56597 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting This publication has been prepared by a team consisting of Dr. Abdelaziz Lagnaoui (Senior Environmental Specialist), Dr. Susmita Dasgupta (Lead Environmental Economist), Mr. Craig Meisner (Environmental Economist) and Mr. Brian Blankespoor (Environmental Specialist). We are thankful to Mr. Walid Dhouibi, National Coordinator, Africa Stockpiles Project and Mr. Hassine Bensalah, Consultant, Africa Stockpiles Project-Tunisia for their valuable guidance. We are grateful to Ms. Norma Adams for editorial help; and to Ms. Mary Lagnaoui for final copyediting and proofreading. We would also like to extend our special thanks to Ms. Polly Means for her help with the pictures. Financial support for the preparation of this document has been provided by the Development Research Group: Environment and Energy Team and the GEF Coordination Unit -- Environment Department of the World Bank. © 2010 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433, U.S.A. Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org All rights reserved. August 2010 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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Cover images: middle by Abdelaziz Lagnaoui; top and bottom from Shutterstock Images, LLC; back- ground graphic by Brian Blankespoor Images in text: Shutterstock Images, LLC, except where otherwise noted Cover and text design: Jim Cantrell Maps produced by Brian Blankespoor, Development Research Group ­ Environment and Energy Team, unless otherwise indicated. All dollars are U.S. dollars unless otherwise indicated. Contents Sec t i o n 1 ov erv i e w 7 international commitment to Minimize risk 8 role of the GeF and world Bank 9 need for Prioritized interventions 12 Sec t i o n 2 r iSk A SSe SSM en t M e t h o d Fo r Pr i o r i t y-Se t t i n G 15 characterize chemicals 15 Assign hazard indicators 16 overlay Geo-referenced Population or environmental data 19 identify hot Spots for intervention 22 Sec t i o n 3 Se t t i n G cle An uP Pr i o r i t i e S i n t un iSiA 23 hot Spots -- hazards to Public health 24 hot Spots -- hazards to ecoregions and Biodiversity 26 what was learned 31 3 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides Sec t i o n 4 cle An uP An d SAFeGuAr d i n G h i G h li G h t S i n AFr i c A 33 tunisia 33 tanzania 34 Mali 35 ethiopia 36 Sec t i o n 5 r edu ci n G t h e r iSk 37 en d n ot e S 39 B i B li o G r APh y 41 B oxe S 1 the complexity of obsolete pesticides 8 2 tackling PoPs in tajikistan 11 3 African Stockpiles Programme 12 4 tunisia's environmental wealth 27 Fi Gur e S 1 world Bank current portfolio of projects to eliminate obsolete pesticides 10 2 Pesticide storage sites in tunisia 24 3 density of children and organophosphates and carbamates 25 4 Population density and distribution of human ld50-weighted ingredients 26 5 Stockpiles of herbicides in the critical/endangered Mediterranean woodlands and forest 27 6 Potential threat to Falco cherrug 28 7 ichkeul national Park and wildlife species at risk 29 8 relative toxicity of chemicals stockpiled near ichkeul national Park 30 9 the African continent has some 50,000 tons of obsolete pesticides 34 4 A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting tAB le S 1 Sample stockpile volume of active ingredients 17 2 who ranking of sample stocks of active ingredients 18 3 Active ingredient volume by chemical class and end use 18 4 ld50-weighted volume by hazard range for humans 20 5 Active ingredient intensity for three sample districts by vulnerable population segment 21 5 Abdelaziz Lagnaoui An old DDT storage facility in the Regional Hospital of Menzel Bourguiba, Tunisia. seCtion 1 Ov erv i e w O bsolete pesticide stocks and not secured. Over time, containers have accumulated in most and packages deteriorate, and spills and of the world's developing leaks often find their way into surface countries and economies in transition waters from runoff or into groundwater in recent decades. International from leaching through soil, resulting organizations estimate that some in environmental contamination and 500,000 tons are stockpiled worldwide, human exposure (World Bank 2002). about half of which are located in countries of the former Soviet Union. In many countries, storage sites once Across the African continent, obsolete located far from residential areas are stocks total about 50,000 tons, while now surrounded by fast-growing urban Latin America has at least 30,000 tons communities. Where pesticides are (box 1). stored in the open, families that live and work in the vicinity may suffer Training and resources to safely acute or chronic exposure. Long- manage pesticide use, storage, and term exposure has been linked to a destruction are often lacking in such range of adverse health effects, from countries, particularly at remote storage problems of the nervous, immune, sites. Many warehouses are dilapidated reproductive, and endocrine systems 7 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides Box 1 The complexity of obsolete pesticides the Food and Agriculture organization of the united nations (FAo) defines obsolete pesticides as all pesticide products not in current use because they have been banned, have deteriorated or are damaged, have passed their expiration date, cannot be used for any other reason, or are not wanted by the current owner. obsolete pesticides are chemically complex, given that some 1,000 active ingredients in many thousands of formulations are used to manufacture pesticides around the world. More than 20 percent of obsolete stocks consist of Persistent organic Pollutants (PoPs): chlorinated hydrocarbons (organochlorines) that persist in the environment; bioaccumulate in humans, wildlife, and fish; and are highly toxic. in addition to PoPs, obsolete stocks typically include organophosphates (less persistent yet more toxic than PoPs), carbamates and synthetic pyrethroid insecticides, fungicides and herbicides, and even botanical and microbial groups. the key reasons obsolete pesticides have accumulated in developing countries are: · product bans, · inadequate storage and poor stock management, · unsuitable products or packaging, · donation or purchase in excess of requirements, · lack of coordination between donor agencies, and · commercial interests of private sector and hidden factors. Sources: FAo (1995a, 1995b, 1996); world Bank (2002). and various types of birth defects to around the world and protecting injury of specific organs of the body humans and the environment and cancer. Nearby such storage sites, from further buildup. In 1998, a one may find livestock grazing and multilateral treaty known as the edible crops growing on land irrigated Rotterdam Convention was adopted with contaminated water also used for to promote shared responsibilities in drinking (World Bank 2002). preventing unwanted importation of extremely hazardous pesticides and other chemicals into developing International Commitment to countries. The following year, the Minimize Risk Basel Convention was opened for signature. This international treaty The international community is was designed to prevent the transfer committed to eliminating obsolete of hazardous waste from developed pesticide stocks in developing regions to less developed countries and to 8 A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting assist developing countries in devising The World Bank, a GEF-implementing environmentally sound management agency, has decades of project of hazardous waste to avoid shipment experience across a variety of sectors across borders. and extensive technical knowledge involving the sound management In 2001, the Stockholm Convention of chemicals. The Bank is helping on Persistent Organic Pollutants client countries throughout the world (POPs) was adopted to help eliminate achieve GEF-supported objectives. An or severely restrict the production of ongoing focus is the safe management, POPs chemicals. Under the Stockholm reduction, and elimination of POPs Convention, 12 POPs became the stockpiles. Analytical studies that focus of international action, nine of include health monitoring have helped which are pesticides.1 Operational China, Mexico, and Vietnam design requirements for signatory parties successful interventions to reduce include the development of National the adverse effects of pesticides. Implementation Plans (NIPs), which Through its safeguarding policies, the provide baseline information about Bank works to reduce the impact of POPs in a given country (e.g., stocks; pesticides and other chemicals in its emission sources; and institutional, country work programs. policy, and regulatory capacity) (World Bank 2009). The Bank's current portfolio of projects to eliminate obsolete pesticides focuses on Europe and Central Asia (ECA) and Role of the GEF and World Africa (figure 1). In the ECA region, Bank project lending and technical assistance center mainly on POPs pesticides. In Recognizing that developing countries Azerbaijan and the other Caspian and economies in transition would states (Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and require capacity building to develop Turkmenistan), the Bank is providing and address the priorities of their NIPs, technical assistance to address the the Stockholm Convention designated high-priority POPs problem identified the World Bank's Global Environment by the Caspian Environment Program. Facility (GEF) as its interim financial In Azerbaijan, the focus is on training mechanism. To date, the GEF has and capacity building in inventory and provided some 136 countries funding options for safe collection and disposal. for developing NIPs that describe how A five-year project in Moldova, they will meet their obligations under with US$12.6 in total funding, has the Stockholm Convention. focused on stockpiles management 9 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides Figure 1 World Bank current portfolio of projects to eliminate obsolete pesticides Bank project Active Non engaged Data source: Active projects, world Bank. and destruction, development of a million of funding is provided by the regulatory framework, and institutional GEF (box 3). strengthening. Consistent with completed GEF-funded NIPs, the ASP field operations comprise four Bank plans to finance the Belarus steps: government's solid waste management · Training. Local personnel are agenda and has proposed a risk- trained to correctly identify, safely reduction project in Tajikistan that handle, repack, label, store, and includes strengthening of POPs secure obsolete pesticides. · Inventory.Trained personnel legislation and regional information conduct a detailed national dissemination (box 2). inventory of public stocks and their locations; the collected In Africa, the Bank is administering information is stored in the US$60 million in funds to support Pesticide Stock Management the first phase of the Africa Stockpiles System (PSMS), a web-based Programme (ASP). This continent- application developed by FAO wide initiative aims to safely eliminate used to record, monitor, and obsolete pesticide stocks from African manage stocks of pesticides, countries and build capacity to prevent including obsoletes. The data further buildup. The first phase of the collected is used to inform ASP was approved by the World Bank environmental risk assessments Board, GEF, and FAO in 2005; $25 and help plan cleanup operations. 10 A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting Box 2 Tackling POPs in Tajikistan the republic of tajikistan developed a national environmental Action Plan in 2007 that identified PoPs as a threat to public health and the environment. in June 2009, the GeF approved a Project information File for a PoPs elimination, risk Mitigation, and Site remediation Project with uS$4 million in grant funding. the proposed project aims to reduce the environmental and public-health risks from PoPs pesticides by eliminating stockpiles and reducing farmer reliance on such pesticides. A pre-feasibility study conducted by the tAuw consortium in April 2010 did an initial inventory and risk assessment of the vaksh burial site and sampled 17 former warehouses in the khatlon region. the study recommended ways to reduce site risks, including various on- site technologies for pesticides destruction and options for containment of contaminated soils. Based on this study and stakeholder views, key conclusions were drawn for project preparation: · Areas that pose the greatest risk are the vaksh burial site and privately-owned, former pesticide warehouses and adjacent pits in the khatlon region. the vaksh burial site has about 4,000 tons of PoPs that contain obsolete pesticides and an estimated 40,000 tons of contaminated soils. the obsolete pesticide stocks will be inventoried, repackaged, and stored in an interim storage facility (to be built on the same site) until destruction. · on-site (in-situ) disposal technologies are likely to be less costly than shipment to an incineration facility in europe. however, the tender will not be limited to any particular type of technology but will focus on the final outcome (disposal or destruction of obsolete pesticides and heavily contaminated wastes, taking into account performance standards, feasibility, regulatory requirements, and cost-effectiveness to elicit as large a number of bids as possible). the evaluation criteria for selecting disposal/destruction technology will be determined as part of the environmental impact Assessment. · Available GeF funds will likely not allow for the destruction of all pesticides at the vaksh burial site. thus, priority will be given to the highest risk PoPs pesticides: ddt (highly sought after by waste miners due to its market value), aldrin, dieldrin, and other highly toxic pesticides (e.g., arsenic-based compounds). · if additional funds become available, private warehouses will be prioritized based on risk to public health and the environment. obsolete stocks in these warehouses will be inventoried, repackaged, transported to the interim storage facility on the vaksh burial site, and destroyed. contaminated soils would be excavated and transferred to the vaksh burial site, where they would be handled together with contaminated soils. Source: Authors' data. · Safeguarding.With support from safeguarding activities of the the FAO-hosted Technical Support identified stockpiles: collecting, Unit and CropLife International, repackaging, safe storing, and risk trained personnel conduct mapping.2 11 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides Box 3 African Stockpiles Programme the African Stockpiles Programme (ASP) is an unprecedented partnership between African countries, donor governments, civil society, and multilateral organizations to eliminate the serious public health and environment threat of obsolete pesticide stocks. virtually every country in Africa has stockpiles of obsolete pesticides accumulated over the past several decades. the challenge of clearing them from the continent in an environmentally sound and safe manner is expected to take 12­15 years. the first phase of the ASP, already under way, targets seven countries for full cleanup and disposal activities: ethiopia, Mali, Morocco, nigeria (special preparatory activities), South Africa, tanzania, and tunisia. Preparations for undertaking cleanup and disposal operations will be made in another eight high-priority countries, selected from among 16 (Benin, Botswana, cameroon, côte d'ivoire, egypt, Ghana, lesotho, liberia, Mozambique, namibia, niger, rwanda, Senegal, Sierra leone, Sudan, and Swaziland). current ASP partners include the African development Bank, African union, Belgium, canada, croplife international (cli), denmark, european union, FAo, France, GeF, Japan, the netherlands, new Partnership for Africa's development (nePAd), norway, Pesticides Action network-Africa (PAn-Africa), Secretariat of the Basel convention, Swedish international development cooperation Agency (SidA), Switzerland, united nations economic commis- sion for Africa (unecA), united nations environment Programme (uneP), united nations industrial development organization (unido), world Bank, world health organization (who), and world wide Fund for nature/wwF. Source: www.africastockpiles.net. · Disposal.After safeguarding Need for Prioritized obsolete pesticides, participating Interventions countries must decide on how to dispose of the stocks, based on a Public health and environmental set of available disposal-technology authorities in the countries affected are options and performance eager to remove and decontaminate standards and costs. All disposal stockpile sites. But cleanup and options are in keeping with safe disposal of obsolete pesticides international, regional, and can be costly. Conducting national national legislation, regulations, inventories of public stocks and their and standards. locations requires training in safe and accurate product identification, 12 A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting handling, and labeling. Repackaging, necessary first step for policy makers storage, shipment, and incineration in developing countries and economies all depend on an array of factors, in transition. An effective priority- including product type, degree of setting method must not only analyze contamination, and the disposal the chemical and risk characteristics method used. Cost factors include the of the obsolete pesticide stocks. It total quantity to be disposed of, site must also integrate these with the locations, and distance to ports of exit. distance from human communities and critical ecosystems and biodiversity, Given the wide distribution of especially the most vulnerable groups. contaminated sites, the high cost of The next section outlines such a field operations, and scarcity of public method developed by the World resources, prioritizing stockpiles Bank's Development Research Group, for cleanup is quickly becoming a Environment and Energy Team. 13 Abdelaziz Lagnaoui Obsolete pesticide scavenged from burial site is heading to the local market in Central Asia. seCtion 2 r i sk Assessm en t m e t h O d fO r Pr i O r i t y- se t t i n g B ased on the completed contents of stockpiles for ranking inventory of obsolete by geographical area. pesticide stocks in Tunisia 4. Identify priority areas or hot spots under the ASP, a framework for risk for cleanup. assessment, developed by the World Bank's Development Research Group, Environment and Energy Team, was Characterize Chemicals applied to this pilot project. The first step is to characterize the active ingredient--the chemical in This risk assessment method involves each pesticide formulation that kills four steps: the pest in question--for each pesticide at the respective storage site. Data on 1. Characterize chemicals by active the properties of active ingredients ingredient at the storage site level. can be collected from a variety of 2. Assign alternative hazard proprietary and public sources. indicators. Since no one database contains all 3. Overlay population-distribution active ingredients, it is useful to have and environmental data with several sources.3 The best method for the toxicity-weighted pesticide referencing is the Chemical Abstract 15 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides hazard, (ii) chemical class and intended use, and (iii) acute toxicity indicator and hazard range. The active ingredients are referenced according to their WHO toxicity rankings (WHO 2005), which are listed in the database sources used in Step 1. The WHO uses five toxicity rankings: Extremely Hazardous (Ia), Highly Hazardous (Ib), Moderately Hazardous (II), Slightly Hazardous (III), and Unlikely To Pose Health Hazard (table 5). Highly hazardous Abdelaziz Lagnaoui and moderately hazardous active ingredients (Ia and Ib) represent 5.8 percent (38.50 kg) of all stockpiles by volume (table 2). Pesticide market in Lagos, Nigeria. Active ingredients are also referenced Number (CAS) or the correct spelling according to their chemical class of the active ingredient. Once the and end use. Organophosphates, active ingredients of the respective carbamates, pyrethroids, and stockpile have been determined, the organochlorines--chemical classes next step is to measure the total volume associated with severe health of active ingredients contained in the effects--together comprise more than stock. This is achieved by multiplying 55 percent of all stocks in the sample the quantity of pesticide in the stock (Zahm, Ward, and Blair 1997; FAO (found in the inventory database) by 2001) (table 3). the concentration of active ingredient (table 1). In addition to volume-based hazard indicators, WHO acute toxicity indicators--the lethal dose (mg per kg Assign Hazard Indicators of body weight) or lethal concentration To calculate the relative toxicity of each (mg per liter of body weight) for 50 stockpile, the active ingredients are percent of a test group (LD50 and referenced and classified according to LC50, respectively)--are used to rank their (i) World Health Organization active ingredients. Toxicity values (WHO) recommended classification by vary exponentially, highlighting the 16 A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting taBle 1 Sample stockpile volume of active ingredients Pesticide Active ingredient Commercial Unit of Concen- Unit of Volume name1 Quantity measure Name tration measure (kg) Phosdrin liter Mevinphos g/liter 5.00 50 100 Dimecron liter Phosphamidon g/liter 25.00 50 500 Furadan kg Carbofuran 5 % W/W2 3.50 70 Lannate kg Methomyl % W/W2 5.00 20 25 Decis liter Deltamethrin % V/V3 50.00 200 25 -- kg Metaldehyde % W/W2 39.00 78 50 Novathion liter Fenitrothion % V/V3 75.00 150 50 HCH -- kg % W/W2 50.00 100 (gamma-HCH) 50 Anteor C3 kg Cymoxanil % W/W2 90.00 200 45 Fyfanon liter Malathion g/liter 150.00 300 500 Copper Cuprosan kg % W/W2 34.00 68 oxychloride 50 Dosanex kg Metoxuron % W/W2 40.00 50 80 Antracol kg Propineb % W/W2 78.40 112 70 -- liter Trifluralin g/liter 14.40 30 480 Total volume of active ingredients: 659.30 Notes: 1. Commercial names may not be unique, depending on producer and country. 2. W/W = weight per (mass) weight. 3. V/V = volume per volume. limitation of using only volume-based Among the 14 active ingredients hazard indicators for priority-setting. samples, there is great variation within sub-populations. For example, the Next, a toxicity-weighted measure of toxicity-weighted volume of 100 kg hazard is constructed for each active of the active ingredient Mevinphos, ingredient. This is calculated by with an LD50 value for humans of 4 inverting the LD50 or LC50 value to give mg per kg, is calculated as 100 x 1/4 more toxic chemicals greater weight. = 25. That of 100 kg of Trifluralin, 17 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides taBle 2 WHO ranking of sample stocks of active ingredients Active Volume WHO toxicity Percent of ingredient (kg) ranking volume Mevinphos 5.00 Ia 0.76 Phosphamidon 25.00 Ia 3.79 Carbofuran 3.50 Ib 0.53 Methomyl 5.00 Ib 0.76 Deltamethrin 50.00 II 7.58 Metaldehyde 39.00 II 5.92 Fenitrothion 75.00 II 11.38 HCH (gamma-HCH) 50.00 II 7.58 Cymoxanil 90.00 III 13.65 Malathion 150.00 III 22.75 Copper oxychloride 34.00 III 5.16 Metoxuron 40.00 Table 5 6.07 Propineb 78.40 Table 5 11.89 Trifluralin 14.40 Table 5 2.18 Total 659.30 100.00 taBle 3 Active ingredient volume by chemical class and end use Active Volume Chemical End-use Percent of ingredient (kg) class type volume Mevinphos 5.00 Organophosphate Insecticide 0.76 Phosphamidon 25.00 Organophasphate Insecticide/acaracide 3.79 Carbofuran 3.50 Carbamate Insecticide/nematicide 0.53 Methomyl 5.00 Carbamate Insecticide 0.76 Deltamethrin 50.00 Pyrethroid Insecticide 7.58 Metaldehyde 39.00 Molluscicide Molluscicide 5.92 Fenitrothion 75.00 Organophosphate Insecticide 11.38 HCH 50.00 Organochlorine Insecticide 7.58 (gamma-HCH) Cymoxanil 90.00 Aliphatic nitrogen Fungicide 13.65 Malathion 150.00 Organophosphate Insecticide/acaracide 22.75 (continued on page 19) 18 A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting taBle 3 Active ingredient volume by chemical class and end use (continued from page 18) Active Volume Chemical End-use Percent of ingredient (kg) class type volume Copper 34.00 Inorganic Fungicide 5.16 oxychloride Metoxuron 40.00 Urea Herbicide 6.07 Propineb 78.40 Dithiocarbamate Fungicide 11.89 Trifluralin 14.40 2,6-Dinitroaniline Herbicide 2.18 Total 659.30 100.00 which has an LD50 value for humans of Overlay Geo-Referenced 1,930 kg per mg, is calculated as 100 Population or Environmental x 1/1,930 = 0.052. There is also great Data variation across sub-populations. For example, Deltamethrin is ranked fifth To assess whether stockpiles are in terms of LD50-weighted volume spatially correlated with vulnerable for humans, but it is first for fish, and segments of the population and by an extremely wide margin. This environment, relevant socio- demonstrates the importance of the demographic and biodiversity data can perspective one uses to gauge priorities. be overlaid onto pesticide information for ranking by geographical area. Finally, these weighted volumes are summarized according to the To assess the potential threat to public hazard range of the respective active health, population data is collected ingredient: High Hazard (LD50 < 50 from the most recent census. It is mg per kg), Medium Hazard (LD50 = advantageous to have this information 50­500 mg per kg), and Low Hazard at a more refined geographical unit (LD50 > 500 mg per kg). When of analysis to increase confidence in calculated for humans, it is found that associating proximate stockpiles of more than 78 percent of the toxicity- obsolete pesticides with health effects. weighted volume of stockpiles is highly The next step is to determine the hazardous (table 4). distribution of the total population and vulnerable segments by this Similar calculations can be performed geographical unit (in this case, district for mammals, birds, and fish, using the level). Women of child-bearing appropriate ranges of LD50 and LC50. age and young children (under five years) are used since these groups are 19 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides taBle 4 LD50-weighted volume by hazard range for humans LD50 for LD50 Percent Active Volume humans weighted of total Hazard ingredient (kg) (mg/kg) volume (kg) volume range Mevinphos 5.00 4.0 1.25 24.9 High Phosphamidon 25.00 17.9 1.40 27.8 High Carbofuran 3.50 8.0 0.44 8.7 High Methomyl 5.00 17.0 0.29 5.9 High Deltamethrin 50.00 135.0 0.37 7.4 Medium Metaldehyde 39.00 283.0 0.14 2.7 Medium Fenitrothion 75.00 250.0 0.30 6.0 Medium HCH (gamma-HCH) 50.00 88.0 0.57 11.3 High Cymoxanil 90.00 1,196.0 0.08 1.5 Low Malathion 150.00 1,375.0 0.11 2.2 Low Copper oxychloride 34.00 700.0 0.05 1.0 Low Metoxuron 40.00 3,200.0 0.01 0.2 Low Propineb 78.40 5,000.0 0.02 0.3 Low Trifluralin 14.40 1,930.0 0.01 0.1 Low Total 659.30 14,203.9 5.02 100.00 especially susceptible to the effects setting priorities based only on of highly toxic active ingredients. volume or total population could be The active ingredients are also geo- misleading. referenced to the district-level unit. Instead of summarizing the By combining this data, it is possible information by district, one could to determine the intensity of each also explore the interface between active ingredient at the district level obsolete pesticide stockpiles and for each of the indicators used. The ecoregions, national parks, and information can be summarized by the biodiversity, including animal or total population and per capita, and the fish species susceptible to particular analysis can be repeated for the more active ingredients or classes of active vulnerable segments of the population ingredients. (table 5). Results demonstrate that 20 A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting taBle 5 Active ingredient intensity for three sample districts by vulnerable population segment Women of childbearing age Children (under 5 years of age) Indicator District 1 District 2 District 3 District 1 District 2 District 3 Population 9,751 9,480 8,834 1,775 2,312 2,409 kg/1,000 kg/1,000 Volume 32.14 18.29 19.53 176.56 75.00 71.61 WHO hazard rank Ia 0.51 2.64 0.00 2.82 10.81 0.00 Ib 0.51 0.00 0.40 2.82 0.00 1.45 II 7.69 10.55 4.41 42.25 43.25 16.19 III 15.38 3.59 10.19 84.51 14.71 37.36 Table 5 8.04 1.52 4.53 44.17 6.23 16.60 Chemical class Organophosphate 23.59 2.64 0.00 129.58 10.81 0.00 Organochlorine 0.00 5.27 0.00 0.00 21.63 0.00 Carbamate 0.51 0.00 0.40 2.82 0.00 1.45 Pyrethroid 0.00 5.27 0.00 0.00 21.63 0.00 Other 8.04 5.11 19.13 44.17 20.93 70.15 End-use type Insecticide 24.10 13.19 0.40 132.39 54.07 1.45 Herbicide 0.00 1.52 4.53 0.00 6.23 16.60 Fungicide 8.04 3.59 10.19 44.17 14.71 37.36 Other 0.00 0.00 4.41 0.00 0.00 16.19 Acute toxicity (weighted volume) LD50 (humans) 26.50 33.11 9.85 145.59 135.75 36.13 LD50 (mammals) 31.04 28.90 9.36 170.50 118.49 34.33 LD50 (birds) 18.12 29.63 22.84 99.52 121.48 83.76 LC50 (fish) 2.33 67.14 0.01 12.80 275.31 0.03 Hazard range (humans) High 20.78 27.20 6.50 114.18 111.54 23.84 Medium 4.04 5.13 2.05 22.18 21.03 7.51 Low 1.68 0.78 1.30 9.23 3.18 4.78 21 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides Identify Hot Spots for prioritization of cleanup. Using GIS, Intervention researchers can analyze the spatial distribution of the obsolete stockpiles This simplified risk assessment exercise in relation to population density and focuses on 14 active ingredients and areas rich in biodiversity. These spatial three districts, yet developing countries patterns, in turn, allow policy makers typically have several hundred to visualize the threat to human health chemicals and districts. While and biodiversity and decide on needed calculations can be sorted and ranked measures to reduce exposure. The using spreadsheets, a Geographic next section summarizes the results of Information System (GIS) offers a applying this risk assessment method more powerful tool for facilitating the using a GIS decision tool in Tunisia. 22 seCtion 3 se t t i n g CL e A n u P Pr i O r i t i es i n t u n i si A L ike other low- and middle- Overall, Tunisia has about 1,984 income countries, Tunisia metric tons of obsolete pesticide has sites of obsolete pesticide formulations (759 tons of active stockpiles that pose serious health ingredients) in 197 storage sites. A and environmental risks. Under the total of 563 metric tons (74 percent ASP, the waste management agency of of the total) of active ingredients were Tunisia's Ministry of Environment and identifiable from the database, while Sustainable Development, known as 196 tons (26 percent) were not. A ANGed (Agence Nationale de Gestion preliminary investigation revealed that des Déchets), has finalized and verified only 11 percent of the stockpiles were a detailed inventory of all publicly-held contained in undamaged packages; 47 pesticide stockpiles in the country. The percent of packages were either broken inventory notes the geo-location of the or showed surface damage, 8 percent storage sites, their characteristics, the indicated leakage, and 34 percent were identity and quantity of contaminants, considered to be contaminating the soil and the general condition of the and equipment (figure 2). stockpiles. 23 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides Figure 2 Pesticide storage site in Tunisia Abdelaziz Lagnaoui Hot Spots -- Hazards to the country's delegations,5 and large Public Health volumes appeared only in delegations above the 90th percentile. The The risk assessment method outlined robustness of the method was tested in Section 2 was applied to Tunisia's by assigning wide-ranging variables 197 sites to rank priority sites for to key model parameters, including cleanup and safeguarding. For each weighted and unweighted populations pesticide, exposure damage potential and pesticide volumes and several was determined by three factors: the distance risk-decay values. Results pesticide's risk, number of exposed were heavily dominated by five sites, people (by weighted vulnerability which achieved a high priority index class), and degree of exposure.4 It value for some combination of hazard, was found that the pesticide classes population vulnerability, and risk- of greatest risk (WHO Ia and Ib) decay parameters (Dasgupta, Meisner, were stockpiled in only a quarter of and Wheeler 2009). 24 A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting The analysis drew upon population and biodiversity information in a GIS. Figure 3 Density Demographic characteristics, derived of children (<5 years) and from the census at the delegation organophosphates (top) administrative level, included age and gender categories, which were and carbamates (bottom) matched to corresponding boundaries (darker areas represent higher in the GIS. Biodiversity data was population per square area) at species, ecoregion, and protected- area scales. To identify the country's most important endangered species, range maps provided by Conservation International were matched with International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List categories. Critical/endangered ecoregions were identified by Olsen et al. (2001), while the United Nations Environment Programme­World Conservation Monitoring Centre and IUCN (2007) provided spatial data on the location of parks, with selected areas delineated with boundaries. Using the GIS decision tool, district- level population density was mapped onto the coordinates (latitude and longitude) of obsolete pesticide stockpiles. Mapping results showed a high concentration of stockpiles co-located with highly populated areas, particularly in northern Tunisia. When population density maps of vulnerable populations (children under age five and women of childbearing age) were overlaid onto distribution maps of stockpiles with organophosphates and carbamates-- two chemical classes associated with severe health effects--it was found that organophosphates were more prevalent in northern districts, while carbamates Data sources: 2004 demographic census of tunisia, predominated in eastern districts institut national de la Statistique (inS); Stockpile locations: Agence nationale de Gestion des déchets (figure 3). When population density (AnGed). 25 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides in northern Tunisia was mapped Hot Spots -- Hazards to onto stockpiles toxicity-weighted Ecoregions and Biodiversity for humans, results revealed several districts where the share of highly To ascertain whether obsolete pesticide hazardous material is close to 100 stockpiles pose hazards to any of percent (figure 4). Thus, depending on Tunisia's critical ecosystems and relative stockpile volume and storage biodiversity (box 4), the risk assessment conditions, these districts could be method outlined in Section 2 was flagged as a top priority for cleanup and applied, using geographic overlays of safeguarding (Dasgupta and Meisner species range maps, critical/endangered 2008). ecoregions, and national parks of global significance in terms of biodiversity.6 Figure 4 Population density and distribution of human LD50-weighted ingredients colored pies represent the share of high (dark red), medium (pink), and low (grey) hazard active ingredients; darker areas represent higher population per square area. Data sources: 2004 demographic census of tunisia, inS; Stockpile locations: AnGed. 26 A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting Box 4 Tunisia's Figure 5 Stockpiles environmental wealth of herbicides in the tunisia is diverse in climate and elevation, Critical/Endangered ranging from the dry Sahara in the south Mediterranean woodlands to the semi-arid and more mountainous Mediterranean region in the north. As a and forest result, the country is remarkably rich in ecosystems and biodiversity. According to the world wildlife Fund (wwF) classification system, tunisia comprises five ecoregions. the northern part of the country encompasses two critical/endangered ecoregions of global significance: Mediterranean conifer and Mixed Forest and Mediterranean woodlands and Forest. conservation international considers this area a global hot spot of biodiversity. two other ecoregions--northern Sahara Steppe and woodlands and Mediterranean dry woodlands and Steppe--are classified as vulnerable by the wwF. According to the third national report on Biodiversity in tunisia, the country has 2,924 species of vascular plants, of which 239 are endangered and 101 seriously threatened. the number of fauna species totals 2,210 (78 mammals, 362 birds, 336 fish, and 1,434 invertebrates), of which 57 species are Data sources: Modified wwF ecoregions (olsen et al., seriously threatened, particularly birds, fish, 2001); Stockpile locations: AnGed . and reptiles. Tunisia, along with Algeria and Sources: olsen et al. 2001; www.biodiversityhotspots. Morocco, provides winter habitat org; http://smap.ew.eea.europa.eu for many species that breed in Eurasia and winter throughout the Mediterranean region. Among the GIS mapping results showed 130 species known to use Tunisia as that a large volume of stockpiled a stopover on their way to and from herbicides are located within the the Afro-tropical region, Falco cherrug critical/endangered ecoregion of the has been identified as endangered Mediterranean Woodlands and Forest by the International Union for the (figure 5). Conservation of Nature. To determine 27 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides whether obsolete pesticide stockpiles significance in biodiversity, with pose a risk to Falco cherrug, the bird's more than 600 species of flora and known range map, based on global many fauna, including 225 species of data,7 was charted. Using the GIS avifauna. According to the IUCN, software tool, distribution of stockpiles wildlife at risk in Ichkeul National with LD50-weighted active ingredients Park include an endangered mammal was overlaid onto the species range map (Gazella cuvieri),8 two endangered (figure 6). Determining whether Falco birds (Oxyura leucocephala and Falco cherrug feeding or nesting grounds cherrug), and a near-threatened fish coincide with the stockpiles is an (Heptranchias perlo) (figure 7). area of concern that warrants further investigation. The geo-location of stockpiles indicated that four are located in close proximity Ichkeul National Park, located to Ichkeul National Park. Most of the in northern Tunisia about 25 km stored pesticides are insecticides, and south of Bizerte near the shores of three sites (in Menzel Bourguiba) also the Mediterranean Sea, has global include organochlorine compounds. Figure 6 Potential threat to Falco cherrug Tunisia Algeria Libya Data sources: Modified wwF ecoregions (olsen et al., 2001); Stockpile locations: AnGed. 28 Figure 7 Ichkeul National Park and wildlife species at risk Ichkeul National Park Data sources: Protected areas: uneP-wcMc and iucn, 2007; Stockpile BIZERTE MATFUR TUNIS BEJA Ben Arous Ichkeul National Park SUSAH BIZERTE MSAKEN MAHDIA DhFaouzi / Wikimedia Commons Ichkeul NP Populated places locations: AnGed. SFAX GAFSA MATFUR DJEBEL MDILLA GABES TUNIS BEJA Ben Arous Oxyura leucocephala ImageShack Gazella cuvieri Gotskills22 Heptranchias perlo SUSAH MSAKEN 29 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides Given the persistent nature of this half-life for individual pesticides. chemical class, risks to the environment Estimates revealed that chemicals are particularly severe, especially at one stored at stockpiles at one site (in site where the entire stock indicates Mateur) are associated with potentially surface damage in packaging. significant effects on fish, birds, bees, and beneficial arthropods. In addition, To assess the overall environmental this stockpile has 806.5 kg of highly impact of the pesticides, the toxic Parathion-methyl.10 This finding Environment Impact Quotient (EIQ) is particularly alarming as 19 percent associated with the active ingredients of the containers in Mateur already was used.9 Researchers at Cornell indicate signs of leakage (figure 8). University constructed the EIQ by combining information on dermal This exercise provided a reasonable first toxicity, chronic toxicity, systemicity, approximation for cleanup action since fish toxicity, leaching potential, it highlighted sites that achieve a high surface-loss potential, bird toxicity, priority value for certain combinations soil half-life, bee toxicity, beneficial of hazard, exposure, environmental arthropod toxicity, and plant surface vulnerability, and relative proximity to the toxic load. Figure 8 Relative toxicity of chemicals stockpiled near Ichkeul National Park Stockpile EIQ LC50-weighted active Mateur * 250.33 1,214.68 Menzel Bourguiba, 1** - 65,625 Menzel Bourguiba, 2 - 450,000 Menzel Bourguiba, 3 - 175,000 * 19% of stock indicates leakage. ** 100% indicates surface damage. Note: red depicts high lc50, Ichkeul NP pink depicts medium lc50, LC50 sh and grey depicts low lc50. Data sources: Protected areas: uneP-wcMc and iucn, 2007; Stockpile locations: AnGed. 30 A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting What Was Learned with a GIS-based tool for hotspot analysis, it was possible to visualize the This method proved effective in intersection of vulnerable segments of assessing the relative toxicity risk the population and environment with of stockpile sites to people and highly toxic stockpiles. Finally, test biodiversity in Tunisia as it integrated results demonstrated a clear ranking data on at-risk populations and and sequence strategy for operations, ecosystems, their proximity to suggesting that policy makers using stockpiles, and the toxic hazards of this method would be able to focus the stockpile chemicals. Because this disposal efforts and public resources on risk-assessment method was integrated the highest priority areas. 31 seCtion 4 CL e A n u P A n d sA f eguA r di n g h i gh L i gh ts i n A f r iCA i nventories of obsolete pesticides Global Environment Facility ($1 have been completed in several high- million), and Tunisian government priority African countries under the ($0.5 million), with additional support ASP and preparation for disposal is from the World Bank's Development under way (figure 9). As more national Grant Facility. ASP-Tunisia has inventories become available, policy completed its national inventory makers may wish to consider the geo- of more than 1,900 metric tons of referenced risk assessment method obsolete pesticide formulations, and presented in Section 2 as an option preparation for collection and disposal for prioritizing cleanup. Highlighted is under way. The data collected in below are selected ASP projects and site surveys has been used in FAO- their various stages of cleanup and developed software to generate a risk safeguarding. assessment of each store, making it possible to easily identify and prioritize high-risk sites for urgent Tunisia action (Section 3). One such site was identified on the grounds of the Menzel The Tunisia pilot project is funded Bourguiba hospital, where it was by the GEF (US$4 million), French found that 40 tons of DDT--much 33 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides Figure 9 The African continent has some 50,000 tons of obsolete pesticides IBRD 33113R TUNISIA MOROCCO ALGERIA LIBYA . ARAB REP FORMER OF EGYPT SPANISH SAHARA THE T MAURI ANIA GAMBIA NIGER MALI ERITREA SENEGAL CHAD BURKINA SUDAN GUINEA- FASO DJIBOUTI BISSAU GUINEA BENIN TOGO NIGERIA SOMALIA SIERRA CÔTE ETHIOPIA LEONE D'IVOIRE GHANA CENTRAL LIBERIA . AFRICAN REP CAMEROON EQ. GUINEA UGANDA CONGO KENYA SÃO TOMÉ AND PRÍNCIPE GABON DEM. REP . RWANDA OF CONGO BURUNDI A T L A N T IC I N D I AN TANZANIA O C E AN O C E AN COMOROS AFRICA ANGOLA MALAWI ZAMBIA OBSOLETE PESTICIDES STOCKPILES ESTIMATES* ZIMBABWE MOZAMBIQUE MADAGASCAR NAMIBIA NOT QUANTIFIED BOTSWANA MAURITIUS 0­50 TONS SWAZILAND 50­500 TONS S O U TH LESOTHO A F R I CA 500­1000 TONS OVER 1000 TONS This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other informationshown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgmenton the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or * Source:FAO data. Does not reflect possibly significant quantities of contaminated soil in Mali and several other countries. acceptance of such boundaries. MAY 2005 of it leaking--had been stored for 50 obsolete pesticide stocks. Under the years. The DDT was safely repackaged ASP-Tanzania project, launched in and stored until removal and final 2007, 650 tons of obsolete stocks had destruction. been inventoried by mid-2009. The inventory process has been closely linked with a national communication Tanzania strategy, which includes training of NGOs to implement community- Over the past 40 years, Tanzania has based awareness raising. The project accumulated more than 1,300 tons of has successfully tested a monitoring 34 A GIS-Based Tool for Priority-Setting and evaluation toolkit provided by the World Bank and FAO. Total project financing is US$7.48 million, with funds provided by a GEF grant ($6.87 million), the Ethiopian government Abdelaziz Lagnaoui ($0.39 million), and the Netherlands via FAO ($0.22 million). To address the likely budget gap for soils and buried pesticides. Civil disposal and prevention activities, the society and nongovernmental project is considering alternatives to organization (NGO) participation costly shipments to Europe for high- in prevention and awareness- temperature combustion in dedicated raising activities is high. Adequate incinerators. One promising option safeguarding of widely scattered is the high-temperature cement kiln. obsolete stocks (particularly high-risk Earlier disposal operations using sites) prior to pesticide disposal has cement kilns--including a 1996 study been a major project challenge. On- by the German Agency for Technical the-ground operations to reduce public Cooperation (GTZ) of dinitro-o-cresol health and environmental risks are (DNOC) in Tanzania--were unable progressing. to verify destruction efficiency. But lessons from these studies were later At the Molodo site, ASP-Mali used in a test burn of two obsolete launched operations to remove, insecticides in a cement kiln in safeguard, and transport obsolete toxic Vietnam (Karstensen et al. 2006). The stocks left over from past regional hazardous chemicals were destroyed locust and bird control programs. The in an irreversible and environmentally project removed 600 barrels of dieldrin sound manner in full compliance with and parathion from a cemented pit the Stockholm Convention. located within 50 yards of Molodo's plant protection facility to a safer storage facility in Noumoubougou, Mali about 30 km from Bamako. Some The US$8.33 million ASP-Mali project, 400 liters of obsolete liquid pesticides with $3.98 million from the Multi- found in the plant protection facility donor Trust Fund and $2.55 million were transferred to newer containers. in GEF grant funding, has inventoried Decontamination by land farming, some 1,100 tons of obsolete pesticides, a technique that works the soil plus a large volume of contaminated and promotes natural degradation 35 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides of pesticides by soil bacteria, was country was also found to have 1,000 successfully tested at the storage site tons of contaminated soils at more and vicinity with support from FAO than 900 sites. A national inventory and Wageningen University of the conducted by FAO in 1999 found Netherlands. more than 1,500 tons of obsolete stocks at 256 sites. A major disposal The project applied this land-farming project conducted from 2000­2003 technique at the Niogomera site, where under the leadership of FAO, in large stocks of obsolete pesticides and collaboration with Ethiopia's Ministry empty containers had contaminated of Agriculture, collected and moved the soil for more than 20 years. Built these obsolete stocks to ten in-country in 1965 by the former Locust and Bird storage sites before transporting them Control Organization of West Africa, to Finland for high-temperature the Niogomera storage center, known incineration. A total of US$4.4 million as the Pesticide Graveyard, was secured was required, with funds from the and fenced in 2002, and a retention Netherlands ($2.2 million), Sweden system was built to reduce water ($1.2 million), and the United States contamination in a nearby village. ($1 million) (Haylamicheal and Dalvie Failure of the system in the early 2000s 2009). posed a serious public health and environmental risk. In response, the A second project phase, initiated in project constructed a dyke to retain site 2006, is to dispose of the country's rainwater and prevent contamination remaining obsolete stocks at during field operations. In addition, incineration facilities in the UK and 500 rusted and damaged metal Germany. This phase also focuses on containers, stored as nine large waste container management, regulatory piles, were crushed and transported and policy reform, promotion of to the Noumoubougou site for final Integrated Pest Management (IPM) disposal. and Integrated Vector Management (IVM), and pesticide awareness-raising activities. The total cost of disposal Ethiopia and post-disposal activities is about Before 2000, Ethiopia was found $US8.13 million, with funds provided to have stockpiled more than 2,500 by Belgium ($3.89 million), Finland tons of obsolete pesticides. The key ($1.11 million), Japan ($1.14 million), reasons included unregulated imports, the ASP ($1.30 million), CLI ($0.40 selling, and donations over a 50- million), and Ethiopia ($0.29 million). year period. Most of these obsolete A US$2.62 million GEF grant stocks are of poor quality and are signed in 2007 supports disposal and improperly packed and labeled. The prevention activities. 36 seCtion 5 r eduCi n g t h e r i sk m any participating ASP large quantities of stocks, the growing countries underestimated expense of cleanup operations, and the quantities of limited public resources, priority- stockpiled obsolete pesticides during setting is quickly becoming a necessary initial project preparation. The first step for policy makers. subsequent discovery of additional stocks during field operations, Any project involving obsolete combined with the rising unit cost of pesticides cleanup is a complex and disposal consistent with international dangerous undertaking for several and regional conventions, leaves many major reasons. First, the chemicals are countries facing a financing gap. extremely toxic. In most cases, obsolete pesticides are improperly stored or But this challenge is not unique to discarded in abandoned sites, posing ASP countries. Most developing serious risks to human health and the countries and economies in transition environment. They are particularly with accumulated obsolete stocks lack harmful to those directly in contact sufficient financial resources to manage with the chemicals, such as agricultural inventory and disposal operations workers and communities living near safely and reliably. In light of the storage sites. Through soil, water, 37 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides and the food chain, the pollutants associated with obsolete-pesticide accumulate in the fatty tissue of both cleanup operations. As a result, a full humans and animals, and residues environmental and social assessment find their way into the blood stream. is often required prior to project Some of these chemicals are proven appraisal. The environmental impacts to cause cancers, birth defects, and are related mainly to handling, neurological problems. Moreover, transport, and disposal operations. many of the negative impacts are The major institutional risk is that borne disproportionately by the poor such projects involve dangerously (Goldman and Tran 2002). toxic and hazardous waste materials. The first step in preparing the Second, the cleanup process it not Environmental Assessment is collecting without risk. It involves a series of baseline data, used as indicators for complex operations of chain of custody, comparing sites. For this purpose, from taking inventory to handling overlaying population-distribution and transport and final disposal. In and environmental data with the many instances, the chain of operations toxicity-weighted pesticide contents of entails environmental, health, and stockpiles is a practical tool to visualize socioeconomic impacts. the potential impacts on human health and the environment, and to devise Finally, the costs associated with sound mitigation measures. cleanup operations tend to be high, but poor countries often have more The development of methods and tools urgent priorities. For these reasons, it that incorporate alternative hazard is critical to assess the situation at the criteria, coupled with the spatial national, regional, and local levels and dimensions of potential exposure, prioritize sites to appropriately manage highlight trade-offs inherent in the cleanup process. This study decision making. Future cleanup provides a tool to systematically assess investments that adopt such pre- and prioritize the potential effects appraisal approaches as the GIS- of obsolete stocks to inform plans, based method applied in Tunisia can programs, and policies to manage minimize the hazards to public health them. and the environment, and maximize the efficiency of public resources. From a donor perspective, there is a significant reputational risk 38 en d n Ot es 1. The POPS pesticides are aldrin, org), Extension Toxicology chlordane, endrin, dieldrin, Network (EXTOXNET) (http:// heptachlor, DDT, toaxaphene, extoxnet.orst.edu/ghindex.html), mirex, and hexachlorobenzene International Programme on (HCB). Chemical Safety (www.inchem. org), and Pesticide Management 2. The Technical Support Unit has Education Program (http://pmep. developed a series of technical cce.cornell.edu). guidelines to assist country teams in this activity. (FAO 1995a, 1995b, 4. Population data was downloaded 1996). from the 2004 Demographic Census of Tunisia (National 3. For Tunisia, six main sources were Statistics Institute), and two used to reference active ingredients: vulnerable population classes were the pesticide manual of the British constructed (children under age Crop Protection Council (www. five and women of childbearing pesticidemanual.com/index. age); land area was computed htm), U.S. National Medical at the delegation level from the Library of Medicine (http://chem. GIS databases of the ANGed sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/ (Dasgupta, Meisner, and Wheeler chemidlite.jsp), pesticide database 2009). of the Pesticide Action Network (PAN) (www.pesticideinfo. 39 Reducing the Human and Environmental Risks of Obsolete Pesticides 5. In Tunisia, delegations are second- where DT = dermal toxicity, C = level administrative divisions chronic toxicity, SY = systemicity, between the governorates and F = fish toxicity, L = leaching sectors. potential, R = surface loss potential, D = bird toxicity, S = soil half-life, 6. This section is excerpted from Z = bee toxicity, B = beneficial Blankespoor et al. (2009). arthropod toxicity, and P = plant 7. The delineated habitat range surface half-life. coincides with 18 site observations 10. Parathion is an organophosphate recorded in Isenmann et al. (2005). compound. It is a potent 8. Thanks to reintroduction efforts insecticide and acaricide and in Tunisia, another mammal of is highly toxic to non-target particular interest in the Bovidae organisms, including humans. family is Oryx dammah (Direction Parathion-methyl is a cholisterase de la Conservation de la Nature, inhibitor. It has been classified Direction Générale des Forêts as a POP by the UNEP and as Ministère de l'Agriculture 2001) Extremely Hazardous (toxicity class and Royal Belgian Institute of Ia) by the WHO. It is very toxic Natural Sciences (2006). to bees, fish, birds, and other forms of wildlife. More details are available 9. EIQ total = {C[(DT*5) + (DT*P)] at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ + [(C*((S=P)/2)*SY) + (L)] + [(F*R) Parathion. + (D*((S+P)/2)*3) + (Z*P*3) + (B*P*5)]}/3, 40 B i B L i Ogr A Ph y ASP (Africa Stockpiles Programme). Mimeo, Development Research 2008. Africa Stockpiles Programme Group, World Bank. Annual Report: July 2007­June 2008. Available at www. Dasgupta, S., C. Meisner, and D. africastockpiles.net Wheeler. 2009. Stockpiles of Obsolete Pesticides and Cleanup ------. 2009. Africa Stockpiles Priorities: A Methodology and Programme Annual Report: July Application for Tunisia. Policy 2008­June 2009. Available at Research Working Paper 4893. www.africastockpiles.net Washington, DC: World Bank. Blankespoor, B., S. Dasgupta, W. Direction de la Conservation de la Dhouibi, A. Lagnaoui, C. Meisner, Nature, Direction Générale des and H. Salah. 2009. "Stockpiles Forêts Ministère de l'Agriculture. of Obsolete Pesticides: Threats 2001. Stratégie Nationale to Ecosystems and Biodiversity." 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