FUTURE of FOOD Shaping the Food System to Deliver Jobs Foreword by Dr. Jim Yong Kim © 2017 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Authors Robert Townsend, Rui Benfica, Ashesh Prasann, and Maria Lee with inputs from Parmesh Shah, Luc Christiaensen, Loraine Ronchi, Steven Jaffee, Chris Delgado, Madhur Gautam, Irina Klytchnikova, Sergiy Zorya, Iftikhar Mostafa, Adarsh Kumar, Gene Moses, Flore Martinant de Preneuf, and Zia Morales. Overall guidance was provided by Juergen Voegele and Ethel Sennhauser. We are grateful to Germany who provided support for part of this work. Images Front cover: Dominic Chavez/World Bank Title page: Dominic Chavez/World Bank Interior: 2, Sarah Farhat/World Bank 5, Charlotte Kesl/World Bank 8, Dasan Bobo/World Bank 9, Neil Palmer/CIAT 23, Dominic Chavez/World Bank 27, Scott Wallace/World Bank 28, Curt Carnemark/World Bank FUTURE of FOOD Shaping the Food System to Deliver Jobs April 2017 FOREWORD Over the next 15 years, about 1.6 billion peo- sectors, and improving agricultural incomes ple will reach working age in low and middle can have a large effect in reducing poverty. income countries. Where will they work? What will they earn? The core of the de- We can do more to strengthen the impact velopment challenge will be sustaining and that the food system has in providing jobs improving employment for billions of work- and incomes. ers and creating jobs for the next generation. The report provides a framework for under- Automation and the digital revolution are standing the factors determining the number driving productivity and income growth, but and quality of jobs in the food system. The they are also causing significant job losses, report also highlights a set of actions to en- especially in developing countries. This trend hance the food system’s contribution to jobs: threatens our goals to end extreme poverty supporting growth in food value chains, en- by 2030 and boost shared prosperity for the suring that policies and investments improve poorest 40 percent of the population. the quality and quantity of jobs, and facilitat- ing the inclusion of more women and youth. Amid these demographic and technological shifts, it’s important to take a closer look at Implementing these measures will require the role the food system plays in workforce that we prioritize efforts within countries development. In many countries, the food and partnerships, especially engaging with system provides more jobs than any oth- the private sector as the key provider of jobs. er sector, and we expect it to remain the top The World Bank Group is strongly commit- employer for the foreseeable future. ted to working with partners to help shape a The food system extends beyond agricul- food system that delivers quality jobs along tural production. It includes food storage, the entire value chain – jobs that reduce pov- processing, distribution, transportation, stor- erty, that focus on improving sustainability, age, retailing, preparation, restaurants, and and that generate better health and nutrition many other services. As per capita incomes from the food we grow and eat. increase and eating patterns shift, the de- mand for jobs in these off-farm segments of the food system will increase. Even though the relative share of farm jobs will likely decline, agricultural productivi- Jim Yong Kim ty will not necessarily be lower than other President, The World Bank Group SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 3 “Shaping the Food System to Deliver Jobs” is the fourth paper in a series. The first, “Ending Poverty and Hunger by 2030: An Agenda for the Global Food System,” outlined the overall agenda and was released at the 2015 Spring Meetings of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. That paper called for action on climate-smart agriculture, improving nu- tritional outcomes, strengthening value chains, and creating jobs, while improving market access for poor farmers. The second, “Shaping a Climate-Smart Global Food System,” fo- cused on climate-smart agriculture and was distributed at the 2015 Annual Meetings. The third, “Shaping the Global Food System to Deliver Improved Nutrition and Health,” focused on improving nutritional outcomes and was distributed at the 2016 Spring Meetings. This paper focuses on how the food system can deliver jobs. It presents a set of action areas that countries can adopt, adapt, and apply to their circumstances (tables 1 and 2). Key messages: • The food system employs the most people in many developing countries in both self and wage employment, and will continue to do so during the time period set to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, and thereafter. Self and wage employment in farming still generates a large share of rural incomes and can have large poverty-reducing effects. Farm labor productivity on a per-hour-worked basis, and accounting for differences in human capital, is not necessarily lower than other sectors. • The food system extends beyond farm production to include activities along value chains, such as food processing, transportation, retailing, restaurants, and other services. In many countries, the off-farm aspect of the food system accounts for a large share of the economy’s manufacturing and services sectors. While the employment share in farming tends to decline as per capita incomes rise, the share in food manufacturing and services tends to increase. • Increasing the number and inclusiveness of jobs will require attention to food system growth, employment intensity, and inclusion of youth and women. Urbanization and per capita income growth offers significant new opportunities in non-cereal products and in new jobs in the food system beyond the farm. Inclusion of women and the growing number of youth into food system jobs can raise productivity and improve social harmony. • Improving the quality of jobs in the food system requires attention to raising returns to labor, increasing stability in earnings, and improving working conditions. • Priorities vary by country context. Different combinations of interventions will be needed in agriculture-dependent economies relative to transforming or urbanized economies; in lagging relative to leading regions; in land abundant relative to land scarce environments; whether “pull” or “push” factors are leading to movement of people out of farming in par- ticular areas; and on the initial nature of skills deficits. The four sections of this paper focus on, respectively, why the food system is important for jobs; how the food system can provide more jobs; what can be done to improve the quality of jobs; and implementation considerations. 4 FUTURE OF FOOD Why food system jobs matter Over the next 15 years there will be about 1.6 countries. The farming (or agriculture) share billion people in low- and middle-income of total employment still dominates in many countries reaching working age.1 Together countries, accounting for about 60 percent with sustaining and improving the quality of of total employment in Sub-Saharan Africa, self and wage employment of the billions of and almost 70 percent of total employment people already working, creating new jobs to in low-income countries globally.2 Inclusive absorb those reaching working age will be a of employment in the broader food system, significant challenge. All sectors will need to these shares would be larger. For example, contribute, including the food system, par- in Malawi and Tanzania, food and bever- ticularly given its large relative size in many ages account for more than 40 percent of countries. total manufacturing employment.3 Even in some high-income countries such as New The food system contributes a significant Zealand, the food and beverage share of share of jobs in all countries. The food manufacturing employment is more than system comprises more than just prima- 35 percent, driven primarily by exports.4 ry agricultural production. It includes food In the European Union, the food and bev- storage, processing, distribution, transport, erages industry provides a larger share of associated logistics, retailing, preparation, employment than other manufacturing restaurants, promotion, and other services sectors, provided more stable employment that together include many enterprises and during the financial crisis, and has a high- a relatively large share of jobs in the man- er share of women employed than overall ufacturing and services industries in many manufacturing.5 SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 5 Self and wage employment in farming still that on a per-hour-worked basis, rather generates a large share of rural incomes, than simply using national account data on raising which can have large poverty re- the number of people employed in agricul- ducing effects. Farming generates about 68 ture, and accounting for differences in human percent of rural income in African countries capital, agricultural labor productivity is not and about half of rural income in South Asia, intrinsically lower than other sectors—in most of which is from self-employment, with fact, it is similar.10 The difference in annual a smaller share from wage employment.6,7 and per-hour-worked productivity estimates As 80 percent of the poor live in rural areas suggests underemployment in agriculture and most rely on agriculture for their liveli- likely due to seasonality—that is, people hoods, improving agricultural incomes can primarily employed in agriculture work sub- be an effective way to reduce poverty. Indeed, stantially less hours on an annual basis than cross-country evidence shows that GDP those primarily engaged in non-agricultural growth originating in agriculture is more pov- activities. Reducing seasonality effects in agri- erty reducing than GDP growth originating culture through irrigation use and diversifying outside agriculture.8 By 2030, some of the ru- farming activities could help reduce under- ral poor will migrate to urban areas, but most employment and raise annual productivity. will not, and the rural population in less-de- veloped regions may even increase slightly. Food system transformations accompany Most income gains needed to end poverty by structural transformation and offer more 2030 therefore will need to come from activ- job opportunities beyond farm produc- ities in rural areas, most of which are in the tion. Changes in local consumer demand food system. Average incomes of poor people that occur as per capita incomes rise, urban- will need to increase by about 60 percent in ization, and export opportunities change the Sub-Saharan Africa and 30 percent in South structure of the food system and the broader Asia to lift them above the poverty line—and economy. Diets change as per capita incomes for those earning less than average, income increase, with the share of the income in- gains will need to be even larger.9 creases spent on cereals declining relative to other fresh, processed, and convenience Agricultural labor productivity it not nec- foods, even as overall expenditures on food essarily lower than other sectors on a continue to rise. Urbanization widens the gap per-hour-worked basis. Agriculture is often between the location of food production and viewed as an intrinsically low-productivi- consumption. The resulting increase in food ty sector, while manufacturing and services management and transformation beyond are viewed as higher productivity sectors, and the farm creates new enterprise growth and that a movement of people out of agricul- job opportunities in the broader food sys- ture into manufacturing and services can raise tem. For example, an analysis of six African overall productivity and incomes. Indeed, his- countries (Ethiopia, Malawi, Mozambique, torical patterns of structural transformation Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia) shows that have reflected this inter-sectoral labor shift. the food system across these countries is pro- However, recent survey evidence indicates jected to add more jobs than the rest of the 6 FUTURE OF FOOD economy between 2010 and 2025, but with- and food preparation), most of which will be in a transforming food system. The projected in rural areas, is projected to increase from employment shares in farming (own and 8 percent to 12 percent over the same peri- wage labor) is projected to decrease from od.11 As per capita incomes rise, the share of 75 percent to 61 percent, while the share of food manufacturing and services jobs tends jobs in the broader food system (food man- to increase relative to farming (box 1) and ufacturing, food marketing, transportation, often account for a large share of the initial BOX 1: As Per Capita Incomes Increase, More Food System Jobs Will Be in Services and Manufac- turing, and Many Will Be in Rural Areas In low-income countries, the food system tends to dominate total employment in both rural and urban areas. For example, the findings of a recent review of six Eastern and Southern African countries shows that the food system accounts for more than 80 percent of all jobs. Within the food system, over 90 percent of jobs are in farming (including self and wage labor), and most non-farm jobs in the food system are in food services (transportation and marketing), accounting for 6 percent of food system jobs, which is double those in food manufacturing/industry. These shares are a reflection of dominance of staple grains in production and consumption in these countries. In addition, about 75 percent of food manufacturing jobs and 60 percent of food services jobs are in rural areas. In middle-income countries, within the food system, farming accounts for closer to half of the jobs, with off-farm jobs in food manufacturing and services accounting for the other half. There is also a more even share of jobs in each food manufacturing and food services (for example, about 25 percent each, in the case of Brazil). There is a large variation across countries. For example, in countries where the share of primary agricultural commodity exports is large (such as in Argentina), the food services share (inclusive of logistics [transportation and ports]) is likely a larger share. In high-income countries, within the food system, farming accounts for a smaller share of jobs, while food services accounts for most jobs. For example, in the US, farming accounts for about 20 percent over overall food system jobs, food manufacturing accounts for 14 percent of jobs, while food services accounts for about two-thirds of jobs in the food system. Part of the contribution is restaurant services, as half of household income spent on food is on consumption away from the home. Examples of the composition of jobs in the food system in low-, middle-, and high-income countries Low Income: Eastern and Southern African countries Middle Income: Brazil High income: US 3% 6% 21% 26% 49% 65% 14% 91% 25% Farming Food manufacture/industry Food services Sources: Derived from D. J. Tschirely et al., “Africa’s Unfolding Diet Transformation: Implications for Agri-food System Employment,” Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies 5, no. 2 (2015): 102–36; V. Moreira et al. “Assessment of the Economic Structure of Brazilian Agribusiness,” The Scientific World Journal (2016), http://dx.doi. org/10.1155/2016/7517806; and USDA based on data from 2012 (farming includes farms [16%], and forestry, fishing, and related activities [5]%]). SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 7 growth in the manufacturing and services as adopt financial, training, and extension sectors, and thereby in overall structural services which use these digital platforms. transformation. Solar power is providing new job opportu- nities for agro-processing in off-grid areas. New technology is shaping how food value Remote sensing technologies are being used chains are organized, offering new opportu- for the “uberization” of mechanized services nities. New technology and innovations are in some African countries, enabling many creating new opportunities for income gains, tractor owners and drivers to provide services entrepreneurship, and higher skilled jobs to small farmers at remote locations. Digital in the food system. Technical innovations, finance, such as M-Pesa and many variants in such as new information and communica- other countries, is increasing financial inclu- tion technologies (ICT), are increasingly sion and facilitating microentrepreneurship. connecting small farmers to markets, reduc- E-commerce platforms are linking small en- ing transaction costs, and raising food system trepreneurs in rural areas with national and efficiencies and inclusion. Rural youth are global markets as in China’s Tao Bao villag- well-placed to benefit from jobs created by es. With these advances, future jobs in food these innovations since they are more like- systems will have a higher knowledge and ly than adults to own mobile phones as well technology content. 8 FUTURE OF FOOD How can the food system provide more jobs? The framework and context for an important source of employment, even job creation though growth in non-staple crop seg- ments will likely be larger. In addition, in The number of jobs in the food system, in- low-income countries, the share of farm- cluding for youth and women, is a function ing in total food system employment is of the initial size of food value chains (in- currently much larger than employment clusive of farming, and associated food in food services and manufacturing, while manufacturing and services), their pro- in middle-income countries, they are of jected growth, employment intensity, and similar size (box 1). inclusion, as follows: • Growth: Food demand is projected to • Initial size: In many countries food sta- grow by about 25 percent in developing ples still dominate the overall food sys- countries during the next 15 years, with tem. For example, agricultural GDP in demand growing in Sub-Saharan Africa low-income countries is commonly com- by 55 percent.12 Non-cereal food demand prised of about two-thirds staples, with is projected to grow faster than cereal the remaining share comprised of tradi- demand, and food services and manu- tional export crops (such as cocoa, coffee, facturing jobs will likely grow faster than cotton, and tea), livestock, fisheries, and farm jobs. Food consumption patterns horticulture. As a result, most people in are changing in both rural and urban agriculture are self-employed in cereal areas. With urbanization, food demand production. Given the current relative growth will be more rapid in urban areas size of staple crops, it will continue to be than rural areas, thereby increasing job SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 9 opportunities in off-farm food manage- are two or three times more likely than ment and transformation. adults to be unemployed. Youth can bring energy, entrepreneurial talent, and inno- • Employment intensity: Employment vative ideas that can help raise growth intensity varies across different food sys- and incomes. However, if a large share of tem value chains and at different stages youth cannot find jobs and earn satisfac- of the value chain. In addition, mechani- tory incomes, they may become a source zation and automation, while raising in- of social tension. comes per job, reduce the number of jobs per unit of output. There is an ongoing The remainder of this section will focus on debate on the extent and speed at which actions to increase the food systems’ contri- machines and automation will displace bution to jobs though promoting the growth jobs in low- and middle-income coun- of food value chains, reflecting employment tries during the next 15 years, and the role intensity considerations in policy decisions, of policy. and facilitating inclusion (table 1). • Inclusion: Inclusion of youth and wom- en into food system labor markets will Promote growth in food value be paramount for equity and social sta- chains bility. The population below the age of 24 accounts for the largest share of the Raise agricultural productivity growth population in almost all countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, but also in many The fortunes of much rural economic activ- countries in South Asia, East Asia, Latin ity depend on agriculture’s performance. America, and the Middle East and North Improved agricultural performance helps Africa. Yet, youth aged 15 to 24 years old raise farm incomes and boosts the demand TABLE 1: Spectrum of Action Areas in the Food System to Deliver More Jobs General areas Specific actions Promote growth in food value chains ¾¾ Raise agricultural productivity growth in response to consumer demand ¾¾ Invest in complementary infrastructure ¾¾ Improve the rural investment climate and trade ¾¾ Promote competition, private sector participation, and entrepreneurship ¾¾ Upgrade skills to facilitate food system transformation Ensure policies don’t undermine ¾¾ Promote high-value agriculture in response to shifting demand employment intensity relative to ¾¾ Policy considerations on mechanization long-term market trends Facilitate inclusion of women and ¾¾ Develop skills and facilitate job matching youth ¾¾ Improve access to land ¾¾ Increase access to affordable finance ¾¾ Improve inclusion in policy dialogue and program design 10 FUTURE OF FOOD for non-farm goods and services. As a re- for and remuneration of labor. Scaling-up sult, there are increased prospects for output climate-smart agriculture is needed—by growth and employment generation in the raising productivity, enhancing resilience, associated rural enterprises that provide and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emis- these goods and services, much of which is sions. In Vietnam, adopting alternative food-system-related. These effects can be wetting and drying practices in rice produc- large. For example, in Ethiopia each $1 of tion has raised yields, lowered input costs output generated in agriculture stimulates and water use, and reduced methane mis- a further $1.23 in economic activity in oth- sions. In Uruguay, close to 3 million hectares er parts of the economy; 40 percent of this of land are now under sustainable land man- growth comes from higher demand for in- agement practices that are also reducing puts in agriculture and the use of agricultural GHG emissions. outputs in other industries such as food pro- cessing; and 60 percent is from increased Action areas to raise agricultural produc- demand for goods and services resulting tivity growth include as follows: (i) increase from higher agricultural incomes and the as- the development and adoption of improved sociated spending effects.13 In Bangladesh, a crop and livestock technology and access 10 percent increase in farm incomes generat- to complementary inputs; (ii) improve an- ed a 6 percent increase in non-farm incomes imal health; (iii) reduce gender inequality17 through strong forward and backward link- by working with governments to reflect ages.14 Gains in staple crop productivity have gender equality in laws and regulations, ed- particularly large impacts in early stages of ucating community leaders, and promoting development, as evidenced by their pover- gender-inclusive research and extension ser- ty-reducing effects in Cambodia, Ethiopia, vices; (iv) improve water management and and Rwanda. its sustainable use, including in irrigated and rainfed areas; (v) strengthen land governance, A more climate-smart agriculture will be including increasing the functioning of land needed. Droughts, floods, and rising tem- rental and sales markets; (vi) reduce land peratures are already cutting crop yields, degradation; and, (vii) strengthen farmer threatening food, fish, and meat supply, skills and knowledge. Across all intervention and pushing people deeper into poverty.15 areas to raise agricultural productivity scale- Climate change and the effects of climate up climate smart-agriculture.18 shocks are dampening the prospects for future productivity growth. Without adap- Invest in complementary infrastructure tation, many developing countries, regions, and areas in Africa, Asia, and Latin America The current lack of infrastructure in rural and the Caribbean will suffer particular- areas constrains farm and rural non-farm ly severe yield declines by 2030—such as employment growth in food systems. wheat in South Asia, rice in Southeast Asia, Rural roads and communications infra- and maize in southern Africa.16 Weather structure help to better link consumer and commodity prices are linked to demand demand with rural producers; electrification SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 11 can help facilitate rural-based food pro- employment opportunities (as in the Sierra cessing and value addition; on-farm storage Leone Rehabilitation and Community- and warehousing infrastructure can help Based Poverty Reduction Project, and the smoothen seasonality in producer prices Peru Rural Roads Project), skills develop- and food consumption; cold storage can re- ment, and support to microenterprises; and, duce the perishability of higher value crops (vi) invest in infrastructure that can reduce for market; and port infrastructure can fa- women’s burden and time constraints so cilitate exports. Each can help support jobs, they can engage in learning and productive including for youth, in farm and non-farm activities. activities. For example, in Vietnam, road re- habilitation increased the variety of goods Improve the rural investment climate that households sold to market—pri- and trade marily fruits, vegetables, and meat—and encouraged greater participation in trade The investment climate affects job cre- and services. In Georgia, the construction ation. Nine out of 10 jobs are created by the and rehabilitation of roads increased the private sector, and a vibrant private sector opportunities for off-farm and female em- creates more jobs.21 Evidence shows that the ployment.19 Given the significant scope of investment climate impacts private enter- infrastructure needs, prioritization should prises and associated job creation.22 In this consider the jobs impacts. For example, ear- context, a predictable and business-friend- lier analytical work in Tanzania simulated ly investment climate is a key component the rural enterprise employment effects for of a policy framework to create food sys- various types of rural infrastructure.20 tem jobs. Action areas to invest in complementary Action areas to improve the rural busi- infrastructure include as follows: (i) pro- ness climate and trade include as follows: mote investment in quality infrastructure in (i) work to ensure political and macroeco- rural areas; (ii) support the expansion of al- nomic stability and reduced conflict; (ii) ternative energy (such as solar and biogas) promote local, cross-border, and interna- in areas with no connectivity to the electric- tional trade (reduce local taxes, including ity grid (as in Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda); payments at road blocks; and reduce bur- (iii) encourage entrepreneurship in ICT- densome procedures for cross-border related activities, including considerations trade), in compliance with World Trade for startup or roll-out grants; (iv) integrate Organization rules; (iii) shift the regula- youth and women into the decision-making tory quality of agribusiness towards best processes for local prioritization, planning, practices, with the greatest scope for gains and design of rural infrastructure (for exam- in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and ple, as in the Malawi Forum and the Peru East Asia and the Pacific, as reflected in the Rural Infrastructure Program); (v) inte- Enabling Business of Agriculture report;23 grate youth into rural infrastructure public (iv) reduce entry barriers to the formaliza- works programs that can offer temporary tion of local enterprises; (v) recognize the 12 FUTURE OF FOOD informal sector’s significant scale and work high transaction costs, significant risks, to improve its connectivity with markets, and frequent government intervention.26 improve access to services, and strengthen Infrastructure investment, including ICT, skills; and, (vi) ensure a matching of budget can better link producers and consumers; needs for administrative decentralization producer organizations can help aggregate with adequate national budget transfers input demand and product supply; drought and fiscal decentralization policies that and flood tolerant crops and weather index don’t lead to a local taxation system that insurance can reduce sensitivity to weather undermines incentives of rural enterprises extremes; investment in post-harvest infra- to invest and participate in markets. structure can improve storability; and more predictable government policies can reduce Promote competition, private sector political risks. participation, and entrepreneurship Government intervention has often ex- Increasing competition and private sec- tended beyond providing public goods tor participation can help create jobs. and services necessary to underpin and Competition can open new job opportuni- facilitate private transactions, to direct ties and help shift labor to more productive participation in agricultural input and out- employment, which, in turn, can increase put markets. In early efforts to ensure food wages.24 Economywide evidence shows that security, government entities—primarily competition laws enhance overall econom- marketing boards, at times controlled ev- ic growth, an effect that seems particularly ery stage of the marketing chain including pronounced in low-income countries and input and credit provision, pricing, process- is induced through higher levels of in- ing, and internal and external trade, with vestment (and lower levels of perceived little scope for private sector participation. corruption).25 In agricultural markets there As these operations expanded they often is a long history of efforts to get the right became fiscally unsustainable, which togeth- level and mix of public sector support to er with management concerns and perverse spur private sector investment along ag- private sector incentives led to reductions in ricultural value chains, and to reach poor government intervention in these markets. smallholder producers. Given the extent of private underinvest- ment in transport and storage, inadequate Reducing high transaction costs and risks commercial skills training, and limited ac- in agricultural markets can help facilitate cess to finance, the private sector was often private investment: The spatial dispersion slow to fill the void following the withdraw- of producers and consumers, lags between al of marketing boards.27 And where the input application and harvest, sensitivity private sector did enter markets, they of- to weather extremes, variable perishabili- ten did not reach poor smallholder farmers. ty and storability of agricultural products, In addition, market development coordina- and political sensitivity of basic food sta- tion efforts were largely absent.28 There has ples makes agricultural markets prone to been a recent re-emergence of government SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 13 interventions in agricultural input markets opportunities for rural people. The growth to spur agricultural productivity and improve of secondary towns also has significant pov- food security, with recent expansion in Sub- erty reducing effects.34 Saharan Africa.29 Developing an entrepreneurship eco- The design of government programs system can help facilitate private sector should consider opportunities for private growth and improve the quality of jobs sector inclusion and service provision. in food value chains. This development Government input programs are increasingly will require an enabling environment for promoting private sector development with the private sector and micro and small en- varying forms of private sector engagement terprises, including access by entrepreneurs as part of “market-smart” subsidy programs to mentors and advisors; business enablers (as in Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, and (such as incubators); improving the ease of Zambia).30 However, these input programs doing business; upgrading business, man- sometimes displace commercial input pur- agement, and technical skills; as well as new chase, as they often benefit wealthier farmers instruments for mobilizing investments. who would likely have purchased inputs in A good example is the Africa Agriculture the absence of government support.31 The Innovation Network (AAIN); the AAIN less developed the private sector, the small- has developed a business agenda that targets er the displacement effect.32 E-vouchers help the establishment of more than 100 business improve targeting, reduce costs, and create incubators in over 50 African countries to end-user demand for private provision of help new and startup agribusinesses. Public inputs (as in Nigeria and Rwanda). In ad- sector ministries, including the ministries of dition to input programs, there have also agriculture, need to help facilitate and pro- been efforts to include private sector provi- mote small- and medium-size enterprise sion in agricultural advisory and extension (SME) development in the food system, programs.33 an activity that requires new skill sets and organization. Secondary towns can help connect seg- ments of agricultural value chains to Entrepreneurship programs that combine stimulate private sector activity and bring interventions (access to markets, finance, local employment benefits. Secondary mentoring or coaching, and training) are towns provide centers of demand for ag- more effective in helping small-scale en- riculture produce and can strengthen trepreneurs,35 as are programs that engage connections between different segments the private sector in design and delivery. of agricultural value chains—such as pro- Successful entrepreneurship programs typi- duction, storage, processing and packaging, cally provide a package of services36 to youth transport, and marketing. Locating some that is associated with their needs and the of these segments in secondary towns multiple constraints they face. These ser- can stimulate local private sector activ- vices generally include trainings, access to ity and provide significant employment inputs, finance and markets, and some type 14 FUTURE OF FOOD of mentoring and coaching. The effects of entrepreneurship ecosystems to help fa- entrepreneurship training or business devel- cilitate private sector growth and improve opment services has tended to be stronger the quality of jobs in food value chains; (v) than effects of finance interventions.37 In use a combination of interventions (such addition, involving the private sector in pro- as access to finance and markets, mentor- gram delivery is associated with improved ing, and training) and approaches, such as impacts, in the context of well-designed incubators, to support SME development; partnerships. Producer organizations, non- and, (vi) provide equal access to informa- governmental organizations and social tion, resources, and trainings for business enterprises are increasingly playing a major start-up and expansion, such as through role in designing and delivering entrepre- gender-sensitive technical vocational ed- neurship programs. They engage in different ucation and training (TVET) and grants ways, such as by providing capacity building (such as in the youth employment in agri- and mentorship services, as well as access to culture program in Nigeria), and support land, finance, and markets. the formation of women’s cooperatives and business associations. Action areas to promote competition, private sector participation, and entre- Upgrade skills to facilitate food system preneurship include as follows: (i) Give transformation due consideration to the impact of gov- ernment programs on private sector The current curriculum of agriculture uni- development, competition, and jobs. More versities and training institutes is mainly specifically, consider the trade-offs and geared towards agricultural production tech- balance needed between investments in nologies and has not fully incorporated the public goods and services to reduce trans- changes in the technology landscape and action cost and risks as a way of crowding advent of ICT tools, which most youth are the private sector into agricultural value using in their daily lives.  In addition, skills chains; and direct government participa- beyond agricultural production, including in tion in these markets based on concerns food storage, grading, processing, and alter- about the absence of private sector ac- native energy, also need to be developed to tivity; (ii) use “market-smart” program facilitate food systems transformations and design, including e-voucher programs, private investment in response to changing to help improve targeting of input pro- consumer demand. grams, reduce costs, and promote private sector development; (iii) create an en- Action areas to upgrade skills include as vironment for firms in the food system follows: (i) incorporate more entrepreneur- to locate in secondary towns, inclusive ial and technology content in the curriculum of policy-incentive considerations, and of agriculture universities and training insti- provision of necessary infrastructure (ac- tutes, together with associated faculty staff; cess roads, energy, and communication) (ii) encourage education institutions to de- to help stimulate local jobs; (iv) foster velop food hubs and incubate development SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 15 of enterprise and business ideas (such as times that of staple foods. Opportunities the Urban Food Hubs Program being man- in high-value agricultural production are aged by the University of the District of often taken initially by larger scale produc- Colombia); (iii) improved accessibility ers, some of whom rely on local agricultural through distance learning via use of digital farm workers or outgrowers. Research shows approaches; and, (iv) supplement investment that for larger scale producers,40 horticulture in higher education with more attention to crops have multiples times higher labor use vocational education training for skills needs per hectare than staple foods. In countries in the broader food system beyond food where labor is relatively abundant, and where production.  land and capital resources allow, larger scale producers in those more labor-demanding Ensure policies don’t undermine crops can play an important role in gener- employment intensity ating new jobs, via direct employment or outgrower arrangements. Promote high-value agriculture in response to shifting demand Governments do not invest enough in improving access to markets, education, While staple crops continue to account and the technology needed to strength- for the largest share of consumption in de- en production, processing, logistics, and veloping countries, diets tend to shift to marketing patterns to meet new emerging higher value and processed products as market demands in non-grain agricultural per capita incomes increase. The continued subsectors. Domestic price policy and public predominance of staple crops in consump- spending are often biased to the production tion patterns across low-income countries of staple grains.41 While grain crops contin- and its dominance in the crop production ue to play an important role in food security structure in smallholder agriculture have and poverty reduction, markets for non-sta- made its contributions to poverty reduction ple crops are often poorly developed, having significant.38,39 While staple crops will con- received little investment in transport sys- tinue to be important, as incomes increase, tems, cold storage, and information systems diets tend to shift to higher value and pro- that allow for better functioning of markets cessed products. Corresponding production for perishable products such as fruits and diversification from cereals to vegetables, vegetables, and livestock products.42 The lack horticulture, livestock, and fisheries, to- of such investments makes it difficult to re- gether with a deepening of value chains spond to changing consumer demand to a with more food distribution, processing, more diversified mix of products. value addition, and food preparation and services, will enable newer employment op- Action areas to promote high-value ag- portunities in the food system. riculture in response to shifting demand include as follows: (i) align farmer in- The labor use per hectare of higher value centives to respond to changing market crops in larger scale farm production is many demands that includes: (a) removing price 16 FUTURE OF FOOD policies that are biased against production even with a relative abundance of land, more of high-value, non-cereal crops, as such pol- than 60 percent of farm power is human icies provide a disincentive for farmers to power, about 25 percent animal power, and produce non-cereal crops; and, (b) remove or about 10 percent is from machinery pow- reduce restrictions on land use tied to spe- er.45 This level of farm mechanization has cific staple crops, opening the possibility for not changed much over the past sever- greater crop diversification towards high- al decades. In contrast, the number of farm er value crops that can expand employment tractors in Asia has increased multiple times. prospects, while protecting healthy diets; In addition, use of power tillers has expand- (ii) reduce risks for farm households to access ed rapidly in East and South East Asia, staple food supplies for own consumption; particularly for wetland rice production sys- (iii) promote infrastructure and investments tems. While tractors bring the ability to in technologies that respond to the needs power other machinery such as ploughs, of high-value crops, for example, higher planters, and reapers; standalone machine yield varieties, cold storage for horticultural use—such as pumps, threshers, grinders, and products, and upgrading of agricultural mar- mills—has also expanded. Analysis across keting information systems (such as specialty six African countries (Ethiopia, Malawi, fruits in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam);43 and, Niger, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda) indi- (iv) adopt market-based approaches to inte- cate that only about 2 percent of households grate smallholders in value chains, such as own or rent tractors, while 32 percent own through outgrower schemes or productive and 12 percent rent other mechanized farm alliance programs.44 equipment.46 In contrast, in Bangladesh the vast majority of household use some form of Policy considerations on mechanization mechanization, with the dominant imple- ment being power tillers.47 There has been ongoing debate about ag- ricultural mechanization and automation, Mechanization differences across coun- recognizing that it could improve agricul- tries can be largely explained by differences tural labor productivity, downstream job in the returns to mechanization and the rel- creation in the food system, and free up la- ative price of machinery and labor. Earlier bor to participate in other activities; it also literature suggests a particular evolution of raises concerns that higher levels of mecha- farming systems and associated sequence nization and automation could displace jobs of power use linked to population density overall and lead to a lower overall net effect and market access. Areas with low popula- on employment. This section addresses these tion density and no market access, resulting issues in more detail with a primary focus on in low-yield subsistence farming systems, mechanization. rely on human power. Improved market ac- cess and higher population density lead to Machinery use in the food system varies growing demand for agricultural products significantly across countries and regions, and increasing returns to animal power and and extends beyond just tractors. In Africa, machinery use that induces an increase in SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 17 their use. Efforts to bring tractors into low- by mechanized pumps, often allows two or yield subsistence production systems, where more crops to be grown on the same plot of they are not cost effective, have consistent- land per year. The first crop is often harvested ly failed.48 The relative prices of machinery during the rainy season, where mechanical and labor also matter. In labor-scarce envi- threshing can help reduce spoilage by get- ronments (with a high labor cost), there is ting this task completed shortly after harvest. substitution towards labor-saving technolo- Power-tillers help prepare land quicker for gy (such as machinery), while in land-scare second season crops.52 In these situations, environments, there is substitution towards mechanization does not necessarily reduce land-saving technology (such as biological farm labor use per hectare and may even in- or “yield”-enhancing technology). Indeed, crease its use. In addition, the vast majority there is significant past49 and recent50 evi- of farmers are smallholders and predom- dence that substitution between machinery inantly use family, rather than hired, labor. and labor is driven, in part, by their relative Labor displacement would be a larger issue prices. As real wages rise as part of overall if the majority of farm workers were hired economic development and structural trans- wage workers. formation, machinery use in agriculture tends to increase. While demand constraints to mechani- zation remain important, there are rising Policy biases to mechanization can pre- supply-side constraints in some contexts. maturely reduce agricultural employment. Growing demand for agricultural products, Policies that significantly lower the machin- together with rising real wages, lead to high- ery price relative to labor can artificially er mechanization demand. Higher demand displace labor. A significant example of this does not always lead to adequate supply re- is South Africa pre-1980 where Pass Laws sponse, particularly for smallholder farmers. restricting labor mobility, subsidized farm For example, in Ghana, there have been credit (with negative real interest rates), supply-side challenges to meeting demand tax concessions for machinery ownership, for tractor services for land preparation.53 and appreciation of the exchange rate led Assessments of supply-side constraints to a significant decline in machinery prices should consider the full supply chain from relative to labor with a corresponding dis- machinery importers, manufacturers, pro- placement of labor for machines. Removal viders of machinery-hire services to farmers, of these favorable credit and tax policies, to- and services provided for machinery main- gether with a devaluation of the Rand in the tenance and parts. 1980s, made labor cheap relative to capital and led to a dramatic reversal with substitu- Sustainable supply-side approaches tion away from the more expensive capital to to mechanization. Early public sec- higher labor use.51 tor-led efforts at addressing supply-side constraints in the 1970s and 1980s large- Some mechanization does not reduce la- ly failed,54 as they were often introduced bor use. Irrigation infrastructure, facilitated in contexts where mechanization was not 18 FUTURE OF FOOD cost-effective and service charges in these cheap relative to labor (such as credit/tax programs were set to only cover operating policies, and labor movement restrictions); costs, thus undercutting private provid- (v) ensure the types of machinery provid- ers and resulting in weak capacity in the ed are demand, not supply, driven; and, supply chain. In Bangladesh, removal of (iv) facilitate innovation and participation import restrictions on small-scale power of youth (for example, expanding services tillers and opening imports by the private such as “Hello Tractor” currently operating sector significantly reduced the imported in Nigeria, including training, and finance machinery cost. As a result, a vibrant ma- for youth). chinery-hire market developed with the bulk of machinery use being through this Facilitate inclusion of women and mechanism. Most farmers in Bangladesh, youth even with very small plots of land, now use some form of mechanization. In India, Develop skills and facilitate job most tractor-hire services are provided by matching medium- to larger-scale farmers, which was key to expanding mechanization. In Skills development can help improve China, there has been an emergence of earnings and job prospects. Evidence non-farmer entrepreneurs who provide suggests that more educated and skilled professional machinery services to farmers individuals are more likely to adopt and ef- for harvesting. China’s vast farmland, across fectively use modern technologies, respond agro-ecological zones, results in the same to market opportunities, and increase their crop needing to be harvested at different earnings. Since skills development builds on times of the year and allows mobile service the existing stock of human capital, policies providers to operate for about eight months intended to prepare young men and wom- of the year.55 In Nigeria, ICT is being use to en for jobs in a transforming economy need better match the supply of tractor services to design age-differentiated interventions by tractor owners with demand from farm- that sequentially address constraints from ers who need to hire tractor services, similar primary school completion to job search to Uber. This business model is now being frictions. In an age of transformative ICT expanded to other countries in Africa. developments, investments in high-quality basic education are critical for the success of Action areas for mechanization include school-leaving youth such as farmers,56 em- as follows: (i) Open trade to different types ployees, and entrepreneurs. Well-educated of machinery imports (as in Bangladesh); rural youth and women trained in business (ii) crowd in (rather than crowd out) private development and vocational skills are like- sector provision of mechanized services; ly to benefit from the increasing knowledge (iii) don’t promote machinery in environ- intensity of the food system, with signifi- ments with no/limited access to markets cant opportunities in high-value agriculture and low returns to machinery use; (iv) avoid and associated agro-processing and value policies that artificially make machinery addition. SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 19 Action areas to develop skills and facilitate decision to pursue non-agricultural liveli- job matching include as follows: (i) Pre- hoods or migrate to urban areas is mainly existing school feeding programs should be determined by the lack of access to land.58 leveraged to provide nutritious and forti- African countries have the youngest popu- fied food to improve cognition among young lation in the world and the largest share of children, reduce school dropout, and raise the world’s available arable land—paradoxi- educational attainment; (ii) innovative af- cally, youth rarely own land and average plot ter-school programs designed to provide size is declining. adolescents the skills needed for agricultural entrepreneurship should be scaled up; (iii) in- Youth do not typically own land, whether tegrated skills training for out-of-school rural land is scarce or abundant. In land-abun- youth should be targeted carefully, with strong dant countries, land is often difficult to linkages between employers and training pro- acquire because of ambiguities and costs viders, to match the demand for skills with associated with land transactions through the youth labor supply; (iv) TVET programs purchase, sale, leasing, and assignment un- packaged with geographically targeted trans- der traditional rules. When constraints on port subsidies should be promoted to enhance the operation of land markets raise the cost the ability of rural youth to take up jobs in of accessing new land, a young person reach- secondary towns and urban centers; and, ing adulthood may simply farm a portion of (v) scalability of ICT technologies should the family’s original holding rather than se- be used to link young farmers with agricul- cure a new allotment.59 tural extension specialists, with an emphasis on two-way communication and communi- Land is even more difficult to acquire for ty participation to encourage the adoption young women. In every developing region, of modern inputs and management practices. women own substantially less land than A comprehensive approach to skills for ru- men.60 Analysis from 10 African countries ral youth is needed to enable transitions from found that customary land systems were school to work. discriminatory against women, with only 20 percent of registered land being in their Improve access to land names.61 Women also find it difficult to hold on to land in the case of divorce or death Access to land is one of the key determi- of their husband.62 Although men inherit nants of youth involvement in agriculture. land in the more common patrilineal sys- In six Sub-Saharan African countries tems, young men have to wait until marriage accounting for 40 percent of the total pop- or when fathers die to access and manage ulation of Sub-Saharan Africa, land size plots. Early intergenerational land trans- was found to be positively related to time fers often don’t occur because land serves as spent by youth in agriculture.57 In Ethiopia, a substitute for social protection for elderly for example, where land purchases and sales landowners,63 whose life expectancy has in- are prohibited, only 9 percent of youth in creased. Where land obtained from parents rural areas plan to pursue farming. Their through inheritance or gift is the only system 20 FUTURE OF FOOD of intergenerational land transfer, youth are money in East Africa. Since rural youth are often left with smaller and less viable plots less likely than older adults to have an ac- with each generation. count,67 it is highly likely that less than one in five rural African youth had access to Action areas to improve access of youth formal or informal finance. While the num- and women to land include as follows: ber of banked youth in Sub-Saharan Africa (i) support countries in their efforts to who are able to borrow is increasing rapid- implement the Voluntary Guidelines on ly, these increases are from a small base and the Responsible Governance of Tenure of it is not clear if these gains are shared by Land, Fisheries, and Forests in the Context rural youth. Even as the agenda of financial of National Food Security; (ii) take advan- inclusion—the sustained access to finan- tage of low-cost ICTs to establish digital cial services and products such as savings, land registries and build on experience loans, insurance, and payment systems at from other countries; (iii) remove remain- an affordable cost68—has made large gains ing constraints on land rental markets; globally, significant progress is still need- (iv) design market-based land reform with ed among rural population in low-income incentives that increase the bargaining countries in general, and among youth in power of land-poor buyers relative to land- particular.69 rich owners; (v) strengthen tenure rights for women through land inheritance rights Young women have even lower access to (such as in India64), individual titling for formal finance. Gender dynamics con- women farmers, and joint titling for mar- strain women’s access to finance. Women ried couples (joint titling helps protect are often time constrained due to multiple women’s rights to land in the event of sep- household activities and are less likely than aration, divorce, or widowhood)65; and, men to have a formal land title that is often (vi) facilitate intergenerational in-vivo needed to open a bank account. These con- land transfers coupled with social pro- straints manifest themselves in the gender tection for elderly landowners controlling gap in account ownership, access to sav- community land. ings, and credit globally.70 While the share of young African women with a bank account Improve access to affordable finance has increased at the same rate as young men recently,71 a significant gender disparity per- Rural youth are financially excluded, par- sists in ownership and access to savings and ticularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. As of credit. In India, the self help group model, 2014, 62 percent of adults had an account reaching more than 33 million members, has at a financial institution or with a mobile been largely successful in linking groups of money provider worldwide, but with wide 10–20 poor women to bank accounts and variation across regions. Across 42 African obtaining microloans.72 countries in 2014, the corresponding figure was only 29 percent among rural adults,66 Action areas to improve access to afford- despite the widespread use of mobile able finance include as follows: (i) encourage SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 21 collaborations between governments, central from the formulation of policies concerning banks, and telecommunications partners to them,75 and it is even more challenging for enable the creation of mobile money plat- women who face traditional norms exclud- forms to deliver last-mile financial products ing them from any decision-making process and services; (ii) consider removing legal and position.76 restrictions on using alternative forms of col- lateral73 to lower the cost of credit in rural Action areas to improve rural youth and areas; (iii) consider implementing and us- women participation in policy dialogue and ing biometric identification instead of land program design include as follows: (i) build titles to open bank accounts for rural youth individual and organizational skills and the and women to increase access to the formal capacity of young women and men making banking system, and reliably link credit his- use of ICT and interactive tools (as is be- tory to individuals; (iv) replicate and scale ing done by the Pacific Youth in Agriculture programs that combine access to financial Network), and support their participation services with advice or mentoring targeted at in decision-making processes of producer rural youth and women; and, (v) transition organizations (as in Nepal and Togo); (ii) fa- youth and women savings groups to offer cilitate systematic engagement of rural youth credit. in policy dialogue and program design (as in Brazil),77 with particular attention to young Improve inclusion in policy dialogue and women’s participation, such as through quo- program design tas, women-only preparatory meetings, and engaging men in building young women’s Young people, in particular rural youth, are leadership acceptance;78 and; (iii) support often excluded from policy-making pro- government efforts to design and imple- cesses. While there is wide recognition of ment national youth policies (such as the the importance of youth participation in pol- Ghana and Nigeria Youth Policy), in con- icy dialogue, particularly smallholders, a 2012 sultation with rural youth (such as the Rural survey by the United Nations Inter-Agency Youth Employment Strategy in Guatemala, Network on Youth Development cover- the Magna Carta of Young Farmers in the ing 186 countries found that young people Philippines, and the National Rural Youth have limited opportunities for effective par- Employment Policy in Senegal),79 including ticipation in decision-making processes.74 In efforts to coordinate between ministries to particular, rural youth are generally excluded ensure policy coherence. 22 FUTURE OF FOOD What can be done to increase the quality of jobs? The framework and context for year. Significant weather shocks and as- increasing the quality of jobs sociated incomes effect can lead to loss of household assets due to distress sales. The quality of jobs in the food system, More stable and secure jobs can enable among other factors, is a function of: in- households to maintain minimum house- comes; stability; and working conditions, hold consumption levels and to accumu- including safety and health measures, as late assets. follows: • Working conditions: These conditions include strengthening labor policies and • Incomes: Higher incomes in the food institutions to protect rural workers, pro- system can help lift people out of poverty. viding a safe work environment, and end- Currently 80 percent of the poor live in ing child and forced labor. rural areas and most rely on agriculture for their livelihoods. Average incomes of This paper now turns to the above-mentioned the poor will need to increase by about 60 aspect of improving the quality of jobs in the percent in Sub-Saharan Africa, and 30 food system, specifically on actions to increase percent in South Asia to lift them above the returns to labor, promote farm diver- the poverty line. sification to reduce seasonality in jobs and • Stability: Seasonality in agricultural incomes, support social protection and safety production can lead to underemploy- net programs and access to social services, and ment at different times of the calendar improve working conditions (table 2). SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 23 TABLE 2: Spectrum of Action Areas in the Food System to Deliver Better Quality Jobs General areas Specific actions Raise incomes ¾¾ Increase returns to labor Improve stability of ¾¾ Promote farm diversification to reduce seasonality in jobs and incomes jobs ¾¾ Support social protection and safety net programs, and improve access to social services Improve working ¾¾ Strengthen labor policies and institutions to protect rural workers conditions ¾¾ Reduce the misuse of pesticides and improve working conditions in off-farm aspects of the food system ¾¾ End child and forced labor Increase returns to labor Skills development can better match the changing demand for different types of la- Increasing the returns to labor in the bor skills, particularly in the food system’s food system can help raise incomes and off-farm aspects. thereby improve an element of job quali- ty. Improving land productivity and access Improve the stability of jobs to markets are important elements of im- proving labor productivity, together with Promote farm diversification to reduce improvements in education and health. seasonality in jobs and incomes Mechanization can also improve labor pro- ductivity, together with expanding farm size. Farm diversification can reduce seasonal Food system jobs beyond production that underemployment in agriculture. While focus on value addition, including in food analysis in Sub-Saharan Africa shows that, processing, transport, associated logistics, on a per-hour-worked basis, labor pro- retailing, and restaurants, are often higher ductivity in agriculture is similar to other paying than farm jobs. The associated action sectors, the hours worked in agriculture areas are similar to those highlighted in the are lower than other sectors, likely due to previous sections of this paper but several the seasonal nature of labor demand. This points are worth reiterating. situation results in underemployment in agriculture at varying times of the calen- Action areas to increase returns to la- dar year relative to other sectors. Reducing bor in the food system include as follows: seasonality effects in agriculture through ir- Implement the earlier referenced actions to rigation use and diversification of farming promote growth and inclusion in food value activities could help reduce underemploy- chains. Particularly important will be ad- ment and raise annual productivity. This aptation to climate change, improving land should also be viewed within a broader ap- productivity and access to markets, and im- proach of facilitating diversification and proving the functioning of land markets. expansion of new opportunities within the 24 FUTURE OF FOOD broader food system, as reflected in earlier markets.81 However, most of the world’s sections of this paper. population still have no access to social protection measures, particularly those liv- Action areas to promote farm diversifi- ing in rural areas.82 In addition to social cation to reduce seasonality in jobs and protection, increasing access to high-quali- incomes include as follows: (i) promote ir- ty schools and health services in rural areas rigation investments in areas where it is can help make these areas attractive to subsequently possible to produce two crops youth and entrepreneurs. per year. In environments with favorable temperature, water availability, and product Action areas to improve social protec- demand, using irrigation to produce mul- tion, safety nets, and social services tiple crops a year with differing temporal include as follows: (i) design social protec- labor demands can reduce “underemploy- tion programs that are responsive to rural ment” throughout the year; (ii) facilitate settings and are gender sensitive, giving farm diversification into products that have particular consideration to the employ- different labor demands at different times ment challenges of rural youth; (ii) design of the year or more constant labor demands social protection programs that combine throughout the year to help reduce under- protective, preventive, and promotional employment and raise overall productivity interventions, taking into account con- (for example, in response to market demand, text-related opportunities;83 (iii) integrate diversify into livestock products—such as social protection programs with broader poultry for egg production or livestock for growth, investment plans, and employment milk production—as they are less season- policies, in particular with agricultural al than crops); and, (iii) design the timing programs (such as Brazil’s Zero Hunger of rural public works programs to operate Program and Ethiopia’s Productive Safety in seasons with low labor demand to help Nets Program); (iv) integrate a gender and smoothen the effect of seasonality on labor youth employment lens in the monitoring demand in rural areas. and evaluation systems of social protection programs to better understand impacts Support social protection and safety net and what works for whom; and, (v) expand programs and improve access to social coverage of health centers, and schools, services particularly in dynamic agricultural areas. Social protection plays a key role in Improve working conditions building resilience and increasing in- comes and food security; it can enhance Strengthen labor policies and institutions employment generation for rural peo- to protect workers in the food system.84 The ple. Improvements in rural employment challenge with labor policies is to promote have been observed from social protec- the protection of vulnerable populations tion, either in directly creating jobs80 and/ without raising the implicit cost of labor or prompting indirect effects on rural labor to a point that induces significant shifts to SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 25 mechanization and away from labor-inten- End child and forced labor. The Sustainable sive agricultural practices. In some cases, Development Goals call to end all forms collective actions can increase the bargain- of child labor by 2025, and to eradicate ing power and wage negotiations of rural forced labor. While the share of children workers. Linking to global agricultural val- that are child laborers has declined glob- ue chains that serve developed markets can ally over the past decades, 10.6 percent bring higher labor standards, resulting in of children worldwide were still child la- better working conditions and wages for borers in 2012, equating to 168 million agricultural workers.85 Minimum wage leg- children.87 The share of children in employ- islation, even if poorly implemented, can ment in low-income counties was higher influence the level of provided wages86 and than in middle- and high-income coun- can help the poorest segments of the popu- tries, and about 60 percent of child labor lation, including youth. is in agriculture. In addition, 20.9 million people worldwide are victims of forced la- Reduce the misuse of pesticides and im- bor, of which 14.2 million are in economic prove working conditions in off-farm activities such as agriculture, construction, aspects of the food system. When used cor- domestic work, and manufacturing.88 Key rectly, pesticides can contain pest populations drivers of the long-term decline in child and improve crop yields, quality, and stora- labor are rising household incomes, expan- bility. The misuse of pesticides—including sion in coverage and quality of education, improper mixing, dosing and timing; un- and social protection. A recent review of safe application, handling, and storage; and the effects of public policy on child labor the use of highly toxic or persistent chem- show that programs aimed at reducing the icals—can be harmful to human health, the vulnerability of households tend to reduce environment, and animals. A combination of child labor.89 The review also showed that approaches can lead to more judicious use of policies aimed at increasing adult house- pesticides. These approaches include: train- hold members’ participation in the labor ing farmers in the techniques of integrated market or in entrepreneurial capabilities of pest management in which natural control the household can sometimes generate ad- measures are emphasized; making technical ditional demand for adolescent and child changes in how pesticides are formulated or work. Integrating these programs with applied; removing existing pesticide subsi- additional interventions can help offset ad- dies and support the development of markets verse effects on child labor. for organically grown produce; and strength- ening the enforcement of national regulatory Action areas to improve working condi- systems for pesticide use and distribution. tions include as follows: (i) consider the More attention is also needed to improve spectrum of policy options to improve the working conditions in the food system be- working conditions of wage employment tween the farm gate and consumer, such as in the food system, including: collective ac- improving sanitation, reducing worker risks, tion arrangements; facilitating exports to and the safe use of materials. markets with higher required standards for 26 FUTURE OF FOOD working conditions; and minimum wages household incomes; recognize in program to help the poorest segments of the popu- design that improvements in adult participa- lation;90 (ii) reduce the misuse of pesticides tion in labor markets may increase demand through training, removing policy bias- for child work and integrate, as necessary, es, promoting integrated pest management, complementary interventions to offset ad- and strengthening regulatory systems; (iii) verse effects on child labor; and, (iv) work to work to end child labor by reducing the vul- end forced labor through empowering vul- nerability of households, including through nerable people to resist coercion at work and social protection programs; expand the cov- addressing factors that currently allow em- erage of quality education, and work to raise ployers to profit from forced labor.91 SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 27 Implementation considerations Institutional arrangements: While the to enterprise development and job cre- agenda includes actions needed by minis- ation across countries and across regions tries of economic development, education, in countries. General considerations guid- finance, health, local government, social pro- ing prioritization could be: (i) outreach: tection and labor, and trade and commerce, the number of people, including youth and ministries of agriculture also need to play women, that would benefit from an ini- a more prominent role in promoting em- tiative; (ii) urgency: addressing areas or ployment in the food system. They need to constraints that are most pressing for food engage with other ministries and provide a system employment, including in areas voice on policies and investments related to with large youth outmigration from the re- jobs in the food system, such as infrastruc- gion or country; and, (iii) results: aiming at ture, the investment climate and trade, skills concrete effects on material living condi- development, entrepreneurship programs, tions of young people. labor policies, and social protection. More broadly, an example of related multi-stake- Other examples of prioritization include the holder approaches is the integrated country following: approach for promoting decent rural youth employment.92  • In agriculturally dependent countries, it is hard to create non-farm jobs in the Priorities vary by country context re- food system without first growing the flecting differences in binding constraints profitability of agricultural tradables, the 28 FUTURE OF FOOD income from which stimulates demand The variance in context, with differing policy growth in rural and urban areas. Past ef- and investment response implications, calls forts that didn’t give consideration to this for programs that target inclusive employ- demand side, but focused solely on sup- ment growth in the food system to clearly ply-side interventions to stimulate em- identify the binding constraints that they are ployment growth, often stumbled. trying to address. • Targeting job-growth oriented interven- tions to areas where “pull factors” prevail A Call to Action (opportunities in dynamic value chains that are pulling workers out of farming The world has set ambitious Sustainable into better paid jobs in the food system) Development Goals. There is an immense can have high returns. Social protection global challenge to provide jobs needed to coverage would perhaps be effective in end poverty and improve shared prosperi- areas where there are persistent shortfalls ty. Slowing global growth, concerns about in production to meet subsistence needs, automation, and inequality in incomes and resulting in household members being opportunity are adding urgency and atten- “pushed” of the farm in desperation to tion to the jobs agenda. The food system find off-farm income sources. can play a significant role. Indeed, it is the • Lagging regions in countries have lower largest employer in many countries, and rates of economic growth and poverty re- improved incomes in the food system can duction than leading regions in the same have large poverty-reducing effects. This pa- countries. In addition to policies that per outlines action areas to promote growth spur growth in lagging regions, interven- in food value chains, to ensure that policies tions—such as lowering costs of transport don’t undermine employment intensity, and and movement to leading regions—can to facilitate inclusion of women and youth. increase access of rural youth in lagging It also highlights actions needed to improve regions to jobs in leading regions. the quality of jobs in the food system. The agenda is large and will require prioritiza- • In land-abundant countries, improving tion within countries and partnerships to land rental markets can provide an ave- implement. Ministries of agriculture need nue for greater rural youth engagement in to play a more prominent role is shaping agricultural production. broader public policies and investments re- • While the need for skills development for lated to food system jobs. This process will youth cuts across all countries, the nature also require engaging with the private sec- of skills deficits varies. In some coun- tor as the key provider of jobs. Development tries basic education (such as reading partners need coordinated and multi-sec- and writing) is more of a priority, while toral efforts around country programs. in others it may be entrepreneurial skills Together we can help enhance the food sys- development. tems’ contribution to jobs. SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 29 Endnotes 1 The current cohort of the population of low- and 13 X. Diao, P. Dorosch, and J. Thurlow, “Structural middle-income countries below the age of 15 is Transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa” from United Nations Population Division data. (Presentation at Technical Workshop on “Rural 2 International Labor Organization (ILO) data. Transformation, Agricultural and Food System Transition,” FAO, Rome, September 19-20, 2016). 3 United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) data. 14 World Bank, The Dynamics of Rural Growth in Bangladesh: Sustaining Poverty Reduction 4 Ibid. (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2016). 5 Based on 2013 Eurostat data that separates 15 World Bank, Future of Food: Shaping a Climate- manufacturing into 24 sub-sectors, and Food Drink Smart Global Food System (Washington, DC: World Europe 2016. Data and Trends: EU Food and Drink Bank, 2015). Industry 2016. 16 World Bank, World Development Report 2010: 6 B. Davis, S. Di Giuseppe, and A. Zezza, “Are Development and Climate Change (Washington, DC: African Households (not) Leaving Agriculture? World Bank, 2010). Patterns of Households’ Income Source in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa,” Food Policy 67 (2017):153–74. 17 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), The State of Food and Agriculture. Women in Agriculture: Closing 7 C. Oya and N. Pontara, eds., Rural Wage Employment the Gender Gap for Development (Rome: FAO, 2011). in Developing Countries: Theory, Evidence, and Policy (Routledge: Routledge ISS Studies in Rural 18 World Bank, Future of Food: Shaping a Climate- Livelihoods, 2015). Smart Global Food System (Washington, DC: World 8 N. Loayza and C. Raddatz, “The Composition Bank, 2015). of Growth Matters for Poverty Alleviation,” 19 World Bank, World Development Report 2008. Journal of Development Economics 93 (1) (2010): Agriculture for Development (Washington, DC: 137–51; L. Christiaensen, L. Demery, and J. Kuhl, World Bank, 2007). “The (Evolving) Role of Agriculture in Poverty 20 World Bank, “Tanzania – Pilot Rural Investment Reduction: An Empirical Perspective,” Journal of Climate Assessment: Stimulating Non-farm Development Economics 96 (2) (2011): 239–54. Microenterprise Growth” (Report No. 40108-TZ, 9 World Bank, “Ending Poverty and Hunger by 2030: World Bank. Washington DC, 2007). An Agenda for the Global Food System” (World 21 World Bank, World Development Report 2013: Jobs for Bank, Washington, DC, 2015). Development (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2012). 10 E. McCullough, “Labor Productivity and 22 A. Rahmn, “Investment Climate Reforms and Job Employment Gaps in Sub-Saharan Africa” (Policy Creation in Developing Countries. What Do We Research Working Paper 7234, World Bank, Know and What Should We Do?” (Policy Research Washington, DC, 2015). Working Paper 7025, World Bank, Washington, 11 D. J. Tschirely, J. Snyder, M. Dolislager, T. Reardon, DC, 2014). S. Haggblade, J. Goeb, L. Traud, F. Ejobi, and F. 23 World Bank, Enabling the Business of Agriculture Meyer, “Africa’s Unfolding Diet Transformation: 2016: Comparing Regulatory Good Practice Implications for Agri-food System Employment,” (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2016). Journal of Agribusiness in Developing and Emerging Economies 5 (2) (2015): 102–36. 24 World Bank, World Development Report 2013: Jobs 12 Derived from N. Alexandratos and J. Bruinsma, (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2012). World Agriculture Towards 2030/2050. The 2012 25 J. Gutmann and S. Voigt, “Lending a Hand to the Revision (Rome: FAO, 2012). Invisible Hand? Assessing the Effects of Newly 30 FUTURE OF FOOD Enacted Competition Laws” Assessing the Effects of Employment and Engagement Study” (Michigan Newly Enacted Competition Laws (February 8, 2014). State University, Lansing, Michigan, 2016). 26 B. Barrett and E. Mutambatsere, “Agricultural 36 FAO. FAO Private and Public Partnership Model Markets in Developing Countries,” in The New for Youth Employment in Agriculture. Experiences Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Ed., ed., L. from Malawi, Tanzania Mainland, and Zanzibar E. Blume and S. N. Durlauf (London: Palgrave Archipelago. (Rural Employment Case Studies Series Macmillan, 2008). 4, Rome: FAO, 2014). 27 B. Barrett and E. Mutambatsere, “Marketing 37 M. Grimm and A. Paffhausen, “Do Interventions Boards” in The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, Targeted at Micro-enterprises and Small and 2nd Ed., ed., L. E. Blume and S. N. Durlauf Medium-size Firms Create Jobs? A Systematic (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008). Review of the Evidence for Low and Middle Income Countries,” Labor Economics 32 (2015): 67–85. 28 J. Kydd and A. Dorward, “Implications of Market and Coordination Failures for Rural Development 38 X. Diao, J. Thurlow, S. Benin, and S. Fan. “Strategies in Least Developed Countries,” Journal of and Opportunities for African Agriculture: Economy- International Development 16 (7) (2004): 951–70. wide perspectives from Country Studies,” IFPRI Issue Brief #73 (IFPRI, Washington, DC, 2012). 29 T. S. Jayne and S. Rashid, “Input Subsidy Programs in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Synthesis of Recent 39 World Bank, “Where Have All the Poor Gone? Evidence,” Agricultural Economics 44 (6) (2013): 1–16. Cambodia Poverty Assessment” (World Bank, Washington, DC, 2014). 30 T. Kato and M. Greeley. “Agricultural Input Subsidies in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Development 40 D. Fine, “Africa at Work: Job Creation and Inclusive Studies – Past, Present, and Future 47 (2) (2016) Growth,” http://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/ (Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, UK). middle-east-and-africa/africa-at-work (2012). 31 T. S. Jayne and S. Rashid, “Input Subsidy Programs 41 K. Anderson, Distortions to Agricultural Incentives: in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Synthesis of Recent A Global Perspective: 1955–2007 (World Bank, Evidence,” Agricultural Economics 44 (6) (2013): Washington, DC, 2009). 1–16. 42 P. Pingali, “Agricultural Policy and Nutrition 32 Z. Xu, W. Burke, T. Jayne, and J. Govereh, “Do Outcomes: Getting Beyond the Pre-occupation with Input Subsidy Programs Crowd In or Crowd Out Staple Grains,” Food Security 7 (2015): 583–91. Commercial Market Development? Modeling 43 IIED, “Fruitful Change: Rural-urban Fertilizer Use Decisions in a Two-Channel Transformation in Vietnam’s Mekong River— Marketing System,” Agricultural Economics 40 (1) Briefing” (December 2015). (2009): 79–94. 44 World Bank, “Linking Farmers to Markets through 33 S. Benin, E. Nkonya, G. Okecho, J. Productive Alliances: An Assessment of the World Randriamamonjy, E. Kato, G. Lubade, and M. Bank Experience in Latin America” (World Bank, Kyotalimye, “Returns to Spending on Agricultural Washington, DC, 2016). Extension: The Case of the National Agricultural 45 J. Kienzle, J. E. Ashburner, and B. C. Sims, Advisory Services (NAADS) Program in Uganda.” “Mechanization for Rural Development: A Review Agricultural Economics 42 (2011): 249–67. of Patterns and Progress from around the World,” 34 L. Christiaensen, J. De Weerdt, and Y. Todo, Integrated Crop Management 20 (FAO, Rome, 2013). “Urbanization and Poverty Reduction: The Role 46 M. Sheahan and C. B. Barrett, “Understanding of Rural Diversification and Secondary Towns,” the Agricultural Input Landscape in Sub-Saharan Agricultural Economics 44 (2013): 435–47. Africa: Recent Plot, Household, and Community- 35 A. Allen, J. Howard, M. Kondo, A. Jamison, T. Jayne, level Evidence” (Policy Research Working Paper J. Snyder, D. Tschirley, and F. Yeboah, “Agrifood Youth 7014, World Bank, Washington, DC, 2014). SHAPING THE FOOD SYSTEM TO DELIVER JOBS 31 47 K. A. Mattaleb, T. Krupnik, and O. Erenstein, 59 D. Filmer and L. Fox. Youth Employment in Sub- “Factors Associated with Small-Scale Agricultural Saharan Africa (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2014). Machinery Adoption in Bangladesh: Census 60 C. D. Deere and C. R. Doss, “Gender and the Findings,” Journal of Rural Studies 46 (2016): 155–68. Distribution of Wealth in Developing Countries” 48 P. Pingali, “Agricultural Mechanization: Adoption (Research Paper No. 2006/115, UNU-WIDER, 2006). Patters and Economic Impact,” in Handbook of 61 K. Deininger, T. Hilhorst, and V. Songwe, Agricultural Economics, Vol. 3, ed., R. Evenson, R., “Identifying and Addressing Land Governance and P. Pingali (North Holland: Elsevier B.V., 2007). Constraints to Support Intensification and Land 49 Y. Hayami and V. Ruttan, Agricultural Development: Market Operation: Evidence from 10 African An International Perspective (Baltimore: Johns Countries,” Food Policy 48 (2014): 76–87. Hopkins University Press, 1985). 62 K. Deininger and R. Castagnini, “Incidence and 50 Y. Liu, W. Hu, S. Jette-Nantel, and Z. Tian, “The Impact of Land Conflict in Uganda,” Journal of Influence of Labor Price Change on Agricultural Economic Behavior & Organization 60 (3) (2006): Machinery Usage in Chinese Agriculture,” Canadian 321–45. Journal of Agricultural Economics 62 (2014): 219–43. 63 FAO, IFAD, and MIJARC, “In Facilitating 51 C. Thirtle, R. Townsend, and J. van Zyl, “Testing Access of Rural Youth to Agricultural Activities” the Induced Innovation Hypothesis: An Error (Presentation at the Farmers’ Forum Youth Session Correction Model of South African Agriculture,” 2012); A. Torkelsson, “Sex Disaggregated Data on Agricultural Economics 19 (1998): 145–57. Agriculture, Water and Food Security Lessons from the Kenya” (Presentation at the World Water Week 52 P. Pingali, “Agricultural Mechanization: Adoption Seminar on Global Practice in Promoting Gender Patters and Economic Impact,” in Handbook of Equality in the Water Sector, Stockholm, 2012). Agricultural Economics, Vol. 3, ed., R. Evenson, R., and P. Pingali (North Holland: Elsevier B.V., 2007). 64 For example, amendments in the Hindu Succession Act that give equal rights to sons and daughters 53 X. Diao, F. Cossar, N. Houssou, and S. Kolavalli, to inherit land significantly increased women’s “Mechanization in Ghana: Emerging Demand, and probability of inheriting land and higher levels the Search for Alternative Supply Models,” Food of education attainment for daughters of women Policy 48 (2014): 168–81. subject to the amended Act. See K. Deininger and 54 P. J. Seager and R. S. Fieldson, “Public Sector Tractor A. Goyal, “Going Digital: Credit Effects of Land Hire and Equipment Hire Schemes in Developing Registry Computerization in India” Journal of Countries” (Paper prepared by the Overseas Division Development Economics 99 (2) (2012): 236–43. of NIAE, 1984). 65 C. Deere, A. Oduro, H. Swaminathan, and C. Doss, 55 J. Yang, Z. Huang, X. Zhang, and T. Reardon, “Property Rights and the Gender Distribution of “The Rapid Rise of Cross Regional Agricultural Wealth in Ecuador, Ghana and India,” The Journal Mechanization Services in China,” American Journal of Economic Inequality 11 (2) (2013): 249–65; and of Agricultural Economics 59 (5) (2013): 1245–51. S. Garikipati, “Landless but Not Assetless: Female 56 D. Filmer and L. Fox. Youth Employment in Sub- Agricultural Labour on the Road to Better Status, Saharan Africa (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2014). Evidence from India,” The Journal of Peasant 57 D. Maïga, L. Christiaensen, and A. Palacios- Studies 36 (3) (2009): 517–45. Lopez, “Are Youth Exiting Agriculture en Masse” 66 N. Okonjo-Iweala and J. Madan, “Shine a Light on (Presentation at STAARS Conference in Addis the Gaps,” Foreign Affairs (February 16, 2016). Ababa, December 2015). 67 A. Demirguc-Kunt, L. Klapper, D. Singer, and P. van 58 S. Bezu and S. Holden, “Are Rural Youth in Ethiopia Oudheusden, “The Global Findex Database 2014. Abandoning Agriculture?” World Development Measuring Financial Inclusion around the World” 64 (December 2014): 259–72, doi:10.1016/j. (Policy Research Working Paper 7255, World Bank, worlddev.2014.06.013. Washington, DC, 2015). 32 FUTURE OF FOOD 68 A. Gardeva and E. Rhyne, “Opportunities and 82 ILO, World Social Protection Report 2014/15. Building Obstacles to Financial Inclusion: Survey Report” Economic Recovery, Inclusive Development and Social (Center for Financial Inclusion, July 2011). Justice (Geneva: ILO, 2014); ILO, “Global Employment 69 Demirguc-Kunt, L. Klapper, D. Singer, and P. van Trends for Youth 2013” (ILO, Geneva, 2014). Oudheusden, 2015. “The Global Findex Database 83 S. Guhan, “Social Security Options for Developing 2014. Measuring Financial Inclusion around the Countries,” International Labour Review 133 (1) World” (Policy Research Working Paper 7255, (1994): 35-53. World Bank, Washington, DC, 2015). 84 C. Oya and N. Pontara, eds., Rural Wage Employment 70 Ibid. in Developing Countries: Theory, Evidence, and 71 Ibid., Policy (Routledge: Routledge ISS Studies in Rural Livelihoods, 2015). 72 CGAP, “Sustainability of Self-help Groups in India: Two Analyses” (Occasional Paper No. 12, August 85 S. Ortiz, “Employment Instability and the 2007). Restructuring of Rural and Rural-Urban Labor Markets in Two Latin American Export Industries” 73 AgriFin, “Making Finance Work for Africa: Policy in Rural Wage Employment in Developing Countries: Brief on Agricultural Finance in Africa” (Report Theory, Evidence, and Policy, ed., C. Oya and N. sponsored by the African Union, GIZ, and BMZ, Pontara (Oxon, UK: Routledge, 2015). 2012). 86 C. Cramer, C. Oya, and J. Sender, “Lifting the 74 Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA). Blinkers: A New View of Power Diversity and “Africa Agriculture Status Report: Youth in Poverty in Mozambican Rural Labor Markets” Journal Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa” (3) (AGRA, of Modern African Studies 46 (3) (2008): 361–92. Nairobi, Kenya, 2015) 87 ILO, Making Progress Against Child Labor: Global 75 FAO, CTA, and IFAD, Youth and Agriculture: Key Estimates and Trends 2000–2012 (Italy: ILO, 2013). Challenges and Concrete Solutions (Rome: FAO, 2014). 88 ILO, ILO Global Estimate of Forced Labor: Results 76 World Bank, Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook and Methodology (Geneva: ILO, 2012). (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2009). 89 A. Dammert, J. de Hoop, E. Mvukiyehe, and F. 77 FAO, CTA, and IFAD, Youth and Agriculture: Key Rosati, “The Effects of Public Policy on Child Challenges and Concrete Solutions (Rome: FAO, 2014). Labor: Current Knowledge, Gaps, and Implications 78 IFAD, “Rural Women’s Leadership Programme. for Program Design. Understanding Children’s Madagascar, Nepal, the Philippines and Senegal. Work: An Inter-Agency Research Cooperation Good practices and Lessons Learned (2010–2013)” Project” (Policy Research Working Paper 7999, (IFAD, Rome, 2014). World Bank, Washington, DC, 2017). 79 Asian Farmers Association, “A Magna Carta of 90 A. Kuddo, D. Robalino, and M. Weber, “Balancing Young Farmers. Promoting the Contributions Regulations to Promote Jobs. From Employment of Young Women and Men Farmers to Family Contracts to Unemployment Benefits” (Working Farming,” Policy Brief 5 (2015). Paper, World Bank, Washington, DC, 2015). 80 FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture. Social 91 ILO, Stopping Forced Labor and Slavery-like Practices: Protection and Agriculture: Breaking the Cycle of Rural The ILO Strategy (Geneva: ILO, 2012). Poverty (Rome: FAO, 2015). 92 FAO, FAO’s Integrated Country Approach (ICA) for 81 M. Samson, E. Nyokangi, M. Yang, E. Estruch, and C. Promoting Decent Rural Employment (Rome: FAO, Rapone, Social Protection and Agricultural Development: 2016). Transformational Approaches to Strengthening the Decent Work Agenda (Rome: FAO, 2015). 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 USA Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org/agriculture Twitter: @WBG_Agriculture