ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES ADENIKE ONAGORUWA AND QUENTIN WODON FEBRUARY 2018 ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES ADENIKE ONAGORUWA AND QUENTIN WODON BACKGROUND TO THIS SERIES Violence against women and girls is one of the most The elimination by 2030 of all forms of violence against extreme forms of gender inequality and widely women and girls, and of all harmful practices such as considered as a violation of human rights. It is a global child, early and forced marriage, and female genital epidemic that endangers the life trajectories of women mutilation, are two of the targets adopted under the and girls in multiple ways, with a wide range of negative Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Prevention consequences not only for them, but also for their of violence against women and girls, as well as enabling children, their families, and communities. women and girls to heal when they are victims of such violence, has been identified as one of the key elements Violence leads to negative and at times dramatic health for sustainable development. Yet investments to end consequences. It leads to increased absenteeism at work violence against women and girls are limited, and and limits mobility, thereby reducing productivity and worldwide the prevalence of various forms of violence earnings. It leads girls to drop out of school when going against women and girls remains too high to be able to to school puts them at risk of abuse. It affects agency, achieve the SDG target under current trajectories. including decision-making ability within the household such as simply being able to seek care when needed. One of the objectives of this series of notes on ending Regardless of income level or social status, violence violence against women and girls is to examine the roles affects women and girls of all ages and impacts their that laws, policies, and specific programs or interventions full and equal participation in society and the economy. may play toward achieving those goals. This is done Violence takes many forms, including not only physical, through both multi-country analysis and country case but also sexual, emotional, and economic, as well as studies. The series also discusses some of the factors harassment experienced in public and in places of work that drive various forms of violence against women and education. Beyond the individual harm inflicted on and girls, and their trends over time. Finally, the series women and their families, gender based violence is a aims to provide analysis related to the measurement of global problem with substantial economic costs. violence against women and girls and strategies as well as interventions to end these practices. 1 | ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS: SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES | FEBRUARY 2018 KEY MESSAGES ąą One piece of good news is that the likelihood for mothers of having their daughters cut is lower Female genital mutilation or cutting (FGM/C) remains among younger age groups, although differences common in many countries, including in parts of Africa. by age in support for the practice are smaller. The practice is known to have potentially severe health consequences for girls as well as their future children. It is ąą Overall, the results suggest that apart from also related to deep-seated patterns of gender inequality targeted interventions aiming to change community and gender-based violence. The objective of this note is to and individual practices related to FGM/C, look at some of the factors that lead to the transmission investments in girls’ education may also play a of the practice across generations. The analysis is based on positive role, provided however that girls reach and recent Demographic and Health Surveys for six countries. ideally complete their secondary education. It considers support among women for the practice, and whether mothers have had their daughters cut or intend to do so. The main findings are as follows: INTRODUCTION ąą The role of social norms and community pressures The attention given to the issue of FGM/C as a harmful in the perpetuation of the practice is large. practice has been growing in recent years. Yet, while Daughters living in an area where the practice ending female genital mutilation or cutting (FGM/C, both is common face much higher risks of being cut. terminologies are used in the literature) is a target under Similarly, community prevalence strongly affects the Sustainable Development Goals1, the practice remains support for the continuation of the practice common. FGM/C is practiced not only in Africa, which is the region on which this note focuses, but also in other ąą The personal experience of mothers also makes regions of the world and even in high income countries with a substantial difference for the transmission diaspora from high FGM/C prevalence countries. While of the practice across generations. The risk of the prevalence of the practice is declining, it remains high cutting for daughters increases dramatically in some countries. if the mother was herself cut. It also increases if the mother was married as a child. FGM/C is known to have potentially life threatening health consequences for girls, especially when the cutting ąą The risk for daughters of being cut and overall support is severe. While there can be significant health risks in for the practice tend to be at the margin higher among all forms of FGM/C, especially in cases of infibulation, poorer households as identified by quintiles of wealth. which can lead to the removal of virtually all external sexual organs, the practice has been linked to infections, ąą Educating girls should help reduce the prevalence of infertility, and childbirth complications, among others. FGM/C. First, mothers with a secondary education Cases of girls dying after being cut have been documented are less likely to have their daughters cut. They are in the media. The practice may also affect the children of also less likely to support the continuation of the girls being cut, in part due to complications at birth. More practice. In addition, secondary education for girls generally, in terms of its drivers and other consequences, would help reduce child marriage and improve earnings the practice is related to deep-seated patterns of gender and thereby wealth for households. Through these inequality and gender-based violence. indirect effects as well, better educational attainment for girls should contribute to a reduction in the The objective of this note is to look at some of the factors transmission of the practice across generations. that lead to the transmission of the practice from one 1 Target 5.3 is to eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation. Under that target, indicator: 5.3.2 relates to the percentage of girls and women aged 15-49 who have undergone female genital mutilation/cutting, by age group. Past estimates by the United Nations based on data from 30 countries suggest that 200 million women and girls have undergone FGM/C. Collecting accurate data on FGM/C is however challenging due to the sensitive nature of the topic. For example, the adoption of laws forbidding the practice may in some cases lead the practice not to be reported by women interviewed for household surveys. ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS: SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION | 2 ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES | FEBRUARY 2018 generation to the next. The analysis is based on microdata contrast, including in Egypt and Mali, there seems to be from the latest publicly available Demographic and Health little progress towards lower rates. Table 1 also shows that Surveys for six countries: Burkina Faso, Egypt, Nigeria, rates are often higher among less well educated women Mali, Niger, and Uganda2. On purpose, the selection of and in poorer socio-economic groups, but not universally the countries was carried to have three countries (Burkina so. Differences in rates depending on whether women Faso, Egypt, and Mali) with high rates of FGM/C, and married as children are not systematic, although as will be another set of three countries (Nigeria, and especially discussed below, these simple statistics do not imply that Niger and Uganda) with lower rates nationally. child marriage does not have an effect on FGM/C at the margin, controlling for other factors affecting the practice. For each country, estimates of the prevalence of the Within these countries, there are often also differences in practice among different age groups are provided in Table rates between geographic areas, even if this is not shown in 1. In some countries, such as Burkina Faso and Nigeria, Table 1. In Nigeria for example, rates are higher in Northern rates have been declining over time. In other countries, by states as compared to Southern states Table 1: Estimates of the Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in Six Countries (%) Countries with high incidence Countries with lower incidence Burkina Egypt Mali Nigeria Niger Uganda Age groups 15-19 57.7 87.6 90.3 15.3 1.4 1.0 20-24 69.8 87.5 91.5 21.7 2.1 0.8 25-29 77.5 90.0 92.7 22.9 1.9 1.9 30-34 82.8 93.3 90.8 27.4 1.7 2.1 35-39 85.2 94.8 90.6 30.4 3.0 1.3 40-44 88.2 95.1 92.7 33.0 2.3 1.7 45-49 89.3 95.0 92.1 35.8 1.4 1.9 Total 75.8 92.3 91.4 24.8 2.0 1.4 Education Level No education 80.3 97.2 91.8 17.2 1.9 1.5 Primary 69.5 96.4 92.6 30.7 2.5 1.4 Secondary & higher 55.7 89.8 88.8 28.8 1.5 1.5 Total 75.8 92.3 91.4 24.8 2.0 1.4 Child marriage No 79.4 91.2 90.1 33.3 1.8 1.5 Yes 80.8 95.1 93.2 21.2 2.1 1.6 Total 75.8 92.3 91.4 24.8 2.0 1.4 Wealth Quintile Poorest quintile 77.3 97.0 90.1 16.5 1.7 2.2 Quintile 2 78.1 97.0 92.1 20.3 1.7 1.2 Quintile 3 77.8 94.4 91.8 23.5 2.4 1.2 Quintile 4 79.6 91.5 92.3 30.6 3.0 1.0 Richest quintile 68.5 81.4 90.8 31.0 1.0 1.5 Total 75.8 92.3 91.4 24.8 2.0 1.4 Source: Authors. 2 The choice of these countries stems in part from data availability, but also from the fact that they were included in a broader study at the World Bank on the economic impacts of child marriage. 3 | ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS: SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES | FEBRUARY 2018 FACTORS ASSOCIATED risk of FGM/C associated with that variable. Marginal effects that are not statistically significant (that is, not different from WITH THE PERPETUATION zero in a statistical way) at least at the one percent level are marked as “NS”. The level of statistical significance of the OF THE PRACTICE marginal effects is indicated in the table through one or more asterisks). Both qualitative and quantitative methods can be used COMMUNITY PRESSURE AND SOCIAL NORMS. to explore factors leading to the perpetuation of FGM/C Where FGM/C is a social convention or norm, the social across generations. Both types of methods have their unique pressure to conform to what others in the community are strengths. Quantitative analysis is best suited to uncover doing or have been doing, as well as the need to be accepted patterns across large populations. Qualitative analysis is socially and the fear of being rejected by the community, especially useful to better understand the (often complex) are strong motivations to perpetuate the practice. The role factors that lead to the practice in specific communities. of perceptions related to sexuality is also prominent in the In this note, the focus is on quantitative analysis. In the perpetuation of the practice. FGM/C has been described as survey questionnaires, women are first asked whether they a mechanism to “manage” women’s sexuality, among others have heard of female circumcision or genital cutting. If this to ensure that a girl remains pure and is not tempted to be is the case, they are then asked whether they had their promiscuous. daughters cut or intend to do so in the future. They are also asked if they support the continuation of the practice. Our The top parts in Tables 2 and 3 report on the effects of area analysis is based on a regression analysis for the correlates characteristics on the risk of cutting for daughters and on or determinants of whether daughters have been cut or are support for the continuation of the practice. In two countries likely to be (if their mother intends to do so). In addition, we (Egypt and Mali), controlling for other characteristics, being also look at the correlates of support among women for the in urban areas leads to a slightly higher risk for daughters of practice. being cut. Similar effects are observed in Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger in terms of support for the continuation of the Table 2 provides the main results for the analysis of the factors practice. This does not imply that absolute rates of FGM/C associated with FGM/C, actual or intended, by mothers are higher in urban than rural areas since we control for many towards their daughters. Table 3 considers the factors other factors affecting FGM/C. For example, education associated with support for the continuation of the practice. levels and socio-economic status tend to be better in urban In both cases, simple probit regressions are used. While for areas, and these factors are associated with a decrease in the sake of simplicity we will use the terminology of “effects” the risk of FGM/C for daughters and in support for the in the description of the results, it is important to note that continuation of the practice. In general, the prevalence of what we only measure associations which need not necessarily FGM/C is higher in rural areas. imply causality. Note also that we focus on the correlates of the practice at the individual level, in terms of the actions, What seems to matter a lot in terms of the number of intentions, or perceptions of mothers, even if we do mention countries where effects are statistically significant and the and try to capture community effects to some extent. size of these effects are the rates of cutting for daughters as well as mothers in the areas where they live3. Both The interpretation of the marginal effects reported in Tables rates at the level of communities tend to have positive and 2 and 3 are in percentage points. For example, a marginal statistically significant impacts on the risk of cutting for effect of 0.10 for a variable suggests that controlling for daughters and support among women for the practice. other factors that may affect the practice, that specific The effects are often larger for the local rate of cutting for variable is associated with an increase in the risk of cutting daughters than is the case for mothers, which makes sense for daughters of 10 percentage points. A marginal effect of since we are looking at correlates of the risk of cutting for -0.10 would signal an expected decrease of ten points in the daughters, and not mothers. 3 These variables are estimated at the level of the surveys’ primary sampling units (typically a village in rural areas, or a neighborhood in urban areas) as “leave-out-means” to avoid the issue of endogeneity. In other words, the leave-out-mean rates at the levels of communities are based on all responses by other respondents in the same community. ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS: SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION | 4 ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES | FEBRUARY 2018 While the effects of other community-level variables are less is more likely to be carried out. Furthermore, apart from clear-cut, overall, given the large and statistically significant the role that mothers may play in the perpetuation of the effects of local rates of cutting for daughters in both Tables practice, the mother in law or the grandmother of the girl 2 and 3, the role of social norms and community pressures who is at risk of being circumcised may also play a role. in the perpetuation of the practice seem clear. For example, The close link between child marriage and educational in Table 2, the value of 0.280 for the local cutting rate for attainment for girls is also worth mentioning. If girls were daughters in Burkina Faso implies that a daughter living in able to remain in school up to the age of 18, child marriage an area where all other daughters in that area are cut or are in Africa could be dramatically reduced. This in turn would likely to be (according to survey responses by mothers) faces help reduce the risk of cutting according to our regression a risk of being herself cut higher by 28.0 percentage points, analysis. Finally, in two of the countries, when the mother is which is indeed large. working, there is a small increase in risk. Somewhat similar effects are observed when looking at the correlates of support for the continuation of the practice, although in that Community pressures and social case the impact of work for the mother is not statistically norms play an important role significant, and the effect of child marriage for the mother is in the perpetuation of FGM/C. statistically significant in only two of the six countries. This is evidenced by large effects EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT. of local, community-level The education of the mother and that of her husband or FGM/C rates on the risk of partner can also make a difference, in this case towards cutting for daughters and on the ending the practice. For the mother, while the impact of support for the practice among primary education is not statistically significant, in three of the six countries there is a reduction in the risk for the women. daughter to be cut if the mother has at least a secondary education. In the case of support for the continuation of the These findings also point implicitly to the role of local practice, a secondary or higher level of education for the structures of power and authority, including community mother is associated with a reduction in support in five of leaders, religious leaders, circumcisers, and even some the six countries. In most cases (except Uganda), educational medical personnel. Individuals and groups may through their attainment for the husband or partner at the secondary actions contribute to upholding the practice, or instead level or higher is also associated with a reduction in the risk help to put an end to it. The role of community leaders and of cutting for daughters and a reduction in support on the more generally of community beliefs and traditions is also part of mothers and women in general for the practice (when evidenced by the fact that some girls are being circumcised the observed effects are statistically significant). This points in developed countries. This indicates the deep-rooted belief to the important role that men can play in ending a practice in the value of the practice among some communities even that in some ways is perpetuated to please them. after migrating to another country. MOTHERS’ OWN PAST EXPERIENCES. The personal experience of a mother also makes a substantial difference for her support for the practice and for whether her daughters have been or are likely to be cut. In Table 2, in four of the six countries, the risk of cutting for daughters increases by 18 to 40 percentage points if the mother was herself cut. In addition, if a mother was married as a child, this also increases the likelihood that her daughter will be cut, with statistically significant effects in five of the six countries. The links between FGM/C and child marriage are complex and may vary between communities or families, but where it is believed that being cut increases marriageability, FGM/C 5 | ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS: SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES | FEBRUARY 2018 Table 2: Correlates of Actual or Intended Female Genital Cutting for Daughters Countries with high incidence Countries with lower incidence Burkina Faso Egypt Mali Nigeria Niger Uganda Area characteristics Urban NS 0.111*** 0.0521** NS NS NS Local rate for mothers 0.0584*** 0.363*** 0.384*** NS -0.0357** NS Local rate for daughters 0.280*** 0.452*** 0.306*** 0.120*** 0.355*** 0.0986*** Local FLP for mothers 0.0178* 0.0862** NS NS NS -0.0181*** Local child marriage rate NS NS -0.0895* NS NS NS Mother’s experience Mother was cut 0.0770*** 0.257*** 0.394*** 0.204*** 0.181*** NS Mother is working NS NS NS NS 0.0171*** 0.00348* Mother married as child 0.0187*** 0.0764*** 0.138*** 0.0106* 0.0162*** NS Education of mother Below primary Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Primary NS NS NS NS NS NS Secondary & higher -0.0392*** -0.0391*** NS NS -0.0172*** NS Education for head Below primary Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Primary NS NS NS NS NS NS Secondary and higher -0.0561*** -0.0285** NS NS NS NS Household wealth Poorest quintile Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Quintile 2 NS -0.0225* NS 0.0220** NS NS Quintile 3 NS -0.0503*** NS NS NS -0.00471** Quintile 4 NS -0.0928*** 0.0555** NS NS NS Richest quintile NS -0.175*** NS NS NS -0.00551** Age group of mother 15-19 Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. 20-24 0.162*** 0.260*** 0.258*** NS 0.0769*** NS 25-29 0.286*** 0.346*** 0.452*** NS 0.134*** NS 30-34 0.428*** 0.418*** 0.513*** NS 0.178*** NS 35-39 0.497*** 0.499*** 0.504*** NS 0.169*** NS 40-44 0.505*** 0.462*** 0.449*** NS 0.144*** NS 45-49 0.512*** 0.332*** 0.417*** NS 0.0833*** -0.00564*** Decision-making Index 0.000953*** NS 0.00277** NS NS NS Squared value -7.25e-06** NS NS NS NS NS Source: Authors. Note: Marginal effects shown. Statistical significance: *** 1%, ** 5%, * 10%. ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS: SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION | 6 ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES | FEBRUARY 2018 Table 3: Correlates of Support by Women for the Continuation of Female Genital Cutting Countries with high incidence Countries with lower incidence Burkina Faso Egypt Mali Nigeria Niger Uganda Area characteristics Urban 0.0191** NS 0.0585*** 0.0959* NS NS Local rate for mothers NS 0.130*** NS NS 0.130*** -0.292* Local rate in favor 0.364*** 0.486*** 0.565*** 0.444*** 0.770*** 0.222*** Local FLP for mothers NS 0.0666** NS 0.145** -0.185*** NS Local child marriage rate -0.0260* -0.0951*** NS 0.206** -0.167*** NS Mother’s experience Mother was cut 0.0695*** 0.362*** 0.387*** 0.268*** 0.262*** NS Mother is working NS NS NS NS NS NS Mother married as child NS NS NS 0.0624** 0.0439*** NS Education of mother Below primary Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Primary NS -0.0296* NS NS NS NS Secondary & higher -0.0477*** -0.0960*** -0.0633** -0.121*** -0.0405** NS Education for head Below primary Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Primary NS NS -0.0469** NS -0.0406** 0.0761** Secondary and higher -0.0373*** -0.0268* -0.0708*** NS -0.0334** 0.0718* Household wealth Poorest quintile Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Quintile 2 NS -0.0329** NS NS NS NS Quintile 3 NS -0.0422*** NS NS -0.0778*** -0.0627*** Quintile 4 NS -0.0870*** NS -0.0603* -0.0770*** -0.0517* Richest quintile NS -0.123*** NS -0.0961** -0.0596** -0.0762** Age group of mother 15-19 Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. Ref. 20-24 -0.0200** NS NS NS NS NS 25-29 -0.0180** -0.0640** NS NS NS NS 30-34 -0.0286*** -0.0825*** NS -0.0711* NS NS 35-39 -0.0335*** -0.0479* NS -0.113*** NS NS 40-44 -0.0324*** -0.0740** -0.0644** NS NS NS 45-49 NS -0.103*** NS -0.0810* NS NS Decision-making Index 0.00150*** 0.00212* NS NS NS NS Squared value -1.06e-05*** -3.10e-05*** NS NS NS NS Source: Authors. Note: Marginal effects shown. Statistical significance: *** 1%, ** 5%, * 10%. 7 | ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS: SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES | FEBRUARY 2018 WEALTH AND POVERTY. 15-19. These positive trends are observed for four of the In four of the six countries, there is evidence that the risk of six countries in Table 2. The evidence is less clear in Table 3 daughters being cut and the likelihood for women to support in terms of support for the continuation of the practice, in the practice tend to be higher among poorer households. In that fewer statistically significant effects are observed, and the regression analysis, households are identified by quintiles they tend not to be systematically increasing with age as of wealth from the bottom 20 percent of the population to is the case for the cutting of daughters. There does seem the richest 20 percent (the wealth index is based on assets to be slightly higher support for the practice among very owned by households). In the case of daughters being cut, young women, but the effects are often small when they are the evidence is especially clear in Egypt, In the case of statistically significant. support for the practice, apart from Egypt, wealth effects are observed for Niger, Nigeria, and Uganda. As was done DECISION-MAKING ABILITY. for child marriage, the link with girls’ education is worth Finally, the impact of decision-making ability for women in mentioning. Better educated girls tend to have better jobs the household is not fully clear, because of the presence of in adulthood, and higher earnings result in gains in wealth for both linear and squared terms in the regression analysis. In households. In that sense, through its impact on expected addition, the impacts are statistically significant in only two earnings and wealth, girls’ education especially at the of the countries for each of the two regressions. Controlling secondary level could help reduce FGM/C. These effects for other factors, in some cases higher decision-making are in addition to the direct effect of educational attainment ability for women may help reduce the risk of FGM/C or observed in the regression analysis through the coefficients support for the practice, but in other cases the reverse effect for the mother’s education level. may be observed. Note that the index of decision-making ability for women within their household takes on a value AGE. between zero and 100. It is based on answers to a wide range One piece of good news is that the likelihood for mothers of questions by women about their ability to make decisions of having their daughters cut is lower among younger age either by themselves or jointly with their husband or partner. groups. This can be seen by the fact that the marginal effects associated with age tend to be larger for older women in comparison to the reference category of women aged ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS: SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION | 8 ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES | FEBRUARY 2018 CONCLUSION Ending all forms of violence against women and girls – including violence related to FGM/C - is an important target under the Sustainable Development Goals. Achieving this target would end the suffering caused by such violence. It would also have beneficial impacts in other areas such as health. This note has analyzed some of the factors leading to the transmission of FGM/C across generation, from mothers to daughters. Social norms and community pressures play an important role in the perpetuation of the practice, as does the personal experience of mothers (whether they were themselves cut or whether they were married as a children). The risk for daughters of being cut and overall support for the practice also tend to be at the margin higher among poorer households. Finally, better educated mothers are less likely to have their daughters cut, and they are also less likely to support the continuation of the practice. Given the additional indirect effects of girls’ educational attainment on FGM/C through child marriage and household wealth, the results suggest that apart from targeted interventions aiming to change community and individual practices related to FGM/C, investments in girls’ education can also play a positive role if girls reach the secondary education level. 9 | ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS: SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES | FEBRUARY 2018 Recommended citation for this note: Onagoruwa, A., and Wodon, Q. 2017. Selected Factors Leading to the Transmission of Female Genital Mutilation across Generations: Quantitative Analysis for Six African Countries. Ending Violence against Women Notes Series. Washington, DC: The World Bank. This note was prepared by a team at the World Bank. The team acknowledges support for this note as part of a work program funded by the Children’s Investment Fund Foundation and the Global Partnership for Education. The authors are grateful to Sameera Al Tuwaijri, Diana Jimena Arango, Meskerem Mulatu, and Tshiya Subayi for valuable comments. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this note are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, its affiliated organizations or members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. Citation and the use of material presented in this note should take into account its provisional character. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. Information contained in this note may be freely reproduced, published or otherwise used for noncommercial purposes without permission from the World Bank. However, the World Bank requests that the original study be cited as the source. © 2018 The World Bank, Washington, DC 20433. ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS: SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION | 10 ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES | FEBRUARY 2018 ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS SELECTED FACTORS LEADING TO THE TRANSMISSION OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION ACROSS GENERATIONS: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS FOR SIX AFRICAN COUNTRIES