69314 MDTF THE WORLD BANK ASSESSMENT OF WATER SUPPLY SOURCES IN TUNDIA AREA DILLING LOCALITY, SOUTH KORDOFAN STATE SUDAN June 2010 Dr.Hamid Omer Ali Water Resources Consultant +249 912211588 E-mail: hamidomer20@yahoo.com Dr. Khalid Mustafa (Remote sensing and GIS specialist) Acronyms CBOs=Community-Based Organizations CDF = Community Development Fund FAR= Fellow of African Relief GIS= Geographic Information System HH= Household HP= Hand Pump l/c/d= liter per capita per day IFAD= International Fund for Agricultural Development IO= International Organization Mm3= Million cubic meter NGO= non-government Organization PWC= Public Water Corporation QARQA=Quality, Accessibility, Reliability, Quantity and Affordability SC = Save the Children SDG=Sudanese Pound TDS= Total Dissolved Solids UN= United Nations UNICEF= Children and Women Development Fund VDC= Village Development Committee WHO= World Health Organization ii Executive Summary Tundia, like most areas in South Kordofan was seriously affected by the North-South war, with infrastructure and basic services, particularly water points, left in poor conditions. The increasing number of returnees also exerts additional pressure on the limited water supply points, causing several inter and intra-group conflicts, particularly during summertime. It is envisaged that access to water through improved/rehabilitated and/or construction of additional/new water sources can help reducing tensions between water users, especially in Tundia area. Past water interventions endeavored by the community, NGOs and government, lacked proper planning, real technical input and therefore did not bring long-term sustainable solutions. Notwithstanding other problems and development challenges facing the area, the 5 year plan (2007 – 2011) for development of the area, devised by the Tundia Development and Management Committee has put emphasis on development of water supply sources. The overall objective of this water needs assessment is to contribute to alleviate the water problem, thus improving the socioeconomic conditions and mitigating water-related conflict in Tundia area. To achieve this objective a baseline survey study (supported by the World Bank, April, 2010) was conducted, focusing on a water needs assessment and highlighting the main problems that the population faces in the area. Subsequently, water development options have been suggested. The Tundia area lies about 20 km west of Dilling in South Kordofan State. It encompasses 6 village councils, namely Tundia El Nugta, Kushal, Gaw, Aurangi, Afung and Furash. As of April 2010, 7786 people live in Tundia area, all pertaining to one tribe, and representing about 10% of the total population in Salara Administrative unit which is composed of about 44 villages. The population density in Tundia is relatively low amounting to 1297 persons per village while before the war the population density was more than 5000 persons per village. From 1999 onwards the area has received continuous influxes of returnees but it requires quite a considerable time for the area to gain its past (pre-war) population level. Notwithstanding other factors, shortage of water is one of the reasons that impede repatriations. The whole Tundia area is presently served by 5 schools and 3 health centers, but some of them were destructed during the war and thus needs rehabilitation and renovation (except a new school constructed by the World Bank in Tundia village). The main economic activities in the area consist in rain-fed subsistence agriculture and livestock rearing. Crop production is mainly practiced on small areas annexed to the houses (locally known as Jubrakas) not exceeding 3 feddans. Presently production and productivity are very low with an amount of 100 to 200 kg/ per feddan which is attributed to the failure/shortage of rainfall in 2009. The livelihood production mechanisms were greatly affected during the war, especially the animal production. Presently total animal populations in the area are 10069 and 8270 heads of cattle and goats respectively The water supply sources in Tundia area include: traditional water sources, hand pumps, Hafirs/dams and water-yards. Traditional water sources include seasonal streams, base- flow (serif) and masheish (shallow open wells) for human and livestock uses from end of June to October. iii There are two improved Hafirs in Tundia and Kushal, which both failed to store water in 2009 due to partial washout of the leading (diversion) canal in Tundia Hafir and change of flow direction(s) in Kushal. Other surface water harvesting sources include an earth dam in Kurnal. Though it is properly located, it was designed and built without proper soil and hydrological investigations and consequently it encountered leakage through its body and downward seepage in 2009. There are about 9 operational slim boreholes installed with hand pumps plus other two installed with low yielding submersible pumps operated with generators. Most of the hand pumps are old and of low yield, with a poor environment where animals and people intermingle. Only one water-yard exists, located in Afung, but is not operational. The water supply deficit is attributed to lack of potential groundwater resources, low coverage of hand pumps compared to the population in the area, complete destruction of 9 hand pumps during the war, presence of permeable sandy soils which are unfavorable for construction of Hafirs and storage dams in some places in the area, influx of returnees putting pressure on the existing low capacity water sources, high animal water demand which constitutes about 60% of the present supplies and withdrawal of some NGOs leaving uncompleted water projects in the area. Apparent impacts of water shortage in the area include: prevalence of some water -related diseases, reduced water per capita consumption, poor accessibility to water supply sources, restrictions on water use allocating about 60% of water supplies for livestock, frequent disputes between water users, and detention of people from returning to their home land. Efforts to address the water shortage in the area included: installing two submersible pumps at Tundia and Kushal, contribution of the Arungi community by 10% of total cost for construction of a water-yard at Arungi by CDF. Also community-based efforts include the construction of earth dams at Gaw and Tundia (though their initiatives lack real technical expertise and input), participation with Care by denoting local labors and materials for building a dam in Kurnal in 2007 and in construction of Kushal dam which has not been completed due to expulsion of SC (USA) from the country. In this respect the State Water Corporation effort for the water problem was exemplified by unsuccessfully drilling of a borehole in Kushal Management of water supply sources in the area relies on community –based approaches and initiatives whereby the VDC of each village fosters operation, maintenance and management of water supply sources, especially hand pumps. The Tundia Technical Committee (a Khartoum- based committee) played an important role in organizing, establishing and training of the VDCs which work in close coordination and liaison with other CBOs, specially the tribal leaders. In order to address the water-related issues in the area and thus contribute to the improvement of Tundia socio-economic conditions, this study has proposed: i) the rehabilitation of the two existing hafirs at Tundia and Kushal, ii) upgrading the dam built by the community in Tundia, iii) Completing construction of the dam started by CARE in Kushal, iv) the rehabilitation of Kurnal dam, after a technical assessment is conducted to determine the causes of leakage, v) constructing a new dam at Tousei, vi) Installing 3 submersible pumps at Tundia, Furash and Afung borehole, vii) construction of a water yard in Furash, viii) conducting an overall hydrological study and building the capacities of the VDCs and, ix) piloting removal of excess fluoride from drinking water at household level. iv It should be noted that the water-related issues identified in the specific case-study of Tundia are common to South Kordofan and as such any recommendations proposed apply to the entire state. The strategy to develop water supply sources is to be hinged upon: provision of 10,30 and 8 l/c/d for human, cattle and goat respectively on a sustainable basis from safe water supply sources, maximizing the community participation to consolidate the sense of ownership, suitability of the constructed water system to the local environment, compatibility with the economic, social and cultural capacity of the community to be served, linkage with the relevant government, NGOs and other institutions in Dilling area and integration of water development and utilization with other natural resources and improvement of other social services such as health and education. In addition, since groundwater resources in the area are limited, focusing on utilization of surface water resources and giving consideration to women and children preferences to reduce their burden are also important pillars of the strategy for development of water supply sources. The following factors would safeguard future sustainability of the proposed interventions  provision of water supply is a priority identified by all people of Tundia and by necessity they do utmost efforts to keep their water supply source operational  Presence of trained village water committees and trained local mechanics.  Willingness of the communities to participate, denote cash, provide labor and materials for construction of the water supply project. This helps consolidating the sense of ownership which is a key factor in maintaining sustainability.  Communities are homogenous, enlightened and gained useful experiences and learned lessons from other communities outside the area.  Presence of (educated) tribal leaders and the technical committee for development of Tundia; all working in harmony and in close coordination with the village development committees and other CBOs  Nearness of the area to Dilling locality where relevant government institutions and NGOs are present giving back-up support to the VDCs in Tundia area  Generation of water revenue to be utilized in operation, maintenance and development of water supply sources The main partners in the proposed water supply development project will be the communities and VDCs in Tundia area, the Technical Committee for Development of Tundia area, NGOs and International organizations working or intending to work in the area and State Water Corporation. The proposed interventions for development of water supply sources in Tundia area can be implemented in 18 -24 months starting from October 2010. The estimated cost is about 1,198,140 SDG of which community contribution can amount up to 18%. v Table of Contents Item Acronyms Executive Summary Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures 1. Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 Objectives of the Study 1.3 Study Approach, methodology and Tools 2. Description of the Area 2.1 Location of the area 2.2 Population 2.3 Economic Activities 2.4 Climate 3. Assessment of Water Supply 3.1 Water Resources in the Area 3.1.1. Rainfall in the area 3.1.1 Surface Water 3.1.3 Groundwater Resources 3.2 Water Supply Sources 3.2.1. Traditional Water Sources 3.2.2 Hafirs and Dams 3.2.3 Slim boreholes fitted with hand pumps 3.2.4 Wateryards 3.3 Water Supply, Consumption and Demand 3.3.1. Water Supply 3.3.2 Water Consumption and Demand 3.3.2.1 Human Consumption 3.3.3 Accessibility to Water 3.3.2.2 Water Demand 3.4 Causes of Water Deficit 3.5 Impact of Water Shortage 3.6 Community- based Initiatives 3.7 Management of Water Supply Sources 4. Water Supply Development Strategy in Tundia Area 4.1 Objectives 4.2 Strategic approach 4.3 Components of the WSDS 4.3.1. Development of surface water sources 4.3.1.1 Rehabilitation of the Hafirs 4.3.1.2 Completion of the Kushal dam 4.3.1.2 Construction of a new dam at Tousei 4.3.2 Development of groundwater supply sources 4.3.2.1 Upgrading of two hand pumps at Tundia and Furash 4.3.2.2 Installation of a submersible pump at Afung borehole 4.3.2.3 Construction of a water-yard at Furash vi 4.3.2.4 Completion of hydrological and hydro-geophysical studies 4.3.2.5. Promoting Removal of Excessive Fluoride from Groundwater at Household Level 4.3.3 Training of the Village Development Committees 4.3.4 Summary of the proposed interventions 4.4 Expected impact of the WSDS 4.5 Sustainability of the Water Supply Sources 4.6 Implementation Plan 4.7 Estimated Cost References Annex (One) Data Collection Forms Annex (Two) List of People Met and Interviewed Annex(3) Chemical and Physical Analysis of Groundwater Quality in Tundia List of Tables Table (1) Coordinates and Distances of the Tundia villages, Dilling Locality, South Kordofan Table (2) Population Distribution and Growth in Tundia area Table (3) Population Mobility and Change (1985 -2010) in Tundia area Table (4) Schools and Health centers in Tundia area Table (5) Crops area cultivated and productivity in Tundia area (2009) Table (6) Livestock ownership in Tundia area, South Kordofan Table (7) livestock population in Tundia area Table (8) probability of rainfall and calculated run off in Tundia area Table (9) Water Supply Sources in Tundia area, South Kordofan Table (10) Available water supply during summer in Tundia area (2010) Table (11) Human and Livestock water consumption in Tundia area Table (12) Water supply and consumption and deficit in Tundia area Table (13) Human and Livestock, Water Supply, Demand and Deficits in Tundia Table (13A) Human and Livestock, Water Supply, Demand and Deficits in Tundia area(based on World Bank criteria, water demand in water stress areas) Table (14) Prevalence of some water related diseases in Tundia area Table (15) Summary of the proposed water supply interventions in Tundia area Table (16) Roles and responsibilities of the proposed project partners Table (17) Estimated costs of the proposed water supply projects in Tundia area, South Kordofan List of Figures Fig (1) Location of Tundia Villages, South Kordofan Fig (2).The high lands of Tundia area is a water divide from where wadis radiate Fig (3) Population displacement and repatriation in Tundia area, South Kordofan Fig (4) Dilling Annual Rainfall (1971-2000) Fig (5) Distribution of Water Supply Sources in Tundia area, South Kordofan Fig (6) Frequency distribution of human water per capita consumption in Tundia Fig (7) Water supply and consumption curves in Tundia area Fig (8) Water Supply - Demand Curves, Tundia 2010 Figure (9) Distance to water supply sources during summer, Tundia area Fig (10) Frequency of time spent in getting Water, Tundia Fig (11) Time –Distance Relation & Correlation Values Point to Water Availability at the Source vii 1. Introduction 1.1 Background Most of South Kordofan was seriously affected for over twenty years by the North-South war, with infrastructure and basic services, including water points, left in poor conditions. South Kordofan is among the poorest states in Sudan in terms of drinking water resources, both for human and animal use. The Sudan Household Health Survey (SHHS) conducted in 2006 showed an average shortage of about 60% in drinking water supply which aggravates during summertime, causing several inter and intra-group conflicts; further aggravated by the increasing number of returnees exerting additional pressure on the limited water supply points and resulting into acute shortage of drinking water in productive, settlement and returnees areas. Access to water for human and productive uses is a key point of contention between livestock and human uses. And it„s envisaged that access to water through improved/rehabilitated and/or construction of additional/new water sources can help reducing tensions between water users (groups). In addition, lack of access to safe drinking water in South Kordofan is a major cause of disease, poor hygiene and decreased agricultural productivity. In most rural areas of south Kordofan, conflicts over water are mitigated and resolved through mediation by local or traditional leaders (Sheikhs or Maks) and/or Village Development Committees. Mechanisms used for resolving water-related conflicts involve the presence of voluntarily appointed persons by the traditional leaders or Village Development Committees to organize users at water points where there is water shortage or anticipated conflict. Apparently there is an urgent need for development of water resources (surface and groundwater) to meet needs and reduce violent conflicts over resources in a number of places, especially in the war affected areas in South Kordofan. One of those places is Tundia area in Dilling Locality (Fig.1) which is currently facing water problems, especially during the dry months (November to June). Restless, but ad hoc efforts and interventions were endeavored by the local community, NGOs and government to solve the water problem in the area. However these interventions had no plan, lacked real technical input and therefore did not turn out to be permanent or long-term solutions; consequently they could not be sustained and could have adverse environmental and social impacts. On the other hand the Tundia community is well organized and acquainted with the problems and development challenges facing their area. Tundia have established a Community Development Management Committee in 2006; and has devised a 5 year plan (2007 – 2011) development plan for the area. Development of water supply sources is a prominent centre piece in this development plan (the Tundia development plan). This classifies the area as an ideal target for the pilot study and rehabilitation that can later act as a blue print or can be replicated in all war- affected communities in the region. Thus the World Bank has intervened in the area by constructing a new school as well as supporting some women development activities in Tundia village. This study; initiated by the World Bank, is in line with its effort aiming at solving the water problem in the area 1 1.2 Objectives of the Study The overall objective of this water needs assessment study; is to contribute to conflict mitigation and improving the socio-economic conditions of the people, through alleviating the water shortage problem in Tundia area, mainly by devising a comprehensive master plan addressing the root causes of the water shortage in the area. However this overall objective is underlain by the following specific objectives:  Conduction of a baseline survey, focusing on a needs assessment, highlighting the main problems that constrain the well-being of the population in the area.  Assessing the past interventions and initiatives, especially on water, and examine factors that have affected their sustainability.  Analyzing and determining the root causes of the water problem in the area.  Identification and analysis of the current water resources and supply situation in the area.  Specifying the technical, financial and social interventions required to solve the water problem in a sustainable manner.  Drawing of a master plan depicting innovative and sustainable solutions to the water problem in the area, addressing the issue of: water quantity, accessibility, quality, reliability and (economic) affordability (QARQA), indicative cost and implementation plan(s).  Looking to other interrelated and cross-cutting issues with the project, mainly environment, gender and vulnerable groups.  Identification of the anticipated project impact especially on enhancement of social services, agricultural production and consolidation of peace and social existence.  Suggestion of a bankable strategic plan for development of water supply sources aiming at solving the water supply problem in the area . 1.3 Study Approach, methodology and Tools To achieve the objective of the study, a water consultant was hired (during the period 1st April to May 2010) to supervise collection of field data and conduction of interviews guided by pre- designed and tested questionnaires (attached in annex 1). The activities included, but were not necessarily limited to the following:  Collection of secondary data and basic information on the area to assist in developing the study approach and the work plan. This also included meetings with representatives of the Tundia Development Committee in Khartoum and consultation with resources persons from the World Bank and other relevant institutions in Khartoum and Dilling (e.g. Public Water Corporation, Groundwater and Wadis Directorate, South Kordofan state Water Corporation, CDF etc...)  Conduction of a field visit to the Tundia area to collect primary data, mainly by meeting CBOs, Community development committees, household members, government/non- government institutions, etc… in the area. Primary information was collected through observation and actual measurements and by using questionnaires (annex 1) 2  Collection of primary data on villages‟ population, social services, economic activities (agriculture, livestock production etc…) and on the number of the beneficiaries.  Assessment of the water resources and water supply sources; mainly in terms of:  Potentiality of the available groundwater and surface resources in terms of quantity, quality, spatial distribution and seasonality in conjunction with the present and future water supply needs in the area.  Identification and assessment of the present water supply sources in the area; mainly in terms of types, number, mechanical and physical conditions, seasonal and annual yield, reliability and accessibility (in terms of distance and time spent) of the water sources.  Collection of data on water use, water demand and per capita consumption and identification of the water supply-demand gap in the area.  Responsibility for operation, maintenance and management of the water supply sources in the area.  Impact of the water supply shortage in the area (social, economical, environmental impacts etc….)  Family expenditure (compared to the family income) on water.  Responsibility for water fetching and collection and time spent (mainly by children and women) on water fetching.  Identification of the main problems, key issues and challenges related to water supply sources in the area and past interventions undertaken by the community, government institutions and NGOs to solve the water problems in the area. And drawing of the lessons learned from these past initiatives in the area.  Conduction of group discussion (including women groups) household and individual interviews in the Tundia area to solicit and prioritizing their needs, suggestion of water development options and their role in that respect.  Identification of the community willingness (not necessarily the ability) to participate in the project to consolidate the sense of ownership, which is a key factor in achieving sustainability of the sought project.  Collection and interpretation of technical data, including hydrologic, geologic, soil, geophysical and other relevant data to be utilized in selection and design of the required water supply option(s).  Debriefing of the Community Development Committee in Tundia, the relevant government institutions in Dilling and the World Bank about the proposed solutions and interventions Tools used in collocation of the information included the following:  Interpretation of land satellite imageries to map the main topographic and drainage features.  Field surveying and measurements to identify and select potential sites for water resources development.  Use of check list and questionnaires to generate the required data 3  Using of GPS for determination of coordinates of the villages and the main hydrological features, water sources infrastructures, calculation of distances between the villages and plotting them on a base map using GIS techniques.  Application of statistical and computer-based methods to analyze the collected data Men and women group discussions, Tundia Households and individuals interviews Based on the collocated and analyzed data, findings and results of the study are described in the forthcoming sections of the report. They include, but are not limited to:  Baseline information regarding geographic location of the area (villages) with respect to its neighbors, population and social- economic existing conditions, social service centers and economic activities.  Water resources and water supply sources, water supply, present consumption, demand and water deficit (gap).  Main causes of the water shortage, its impact in the area and NGOs and community based interventions addressing the problem. 4  Proposed plan/interventions for solving the water supply shortage in a sustainable manner in the area and indicative costs of the proposed interventions. And Issues regarding sustainability of the proposed interventions 2. Description of the Area 2.1 Location of the area The Tundia area lies about 20 km west of Dilling in South Kordofan State (Fig.1). It encompasses 6 village councils, namely Tundia El Nugta, Kushal, Gaw, Aurangi, Afung and Furash, located at the coordinates shown in table (1). Administratively Tundia belongs to Salara Administrative Unit which is about 14 km from Dilling (Fig.1). Tundia (el Nugta) represents a junction from which roads radiate to other villages/areas. Distances of other villages with respect to Tundia and Dilling are shown in Table (1). Table (1): Coordinates and Distances between Tundia villages, Dilling Locality, South Kordofan # Village Council Latitude Longitude Distance from Distance from Tundia (km) Dilling(km) 1 Tundia el Nugta 29.4642 12.0044 0.00 20.7 2 Kushal 29.4461 11.9801 4.25 23.8 3 Gaw 29.5072 11.9904 5.10 16.8 4 Afung 29.4823 12.0292 3.50 18.5 5 Aurangi 29.4996 12.0098 4.00 16.9 6 Furash 29.4489 12.0826 8.60 22.4 7 Dilling 29.6519 12.0433 0.00 20.7 8 Salara 29.4833 11.9500 10.0 14.0 (Source: field survey 2010) The terrain of the area is composed of heavily dissected, steep and deeply incised outcrops comprise massifs of granitic rocks which occur as orogenic plutons within the predominately gneissic rocks of the basement complex and they are differentially more susceptible to weathering and erosion. The Tundia mountainous highlands form a water divide from where shallow seasonal streams/ valleys and wadi radiate and discharge east and west wards into Wadi Abu Habil and Wadi El Ghalla respectively (Fig 2). 5 Fig (1) Location of Tundia villages, South Kordofan Fig (2).The highlands of Tundia area is water divide from where wadis radiate 6 2.2 Population As of April 2010 the Tundia area is inhabited by 7786 people, all belonging to one tribe. However according to other sources (e.g. CDF, 2008) the population in the area in 2008 was 3951 people, distributed as shown in Table (2) Table (2) Population Distribution and Growth in Tundia area # Village council Population (April 010) Population(CDF 008 Growth(people) Tundia el Nugta 1890 669 1221 Kushal 984 288 696 Gaw 570 270 300 Afung 1400 1002 398 Aurangi 792 732 60 Furash 2150 990 1160 Total 7786 3951 3835 (Source: Field survey and CDF, 2010 Dilling) The present population in Tundia area (7786) represents about 10.1% of the total population in Salara administrative unit which is composed of about 44 villages. Generally the population density in Tundia is relatively low amounting to about 1297 persons per village; compared to 1820 and 1886 persons per village in other settlements in Salara administrative unit and the whole Dilling locality respectively, while before the war the population density in Tundia area was more than 5000 persons per village. Table (3) Population Mobility and Change (1985 -2010) in Tundia area Year Population Change in population Source 2010 7786 +3835 This study (field survey ) 2008 3951 -21049 CDF study 1992 25000 -15000 War displacement 1985 40000 - Tundia Development Committee As shown in Table (3) during the war period considerable numbers of population were moved out of the area and displaced mainly in Khartoum state as well as in other parts of the Sudan where work opportunities are high, such as El Gezira scheme (central Sudan) and eventually the area was drained from its population during the war period (Fig. 3). From 1999 onwards, the area has received continuous influxes of returnees, however it would require quite a considerable time for the area to gain back its past (pre-war) population density (Fig.3). Notwithstanding other factors, shortage of water is considered as one of the main reason that impedes or discourages repatriations to the area. The whole Tundia area is presently served by 5 schools and 3 health centers, but some of them were destructed during the war (e.g. Gaw) and need rehabilitation and renovation (Table 4),excluding a new school constructed by the World Bank in Tundia village. 7 Fig (3) Population displacement and repatriation in Tundia area, South Kordofan Table (4) Schools and Health centers in Tundia area Village Schools Health centers No Year By whom Present No Year By whom Present conditions Conditions Tundia el 1 2009 World New 1 1983 USAID Needs rehabilitation Nugta Bank Kushal 1 Gaw 1 1954 Government (destroyed in 1 1954 government Destroyed. Needs Of Sudan 92) Needs rehabilitation rehabilitation Afung 1 1983 Community 50% - - - - incomplete Aurangi - - - - - - - - Furash 1 2003 IFAD Good 1 2009 SC(USA) New Total 5 1 (Source: Field Survey, 2010) 8 War-affected Schools in Gaw and Kushal Newly built school by World Bank in Tundia, 2.3 Economic Activities The main economic activities in the area are rain-fed subsistence agriculture and livestock rearing. The climatic conditions in the area allow a wide range of crops to be grown due to relatively high and reliable rainfall, withstanding few years. Each year almost, the amount of annual rainfall is enough for moderate sorghum, groundnut and sesame yields (AACM, 1993). Crop production is mainly practiced on small areas annexed to the houses (locally known as Jubrakas) not exceeding 3 feddans1. However, before the war distant farming to grow cash crops on larger fields was practiced. Presently production and productivity are very low amounting 100 to 200kg/ per feddan as shown in table (5), which also shows the area cultivated and main crops grown in 2009. All people interviewed attributed the low productivity in 2009 to the failure/shortage of rainfall in the same year. 1 The feddan is a unit of area that equals about 0.42 hectare = 4200 square meters or 1.038 acre 9 Table (5): Crops area cultivated and productivity in Tundia area (2009) Crop Cultivated area (feddan) Yield/fedaan Reason of low Minimum Average Maximum (kg) productivity Sorghum 0.5 1.0 3 100 Low rainfall 009 Groundnut 0.5 2.5 4 200 Low rainfall 009 Sesame 0.5 1.25 3 100 Low rainfall 009 Karkadi 0.25 0.5 1 ? Low rainfall 009 (Source: study fiield survey, 2010, Tundia) The livelihood production mechanisms were greatly affected during the war, especially the animal production, as the area was depleted from all its livestock during this period and the consecutive drought years. According to the household survey conducted during this study (2010), the total animal populations in the area are composed of 10069 and 8270 heads of cattle and goats respectively. And only about 30% and 86% of the households in Aurangi own cattle and sheep respectively, while the maximum livestock population and ownership are observed in Furash village(s) where about 84% and 100% of the households own cattle and goats respectively. Tables (6 and 7) respectively show the livestock ownership percentages and numbers in the villages of Tundia area. Table (6) Livestock ownership in Tundia area, South Kordofan Village Cattle owned/family Goat/sheep owned/family HH own HH own Min. Avg. Max Min. Avg. Max. cattle (%) sheep/goat (%) Tundia 0.0 7 20 3 18 40 75% 100% Nugta Kushal 0.0 14 20 0.0 8 22 90% 80% Gaw 0.0 17 27 0.0 15 70 67% 60% Afung 0.0 6 25 0.0 10 36 40% 60% Aurangi 0.0 6 30 0.0 5 21 30% 86% Furash 0.0 15 50 3 15 37 84% 100% (Source: Field Survey 2010) Table (7) Livestock Population in Tundia area Village Cattle no. Goats/sheep no Tundia Nugta 1650 2500 Kushal 2100 1100 Gaw 954 900 Afung 500 1200 Aurangi 350 570 Furash 4515 2000 Total 10069 8270 10 Livestock waiting a whole day to be watered from a hand pump in summer (Tundia, 2010) 2.4 Climate The area lies within the savanna climate, where average annual rainfall is about 543mm. The rainy season extends from June to end of October, but the peak rains occur during the months August and September. As shown in figure (4) the annual rainfall in the area has established a downtrend below its long term mean since 1970s. April and May are the hottest months in the area whereby the temperature reaches about 39.7C, while the minimum temperature is about 15 and occurs during the month January – February. The natural vegetation in the area includes tree species of Acacia seyal, banalities aegyptiaca and perennial grasses which characterize the area as a good grazing land, especially along water courses and watersheds. Vegetation of the Tundia area 11 3. Assessment of Water Supply 3.1 Water Resources in the Area Water resources in the area comprise: rainfall, surface run off (surface water) and groundwater 3.1.1. Rainfall in the area Rainfall and its interaction with other components of climate play a dominant role in most of the population activities in Tundia and South Kordofan state as a whole. Due to absence of rain gauge stations in Tundia, data from Dilling town (about 22km northeast) could be used to exemplify and assess the rainfall behavior in the area. The rainy season in the area, like other places in south Kordofan, follows uni-modal distribution in which rainfall gradually increases in frequency and amounts to a maximum in July and August, then declines and rapidly terminates by the end of October. The average annual rainfall is about 543mm/year. However an exceptionally high amount of annual rainfall exceeding 950mm was recorded in year 1978 and a low value of 300mm was also recorded in year 1982. Rainfall in the area is of low variability amounting about 23% compared to 32% in Rahad area, by way of a comparison. As shown in figure (4), the rainfalls fluctuate up and down the mean, but with a resilient period of above mean rainfall lasting about in 1970s. However the negative or positive departures from the mean are relatively small, withstanding the 430mm excess observed in year 1978. Negative departures of about 200mm of rainfall were also observed in the years 1971,1982,1987,1990. On a broad scale, rainfall in south Kordofan follows a distinct gradient in which the mean annual rainfall decreases from south to north. Isohyets are modified by the influence of the Jebels, as rainfall increases with altitude and decreases northwards. According to (AACM, 1993) the average decrease in annual rainfall is 111 mm per degree latitude northwards(1mm/km), 14mm per degree of latitude and the mean annual rainfall increases 27mm with every increase of 100m in height. The probability of receiving annual rainfall of 300,350,400,425,435,450,475 and 500mm is 0.97, 0.94, 0.87, 0.83, 0.80, 0.77, 0.70 and 0.63 respectively. This probability analysis implies that when crops demand an annual average rainfall of about 470mm, then the amount is satisfied in seven years out of ten and dry conditions may persist for three out of ten years. And when the crop requires about 435mm of annual rainfall for growth, then there is an 80% chance to get this amount of rainfall. Under such condition, crop failure (due to water shortage) may occur in 2 two out of 10years. 12 Fig (4) Dilling Annual Rainfall (1971-2000) 3.1.1 Surface Water The terrain (highlands) of Tundia area and its surroundings is a water divide and form catchment domains for a number of seasonal streams which consequently converge into larger channels flowing further westwards and northeastwards and drain into Khor El Berdab/Elbotha/EllAfin and Khor Abu Habil respectively. Thus the surroundings of the Dilling area form the upper catchment of Khor Abu Habil. When rainfall exceeds evaporation and infiltration capacity, collects into channels and flows as run off mainly during the period July to September in the area. The steep topographic gradients and the bareness of the terrains facilitate initiation of run off. As it appears form the land satellite imageries the Tundia area is characterized by a network of short and wide to narrow khors. The steep gradient of the area facilitates rapid flow amounting up to 120m3/second (IFAD, 1999). Some of the stream flows, retarded by the sandy and relatively permeable nature of the surface terrain in the area, stagnate or disperse locally before entering principal streams. Apparently the Tundia area lacks isolated depressions or pools which normally collect surface run off. The Tundia area forms about 301 km2 of the catchment from where streams radiate, mostly in west and north east directions. By assuming a minimum run off- rainfall coefficient of 1.5% and an average rainfall of about 543mm/year and a catchment area of 301 km2, the average surface run off which could be generated by the rainfall in the area is about 2.4 million m3. However due to high evaporation rate amounting about 75mm/month during July September (IFAD, 2005) and high infiltration capacity of 3.05mm/hour (AACM, 1993), surface run off in the area persists only up to October and beyond that the area experience deficiency in surface water. Table (8) shows the probable run off in the area. The probability or the risk of receiving an annual rainfall less than 300mm which in turn would generate a run off of less than 1.350 million cubic meter, is very low which probably occurs once every 32 years or 3 in 100 years. 13 Table (8) probability of rainfall and calculated run off in Tundia area, South Kordofan Annual rainfall Probability Estimated run off (Mm3/year) (mm) 300 0.97 1.350 350 0.94 1.575 400 0.87 1.800 425 0.83 1.913 435 0.80 1.958 450 0.77 2.025 475 0.70 2.138 500 0.63 2.250 543 0.56 2.443 550 0.54 2.475 575 0.47 2.588 600 0.41 2.700 3.1.3 Groundwater Resources Availability of groundwater directly links with the type and structure of the geological formations in the area. The Tundia area is covered by the rocks of the basement which is composed of granites which crop on the surface. Basically such rocks are of low groundwater potentials due to their impermeable nature. However when they are fractured or weathered they develop secondary porosity and can store and yield appreciable groundwater. Unfortunately in Tundia area the granitic rocks are less fractured and instead they are exposed to weathering and consequently their upper (weathered) mantle is thin and too clayey to serve as a potential aquifer. However due to presence of annual run off on relatively permeable terrain, the rate of infiltration into sub- surface stratum is high. Thus percolates deeper and consequently forming a weathered and locally fractured basement aquifer of limited yield. Apparently the fractured basement aquifers associate with presence of wadi and surface water channels of relatively thick and porous overburden (alluvium) and the two form a coupled aquifer of relatively high specific capacities as the case of Tundia and Kushal wells. Depth to fractured aquifer is about 25 – 50 m and the aquifer yield varies from 2.7m3/hour to less than 0.25 m3/hour. On the other hand when wadis are underlain by less permeable rocks the infiltrated surface water develop into perched aquifers (shallow groundwater) and they frequently intersect with eroded/cut topographic surface along the wadi, groundwater appears and runs on the surface as a base-flow (locally known as Serf). The shallow groundwater in the perched aquifers (locally known as masheish) can be tapped manually by the people. The base-flow and the masheish provide adequate and nearby water sources for human and livestock uses, though they last up to end of November. Groundwater quality in the area is exceptionally of low salinity amounting to less than 300mg/liter, which implies the coupled aquifer receives annual recharge (renewable). On the other hand groundwater in the area is of high fluoride content amounting to 1.8 mg/liter which is beyond the recommended WHO and Sudanese (Public Water Corporation) limits (1.0 mg/liter). 14 According to CDF (Dilling, 2010) fluoride content of 5.5 mg/liter has been detected in groundwater in Dilling area. Clearly the granitic nature of the aquifer explains the presence of the fluoride in groundwater. Excess of fluoride may result into dental flurorosis (staining of teeth) and skeletal effect especially among children. About 50% of the people interviewed during this study have ascertained presence of yellowish staining in their teeth. Results of groundwater quality analysis are shown in annex (3). 3.2 Water Supply Sources Presently the water supply sources in Tundia area include the following:  Traditional water sources  Hand pumps  Hafirs/dams  Water yards Table (9) and Figure (5) show distribution of the water supply sources in the area 3.2.1. Traditional Water Sources Traditional water sources include seasonal streams, base- flow (serif) and masheish (shallow open wells). The seasonal streams (khors) persist and provide surface water for human and livestock uses from June to end of October; however their flow is intermittent and drains away from the area rapidly. Infiltrated surface water which runs as shallow (channel) sub-surface flow occasionally intercepts with surface topographic lines and appears as slow flowing run off (base- flow) on the surface as serif to be accessed by the community for domestic uses. The serif continues for a short period, not more than 45 days after recession of the principal channel run off. Surface run off also infiltrates into shallow and porous wadi deposits to form perched aquifer to be developed manually by digging of shallow open holes not more than 1.5m deep and 0.75m wide to tap clean and good quality (meshish) groundwater. The meshiesh water source is also of short life, persists up to December and is susceptible to pollution. 3.2.2 Hafirs and Dams There are two improved (properly constructed) Hafirs at Tundia and Kushal, constructed by the State Water Corporation of South Kordofan. The design capacity of each hafir is about 30,000 cubic meter, both are fenced and with little or no sign of siltation. In year 2009 the two hafirs failed to store water due to partial washout of the leading (diversion) canal in Tundia Hafir and change of flow direction(s) in Kushal. Basically Kushal Hafir receives its water from a nearby Jebel catchment area from where water is directed to converge into the Hafir stilling pool. In fact, due to irregularities of the topographic gradient and low rainfall in 2009, the Hafir failed to store water. In Tundia, due to poor compaction of the embankment re-constructed by the community, it was washed from the first run off which was deflected away from the Hair. 15 Weak embankment (diversion canal) failed to lead water into Tundia Hafir in 2009 Run off from a Jebel catchment area failed to enter Kushal Hafir due to change in flow direction caused by build of sand/silt mounds on the hafir-feeding channel in 2009 Kurnal dam (Afung) encounters seepage and leakage problems, which could be rectified (located at coordinates 12.058 & 29.4748) Other surface water harvesting sources include an earth dam at Kurnal (located at coordinates 29.4748 & 12.0258) near Afung village. The dam was constructed in 2007 by CARE- Sudan International (NGO). Though it is properly located, it was designed and built without proper soil and hydrological investigations. According to the community the dam leaks through its body and it seeps as its reservoir sits on porous soils and consequently in 2009 the dam stored water lasted 16 only for one month, despite its sizeable storage amounting not less than 0.5 million cubic meters. This problem needs to be investigated, explored and repaired. The problem of the leakage through the dam body can be repaired by cement blasting and grouting, while the downward seepage can be reduced yearly through accumulation of silt. On the other hand the seeped water can recharge groundwater, lead to development of shallow aquifers which can be tapped immediately after dry- up of the dam. 3.2.3 Slim boreholes fitted with hand pumps There are about 9 operational slim boreholes installed with hand pumps plus other two installed with low yielding submersible pumps operated with generators. They abstract water from a fractured basement (granitic) aquifer. Most of the hand pumps are old and of low yield varies between 0.24 to 1.0 cubic meters per hour. Depth of the hand pump is about 20 to 50m. In low yielding hand pumps, the 50m – depth and beyond is inconvenient for manual and hand pumping especially by women and children in the view of the people (women and children) interviewed during this study. Most of the visited hand pumps are excessively operated almost 15 hour a day. The surrounding environment varies, but it is generally poor, with animals and people intermingle, without separation between them. Two slim boreholes in Tundia and Kushal have been installed with 1.5 inch submersible pumps which yield about 2.7 and 1.8 m3/hour respectively. Poor environment. People and animals use and attend the water sources at same time A low -yielding hand pump (Aurongi) and an installed submersible pump (Kushal) 17 3.2.4 Water yards In restrict meaning of the water yard which should include: a borehole, an installed submersible or turbine pump driven by a generator or a diesel engine, an elevated tank, water distribution system, animal watering troughs and human water taps, there is only one such wateryard in Afung, though it is non-operational and of very low yield (less than 500 gallon/hour) in the first place. The capacity of the installed pump exceeds the well specific yield and appropriately it should be replaced by a low capacity submersible or a reciprocating pump. A non-functional wateryard, Afung 2010 Table (9: Water Supply Sources in Tundia area, South Kordofan Village Water supply sources in Tundia Comments Hand Motorized Wateryard Hafir Dam pump Pumps WY (HP) Tundia 2 1 - 1 - Dry hafir Nugta Kushal 3 1 - 1 - Dry hafir, low yield HP One HP not working Gaw 2 - - - - Only one HP working Afung 2 - 1 - 1 Low yield HP. Low yield WY & not working. Dam is dry and leaks. Aurangi 6 - - - - Only one HP is working Furash 3 - - - - One HP not working Total 18 2 1 2 1 8 HPs not working. Hafirs & the dam are dry encountering technical problems 18 Fig (5) Distribution of Water Supply Sources in Tundia area, South Kordofan 19 3.3 Water Supply, Consumption and Demand 3.3.1. Water Supply Available water volume which is supplied by the existing functional water sources, especially during the summer months ( hand pumps and two boreholes installed with submersible pumps at Kushal and Tundia al Nugta) can be estimated at 165.3 cubic meter per day calculated on the following basis.  The yield of the hand pump is relatively low, varying between 0.24 to 1.0 cubic meter per hour.  A hand pump normally works about 15 hours a day in Tundia area  The motorized wells at Kushal and Tundia (al Nugta) yield about 1.8 and 2.7cubic meter per hour respectively and each works about 15 hours a day. Based on the above, the water supply available in Tundia area can be calculated as shown in Table (10) Table (10) Available water supply during summer in Tundia area (2010) Village Hand pumps working 15 Motorized (submersible) Water supply hours/day Pumps working 15 hr m3/day NO Yield/HP Daily No yield Daily m3/hr yield m3/hr yield (m3) (m3) Tundia 2 1.0 30 1 2.7 40.5 70.5 Nugta Kushal 1 0.19 2.9 1 1.8 27 30.0 Gaw 1 1.2 18 - - - 18.0 Afung 2 0.24 7.2 - - - 7.20 Aurangi 1 0.24 3.6 - - - 3.60 Furash 2 1.2 36 - - - 36.0 Total 9 2 165.3 3.3.2 Water Consumption and Demand Basically water consumption means the present water (per capita consumption) consumed by the different categories or water users. The produced water is essentially consumed by people (domestic uses) and livestock. 3.3.2.1 Human Consumption A number of factors, including availability of water, accessibility (in term of distance and time), means of water transport, water use and number of persons per family engaged in water fetching, determines the family water per capita consumption. Based on the results of the household and individuals survey the per capita water consumption in the study area varies from 4.8 l/head/day (Furash) to about 11.5 l/head/day (Afung) as shown in Table (11), while Figure (6) is a frequency 20 distribution of per capita consumption in Tundia area. It depicts that more than 90% of the population receive about 8 liter/head/day which amounts to about 40% of the minimum per capita recommended by WHO and UNICEF, while only 20% of the population in Tundia area obtain this minimum amount ( 20 liter/day/head ). The human water consumption is about 68.77m3/day which constitutes 41.6% of the volume produced by the existing water supply sources. This implies that nearly 60% of the produced water is consumed by livestock. However, this volume suffices only about 43.7% of the livestock in the area and the remaining others (52.2%) are to be watered at Munadal wateryard and/or Kurmuti Hafir, about 10 km and 20 km away respectively from Tundia. Though cattle may need about 20 liter/day, due to water shortage, they are watered one day out of two, while goats are watered (7.5/day) on daily basis. As shown in Table (12) and Figure (7) only at Tundia el Nugta the water supply meets the total (human + livestock) consumption but the total deficit in the area as a whole is about 124.m3/day Table (11) Human and Livestock water consumption in Tundia area Village Human Animals population Total Pop. Average Consumption Cattle Goat Consumption (human+ l/c/d cm/day (head) (head) l/c/day (15 livestock) l/cattle &7.5 liter/day l/goat) Tundia 1890 8.82 16.673 1650 2500 43.5 60.173 Kushal 984 11.1 10.922 2100 1100 47.25 58.2 Gaw 570 10.4 5.9280 954 900 21.1 27.0 Afung 1400 11.26 15.764 500 1200 16.50 32.3 Aurangi 792 11.5 9.110 350 570 9.53 18.60 Furash 2150 4.83 10.375 4515 2000 82.73 93.11 Total 68.77 220.61 289.383 Frequency destribution of wate per capita consumption, Tundia area 100 90 80 70 Frequency 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26 per capita consumption (liter/day/head) Fig (6) Frequency distribution of human water per capita consumption in Tundia 21 Table (12) Water supply and consumption and deficit in Tundia area Human Livestock Human + livestock Village Supply use Deficit Livestock deficit Deficit Cm/day (m3/day) (cm/day) Cm/day Cm/day M3/day Cm/day TundiaNugta 70.5 16.7 +53.8 43.5 27.0 60.2 +10.3 Kushal 30.0 10.9 +19.1 47.25 --17.3 58.2 -28.2 Gaw 18.0 5.9 12.1 21.1 -3.1 27.0 -9.0 Afung 7.20 15.8 -8.5 16.50 -33.0 32.3 -25.1 Aurangi 3.60 9.1 -5.5 9.53 -5.9 18.60 -15.0 Furash 36.0 10.4 25.6 82.73 -46.73 93.11 -57.11 Total 165.3 68.8 96.5 220.5 -54.7 289.3 -124.0 Fig (7) Water supply and consumption curves in Tundia area 3.3.2.2 Water Demand Calculation of the water demand is based on the following assumptions;  Provision/supply of 20 liter per day per person of safe water, which is the minimum amount required by the WHO and the UNICEF for rural dwellers.  Supply of 20 liter per day per head for the livestock and about 7.5 liter day per head for the goat/sheep, on the assumption that livestock drink on daily basis Based on the above assumptions, the total water demand and deficit have been calculated as shown in Table (13) and Figure (8). The total water deficit is about 254.0 cubic meters per day, amounting about 150% (1.5 folds) of the present supply. That means the present supply sources 22 are at least to be doubled to satisfy the demand of the present human and animal populations. However according to the World Bank water demand criteria applied in water stress pastoral areas similar to Tundia in Africa, 10, and 30 and 8 liter per head per day are applied for human, cattle and goat water demands respectively. Accordingly the total water demand and deficit is about 446 and 281 m3/day; respectively compared to 419 and 254m3/day based on WHO/UNICEF criteria (see tables 13 and 13A). Table (13) Human and Livestock, Water Supply, Demand and Deficits in Tundia area Village Supply Human Livestock demand Total Deficit (m3/day) Demand Deficit Cattle goats Demand Deficit demand (m3/d) (m3/d) (m3/d) (m3/day) TundiaNugta 70.5 37.8 32.7 33.0 18.8 51.8 18.7 89.6 -19.1 Kushal 30.0 19.7 10.3 42.0 8.3 50.3 -20.3 70.0 -40.0 Gaw 18.0 11.4 6.6 19.1 6.8 25.9 -7.9 37.3 -19.3 Afung 7.20 28.0 --20.8 10.0 9.0 19.0 -11.8 47.0 -39.8 Aurangi 3.60 15.8 -12.2 7.0 4.3 11.3 -7.7 27.1 -23.5 Furash 36.0 43.0 -7.0 90.3 15.0 105.3 -69.3 148.0 -112.0 Total 165.3 155.7 9.6 201.4 62.2 263.6 -98.3 419.0 -254.0 Table (13A) Water Supply, Demand and Deficits in Tundia area (based on the World Bank Criteria) Village Supply Human Livestock demand Total Deficit (m3/day) Demand Deficit Cattle goats Demand Deficit demand (m3/d) (m3/d) (m3/d) (m3/day) TundiaNugta 70.5 19.00 51.5 49.5 20.1 69.6 +0.9 88.6 -18.1 Kushal 30.0 9.80 20.2 63.0 8.9 71.9 -41.9 81.7 -51.7 Gaw 18.0 5.70 12.3 28.7 7.3 36.0 -18.0 41.7 -23.7 Afung 7.20 14.00 -6.8 15.0 9.6 24.6 -17.4 38.6 -31.4 Aurangi 3.60 7.90 -4.3 10.5 4.6 15.1 -11.5 23.0 -19.4 Furash 36.0 21.50 14.5 135.5 16.0 151.5 -115.1 173.0 -137.0 Total 165.3 78.0 87.4 302.2 66.5 368.7 -203.4 445.6 -281.3 23 Livestock consume about 60% of the water produced by the hand and motorized pumps Fig (8) Water Supply - Demand Curves, Tundia 2010 3.3.3 Accessibility to Water Accessibility to water supply sources is governed by distance of the water source from users‟ dwellings, time to fetch water and means of water transport. Distance and location of the water sources are normally controlled by hydrogeological factors and availability of groundwater. In Tundia and other similar areas underlain by fractured aquifers water, wells are almost located near water courses and channel to guarantee recharge to the aquifer. In Tundia area, distance to water source, especially during summer varies from 0.5km to 3km. However, about 80% of the population is located within one km of the water supply sources (Fig.9) 24 40 35 30 Population [%] 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.5 0.75 1 2 3 Distance to water sources in Summer [km] Figure (9). Distance to water supply sources during summer, Tundia area. The time spent in water fetching and collection depends largely on the travelling time to the water source and waiting time to obtain water. Families in Tundia area spend between 0.5 to 9.5 hours daily to obtain water during summer, mainly from hand pumps. However, about 70% of the families in Tundia area,spend about 0.5 to 1.5 hours daily fetching water (Fig 10). Normally when the spent time in water fetching is more than 3 hours, most likely the source is outside the village and dwellers need to travel and spend longer distances and time. Generally waiting time at the water sources (hand pump) is a determinant factor in the daily time spent by the family to secure its domestic water supply. Graphical representation between time spent and travelled distance (Fig. 11) shows good correlations at those sites where hand pumps are of relatively high yield and consequently users need not to wait longer to get water (Kushal, Furash, Tundia). Contrarily is true at those hand pumps of little water yield, where users wait long for water (e.g. Aurangi, Gaw). Women and girls are mostly responsible for family water provision. Two members of the family or one person goes at least twice a day to fetch water. They carry water either on their heads, donkeys and/or bicycles. 25 40 35 30 Population [%] 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 Time to get water [hr] Fig (10) Frequency of time spent in getting Water, Tundia Kushol Village 7 6 y = 3.469x - 1.9431 5 R2 = 0.8745 Time spent [hr] 4 3 2 1 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Distance to w ater sources [km] Aurngei Village 7 6 y = 0.0981x + 2.8206 5 R2 = 0.0428 Time spent [hr] 4 3 D 2 1 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Distance to w ater sources [km] Fig (11) time –distance relation & correlation values point to water availability at the source 26 Means of water transport (by women and girls) from the water sources in Tundia area 3.4 Causes of Water Deficit The remarkable water deficit/shortage in Tundia, especially during the summer months, can be attributed, but not necessarily limited to the following:  Lack of potential groundwater resources due to presence of basement rock which are non-water bearing formation, withstanding fractured ones. Here the granitic rocks are less fractured, but instead they are moderately to highly weathered forming a low yield aquifer which cannot support construction of high capacity water yards. Also the granitic aquifer is of high fluoride contents which renders groundwater unfit (beyond 1.5 mg/liter).  Low rate of hand pumps coverage compared to the population in the area. According to UNICEF ideal standard which demands one pump for 250 persons, the present Tundia population (7786 persons) should be served by about 31 hand pumps, compared to only 9 at present. The situation is further aggravated by complete destruction of 9 pumps during the war.  Presence of fine-grained sandy and permeable topographic surface which are unfavorable for construction of Hafirs and storage dams in some places in the area. However construction of (leaky) dams seems to be feasible since it would contribute to recharge of groundwater. Also the nature of soil does not readily assist manual compaction, resulting into weak embankments which can easily be washed out by run off. Also the topography of the area forms a steep gradient water divide, enhance surface erosion and rapid out flow of run off, thus depleting the area from surface water resources shortly after the rainy season 27  Continuous influx of returnees putting pressure on the existing low capacity water sources.  High animal water demand which constitutes about 60% of the present supplies from existing water sources.  Sudden withdrawal of some NGOs (e.g. Care, SC (USA)) from the area leaving works uncompleted; but already started water projects such Kushal dam (by SC) and rectification of Kurnal dam constructed by Care. These abovementioned causes underpin the problem of water shortage in Tundia area. 3.5 Impact of Water Shortage The water shortage has affected and impacted on the population of Tundia area in many ways including but not necessarily limited to the following:  Prevalence of some water (shortage)-related diseases such as eye infections, diarrhea and skin diseases. Also the effect of the high fluoride concentration in groundwater is reflected on yellow staining of the teeth of some people in the area. prevalence of water related diseases among the interviewed people is summarized in the following table (14) Table (14) Prevalence of some water related diseases in Tundia area. Prevalent disease Frequency of prevalence (%) of some water related diseases in Tundia area Eye infection 53.3 % Skin disease 16.7% Diarrhea 23.3% Goiter 6% Staining of teeth 40% (Source: Field Survey, 2010)  Reduced water per capita consumption as about 80% of the population consume about 8 liter/head/day, which is about 40% of the minimum per capita required in the rural areas according to WHO, Unicef and PWC standards. As well livestock also receive almost half their daily demand they are watered every other day.  Poor accessibility to water supply sources; in terms of distance and time spent in water fetching (including waiting time at the source).More than 60% of the population (interviewed) fetch water from a distance equals or more than 1.0 km from their dwellings. This distance is more than what it is required by UNICEF (less than 1.0km) for the rural population. In terms of time, about 70% of the families spend more than 1.5 hour to fetch and get water for domestic uses and normally about 2 persons from the families are engaged twice a day on water fetching Therefore at least 3.0 to 6.0 hour per day per family time are spent on water. In most cases this time is at the expense of other social and housekeeping activities and/or school attendance; especially for women and girls who are responsible for water provision. 28 A girl (on the left) left primary school (from 8th grade). Due to break down of the submersible pump in Kushal, she travelled by bicycle from there to Tundia (4.25km) to fetch water.  Imposing of restrictions on water pumping and on water collection time for domestic uses at the hand pumps. As water sources (hand pumps) are shared between human and livestock uses (60% for livestock) the village development committees have imposed unfair regulations that limit the time for human users to 4 hours daily (from 6 pm to 8 pm) and from 5 am to 7am, especially at Tundia and Kushal where submersible pumps have been installed. Women in Tundia are very much unsatisfied with this arrangement which favors livestock. Other than this allocated time women are not allowed (willingly) to get water from the pumps. They stated that the evening time (from 5 pm to 7 pm) does not suit them since it contradicts with their other house activities, such as cooking, and they feel unsafe to stay and travel back home beyond 7pm. They have suggested that a time between 7 am – 10 am daily would suit them. During the study, this issue was discussed by the consultant with the village development Committee and the Mak (chief of the tribe) who agreed to the arrangement suggested by the women group. Other unfair arrangement: human users, while pumping to fill their containers, should allow half of the water to spill/drain into a trough for drinking of livestock. All people interviewed, though women are not satisfied with this arrangement, have ascertained that the arrangements are direct resultant of the water shortage in the area and optimization between human and livestock demand has to be made.  Frequent disputes and friction between users, especially between livestock owners and other water users. However such disputes are normally resolved by the village development committee and/or the sheikh at the village level.  The shortage of water also deters people from readily returning to their home land (Tundia) 29 The women complained about the unfair water supply arrangement at the motorized pump. In the presence of the women group and the consultant, the Mak and another tribal leader agreed to the suggestion made by women to access water from 7 to 10 am Water users are asked to allow half of the hand-pumped water to spill for livestock uses 3.6 Community- based Initiatives Endeavors to solve the water shortage problem in the area included the following: 1. Purchasing and installing two submersible pumps at Tundia and Kushal. Both communities at Tundia and Kushal collected money from the household members, especially the livestock owner to purchase two submersible pumps operated by electric generators, installed in the placement of hand pumps and each costing about 18,000 SDG. The installed submersible pumps not only alleviated the burden of hand pumping, but also increased the yield from previously operated hand pump by about 2 to 3 folds. Water from these installed motorized pumps is sold at 1.5 SDG per head per month for the livestock and 2.0SDG per month per a household. According to the assigned operators (by Village Development Committee) the monthly revenue is about 1500 SDG. The Kushal development committee deposits the revenue in a bank account in Dilling, while in Tundia the money remains under the custody of the VDC 2. The Arungi community working with CDF, has contributed about 18,000 SDG, representing 10% of total cost for construction of a complete water yard at Arungi. The 30 balance is to be provided by the CDF project. The proposed site for drilling of the borehole has been selected by geophysical measurements. 3. Construction of earth dams at Gaw and Tundia to intercept Jebel run off. The selected sites look appropriate in term of initiation of run off and the length of the span to be dammed. Despite the noticeable effort exerted by the communities their initiatives lack real technical expertise and input. The dammed soil and the earth embankments are not well compacted, placed on steep-gradient sites and most likely would be washed easily by the steep-flowing (Jebel) run off. 4. The community also participated by denoting local labors and materials in Kurnal dam built by Care – Sudan International in 2008; as well as participating in construction of Kushal dam which has not been completed due to expulsion of SC (USA) from the country. 5. The South Kordofan State Water Corporation recent effort (2008) to solve the water problem in the area is exemplified in an unsuccessful drilling of a borehole in Kushal area. The failure of the borehole is attributed to bad selection of the well -site from a hydro-geological point of view From the abovementioned initiatives one can conclude that: without real technical inputs benefits from community based efforts addressing the water problem remain in vain. Appreciable community effort, but lacked technical inputs to build (manually) small earth dams at Tundia and Gaw (2010). They are susceptible to washing out by run off 3.7 Management of Water Supply Sources Management of water supply sources in the area relies on community –based approaches and initiatives whereby the VDC at each village fosters operation, maintenance and management of water supply sources especially hand pumps. The village development committee is composed of a total of 12 to 15 persons including 4 to 5 women. The Tundia Technical Committee ( a Khartoum-based committee) played an important role in organizing and establishing of these village development committees at the 6 villages in Tundai area and they work in close coordination and liaison with other CBOs, specially the traditional leaders headed by the Mak of 31 the Tundia area. Also the chair persons of these village development committees received training in Kadugli conducted by FAR (an NGO). They were trained in aspects and principles of development and investment. Notwithstanding other responsibilities; the VDCs put special emphasis on development and management of water supply sources. The VDCs embody the following responsibilities for operation, maintenance and management of water supply sources:  Organizing and mobilizing the community and donating money to implement water projects using the nafeer system (communal work)  Supervising the water supply sources (hand pumps) on a daily basis.  Assignment of local mechanics to repair broken hand pumps. Local mechanics are present at all villages of Tundia, however some of the mechanics lack tool kits.  Collection of revenue from water users on a monthly basis at a rate of 2 to 3 SDG per month per household for domestic uses and 1.5 to 3 SDG per month per head from the livestock owners. The collected revenue is used for repairing of hand pumps which break down at a pace of 2 to 3 times per month during summertime as emphasized by the community during this field survey. For instance the cost of a repair can go from 60 to 140 SDG depending on the cost of the spare parts needed.  Settlement of the disputes between different water users  Liaison with the relevant government institutions, NGOs and the tribe leaders regarding water and other development activities in the area. 32 4. Water Supply Development Strategy in Tundia Area 4.1 Objectives The overall objective of the water supply development strategy (WSDS) is to contribute to the improvement of socio-economic and health conditions, as well as coexistence of the communities and mitigation of conflict through alleviating the water shortage problem in Tundia area by the end of year 2011. However the overall objective is underlain by the following specific objectives:  Provision of at least 20 liters per day per head of safe water for the whole population of Tundia by developing the existing water supply sources and construction of new ones by 2010-2011.  Provision of about 20 liters per day and 7.5 per day per head for all cattle and goats in Tundia area by 2010- 2011  Strengthening the capacity of 6 village development committees and women groups to foster sustainable operation, maintenance and management of the developed and newly constructed water supply sources and enabling them to develop and implement water supply plans in Tundia area by the end of year 2010- 2011.  Improving accessibility (measured in time) to safe water supply sources in Tundia area, particularly for women and children, by the end of year 2010 -2011 It should be noted that the issues pointed out are generic to the region and as such the recommendations made for this specific case-study in Tundia apply to all of South Kordofan State. 4.2 Strategic approach The strategy for development of water supply sources would be hinged upon the following benchmarks:  Provision of 20 liter/day/person on a sustainable basis from safe water supply sources all year round.  Participation of the community in the water supply development activities to consolidate the sense of ownership which is an important factor for achieving sustainability of the improved water supply sources.  Suitability of the constructed and the installed water system to the local environment and conditions in the area and affordably be operated, maintained and managed by the served community taking into consideration the economic, social and cultural capacities.  Linkage with the relevant government, NGOs and other institution in Dilling area.  Maximizing the benefit from provision of water supply by integrating it with development and utilization of other natural resources, especially rangelands in the area and improvement of other social services such as health and education.  Focusing on rehabilitation of the existing water supply sources plus improvement of the community –based water harvesting initiatives at Tundia, Gaw and Kushal, as immediate 33 (first year) interventions to be geared into the overall development plan/strategy of the area.  The developed water supply source should show immediate and tangible changes, positive impacts, enhance peace and consolidate the coexistence in the area.  Focusing and maximizing utilization of surface water resources since groundwater resources in the area are limited and moreover harvesting of surface can assist in recharging the shallow aquifer which can be tapped by shallow hand dug wells. Focusing as well on encouragement of establishing off-season small farms for vegetable production by women groups.  Giving priority to women and children preferences with the aim of reducing the burden they face on fetching and provision of drinking water for their families and saving them time for other domestic, social and economical (income generating) activities 4.3 Components of the WSDS Objectives of the proposed water supply development strategy would be achieved upon implementation of the following components and their related activities: 1. Development of surface water sources Development surface water sources would include the following:  Rehabilitation of the two existing hafirs at Tundia and Kushal located at coordinates 12.0009 & 29.4491 and 11.9613 & 29.4451 respectively  Upgrading of the dam built by the community in Tundia located at 12.0107 N & 29.4714 E  Completing construction of the dam which was started by CARE in Kushal  Rehabilitation of Kurnal dam (at 12.0258 & 29.4748) to be preceded by technical assessment to determine the causes of leakage  Construction of a new dam at Tousei located at coordinate 11.9968 & 29.5288 2. Development of groundwater supply sources In groundwater development component, the required work consists in increasing water supply from the existing groundwater sources. This would include:  Installation of two submersible pumps, one each in Tundia and Furash  Installation of a submersible pump in place of the existing one at Afung borehole  Construction of a water-yard in Furash 4.3.1. Development of surface water sources 4.3.1.1 Rehabilitation of the Hafirs The main objective of rehabilitating the existing two hafirs at Tundia and Kushal is to ensure diversion of run off into the hafirs to secure water supply from their storages essentially during the summer months. 34 Due to weakness inflected in the earth embankment of the leading canal of the Tundia hafir, it encounters frequent wash out by the run off descending from the nearby Jeblel. Community efforts to restore and maintain the washed out section (about 20 m length) continually fails; lacking the appropriate technical input, particularly proper soil compaction and stone pitching. Thus the work required to re-enforce this weakest section of the embankment should include the following:  Removal of the top loose soils along washed out section and excavating it to the stable soil about 2 m deep.  Back filling of the trench and embanking it with clayey soil and to be machine compacted.  Dressing the built section and other weaker points along the embankment with stone pitching or gabions to protect it and minimize water erosion.  Cleaning and removal of the silts and debris accumulated on the bed of the leading/diversion channel.  Provision of two metal water troughs for watering of livestock  Provision of a centrifugal pump for lifting water from the hafir into the animal watering troughs The failure of Kushal Hafir to store run off in 2009 was also due to the failure of the leading channel to divert water into the stilling pool from which water runs into the inlet well. Apparently the location of the hafir is appropriate considering its adjacent Jebel catchment area from where a number of short channels descend to the hafir. However due to accumulation of silts brought by the high velocity run off from the Jebel and change of channel gradients, run off was in short of entering the stilling pool and consequently the hafir failed in 2099. Here the work required includes the following:  Conduction of a topographic survey along the main channel to determine the changes encountered in the land surface and its gradient.  Removal of the sand bars and silts accumulated across the leading channels and canal.  Widening of the channel and introducing energy dissipaters to reduce the high speed run off entering the stilling pool.  De-silting of the inlet and out let wells  Covering of the outlet well with a concrete slab and installation of two hand pumps for human use to protect drinking water from surface contaminants entering the open outlet well  Provision of two metal trough for the animals use  Provision of one centrifugal pump for lifting water from the hafir to the animal troughs These arrangements aim at enhancing water hygiene measures by preventing animals from wading into the hafir and not to mix with people at the water source 35 4.3.1.2 Completion of the Kushal dam This dam was started by Care–Sudan, but it has not been completed due to expulsion of the organization in early 2009. The community participated by: digging of 200 m long and 2-4 m wide trench for laying foundation of the dam and collection local (rock) materials. However the 20m trench across the main channel has been silted up by last year (2009) run off. The work required to complete this dam includes the following:  Completing digging of the trench for the dam foundation by the community  Provision of building materials; mainly local materials (rocks, gravel and sands) and cements.  Masonry works, including building of the spill way and the dam body  Installation of at least two sluice gates to help in washing of the previous year (s) accumulated silt The dam is expected to store annually about 0.5 million cubic meters for human, livestock uses and recharging of shallow aquifers and may avail irrigation water for horticultural production in the long run. The community remarkably participated through excavation and provision of local materials, but the dam has not been completed due to expulsion of the NGO, Kushal 2010 4.3.1.3. Construction of a new dam at Tousei The location of this dam (11.9968 & 29.5288) is very strategic and demanded since it would serve not only the Tundia area, but other communities from Salara and Kurmati will benefit from it. From location point of view the span to be dammed (built) is narrow not exceeding 20m and bounded from both sides by high cliffs and of wide semi-circular shape on the upper stream side, thus forming an ideal back storage. The dam can store about 0.5 to one million cubic meters pending the results of the required investigations and the final design. The works required would include, but not necessarily be limited to:  Conduction of hydrological, topographical and soil test survey to judge on suitable of the site for construction of the dam 36  Completion of designs and bill of quantities  Preparation of the tender documents and the implementation plans  Mobilization of the community to solicit their willingness in participating in the project.  Conduction of environmental impact assessment study to view the positive and negative impact of the dam and suggestion of the mitigation measures. The community can contribute in construction of this dam by providing unskilled labors and provision of local materials 4.3.2 Development of groundwater supply sources 4.3.2.1 Upgrading of two hand pumps at Tundia and Furash Here the main objective is to increase the yield from slim boreholes now fitted with hand operated pumps by replacing them with submersible pumps and to reduce the time spent by women and children on water fetching and waiting to fill their containers. The lessons learned by installation of a low capacity submersible pump in place of hand operated pump are that the yield from the same well can be tripled in addition to lifting the over burden of manual pumping endured by women and children. The work required will include:  Mobilizing the community to participate and denote cash contribution at a minimum of 40% of the total cost  Supply and installation of 2� -1.5‟ submersible pumps with all accessories and fittings to be installed at Tundia and Kushal based on the specific capacities of the boreholes.  Supply of 2 generators for operation of the submersible pumps  Supply of 4 metal troughs; 2 per site for watering of the livestock  Provision of 2 water storage tanks each with a capacity of at least 5m3 to facilitate women accessibility to water at Tundia (2 tanks ) and Furash 4.3.2.2 Installation of a submersible pump at Afung borehole Though a complete water-yard, in terms of facilities, is present, it remains idle as the borehole is of low yield and the installed pump is of high capacity exceeding the well specific yield in Afung. Therefore it is required to supply and install a submersible pump to replace the idle high capacity installed now at borehole. Also the possibility of installing a reciprocating pump can be explored. This can be discussed and coordinated with the State Water Corporation in Dilling and the community. 4.3.2.3 Construction of a water-yard at Furash The Furash village(s) suffers from a paramount water deficit compared to the high water demand. The present existing supply sources which produce about 36 cubic meters per day meet only about 24% of the total demand (148 cubic meters per day). Even in case of replacing of the existing hand pump by a submersible one, only 40% of the demand would be met. Therefore 37 construction of a water-yard in Furash is deemed important. The proposed water yard is to be composed of the following components  An 6.6 “ production borehole  An electric generator submersible pump  A 25 m3 elevated tank  Animal watering troughs  Human taps separated from the animal section  All water-yard components are to be enclosed in a fenced compound. Drilling of the borehole is to be based on a detailed hydro-geophysical survey to locate the favorable site in term of availability of groundwater and aquifer depth. Participation and contribution of the community are pre-requisite.for construction and future sustainability of the water-yard. 4.3.2.4 Completion of hydrological and hydro-geophysical studies So as to determine and locate feasible sites for development of water resources for integrated rural development in the area and provision of adequate safe drinking water from sustainable boreholes, hydrological and hydro-geophysical studies are to be conducted in the Tundia area. The Groundwater and Wadis Directorate in South Kordofan (Kadougli) and/or in North Kordofan (El Obied) can be involved in conduction of the required study 4.3.2.5. Promoting Removal of Excessive Fluoride from Groundwater at Household Level Chemical analysis of groundwater samples has indicated presence of fluoride at excessive levels (more than allowable limits in human drinking water) in Tundia area. As alternative water supply sources, other than localized groundwater in fractured rocks, are limited, especially during the summertime, de-fluoridation processes or removal of excessive fluoride from groundwater are required to bring its level to the allowable limits in drinking water(1.5 mg/liter). The most common methods for removal of excessive fluoride at domestic and household levels include, but are not necessarily limited to: bone charcoal, contact precipitation, Naglonda and clay methods. Detailed description of these methods is found in Bailey (2006). The simplest method which can be piloted and promoted at household level in Tundia area is the clay fluoride- removal technique. Here clay column filters (stratified layers) can be packed in a drum or any other suitable container through which raw water can be passed (filtered) before being recovered into another container. Such simple process of filtration is capable of removal of excess fluoride in raw water and brings it to the acceptable level in drinking water for human Clay chips found as waste from the manufacture of bricks and pottery practiced in the area can be used as stratified filtration media. Depending on the raw water quality, and on the quality of the brick chips, a post-filtration through charcoal may be a precondition to obtain good water quality. A column filter, a drum and/or double buckets configurations can be set at household level depending on the family size and per capita consumption. Therefore within this project it is required to promote introduction of de-fluoridation at household level using local materials. The materials required include chips of burnt bricks (locally available), taps and plastic containers (tins or drums) and training of the communities. The community can participate by providing and preparations of the brick and 38 pottery chips, while the project can provide the technical knowhow and the taps. The cost of the project during the piloting and promotion phase, targeting about 230 families in the area is estimated at 37140 SDG, encompassing the following items Item/activity unit Number Unit Cost Sub-total cost Community (SDG) (SDG) contribution (%) Introduction of the Job 1 1500 15000 project and community mobilization and training of trainers Provision of plastic pcs 460 4 1840 containers Provision of taps and pcs 230 10 2300 fittings Provision of clay and - - - - 100% brick chips Monitoring and LS 18000 evaluation Total cost of the project, 37,140 piloted at 230 families in Tundia area 4.3.3 Training of the Village Development Committees The village development committees, especially their members engaged in operation, maintenance and management of water supply sources are to be trained to build their capacities in that respect. The village development committee should be trained on general management aspects of integrated water resources management, operation and maintenance, with emphasis on the following:  Daily administration of the water supply source.  Community mobilization for participation in water supply projects in the area.  Book keeping, collection and management of the water revenue  Setting and enforcement of rules and acts to protect the water supply source  Resolution of water and natural resources-related disputes  development of plans for improvement of water supply sources and sustainability issues  Setting up and calculation of affordable and cost effective water tariff.  Water hygiene, environmental and water related-diseases aspects  Training of village mechanics on routine maintenances and repairs  Monitoring of water supply sources; including daily water supplied by the source, number and types of water users, frequency of breakdown and cost of repairs/maintenance  Other aspects demanded by the village water committees 39 4.3.4 Summary of the proposed interventions Table (15) summarizes the components, objectives, activities and outputs of the proposed water supply development strategy in Tundia area. Table (15) Summary of the proposed water supply interventions in Tundia area Component Objectives Activities Out put Beneficiaries 1 Rehabilitation of Ensure diversion Removal of the loose top Storage of about Livestock owner in Tundia Hafir of runoff into the soil, back filling, and 18000m3 in the Tundia area hafir to secure compaction of the washed- hafir water for livestock out embankment and dressing it with stone pitching. Provision of 2 animal water troughs and a centrifugal pump 2 Rehabilitation of Ensure diversion of Topographic surveying Net storage of Livestock and Kushal hafir runoff into the hafir along the diversion about 18000 m3 in households in to secure water for channels. Removal of the the Hafir Kushal livestock and accumulated silts and sand human uses bars across the channel and widening it. Cleaning of the in and outlet wells. Installation of hand pumps on the outlet well. Provision of 2 animal water troughs and a centrifugal pump 3 Completing To store seasonal Removal of soil pounded Availability of Livestock owners construction of run off from the design and building of a surface water in Tundia and Gaw. the dam initiated jebels for livestock masonry spill across span storage up to by the use and recharge of of about 10m January – March community in shallow (perched ) Tundia aquifer 4 Construction of Harvesting run off Topographic survey. Soil Availability of Communities of masonry dam at for livestock and testing and design and about 300,000 Tundia, Slara and Tousei human uses during preparation of bill of cubic meter during Kurmati summer and quantities and project summer administrative units recharge of shallow document. in Dilling locality aquifer 5 Investigation of To reduce the water Conduction of detailed Availability of Human and the cause of losses encountered hydrological and surface water and livestock Upon its leakage and by the dam geotechnical investigation shallow- recharged rectification seepage to identify the problem and groundwater encountered by suggestion of remedy Kurnal dam measures 5 Upgrading of Increasing the yield Purchasing and installation Availability of Human and slim boreholes by by 3 folds. of 2 submersible pumps about 1.8 to 2.7 partially animal installing them Relief the women equipped with generators m3/hour per pump population in submersible and children from and other accessories in Tundia and Tundia and Furash 40 Component Objectives Activities Out put Beneficiaries pumps in place of burden of hand furash hand pumps in pumping and Tundia and reduce the time Furash spent on water fetching 6 Replacement of Provision of safe Purchasing and installation Availability of Human and the high capacity water from a of 2‟ submersible about 2.5 m3/hour livestock uses in pump installed at sustainable source compatible with the low Afung Afung all year round specific capacity of the existing borehole plus a generator 7 Construction of a Provision of safe Conduction of geophysical Availability of Human and water-yard in water from a investigation to locate the about 5m3/hour livestock uses Furash sustainable source drilling site, drilling and (75m3/day) for human and installation of the borehole livestock with a submersible pump, construction of an elevated tank and installation of human taps and animal troughs 8 Promotion of Reduce the fluoride Community mobilization Piloting About 230 families removal of level to drinking Construction and awareness, provision of of in Tundia area excess fluoride water standard containers fluoride removal from using brick chips at groundwater household levels 9 Conduction of Location of Conduction of geological A document All people of hydrological and feasible sites for and hydro-geophysical and encompassing Tundia and hydro- development of hydrological and favorable sites for neighboring areas geophysical water resources for geotechnical surveys construction of studies integrated rural dams and drilling development in the of borehole as a area and provision long term of adequate safe development drinking water perspective from sustainable sources 10 Strengthening the Enabling the Conduction of training Well trained All village capacity of the village courses targeting members community developments in village development of the village development members in water the 6 village of development committees to committees resources Tundia committees and foster sustainable management women groups in operation, Tundia area maintenance and management 41 4.4 Expected impact of the WSDS The anticipated positive impact and benefits from the envisaged interventions proposed in this WSDS would include, but would not necessarily be limited to the following:  Availability of about 36000 cubic meter per year from the rehabilitated hafirs at Tundia and Kushal, withstanding the drought years (rainfall less than 300 mm) which prevail with a probability of 3% i.e. 3 times in 100 years.  By construction of a new dam at Tousei, about 0.3 Mm3 per year will be availed which is more than the total human and the animal demand in Tundia area. However the dam can attract other communities from Salara and Kurmuti areas as its location is triple junction between these areas and Tundia.  Saving of water collection time especially for women and girls. The saved time can be utilized by them in other social and income generating activities and may allow children to attend their schools.  Increasing the per capita to a minimum of 20 liter per person per head for human and cattle will be allowed to drink daily instead of every other day as the present case. This will be positively impacted on the human and animal health; mainly by reduction in prevalence of water related diseases and improvement of sanitation and hygiene in the area.  Bringing different tribes together by sharing and managing common water supply sources; thus enhancing tribal coexistence and stability and reducing water- related conflict among them.  Enabling utilization of other natural resources, especially pasture, in a balanced manner instead of concentration of livestock beyond the capacity of the land around specific water points.  Availability of water will encourage repatriations to the area However the anticipated negative impact of the water improvement in the area could be the following:  Attraction in the area of large numbers of livestock from other areas, which exceeds the carrying capacity of the Tundia land.  Construction of dams, especially through community-based initiatives, without detailed hydrological and soil assessment may cause adverse effects in the surrounding and/or downstream areas.  The continuous excessive use of groundwater with high level of fluoride may lead to health problems. 4.5 Sustainability of the water supply sources Elements that could enhance and insure sustainability of the proposed water supply sources in the area include but are not necessarily limited to the following. 42  In first place, provision of water supply for human and animal populations is a priority identified by all people of Tundia and by necessity they do utmost efforts to keep their water supply source operational (sustainability by necessity )  Presence of trained village water committees and trained local mechanics for maintenance of hand pumps in all Tundia villages.  Willingness of the communities to participate, denote cash, provide labor and materials for construction of the water supply project. This helps consolidating the sense of ownership which is a key factor in achieving sustainability.  Tundia communities are homogenous, enlightened and gained useful experiences and learned lessons from other communities outside the area.  Presence of (educated) tribal leaders working in harmony and in close coordination with the village development committees and other CBOs in the area.  Nearness of the area to Dilling locality where relevant government institutions and NGOs are present and provide back-up support to the village development committees in Tundia  Generation of water revenue which will be utilized in operation, maintenance and development of water supply sources in the area. 4.6 Implementation Plan The proposed plan for development of water supply sources in Tundia area can be implemented in 18 - 24 months starting from October 2010. The main partners will be the communities and the village development committees in Tundia area, the Technical Committee for Development of Tundia area, NOGs and International organizations (e.g. CDF and World Bank) working or intending to work in the area and State Water Corporation in Dilling/Kadougli. The envisaged roles and responsibilities of the identified partners are summarized in Table (16) 43 Table (16) Roles and responsibilities of the proposed project partners # Potential partner Role and responsibilities 1 Tundia communities -Provis0ion of unskilled labor, local construction materials and cash contributions(women groups in Tundia area normally participating by preparation of food for the workers in the communal projects 2 Development Committees Community mobilization, supervision, monitoring, in Tundia area coordination and liaison with NGOs, local government institutions and with Technical Committee for Development of Tundia area. Resolution of disputes arising during implementation of the project 3 Technical Committee for Coordination with the village development committees in Development of Tundia area Tundia. Seeking funds for implementation of the proposed projects. Assist in training of the VDCs 4 State Water Corporation in Conduction of technical studies and design of the proposed Dilling/Kadougli water projects. Technical supervision and monitoring during implementation of the projects. Provision (on cost) of materials and mechanical parts for hand pumps and water- yards. Assist in technical training of the VDC. 5 NGOs/IOs Provision of total or partial funds for implementation of the projects. Assist in building capacity of the VDCs and women water users group. 6 Groundwater and Wadis, Conduction of hydro-geophysical and hydrological studies. South Kordofan 4.7 Estimated Cost The indicative total cost of the proposed water development interventions is about 1,161,000 (one million and one hundred and sixty one thousand SDG of which community participation amounts about 18%, detailed as shown in Table (17) Table (17) Estimated costs of the proposed water supply projects in Tundia area, South Kordofan. SWSD component Item Unit No Unit price Sub- % of (SDG)000 total(000 community SDG) participation Upgrading of Installation of submersible Pumps 2 5 10 50% existing slim pumps borehole(HP) in Supply and fixation of Generators 2 3 6 50% Tundia and Kushal electric generators Supply of animal watering Metal troughs 4 2 8 50% troughs Provision and installation Storage tanks 3 8 24 50% of fiber class storage tanks Sub-total 1 48 50% Replacement of the Supply and install a Pump 1 5 10 10% high capacity pump submersible pump by an appropriate Sub-total 2 10 10% low capacity one 44 SWSD component Item Unit No Unit price Sub- % of (SDG)000 total(000 community SDG) participation Construction of a Conduction of Job 1 2 2 10% water-yard in geophysical survey Furash Drilling, completion and Complete total 200 ft 0.15 36 10% development of a 6� footage borehole to a depth of 210 ft Pumping test Job 1 3 3 10% Installation of a Pump 1 7 7 10% submersible pump Fixation of a generator Generator 1 4 4 10% Erection of 25m3-tank on Erected tank on 1 30 30 10% 6m tower 6m tower Supply of animal watering Metal troughs 2 2 4 10% troughs Installation of a platform A platform with 1 5 5 10% with taps for human users 6 taps +stand pipe Pipes connections from Job 1 3 3 10% the borehole to tank and from it to the troughs and human taps Construction of the pump Room 1 8 8 10% and generator room Fencing of the water-yard 40mx30m fence 1 12 12 10% with two separate human and animal compounds Sub-total 3 114 10% Rehabilitation of Removal of the loose M3 300 0.05 15 70% Tundia Hafir top soil along a section of 25m length to the stable strata about 2m depth and back filling, and compaction Dressing the front face M3 50 0.3 15 50% of the embankment with stone pitching Provision of animal Troughs 2 2 4 10% water troughs p Provision of a Pump 1 6 6 10% centrifugal pump +diesel engine Sub-total 4 40 21% Rehabilitation of Conduction of a Job 1 2 2 Kushal Hafir topographic surveying along the diversion channels. Removal of the M3 300 0.1 30 70% accumulated silts and sand bars across the 45 SWSD component Item Unit No Unit price Sub- % of (SDG)000 total(000 community SDG) participation channel and widening Cleaning of the inlet Wells 2 2 4 50% and out let wells. Provision of 2 animal Troughs 2 2 4 10% water troughs. Provision of a Pump 1 6 6 10% centrifugal pump+ a diesel engine Sub-total 5 48 50% Completing Completing digging of M3 400 0.05 20 100% construction of the trench for the dam the Kushal dam foundation by the community Provision of building M3 100 0.8 80 20% materials; mainly local materials (rocks, gravel and sands) and cements and Masonry works, including building of the spill way and dam body Installation of at least Gates 2 15 30 10% two sluice gates to help in washing of the previous year (s) accumulated silt Sub-total 6 130 30% Construction of Topographical, soil and Job 1 20 20 10% masonry dam at hydrological surveys and Tousei design Excavation works M3 400 0.05 20 100% Masonry works including M3 650 0.8 520 10% materials Installation of sluice gates Gates 2 15 30 10% with valves and pipes Provision of pumping Pumping system 1 8 8 10% system (pump + a generator) Animal watering troughs Troughs 4 2 8 10% Sub-total 7 606 13% Piloting/promotion Provision of containers, Number 230 0.1614 37.14 20% of excess fluoride taps and fittings, and removal at bricks and pottery chips household levels Completion of Excavation for the M3 100 0.05 5 100% Tundia dam foundation of the spillway Masonry works including M3 100 0.8 80 20% materials 46 SWSD component Item Unit No Unit price Sub- % of (SDG)000 total(000 community SDG) participation Sub-total 8 85 25% Assessment of hydro-geophysical, Job 1 60 50 - water resources and hydrological and geo- identification of technical studies potential water development sites Sub-total 9 50 - Building the Training of the village Job 1 15 15 - capacity of the development committees community members Establishment and training Job 1 15 15 - of women water users association Sub-total 10 30 - Grand total 1,198.14 18% 47 References AACM (1993). Land Use Survey, Southern Kordofan Agricultural Development Project. AACM International, PTT, PSI Co, P.O. Box 355, Khartoum Sudan Bailey, K.,Chilton, J., Dahi, E., Jackson, P., and Fawell, J.(2006). Fluoride in Drinking Water.WHO press, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneiva 27 Switzerland. CDF(2008, 2010) Community Development Fund, Dilling, South Kordofan. 48 Annex 1 Data Collection Forms Tundia Water Assessment Group/Village Committee Data Form 1. Name of the Village-------------------------2. Council--------------------3. Locality----------------- 3. Population ------------- tribes ------------- 4. Social service centers: Type Year of construction By whom Present condition 5. Water supply sources Type No Year of construction By whom Present condition 5.1 Water supply sources Season Water source Distance (km) Time to get water(hr) Summer Rainy season 49 6. How water sources are managed: VWC-----SWC------Private/contractor--------tribal/village leader-------- other/specify------------------------------------------------------------------ 7. How the village was affected during the war: not affected----------, displacement---------------, destruction of infrastructure (specify) --------------livelihood mechanisms (specify) --------------- 8. Presence of NGOs in the village and activities NGO Date in the Main activities Work achieved in the Date of work achieved village village 8.1 Government institutions: 1----------- 2---------- 3----------- - 4----------------------5---------------- 9. Identification of the main problems in the village: Rank Main problem Main causes 10. Main causes of the water problems Rank Main problem Suggestion/initiative to solve problem 11. Efforts by the community to solve the water problem.  -------------------------, --------------------, ---------------------- 12. Main diseases in the village: summer ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 50 Rainy season ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13. Livestock type and number: Cattle------------goats/sheep-----------camels----------donkey/horses--------------- 14. Where livestock are watered? Summer------------------rainy season------------- 15. Are there any nomads or migratory livestock visiting area? No -----yes-------- If yes: when ------ from where------ 16. How the village committee solves from the problems/conflict arising between farmers nomads (if any0 in the area. 17. Willingness of the community to participate/contribute in solving the water problem:  Not willing  Provide labor  Contributes money  Provides material  Other specifies. Interviewed by --------------------------------------------------date-------------------------------------------------- 51 Tundia Water Assessment Data collection Form: Household Survey 1. Village------------------------------2. Council---------------3. Locality--------------- 4. Name----------------------M --- FM----- Age------4.1 for how long living in the village---- yrs 4.2. Status in the village: permanent residence------ displaced------ (a. specify place of origin------ b reason of displacement-------------) returnee ------------ (specify place of return------ 5. Social Status: Husband------- Wife------Widow--------unmarried-------- 6. Occupation -----------------7. Family size------7.1 Number of family members working--------------- 8. Crop cultivated Year 2007 1 2 3 4 5 Crop Area (feddan) Year 2008 Crop Area (feddan) Year 2009 Crop Area (feddan) 9. Livestock owned (type & number)  Cattle --------goat------sheep -----camel-------donkeys/horses------- 10. Annual income --------SDG 10.1 main items of income expenditure --------- 11. Water supply sources Season Water source Distance (km) Time to get water(hr) Summer Rainy season 52 12. Who is responsibility for water fetching------------ 12.1 how many persons/family engaged---? 13. Water consumption: How many jerry cans/day--- 14. Money spent on water/family/month-------SDG 15. Source of water for watering livestock during: a. summer----------b. Rainy season--------- 16. Main diseases: a. summer 1. --------------2. --------------3. ---------------4. ----------- b. rainy season 1.------------2.------------3.--------------- 4.------------ 17. House composition: 17.1 do you have a latrine at the house? Yes---- No---- If no why: not important-------------------can not afford to build-------- Not our culture-------- too hard soil to construct------- other; specify ----- --------------------------------- 18. Main problems facing the family: Rank Main problem Main causes 19. Suggestions for solution of the identified (no.1) problem   20. Willingness to participate/contribute in solving the identified problem:  Cash contribution---  Manual work  Providing local construction material  Unwilling to contribute/participate  Other; specify. Interviewed by-------------------------------------------date -------------------------------- 53 Annex 2 List of People Met and Interviewed Organization/institution People met/interviewed Venue Date Tundia Development Committee Abdelhamid Fereen Khartoum 2/4/2010 Azhari Salam Abdelgadir Ibrahim Gaweish Adam Gadim Gaif Mugi South Kordofan Water Corporation Eng. El Radi- Manger of rural water Dilling 5/4/2010 Eng.Salah Abdelbagi Mr.Hassan Abdelhaleem (hydrogeologist) Ms. Mariam Abdelwhab (hydrologist) Community Development Mr. Khalil Belal (Manger) Dilling 5/4/2010 Fund(CDF) Islam Salah Hassan Osman Mohamed Ibrahim Arungi Development Committee Hamdan Ali Sulimman(chairperson VDC) Arungi Village 5/4/2010 and Community members Sidig Hassan Nimir (VDC member) Nura Temsah Khameis Gabir Mr. Mohammed Malik Soreen Mr.Sabeir Mohameed Mr. Mubark Soba Parlaman Gudif Osman Ismail Mahgoub Nabgaa Abdelrahaman Nafali Afung Development Committee and Mr. Gumma Haggar (chairperson of VDC) Afung Village 5/4/2010 Community members Mirgani Bashaa (secretary VDC) Nadir Tagir Ali Hamdan Abdelrahaman Gadoura Gamal Gammar Abdalla Amin Abdalla Kanasa Siddig Ramadan Osman Tour Furash Development Committee Musa Kaduf Arabi(chairperson VDC) Furash 5/4/2010 and Community members Osman El Nour(VDC member) Osman El Tayeb Adel Saleh Khawaga Hargan Gal Hargan Ehlam Marai Khadim Ali Babo Abdalla Agab Shudoug Members of VDC 54 Gaw Development Committee and Ahmed Muneir sukar Gaw village 6/4/2010 Community members Gumma Waldan abdelrahim Khameis Sabet Ibrahim gumma Kera Abdelmoneim Asoum Khadega Gumma Gumma Wadan Kushal Development Committee Amira Sulieman Adam Kushal 6/4/2010 and Community members Mr. Abdelrazig Faiza Eisa Fatehi Osman Mohamed Drag Faiez Aboud Ismail Amani El amin Helima Tgoul Diktour Hadeid Salah Hamad Tundia El Nugta Development Hassan Gaweish Committee and Community Abdo El Masri El Tayeb Tundia members Gumma Gadf Biter Margook Mohamed El Neil El Nour Gumma Fereen Selia Hadia Khameis Hagir Daleil Musa Ateem El Nour Gafo Osman Kbashei 30 members of the association 55 Annex 3 Chemical and Physical Analysis of Groundwater Quality, Tundia area, Dilling Locality South Kordofan State Parameter Tundia Kushal Aurengi Unit Appearance Clear Clear Turbid Turbidity 2.9 1.9 9.4 NTU Color - - - TCU PH 7.3 7.5 7.4 Odor Nil Nil Nil Temperature 25.0 25.0 25.0 C E. Conductivity 563.3 496.6 413.3 Uc/cm TDS 309.3 273.1 227.31 Mg/l TSS - - 4 Mg/l T. Alkalinity 292 246 186 Mg/l PH.PH Alkalinity Nil Nil Nil Mg/l Total Hardness 252 200 177 Mg/l Phosphate 024 0.28 0.12 Mg/l Chloride 8 8 10 Mg/l Fluoride 1.89 1.82 1.98 Mg/l Sulfate 2.3 10.3 10.9 Mg/l Ammonia 0.038 0.036 0.071 Mg/l Nitrite 0.071 0.044 0.028 Mg/l Nitrate 9.24 6.16 9.24 Mg/l Iron 0.02 0.01 0.07 Mg/l Calcium 70.4 56.0 51.2 Mg/l Magnesium 18.24 13.44 11.76 Mg/l Sodium 32.3 38.67 24.22 Mg/l Potassium 1.02 0.77 1.08 Mg/l Manganese - 0.192 0.109 Mg/l Comments: High amounts of fluoride. Other parameters are within the permissible level of drinking water. 56