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I



A W O R L D B A N K C O U N T R Y S T U D Y
Jamaica
Economic Issues for
Environmental Management
The World Bank
Washington, D.C.



Copyright (C 1993
The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development/THE WORLD BANK
1818 H Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
First printing December 1993
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The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of
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ISSN: 0253-2123
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Jamaica : economic issues for environmental management.
p.  cm. -  (A World Bank country study)
"Based on the findings of an environmental mission which visited
Jamaica in August/September 1992."
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-8213-2653-8
1. Environmental policy-Economic aspects-Jamaica. 2. Jamaica-
Economic conditions.  I. International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development.  II. Series.
HC154.Z9E55  1993
338.97292-dc2O                                      93-36880
CIP



Contents
Acknowlegments .................  ...  ....  ...  ...  ...  ...                             .  iv
Currency Equivalents and Abbreviations ........................ v
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................ Vii
I.   BACKGROUND: THE COUNTRY AND THE ECONOMY  ... ...... 1
The Country  .        .......................................  2
The Macro Economy and the Environment  .....................  3
Private Sector Coordination   ..............................  3
II.   ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS AND INSTRUMENTS ...                                       ...... 4
Im.    ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT   .......................  7
Land Use and Water Resources  ............................  9
Recommendations: Land Use and Water Resources ....                      ........ 12
Water Pollution ...................................... 14
Recommendations: Water Pollution   ..................... 15
IV. POVERTY AND THE ENVIRONMENT .17
Recommendations .18
V.      OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES   ....................... 19
Disaster Preparedness .................................. 19
National Parks and Protected Areas .......................... 20
Biodiversity ........................................ 20
Overuse of Open Access Resources .......................... 20
Solid and Hazardous Waste ............................... 21
Jamaica's Participation in International Environmental Efforts ....                ...... 21
Energy Demand Management  ............................. 22
Zoning  .      .......................................... 22
Mitigation of Existing Pollution Sites ......................... 22
Air Pollution ........................................ 22
Noise Pollution . ...................................... 23
VI.    SUMMARY  RECOMMENDATIONS  ........................ 23
Annex I: Bibliography ................................. 26
Annex II: Major Activities with External Support ................. 27
Map
iii



Acknowledaments
This issues paper is based on the findings of an environmental mission which visited
Jamaica in August/September 1992. The mission comprised Amolo Ng'weno (mission
leader), Graeme Thompson (economist); and Ricardo Katz (consultant), assisted by
Winston MacCalla (CIDA consultant) in Jamaica. The Board and staff of the NRCA
contributed actively to the development of the paper.
iv



Currency Equivalents
FISCAL YEAR
April 1 - March 31
EXCHANGE RATES (Q4 1992)
US$ 1 = J$ 22.20
J$ 1 = US$ 0.045
ABBREVIATIONS
BOD             Biochemical oxygen demand
CFC             Chlorofluorocarbon
CGCED           Caribbean Group for Cooperation in Economic Development
CIDA            Canadian International Development Agency
ECD             Environmental Control Division of the Ministry of Health
EIA             Environmental impact assessment
FAO             Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN
FIDCO           Forestry Industries Development Company
GEF             Global Environmental Facility
GDP             Gross domestic product
GOJ             Government of Jamaica
IDB             Inter-American Development Bank
KMA             Kingston Metropolitan Area
KRC             Kingston Restoration Company
MARPOL 73/78 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
(London 1973, modified by its Protocol of 1978)
MJ              Megajoule (a unit of heat)
MOF             Ministry of Finance
NGO             Non-governmental organization
NRCA            Natural Resources Conservation Authority
NWC             National Water Commission
OECF            Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (Japan)
OECS            Organization of Eastern Caribbean States
PIOJ            Planning Institute of Jamaica
PSOJ            Private Sector Organization of Jamaica
TA              Technical assistance
UDC             Urban Development Corporation
UNCED           United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNDP            United Nations Development Programme
UNEP            United Nations Environmental Programme
USAID           United States Agency for International Development
UWI             University of the West Indies
v






EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
i.        This environmental issues paper is aimed at assisting the Government of Jamaica
(GOJ) and other interested parties in analyzing the crucial economic and institutional issues
affecting the environment in Jamaica. In addition, it identifies key areas for potential
external assistance in the environmental sectors. The paper is based on extensive existing
work of a technical nature; a bibliography is appended. The degree of international interest
in the subject was demonstrated not only by the high level of participation at the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in June 1992, but also
regionally at the meeting of the Caribbean Group on Cooperation in Economic Development
(CGCED) (also in June 1992). This is therefore an opportune time for Jamaica to embark on
a number of environmental initiatives.
ii.       The GOJ has made a serious and promising start in rejuvenating the
environmental management effort in the country. The Jamaica National Environmental
Action Plan is to be completed shortly, and the institutional structures for managing
environmental issues are now in place and operative. However, recognizing that the GOJ
will operate under tight fiscal constraints in the immediate future, it is particularly important
to place environmental initiatives in the perspective of the Public Sector Investment
Programme. In this context, changes in the economic regime are cost-effective relative to
other options, such as investments and legal mechanisms.
Putting the Incentive Regime to Work
iii.      Maximum mileage from the country's scarce resources can be attained by putting
the incentive regime to work in any areas where economic tools (taxes, subsidies,
information, ownership and prices) can be brought to bear. In this connection, areas for
early attention include: issuance of general policies for land and water use; adjustments in
the water rates regime to allow some discrimination for services used; and increases in the
sale price of public resources. Areas for longer-term research and application include:
charging efficient rates for water consumption, sewerage and irrigation services; taxing water
polluters; taxing inputs and outputs of highly polluting small-scale industries; improving the
land tenure regime and property tax system; improving agricultural research and extension
services; and improving technical support to industry, especially small-scale industry.
Concentrating on Realizable Accomplishments
iv.       Although all the partners involved in the country's economic development are
keen to see early action on a number of fronts, all agencies, including external donors,
should focus resources in one or two priority areas. The broad areas identified in this paper
as key priorities are land use and water pollution. Coordination of policies and resources is
an immediate priority for the Natural Resources Conservation Agency (NRCA). For this
reason, a clear statement of the GOJ's priorities is warranted, and these priorities should be
supported by the donor community.
vii



viii
Concentrating Investment in Crucial Areas
v.         Given the fiscal constraints, investment activities need to concentrate on critical
areas agreed on within the GOJ. Investments in water infrastructure and watershed
protection would probably be the most important in the short term.
Capitalizing on Private Sector Efforts
vi.        The private sector can be tapped as a source of information, investment and even
funding for environmental programs. In return, the NRCA should clearly identify parties
and agencies responsible for private sector interaction. It should also identify an interface
between itself and the private sector, and should provide the business community information
on Jamaican and foreign standards and regulations. Simplifying and streamlining
bureaucratic requirements will assist the private sector in its environment-related activities.
Developing Longer-term Capabilities
vii.       Although restricting itself at present to a few priority areas, the NRCA must
clearly develop capabilities for long-term management of the environment. External
technical assistance should recognize these long-term goals. The development of
environmental management capability in the GOJ should include developing economic
expertise in the NRCA, and environmental expertise in the Ministry of Finance and the
Planning Institute of Jamaica.



I. BACKGROUND: THE COUNTRY AND THE ECONOMY
1.1       1993 finds Jamaica at economic crossroads; the stabilization program, following
the rapid currency depreciation and high inflation starting in mid-1991, is back on track. For
the first time in several years, Jamaica is not directly confronted with short-term
macroeconomic instability and a continuing balance of payments crisis. This time of
macroeconomic calm gives the Jamaicans the opportunity to undertake further adjustment
measures necessary to consolidate the macroeconomic framework, and in this context the
long-term sustainability of Jamaica's economic base is even more important. The GOJ
indicated its recognition of the importance of the environment in the economy by raising
environmental concerns to a Cabinet level via the Ministry of Tourism and the Environment;
by creating the Natural Resources Conservation Authority (NRCA) with a broad mandate of
environmental regulation, enforcement, policy advice and resource management; and by
including key environmental goals in its Medium Term Policy Framework (covering the three
years 1992/93-1994/95). This comes in the context of rising public awareness of the issues,
a number of private sector initiatives on environmental protection, and a global climate in
which the role of the environment in economic development is emphasized. The close
working relationship between the private sector and the GOJ shows great promise for the
development of a robust regulatory framework.
1.2       A number of basic environmental policies have been under development over the
past couple of years, activities which included the NRCA Act, but which continue in a
number of multi-sectoral areas. The GOJ's National Environmental Action Plan will be
issued shortly, and is being revised to reflect the Public Sector Investment Programme and
the principles of Agenda 21.1' Other areas include a water resources bill, presently under
consideration by Parliament, and a comprehensive land policy with subsidiary regulations and
standards. These policies were developed in close consultation with affected public and
private sector agencies and local communities. The regulatory structure for environmental
management is therefore at a fairly advanced stage of development.
1.3       In the environment field, Jamaica has received significant assistance from
external agencies, in support for the NRCA as well as for projects (a list of major activities
is included in Annex II). In late 1992, NRCA's strategic planning process began to narrow
the priority areas for its activities and define the urgent areas for additional technical and
investment support. This process will culminate in 1993 with the issuance of a National
Environmental Action Plan, spelling out the GOJ's priorities and plans to accomplish them
through investments and incentives, and the institutional and regulatory framework under
which the plan will be undertaken. The National Environmental Action Plan will form part
of the economic planning process, and will be periodically revised. The GOJ will also need
to carefully define spending priorities within the budget envelope given its limited financial
resources and will thus need to speed up its accessing of special environmentally-directed
donor resources.
I/   The environmental agenda agreed at the UNCED conference in June 1992.



- 2 -
1.4       With this leadership from the GOJ, it will be possible to rationalize the projects
and activities with external support to get the most mileage out of the available resources.
The World Bank attaches great importance to the outcome of this process and the specific
details of the National Environmental Action Plan. As part of the CGCED activities, the
World Bank is coordinating a regional effort to assist in the development of Environmental
Action Plans in a number of Caribbean countries by the next meeting of the CGCED (June
1994). The Jamaican effort is coincident with this activity and could therefore draw upon the
resources provided through the CGCED study for technical details or harmonization with
other countries.
The Country
1.5       Jamaica is an island country, located in the northern Caribbean, approximately
145 km south of Cuba and 160 km west of Haiti, with a population of about 2.4 million
people in 1992 and a land area of 11,000 sq. km. The country has had a low and steady
population growth rate of 1.4% for the past two decades, partially reflecting substantial
emigration to Europe and North America. Life expectancy and literacy are high for a
country in Jamaica's income group, demonstrating significant commitment to social
development since Independence in 1962.
1.6       Economic growth has not, unfortunately, been as positive or steady. Until the
1950s, Jamaica's economy was based principally on exports of agricultural products,
including sugar, bananas, coffee, citrus and pimento. Mineral exploitation, especially of
bauxite, and tourism development flourished after the 1950s. Agriculture, mining and
tourism continue to generate close to a third of Jamaica's GDP, emphasizing the continued
importance of natural resources in the economy. In the 1970s and 1980s these activities have
been further supplemented with other services and light manufacturing.
1.7       Annual average real GDP growth exceeded 6% during 1950-1968. Jamaica was
hit hard by the oil crisis of the early 1970s, which, combined with problems of economic
management, set off a long period of declining real GDP. The impact on its population has
been severe, as real per capita GDP and consumption fell, unemployment and poverty
increased and public funding for the social sectors was slashed. Since the mid-1980s, the
Jamaican economy has begun to grow again; growth has averaged about 3% per year since
1985 notwithstanding Hurricane Gilbert in 1988 which devastated physical infrastructure on
the island, including much of the housing stock.
1.8       Debt service payments related to excessive external borrowing in the 1980s,
however, continue to hamper the flexibility of the public sector. Foreign debt stands at over
100% of GDP and foreign interest payments are about 50% of GOJ revenue. Meanwhile,
the public sector payroll has been sharply reduced, through declining real wages,
retrenchment, and divestment. The need to continue with the tight fiscal management will
impose serious limitations on the NRCA, GOJ financing capabilities (both for recurrent
expenditure and investment), and project implementation capabilities. Thus, it is important
to have realistic and achievable goals for the short and medium term, and to build an



- 3 -
institutional structure through which more ambitious activities can be achieved in the longer
term.
The Macro Economy and the Environment
1.9       In common with many other developing countries, Jamaica faced the crises of the
1970s and 1980s burdened with heavy state involvement in the economy; numerous general
subsidies on food, water, energy and agricultural inputs; price controls including interest rate
ceilings; directed credit from the public sector; public monopolies on certain imports; export
restrictions; high barriers to trade; and a policy of state direction of the economy. Many of
these activities had direct negative consequences on environmental management. For
example, subsidies on irrigation water encouraged over-pumping, which resulted in saline
intrusion into some aquifers. Stumpage prices on government-owned lands were well below
replacement costs, aggravating deforestation. Trade barriers and subsidies encouraged over-
use of pesticides (now curbed). However, in the past 5 years large strides have been made
in deregulating the economy and in making it more open to both domestic and external
competition. The challenge for Jamaica is to keep environmental management needs a
central feature of government policy as the economy responds to the improved investment
and financial opportunities.
1.10      At present very little price regulation exists in most sectors, rapid advances are
being made in trade liberalization, and interest rates are freely floating. General subsidies
have been eliminated (with the exception of the subsidy on kerosene -- see box 3) and
replaced, where necessary, with targeted subsidies. A policy of passing on to the consumer
the full cost of production of water and energy has been instituted recently, and these utilities
are under consideration for privatization of the enterprise as a whole or of selected services
(the telephone utility was sold to the private sector).
1.11      Although many economic impediments have now been removed and guidelines
have been established for environmental management, the GOJ has so far not explored the
full range of incentives affecting environment-related behavior. For instance, government
prices for use of public land, water and other resources are far below their true value and in
many cases are not enforced. Rental of beach rights to hotels is J$100 (US$5) per year.
Squatting on and clearing of government forest land, although forbidden, is widespread.
Similarly, the tax system has not incorporated the environmental costs of economic activity
through taxes on effluents, emissions and waste production. Although there are transactions
costs involved in imposing and enforcing taxes, this option is being investigated further by
the NRCA, and could form an important element of environmental policy.
Private Sector Coordination
1.12      A fair degree of communication exists in Jamaica between private sector actors
and government agencies concerned with the environment. In fact, in many cases, business
associations have led the GOJ in the imposition of environmental standards in industry. The
Private Sector Organization of Jamaica (PSOJ) has a committee on the environment which
has started a number of initiatives to fund environmental policy and research studies, to abate



- 4 -
pollution in Kingston harbor, and to improve the awareness of members concerning
environmental problems. In addition, chambers of commerce have taken an active role in
environmental protection activities, especially the Negril Chamber of Commerce, which is
affiliated with the Negril Coral Reef Preservation Society. Industry groups are active in the
setting of standards, including environmental standards, and have participated actively in a
number of recent GOJ initiatives for environmental management and planning, frequently
contributing to the funding or research costs.
1.13      This private sector participation has tended to focus the discussion toward tax
breaks and other subsidies to encourage industry to install clean technologies, with less
emphasis on taxation, sanctions and monitoring. Although these latter options will be further
developed by the NRCA, the cordial relationship with the private sector should be valued and
nurtured. The NRCA is considering positive incentives for industry, including public
recognition of environmentally-friendly firms or products. In addition to the public relations
benefits, other benefits include increased powers of moral suasion, and the participation of
the private sector in bearing technical costs and sharing information.
1.14      The private sector is keen to participate in the development of regulations, and
looks to the NRCA for leadership in setting standards and overall policy. Health, safety and
environmental regulation have become increasingly important as price regulation is phased
out and state enterprises privatized. At the moment, monitoring and enforcement capabilities
in all agencies are weak. In the short term, it is important for the NRCA to focus on
monitoring and enforcement efforts which are achievable and which target key sectors.
II. ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS AND INSTRUMENTS
2.1        The Natural Resources Conservation Authority was created in 1991 as an
umbrella institution for the environment, charged with the ultimate responsibility for
environmental quality, including the drafting and amending of legislation and regulations;
policy advice to the Ministry of Tourism and Environment (under which it is situated);
monitoring and enforcement; and management of ecosystems and national parks. It provides
technical input to the quarterly meetings of the Inter-Ministerial Committee on the
Environment (which, because of the high degree of interest, comprises the full Cabinet).
The NRCA is also represented on environment-related committees and boards of the GOJ. It
can delegate some of these responsibilities to other parties (such as the Bauxite Institute, the
Underground Water Authority and the Forestry Department), but expects to retain a core
monitoring and enforcement capability. The NRCA holds responsibility for coordinating
environmental activities by all government agencies, including project development.
2.2       In terms of changes in the incentive regime, the NRCA has power to impose
fines and licensing fees, which, as a statutory body, it is able to retain in its own budget.
However, with regard to changes in the macro incentive structure, such as levying taxes, the
NRCA serves an advisory technical function to the Inter-Ministerial Committee and to the
Ministry of Finance. The NRCA Act provides for the NRCA to inform the GOJ of the costs
and benefits of environmental protection measures on an on-going basis, and, by extension,



-5-
to review government economic
policies, i.e., general (such as the tax          Box 1: THE BAUXITE INDUSTRY AND THE
regime) and specific (such as                            ENVIRONMENT
environmental incentives).                               Bauxite, one of Jamaica's main exports, is strip-
mined, in many cases in poor agricultural areas. The
2.3          This broad mandate makes             potential for alienating the local community is high, and
the NRCA potentially one of the more              the industry has been keen to keep a positive public
powerful units of the GOJ. In the                 image. This has resulted in close cooperation with the
Jamaica Bauxite Institute, a statutory body with
present political climate, it enjoys firm         regulatory and enforcement powers over all aspects of
support from  the GOJ, and has a                  the industry, as well as a high degree of cooperation
respected technocrat as its executive             with local communities.
director. Its role has also been
The major environmental problem caused by the
industry is the disposal of the tailings, which form an
external agencies. However, it has not            alkaline mud. These have been disposed of in large
received funding commensurate with its            mined-out limestone pits. These "red mud lakes" have
expected duties, and takes over from  a           leached sodium into the underground aquifers in local
predecessor institution (the Natural              areas. Because of its genetic makeup, the Jamaican
Resources Conservation Department)                population is particularly subject to hypertension, which
can be aggravated by high levels of sodium; this,
whose powers and reputation had                   therefore, can present a greater problem in Jamaica than
declined in recent years. In the near             in other countries. Recently, one mine devised a new
term  its abilities to monitor and enforce        system of drying the mud in shallow beds; the residues
will be limited and will rely largely on          can then be used for construction material or as an input
the staff of other agencies. In practice,         in cement production, although there remain some
questions about the residues' concentrated use. The
this implies that the NRCA's monitoring           process, invented in Jamaica, is now being used in other
and enforcement responsibilities will be          mines around the world.
limited to key industries and to the
limitedton kof other GOJ agencies'                       Other environmental problems include changes
supervision      . .                              in the water regime. The Mining Act of 1947 requires
monitoring activities.                            the mines to remove topsoil before mining, and restore
it as part of the reclamation process. However, because
2.4          It is important for the              of the increase in surface area after mining and the
NRCA  to make concrete accomplish-                removal of hundreds of feet of bauxite, the water
ments in the first years of its operation,        retention capabilities of the soil are reduced. Where
formerly annual crops were grown, now only tree crops
and to establish its position in the GOJ          and pasture are possible, and water reaches the aquifers
awd vis-a-vis other environment-related           more quickly. The companies also provide extension
institutions. In addition to other                services to farmers on the reclaimed land.
environmental agencies of the GOJ, the
NRAwill be the leading government                    Noise and dust are localized problems; the
NRCA  will be the leading government              companies relocate people or compensate them for their
counterpart for external agencies                 proximity to haul roads.
involved in environmental projects, and
will review all externally-supported
projects as part of the GOJ's project pre-selection committee. The NRCA also has public
education functions, and is well placed to carry out the dialogue with NGOs and the private
sector as representatives of both sit on its Board of Directors. By building on its early
strengths, the NRCA will be in a better position to take on the evolving complexities of
natural resource management.



2.5        The problem of monitoring and enforcement becomes especially acute in the light
of the high expectations that are placed on the NRCA from both the private sector and the
other government agencies. Although general legislation is issued by the Parliament on the
advice of the NRCA and other agencies, the NRCA has been charged with the responsibility
of issuing subsidiary regulations, and may modify regulations issued by other agencies,
subject to affirmative resolution by Parliament. High expectations are resting on the NRCA
both to create reasonable regulations and enforce them within a fairly short time period. At
the same time, the private sector and other agencies seek to be involved in the process of
regulatory development, which would ultimately produce better regulations but will slow the
process. The NRCA must be careful to keep regulations simple and clear, enforcement
mechanisms realistic, and penalties appropriate. The NRCA is receiving assistance from
external agencies for the development of regulations. Enforcement is likely to be a greater
problem, and it is therefore important for the agency to recognize its limitations, delegate to
other agencies, and set a task commensurate with existing human and financial constraints.
In the short term, it will enhance the reputation of the NRCA to choose a small set of
regulations and enforce them well (and visibly) rather than to enforce all poorly. A number
of cases are presently before the courts, which will provide the NRCA with the opportunity
to demonstrate its seriousness. As its staff develops, better overall enforcement will be
possible.
2.6       Other environmental institutions include: the Environmental Control Department
of the Ministry of Health, which is responsible for air and water quality measurement and
environmental health; the Ministry of Agriculture, including the Forestry Department, which
manages rural land use (private and public), irrigation, agricultural extension and agriculture-
related infrastructure; the Ministry of Public Utilities, Transport and Energy, which oversees
the energy sector; the Ministry of Production, Mining and Commerce which oversees the
mining industry, including zoning and environmental quality control; the National Water
Commission, which is the water and sewerage utility for domestic and industry use, and its
twin, the National Irrigation Commission; and the Town and Country Planning Department
of the Ministry of Tourism and Environment, which is responsible for physical planning and
zoning in urban areas. Local governments also have environmental responsibilities,
especially for zoning and physical planning. There are numerous statutory bodies including
the Underground Water Authority, which has responsibility for planning permission and
water quality; and FIDCO and CIDCO (Forestry and Coffee Industrial Development
Corporations), responsible for commercial forestry and coffee development on government
lands. There are also advisory bodies, including the Watershed Protection Commission, and
the Land Policy Commission, which have important policy missions but are temporary in
activity. The University of the West Indies (Mona Campus, on the Kingston outskirts) also
provides support for environmental research and training.
2.7       Given the large number of agencies involved in the environment, the task of
inter-agency coordination is extremely important, and is part of the NRCA's mandate. The
NRCA would provide an interface point for the private sector, NGOs, external agencies and
other outsiders to approach the GOJ on environmental issues, and would coordinate inter-
sectoral project activities. The NRCA would also coordinate the responsibilities of the
various agencies in each sector, helping to ensure that all aspects are covered and that



- 7 -
duplication is minimal. The support shown by the other government agencies at the NRCA
strategic planning workshop in September 1992 indicates that some inter-agency coordination
is already taking place, and that agencies recognize the NRCA's role in this area. As part of
the NRCA's strategic planning process, mechanisms of coordination are being defined, but
the development and refinement of coordination will remain an important activity. At the
same time, the GOJ should review the need for such a large number of agencies involved in
the environment, with a view to the possibility of merging some agencies to concentrate the
use of scarce technical personnel.
2.8       NGOs in Jamaica are mostly grassroots and concerned with environmental and
community development activities at local levels. Some of these organizations have had a
significant impact on local zoning, permits, public awareness, protection and cleanup,
especially in the tourist corridor on the North Coast. Major national players include the
Jamaica Conservation and Development Trust, and the National Environmental Societies
Trust, which is an association of environmental NGOs. A number of international
environmental NGOs are also active in Jamaica, notably the Nature Conservancy, which is
working on debt-for-nature swaps. The close working relationship between NGOs and the
NRCA encourages sharing of information, community ideas and participation, and has led
NRCA to delegate the management of national parks to the Jamaica Conservation and
Development Trust. With the financial support of donors such as CIDA and USAID, it is
expected that NGOs will play an increasingly important role in environmental education,
management and policy in Jamaica.
III. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
3.1       Jamaica's largest environmental problems, from the point of view of affecting the
largest number of people's lives and livelihoods, are related to water. Pollution of surface
and sea water threatens human health and tourism revenues. Clean water for domestic
purposes has frequently been short in the Kingston Metropolitan area (KMA), and is
presently facing a significant deficit. Due to degradation of watersheds, flooding is
becoming more frequent and more severe, and pollution of ground water is raising the cost
of infrastructure, eroding agricultural productivity and posing health risks. Topsoil loss in
the watershed areas is harming agricultural productivity and causing marine siltation.
Although a number of other environmental problems do exist, the water issue is by far the
most serious. It must be recognized that action is required on a number of fronts and is
likely to be of fairly long duration, with significant improvements only likely in the late
1990s. Realizing that these problems will not be solved in short order implies making
interim arrangements as well as planning for permanent and sustainable solutions.
3.2       In Jamaica as with other island countries, there is an extremely close inter-
relationship between the terrestrial and marine ecosystems; in addition the varied and
mountainous inland terrain supports a number of ecosystems unusually rich in biodiversity.
Water provides the link that ties the terrestrial ecosystems with lowland urban areas and
marine habitats. The close proximity and interaction of these ecosystems and the relatively
high population density (216 persons per square km; 1.6 km of paved road for every square
km of land) means that economic activities are rarely local in effect; effective environmental



- 8 -
Table 1: ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS: THEN AND NOW
Resource                                                     How it used to be           How it is now
Fisheries production (million kg)                            10.5 (1960)                 4.1 (1991 est.)
Aquaculture production (million kg)                         negligible (1960)            3.4 (1991)
Number of fishermen                                          16,000 (1982)               Thought to have
increased 20-30%
by 1992
Forest cover (sq km)                                        2,100 (1960-65)              1,860 (1985-90)
% of land forested                                          19% (1960-65)                17% (1985-90)
Agricultural land (sq km)                                   44,400 (1960-65)             41,800 (1985-90)
% of population in agriculture-related work                 40% (1950)                   30% (1990)
Index of sugar exports by volume (1985 = 100)               218 (1970)                   95 (1989)
Per capita food production index (1979-81 = 100)             107 (1960-65)               95 (1988-90)
Fertilizer use (kg per Ha of arable land)                   87 (1970/71)                 115 (1989/90)
Index of volume of bauxite exports (1985 = 100)             364 (1970)                   197 (1989)
Value of bauxite exports (constant 1985 I$ m)               781 (1970)                   497 (1989)
Index of charcoal price per MJ (kerosene = 100)              130 (Ql 1980)               205 (Q2 1992)
Real price of charcoal per tin, KMA (constant 1985 JS)      4.95 (Ql 1977)               9.96 (Q2 1992)
Tourist arrivals                                             532,000 (1978)              1,236,000 (1990)
Population living in dwellings they neither own nor rent (mainly                         8.3 % (1989)
squatters)
Population below poverty line                                                            33% (1989)
Percent of poorest quintile obtaining drinking water from                                14% (1989)
rivers/lakes
Percent of poorest quintile using pit latrines                                           86% (1989)
Percent of population with no toilet facilities                                          3 % (1989)
Number of informal industries                                                            13,000 (1989)
Inflation (CPI)                                              13% (avg 1965-80)           15% (end 1992 at
annual rate)
Exchange rate (JS/US$)                                      0.8 (1972); 8 (Ql 1991)      22 (Q4 1992)
Growth rate of earnings per employee                        -0.2% (1970-80)              -0.8% (1980-89)
Source: Government of Jamaica documents; Jamaica National Report on the Environment and Development,
Government of Jamaica, 1992; International Financial Statistics, IMF, 1991; Social Indicators of
Development 1991-92, World Bank; Survey of Living Conditions, November 1989, Planning Institute of
Jamaica; World Bank documents; World Development Report 1992, World Bank.



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management becomes especially important. Selected environmental indicators are presented
at Table 1.
3.3        Water resource management is the responsibility of a number of agencies.
According to Jamaican law, water is owned by the holder of the property under which it is
found. For practical purposes, however, water has belonged to the person capturing it.
Thus, it has not always been clear what the rights and responsibilities of individuals are
relating to effects that they might have on the water regime and downstream users.
Legislation is presently before Parliament which will provide for a unified organizational
framework for the administration of all surface and underground water resources, with one
Authority having overall responsibility.
Land Use and Water Resources
3.4        The problem. Soil erosion is part of the natural cycle of geological
development. However, human activities, especially in agriculture, have led to increasing,
and unsustainable, rates of erosion in watershed areas. The results are widespread and may
in time endanger human health. At the point at which it occurs, erosion reduces agricultural
productivity and increases the need for chemical fertilizers. Downstream, increased silt loads
in rivers shorten the lives of dams, block watercourses, choke marine habitats, and increase
the cost of water infrastructure and treatment. Associated with the increased erosion is
reduced retention of rainwater by the soil; this means there is faster runoff with more
flooding and river seasonality, and less infiltration into groundwater.
3.5       Jamaica is particularly susceptible to watershed degradation, as approximately
80% of the land surface is hilly or mountainous with more than 50% having slopes of greater
than 20 degrees. Highland soils, such as are found in the Blue Mountains, have low fertility
and are easily erodible. As a result of deforestation, improper land use and poor
management, vegetative cover has been lost on many hilly areas, resulting in an excessive
level of topsoil erosion. Of the 33 watersheds, 19 are badly eroded. In the past century,
more than 60 rivers have ceased to flow year round. The area of land classified as arable
has decreased by about 10% over the past three decades, as has the area classified as forest.
3.6       The situation in Jamaica, as with other countries in the Caribbean, is exacerbated
by the frequency of natural disasters, especially hurricanes. A serious hurricane can be
expected every 5-15 years, and tropical storms occur every summer. Hurricane Gilbert in
1988 cost 50 lives, rendered half a million people homeless and caused over $1 billion in
economic damage, much of it to housing, agriculture, forestry and tourism stock.
Furthermore, Jamaica lies on the San Andreas fault (which passes through Kingston), making
it susceptible to earthquakes. The alluvial fans of rivers, on which much coastal settlement
lies, are subject to soil liquefaction in earthquakes or flooding. As forests and coastal
wetland vegetation are degraded, their protective value is lost, increasing the severity of
flooding in natural disasters. In 1692, much of the Port Royal settlement near present-day
Kingston sank in an earthquake, costing hundreds of lives.



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3.7         The causes. The causes of watershed degradation are principally agriculture,
charcoal production and infrastructure development. Even some lands owned by the National
Water Commission (NWC) are degraded, as public agencies have lost their ability to defend
the land against clearing by squatters and deforestation for charcoal production. Recently,
the Forestry Department has increased stumpage fees to commercial rates, but these will be
difficult to enforce or collect due to the shortage of staff and other resources.
3.8         About half of the land area of
Jamaica is put to agricultural use. The past         Box 2: PERVERSE INCENTIVES IN COFFEE
15 years have seen a decline in both the                   PRODUCTION
number and size of farms, as the role of                   Cultivation of tree crops is widely used as
agriculture in the economy has declined.             a method of soil conservation. However, not all
Nonetheless, agriculture-related activities          areas are suitable for cultivation of any crops,
still employ about 30%  of the workforce,            including tree crops. Certain agricultural projects
and agriculture constitutes an important             have been focused on increasing the acreage under
cultivation, and so have encouraged the clearing of
source of domestic strength and export               unsuitable areas with adverse effects on
growth. The majority of hillside farms are           productivity, as well as contributing to deforestation
small (70%  under 2 Ha and 95%  under                and erosion. By contrast, projects aimed at
4 Ha).2' In order to spread risk, most              increasing production may not require additional
farmers cultivate a mixture of annual, semi-        land and may result in better conservation practices
farmersculovae a mlture ofannual seml- on land already under cultivation.
perennial and perennial crops; coffee is
especially important. A few farmers grow                   For instance, the Blue Mountain Coffee
timber, but the number is small. There is a          Project included a marketing effort in Japan, where
low level of input use and cultivation               it has become extremely popular. Despite falling
coffee prices on the world market, Blue Mountain
practices are mostly manual and frequently           Coffee retails for as much as US$12/lb in Jamaica
contribute to degradation. Productivity in           and fetches higher prices abroad. The
hillside agriculture is already low and is           extraordinary profitability of the product, and its
declining. Although farmers have made                limited growing area arising from the registration of
efforts at soil conservation, especially on          the name as an appellation of origin, has
encouraged farmers to clear land on excessively
their own land, technical support from               steep slopes with thin soils. Although the farmers
agricultural extension agencies has not been         earn one-time income from the sale of timber on
sufficient, so that many of the measures are         clearing, and may have adequate returns in the first
not applied and those which are applied             few years, the soils quickly become eroded and
may be ineffective. Clearing of new plots            depleted of nutrients, and yields begin to fall. Even
at the height of production, yields are commonly
now comes mostly through encroachment                low, as is typical of hillside agriculture in Jamaica.
onto public lands by illegal cultivators, who        This project is now under evaluation for
do not have incentives to conserve the land,         reformulation, with more emphasis to be put on
and who are amongst the poorest and least           increasing the productivity of coffee in the project
educated of the rural population.                    area.
Government incentives are directed toward
the cultivation of annual crops and
2/    FAO/World Bank, proposed Watershed Protection and Small Farmer Development Project, report of
preparation mission, 1991.



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livestock, which are not compatible with hillside agriculture; government efforts to encourage
livestock production by small farmers may have contributed to soil erosion.
3.9         Exacerbating these problems is charcoal production, mostly for household
cooking. Trees are harvested mainly on poorly defended land (including public land and
private land owned by sugar estates or bauxite companies), often clearing hilly land with soil
that is shallow or unsuitable for agriculture. Charcoal is mostly produced on a small scale;
the kilns are dug out of the ground and, although not very efficient, require virtually no
capital investment. Charcoal use nearly tripled in the 1980s, and may have increased
substantially in 1990-92 because of inflation and rising prices for petroleum fuels and other
household purchases. About half the Jamaican population uses only wood fuels (including
firewood) for cooking, although charcoal is also used by higher income groups, as it imparts
a pleasant taste to food and is not smokey.3'         _
3.10        Another cause of increased siltation        Box 3: DEALING WITH CHARCOAL
is poorly planned and executed infrastructure                 DEMAND
development, including the creation of roads,                 In order to preserve forest stocks, the
mines and watercourses that disrupt the natural         energy utility has cross-subsidized kerosene
drainage systems and affect the patterns of             prices, equivalent to about 35% of the end-user
siltation and aquifer recharge. Coastal                 price. In early 1992, this measure reduced the
.vetlands serve as nurseries for many ocean             price of kerosene to J$0.05/MJ, just over half
of the J$O. 10/MJ cost of charcoal--a gap that
species, as well as filtering silt from  sea water.     has widened by 50% over the past two years.
Developments on these wetlands increase the             However, at this price there is a strong
silt levels in the water, cutting photosynthesis       incentive to adulterate gasoline and diesel with
and thereby the productivity of marine                  kerosene, a practice which has been curtailed
ecosystems. Some of these developments                  since 1990 by prohibiting the sale of kerosene
ecosystems. Some   in bulk or through service stations. Instead,
(especially basic infrastructure) have taken            kerosene is now sold through retailers and in
place in the public sector, and are subject to          small drums, increasing the costs of
regulation by the government planning process.          distribution and transactions.
Others, such as the unplanned growth of
seteet on magia lan  onetroug                              reduction is being attempted
squatter settlements on marginal land on               through the Improved Charcoal and Kerosene
floodplains and hillsides, require concerted            Stoves Project, assisted by the World Bank and
government action on the causes of poverty              UNDP. This project is trying to develop more
rather than regulation (see Chapter IV below).          efficient stoves, and potential savings could be
However, some development consists of luxury            in the order of 20-30% of household charcoal
housing and tourist resorts (with their                 consumption. However, if the cost to the
consumer of using charcoal were to be
accompanying access roads) on steep slopes and          reduced, a potential outcome could be one of
erodible coastlines. These should be amenable           higher total charcoal consumption as new users
to zoning regulation and careful environmental          may be induced to enter the market. A related
impact assessment before construction.                  study is currently ongoing, as are experiments
with charcoal made from other sources (such as
agricultural waste).
3/    Survey of Living Conditions, 1989.



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Recommendations: Land Use and Water Resources
3.11       Economic actions. A national policy on land use would greatly assist in the
conservation of watershed lands, by clarifying ownership and thereby providing an internal
conservation incentive for land owners. In addition to making further and quicker progress
on land titling in rural areas, the GOJ would need to review the structure and rates of
property taxes. At present there is a low and uniform property tax structure (J$20 per year
per parcel), with fairly high collection rates (75% of rural households paid property taxes in
1989, according to the Survey of Living Conditions). It may be possible to adjust property
tax rates to improve incentives for land use, including charging higher rates on hillsides and
unsuitable coastal lands. To improve administration of property taxes, the development of a
national fiscal cadastre (registration of all lands on an approximate basis) should be
considered.
3.12       If land use practices are to be sustainably improved, watershed dwellers should
receive some benefit from land conservation. Suggestions include allowing them to directly
sell water to the NWC, with prices related to the quality, quantity and reliability, and to the
cost of conservation efforts. This has the advantage of providing an internal incentive for
conservation measures. However, it might be difficult to administer where large numbers of
small farmers are involved; the Hillside Agriculture Project has shown that the initial
response to incentive schemes may be disappointing until their benefits are proven to farmers
on a close and personal basis.' Another option, perhaps suited for higher-income
infrastructure developers, is to charge "pollution" taxes to activities affecting water regimes.
Both these options would be efficient from an economic point of view, as the prices for
water resources would be related to the NWC's demand for clean and reliable water, and to
the costs incurred or imposed by the person in the watershed area. Other variants include
charging a watershed management fee to consumers, which would then be used to fund
public agencies concerned with watershed management, although this would only enjoy
popular support if results were clearly forthcoming over a short time period.
3.13       The precise level of incentives and charges would have to be set after examining
the costs involved (including NWC's water infrastructure development, obtaining water from
other sources, conservation works, operating the water system, and other relevant costs) and
incorporating other social objectives. The planned privatization of some NWC operations
should facilitate the adoption of a more efficient water purchase and sale pricing policy.
3.14       Significant improvements in agricultural extension will be necessary for farmers
to manage the resources under their control, even if a good incentive system were to be in
place. FAO's surveys showed very rare visits from extension workers, and poor techniques
leading to the deterioration of existing conservation works."' Incentives for the production
4/   The project, supported by USAID, is widely regarded as successful; however, the widespread adoption
of better farming techniques (which also improved yields) took much longer than expected in project
planming.
5/   FAO, op. cit.



- 13 -
of annual crops and livestock on unsuitable land should cease or should be replaced with
incentives for proper management (not simply with incentives for growing tree crops -- see
Box 2). Research and extension should be re-oriented to serve the needs of hillside farmers
rather than continuing to focus on lowland agriculture. The agencies primarily responsible
for extension, the Jamaica Agricultural Society (a private body) and the GOJ's Rural
Agricultural Development Authority, have both been cut significantly in recent years as a
result of budgetary stringency, and now operate in a poor and disjointed manner. The Inter-
Ministerial Committee on the Environment provides a forum for cross-sectoral issues such as
this to be raised by the NRCA for the attention of the relevant Ministry (in this case
Agriculture).
3.15      The GOJ will also have to maintain and enforce charges for the use of
government resources, including leasing and stumpage fees, which should be maintained at
commercial rates and adjusted, where necessary, for inflation. As the production, sale and
transport of charcoal occurs on a very small scale and mostly in the informal economy,
directly taxing any of these activities would seem difficult to accomplish. For the moment,
the maintenance of the cross-subsidy on kerosene would seem warranted.
3.16      Institutions. Among environmental institutions, the institutions for watershed
management seem particularly weak, as the Forestry Department has been split several times
in the past decade, with a below-critical mass of technical staff and enforcement agents in
any one institution. Responsibilities are split between (at least) the Forestry Department,
NWC, the Underground Water Authority (Ministry of Public Utilities), and the Forestry
Industries Development Company (FIDCO), each with its own areas of specialization, and
none knowing exactly what others are doing. Agricultural extension may fall under one or
more additional agencies (see para 3.14). One urgent task facing the NRCA is to clarify and
rationalize these responsibilities so as to be able to develop adequate implementation plans.
Attrition of technical experts from all the agencies has been high, and training and human
resource development needs are significant.
3.17      Investment. A number of hillside agriculture and watershed management
projects are ongoing with assistance from various external donors. Most of these are in a
fairly limited area and do not represent major investments in capital works, although
technical assistance components are significant. The GOJ's efforts in this area have proved
weak, technical and financial resources are spread thin, and public awareness of the problem
is low. In an effort to rationalize use of the Government's scarce technical staff, UNDP's
Hydrology Project coordinates a number of existing projects to maximize the use of technical
expertise within the government.
3.18      Although major investments are planned in agricultural areas, forested areas,
both private and public, are receiving less attention. In the medium term, the GOJ may wish
to consider major projects for forest conservation and management, and watershed
management, in conjunction with interested donors. CIDA is presently providing technical
assistance in forestry, and much technical work has already been done under the auspices of
the Tropical Forestry Action Plan. Without these measures in the watershed areas, other



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water sector investment will be seriously affected as flooding and siltation become
increasingly severe.
Water Pollution
3.19       The problem. Jamaica's needs for reliable water supplies for domestic
consumption, irrigation and industry will continue to grow through the coming decades.
Meanwhile, ground, surface and marine water resources are becoming increasingly polluted;
this is a major hazard to important natural habitats (especially coastal wetlands and coral
reefs) and reduces productivity in agriculture, increases the cost of infrastructure and
potentially threatens human health. There have been a number of localized typhoid outbreaks
(in the Roaring River area) which have heightened public concern over the issue. The
possibility of a cholera outbreak (due to contacts with Latin American countries where the
disease is prevalent), with devastating effects on tourism, also underscores the urgency of
solving the water pollution problem.
3.20      The causes. The single largest source of water pollution is sewage. The
problem is especially acute in urban areas but also poses hazards in other parts of the tourism
corridor. According to the Survey of Living Conditions (1989), publicly-provided sewerage
connections are only available to about 24% of the population, while more than half use pit
latrines (over 70% of the rural public); the remaining quarter use indoor water closets not
linked to the public sewerage system. There is no tertiary treatment of sewage (removing
biological pathogens0'), most of which is pumped into the sea from public or private
sewerage systems. Most sewage reaching the sea (including Kingston harbor) is untreated or
has had only primary treatment. Sewage wastes are mostly biodegradable nutrients; the
process of breaking these down depletes dissolved oxygen in the water and leads to high
concentrations of nitrates and other plant nutrients. Biological pathogens (bacteria, flukes
and amoeba) are also present in sewage waste, although they do not live long independent of
their hosts and do not penetrate ground water. High nitrate concentrations are recorded in
the Liguanea Plains alluvial aquifer near Kingston, and the concentration of nitrates in
Kingston Harbor is extremely high. Several wells have been closed in this area. Although
human health consequences from recreational use have not been observed, this is a potential
problem. Coral reef destruction is already measurable and there is an ever-present possibility
of algae blooms (and consequent fish kills) in and around Kingston Harbor.
3.21       Industrial pollution is the other major source of pollution in Jamaica, including
agro-industry pollution, and marine pollution from near-shore industry and off-shore sources.
Agro-industry, like domestic sewage, produces mainly biodegradable wastes from sugar
production and fruit washing and processing. Other industries produce chemical wastes that
do not degrade or that may be toxic; in particular the minerals industries pose a number of
potential problems. Water in some aquifers has been contaminated by sodium which has
leached out of the red mud lakes where aluminum tailings are disposed (see Box 1). The
6/   This is typical of most countries; except where excessively high concentrations of biological pathogens
exist, tertiary treatment is not considered necessary.



- 15 -
country has been able to place regulatory emphasis on the major industries; smaller
industries, which have not received as close government environmental supervision, are a
growing source of pollution, especially in urban areas.
3.22       The final major source of pollution is agriculture, especially run-off and leaching
of agricultural inputs into ground and surface water. Although the use of toxic pesticides has
been restricted in the past decades, fertilizer and pesticide pollution have been implicated in
falling productivity in marine fisheries. Over-pumping of irrigation water has led to saline
intrusion into coastal aquifers; in some areas, land in the sugar estates has been abandoned as
a result. Saline intrusion has proven difficult to reverse in other countries.
Recommendations: Water Pollution
3.23       Economic actions. There are still a number of public resources whose costs are
subsidized, especially sewerage and garbage services. Recent increases in water rates should
raise water prices to about cost levels, but this must be maintained against inflation. If
sewage coverage and treatment is to be improved the full costs must be returned to the NWC
(or its privatized/commercialized successors), water losses must be reduced and rates of
collection improved. Standards for effluent quality will be set and charges for accepting
polluted water will be related to the cost of cleaning and amount of pollutant produced. This
is the efficient method of charging, as it puts the true cost on the polluter regardless of who
does the treatment. Although probably not practical in the short run, this method should be
applied to small firms, hospitals and public enterprises as well as to large industries.
3.24      To accomplish the most efficient provision of potable water, irrigation water, and
sewerage, it is necessary to charge separately for consumption of each. Furthermore, in
order to rationalize the provision of these services, a rates structure must be evolved with
some differentiated rates for locations where the provision is more expensive. The present
uniform rate structure provides inefficient signals to developers and investors as well as, in
some cases (such as the Mandeville water supply), subsidizing the wealthy while the poor
suffer water shortages.
3.25       A difficult question arises with regard to environmental standards for smaller
firms. At present, unlike in large industries, neither the firm nor the GOJ knows what
pollution may be contained in effluents and leachates. Although the NRCA is requiring
environmental impact assessments (EIA) for all new firms, these costs may pose an
insurmountable hurdle to small-scale entrepreneurs. While standard sources of credit would
count the EIA requirements in the cost of start-up, the GOJ must consider what level of
dampening of formal-sector activity might occur from stringent EIA requirements. It would
therefore be important to have simple, short and clear EIA forms, with perhaps technical
assistance available from the NRCA to help entrepreneurs with their assessments. Subsidized
credit for this purpose would tend, as for other purposes, not to reach the intended
beneficiaries and would impose unnecessary expense on the GOJ. The Private Sector
Organization of Jamaica (PSOJ) may be developing a revolving fund which would provide
credit for EIAs, perhaps to groups of small companies in the same industry.



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3.26      Similarly, tax breaks for industries that install "green" technologies must be
recognized as a subsidy and evaluated accordingly. In particular, tax breaks for importation
of cleaning technology work against local ingenuity and research into ways to produce a
better product more cleanly. The GOJ might provide a more useful service by making
information available on international standards and technologies. Much of this information
is available through UNEP; government efforts could concentrate on dissemination. This
would be of particular service to smaller firms, that might not have existing connection with
international information sources. It would also build on the existing goodwill between
industry and the GOJ and would not penalize those who went green earlier (before subsidies
were granted). Acceptable environmental standards are increasingly important in trade; trade
arrangements with major importing countries might be jeopardized if environmental standards
are not observed. Also, foreign consumer interest in Jamaican products might be enhanced if
the products and/or the country had a good environmental reputation. The NRCA is
presently considering a program of public recognition for firms or products that are
environmentally friendly. The exact form of the recognition is not yet decided, but it may
consist of public awards, stamps of approval or other positive recognition. This would
provide an incentive for companies through advertising, and would result in better
information dissemination on the methods and experiences of Jamaican companies.
3.27      However, small firms and the informal sector are at present difficult for the
NRCA or any other government agency to interact with. Over the short run, it would be
useful to identify which small-scale activities are major polluters and their inputs and outputs.
Acknowledging that regulation will be ineffective and expensive, the best method of reducing
this pollution would be to tax inputs and outputs. Again, the level of this taxation must be
balanced against the cost of pushing certain small-scale enterprises out of business. In all
cases, it is important to note that someone in Jamaica pays or will eventually pay for the
environmental costs of pollution through increased costs of health care, water treatment,
social services etc.; recognizing and apportioning the cost is the role of government.
3.28      Institutional strengthening. Existing monitoring and enforcement agencies do
have powers and abilities to deal with large firms. Although legislated fines are small in
many cases, agencies have other recourse, including moral suasion and civil suits for
damages by affected persons. With assistance from the IDB, the University of the West
Indies (UWI) is developing technical capabilities for monitoring environmental quality in the
air as well as the water, so the NRCA will be in a position to identify major problems and
their sources. This monitoring and enforcement capability will be strengthened as the agency
takes on its full complement of technical staff. Privatized public enterprises can therefore
expect that they will be monitored and will be among the likely targets of enforcement
activities. In the development of regulation, the NRCA is putting the onus on the company
to monitor its environmental situation, and will only make spot checks. This relieves the
NRCA of heavy technical duties.
3.29      Investment. The first phase of a study assisted by the World Bank and CIDA,
defining the technical components of a decade-long clean-up effort for Kingston Harbor has
just been completed. The indications are clear that the priority lies with making the existing
sewerage system work and providing treatment facilities. Another, much cheaper, priority is



- 17 -
to reduce the solid waste currently reaching the harbor by requiring contractors to clean
drainage gullies as well as streets (this was previously the case but has been suspended).
Implementing both options should greatly reduce biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) loading
in the harbor, and would postpone the need for additional investment in harbor clean-up for
several years. Further expansion of sewage connections is not seen as urgent, with the
possible exception of areas of clay soil around Spanish Town.
3.30      The World Bank will assist the Government with the proposed Water and
Sanitation Project, which will develop an open-pond treatment system in the western part of
the KMA. Technical details are yet to be finalized; options include using treated effluent as
irrigation water in the St. Catherine plain (the open ponds do not smell and would not pose a
hazard to housing developments). In addition to recharging aquifers and freeing other water
supplies for industrial and domestic use, this option has a number of advantages. It would
capitalize on the layout of the existing sewerage infrastructure, and would save foreign
exchange as the effluent is high in plant nutrients and would fertilize crops. It would also
allow the sedimentation of heavy metals and other toxins, reducing the need for significant
toxic and hazardous waste disposal activities in the next couple of decades. It has low
maintenance costs and few moving parts, although there would be costs of pumping, and
tertiary treatment might be necessary for the project to be acceptable to the public.
3.31      Water supply and sewerage investments are also under way in the North Coast
area, where further tourist development is constrained unless sewerage connection and
treatment is greatly improved. The North Coast Development Project, supported by USAID
and OECF, is a comprehensive approach to water and sanitation issues in the area. Without
continued investment in sewage treatment and water supply infrastructure and maintenance,
one cannot exaggerate the threat to an economic growth strategy based on tourism.
IV. POVERTY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
4.1       The problem. Although many environmental problems are general in their
effects, others have more intense local results. As in many other countries, the poor in
Jamaica bear more of the immediate pressures of environmental degradation. They are least
likely to be served with public water, sewerage and garbage services, tend to live in crowded
conditions where indoor air pollution is high, and may live in close proximity to disposal
sites for solid and hazardous waste. Urban slums are unplanned and usually occupied by
squatters; they are frequently built on unsuitable land subject to flooding or landslips.
Problems that are not major on a national scale are acute in slums, and the poor are not able
to escape these areas.
4.2       In addition, poverty is a cause of environmental degradation, as the poor must
meet their urgent survival needs. This is particularly true in hillside agriculture, artisanal
fisheries and settlement of marginal lands in forests, coasts and floodplains. It is also true in
the cities, where informal sector enterprises operate without the benefit of health, safety or
environmental regulations. The social tensions engendered by continued or worsening
poverty have negative effects on Jamaica's ability to attract long-term investment (domestic



- 18 -
or foreign) and may serve to concentrate investment in exclusive enclaves, thus limiting the
impact of much-needed investment activities.
4.3         The causes. Jamaica's low           Box 4: COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTAL
economic growth (and several years of                 ACTIVITIES
negative growth in the early 1980s),                  The Kingston Restoration Company (KRC)
recently accompanied by inflation and           is an NGO that is restoring Kingston's historic
falling real wages, have created poverty        waterfront area. Part of its activity is community
while reducing the Government's ability to      organization and development, under which KRC
deal with it. Urban employment                  has worked with local youth to identify
environmental problems in the community and to
opportunities and higher wages have created     start to address them. Identified problems include
growing shanty towns in urban areas, on the    litter, smelly water from overflowing sewage lines,
North Coast as well as in the KMA, with a       noise pollution and garbage dumps in empty lots.
consequent increase in social problems. In
addition Kingston includes areas of urban             The youth have taken up a weekly project to
remove trash from the waterfront. The group is
decay in the heart of the city. About           now forming a "watchdog" committee, which will
700,000 people in Jamaica (one-third of the     alert local businesses and government agencies if
population) live beneath the poverty line.      they are polluting in their area; the press might be
notified as well.
4.4        The GOJ has a long tradition of
concern for poverty and has been relatively
successful in covering basic needs for health care, education and nutrition despite adverse
economic circumstances. However, the GOJ has been unable to undertake critical
infrastructure investments in urban areas, exposing the poor to environmental hazards arising
from inadequate sanitation and waste disposal. In addition, the GOJ has been unable to
reduce the pressure on natural resources caused by poverty.
Recommendations
4.5        Economic actions. It is important to take interim measures that improve the
local environmental quality in low-income areas. One of the most powerful ways to do this
is to give the people incentives to conserve and upgrade their surroundings; this can be done
by improving the security of their tenure. As many poor communities, both rural and urban,
consist largely of squatters, the GOJ must take rapid action to regularize landholding.
Although land titling projects are on-going in rural areas, progress has been slow. Urban
squatting has not yet been addressed in any concrete policy, although the problem has been
discussed under the land policy committee, and action is expected. No significant gains can
be expected from other actions, whether incentives, regulation or investment, unless people
feel sufficiently secure to make decisions for the longer term. A land tenure policy that
clearly spells out land settlement rights would also assist government investment decisions, as
the GOJ would have a realistic idea of the population density and uses of land.
4.6        Providing information to poor communities is another important interim measure.
This includes information on housing construction, pit latrine design, and other minimally
acceptable infrastructure standards. These standards are under development and will assist in
improving existing structures pending major infrastructure investments. This activity would



- 19 -
be supported by strategic investments (see below) and incentives for private sector
involvement and development of "blighted areas."
4.7       Institutional strengthening. Although the NRCA is not the major entity involved
in combating poverty, it should see poverty alleviation as part of its role and should function
as an environmental watchdog for the poor, ensuring that poor communities are not unfairly
targeted for noxious or toxic waste disposal, directing infrastructure investments toward
needy communities, coordinating with NGOs, and disseminating information. Close liaison
with the staff of the Human Resources Development Programme and other government
agencies responsible for poverty reduction and economic development should be part of the
NRCA's function.
4.8       Investment. The problem of poverty will obviously not be solved in short order.
However, investments in water and sanitation, as well as health care and education, can have
dramatic effects on the quality of life of the poorest groups of the public. The planned
investments in sanitation infrastructure should ensure that the poorest areas of the KMA
(which are also the most densely populated) are properly served. The World Bank and
donors will continue their support for the GOJ's Human Resources Development Programme.
World Bank support will continue for the further development of trade, and other
government restructuring, providing more opportunities for growth in the Jamaican economy.
4.9       In the Medium Term Policy Framework, the GOJ stated its intention to
undertake a Community Environment Project, which might attract significant external
assistance if it focused on poverty and environment issues. Some areas for possible
consideration for the GOJ might be: slum upgrading in the KMA; rapid advances on the land
tenure program (including in urban areas); small-scale recycling technologies and incentives;
and financing, marketing and distribution support to micro-enterprises. Creative cooperation
with NGOs and community groups could support the development and implementation of
such a project.
V. OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Disaster Preparedness
5.1       Jamaica's susceptibility to natural disasters, including hurricanes, flooding and
earthquakes, increases the importance of environmental management. Most businesses,
export agriculture and middle- and upper-income housing are insured in Jamaica's well-
developed financial markets. The prevalence and coverage of insurance has risen after the
lesson of Hurricane Gilbert, but many smaller farms and poorer housing areas remain
uninsurable due to their flimsy construction and/or dangerous location. In addition to these
lower-income groups, tourist developments are often built close to the sea on land prone to
flooding, storm surge, and wind and wave erosion. The uninsurability of these developments
results in public subsidies when they are later demolished in a disaster. Other areas that may
be impossible to insure include coral reef resources (which were badly damaged in Hurricane
Gilbert but have largely recovered), beaches and shorelines, and natural forests, despite their
high value in the national economy.



- 20 -
5.2        Disaster preparedness is well-developed, and is coordinated through UNDP in
Kingston. A geographical information system keeps track of schools and other evacuation
centers throughout the country. Weather information comes from the U.S. Coast Guard,
which provides information at intervals throughout the day. There are monthly meetings of
the agencies involved in disaster preparedness (government and external) to coordinate roles
and communications.
National Parks and Protected Areas
5.3        Jamaica opened its first national park, the Montego Bay Marine Park, in July
1992, within the framework of the Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife protocol of UNEP,
which takes a regional approach to the preservation of species. This is the first of a series of
national parks, which will be followed in 1993 with the Blue Mountain National Park, once
agreement has been reached with private owners of land in the proposed park area. The
establishment of the parks is supported by USAID, and by the Nature Conservancy (an
international NGO); several additional parks are planned for the coming decade. The NRCA
has the responsibility of managing the parks, but is likely to delegate this responsibility to
local NGOs and community groups. Mechanisms are not yet worked out for how the parks
will raise funds, but they are expected to charge fees for services rather than for entry. The
existence of the parks, and their use by the public, will serve to strengthen public interest in
and commitment to environmental issues. In addition, the tourist industry is starting to
develop eco-tourism as a new product in Jamaica, and this activity should support the firm
establishment of the national parks system and the development of other protected areas.
Biodiversity
Box 5: SELF-DESTRUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT
5.4        Jamaica has an unusually high            The 'Glistening Waters" lagoon in
level of biodiversity, with more than a       Falmouth was identified as a possible major tourist
quarter of its 3,300 plant species found      attraction due to its unusual bioluminescence.
nowhere else, and three quarters of its       A planned tourist resort (later abandoned) drained
frogs, toads and lizards. The preservation    a mangrove swamp at the head of the bay. The
of this biodiversity should form part of the  altered drainage patterns resulted in the
disappearance of the glistening character, which
environmental agenda. Under its Caribbean     now appears only rarely.
Environmental Program, UNEP provides
technical assistance and a regional approach
that attempts to coordinate the efforts of the countries in the Caribbean in the preservation of
unique habitats. The other activities already under way or recommended in this paper have
positive effects on the maintenance of biodiversity. However, additional efforts may be
required in localized areas to save a particular habitat or ecosystem.
Overuse of Open Access Resources
5.5        Some natural resources by their very nature are openly accessible to all comers.
These include the beaches and the seas. It is impossible to assign a clear right to an



- 21 -
anyone else from doing so. The beaches and the fisheries in Jamaica have suffered from this
problem, despite good legislation by the GOJ. Sand mining, although illegal, continues to
create erosion problems. Fisheries productivity has been declining and the number of
fishermen has increased over the past two decades despite licensing and regulation by the
GOJ. Further efforts at regulation and enforcement, including pricing of permits at levels
that impart a genuine cost to natural resource exploitation, are the only practical way to
reduce the pressure on these resources. However, this will not be easy in the budget-
constrained near future.
Solid and Hazardous Waste
5.6       In addition to sewage, solid waste is another major source of biodegradable
waste. Solid waste also includes non-biodegradable elements, such as glass, building
materials, plastics and other permanent objects. At present, solid waste collection in urban
areas is fairly well organized by the local authorities' Departments of Parks and Markets,
with most services provided by private sector contractors. Soft drinks are, for the most part,
sold in glass bottles that are recycled. The noticeable problem in the KMA is the failure of
Metropolitan Parks and Markets to require garbage contractors to clean drainage gullies as
well as streets (see section on water pollution, above), although garbage collection in certain
areas is also inadequate. For ultimate disposal, however, appropriate landfills do not exist,
and waste is deposited in dumps and many other unsuitable sites, including empty lots and in
the sea. There are no facilities on the island specifically for the disposal of hazardous and
toxic waste, which is presently exported or disposed of in an ad-hoc manner or in ordinary
dumps, sewerage systems or in the sea. With assistance from the IDB, the GOJ is planning
a major solid waste management project, and the GOJ has also received assistance from
CIDA in developing regulations for hazardous and toxic waste.
Jamaica's Participation in International Environmental Efforts
5.7       Jamaica is signatory to a number of important international environmental
efforts, in particular the MARPOL 73/78 convention on marine pollution, which designates
the Caribbean as a special area for reduction activities. The World Bank, together with
UNEP and UNDP, is coordinating a regional effort to reduce solid waste pollution, starting
with ship-generated wastes. With support from the Global Environmental Facility (GEF),
the countries of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) have started the
development of port reception facilities for ship-generated waste. Jamaica is now considering
how to implement its participation in this regional effort. Similarly, Jamaica is signatory to
(but has not ratified) the Montreal Protocol, which aims to reduce chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) in the atmosphere. Although Jamaica is not a producer nor a major consumer of
CFCs, air conditioning and refrigerating units now in use contain CFCs that will have to be
replaced. Plans for phasing out the use of CFCs and disposing of existing CFCs will have to
be included in longer-term environmental planning.



- 22 -
Energy Demand Management
5.8       The use of energy in Jamaica, although quite low by world standards (and falling
through the 1980s) remains a major source of domestic and commercial spending, a major
foreign exchange need and a contributor to local and global pollution. Demand management
must therefore form part of the environmental and economic strategy of the GOJ. The GOJ
has recently concluded an agreement with the GEF to develop a demand management
strategy that would include the production and dissemination of energy-saving techniques for
domestic and commercial energy uses, particularly for electricity and oil.
Zoning
5.9       Zoning in urban areas is the responsibility of local governments, with the
clearance of the Department of Town Planning required for larger developments or major
changes in zoning regulations. As part of the permit process, NRCA representatives evaluate
the environmental soundness of the proposal. However, outside the city limits, no agency is
clearly responsible for zoning; this means that for many building proposals there is no
physical planning management. The NRCA has the situation under consideration, and
improvements in the zoning administration are also under study by the land policy
committee. The GOJ must pay particular attention to the regulation of tourist developments,
especially along the coast. The pressure on environmental resources (including the sea,
reefs, beaches, forests, and public services such as water, energy and sewerage) must not be
allowed to overcome the natural beauty that attracts tourists in the first place.
Mitigation of Existing Pollution Sites
5.10      Although most of government policy must concentrate on reducing the further
production of pollution, some areas are already polluted and might require prompt action to
avoid further degradation. For instance, some mitigation may be needed to avert further
leaching from existing red mud lakes or urban dump sites. As the legal framework becomes
established, it will become clear who must pay for this clean up, as well as who will do it
and in what time frame. As with impact assessments, the cost of clean-up in small-scale
industries would have to be carefully apportioned. Such activities would form part of the
GOJ's longer-term agenda.
Air Pollution
5.11      Air pollution, especially in Kingston, may become a problem in the future as the
number of cars and industries in the area increases. Early indications are that air quality is
acceptable, although in certain localized times and areas (such as near the Riverton dump
site, especially during the monthly burning of the dump) standards are certainly contravened.
At present, air quality is monitored under the UWI's Environmental Monitoring Project
(supported by iDB technical assistance grants), and a permanent monitoring system will be in
place shortly. Unleaded gasoline is widely available, and large-scale industries have not been
implicated as major polluters. However, small-scale industry and public enterprises and
facilities (such as hospitals) have not been the target of close monitoring. Indoor air



- 23 -
pollution is not being monitored and is expected to be a problem given the high consumption
of smokey fuels such as charcoal and kerosene. Monitoring, regulation and enforcement of
air quality standards is shared between the Environmental Control Division (ECD) of the
Ministry of Health and the UWI, under the NRCA's overall responsibility.
Noise Pollution
5.12      Noise pollution has been identified as a problem in urban areas, and in rural
areas near bauxite mines (see Boxes 1 and 4). In urban areas, the pollution arises mainly
from loudspeakers in neighborhood bars and music stores. Safe standards for noise have not
yet been developed and noise levels are not monitored.
VI. SUMMARY RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1       Putting the Incentive Regime to Work. The maximum mileage from the
country's scarce resources can be attained by putting the incentive regime to work, in any
areas where economic tools (taxes, subsidies, information, ownership and prices) can be
brought to bear -- almost all, that is. Economic tools can supplement and complement
regulations. External support may be available to assist in the development and application
of these tools, drawing on the experiences of other countries. In this connection, areas for
early attention include: issuance of general policies for land and water; adjustments in the
water rates regime to allow some discrimination for services used; and increases in the sale
prices of public resources to commercial rates and the maintenance of those prices
(stumpage, land). Areas for longer-term research and application include: charging efficient
rates for water consumption, sewerage and irrigation; taxing water polluters; taxing inputs
and outputs of highly polluting small-scale industries; improving the land tenure regime and
property tax system; improving agricultural research and extension services; and improving
technical support to industry, especially small-scale industry.
6.2       Concentrating on Realizable Accomplishments. In order for the NRCA to fulfill
its mandate, it is important to establish the credibility of the agency. In difficult economic
times and as a new organization with relatively few staff, it is therefore imperative to choose
a few goals that are realizable in the short term, and concentrate on building capacity for
longer-term and more complex tasks. Although all the partners involved in the country's
economic development are keen to see early action on a number of fronts, all agencies,
including external donors, should focus resources in one or two priority areas. The broad
areas identified in this paper as key priorities are land use and water pollution.
6.3       Coordination of policies and resources should be an immediate priority for the
NRCA, with the possible reduction or elimination of some activities (whether foreign-funded
or not). It is hoped that the National Environmental Action Plan will contain a clear
statement of the GOJ's priorities, and that these priorities will be supported by the donor
community. One area of particular concern is monitoring and enforcement; the need to set
priorities and concentrate efforts on limited achievable goals is especially important in the
short term. Priority should be placed on visible achievements, for instance, stopping a
publicly-known source of pollution.



- 24 -
Table 2: MATRIX OF POLICY AND INVESTMENT RECOMMENDATIONS
Issue/Area             government project(s)   Short-term policy       Long-term poLicy         Investments required
targetimg the problem    recommendations        recommendations
ENVIRONMENTAL    0 land titling                0 issue land policy     * improve agricultural   * major watershed
MANAGEMENT:            0 Blue Mountain            document                extension                protection works
Land Use and          Coffee development   * maintain               0 reward farmers for        and management
Water Resources     0 hillside agriculture     commercial rates        quality/quantity of      efforts
projects                for use of              water through         * Forestry
* national parks          Government land          purchase mechanism       Conservation and
* forestry and             (lease and stumpage   * charge pollution         Management Project
hydrology TA            charges)                taxes to developers      needed in medium
projects                                        affecting water          term
regime
* review system of
property taxes
* strengthen forestry
department
Water Pollution     0 Kingston Harbor       0 re-introduce          0 charge efficient       0 wastewater
clean-up study          drainage gully          prices for water,        treatment in
* North Coast             cleaning to              sewage and garbage       Kingston; some
Development             contracts for solid     services                 further sewerage
Project                 waste collection in  * institute water           development
Kingston                pollution taxes
* allow for             0 provide technical
differentiated rates    support and
for water services      information to the
private sector
POVERTY AND            0 Human Resources       0 accelerate            0 control polluting      0 urban community
THE                      Development              regularization of       activities of small-     environmental
ENVIRONMENT              Programme covers         land tenure for         scale enterprises        projects; proposed
basic needs             urban and rural         through taxes and        World Bank Urban
squatters               economic incentives      Environmental
* ensure minimally                                 Project; encourage
acceptable                                       panicipation of
infrastructure in                                grant providing
urban slums,                                     agencies
including through
information
dissemination
GENERAL                * TA for NRCA           0 issue National        0 beef up enforcement
ENVIRONMENTAL                                     Environmental           and monitoring
INSTITUTIONS                                      Action Plan             capabilities of
AND AGENCIES                                   * clarify responsi-        NRCA and agencies
bilities between        to which it delegates
agencies for key     * disseminate
areas, including        information to
zoning and water        farmers and firms
management              on environmental
* improve economic        standards and
skills at NRCA;         technologies both
environmental skills    domestic and
at MOF and PIOJ         foreign



- 25 -
6.4       Similarly, the number of agencies involved in the environment is large, their
mandates overlap, and the total number of technical staff is small. It is therefore crucial for
the GOJ to, in the short term, concentrate resources on those institutions that serve agreed
priority areas. In the longer term, the GOJ might wish to consider consolidation of some of
these agencies.
6.5       Concentrating Investment in Crucial Areas. The task of making sure that
projects are coordinated and complementary to one another will be an important function of
the NRCA. Given the fiscal constraints, investment activities need to concentrate on critical
areas agreed on within the GOJ. At the same time, planning for longer term activities must
take place. Investments in water infrastructure and watershed protection would be the most
important in the short term. The coordination of externally-funded projects within the
priority framework will also fall on the NRCA; this function would include ensuring that
externally-funded projects are compatible with the overall action plan and with government
priorities in the environment.
6.6       Capitalizing on Private Sector Efforts. The private sector can be tapped as a
source of information, investment and even funding for environmental programs. In return,
the NRCA should clearly identify parties and agencies responsible for private sector
interaction. It should also identify an interface between itself and the private sector, and
should provide to the business community information on Jamaican and foreign standards and
regulations, as well as information on its own activities. Simplifying and streamlining
bureaucratic requirements (such as environmental impact assessments, planning permits, etc.)
would assist the private sector in its environment-related activities.
6.7       Developing Longer-term Capabilities. Although restricting itself at present to a
few priority areas, the NRCA must clearly develop capabilities for longer-term management
of the environment. External technical assistance should recognize these longer-term goals
as well as short-term objectives. The development of this capability in the GOJ should
include economic expertise in the NRCA, and environmental expertise in the Ministry of
Finance and the Planning Institute of Jamaica. With both economic and environmental
agencies having the capacity to share analysis and policy response, environmental aspects can
be fully incorporated into the national development agenda.



- 26 -
ANNEX I
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Basic Public Policy Documents
Jamaica National Environmental Action Plan (draft)
Jamaica National Report on the Environment and Development (UNCED submission),
1992
CARICOM Regional Environmental Programme
Key Surveys of Technical Issues
Jamaica Country Environmental Profile, NRCD and USAID, 1987
Watershed Protection and Small Farmer Development Project, Preparation mission
report, FAO/World Bank, 1991
Survey of Living Conditions, STATIN, Govt. of Jamaica, 1989
Tropical Forestry Action Plan, 1990
World Bank Documents
Project and lending documents for:
Water Supply and Sewerage Technical Assistance and Rehabilitation Project (on-
going)
Second Sugar Rehabilitation Project (on-going)
Second Trade and Finance Adjustment Loan (on-going)
Environmental Waste Pollution Control Study for Kingston Harbor, World
Bank/CIDA
Energy Sector Management and Planning Study (ESMAP), World Bank/UNDP,
1991
Other Policy Documents
World Development Report, World Bank, 1992
Handbook and Guidelines for Environmental Management and Sustainable
Development, UNDP, 1992
Sustainable Development: Changing Productivity Patterns, Social Equity and the
Environment, UN-ECLAC, 1991
Other Strategy and Project Documents
Jamaica Environmental Strategy: A review of opportunities for Canadian assistance in
environmental management, CIDA, 1989
Jamaica Environmental Strategy, USAID, 1991
North Coast Development Support, Project Paper, 1991



- 27 -
ANNEX II
MAJOR ACTIVITIES WITH EXTERNAL SUPPORT
Activity                                                               Agencies
Land use                Hillside Agriculture Project                                            USAID
PARC Project; DEMO Project (national parks and protected areas projects,    USAID
include protection for watershed areas).*
Forestry TA Project                                                    UNDP
Hydrology TA Project                                                   UNDP
Land Titling Project                                                    IDB
Hillside Farmers Support Project                                       IFAD/Netherlands
Trees for Tomorrow Project for forestry/watershed management            CIDA
Water Pollution         Kingston Harbor study                                                   World Bank/CIDA
Solid Waste Management Project (proposed)                              IDB
North Coast Development Project (water and sanitation)                 USAID/OECF
(Japan)
KMA Water and Sanitation Project (proposed)                            World Bank
Poverty                 Human Resources Development Programme (GOJ's prioritized program for    World
social sectors investment and development)                             Bank/Netherlands
Community Environmental Development Project (proposed)                 World Bank/others
Other maior initiatives    Proposed Second Trade and Finance Sector Adjustment Loan*            World Bank/IDB
Enterprise for the Americas Initiative (conversion of PL480 debt into fund  USAID
for environmental activities primarily by NGOs and local community
organizations)
Green Fund (creation of a fund for support for environmental activities  CIDA
primarily by NGOs)
Number of regionally-focused initiatives, including TA to reduce land-based    UNEP
sources of marine pollution
Energy Demand Management Project                                       GEF (World
Bank/UNDP/UNEP)
Development of regulations in support of the NRCA*                     CIDA
* includes institutional support for the NRCA






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CU.A D- MINICAN                                                                                                         LAND CLASSIFICATION
CUBA                          W llA
REPUBLIC
HAITI .                                                                                                                                   URBAN AND BUILT-UP AREAS
>  --     =  ~ -   -            Puerto                                                                                                      C       PASTURE AND GRASSLANDS
- - ~         ~        ~~~ ~Rico                                                                                                   ' .FRS
BELIZE                        JAMAICA                                                                                                                                               FOREST
BRUSH
_ _DURAS                                                                                                                                                                       WETLANDS
10N D U RAS   -O- L: _ .   OTHERS
.2 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CROPS.
NICARA.                                                                                                                                                                             PERENNIALS
NICARAGUA                         COLOMBIA                       -                                               f                                                                  ANNUALS
__  ;   4                                                                                             OFIX~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~AED AGRICULTURE
COSTA RICA                            *   VENEZUELA
*    NATIONAL CAPITAL
78-00.                                                                                                                                           O    SELECTED TOWNS
Falmouth                                                                                              -       MAJOR ROADS                   18 3L
Montego Bo                                          ,k_<>- g-< ~, ,__ St. Ann's                                                                          RIVERS
>  Bay                                                       -   ARISH BOUNDARIES
Av,                       ~~~~~~~~cho Rios                                --INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES
NO    ER   (                                              -                       ;                                                   Port Ma rio          SOURCE~ Jonuoicon Mi _ *- oPf Agm.h.r., 1987.
'5   0        0O        20        30         J0        50 
E~~ I  W(
. ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .                                                                     /? .
.5   0              10              20               30
78-00                                                 77-30                                                 77 00                                                  76O30'
FEBRUARY 19'









=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~                                                                   m 
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JAMAICA: ECONOMIC ISSUES
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