are relatively well at an early stage. The country has already es- educated, and the majority have completed sec- tablished a baseline, and this can be built on as ondary school. However, the supply of trained part of the broader effort to mobilize appropri- teachers has not been adequate, and an increas- ate information for better management. ing proportion of teachers are untrained. The current strategy is to train these teachers in-ser- vice, using a distance education program. G. Chapter Summary The incidence of HIV infection among teach- ers appears high, and is forecast to rise. Teacher The analysis in this chapter demonstrates that deaths already account for the loss of 1% of nationwide, the government of Lesotho has im- teachers annually. Measures to strengthen the proved service delivery or at least managed to HIV awareness components in teacher educa- maintain it. Despite the FPE, Lesotho has man- tion courses may be beneficial. aged to expand its primary teaching force in The teacher deployment system allows local keeping with the expansion of enrollment with school management committees to select the FPE even though the average school size in- teachers that are employed. This system serves creased somewhat from an average of 287 to rural areas relatively well. However, the admin- 317 in 2003. Although the proportion of "un- istration of the system is complex and could be qualified" teachers seems to have increased, simplified. Teacher deployment is inequitable, 89% of all primary teachers possess qualifica- and rural areas have fewer of the qualified and tions of COSC or above, equivalent to more than better-educated teachers. Although there is an 12 years of formal education. The average num- incentive payment to encourage teachers to work ber of books per primary pupil increased from in remote schools, this is not seen as effective. 4.7 in 2009 to 5.7 in 2003, and the percentage Consideration should be given to ways to im- of primary schools that offer the full 7 years of prove the deployment of teachers to rural areas. schooling rose from 35% in 1974 to 78% in One possible action is to reorganize the classifi- 2002. cation of schools to ensure that the incentive is However, physical constraints in classrooms only paid in genuinely remote schools. Consid- and facilities still present major challenges. De- eration should also be given to non-financial spite the government's recent efforts to construct incentives, including accelerated promotion classrooms, the average number of students per (which has long term financial implications), or primary classroom remains at 71, which is high. even a requirement that newly qualified teach- In addition, 32.6% of primary pupils still do ers work in rural areas for a period. Service Delivery and Learning Outcomes in Primary and Secondary Education 137 Teacher utilization is restricted by a shortage the importance of community ownership. This of classrooms in some schools, which may en- finding is consistent with experience and expec- courage teachers to reduce their working hours. tations throughout the developing world. In This issue merits further examination, and may Lesotho, however, community schools include explain why classrooms seem to play a signifi- some English-medium schools and an elite cant role in educational outcomes. American International school, so these charac- Multigrade teaching is widely practiced, par- teristics may skew the overall results. ticularly in mountain areas. As further expan- These findings suggest that room for improve- sion of primary education is likely to be in ment does exist. On one hand, increasing the sparsely populated areas, the use of multigrade comparative effectiveness of pre-service train- is likely to play an increasing role. Despite the ing could significantly boost student perfor- reliance on multigrade teaching, it is poorly sup- mance. Similar gains could probably be obtained ported in curriculum documents and in teacher by improving the implementation of multi-grade training. Better preparation of teachers for mul- teaching. Our results found poorer performance tigrade teaching could do much to increase the when schools combine several levels of instruc- quality of learning in multigrade classrooms. tion in the same classroom. On the other hand, In terms of learning outcomes, Basotho stu- we found that, keeping all other factors con- dents exhibit poor reading and math skills, as stant, community schools are significantly more reflected in the results of the SACMEQ study. efficient than their counterparts. Thus it is cru- The overall score on the national PSLE remained cial to understand how these schools manage unchanged since 1999; despite increases in math the educational process in order to transfer their and social studies, scores fell in English, Sesotho, experience to other existing schools, and to in- and science. While student age and gender ex- crease community participation in managing the plain a very small part of the performance varia- system. tion (1%), we found that class and school vari- Finally, as noted in Chapter 3, which analyzed ables explains another 5.5%. Holding all other patterns of educational spending, service deliv- factors constant, older students perform less well ery in Lesotho's educational system is rather than younger ones. Teachers with longer expe- centralized. While the centralized system has to rience tend to be less effective, and those who some degree ensured that services are provided, have a COSC are significantly more effective it is not yet ensuring equity in either the distri- than those with a primary education diploma bution of human and financial resources, or in or JC. Pre-service and in-service training both the delivery of educational results. have a significant impact on student perfor- Some lessons about decentralization and us- mance, but in-service has a larger impact. Large ing information to enhance accountability for classes have a significant negative effect on stu- results were introduced to provide some policy dent performance, as does multigrade teaching directions to the MOET. It is time for some ele- in Grade 7. ments of service delivery to be further decen- Interestingly, keeping all other factors con- tralized to the school level. At the same time, stant, we find that community schools are more schools should be held accountable, both finan- efficient than other types, perhaps underlining cially and for their educational results. Annexes 139 ANNEX 1.1 Lesotho Country Profile Lesotho Country Profile Click on the indicator to view a definition 1990 1995 2001 2002 1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger 2015 target = halve 1990 $1 a day poverty and malnutrition rates Population below $1 a day (%) .. 36.4 .. .. Poverty gap at $1 a day (%) .. 19.0 .. .. Percentage share of income or consumption held by poorest 20% .. 1.5 .. .. Prevalence of child malnutrition (% of children under 5) 15.8 21.4 17.8 .. Population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption (%) 27.0 26.0 25.0 .. 2 Achieve universal primary education 2015 target = net enrollment to 100 Net primary enrollment ratio (% of relevant age group) 72.8 70.5 84.4 .. Percentage of cohort reaching grade 5 (%) 70.6 63.1 66.8 .. Youth literacy rate (% ages 15­24) 87.2 89.0 90.5 .. 3 Promote gender equality 2005 target = education ratio to 100 Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education (%) 125.6 117.5 105.0 .. Ratio of young literate females to males (% ages 15­24) 125.8 122.1 119.1 .. Share of women employed in the nonagricultural sector (%) 40.4 .. .. .. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament (%) .. 5.0 .. .. (continued on next page) 141 142 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Lesotho Country Profile Click on the indicator to view a definition 1990 1995 2001 2002 4 Reduce child mortality 2015 target = reduce 1990 under 5 mortality by two-thirds Under 5 mortality rate (per 1,000) 148.0 140.0 133.0 132.0 Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) 102.0 97.0 92.0 91.0 Immunization, measles (% of children under 12 months) 80.0 83.0 70.0 70.0 5 Improve maternal health 2015 target = reduce 1990 maternal mortality by three-fourths Maternal mortality ratio (modeled estimate, per 100,000 live births) .. .. 550.0 .. Births attended by skilled health staff (% of total) .. 49.6 59.8 .. 6 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases 2015 target = halt, and begin to reverse, AIDS, etc. Prevalence of HIV, female (% ages 15­24) .. .. 38.1 .. Contraceptive prevalence rate (% of women ages 15­49) 23.2 .. .. .. Number of children orphaned by HIV/AIDS .. .. 73,000.0 .. Incidence of tuberculosis (per 100,000 people) .. .. 655.0 725.5 Tuberculosis cases detected under DOTS (%) .. 47.0 64.0 60.9 7 Ensure environmental sustainability 2015 target = various (see notes) Forest area (% of total land area) 0.5 .. 0.5 .. Nationally protected areas (% of total land area) .. 0.3 0.2 0.2 GDP per unit of energy use (PPP $ per kg oil equivalent) .. .. .. .. CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita) .. .. .. .. Access to an improved water source (% of population) .. .. 78.0 .. Access to improved sanitation (% of population) .. .. 49.0 .. Access to secure tenure (% of population) .. .. .. .. 8 Develop a Global Partnership for Development 2015 target = various (see notes) Youth unemployment rate (% of total labor force ages 15­24) .. 47.4 .. .. Fixed line and mobile telephones (per 1,000 people) 7.2 8.8 36.3 55.7 Personal computers (per 1,000 people) .. .. .. .. General indicators Population 1.6 million 1.7 million 1.8 million 1.8 million Gross national income ($) 1.0 billion 1.3 billion 1.1 billion 972.6 million GNI per capita ($) 650.0 800.0 600.0 550.0 Adult literacy rate (% of people ages 15 and over) 78.0 80.9 81.4 .. Total fertility rate (births per woman) 5.1 4.9 4.5 4.3 (continued on next page) Annex 1.1: Lesotho Country Profile 143 Lesotho Country Profile Click on the indicator to view a definition 1990 1995 2001 2002 Life expectancy at birth (years) 57.6 51.3 41.4 37.9 Aid (% of GNI) 13.9 8.6 6.0 8.7 External debt (% of GNI) 38.7 51.8 63.0 72.7 Investment (% of GDP) 49.3 60.1 44.9 40.0 Trade (% of GDP) 125.2 133.4 141.0 157.9 Source: World Development Indicators database, April 2004 ANNEX 1.2 Lesotho's Zones and Districts From the Southern Africa Humanitarian and Disaster GIS Library and Lesotho Meteorological Services. http://www.sahims.net/gis/Gis%20Input/lesotho_gis.asp http://www.lesmet.org.ls/ Ecological Regions of Lesotho wide, and lies between 1,400 m and 1,800 m. The northern and central lowlands have large Variations in geomorphology and topogra- deposits of rich volcanic soils; the southern or phy, including micro-climatological influ- border lowlands have poor soils and low rain- ences, have a significant impact on the ecol- fall. In the foothills, on the other hand, the land ogy of a region. Based on these factors is very fertile and very productive agriculturally. Lesotho has four distinct ecological zones: the lowlands, the foothills, the Senqu River The Foothills: In the foothills, on the other hand, Valley, and the highlands. the land is very fertile and very productive agri- The country consists of a high-altitude culturally. The foothills are defined as the area plateau, which intrudes from the western between the lowlands and the highlands; at 15% parts of the country at an altitude of roughly of the total land area, they occupy an estimated 1,500m, forming a narrow strip known as 4, 600 km2 which lies between 1,800 and the lowlands. The altitude then increases 2,000m above sea level. through the foothills to an elevation of 2,000­ 2,300m, and then finally rises to the high- The Senqu River Valle: This narrow strip of land lands. The highlands extend to the eastern flanks the banks of the Senqu River and pen- escarpment where substantial areas have al- etrates deep into the highlands, reaching lower titudes of over 3,000m. parts of the river's main tributaries. This region covers 9% of the total surface area. The valley's The Lowlands: The lowlands cover the western soils vary from rich to very poor, making this part of the country and occupy about 5,200 km2, the country's least productive region. or 17% of the total surface area. At some points, this narrow strip of land extends just 10 km in- The Highlands: The largest ecological area, the land from the border; in other places it is 60 km Maluti Mountains, cover 18,047 km2of the 145 146 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Drakensberg range. This region is extensively ter resources. The drainage pattern of the high- dissected by the headwaters of the Senqu River lands region has produced deep river valleys, and its tributaries which drain in a north-south gorges, and gullies that, in general, make hu- direction; together with an extensive network man life very difficult. The highlands region of mountain wetlands, they form an important forms the main livestock grazing area in the segment of the Southern African region's wa- country. ANNEX 2.1 Primary Syllabus in Lesotho Standards 1 through Standard 7 (1997) he responsibility for curriculum devel- 7. Be able to initiate and participate con- T opment lies within the National Cur- sciously in activities aimed at managing and riculum Development Center improving the environment, health and (NCDC). The current curriculum and standard of living syllabus used was officially published 8. Understand and appreciate their culture in 1997. Based on the published 1997 Primary 9. Have developed positive attitude and aes- Syllabus, the curriculum aims for primary edu- thetic awareness towards cultural heritage cation in Lesotho are: and humanity 10. Be able to demonstrate awareness and ap- At the completion of seven years of primary preciate cultures of other people education, pupils should: 11. Have acquired scientific and technological concepts and prinviples for further learn- 1. Have acquired communication skills of lis- ing and everyday living tening, speaking, reading, and writing in 12. Have developed and be able to apply scien- Sesotho and English and numeracy skills of tific and technological methods in learning, counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying solving problems and improving health and and dividing. standards of living 2. Communicate effectively in all learning situ- 13. Have acquired knowledge and understand- ations and in everyday life ing of the civil human rights 3. Have acquired survival and self-reliance 14. Be able to utilize the acquired knowledge skills to improve their living of their civil and human rights as well as 4. Have developed creative skills in arts and their obligations and responsibilities for ef- entrepreneurial skills for personal develop- fective participation in their society ment in their daily lives 15. have developed awareness and appreciation 5. know their natural and technological envi- of various religious beliefs ronment 16. Be able to react positively to scientific, tech- 6. Be able to demonstrate awareness and ap- nological and socioeconomic situations preciation of interdependence existing be- which contribute to expected change of tween man and his environment behaviour. 147 148 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Lesotho primary school calendar: Language Policy. Primary and secondary schools in Lesotho has The policy states that in Standards 1 to 3, two semesters: One from January to June and Sesotho should be used as a medium and at Stan- the other from July to December. dards higher than 3, English would be used as a medium of sinstruction. Standard 1 Standard 2 Standard 3 Standards 4 & 5 Standards 6 & 7 Periods/ Periods/ Periods/ Periods/ Periods/ Periods/ Periods/ Periods/ Periods/ Periods/ Subject week week week week week week week week week week Sesotho 6 192 6 192 6 192 6 192/156 6 192/156 English 9 288 9 288 8 256 6 192/156 6 192/156 Mathematics 6 192 6 192 6 192 6 192/156 6 192/156 Science 5 160 5 160 4 128 4 128/104 4 128/104 Agriculture 3 96 3 96 3 96 3 96/78 3 96/78 Home Economics 3 96 3 96 3 96 3 96/78 3 96/78 Health/P.E. 2 64 2 64 3 96 3 96/78 3 96/78 Social Studies 2 64 2 64 3 96 4 128/104 4 128/104 Religious Ed. 1 32 1 32 2 64 1 32/26 1 32/26 Fine Arts 2 64 2 64 2 64 2 64/52 2 64/52 One period is ?? minutes ANNEX 3.1 Summary of Primary School Feeding Programs in Lesotho By Liako Selokoma School Feeding Programmes the lowlands, highlands and foothills. The ob- jectives of WFP feeding programme was to alle- Introduction viate short-term hunger, to improve concentra- tion span and to increase attendance of primary his summary provides an insight about school children. WFP started phasing out its T primary school feeding in Lesotho. It assistance to schools in the lowlands in 1990/ is informed by the two studies that 91 assisting schools in the highlands and foot- were carried out by Roy Carr-Hill, hills. It was substituted with self-reliance project. Molapi Sebatane and Martin Caraher With the self-reliance project, schools were given in 2002 on the Evaluation of the Feeding Scheme small-scale agricultural inputs in order to pro- in Lesotho and the School Feeding Baseline Sur- mote self-sufficiency and to promote what was vey that was carried out by Dikokole Maqutu, called "education for production." The third Maletela Tuoane and Veronique Sainte-Luce in school feeding programme was that which came 2003. Other information was acquired from in- with the government of Lesotho's introduction terviews with SSRFU and WFP. The summary of Free Primary Education in 2000. It was takes account of the three school feeding phased in annually and by grade. It currently programmes that exist in Lesotho. Those are the covers standards 1­6 in 2005. With the FPE feed- World Food Programme (WFP) schools feeding ing the aim was to increase enrolment and to programme, the schools self-reliance programme alleviate poverty. However, the two main feed- and the Free Primary Education (FPE) feeding ing programmes are the WFP and the FPE feed- programme. ing programme. The self-reliance programme is complimentary to the two programmes because School Feeding in Lesotho it runs concurrently with those in schools where it exists. Another complimentary project is the Primary school feeding in Lesotho started in Secure the Child (STC) project initiated by 1961 with assistance from Save the Children's CARE Lesotho-South Africa. It is also of a self- Fund in the 10 schools in the lowlands. WFP reliance nature. took over in 1965 covering all the schools in 149 150 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho WFP Feeding Programme rate of 70 cents per child per day in those schools. WFP currently implements a feeding project called "Support to Free Primary Education," Self-Reliance Programme which started in March 2004 and will end in December 2007. This project has replaced the The self-reliance programme started when WFP previous projects; the Country Programme feeding was faced out in the lowlands. Recently, 10151 that served the highlands and the Re- about 20 schools, 5 from each district of gional EMOP 10200 that responded to the food Mokhotlong, Thaba-Tseka, Qacha's Nek and shortage crisis in the lowlands and foothills. Quthing were piloted with the self-reliance feed- Support to Free Primary Education feeding ing running concurrently with the WFP feeding. project covers 1325 primary schools, which in- Under the programme, schools were provided cludes all the classes that are not covered by FPE with agricultural inputs such as poultry that were in the lowlands and foothills. provided at point of lay and seeds, so that schools Distribution of food is done in collaboration could start their own agricultural production to with the Food Management Unit and the Min- feed the children and sell the remainder of the istry of Education and Training quarterly. In produce for sustainability of the project. Imple- order to improve its operations, WFP established mentation of the programme is such that chil- a School Feeding Unit, where it increased its dren produce food themselves and schools in- staffing to monitor implementation of the vite parents to assist in the production of food project, to provide training to teachers, cooks in order to promote community participation. and feeding managers on issues around hygiene, The self-reliance programme used to serve one nutrition, food storage and report writing. In main meal between 1100hrs and 1300hrs, with addition, the project also provides support to the suggested menus for different days given in parents and communities who take part in the a manual. This feeding programme however, improvement of infrastructure facilities such as failed in many respects that included lack of close kitchens, storerooms and latrines as well as start- monitoring of the programme by SSRFU offic- ing up the gardens in schools. ers and no financial accountability by Principals for the agricultural produce that was sold out. Free Primary Education Schools under the programme were then forced Feeding Programme to buy local food rather than produce it. It was due to these problems that the self-reliance ele- The Ministry of Education and Training ment was based on the fact that local produce (MOET) covers the following fees; book rental was being used as per prescribed menus. Par- fee, stationery, feeding and maintenance under ents were also required to contribute some feed- FPE. Through the FPE feeding scheme food is ing fee in order to fund feeding in the self-reli- brought into the schools by private caterers who ant schools. are contracted to prepare and serve meals to the A guide is also given to schools on the selec- pupils. They are paid M2.00 per child per day. tion criteria for caterers and cooks, which rec- The meals consist of a morning snack of soft ognizes unemployed women as priority. The porridge during the morning hours and the main Schools Self Reliance and Feeding Unit District meal in the afternoon. The scheme does not officers monitor the programme, although this cover all the schools in the highlands that are is not done regularly due to shortage of staff. catered for by WFP schools feeding programme, The self reliance project is overshadowed by but pays wages to cooks for preparing and serv- FPE feeding and the WFP feeding. One would ing meals to children in the WFP schools at a think of a problem being that food is brought Annex 3.1: Summary of Primary School Feeding Programs in Lesotho 151 into the schools either by caters under the FPE tion. It provides schools with agricultural inputs. feeding or by WFP and schools do not under- Parents are invited to work and are paid with stand the need to push their own production to food for the work they have done by WFP. sustain feeding. Even if schools do not produce The table below summarizes the operations on their own, they would still get food from FPE of the feeding programmes in Lesotho showing and WFP. the objectives, types of food provided, cost, im- The Secure the Child project which was initi- pact and problems of the programmes. ated by CARE Lesotho-South Africa operates in 21 schools in the districts of Mokhotlong and Reaction to the recommendations Mohale's Hoek. It is in the form of a self-reli- ance project. Its overall objective is to promote In order to address some of the recommenda- sustainable food safety nets for orphans and tions which have been made by the studies; vulnerable children that protect and uphold their basic right to food. CARE Lesotho-South Af- · MOET is going to develop the School Health rica is executes STC with WFP, MOET, GROW policy to address issues around hygiene and and Rural Self Help Development Association sanitation. (RSDA). According to the project document, two · Pit latrines and borehole water supplies are local NGOs, GROW and RSDA are implement- being built in new schools and in some exist- ing STC under a sub grant arrangement. GROW ing schools. covers 9 schools in Mokhotlong while RSDA · WFP has increased in staff in order to regu- covers 12 schools in Mohale's Hoek. MOET larize its monitoring of the school feeding. implements STC at national level and houses the · The use of fuel-saving stoves is being piloted STC offices within the ministry. in about 30 schools. This aims at improving CARE Lesotho-South Africa funds the project food preparation and reducing by 50% fuel for starting up gardens in schools for produc- wood consumption in schools. Current Operations of the school feeding programmes in Lesotho Free Primary Education (FPE) FEEDING World Food Programme Self-Reliance Projects Secure the Child Project Objectives: · To provide nutritional · To encourage self- · To develop 21 schools · To increase enrol- support to children. sufficiency. gardens in Mohale's ment. · Provide meals in the · To encourage Hoek and Mokhotlong that are worst · To alleviate poverty. morning hours to education for produc- improve children's tion. affected by food crisis concentration in and insecurity. class. · Improve awareness in · To overcome short- Lesotho of the rights term hunger. of children and the development of appropriate safety nets that promote sustainable food security. (continued on next page) 152 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Current Operations of the school feeding programmes in Lesotho (continued) Free Primary Education (FPE) FEEDING World Food Programme Self-Reliance Projects Secure the Child Project Distribution: Distributed by FMU at the Agricultural inputs are Agricultural inputs are Local caterers are hired beginning of every quarter, distributed to schools, so distributed to schools, so to provide stipulated two weeks before schools that they could start their that they could start their meals. Caterers are paid re-open. Cooks are paid own production. own production. M2.00/child/day. M0.70 in the highlands including Std 7 cooks in the lowlands and foothills. Cooks buy sugar, salt and fuel, repayment of which is covered in the M0.70. Types of food provided: Maize meal, pulse (peas Seeds and poultry are Seeds are provided. Every day: Children are and beans), cooking oil. provided given mid-morning snack Non-food materials are in the form of porridge. also provided in con- Mon: Mealie pap and junction with GTZ: pots, moroho (green leafy plates, cutlery (serving vegetables). spoons), buckets fuel- saving stoves (in Tue: Bread with soup selected pilot schools), (bean or peas soup). construction of kitchens Wed: Mealie pap, moroho and stores. and boiled egg. Thurs: Samp and beans. Fri: Mealie pap and boiled milk. Note: This kind of food is provided to classes that are under FPE coverage in the lowlands and foothills only. For Std 7 pupils, the menu is that of WFP. Cost: The total cost of the The cost was M2,000,000 Funds held and dis- M101,213,907 (actual project is: in 2002. The project was bursed directly from expenditure for FY 04/05). $14,452,294. expected to be sustain- CARE -Lesotho-South able afterwards. No Africa. allocations of the capital nature are given for the self-reliance project. The recurrent budget is available. (continued on next page) Annex 3.1: Summary of Primary School Feeding Programs in Lesotho 153 Current Operations of the school feeding programmes in Lesotho (continued) Free Primary Education (FPE) FEEDING World Food Programme Self-Reliance Projects Secure the Child Project Impact: Positive Positive Positive Positive · Alleviate poverty. · Improvement in · Encouraged self- Encouraged self- children's diet. sufficiency and self- sufficiency and self- · Increased atten- reliance. reliance. dance. · Increased community participation including parents. · Facilitates productive activities. Negative Negative Negative · Promotes depen- · Promotes depen- · Does not address the dency syndrome. dency syndrome. immediate problem of poverty. Problems · WFP food scheme · Monitoring of the · The project is still · Payment of caterers lacked variation and project is not regular. new, its problems takes a long time to therefore other · There is no financial have not been process, which delays important nutrients. accountability by identified yet. the purchase of food school principals on and the activities of food sold. school feeding in · In some schools general. vegetables from · Some foodstuffs are gardens are ex- not available locally, hausted before the so the caterers have end of the year. to travel to buy them, · Some schools have this may be costly. terminated the · Some schools serve feeding scheme mid-morning snack, because parents are some do not. In some reluctant to pay the schools, the mid- fees. morning snack is served as the main meal. ANNEX 3.2 Summary of Bursary Programs in Lesotho By Liako Selokoma and Mrs. `Mamohau Mochebelele Comparison between Moet Bursary Scheme and Social Welfare Public Assistance Moet Bursary Scheme 1.1. Objective Introduction The main objective of the bursary scheme is to reduce the number of children who drop out of he Ministry of Education and Train- school due to failure to pay fees, which is a re- T ing has two bursary schemes at the lev- quirement of all schools in the country. Secondly, els of basic (seven years of primary and the scheme is geared to retain children who en- the first three years of secondary) and roll into schools despite the poor economic sta- secondary education. Both the Gov- tus of their families lest they drop out of school. ernment of Lesotho (GOL) and the World Bank fund the basic education bursaries under what 1.2. Eligible groups is known as the Targeted Equity Based Programme (TEBP). The Global Fund funds the Eligible groups of children covered by the scheme secondary (Forms D and E) bursaries. arranged by order of priority are: 1. Targeted Equity Based Programme · Double orphans. · Single orphans whose remaining parents are Targeted Equity Based Programme, component chronically ill. 2.5 of the Education Sector Development · Children with disabilities /or children whose Project, Phase II is a poverty reduction parents have severe disabilities that hinder programme whose main aim is to increase ac- them from earning a living. cess to basic education. The scheme provides · Abandoned children whose parents' where- bursaries to orphans and vulnerable children. abouts are not known and are living with grand parents. · Out-of-school children. 155 156 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho 1.3. Coverage 1.5. Administration and management of the scheme GOL has introduced Free Primary Education (FPE) that is incremental by standards and The Scholarship Officer who is accountable to which is up to standard six in 2005. As a result, the Chairman of the Bursary Scheme Committee standard 7 and junior secondary levels of edu- (HQ) manages the Bursary Scheme on a daily basis cation are covered by the scheme. Since pov- and reports progress to the Projects Coordinator erty is rife countrywide, the scheme assists chil- who reports directly to Director of Planning. dren in both rural and urban areas in the ten The Bursary Office is manned by 13 officers districts. While the scheme does not differenti- of whom ten are based in the districts and three ate between rural and urban children, it does at the headquarters. Among other responsibili- not cover children who attend private schools ties the Bursary Office liaises with stakehold- and children who go to schools that are not reg- ers, designs and processes applications; provides istered with the Ministry of Education and guidance to District Bursary Committees (DBCs) Training and are therefore considered `illegal' and Advisory School Committees (ASCs) and schools. reports to relevant ministerial authorities. 1.4. Fees 1.6. Composition of bursary committees The scheme pays There are three levels to determine if candidates qualify for support. Committees have been es- · Registration fee tablished to perform this duty. School Commit- · Tuition fee tees operate at the school level and District Bur- · Book fee sary Committees operate at the district level and · Examinations fee the MOET Bursary Committee serves as a Na- · Stationery tion Bursary Committee. · Practical/special subject fee · Boarding fee 1.6.1. Advisory School Committee -- Village based There is no differentiation regarding the amount of fees paid for students in rural and · Village chief urban areas. The only factor, which determines · School principal the difference in fees, is fees that are charged by · Teacher representative respective schools. · Proprietor--church representative or MOET representative in a case of a community Payment of fees school. · Parents' representative. Initially disbursement of bursaries to schools was made by cheques. However, it was decided that Role of the Advisory School Committee fees should be paid through the bank. While this system has proven quick and more efficient, · Identifies children who need support many primary schools do not have bank ac- · Assesses bursary applications and recom- counts and are still paid by cheques. This is prob- mends qualifying candidates for award of lematic because a significant number of cheques bursaries. expire before they are cashed. · Can apply for bursary on behalf of an out- of-school child who is in an exceptionally dif- Annex 3.2: Summary of Bursary Programs in Lesotho 157 ficult circumstance e.g. a family head child, 1.7. Letters to chiefs; school principals; an abandoned child etc. parents and members of parliament. 1.6.2. District Bursary Committee -- Once disbursement of fees to schools is com- District based pleted letters to parents and school principals are drafted and signed by the Principal Secre- · Senior Education Officer tary. Blank copies of letters together with ben- · Bursary Field Officer eficiary lists are sent to the districts to be for- · A Principal Chief warded to the chiefs. · A member of the Urban Board Lists of children who benefit from the scheme · School principals, representative are forwarded to the Principal Secretaries office · A member from World Vision or Red Cross as well as the Assistant Minister's office. · Representative from the Department of So- cial Welfare 1.8. Application procedures Role of the District Bursary Committee Currently, the Bursary Scheme has structures at the school level. Advisory School Committees · Selects candidates for award of bursaries and School Boards at schools recommend can- · Recommends suitable candidates to the didates for award of bursaries. These bodies are MOET Bursary Committee. representatives of all stakeholders; parent, pro- · Writes a report to inform future selection pro- prietors, local authorities and teachers. cesses and procedures. Family Level 1.6.3. MOET Bursary Committee -- Based at the MOET headquarters In child headed households, children are allowed to write application letters for themselves. How- · Chief Education Officer--Secondary (Chair- ever, for children whose parent/guardians are man) still alive parents/guardian are expected to ap- · Director of Planning ply on behalf of their children. People of good- · Chief Inspector--Central Inspectorate will and authorities such as principals, District · Chief Inspector Field Services Secretaries, chiefs etc can apply for bursaries · Financial Controller--PSCU on behalf of Orphans and Vulnerable Children · Financial Controller--MOET (OVCs) who are in exceptionally difficult posi- · Scholarship Officer tions. Role of the MOET Bursary Committee School Level · Assesses and moderates all recommended The application procedures at school level are applications. two tiered. Firstly, the principal of the school · Ensures that the District Bursaries Committee's has to ensure that all deserving children in his selection processes and procedures comply school have and fill in bursary application forms. with those of the scheme. Thereafter, the principal fills in relevant infor- · Upon completion, the MOET Bursary Com- mation in the application form and invites the mittee recommends and forwards the lists to school committee to evaluate applications and the Principal Secretary for approval. recommend qualifying applicants for award of bursaries. 158 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho 1.9. The selection process 2. Global fund The selection of worthy children is community 2.1. Objective based with chiefs recommending children for award of bursaries. ASCs further recommend The objective of the education component of the children while the DBC performs the actual se- Global Fund project in Lesotho is to ensure that lection of children to be awarded bursaries. The education and learning opportunities are pro- rationale behind the above arrangement is to vided to HIV and AIDS orphans. ensure participation of the communities and transparency to the selection process. 2.2. Eligible children and schools 1.10. Budget Unlike the bursary scheme for primary and sec- ondary students, only orphans benefit. This The bilateral credit agreement between the scheme supports double orphans and single or- GOL and the International Development As- phans in Forms D and E. Secondly, only high sociation indicates that the partners will each schools benefit from this arrangement for it is contribute 50% of the total sum required to realized that organizations that used to support pay bursaries. vulnerable children with school fees have either closed down or have stopped supporting or- The budget allocation by district phans e.g. NMDS, the Department of Social Welfare; Save the Children Fund; etc. It was also The bursary allocation model is based on the realized that children currently benefiting from district population of school going age that the MOET Bursary Scheme would not continue dropped out of school. Again, the budget allo- schooling after Form C if an opportunity is not cation is determined by the primary and second- created for them. Only registered high schools ary distribution per district. Each district has a benefit from this programme. budget and will award bursaries on the basis of the budget. Thus, the DBC will only award new 2.3. Application process and procedures bursaries if the budget permits. In January 2004, the Ministry of Health and 1.11. Linkages with other Organisations Social Welfare approached the MOET to assist to process bursary applications for HIV and The Bursary Office collaborates with interna- AIDS orphans to be supported under the Glo- tional as well as local organizations. It works bal Fund. It was decided that charity institutions closely with Lesotho AIDS Programme Coor- should submit lists of orphans seeking assistance. dinating Agency, Ministry of Health and So- Many institutions that submitted applications cial Welfare, UNICEF, Office of the First Lady, operate in villages and this was deemed advan- Office of the Master of the High Court, tageous because most of them would bring in Lesotho Save the Children etc, which are gov- out-of-school children. Applications in the form ernment bodies; Non- governmental organi- of letters were received from zations such as Save the Children (UK), World Vision etc. It also works hand in hand with · The Office of the First Lady United Nations agencies such as UNICEF and · AIDS District Task Forces WFP. · World Vision · Department of Social Welfare · Office of the Master of the High Court Annex 3.2: Summary of Bursary Programs in Lesotho 159 · Ministry of Education and Training (applica- secondary levels. However, the budget and funds tions only) come from NMDS while Social Welfare makes the selection. The Scholarship Officer- MoET, the then Eco- nomic Planner LAPCA and an officer from the Ministry of Finance and Development Planning Selection Procedure compiled lists from other institutions jointly. Since the lists did not match funds available, A needy child can apply for bursary him/herself MOET sent forms to secondary and high schools or a parent/guardian/relative/people of good will to fill for both double and single orphans. After can apply on behalf of the child. The applicant compilation, a report was written and submit- obtains a letter from the chief that certifies that ted to the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare he/she is needy. The applicant takes the applica- for approval and disbursement of bursaries. tion letter to Offices of the Social Welfare. Upon submission of the application, a Social Worker interviews the applicant and fills the assessment Social Welfare form about the applicant. As a follow-up as- sessment, the social worker then goes to visit Introduction the family which the child lives in. If on the ba- sis of the selection criteria the Social Worker is New intakes into the Ministry of Health and satisfied that the child is needy he/she approves Social Welfare and the Ministry of Finance and the application and lets the applicant know im- Development Planning in the National Man- mediately that they will be awarded bursary. The power Development Secretariat (NMDS) bur- Social Worker then writes a letters to the Princi- sary assistance were stopped in 2002. Assistance pals showing a list of pupils that will be awarded exists with the on-going pupils in Primary and bursaries. The Social Workers from the ten dis- Secondary Schools. As a result, the explanation tricts send lists of needy children to the Social below shows what used to happen when new Welfare Headquarters. A list is then compiled intakes were selected into the bursary scheme and sent to NMDS to process payment. No que- which is to some extent still used when reas- ries are made from the Headquarters when the sessing the existing pupils. District Social Workers have recommended the Social Welfare administers Public Assistance children for award of bursaries. (PA) which is the monthly allowance of M100 targeted to the destitute and poor people who Fees fall under orphans, the severely disabled, the severely ill or the very elderly. In to be eligible All the fees are paid for (books, tuition, exami- for PA, one must be in a household without regu- nation and other fees) according to the individual lar income, or the monthly income within the child's need. In some cases uniforms are bought household should be less than M150; or within for the child, while in other cases parents or rela- a household with livestock or assets which can tives can afford to buy uniform or some items generate a monthly income of less than M150. of the uniform and do not require Social Assessment for eligibility into the PA assis- Welfare's assistance in that regard. tance is based on the applicant's situation at the time of application. The same method of assess- Payment Process ment is used for eligibility of pupils into the bursary assistance for primary grades which are In order to process payment to schools, Princi- not covered by Free Primary Education and for pals fill in three (3) Claim Forms. One form is 160 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho submitted to Social Welfare, the other is sub- Monitoring mitted NMDS and the last form is submitted to the Treasury Department of the Ministry of Social Workers have to visit schools regularly Finance and Development Planning for pay- to ensure that the beneficiaries of the bursaries ment. are still in school. However, due to lack of hu- man resource and transport, this kind of moni- Budget toring is not carried out regularly. The only monitoring that is in place is the use of pupils' Social Welfare does not budget for the bursa- End-of-year Performance Reports, which are ries and therefore does not have a limited num- used for renewal of the bursaries each year. If ber of children to select. However, they put a the child fails, he/she is not considered for bur- budget limit of M300 and M3,000 per assisted sary the following year. primary and secondary pupil respectively, per Since the Social Welfare is concerned about year. Bursaries are budgeted for by NMDS and the situation of the child at a period in ques- the Social Welfare is not informed of how much tion, reassessments are made even for children the budget amount is for the bursaries each who have passed their exams, to check if they year. are still eligible for the bursary. If their situation has improved, they are not assisted. ANNEX 3.3 Subvention for Government Secondary Schools Ms. Liteboho L. Maqalika-Lerotholi and Mr. S'khulumi Ntsoaole Preamble: that all schools assumed the status of public schools. This understanding remained as long he history of Education in Lesotho as there were cordial relationships between gov- T bears its origin from the Christian ernment and the church, but in some instances, Missionaries (1833). For more than when government wanted to make some im- 100 years the British Colonial Govern- provements or changes that were not in the ment left education entirely in the church's favour, some scuffles ensued. hands of the churches, namely, the Paris Evan- For many years, at least from 1970s, govern- gelical Missionary Society (PEMS) now Lesotho ment secondary schools with status not similar Evangelical Church, the Roman Catholic to Lesotho High School were: Church and the Anglican Church in Lesotho. Recently the smaller other churches own a few 1. Hlotse High School in Leribe schools. 2. Mohale's Hoek High School in Mohale's The only government school which was es- Hoek tablished in the pre-independent Lesotho was 3. Maseru High School in Maseru, and Basutoland High School (50 years) now known 4. Maseru Day High School in Maseru. as Lesotho High School. This was started as a From mid 1980s new ones were added, namely department of the Ministry of Education and 5. Mafeteng High School in Mafeteng has remained so to date. Though the principal 6. Qacha's Nek High School in Qacha's Nek and teachers at Lesotho High School are remu- 7. Sechaba High School in Leribe nerated by the Teaching Service, the school it- 8. Thetsane High School in Maseru self remains a government department, with its 9. Sekonyalela Secondary School in Mokhotlong bursar directly responsible to the Treasury cadre. In recent years, mainly after independence, Machabeng High School, now Machabeng the government of Lesotho has gradually estab- College is another government school estab- lished its own schools, not because there was lished mainly to meet the needs of the children any pressure because the common assumption of international diplomats assigned to Lesotho. from both the government and the church was The Administration of this school has been dif- 161 162 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho ferent from the rest of the other schools. M60 000 per year. Although the subvention was Machabeng High School Subvention has been meant specifically for projects, some schools' determined by Cabinet in recent years. projects have been very poor and they decided to use their subventions to cover certain areas which could not be covered by the school fees. The Origin of Subventions The schools' projects have ranged from rearing animals to building teachers' quarters and new While government secondary schools also classrooms. Some schools have used subvention charged school fees in a manner determined by for renovation and maintenance, thus ignoring them, the government, through the Ministry of critical financial practices of including mainte- Education found it necessary to provide them nance in their regular annual budgets. with small cash for starting and maintaining It can not be justified why government schools projects such as poultry, piggery, garden pro- receive subvention because even their mode of duce, etc. Around 1995 the subvention given to collecting school fees differs and charge differ- the first 4 government secondary school was ent fees. M10 000 each. To monitor the use of funds in- cluding subvention in these schools, the Minis- try of Education appointed auditors who were Way forward and recommendations paid by the individual schools to audit the books annually. The way forward with fees and subventions in When the new schools were established, their government schools could be a starting point subvention differed from the old schools. for rationalizing school fees in Lesotho in gen- Mafeteng, Qacha's Nek, Thetsane and Sechaba eral. Putting all government schools at par with High schools' subvention started with M60 000 Lesotho High School where fees are low and each per annum. No specific reason for the de- are paid into the Ministry's Accounts depart- cision was made expect that the schools were ment could bring equity and address the seem- new and would need more money to meet their ing imbalances in enrolments. Coupled with the needs. So, all schools that received subvention envisaged amendments of the 1995 Education were now required to make annual subvention Act, the leadership in rationalizing fees in gov- budgets on the fixed amounts given to them. ernment schools would provoke debate to fol- In other words, the subvention budget was low suit in the proposed public schools. driven by the fixed allocation while in ideal fi- To address the question of transparency in nancial situations the school requirements the use of school fees and any funding in the would determine the subvention required by schools, a strong financial management system each school. should be established with strict regulations and In 2000 the then Principal Secretary increased enforcement agencies. Special auditors should subvention for new secondary schools to M100 be put in place to monitor the use and advice 000 while the old schools subvention came to the Ministry regularly. ANNEX 4.1 Table: Incidence of orphanhood among children below 15 years, Lesotho and other African countries circa 2000 (percentage) Orphans Sample Father Mother Both size Non-orphans dead dead parents dead Total Total Lesotho, 2000 12,004 84.2 12.1 2.1 1.6 15.8 100.0 Age group 0­5 years 4,438 91.0 7.7 0.8 0.5 9.0 100.0 6­14 years 7,566 80.2 14.7 2.9 2.2 19.8 100.0 Location Urban 2,261 85.7 11.1 2.1 1.1 14.3 100.0 Rural 9,733 83.9 12.3 2.1 1.7 16.2 100.0 District Butha-Buthe 753 84.2 11.7 1.9 2.2 15.8 100.0 Leribe 1,686 84.6 11.4 2.1 1.8 15.3 100.0 Berea 1,511 86.0 9.7 2.4 1.7 13.9 100.0 Maseru 2,470 83.3 13.4 1.6 1.6 16.6 100.0 Mafeteng 1,480 84.9 11.7 2.5 0.9 15.1 100.0 Mohale's Hoek 1,136 78.6 14.9 2.9 3.5 21.3 100.0 Quthing 809 85.9 11.0 2.4 0.7 14.1 100.0 Qacha's Nek 442 85.3 13.8 0.7 0.2 14.7 100.0 Mokhotlong 705 85.5 11.3 2.3 0.8 14.4 100.0 Thaba-Tseka 1,002 85.4 11.7 2.1 0.8 14.5 100.0 Other African countries Ghana, 1998 9,783 93.7 3.6 1.9 0.8 6.3 100.0 Kenya, 1998 16,881 89.8 6.5 1.8 1.9 10.2 100.0 Malawi, 2000 28,888 88.3 6.5 2.9 2.3 11.7 100.0 Mozambique, 1997 19,891 86.6 6.7 4.2 2.5 13.5 100.1 Namibia, 1992 11,123 90.5 5 1.5 3 9.5 100.0 (continued on next page) 163 164 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table: (continued) Incidence of orphanhood among children below 15 years, Lesotho and other African countries circa 2000 (percentage) Orphans Sample Father Mother Both size Non-orphans dead dead parents dead Total Total Niger, 1998 17,701 93.4 3.3 2 1.3 6.6 100.0 Tanzania, 1999 8,339 90.9 5.3 2.2 1.6 9.1 100.0 Uganda, 2000 18,449 87.2 7.2 2.9 2.7 12.7 99.9 Zambia, 1996 18,107 87.4 7.4 2.9 2.3 12.6 100.0 Zimbabwe, 1999 11,999 84.7 9.3 2.6 3.4 15.3 100.0 Sources: author's calculation for Lesotho based on the 2000 MICS Survey; for all other countries: World Bank 2005, Education in Ethiopia: Strengthening the Foundation for Sustainable Progress, Washington DC. ANNEX 4.2 Table: Distribution of new entrants in Standard 1 by age in the school census, Lesotho 1999­2003 (percentage) 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Age <6 years 5.9 5.0 7.8 7.6 7.1 6 years 34.2 29.8 38.4 42.3 44.6 7 years 27.2 24.9 26.3 27.0 28.4 8 years 14.2 14.1 11.2 11.0 10.2 9 years 8.4 8.7 5.7 4.9 4.4 10 years 4.8 6.7 3.9 2.7 2.2 11 years 2.5 4.1 2.5 1.6 1.2 12 years and more 2.9 6.8 4.3 2.8 1.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number of new entrants 51,778 98,517 69,597 60,250 59,390 Source: author's calculation based on the 1999-2003 school censuses. 165 ANNEX 4.3 Table: Means of variables in the logit model of nonparticipation to school 2000 2002 Whole 6­8 9­12 13­14 6­8 9­12 13­14 sample years years years Total years years years Child characteristics Age 10.1 6.96 10.5 13.5 10.2 6.9 10.6 13.5 Boy (girl) 50.1 49.4 51.7 47.8 49.7 50.8 50.0 47.9 Orphanhood status (both parents alive) Mother alive-father dead 13.6 11.2 14.0 16.1 - - - - Father alive-mother dead 2.7 2.0 2.9 3.4 - - - - Both parents dead 2.1 1.4 2.1 3.0 - - - - Household head characteristics Male (female) 1.280 1.271 1.286 1.279 66.6 67.8 66.5 65.2 Age (in years) 51.1 49.6 51.3 52.6 49.9 48.9 50.2 50.7 Education (no schooling) Primary education 60.3 60.3 60.1 60.9 54.3 53.5 55.1 53.8 Secondary or higher education 14.8 16.4 13.9 14.2 16.2 16.3 16.0 16.5 Household income group (poorest) Second 21.1 20.9 21.8 19.9 20.3 19.2 20.3 21.6 Middle 21.3 20.3 21.2 22.7 20.0 20.2 20.0 19.9 Fourth 20.0 20.1 19.8 20.1 17.6 17.5 18.0 17.2 Richest 19.7 19.7 19.7 19.6 19.0 18.6 18.6 20.1 Household composition Members less than 6 years old (%) 11.5 12.9 11.2 10.0 15.0 20.1 13.3 11.2 Members more than 14 years old (%) 50.7 48.8 51.1 52.8 55.6 52.0 53.9 63.4 (continued on next page) 167 168 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table: (continued) Means of variables in the logit model of nonparticipation to school 2000 2002 Whole 6­8 9­12 13­14 6­8 9­12 13­14 sample years years years Total years years years Distance to nearest primary school (<15 minutes) 15­29 minutes -- -- -- -- 24.9 24.5 24.6 25.7 30­44 minutes -- -- -- -- 23.2 23.2 22.8 23.9 45­59 minutes -- -- -- -- 11.5 11.0 11.5 12.3 >= 60 minutes -- -- -- -- 19.6 19.3 20.0 19.4 Living in rural area (in urban area) 81.5 81.3 81.5 81.9 74.4 75.2 74.4 73.2 District (Butha-Buthe) Leribe 13.3 13.9 13.2 12.8 10.1 10.0 9.5 11.5 Berea 12.7 12.7 12.4 13.0 9.9 10.9 9.1 10.2 Maseru 20.7 21.0 20.4 20.8 9.9 9.6 9.6 10.7 Mafeteng 13.0 12.4 13.5 12.6 9.6 9.6 9.8 9.3 Mohale Hoek 9.8 9.5 9.4 11.0 9.6 8.2 10.3 9.9 Quthing 6.8 7.7 6.2 6.7 9.8 10.0 10.0 9.3 Qacha's Nek 3.7 3.7 3.8 3.4 10.6 10.1 10.9 10.6 Mokhotlong 5.7 6.1 5.6 5.5 10.1 10.4 10.2 9.5 Thaba Tseka 8.0 7.5 8.4 7.7 10.3 11.5 10.1 9.2 Has never been to school 11.7 18.6 6.9 7.0 11.5 20.9 6.6 6.6 Number of observations 6,893 2,178 3,126 1,589 5,553 1,765 2,410 1,378 a / Omitted category of dummy variables in parentheses. Means of dummies variables expressed in percentage. Source: author's calculation based on the 2000 MISC Survey and the 2002 CWIQ survey ANNEX 4.4 169 170 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table: Promotion, repetition and dropping out rates by grade, Lesotho 2000 (percentage) a Standard 1 Standard 2 Standard 3 Standard 4 Advance Repeat Drop Advance Repeat Drop Advance Repeat Drop Advance Repeat Drop Gender Boys 67.2 27.0 5.7 88.8 6.8 4.4 85.7 8.4 5.9 90.3 5.6 4.1 Girls 71.4 22.8 5.9 88.9 7.6 3.5 88.7 5.7 5.7 93.4 3.2 3.4 Wealth index Poorest 69.7 20.2 10.1 87.9 8.5 3.5 86.2 6.5 7.3 92.5 4.3 3.2 Second 67.9 23.5 8.6 86.5 4.3 9.1 85.6 5.2 9.2 88.5 3.1 8.5 Middle 68.9 25.2 5.9 88.7 7.5 3.8 86.4 6.3 7.3 90.7 6.2 3.1 Fourth 66.9 28.9 4.2 88.3 9.3 2.4 86.4 9.2 4.4 92.5 4.6 2.9 Richest 73.6 25.9 0.5 92.8 6.7 0.5 91.2 7.6 1.2 94.8 3.1 2.1 Orphanhood status Both parents alive 69.0 26.4 4.6 89.7 7.9 2.4 89.2 7.1 3.7 92.9 4.5 2.6 Mother alive- father dead 71.5 22.8 5.7 91.3 6.3 2.4 87.1 6.9 6.0 95.8 4.2 0.0 Father alive- mother dead 77.8 20.0 2.2 86.4 9.1 4.5 84.6 0.0 15.4 92.9 7.1 0.0 Both parents dead 60.0 26.7 13.3 90.9 0.0 9.1 73.3 6.7 20.0 92.9 7.1 0.0 Total orphans 72.0 22.5 5.5 90.6 5.8 3.5 85.4 5.7 8.9 95.0 5.0 0.0 Location Urban 70.9 25.1 4.3 93.9 3.7 2.2 92.5 3.7 3.8 95.6 3.1 1.3 Rural 68.7 25.6 6.1 87.7 8.0 4.4 86.0 7.9 6.2 91.0 4.6 4.4 District Butha-Buthe 85.9 6.3 7.8 88.2 5.9 5.9 91.0 1.6 7.5 92.6 1.5 5.9 Leribe 64.3 30.4 5.5 88.9 9.6 1.5 88.6 7.9 3.5 92.9 4.4 2.7 Berea 68.3 25.5 6.2 90.2 3.9 5.7 89.8 6.1 4.1 89.8 3.8 6.5 Maseru 70.2 24.0 6.7 88.8 6.1 5.1 84.0 9.0 7.2 96.5 2.0 1.4 Mafeteng 65.6 30.2 4.8 87.4 9.7 3.1 87.2 5.7 7.2 87.3 9.8 2.9 Mohale's hoek 67.5 26.2 7.9 87.7 5.9 6.2 93.5 4.2 2.2 90.3 4.9 4.8 Quthing 73.8 21.0 6.0 89.5 8.0 2.6 76.5 10.9 13.2 86.4 9.4 4.5 Qacha's nek 72.9 24.0 2.1 97.4 0.0 2.6 88.2 5.9 5.9 96.0 0.0 4.0 Mokhotlong 73.5 24.5 2.0 84.9 11.5 3.8 97.2 2.7 0.0 92.0 0.0 8.0 Thaba-tseka 65.9 28.2 4.9 88.5 9.0 2.6 79.6 16.0 4.1 100.0 0.0 0.0 Lesotho 69.2 25.1 5.8 88.9 7.2 4.0 87.2 7.1 5.8 92.0 4.3 3.7 a / Cells are left empty where the number of observations is too small to calculate reliable promotion, repetition and dropping out rates. Source: author's calculation based on the 2000 MISC Survey Annex 4.4 171 Standard 5 Standard 6 Standard 7 Total Advance Repeat Drop Advance Repeat Drop Advance Repeat Drop Advance Repeat Drop 89.3 6.6 4.1 89.9 3.2 6.9 72.1 9.5 18.3 82.5 11.9 5.7 93.9 4.5 1.7 82.0 6.8 11.2 67.1 11.5 22.6 84.5 9.5 6.0 87.3 5.6 7.0 87.9 6.1 6.1 46.7 6.7 46.7 82.1 10.4 7.5 90.4 3.0 6.7 71.2 6.8 21.9 56.7 3.3 40.0 80.3 9.3 10.4 92.1 6.0 2.0 87.0 3.7 9.3 61.7 11.7 26.7 83.0 10.7 6.2 92.0 6.7 1.3 85.5 5.6 8.9 72.9 14.3 12.9 82.8 12.8 4.4 94.1 5.9 0.0 89.7 5.5 4.8 81.3 8.0 10.7 88.4 9.6 2.0 94.5 4.5 1.0 90.7 7.6 1.7 78.0 18.0 4.0 84.40 12.50 3.20 96.2 3.8 0.0 91.7 5.6 2.8 81.8 9.1 9.1 86.30 10.20 3.50 75.0 16.7 8.3 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 82.90 11.40 5.70 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 84.50 7.10 8.30 94.2 4.9 1.0 93.3 4.4 2.2 83.3 8.3 8.3 85.60 10.10 4.30 97.9 2.0 0.0 91.1 1.7 7.3 76.7 6.2 16.7 88.2 7.8 3.9 90.0 6.3 3.6 83.1 7.0 10.3 66.8 12.3 22.1 82.3 11.5 6.3 85.5 7.8 7.3 88.6 3.0 8.6 80.0 0.0 20.0 88.2 4.0 7.9 88.8 8.3 2.8 76.0 12.9 12.0 75.0 7.7 18.2 81.6 13.5 5.1 91.0 6.3 2.2 87.0 2.6 10.4 50.0 14.3 36.7 83.3 9.5 7.2 94.4 2.8 2.8 82.5 5.2 12.7 83.3 8.8 4.8 84.5 9.6 5.9 94.6 4.3 1.1 94.5 3.6 1.8 65.7 15.6 20.0 82.1 13.3 4.7 91.8 5.3 2.7 93.5 2.1 4.3 66.7 16.7 18.5 84.4 10.0 5.6 88.1 5.1 7.1 81.0 10.0 9.5 66.7 7.7 27.8 81.3 11.5 7.7 88.2 10.5 0.0 60.0 25.0 20.0 63.6 9.1 27.3 84.2 9.9 5.4 96.4 3.2 0.0 94.4 0.0 5.6 55.6 28.6 22.2 86.2 10.1 3.7 96.6 3.2 0.0 85.0 5.3 10.0 55.6 0.0 44.4 81.9 13.4 4.6 91.7 5.5 2.8 85.1 5.4 9.5 69.2 10.0 20.8 83.5 10.7 5.8 ANNEX 5.1 Primary teacher qualifications by school type (2003) Qualification Gov. Community LEC RCM ACL AME Others Private Total Primary school 0.4 2.0 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.4 Junior Certificate 7.0 7.4 13.8 9.1 12.0 8.3 13.4 0.0 11.1 COSC 43.9 18.7 21.1 18.5 20.0 29.3 31.3 21.4 21.1 COSC and pre-service 30.3 50.5 35.2 37.5 32.3 25.6 29.6 71.4 36.0 COSC and in-service 14.3 14.0 22.5 26.1 28.3 28.6 21.0 7.1 24.0 Higher and pre-service 1.7 2.5 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 Higher and in-service 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.7 1.3 0.8 1.1 0.0 0.8 Unknown 2.1 4.5 6.2 7.7 6.1 7.5 3.1 0.0 6.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Teachers teaching multigrade Primary school 1.0 0.0 0.1 0.9 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 Junior Certificate 6.0 9.0 17.9 12.6 15.5 17.1 12.4 0.0 14.3 COSC 41.0 17.2 30.4 25.3 27.1 36.6 39.5 25.0 28.4 Secondary and pre-service 34.0 49.2 28.3 31.0 27.1 12.2 27.2 75.0 30.5 Secondary and in-service 13.0 14.8 17.3 21.2 22.7 26.8 17.3 0.0 19.1 Higher and pre-service 1.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 Higher and in-service 1.0 0.8 0.1 0.5 0.8 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.5 Unknown 3.0 6.6 5.9 8.5 6.4 7.3 2.5 0.0 6.6 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Teachers teaching monograde Primary school 0.0 2.8 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.4 Junior Certificate 7.5 6.8 12.6 8.1 11.1 4.4 13.7 0.0 10.2 COSC 45.5 19.3 18.5 16.6 18.2 26.1 28.9 16.7 19.0 Secondary and pre-service 28.3 50.9 37.2 39.3 33.6 31.5 30.3 66.7 37.5 Secondary and in-service 15.0 13.7 23.9 27.4 29.6 29.4 22.0 16.7 25.4 Higher and pre-service 2.1 2.5 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 Higher and in-service 0.0 0.3 0.9 0.7 1.4 1.1 1.1 0.0 0.9 Unknown 1.6 3.7 6.3 7.5 6.1 7.6 3.3 0.0 6.4 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 173 ANNEX 5.2 Secondary teacher qualifications by school type (2003) ACL AME Community Government LEC Others Private RCM Total Masters Degree 4 8 7 4 3 3 26 4 4 Bachelors Degree 53 40 53 55 46 61 50 48 50 Diploma 12 7 15 13 12 13 9 13 13 Advanced Certificates 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Secondary Teachers Certificate 14 11 10 11 21 15 7 18 17 Secondary Technical Teachers Certificate 3 1 0 3 2 0 0 2 2 Teachers Certificate 1 0 1 3 1 0 0 1 1 Cambridge Overseas School Certificate 8 23 9 4 10 2 5 7 8 Joint Matriculation Board Certificate 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 Primary Teachers Certificate 1 0 2 1 1 1 0 1 1 Other Certificates 1 7 1 2 1 2 0 2 1 COSC & JC Plus In-Service Education 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Associate of the College of Preceptors 2 10 2 4 3 4 3 4 3 Unknown 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 175 ANNEX 5.3 Average years of experience for current teachers. All teachers Government Community LEC RCM ACL AME Others Private Total Mountains 5 10.4 11.6 14.3 11.6 10.2 10 4.7 12.5 Lowlands 10.8 12.7 15.3 18.3 15.9 15.8 10.8 11.3 15.7 Senqu River Valley 4.9 13 15.7 12.9 13.8 Foothills 8.4 10.2 14.1 15.3 13 10.1 8 14.2 Unknown 6.7 5.1 6.3 Total 8.3 12.3 14 16.3 14.4 14.1 10.2 9.9 14.5 Male teachers Mountains 6.2 7 10.3 14.6 10.2 8.3 9 12.1 Lowlands 8.1 11.6 13.1 14.7 13.1 9.2 9 10 12.9 Senqu River Valley 1 11 18.2 17 14.1 Foothills 9 7.8 13.1 13.2 9.8 4.8 12.3 Unknown 2.7 3.3 3 Total 7.1 10.4 12 14.5 11.6 8.8 8 10 12.5 Female teachers Mountains 4.7 11.5 12.1 14.2 12.1 11.2 10.4 4.7 12.6 Lowlands 11.7 12.9 15.7 19 16.5 17.1 11.1 11.6 16.3 Senqu River Valley 5.5 13.6 14.7 12.4 13.7 Foothills 8.2 11.1 14.5 15.7 13.8 10.1 9.2 14.7 Unknown 7.6 6.5 7.3 Total 8.7 12.7 14.5 16.8 15 15.3 10.8 9.8 15 177 ANNEX 5.4 Randomness of Teacher Deployment By Zone the number of students and teachers, the mag- nitude of the disparities is wider than that for nalysis of teacher deployment by geo- the whole country as documented by the lower A graphical region reveals that teacher value of R2 (Figures 4.6, 4.7, and 4.8). On the distribution is more random in moun- other hand, in the Foothills area, the magnitude tain areas. In Mountain areas, Low- of disparities is less conspicuous as documented land, and Senqu River Valley, even by R2 (Figure 5.9). though there is a positive correlation between Figure 1 Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Mountain Areas, 2003 18 16 y = 0.0165x + 1.0092 14 R2 = 0.692 12 Teachers 10 of 8 Number 6 4 2 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 Number of Students Source: School Census (2003) 179 180 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 2 Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Lowlands, 2003 40 y = 0.0164x + 2.4447 35 R2 = 0.7934 30 25 Teachers of 20 15 Number 10 5 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 Number of Students Source: School Census (2003) Figure 3 Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Senqu River, 2003 25 y = 0.0158x + 1.5955 20 R2 = 0.726 15 Teachers of 10 Number 5 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Number of Students Source: School Census (2003) By District solution consists of using a set of dummy vari- ables for the different districts. Table 5.10 shows To determine whether the issue lies with between the variations existing between districts in the or within districts, a relatively straightforward allocation of teachers at the primary level. While Annex 5.4: Randomness of Teacher Deployment 181 Figure 4 Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Foothill, 2003 35 30 y = 0.0159x + 1.7099 25 R2 = 0.8375 20 Teachers of 15 Number 10 5 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 Number of Students Source: School Census (2003) Model 1 represents the variance within a dis- other hand, Thaba-Tseka and Quthing reap trict, Model 2 represents the variance between lesser benefits (the ratio is 50 and 49, respec- the districts. tively). The study first considers the total number of With regards to the results of the two mod- pupils and teachers at the district level. It ap- els, it appears that allowing variations between pears very clearly that some districts benefit from provinces helps to reduce the residual variabil- a similar number of teachers although they may ity of the model (R2 increases from 81.8% to be servicing distinctly different numbers of pu- 82.6%). Model 1 shows that inconsistency in pils. This is the case of Thaba-Tseka and Butha- teacher allocation to individual schools repre- Buthe: although they each have about 620 teach- sents 18.2 percent (100%-81.8%) of the total ers, Thaba-Tseka has an enrolment of 31,000 variability in the number of teachers at the school pupils whereas Butha-Buthe has 28,000 pupils level. Model 2 indicates that by allowing dis- (3,000 pupils fewer than Thaba-Tseka). In- parities in teacher allocation between districts, versely, Quthing and Butha-Buthe each has the inconsistency (or variance) within each prov- about 28,000 pupils in enrollment; Butha-Buthe, ince accounts for 17.6 percent (100%­82.4%). however, has 630 teachers while Quthing has This means that of the 18.2 percentage points only 570 teachers. These figures suggest that of total inconsistency (or variance in the distri- there is inconsistency in teacher allocation to the bution of teacher resources), 17.6 percentage provinces and some provinces benefit more than points correspond to inconsistency in the distri- others. For instance, Butha-Buthe and bution of resources within the districts. In rela- Mokhotlong appear to benefit from relatively tive terms, this indicates that 80 percent of total generous endowments of teachers given the num- inconsistency is found within the provinces in ber of pupils currently enrolled (the teacher-stu- the allocation of teachers to individual schools, dent ratios in these two provinces is 44). On the and that only 20 percent stems from variations 182 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho between the district's allocations of teachers. of a given size. Table 5.12 provides these simu- This does not imply that the allocation of re- lations for schools of 300 pupils, a number that sources between the districts is adequate and is close to the average size of primary public efficient or that all districts are characterized by schools in the country. Inter-province dispari- an equal degree of inconsistency in allocating ties appear to be quite substantial; Thaba-Tseka teachers to individual schools. To analyze the and Mokhotlong are under-endowed in relative first point, a possibility consists of using the terms as schools of 300 pupils have on average coefficients of the dummy variables for districts around 6 teachers. On the other hand, Butha- in Model 2 as presented in Table 5.10. (Follow- Buthe and Berea have more than 7 teachers for ing this method, we would flag Thaba-Tseka and the same enrollment size. This means that it may Mohale as districts that are under-endowed in be necessary to increase the number of teachers teachers given the number of pupils enrolled, in the three under-endowed districts. while Butha-Buthe and Qacha's Nek would be identified, in relative terms, as over-endowed). A second and preferred analysis (as it provides By Management Type a better description of reality) consists of con- ducting the estimation of the relationship be- A similar analysis of teacher deployment was tween teachers and pupils at the school level conducted by the type of school management: separately for each of the 9 provinces. Table 5.11 1) government schools; 2) community schools; provides these estimates. 3) church schools; and 4) private schools, among Based on the estimates, it is possible to simu- others. As seen from the figures below, the mag- late the average number of teachers in schools nitude of disparities is wider in government Table 1 Relation between the Number of Teachers and Pupils in Primary Schools, by District, 2003 Number of Number Model 1 Model 2 Districts pupils of teachers coefficient t- value coefficient t-value Student 0.0173 77.940 0.017 71.9 Maseru 89058 1919 Reference Thaba-Tseka 30845 615 ­1.135 ­5.2 Butha-Buthe 27770 629 0.319 1.2 Leribe 69433 1478 ­0.045 ­0.2 Berea 55381 1175 0.266 1.2 Mafeteng 47981 1060 ­0.156 ­0.7 Mohale's Hoek 41134 899 ­0.568 ­2.8 Quthing 27937 569 ­0.970 ­4.2 Qacha's Nek 18515 456 ­0.419 ­1.7 Mokhotlong 21666 494 ­0.566 ­2.4 intercept 1.375 Intercept 1.861 R2 81.8 R2 82.4 Source: School Census (2003) Annex 5.4: Randomness of Teacher Deployment 183 Table 2 Relationship between the Number of Teachers and Students at the School Level by District (Primary Education) Number of Schools (n) Intercept coefficient* R2 N300** t-value Lesotho 1,355 1.375 0.0173 81.8 6.6 77.940 Region Thaba-Tseka 135 0.747 0.0167 74.0 5.7 19.481 Butha-Buthe 75 2.096 0.0170 79.8 7.2 16.968 Leribe 173 2.184 0.0158 74.4 6.9 22.315 Berea 116 2.394 0.0162 81.0 7.3 22.012 Maseru 229 1.761 0.0170 79.0 6.9 29.189 Mafeteng 150 1.812 0.0164 85.8 6.7 29.876 Mohale's Hoek 162 0.866 0.0184 87.4 6.4 33.376 Quthing 113 1.069 0.0160 83.7 5.9 23.838 Qacha's Nek 101 1.195 0.0181 72.6 6.6 16.214 Mokhotlong 101 1.483 0.0159 57.0 6.2 11.457 Source: School Census (2003) * : all coefficients are significant at the 0.001 level ** : N 300 is the estimated number of teachers in a 300 pupil school (country average) schools, community schools, African Method- management. As seen from Table 3, the magni- ist Episcopal Church schools, and private schools tude of disparities is slightly wider within type (others), compared to the whole country as docu- of school management (R2=87.5) compared to mented by the lower value of R2 (Figures, 5.10, between management type (R2=87.9). 5.11, 5.15 and 5.16). On the other hand, the Simulation of the average number of teach- magnitude of disparities is lesser among schools ers in school of a given size reveals that there owned by Lesotho Evangelical Church, Roman are disparities among management type of Catholic Church, Anglican Church of Lesotho schools. As seen from Table 4, government- (Figures 5.12, 5.13, and 5.14). owned schools clearly do not have sufficient The study also examined the resource alloca- teachers to the number of students (the average tion of teachers by type of school management. teacher-student ratio is 1:41). On the other hand, Model 1 represents the variance within schools schools owned by the community and churches of management type, while Model 2 represents have more teachers relative to the number of the variance among schools of different types of students. 184 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 5 Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Government schools 2003 Government Schools 120 100 y = 0.0278x - 0.997 80 R2 = 0.5368 60 40 20 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Source: School Census (2003) Figure 6 Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Community Schools, 2003 Community Schools 140 120 y = 0.0218x + 6.57 100 R2 = 0.6828 80 60 40 20 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 Source: School Census (2003) Annex 5.4: Randomness of Teacher Deployment 185 Figure 7 Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Schools Governed by Lesotho Evangelical Church, 2003 Lesotho Evangelical Church 180 160 y = 0.0177x + 4.7556 R2 = 0.8916 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 Source: School Census (2003) Figure 8 Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Schools Governed by Roman Catholic Church, 2003 Roman Catholic Church 180 160 y = 0.0182x + 4.8138 R2 = 0.9201 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 Source: School Census (2003) 186 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Figure 9 Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Schools Governed by Anglican Church of Lesotho, 2003 Anglican Church of Lesohto 200 180 y = 0.017x + 6.6835 R2 = 0.9164 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 Source: School Census (2003) Figure 10 Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Schools Governed by African Methodist Church, 2003 Anglican Methodist Episcopal Church 80 y = 0.0196x + 5.7236 70 R2 = 0.783 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Source: School Census (2003) Annex 5.4: Randomness of Teacher Deployment 187 Figure 11 Relationship between Number of Teachers and Students in Schools Governed by Private Schools and Other Schools, 2003 Others (includes Private Schools) 80 70 y = 0.0178x + 10.499 60 R2 = 0.765 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 Source: School Census (2003) Table 3 Relation between the Number of Teachers and Pupils in Primary Schools, by Management Type, 2003 Number of Number Model 1 Model 2 Districts pupils of teachers coefficient t- value coefficient t-value Student 0.018 97.14 0.018 97.22 Government 27,372 701 (ref) Community 71,754 1927 8.128 5.27 Lesotho Evangelical Church 771,844 15,944 0.835 0.73 Roman Catholic Church 786,762 16,766 1.688 1.49 Anglican Church 286,584 6,044 1.602 1.29 African Methodist 25,087 629 3.971 2.00 Others 69,467 1,751 6.790 4.27 intercept 5.232 intercept 3.409 R2 87.5 R2 87.9 Source: School Census (2003) 188 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho Table 4 Relationship between the Number of Teachers and Students at the School Level by Management Type (Primary Education) Number of Schools (n) Intercept coefficient* R2 N300** t-value Lesotho 1,355 1.375 0.0173 81.8 6.6 77.94 Proprietor Government 61 ­0.997 0.028 53.7 7.4 8.269 Community 55 6.570 0.022 68.3 13.1 10.682 Lesotho Evangelical Church 481 4.610 0.018 89.2 9.9 62.744 Roman Catholic Church 509 4.814 0.018 92.0 10.3 76.414 Anglican Church 176 6.684 0.017 91.6 11.8 43.660 African Methodist 24 5.724 0.020 78.3 11.6 8.909 Others 49 10.499 0.018 76.5 15.8 12.369 Source: School Census (2003) * : all coefficients are significant at the 0.001 level ** : N 300 is the estimated number of teachers in a 300 pupil school (country average) ANNEX 5.5 Evolution of Teacher-Student Ratio from 1998 to 2003 able 1 below presents the evolution from district to district but in the past six years, T of primary teacher-student ratios in the ratio has increased significantly in Lesotho. Overall the ratio as re- Mokhotlong (11.8 percent), Maseru (7.2 per- mained stable at between 45 to 47 cent), and Mohale's Hoek (5.3 percent). On the despite the introduction of Free Pri- other hand, the teacher-student ratios in dis- mary Education in 1999. As seen, the ratio has tricts such as Qacha's Nek (­8.4 percent) and increased 2.2. Percent from 45.2 in 1988 to Mafeteng (­2.1 percent), and Leribe (­0.7 per- 46.2 in 2003. The magnitude of ratios differs cent) have declined. In other words, the num- Table 1 Evolution of Teacher/student Ratio at Primary Schools by District 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 % changes Butha-Buthe 43.6 41.4 45.1 44.9 42.2 44.1 1.3% Leribe 47.3 47.3 48.5 47.0 47.3 47.0 ­0.7% Berea 46.5 45.1 49.0 49.5 48.0 47.1 1.4% Maseru 43.3 43.5 46.6 46.4 45.6 46.4 7.2% Mafeteng 46.2 44.0 47.5 47.5 47.1 45.3 ­2.1% Mohale's Hoek 43.4 42.0 45.7 46.3 45.4 45.8 5.3% Quthing 49.0 47.0 50.4 50.8 50.4 49.1 0.3% Qacha's Nek 44.3 43.9 45.8 43.9 45.8 40.6 ­8.4% Mokhotlong 39.2 39.4 47.0 43.7 45.8 43.9 11.8% Thaba-Tseka 48.7 47.7 55.7 54.0 55.6 50.2 3.1% Total 45.2 44.4 47.9 47.4 47.0 46.2 2.2% Source: MOE Education Statistics 189 190 Primary and Secondary Education in Lesotho ber of students as well as teachers has increased at the mountain areas (60) and at the Senqu significantly in these three districts. River Valley (more than 80). On the other hand, Examination of teacher-student ratios by type primary schools in the lowlands area had the of school management reveals that the ratio lowest pupil teacher ratio. among government and community primary At the secondary level, average pupil teacher schools has increased significantly (35.7 percent) ratio was about 24 which is low compared to in the past six years (see Table 2). During the other countries, indicating that there is much same period, the ratios in schools owned by the room for the efficiency gain in secondary teacher African Methodist church (10.3 percent) and utilization. Community and government second- private schools (84.2 percent) have also increased. ary schools tend to have lower pupil teacher ratio In the case of private schools, there are only two (22 and 21) compared to schools under other primary schools in Lesotho. On the other hand, types of management. In fact, government the teacher-student ratio in schools owned by An- schools in the foothills and Senqu River Valley glican Church has declined (­0.8 percent). as well as the community secondary schools in In the year 2003 (Table 3, government pri- the mountain areas had pupil teacher ratio of mary schools had the highest average pupil only 14 and 18. Private schools in the lowlands teacher ratio of 56. The ratio was especially high areas had the lowest ratio of 12. Table 2. Evolution of Teacher/student Ratio at Primary Schools by Management Type 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 % changes Government and Community 31.4 32.2 35.4 40.0 42.6 35.7% Lesotho Evangelical Church 47.5 45.7 49.4 49.2 48.1 1.3% Roman Catholic Church 44.9 44.8 48.0 47.1 46.0 2.5% Anglican Church 46.8 46.3 47.9 47.3 46.4 ­0.8% African Methodist Church 37.2 36.8 39.2 42.9 41.0 10.3% Other Churches 39.5 37.8 40.6 38.8 40.4 2.4% Private 19.0 30.1 26.5 35.0 84.2% Total 45.2 44.4 47.9 47.4 47 46.2 2.2% Source: Education Statistics 1997­2003 Note: Number of private schools are only 2; % change in private schools is from 1999 to 2003. Annex 5.5: Evolution of Teacher-Student Ratio from 1998 to 2003 191 Table 3 Pupil: TEACHER ratio by zone and by management type in 2003 Government Community LEC RCM ACL AME Others Private Total Primary Mountains 67.4 66.7 49.1 46.4 46.3 61.9 56.7 50 49 Lowlands 42.2 41.7 46.7 45.4 45.1 39.2 39.5 30.9 44.7 Senqu River Valley 80.8 47.7 44.5 34.9 47.1 Foothills 47.9 42.6 48.4 48.5 44.7 60.2 44.1 47.7 Unknown 48.6 10.9 41.1 Total 55.7 44.6 48.1 46.5 45.1 48.5 42.5 40.5 47.1 Secondary Mountains 24 18 25 22 21 0 0 28 23 Lowlands 23 21 25 24 26 25 24 12 24 Senqu River Valley 18 0 29 28 0 0 21 0 28 Foothills 14 22 26 24 24 0 0 0 25 Total 22 21 26 24 25 25 24 17 24 ANNEX 5.6 Mean and standard error of students test scores by subject and country in the 2000­2003 SACMEQ survey Reading Mathematics Mean SE Mean SE Botswana 521,1 3,47 512,9 3,15 Kenya 546,5 4,97 563,3 4,64 Lesotho 451,2 2,93 447,2 3,24 Malawi 428,9 2,37 432,9 2,25 Mauritius 536,4 5,51 584,6 6,32 Mozambique 516,7 2,29 530 2,08 Namibia 448,8 3,13 430,9 2,94 Seychelles 582 3,1 554,3 2,68 South Africa 492,3 9 486,1 7,19 Swaziland 529,6 3,74 516,5 3,41 Tanzania 545,9 5,03 522,4 4,2 Uganda 482,4 6,12 506,3 8,17 Zambia 440,1 4,47 435,2 3,54 Zanzibar 478,2 1,49 478,1 1,26 All countries 500,0 11,6 500,0 11,2 Source: SACMEQ II data 193 References Ernst & Young. 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