POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF Lucia Hanmer, Jeni Klugman, and Elena Ortiz POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF LUCIA HANMER Lead Economist, Gender Group, World Bank Group JENI KLUGMAN Senior Fellow (non-residential), Brookings Institution ELENA ORTIZ GDFD Research Associate, World Bank Group TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01 Acknowledgements Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04 What we know about poverty in forced displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06 How multidimensional poverty, monetary poverty, and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 livelihoods vary by gender and forced displacement status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Policy implications Promoting economic opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Social protection and productive inclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Importance of data and measurement and listening to displaced people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Emerging conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Endnotes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This brief was supported by UKAID, as part of the Gender Dimensions of Forced Displacement (GDFD) research program. The GDFD program aims to deepen understanding of key gender disparities among forcibly displaced people by examining gaps and the drivers, with a focus on poverty and live- lihoods, gender-based violence, and discriminatory norms. It has generated nine country studies (Colombia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Jordan, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Somalia, and Sudan), as well as multi-country studies on child marriage, multi-dimensional poverty, and intimate partner violence covering 17 countries. The brief is part of the program “Building the Evidence Base on Forced Displacement: A Multi-Stakeholder Partnership.” The program is funded by UK aid from the United Kingdom’s Foreign, Commonwealth, and Development Office (FCDO). It is managed by the World Bank Group (WBG) and was estab- lished in partnership with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). This work was produced under the overall guidance of Lucia Hanmer and Diana J. Arango, task team leaders for GDFD. Special thanks to Yeshwas Admasu (FAO) Theresa Beltramo (UNHCR) and Domenico Tabasso (World Bank-UNHCR Joint Data Center on Forced Displacement) for their valuable inputs and feedback on the brief. Our appreci- ation goes to the Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI) team for their innovative work on multidimensional poverty that has enhanced GDFD research and fostered ongoing collaboration. 02 EXECUTIVE THE WORLD BANK GROUP SUMMARY The first Sustainable Development Goal to end poverty in all its forms by 2030 pledges to leave no one behind. This com- mitment includes the over 80 million people—one percent of the globe’s population—who have been forcibly displaced. The majority—some 48 million—are internally displaced within their own countries.1 Forced displacement creates many hardships for those affected and is associated with higher risks of poverty. The headline empirical results of four recent studies focused on poverty, gender and forced displacement are that: • Displaced populations are generally poorer than host pop- ulations in monetary terms, and experience higher rates of multidimensional poverty. • Female-headed households are not always poorer than male-headed households. • Females’ education prospects appear to disproportionately suffer from displacement • Displaced households have higher intrahousehold gender inequality in legal identification and employment than host community households. Policy priorities that emerge from the » Ensuring that targeting criteria 03 research include: consider displacement-related factors; • Addressing gender gaps in school POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF attendance, primary school comple- » Augmenting with ‘produc- tion, unemployment, and legal identifi- tive inclusion’ measures such cation in displaced households—while as savings and loans groups, increasing the levels of access in both small grants, coaching, confi- host and displaced communities. dence-building and gender dia- logues and training; and • Recognizing harmful gender norms, as embedded in discriminatory legal » Supporting IDPs and refugees norms and regulations that for exam- as they ‘graduate’ from assis- ple limit women’s property rights. tance, to empower them to continue positive economic and • Opening up economic opportunities livelihood trajectories for displaced women by, for exam- ple, offering safe and accessible • Setting up consultative mechanisms education and training, reproductive so that the voices of displaced men health services and affordable child- and women can inform program care, lifting legal barriers for working design and implementation women and investing in programs This brief highlights major data gaps. that prevent and respond to elevated Risk assessments prior to data collection risks of GBV, including intimate part- are important where, for example, inse- ner violence. 2 curity could expose enumerators and • Linking refugees and IDPs with participants to risk, or where particular programs designed for them by questions may retraumatize participants. providing legal identification and Where risks are low or can be mini- sharing information. mized, recommendations to agencies Implications for program design to collecting data are to: close gender gaps in displacement set- • Include displaced populations in tings include: national sample surveys with stan- • Adding components that address dard modules on displacement and childcare, GBV prevention and gender norms; obtain sex-disaggre- response, and lifetime learning and gated data on education and work. overcome mobility constraints by • Collect data using methods that locating project services close to allows comparison over time, and communities. • Pursue qualitative methods to fill • Considering elements of social key knowledge gaps on drivers of protection to promote inclusion and gender-based barriers and, depend- opportunities, by ing on context, the experiences of people with disabilities, LGBTQI » Including displaced people communities, minority ethnic groups explicitly in social registries; and the elderly. INTRODUCTION 04 THE WORLD BANK GROUP The first Sustainable Development Goal by donors and humanitarian organiza- to end poverty in all its forms by 2030 tions under the Grand Bargain6 to direct pledges to leave no one behind. This more resources to people in need has commitment includes the over 80 mil- raised the urgency of addressing this lion people—one percent of the globe’s knowledge gap. More robust under- population—who have been forcibly standing about the depth, magnitude, displaced. 3 The majority—some 48 and composition of poverty in displace- million—are internally displaced within ment settings from a gender perspective their own countries. Recent results from is needed to inform effective policy and the Women, Peace and Security index, program responses. a multidimensional measure of women’s Empirical evidence on how gender status, demonstrates that displaced inequality impacts poverty among the women fare worse on multiple fronts forcibly displaced is scarce.7 Qualitative including access to employment, cell research has revealed that women and phone access, financial inclusion and men experience and respond differ- intimate partner violence.4 The Gender ently to forced displacement.8 However, Dimensions of Forced Displacement despite being part of the global indica- (GDFD) research program has drawn tor framework for monitoring the SDGs on novel data sources and developed due to lack of data, statistics on popu- innovative approaches to deepen under- lation living below the national poverty standing of how displacement and line by sex, age, and displacement status gender inequality intersect—with a major are reported by UNHCR for only four focus on poverty. Box 1 presents the full countries: Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, list of GDFD research papers on poverty. and Sudan.9 (E.g. in the global multidi- It is well known that displacement cre- mensional poverty index (MPI), results ates many hardships for those affected for Palestine are disaggregated by area and is associated with higher risks of level, with camps being one of the cate- poverty. 5 Growing recognition of the gories besides urban and rural.) humanitarian—development nexus, that The closing section outlines the impli- forced displacement is a development cations for policy, programs, and data challenge and the commitments made collection. 05 BOX 1 GDFD RESEARCH PAPERS ON POVERTY POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF Differences in Household Composition: Hidden Dimensions of Poverty and Displacement in Somalia Lucia Hanmer, Eliana Rubiano-Matulevich, and Julieth Santamaria Multidimensional Poverty, Gender, and Forced Displacement: A Multi-Country, Intrahousehold Analysis in Sub-Saharan Africa Yeshwas Admasu, Sabina Alkire, and Sophie Scharlin-Pettee A Multi-Country Analysis of Multidimensional Poverty in Contexts of Forced Displacement Yeshwas Admasu, Sabina Alkire, Uche Eseosa Ekhator-Mobayode, Fanni Kovesdi, Julieth Santamaria, and Sophie Scharlin-Pettee How Does Poverty Differ Among Refugees? Taking a Gender Lens to the Data on Syrian Refugees in Jordan Lucia Hanmer, Eliana Rubiano-Matulevich, Julieth Santamaria, and Diana J. Arango WHAT WE KNOW 06 THE WORLD BANK GROUP ABOUT POVERTY IN FORCED DISPLACEMENT Poverty estimates disaggregated by by combining UNHCR’s administrative displacement status using national or and household survey data. They find other poverty lines are scarce.10 To date, about 7 in 10 refugees live below the income poverty estimates have been monetary poverty line in both countries. published for refugees in six develop- More recent findings from five sub-Sa- ing countries (Chad, Ethiopia, Jordan, haran African countries showed even Lebanon, Kenya, Uganda) and a further higher rates of income poverty among six countries have poverty rates for displaced households—around 9 out IDPs (Colombia, Iraq, Nigeria, Somalia, of 10 in Nigeria and South Sudan for South Sudan, and Sudan). Table 1 sum- example.13 In Kenya poverty rates in two marizes the estimates showing, where refugee camps are higher or the same available, comparisons with host com- as the rate in Turkana county where the munities and disaggregation by the camps are located.14 gender of the household head. In addi- Behind these averages, multiple factors tion, poverty estimates using the global affect and compound poverty rates Multidimensional Poverty Index have among displaced households, including been published regularly for people liv- skills and assets. Across Nigeria, ing in camps in the State of Palestine. Somalia, South Sudan, and Sudan, 42 Poverty rates among displaced groups percent of IDPs rely on agriculture as tend to be high and, where compari- their main source of income prior to son is possible, higher than in the host displacement, compared to 26 percent population. Some of the first income of hosts. A lack of transferrable skills in poverty analysis was conducted by urban settings can make it especially Verme et al (2016).11 They use a pov- difficult for people displaced from erty line set by UNHCR12 to estimate agricultural livelihoods to find new jobs. income poverty rates for Syrian refu- gees in Jordan and Lebanon in 2014, TABLE 1: INCOME POVERTY RATES BY DISPLACEMENT STATUS AND SEX OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD, PERCENT 07 Displaced (%)  Host (%)  POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF Country  Year Female- Male- Female- Male- Total  Total  headed  headed  headed  headed  Refugees Chad 2017 90 Ethiopia  2017 60 66 48 13  5 18 Jordan 2013-2014 69  68  70        Kenya (Kalobeyei 2018 58 72 Settlement) * Kenya (Kakuma 2019 68 72 Settlement) Lebanon 2013-2014 64 71 63 Uganda 2018 46 17 IDPs Colombia 2007 99 Iraq (Kurdistan) 2017-2018 11 5 Iraq (Northern 2017-2018 54 19 region) Nigeria 2018 87  91 90 82  91  76 Somalia 2017 74  64  75  65      South Sudan 2017 91  92  91  75      Sudan 2018 82  81  83  62      Sources: Chad: Beltramo et al. 2021; Colombia: Rates are for rural to urban displacement, ICRC and WPF 2007; Ethiopia: Pape 2019; Iraq: Sharma and Wai Poi 2019; Jordan: Verme et al. 2016; Kenya: Fix et al. 2019 and UNHCR and World Bank 2019; Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, and Sudan: Pape and Sharma 2019; Uganda: World Bank 2018. 56 Notes: The poverty line is set at $1.90 day (2011 prices, PPP) for Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, and Sudan. Jordan and Lebanon use a UNHCR poverty line equivalent to US$5.25/PPP. National poverty lines are used for Chad, Colombia, Iraq, Kenya, and Uganda. Numbers in red are drawn from the GDFD studies. *Poverty rates are for relatively recent arrived South Sudanese refugees who were receiving food and cash transfers. In Somalia, for example, roughly 70 per- likely to own assets such as cars and cent of non-agricultural IDPs are poor, mobile phones.16  Family size can affect compared to over 90 percent of agricul- poverty risks. Among Syrian refugees tural IDPs.15  In Iraq, the unemployment in Jordan, the poverty rate for refu- rate among IDPs in Iraq is 17 percent, gee households with two children is 57 compared to 9 percent among non- percent, compared to 40 percent for IDPs, and IDPs are significantly less refugee households with just one child 08 THE WORLD BANK GROUP and gender-based barriers to economic while the rates for female and male- opportunities are also associated with headed Somali refugee households are increased poverty risk.17   equal at 62 percent.18 In Jordan, while 53 percent of Syrian refugee households The most common approach to gender are poor (with no significant differences analysis is to disaggregate by gender between male and female household of the household head. As indicated heads)19 57 percent of female principal in Table 1, studies to date suggest that applicants (PAs) (household heads) there is no consistent pattern of dis- who are married but living without their advantage between male and female spouse are poor compared to 30 per- headed displaced households—in cent of comparable male PAs. Similarly, Jordan, Somalia, and Sudan male headed poverty rates are higher for female single displaced households are poorer than caregivers than for male single caregiv- female headed ones, whereas in Ethiopia ers (60 versus 45 percent), suggesting and Lebanon female headed households that domestic responsibilities and living are poorer. In Nigeria and South Sudan, without a spouse/partner matter more there is no significant difference. for women. This finding is consistent The way that gender interacts with with a body of research on gender and poverty and forced displacement can refugees in a wide range of settings vary across settings in the same country. finds that cultural norms often ascribe to For example, in Ethiopia, for example, women a lower social status than men, 44 percent of female-headed Eritrean which constrains their economic and households are poor compared to 31 other opportunities. 20 percent of male-headed households, HOW MULTIDIMENSIONAL 09 POVERTY, MONETARY POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF POVERTY, AND LIVELIHOODS VARY BY GENDER AND FORCED DISPLACEMENT STATUS New GDFD research—multi-country Using the World Bank’s High Frequency studies of multidimensional poverty Surveys for five countries, a tailored covering populations in Ethiopia, Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, and was constructed at the household level, Sudan—and monetary poverty analysis and analyzed at the individual level, to in Somalia and Jordan, together with uncover how gender, forced displace- individual level analysis of livelihoods ment, and multidimensional poverty in Darfur, Sudan and Nigeria—provides intersect. The MPI has 15 indicators and important insights into the nature and captures deprivations in four equally scale of deprivations facing displaced weighted dimensions: education, health, women, men, girls, and boys. Most of living standards, and financial security. the analysis—except for Ethiopia and The MPI shows both the incidence and Jordan—relates to internal displacement.21 intensity (depth) of poverty affecting the multidimensionally poor population. In The overall finding is that displaced addition to indicators related to acute households are generally poorer than poverty and contexts of displacement, non-displaced households according the health dimensions of the MPI includes to both multidimensional and income early marriage and pregnancy care22. poverty measures. A portfolio of approaches and, importantly, analysis at Disaggregating the MPI by gender of individual and household levels, is used the household head shows no consistent to uncover gender-poverty links. relationship between gender, poverty and displacement (figure 1). 10 FIGURE 1. PERCENTAGE OF HOUSEHOLDS WHO ARE MULTIDIMENSIONALLY POOR, BY GENDER OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD AND DISPLACEMENT STATUS THE WORLD BANK GROUP Sudan South Sudan Somalia N.E Nigeria Ethiopia 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Incidence of multidimensional poverty (%) Male-headed, Non-Displaced Male-headed, Displaced Female-headed, Non-Displaced Female-headed, Displaced Source: Admasu, Yeshwas, Sabina Alkire, Uche Eseosa Ekhator-Mobayode, Fanni Kovesdi, Julieth Santamaria and Sophie Scharlin-Pettee 2021. 23 For example, female headed displaced 23 gender of the household head is not households in Ethiopia and South Sudan always a good indicator of poverty risk have higher incidence of poverty relative in situations of forced displacement. In to other displaced and non-displaced Somalia and Jordan, for example, the households. In contrast, in Somalia, more GDFD studies reveal that male-headed people living in male headed displaced households are income poorer than are poor. female-headed ones, but, for example, in Somalia female single caregivers The results of the multidimensional and widows in host communities are poverty analysis are consistent with at elevated risk of poverty. In Jordan, other GDFD research which finds the analysis of changes in poverty among FIGURE 2. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE DEPRIVATION ACROSS DISPLACEMENT STATUS BY GENDER, MPI POOR 11 POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF Sudan South Sudan Somalia N.E Nigeria Ethiopia 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Incidence of multidimensional poverty (%) Boys, Non-Displaced Boys, Displaced Girls, Non-Displaced Girls, Displaced Source: Admasu, Yeshwas, Sabina Alkire and Sophie Scharlin-Pettee 2021. 24 Syrian refugees since 2014 shows that household demographic characteristics, by 2018, female-headed households and and the gender and number of earners single caregivers (the vast majority of in the household. Among IDP house- whom are women) were worse off than holds in Somalia, for example, the larg- male-headed households by about 15 est decrease in poverty risk is associated percentage points, controlling for dif- with having more female earners, while ferences in household size between the having more male earners is associated two groups. 25 with the lowest poverty for non IDPs. In Sudan, IDP women worked more on Many of the differences in monetary average than non-IDP women but were poverty risk between IDPs and non- also more likely to be poor, because of IDPs are associated with differences in 12 the types of jobs in which they were The multidimensional poverty research engaged. The GDFD findings suggest also found forcibly displaced individuals that gender gaps in caregiving responsi- experienced higher levels of intrahouse- THE WORLD BANK GROUP bilities and access to economic opportu- hold inequality than their non-displaced nities impact poverty. peers in deprivations that affected their financial security like legal identification It is therefore important to look at and employment. On average across poverty within households and drill all five countries, women are more down into deprivations experienced by deprived in legal identification across men and women, boys, and girls. The the entire population, but it is a par- multidimensional poverty analysis has ticularly serious issue among the poor important advantages in this respect as where rates of deprivation are highest, the indicators for the different dimen- with eight in ten men and women alike sions can be disaggregated by sex. This lacking identification. Similarly, across analysis reveals that gender has import- the entire population, women are more ant impacts on individual deprivations likely to be deprived in employment within households. For instance, gender regardless of their displacement status; emerges as an important predictor of however, among the poor (who expe- chronic deprivation, such as failure to rience the highest employment depri- complete school, reflecting accumulated vations), the gender gap only holds in disadvantage over time. For both the displaced household. displaced and the non-displaced, males more often than females live in house- The gender results on individual depri- holds where they have completed pri- vation show the importance of going mary education and another household beyond aggregate measures. Displaced member has not–suggesting that men children already bear the burden of and boys’ educational careers are the living in households with overlapping priority. School attendance deprivation deprivations in education, health, living rates for displaced girls and boys (figure standards, and financial security, and 2) among the multidimensionally poor their educational disadvantages fur- show that (except in Sudan) girls face ther erode their prospects. At the same greater barriers to education than boys. time, it is important to recognize that Non-displaced girls have higher school in some settings—including Ethiopia, attendance deprivation than boys (except Somalia, South Sudan—the rates of NE Nigeria) and the gender gap against education deprivation are very high for girls is largest for the non-displaced in non-displaced communities. Gender South Sudan. In several countries the disaggregation on indicators for finan- level of deprivation is higher for the cial security—unemployment, access to non-displaced than the displaced (South legal ID and access to a bank or mobile Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia). money account—reveals important gender gaps that disadvantage both non-displaced and displaced women. POLICY 13 POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF IMPLICATIONS The overarching implication of the GDFD research is that to achieve better devel- PROMOTING ECONOMIC opment impacts for both humanitarian OPPORTUNITIES and development policies and pro- grams it is important to understand and Substantial barriers constrain the address intersectionality of gender and economic opportunities of displaced displacement, to close gaps in status women, notably limited education, and opportunities. and care responsibilities. The GDFD studies on poverty, alongside those on The MPI results reveal gender gaps in livelihoods which cover diverse forced school attendance, primary school com- displacement settings26 find some pletion, unemployment, and legal identi- constraints emerge across a number of fication—all of which can be targeted by settings—notably limited education and policies and programs to improve care responsibilities are often associ- opportunities for people who are multi- ated with women’s unemployment or dimensionally poor. The research find- poor renumeration. For example, among ings on income poverty underline that Ethiopian refugees, the livelihoods of care responsibilities and women’s lack men and women are impacted differ- of access to economic opportunities ently by displacement in part because worsen poverty risks, especially for dis- adverse gender norms27 result in women placed households. having fewer opportunities for economic Direct policy implications range from the advancement and bearing more care value of better understanding of coun- responsibilities at home. try circumstances, to efforts to promote The drivers of these constraints vary economic opportunities and livelihoods, across settings. Endowments, specif- social protection, combatting intimate ically lack of access to land emerge partner violence, access to services like as important in Ethiopia, while lack of health and education, and of course education is critical in both Ethiopia and data. Below are some specific entry Darfur. Gender norms shape access to points to promote opportunities and paid work and self-employment vs agri- enhance social protection and produc- culture in Darfur (with women working tive inclusion, as well as how to improve predominantly in family farms and busi- data collection and use. nesses), as well as access to agricultural 14 land. In Turkey, recent analysis found communities. For example, changes to that large scale Syrian refugee inflows regulations governing home based work had negative associations with host in Jordan are expected to be especially THE WORLD BANK GROUP women’s employment rates in sectors beneficial for Syrian women refugees in with high degrees of informality, such as Jordan who have limited mobility from agriculture and domestic services, where home and childcare responsibilities. 30 women tended to work. 28 Interestingly, in The specific policy and program- Darfur displaced women are more likely ming implications will vary by context, to work than women in host community, although four directions of change although in light of the low earnings this emerge as critical across all the displace- may be related to “distress labor sales”. ment settings examined. Thus, while having women in paid work can reduce poverty risks for the dis- • First, the importance of expanding placed (as found in Somalia, for exam- access to safe and accessible educa- ple), there is also evidence that displaced tion sometimes to adults as well as women in paid work have low earnings. children including access to public technical and vocational training, The intersectionality of gender with which could include non-traditional displacement often amplifies gen- occupations and skills to enable der-based constraints. Gender-based displaced women to run their own constraints that need to be considered business while closing gender gaps.31 in programming for displacement set- • Second, a full range of sexual and tings—such as women’s limited mobility reproductive health services is outside the home, their care responsi- needed to help enable adoles- bilities and GBV risk including Intimate cent girls and women to determine Partner Violence (IPV)—are also needed whether and when to have children. for other development programming. However, displacement can exacerbate • Third, access to affordable childcare constraints and needs to be addressed services is critical in camps and host in ways that recognize intersectional- community neighborhoods. ity—​ like sexual orientation and gender • Fourth, regulatory and legal reform identity, ethnic, religious, or racial identi- may have a role to play in lifting ties, as well as disabilities. barriers to ID and allowing women to access more economic opportunities The negative impacts created by lack of access to a nationally recognized ID Evidence about what works to advance for refugees and IDPs have been doc- economic opportunities of displaced umented in many settings. For exam- women in developing country settings is ple, in Iraq lack of civil documentation very limited. We know from other devel- prevents many of the most vulnerable oping country settings—including Chile, internally displaced women from access- 32 Kenya,33 and Nicaragua34—that the ing services and affects their access to a provision of childcare services can help wide array of other rights. 29 enable women’s economic opportunities— although direct evidence for displaced Legal and regulatory reforms can open women is lacking. up opportunities that benefit both displaced women and those in host Addressing discriminatory norms is account— prerequisites for program critical for women’s economic inclusion. registration, and very few of refugees 15 A better understanding of how dis- interviewed were receiving any form of POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF placement and gender norms intersect state benefit. 38’ could inform program design and lead It is clearly important that social reg- to improved development outcomes. For istries include displaced people, and example, an ongoing study in Jordan, that eligibility criteria be reviewed in Kenya, Mexico, and Uganda found that light of what is known about the profile the provision of financial services alone of disadvantaged displaced individu- did not produce significant improve- als and families, including the shape ments in economic outcomes for dis- of gender inequalities. As a short-term placed women. 35 Women’s ability to measure where displaced people are navigate pathways to economic inclusion not included in social registries, collab- requires the transformation of harmful orating with international humanitarian gender norms. Similarly, the Norwegian actors with relevant databases could be Refugee Council finds that in Africa, a stop-gap measure. major barriers to displaced women’s land ownership include harmful gender Displacement appears to be a robust norms and lack of awareness of property correlate of household poverty status rights, highlighting the need for invest- and can be considered as a criterion to ments in efforts that help inform women determine eligibility for social assistance. of their rights and navigate the process Testing and adaptions should be made of independently owning property. 36 for country as needed. At the same time, within households, our analysis also found that the patterns of deprivations SOCIAL PROTECTION AND of multidimensional poverty systemati- cally differ by gender. PRODUCTIVE INCLUSION The GDFD results suggest that poverty targeting criteria need to go beyond Consistent with the vision of the 2018 gender of household head. As noted Global Compact for Refugees (GCR), above, male headed households are greater coherence and collaboration income poorer than female headed between humanitarian assistance and households in both Somalia (IDPs) government social protection programs and among Syrian refugees in Jordan. can strengthen the wider humanitarian— However, gender does emerge as a development—peace nexus. 37 factor influencing poverty risk—female In practice, gaps can arise for individu- single caregivers, widows living outside als and families between humanitarian IDP settlement all emerge as high pov- assistance and the national social protec- erty risk categories in the same settings. tion system. Emerging research findings Results suggest that poverty reduc- in Greece suggests that refugees are tion policies and programs in settings either unaware of existing programs or with high levels of poverty like Somalia face significant entry barriers—because should seek cover all households, espe- they lack a social security number, cially those with children, and avoid a tax registration number or a bank narrow targeting criteria. 16 There is evidence that cash transfers the graduation approach to refugees can be especially beneficial to displaced and host communities in 35 developing women by increasing their agency countries around the world.45 Developed THE WORLD BANK GROUP and ability to participate in household by the Bangladeshi INGO BRAC, the decision-making. 39 Transfers can help graduation approach builds on existing to reduce financial stress and boost social protection programs and uses psychosocial wellbeing. For example, a sequenced approach to add assets, cash transfers to Syrian refugees were community support, and skills train- helped enable women to provide for ing to cash transfers and has achieved their families and quelled fears of having success in across different countries to return to Syria,40 increased feelings of and cultures.46 The approach has a confidence and respect,41 and bolstered strong track record of boosting wom- confidence to report GBV and enroll en’s empowerment among ultra-poor girls in school.42 groups.47 The first evaluation of the graduation approach in a fragile set- Social assistance can help to mitigate ting, Afghanistan, found that per capita and address risks of IPV, especially when monthly consumption increased by 30 complemented by survivor support percent compared to the control group, services.43 For example, a UNHCR cash and the share of households below the assistance program in Lebanon was national poverty line decreased by 20 found to be appropriate for survivors of percentage points from 82 percent. gender-based violence due to its dis- This was achieved mostly through the creet nature, enabling survivors to move expansion of labor choices of ultra-poor away from their abuser(s) and to rent women.48 Evaluations of the approach in for themselves and their children, and/ displacement settings are ongoing. or to search for another job or house to escape abuses by their employer or Productive inclusion is another prom- house owner. However, male partners ising program approach. In the Sahel may perceive cash transfers negatively, social safety net programs in Burkina such as when there is no adequate com- Faso, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal munication or understanding of eligi- were augmented with an integrated set bility criteria,44 which can place women of productive inclusion measures tai- at risk of violence. The beneficiaries’ lored to the needs of cash transfer recip- exposure to such risks can be mitigated ients, 90 percent of whom are women.49 by solid knowledge about gender rela- Activities included coaching, the cre- tions in the setting and building in strong ation of savings and loans groups which monitoring and feedback mechanisms. met weekly, a community sensitization session, a short training course focused To align with the GCR, development on topics such as communication skills, approaches to tackling poverty are confidence-building and gender rela- being implemented in settings of forced tionships, as well as support to access displacement. The Poverty Alleviation markets and cash grants of between Coalition (PAC), which comprises the $150 and $250 so that beneficiaries could UNHCR, the World Bank, Partnership for invest in their economic endeavors. These Economic Inclusion, and 13 NGOs, has were successfully delivered through exist- been formed with the goal to extend ing government systems with community volunteers and NGOs, to more than displacements, and duration (in each 17 50,000 beneficiaries. In Niger, a similar location). Large samples with adequate program which included a psychoso- representation of key sub-groups are POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF cial wellbeing component improved needed to understand patterns and driv- consumption and food security six-and ers of poverty and to enable disaggrega- 18-months post-intervention, increased tion within the displaced population. participation and profits in women-led Risk assessments are often needed to off farm business and livestock activi- assess risk of harm to enumerators, ties, and various measures of psychoso- key informants, survey participants cial well-being. While these programs and displaced and host communities were not focused on displaced groups, when collecting data in forced displace- the experience and results are relevant ment settings. Guidance, which include and promising. checklists for questions and analyzing data, have been developed by agen- IMPORTANCE OF DATA cies responsible for collecting data on displaced persons, for example IOM’s AND MEASUREMENT AND Displacement Tracking Matrix. 51 The Expert Group on Refugee and Internally LISTENING TO DISPLACED Displaced Persons Statistics has pub- PEOPLE lished International Recommendations on Refugee Statistics (IRRS)52 and International Recommendations on A series of recommendations emerge Internally Displaced Persons Statistics for agencies collecting survey data, (IRIS)53 that major initiatives such including the World Bank, UN Agencies as the Joint Data Center on Forced and DHS. UNHCR ’s global indicator Displacement (JDC) follow. Both the framework for monitoring progress on IRRS and IRIS emphasize the importance the 2030 Agenda commits to estimat- of data confidentiality and anonymiza- ing the proportion of the population tion to protect the safety and identity of of concern living below the national respondents. The JDC is also developing poverty line by sex, age, and displace- a series of protocols for the responsible ment status. 50 dissemination of forced displacement Foremost is the importance of includ- microdata, so that it can be widely ing displaced people in national surveys accessible while at the same time mini- especially in countries where there are mizing potential harm to data subjects. 54 significant numbers of displaced peo- Qualitative data can be used to under- ple. Much more could be done with stand the drivers of gender-based con- standard household surveys, provided straints and improve policy responses relevant questions are asked. For exam- and program design and implementa- ple, in countries where displacement is tion. Risk assessment for data subjects an issue—say more than 3 percent of is particularly important for qualitative population or some absolute number— data collection. Qualitative data from standard questions could be included focus group discussions, semi structured in all surveys, viz. displacement status, interviews and individual narratives with reason for displacement, number of 18 THE WORLD BANK GROUP men and women can cast light on their insufficient to understand gendered dis- knowledge about how to access ser- advantages in displacement settings. For vices or economic opportunities and individuals in the household, questions the gender-specific barriers faced. about labor market participation, hours Qualitative research can be used to of paid work (and ideally unpaid work), explore people’s attitudes, behaviors earnings, and transfers are needed. and experiences and collect data on Data on gender norms are needed. The gender norm as well as other variables. GDFD studies underline the important Qualitative data can also fill knowledge role of gender norms in shaping con- gaps about other forms of intersection- straints and opportunities of women ality such as the experiences of people and men, girls and boys. Data on gender with disabilities, LGBTQI communities, norms should be collected, including and the elderly. from men and boys. Listening voices of displaced women Data are also needed to tracking trends and men through consultative mech- over time. Longitudinal data, panel data, anisms is an important though often and repeated cross sections with suffi- underutilized resource. For example, cient sample size and a standardized core UNHCR supported a gender audit questionnaire on displaced communi- group composed of refugee women ties and hosts along the foregoing lines from diverse backgrounds to inform the would enable tracking of trends over Global Compact on Refugees and the time, and better understanding of drivers. groups continues to review how gen- der and other diversity concerns are Quantitative and qualitative data on addressed and reflected in policies, pro- other forms of intersectionality such as ceedings structures and decision-mak- the experiences of people with disabili- ing processes. 55 ties are also a priority, LGBTQI commu- nities, minority ethnic groups, and the Within households, sex-disaggregated elderly. The safety of of participants will individual level data is needed. Female need to be carefully assessed in some headship can be a useful proxy, but contexts and data collection. EMERGING 19 POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF CONCLUSIONS To date, research and analysis of the progress for women and other marginal- gendered dimensions of forced dis- ized groups. placement have been limited, including Future analysis needs to address gaps on poverty. These findings from a new, in knowledge in displacement and major World Bank Research Program host settings—including about wom- contribute important knowledge and en’s access to economic opportunities, underscore the value of country-specific which is key. The research points to the analysis. Comparisons across countries important areas of childcare, education, using the same indicators also provided access to ID and legal and regulatory valuable insights as shown in the dis- reforms but more analysis is needed cussion of results from multidimensional to refine how we design programs and poverty analysis. target these gaps to reduce poverty The new findings point to the need for in forced displacement settings. Other targeted support specifically for dis- key knowledge gaps are on what works placed women’s economic opportuni- to transform discriminatory norms in ties, in line with the ambition of the GCR. displacement settings, and the design, Progress has been made on this agenda implementation and effectiveness of since 2018, most notably increased social protection and humanitarian development assistance funding to ref- interventions from a gender perspective. ugee hosting countries, enhanced legal For example, more evidence is needed protections, and strengthened access about the combinations of support and to education. It is nonetheless clear that services that best complement cash future efforts should more explicitly transfers to reduce risks of violence prioritize education, including continu- against women. Important related areas ing education for adult women, access where further research with a gender to quality childcare, transformation of lens is needed includes the intersection gender discriminatory social norms and of displacement, poverty and gender collecting disaggregated data to track inequality for people with disabilities, LGBTQI communities, and the elderly. 20 ENDNOTES 1 UNHCR. 2020a. Global Trends in Forced Displace- 18 Pape, Utz. 2017. Skills Profile Survey 2017, A Refu- THE WORLD BANK GROUP ment 2019. Geneva: UNHCR.  gee and Host Community Survey. Washington, DC: 2 See Arango, Diana Jimena; Kelly, Jocelyn Thalassa World Bank. Deverall; Klugman,Jeni; Ortiz,Elena Judith. 2021. 19 Hanmer, Lucia, Diana J. Arango, Eliana Rubia- Forced Displacement and Violence Against Women: no-Matulevich, Julieth Santamaria and Mariana A Policy Brief (English).Washington, D.C. : World Viollaz. 2018 . How Does Poverty Differ Among Ref- Bank Group. ugees? Taking a Gender Lens to the Data on Syrian 3 UNHCR 2020a. Refugees in Jordan. Policy Research Working Paper 8616. Washington, DC: World Bank. 4 GIWPS and PRIO. 2021. Women, Peace and Security 20 Eileen Pittaway and Linda Bartolomei (2018). En- Index 2021/22: Tracking Sustainable Peace Through Inclusion, Justice, and Security. Washington, DC: hancing the protection of women and girls through GIWPS and PRIO.  the Global Compact on Refugees. Forced Migration Review, 57, February. 5 World Bank. 2017. Forcibly Displaced: Toward a Development Approach Supporting Refugees, the 21 All dimensions are weighted equally, receiving a Internally Displaced, and Their Hosts. Washington, quarter of the total weight, with indicators within DC: World Bank. each dimension also receiving equal weights. The poverty cut-off is defined as k=50%, with 8 those 6 IASC. N.d. “About the Grand Bargain.” IASC. Ac- deprived in at least half of the weighted indicators cessed February 2022. https://interagencystand- considered multidimensionally poor. Full papers ingcommittee.org/about-the-grand-bargain  with detailed results are available on the GDFD 7 UNHCR and World Bank. 2021. Joint Data Center website. See   on Forced Displacement Strategy with Focus on World Bank. 2021. “Gender Dimensions of Forced Dis- 2021-2023: Supporting Evidence for Protection placement (GDFD) Research Program.” World Bank. and Well-Being. Copenhagen: Joint Data Center Last updated January 2022. https://www.world- on Forced Displacement; Verme, Paolo, Chiara bank.org/en/topic/gender/brief/gender-dimen- Gigliarano, Christina Wieser, Kerren Hedlund, Marc sions-of-forced-displacement-gdfd-research-pro- Petzoldt and Marco Santacroce. 2016. The Welfare gram  of Syrian Refugees: Evidence from Jordan and Lebanon. World Bank Group and UNHCR; Hanmer, 22 Admasu, Yeshwas, Sabina Alkire and Sophie Lucia, Eliana Rubiano-Matulevich and Julieth San- Scharlin-Pettee. 2021a. Multidimensional Poverty, tamaria. 2021. Differences in Household Composi- Gender, and Forced Displacement A Multi-Country, tion: Hidden Dimensions of Poverty and Displace- Intrahousehold Analysis in Sub-Saharan Africa. Poli- ment in Somalia. Policy Research Working Paper cy Research Working Paper 9823. Washington, DC: 9818. Washington, DC: World Bank. World Bank. 8 Lokot, Michelle. 2018. “Syrian refugees: thinking be- 23 Admasu, Yeshwas, Sabina Alkire and Sophie yond gender stereotypes.” Forced Migration Review Scharlin-Pettee. 2021a. Multidimensional Poverty, 57. February 2018. Gender, and Forced Displacement A Multi-Country, Intrahousehold Analysis in Sub-Saharan Africa. Poli- 9 UNHCR. 2020b. Data disaggregated by SDG indica- cy Research Working Paper 9823. Washington, DC: tors by forced displacement. Geneva: UNHCR. World Bank. 10 UNHCR. 2021. Global Compact on Refugees: Indica- 24 Admasu, Yeshwas, Sabina Alkire, Uche Eseo- tor Report. Geneva: UNHCR. sa Ekhator-Mobayode, Fanni Kovesdi, Julieth 11 Verme et al. 2016. Santamaria and Sophie Scharlin-Pettee. 2021. 12 The UNHCR poverty line for Jordan is lower than A Multi-Country Analysis of Multidimensional the national poverty line but higher than the Poverty in Contexts of Forced Displacement. Policy international poverty line so for middle-income Research Working Paper 9826. Washington, DC: countries is reasonable. World Bank. 13 Pape, Utz and Ambika Sharma. 2019. Informing Du- 25 Hanmer, Lucia et al. Forthcoming. The Impact of rable Solutions for Internal Displacement in Nigeria, Protracted Displacement on Syrian Refugees in Jor- Somalia, South Sudan, and Sudan. Volume B: Coun- dan: The Evolution of Household Composition and try Case Studies. Washington, DC: World Bank. Poverty Rates. Washington, DC: World Bank.  14 Fix, Jedediah Rooney, Utz Johann Pape, Felix Kon- 26 Admasu, Yeshwas. 2021. Forced Displacement, Gen- stantin Appler, Theresa Parrish Beltramo, Florence der, and Livelihoods: Refugees in Ethiopia. Policy Nana Pokuaah Nimoh, Laura Abril Ríos Rivera, Felix Research Working Paper 9862. Washington, DC: Schmieding and Nduati Maina Kariuki. 2019. Under- World Bank; Stojetz, Wolfgang and Tilman Brück. standing the Socioeconomic Conditions of Refugees 2021. The Double Burden of Female Protracted in Kenya Volume A–Kalobeyei Settlement: Results Displacement: Survey Evidence on Gendered from the 2018 Kalobeyei Socioeconomic Survey. Livelihoods in El Fasher, Darfur. World Bank Policy Washington, DC: World Bank Research Working Paper No. 9824. Washington, DC: World Bank.  15 Pape and Sharma 2019. 27 Gender norms can be defined as the social rules 16 Sharma and Wai Poi 2019. and expectations deeming what are acceptable 17 Verme et al. 2016; Lucia Hanmer, Eliana Rubiano, and appropriate behaviors and actions for men and Julieth Santamaria & Diana J. Arango (2020) How women in a specific setting. does poverty differ among refugees? Taking a 28 Erten, Bilge and Pinar Keskin. 2021. “Female em- gender lens to the data on Syrian refugees in Jor- ployment and intimate partner violence: Evidence dan, Middle East Development Journal, 12:2, 208- from Syrian Refugee inflows to Turkey. Journal of 242, DOI: 10.1080/17938120.2020.1753995 Development Economics 150. 29 United Nations. 2019. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: Con- 42 Women’s Refugee Commission (WRC), Internation- al Rescue Committee (IRC) and Mercy Corps. 2018. 21 cluding observations on the seventh periodic report Optimizing Benefits and Mitigating Risks of Integrat- of Iraq. CEDAW/C/IRQ/CO/7. New York: United ing Cash-Based Initiatives and GBV Programming: Nations. Case Studies from Irbid and Mafraq, Jordan. WRC POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF and IRC.   30 Slimane, Meriem Ait Ali, Fiona Allen, Maha Kattaa and Patrick Dara. 2020. “Economic opportunities 43 Arango, Diana J., Jocelyn TD Kelly, Jeni Klugman, for Jordanians and Syrian refugees.” Arab Voices, and Elena Ortiz. 2021. Forced Displacement and Vi- World Bank Blogs. July 29, 2020. https://blogs. olence Against Women: A Policy Brief. Washington, worldbank.org/arabvoices/new-economic-opportu- DC: World Bank. nities-jordanians-and-syrian-refugees 44 Cross, Manell and Megavand 2018. 31 For a recent review of education and displacement, 45 The Poverty Alleviation Coalition. N.d. “Poverty see: Abu-Ghaida and Karishma Silva. 2020. Forced Alleviation Coalition.” Accessed February 2022. Displacement and Educational Outcomes: Evidence, https://alleviate-poverty.org/ Innovations, and Policy Indications. JDC Quarterly 46 Abhijit Banerjee & Esther Duflo & Garima Shar- Digest. World Bank and UNHCR. ma, 2021. “Long-Term Effects of the Targeting the 32 Offering afterschool care for children aged be- Ultra Poor Program,” American Economic Review: tween 6 and 13 in Chile increased employment by 5 Insights, vol 3(4), pages 471-486. percent and labor force participation by 7 percent. 47 Shalini Roy, Jinnat Ara, Narayan Das, Agnes R. See: Martínez, Claudia and Marcela Perticará. Quisumbing. 2015.“Flypaper effects” in transfers 2017. “Childcare effects on maternal employment: targeted to women: Evidence from BRAC’s “Target- Evidence from Chile .” Journal of Development Eco- ing the Ultra Poor” program in Bangladesh, Journal nomics 126: 127-137. of Development Economics, Volume 117, 1-19, ISSN 33 A randomized control trial study in an informal 0304-3878 settlement in Nairobi, Kenya found that poor urban 48 Bedoya, Guadalupe; Coville, Aidan; Haushofer, women who were offered vouchers for subsidized Johannes; Isaqzadeh, Mohammad; Shapiro, Jeremy. early childcare were, on average, 8.5 percentage 2019. No Household Left Behind : Afghanistan points more likely to be employed than those who Targeting the Ultra Poor Impact Evaluation. Policy were not given vouchers. See: Clark, Shelly, Caroline Research Working Paper; No. 8877. World Bank, W. Kabiru, Sonia Laszlo and Stella Muthuri. 2019. Washington, DC. © World Bank. “The Impact of Childcare on Poor Urban Women’s Economic Empowerment in Africa.” Demography 49 Bossuroy and Premand. 2021. “Resilience and scale: 56: 1247-1272. productive inclusion through safety nets in the Sahel. Jobs and Development. World Bank Blogs. 34 In poor urban areas in Nicaragua, a public pro- February 25, 2021. gram that introduced access to part-time child- care centers for children younger than four years 50 UNHCR 2020b. UNHCR recommends that the of age increased mother’s work participation by following SDG indicator (indicator 1.2.1) be disag- 14 percentage points. See: Hojman, Andrés and gregated by displacement status: proportion of Florencia López Boo. Cost-Effective Public Daycare population living below the national poverty line, by in a Low-Income Economy Benefits Children and sex and age. Mothers. IDB Working Paper 1036. Washington, DC: 51 See: International Organization for Migration. N.d. IADB. “ Field Companion: Sectoral Questions for Location 35 Finance in Development. 2021. “The FIND Sympo- Assessment.” Accessed February 2022. https://dis- sium: Findings, Expert Discussion, and Recommen- placement.iom.int/dtm-partners-toolkit/field-com- dations for Refugee Financial Services.” Accessed panion-sectoral-questions-location-assessment February 2022. 52 Eurostat and United Nations. 2018. Expert Group on 36 Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC). 2021. Consoli- Refugee and Internally Displaced Persons Statis- dating Gains Displaced Women’s Housing Land and tics—International Recommendations on Refugee Property Rights in Africa. Oslo: Norwegian Refugee Statistics. Eurostat and United Nations. Council. 53 Eurostat and United Nations. 2020. International 37 Ghorpade, Yashodhan and Ali Ammar. 2021. Social Recommendations on Internally Displaced Persons Protection at the Humanitarian-Development Nexus: Statistics (IRIS). Eurostat and United Nations. Insights from Yemen. Social Protection and Jobs 54 Joint Data Center for Forced Displacement. 2020. Discussion Paper 2104. “Objective III: Activities to enhance safe and re- 38 Tramountanis, Angelo. 2021 . Addressing the protec- sponsible data access.” World Bank and UNHCR. tion gap in Greece. London: Overseas Development Last updated January 2022. https://www.jointda- Institute.  tacenter.org/what-we-do/#enhance-safe-and-re- sponsible-data-access 39 UNHCR. 2019. Cash Assistance and Gender–Key Considerations and Learning. Geneva: UNHCR. 55 See: University of New South Wales. N.d. “Gen- der audits and the global compact on refugees.” 40 Cross, Allyson, Tenzin Manell and Melanie Mega- Accessed February 2022. https://www.unsw.edu. vand. 2018 . Humanitarian Cash Transfer Program- au/arts-design-architecture/our-schools/social-sci- ming and Gender-Based Violence Outcomes: Evi- ences/our-research/research-networks/forced-mi- dence Future Research Priorities. Women’s Refugee gration-research-network/projects/gender-au- Commission and International Rescue Committee. dits-global-compact-refugees 41 Yoshikawa, Lynn. 2015. Integrating Cash Transfers into Gender-based Violence Programs in Jordan: Benefits, Risks and Challenges. UNCHR and IRC. 22 56 Sources: Chad: Beltramo, Theresa, Hai-Anh Dang, Ibrahima Sarr and Paolo Verme. 2021. Estimating Poverty Among Refugee Populations: A Cross-Sur- vey Imputation Exercise for Chad. IZA Discussion Paper No. 14606; Colombia (rates are for rural to THE WORLD BANK GROUP urban displacement): ICRC and WFP. 2007. Una mirada a la población desplazada en ocho ciudades de Colombia: respuesta institucional local, condi- ciones de vida y recomendaciones para su atención: Resumen de resultados, reflexiones generales y recomendaciones. ICRC and WFP; Ethiopia: Pape, Utz. 2017. Skills Profile Survey 2017, A Refugee and Host Community Survey. Washington, DC: World Bank; Iraq : Sharma, Dhiraj and Matthew Wai Poi. 2019. Arrested Development: Conflict, Displace- ment, and Welfare in Iraq. Washington, DC: World Bank; Jordan: Verme, Paolo, Chiara Gigliarano, Christina Wieser, Kerren Hedlund, Marc Petzoldt and Marco Santacroce. 2016. The Welfare of Syrian Refugees: Evidence from Jordan and Lebanon. World Bank Group and UNHCR; Kenya (Kalobeyei): Fix, Jedediah Rooney et al, 2019 ; Kenya (Kakuma): UNHCR and World Bank. 2019. Socioeconomic Sur- vey of Refugees in Kakuma 2019. UNHCR and World Bank; Uganda: World Bank. 2018. Refugee and Host Communities Household Survey 2018. Washington, DC: World Bank; Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, and Sudan: Pape, Utz and Ambika Sharma. 2019. Informing Durable Solutions for Internal Displace- ment in Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, and Sudan. Volume B: Country Case Studies. Washington, DC: World Bank. POVERTY, GENDER, AND DISPLACEMENT: A POLICY BRIEF 23