19631 E D U C A T I O N S E C T O R S T R A T E G Y © 1999 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing July 1999 This report has been prepared by the staff of the World Bank. The judgments expressed do not necessar- ily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors or of the governments they represent. The material in this publication is copyrighted. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission promptly. Permission to photocopy items for internal or personal use, for the internal or personal use of specific clients, or for educational classroom use, is granted by the World Bank, provided that the appropriate fee is paid directly to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, U.S.A., telephone 978-750-8400, fax 978-750-4470. Please contact the Copyright Clearance Center before photo- copying items. For permission to reprint individual articles or chapters, please fax your request with complete informa- tion to the Republication Department, Copyright Clearance Center, fax 978-750-4470. All other queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to the World Bank at the address above or faxed to 202-522-2422. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data World Bank. Human Development Network. Education sector strategy= Stratégie pour la secteur de l ’ éducation= Estrategia para el sector educativo / the Human Development Network. p. cm. -- (Sector strategy) (Human development network series) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-4560-5 1. Education--Developing countries. 2. Economic development- -Effect of education on. 3. Educational assistance--Developing countries. 4.World Bank--Developing countries. I. Title. II. Title: Stratégie pour la secteur de l ’ éducation. III. Title: Estrategia para el sector educativo. IV. Series V. Series: Human development network series. LC2607.W66 1999 370'.9172 ' 4--dc21 99–36956 CIP C O N T E N TS iii Foreword v Acknowledgments vi Abstract vii Executive Summary xii Abbreviations and Acronyms xiii Implementation Plan 1 Chapter 1: The Context: Education in a Changing World 5 Chapter 2: The Vision: Quality Education for All 11 Chapter 3: Education Today: Progress Achieved, Progress Needed 17 Chapter 4: Partnering: A World of Opportunities 23 Chapter 5: The Bank’s Role Thus Far: Learning by Doing 29 Chapter 6: Moving Forward: What the Bank Will Do 37 Chapter 7: Moving Forward: How the Bank Will Do It ANNEXES 47 Annex 1: The Three Pillars of a Good Education System 49 Annex 2: Further Remarks on the Checklist of Questions 53 Annex 3: Education Indicators (Maps) 57 Annex 4: Education Indicators by Region and by Country (Tables) 67 Annex 5: Education Lending by Region and by Country 71 Annex 6: Summary of International Initiatives 73 Annex 7: Summary of Regional Strategies 79 Annex 8: Selected World Bank Education Bibliography F O R EWO R D T H E V I S I O N : QUA L I T Y E D U C AT I O N F O R A L L “ Give people a handout or a tool, and they will live a little better. Give them an education, and they will change the world. “ Immense progress has been achieved in education in the last 50 years. Immense challenges still remain. The main success has been in access, but too many people — especially girls and women — are still excluded, at all levels of education. Too many more are enrolled but learning little. The result is that far too many people in developing countries do not have the foundation skills required to survive — let alone the advanced skills needed to thrive — in our complex, competitive world. The challenges are to improve the quality of teaching and the relevance of learning, and to offer everyone — including the hardest to reach — a good education. The long-term measure of success for developing countries will be the degree to which a system and culture of lifelong learning have been established. iii Education is a cornerstone of the World Bank “ All agree that the single most important key to devel- Group’s overall mission of helping countries fight poverty opment and to poverty alleviation is education. This with passion and professionalism to achieve lasting must start with universal primary education for girls results. The mission we have set ourselves in education and boys equally, as well as an open and competitive — to assist clients to identify and implement their next system of secondary and tertiary education. strategic steps in order to provide access for all to quality Construction of schools, modern curricula geared to education — requires us to combine a number of differ- the new technological age, and the real needs of the ent approaches and to resolve the tensions that may arise emerging local market, and effective teacher training in doing so. First, we have to listen closely to our clients: and supervision all contribute to successful education- what goals have they set for themselves? How have they al programs. Adult education, literacy and lifelong analyzed their own situation? What variations exist across learning must be combined with the fundamental different constituencies? Second, we have to bring our recognition that education of women and girls is cen- global knowledge to bear on the particular issues each of tral to the process of development. A government our clients face: what kinds of interventions have worked must also be careful to learn lessons of practice and well, and in what settings? How best to use and adapt history from indigenous peoples and communities, so this experience to fit local needs and circumstances? that education is not imposed from afar but benefits Third, we must consider our comparative advantage and from relevant local, communal experience. Finally, select areas to support where we are likely to help make preschool education must be given its full weight in the greatest impact: which partners can best provide what programs. This can be a key to the development of a assistance? What education and development outcomes child, the level of education reached, and thus the can be expected from our actions? And fourth, in light of eventual achievement.� From A Proposal for a both our clients’ aspirations and our own knowledge, we Comprehensive Development Framework, James D. must undertake our own analyses — pedagogical, organi- Wolfensohn, World Bank President, January 1999 zational, financial, economic, cultural and political — Ralph Harbison and determine what role the Bank can best play to Sector Director, Education achieve shared goals. South Asia Region Client priorities may be at odds with judgments by Bank staff as to what actions are likely to contribute best to education outcomes and poverty reduction. Such ten- sions—between a “bottom-up� client focus and the Ruth Kagia “top-down� application of global knowledge — provide Sector Manager, Human Development the basis for the policy dialogue, and are as relevant to Sub-Saharan Africa Region education as to any sector. Effectively addressing these tensions requires openness, intelligence, and integrating qualities that we will continue to value in all our staff. It also requires a recognition that the successful resolution Marlaine Lockheed of these tensions lies not in “either-or� solutions but in Sector Leader, Education “both-and� ones. Both the Bank and the client must buy Middle East and North Africa Region into the operations that we work on together. Alan Ruby Sector Manager, Human Development East Asia and the Pacific Region James Socknat iv Sector Leader, Education Europe and Central Asia Region Donald Winkler Lead Specialist, Education Latin America and the Caribbean Region Maris O’Rourke Education Sector Board Chair Director, Education David de Ferranti Human Development Council Chair Vice-President and Head of Human Development Network AC K N OW L E D G M E N TS This Sector Strategy document was prepared by a team of technical specialists from the Education Sector of the Human Development Network of the World Bank, under the guidance of the Education Sector Board. The process also involved other managers and staff in the World Bank Group. The work was led by Jeffrey Waite (Project Manager), Maris O’Rourke (Director, Education), and David de Ferranti (Human Development Network Head and Vice-President). Other major contributors were Joy de Beyer, Frances Kemmerer, Quentin Thompson, Jacques van der Gaag and Douglas Windham. The report benefitted from consultation with the External Advisory Panel, chaired by Jozef Ritzen and Paulo Renato Souza, with many members of the Education Network, and with a number of external agencies. Anja Robakowski-Van Stralen — with assistance from Vivian Jackson, Dena Ringold, Nandita Tannan and Lianqin Wang — prepared the statistical annexes and took care of document processing. The report drew on the strategies that had been or were being prepared by each of the Bank’s six regional education teams and by the IFC’s education team. Principally responsible for these strategies were Jacob van Lutsenburg Maas (IFC), Adriaan Verspoor (AFR), Christopher Thomas (EAP), Sue Ellen Berryman (ECA), Donald Winkler (LCR), Marlaine Lockheed (MNA), and Regina Bendokat (SAR). v A B S T R AC T This report takes stock of key changes in the world today and their implications for education (Chapter 1), reiterates the vision for education in the new millennium (Chapter 2), takes stock of progress so far and the gaps that remain (Chapter 3), describes the rich group of partners in the educational endeavor (Chapter 4) and how the Bank’s role has evolved (Chapter 5). This all sets the context for the strategy that is now guiding activities and setting priorities in the education sector. Chapter 6 describes the Bank’s global priorities and programs to help countries progress toward the international education goals and improve the quality of teaching and learning. Chapter 7 describes the processes and operating principles that will help Bank staff contribute more effectively to better educational outcomes in each client country and to monitor success in implementing this strategy. vi E X E C U T I V E S U M M A RY Education affects how well individuals, communities and nations fare. It helps improve living standards and enhance the quality of life, and can provide essential opportunities for all. Many of the world’s states, through international conventions and commitments, have recognized education as a human right. In a rapidly changing world, education has become more important than ever before. Faced with increasing globalization, the rapid spread of democracy, technological innovation, the emergence of new market economies, and changing public/private roles, countries need more highly educated and skilled populations, and individuals need more skills and information to compete and thrive. The stakes are high. The choices countries make now will have long-term ramifications. Those who respond astutely will make progress, those who do not risk falling far behind. Disparities in education are already huge — many countries are still struggling to provide basic books, blackboards and buildings, while a few are rapidly adopting new information and education technologies. Without vigorous efforts, global and national gaps in education, opportunities and outcomes could widen much more. For the World Bank — whose mandate is to work with partners to fight poverty and improve the quality of life — education is central to the development agenda. Education is a crucial part of a Comprehensive Development Framework that recognizes that sustainable development requires many social and structural elements in addition to strong economic performance. The long-term goal in education is nothing less than to ensure everyone completes a basic education of adequate quality, acquires foundation skills — literacy, numeracy, reasoning and social skills such as teamwork — and has further opportunities to learn advanced skills throughout life, in a range of post-basic education settings.1 Specific international vii targets have been agreed for universal primary education, adult literacy and gender parity in basic education within the Education For All (EFA) initiative and the OECD’s Development Assistance Committee (DAC) goals. The Bank is com- mitted to working towards these targets and has developed a set of special programs in response. The targets will not all be attained in all countries even a decade from now. But to aim for less would be to aim too low. Progress towards what have become known as the “DAC indicators� will be monitored each year in the World Development Indicators report (www.worldbank.org/data/wdi). Much progress has been made in enrollment in developing countries. The proportion of people participating, from early childhood to tertiary, has risen significantly. Three quarters of all children in developing countries now attend school, compared to just half 30 years ago. The percentage of illiterate adults has improved from 39 percent in 1985 to 30 percent in 1995. But much more progress is needed. Serious challenges remain. Access has faltered or declined in some countries, notably in Sub-Saharan Africa, where enrollment increases have not kept pace with population growth. Inequities persist and certain groups — especially females, minorities and the poor — are disproportionately excluded. Drop-out rates are high in many regions, with only two thirds of children who start school staying to the fifth grade. Many children in school receive teaching of low quality, based on an outmoded and inappropriate curriculum. The result is poor achievement scores and unemployed graduates with the wrong skills. Education institutions are often ill-equipped to deal with the many problems they face and to meet the challenges that lie ahead. There are enormous disparities in education across and within countries. So there is no simple prescription for what countries can do to progress towards the long-term goals of universal access to a good quality basic education and the opportunity to acquire advanced skills. But whatever the education situation and needs in a country, access to quality teaching and learning must be a pre-eminent concern. There is little point in expanding access unless there is reasonable quality. If people are not gaining the knowledge, skills and values they need, resources invested in teaching and learning are wasted. There must be, in policy and actions, an unrelenting concentration on learning. Quality is the key to achieving the imperative for the new millennium — an educated, skilled population who can operate in democratic societies and meet changing labor market needs. Good quality education requires efficient systems that provide supportive learning environ- ments, motivated staff with mastery of their subject matter, adequate access to resources, and students who are healthy and ready to learn. Attention to quality and effective institutions is not new, but making quality the preeminent concern of the education strategy is. Renewed progress in education clearly requires strong, productive partnerships. The job is too large for any one insti- tution or agency alone, and too important for a single perspective to hold sway. Governments, NGOs and local stakeholders, with the support of bilateral and multilateral development agencies, will have to work closely together in a prolonged effort to ensure each country’s objectives for education are met, and to build public and educator understanding of the need for educational change. Many others have important roles to play too, including students, parents, families, communities, teachers groups, foundations and private firms. Local partners, in particular, have the knowledge and the understanding of values, culture and traditions that are an essential feature of sustainable development. The Bank wishes to use its comparative advantage where the pay-off is greatest, taking into consideration government actions and other partners’ activities, the relative strengths of all involved, and the particular challenges to be met. The Bank’s comparative advantage lies in its ability to bring together a wide range of stakeholders, offer access to finance, provide objective advice, employ a multi-sectoral approach, sustain a long-term commitment, and share knowledge drawn from around the world. The Bank can also draw upon 35 years of experience in education, resulting in almost 600 projects in 115 countries totaling US$26 billion. The active portfolio stands at US$14 billion spread across 187 projects in 87 countries, and new lending runs between US$1 and US$3 billion a year. In early projects, the emphasis was on building school infrastructure. As more experience was gained, the focus shifted to getting students into the buildings. But the problems of inadequate and inequitable access, poor quality teaching, poor learning achievement and inadequate institutional capacity remained — and became more apparent and better understood. This led to an analysis of the factors that influence effectiveness, and a new emphasis on teaching quality and learning achievement. A coinciding period of tightened fiscal constraints heightened con- cern for using resources more effectively and equitably, and for building the institutional capacity required to implement and sustain change for the better. In short, the focus is now not on just buildings and not on just getting students into the viii buildings, but on improving their learning outcomes wherever they are. These changes in emphasis and the Bank’s commitment to the international education goals are reflected in the increased size, scope and diversity of the portfolio. The most dramatic shift has been from “hardware� (civil works and equipment fell from almost 100% in the 1960s to 45% in the late 1990s) to “software� (training, technical assistance, books and system reforms). There has also been a shift from a narrow project approach to a broad sectoral one, a change in region- al distribution, more lending for primary, and an increase in self-evaluation — all salutary. The recent decrease in research and analytic sector work is worrying. Ways are being sought to counter “crowding out� of research and analysis, through building partnerships and drawing upon other funding sources, building research and evaluation into projects, and focusing on operational relevance for new research topics. THE STRATEGY: PRIORITIES, SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES AND PERFORMANCE INDICATORS The World Bank will treat education comprehensively and work selectively across all areas of education depending on each country’s priorities. There can be no simple single prescription about what needs to be done in all countries, given the huge differences in education and development needs. However, four global strategic priorities emerge from the Bank’s commit- ment to the international education goals and from the consensus that there must be an unrelenting focus on the quality of teaching and learning. The plan at the end of this summary lists specific activities in these priority areas and performance indicators against which to measure progress. The final column shows the outcome indicators that the programs and activi- ties are designed to help achieve, but which are determined by many actors and factors beyond the control of the Bank. (This plan appears in the main text as Tables 3 and 4. Table 3 and Chapter 6 cover the four global priorities. Table 4 and Chapter 7 summarize the operating principles and corresponding performance targets that will guide staff as they work with clients in each country.) GLOBAL PRIORITIES Reaching for international goals Basic education. Special global programs in basic education aim to move faster toward the international education targets as means to more productive economies, more cohesive societies, more effective participation in collective affairs, and ulti- mately, healthier and happier populations. Basic education for girls: In 15 of the Bank’s client countries with exceptionally large gaps between girls’ and boys’ primary enrollment rates, activities and analyses will try to narrow the gender gap by improving girls’ enrollment, attainment and achievement. The activities include: providing incentives for girls’ attendance (e.g. scholarships, school meals, basic health care, provision of textbooks), increasing access to close and safe schools with adequate facilities, improving the quality and relevance of education, accommodating socio-cultural values and educating parents and communities about the benefits of girls’ education, establishing supportive national policies that target girls, and pursuing sound economic policies that do not create disincentives to women’s employment. Basic education for the poorest: Sixteen of the sub-Saharan African countries in which education attainment is well below the level required historically to achieve sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction have been targeted. Bolder policies and more innovative activi- ties will be pursued to accelerate primary enrollments in these countries. Improving the quality of teaching and learning The strategy singles out three other areas as global priorities, where experience and research show that interventions are likely to have a big impact on the quality of teaching and learning. Early interventions. Early child development (ECD): Evidence is accumulating that mental and physical development in children’s earliest years affect learning readiness, academic achievement, dropout rates, and labor force productivity. The goal is to increase the number of ECD programs from 8 to 14 and to make sure that the poor benefit from these initiatives (www.worldbank.org/children). School health: Together with numerous partners, the Bank has an International School Health Initiative to promote and help design and implement simple, cost-effective school-based health services such as ix deworming, micronutrient (e.g. iron) supplements, and promoting healthy lifestyles. The impact is highly progressive, bene- fiting especially girls, the poor and the malnourished. The goal is to help launch activities in 19 countries in Africa and 8 countries in Latin America, so as to improve children’s health, school attendance and ability to learn and thus school achievement — with the potential for longer-term benefits in adult health status and productivity. Innovative delivery: distance education, open learning and the use of new technologies. Existing and new technological possibilities (distance education using print and radio, TV, and the Internet) can reduce costs, increase access, expand the range and quality of education and training options, open up new worlds in classrooms and communities, and make real the promises of lifelong learning. The goals are to: develop a strategy for the use of educational technology in African coun- tries; develop African expertise in educational technology and distance education through fellowships; use a survey and case studies to distill the lessons of experience in educational technology and distance education from Asia; and establish Internet sites through which to share knowledge among countries that use technology to train teachers (www.worldbank.org/ depweb, www.globaldistancelearning.com, and www.worldbank.org/worldlinks). Selected areas of system reform. Standards, curriculum and achievement assessment: Reliable statistics (including indicators of student learning achievement) are essential for measuring improvements in the quality of teaching and learning. It is important for the Bank to continue to provide technical and financial support to UNESCO’s new Institute of Statistics, as well as to encourage developing countries to (1) establish standards for what students should know and be able to do at var- ious stages of the education system, (2) participate in international evaluations of educational achievement, and (3) develop good national assessment systems. Governance and decentralization: Virtually all of the Bank’s client countries are tackling education reforms that often involve decentralizing management and accountability for results. The Bank plans (with many partners and leading academic institutions) to develop a training course for policymakers and international agency staff on what works and what doesn’t and how to implement education reforms in politically sustainable ways. To further support clients’ education system reforms, the Bank will make available former education ministers and other high-level officials with experience in implementing education reforms, detailed case studies of successful country experience, a website featur- ing global research on education reform, tools for assessing political readiness and institutional capacity for reform in education and assistance to task teams in identifying reform implementation challenges and strategies for overcoming them. Providers and financiers outside of government: It is part of many governments’ strategy to expand education supply — espe- cially of secondary and tertiary places and technical and vocational training — by encouraging investment by not-for-profit groups and entrepreneurs. To facilitate this, the Bank (including the IFC) is developing a partnership that will create an Internet information exchange highlighting investment opportunities in education in client countries (www.worldbank.org/edinvest). COUNTRY PRIORITIES These global priority areas are not all the highest priorities for all regions and all countries. Given the great diversity in edu- cation accomplishments, challenges and constraints across and within client countries, this strategy does not issue prescriptive dictates to staff about what to do in all countries (such as “invest in primary education�). Instead, the strategy commits staff to work with clients in each country to help them to identify and take their next strategic steps to provide access for all to quality education, making wise and fair use of resources, and building the institutional capacity that is criti- cal to sustainable development. The strategy includes guidelines and principles to help education staff to implement it well (Chapter 7) country by country. The agreed operating principles are: s focus on the client — listen and learn, taking into account the cultural context; s analyze comprehensively, act selectively; s use knowledge well; s concentrate on development impact; s work with others in productive partnerships. x A range of tools, techniques and instruments are available to help staff apply these principles. For example, to analyze comprehensively and act selectively, it helps to consider the potential impact of proposed actions in a particular country. Actions in countries with very large populations can potentially benefit very large numbers of people, and may have lower unit costs per dollar lent than small loans to less populous countries. But the poor and excluded do not all live in the largest countries and small countries may provide unique opportunities for implementing holistic reforms that can have useful demonstration effects for others. Furthermore, when the education portfolio is heavily concentrated in a few large countries, a decision by any one of the major borrowers not to borrow would require the Bank to be prepared to reallocate the freed- up resources in accordance with its broad priorities. For non-borrowing clients, the question of whether to charge for technical assistance will need to be resolved at high levels of Bank management, but the answer affects the decisions the Education sector makes about staff recruitment and deployment. The potential impact of actions in countries will also be determined by how much room there is to improve, and how much room there is to maneuver, i.e. whether the political and other conditions are likely to promote or impede the pro- posed activity, both in the government and in communities at large. Where there is both room to improve and room to maneuver, staff should move boldly ahead. But staff risk wasting scarce time and resources if they pursue efforts when there is little room to improve and poor prospects of success, especially if government does not fully support the initiative. Earlier it was noted that the global priorities identified in this strategy will not all apply in all countries. A set of questions (Box 11) help staff as they discuss priorities with governments and other stakeholders and partners in each country to consider whether the global areas of special emphasis ought to be high on that particular country’s education agenda. The success of this strategic approach will be judged by whether country education action plans are selective, focus clearly on results, show evidence of sound analysis and make appropriate choices among the expanding range of lending instruments and increasingly flexible ways of assisting in the education sector — including through the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initia- tive and the pilots efforts to operationalize the Comprehensive Development Framework. Critical to successful outcomes in education will be the people in the Bank, the processes they use and the way they use them. People with solid professional expertise and who can interact in ways that convey openness, support and service are essential. Key staffing challenges for the years ahead will be to strengthen the skills mix, enhance staff training and improve staff deployment (especially in the field). Staff training is targeting the acquisition of the skills, values, attitudes and behaviors that underlie effective interaction between Bank staff, clients and partners. Another important strategic goal is to continue to build the Education Knowledge Management System, helping strengthen the Bank’s role as a knowledge institution, able to generate, synthesize, disseminate and share global knowledge to get local results and provide high quality advice to clients. Three new external websites will be launched each year and the quality and usefulness of the advisory service and education database will be monitored and ensured. COUNTRY, REGION AND GLOBAL: THREE LEVELS OF THE STRATEGY The overall Bank strategy comprises the global priorities and processes described in this report, the 120 country action plans that operationalize the strategy and the six regional sector strategies which are the bridge between the global strategic consid- erations and the country specific action plans. Each of the regional strategies promotes and reflects extensive and on-going dialogue, both inside and outside the Bank. There is significant overlap between the global priorities and the priorities set in the six regional strategies, although, as might be expected, there are clear differences among the regional strategies. In Latin America and the Caribbean (LCR), for example, the Bank has identified the following priorities: improving the teaching and learning process; including the excluded; meeting the needs of youth; reforming organization management; using technology to improve education; and reforming higher education. In the Middle East and North Africa (MNA) region, the priority development objectives are: to emphasize “learning to learn� and reach internationally competitive performance standards; to improve system effectiveness in building human capital and social cohesion; to ensure universal completion of compulsory education of good quality; to increase country-level information on education and the effects of reform; and to maintain a sustainable financial founda- tion for education. xi Scrutiny of the country action plans will show activities in the four global priority areas in many of the Bank’s client countries (Annex 6). However, the 120 country plans include many other activities, so the global priority program activities are only a fraction of the full agenda of the education sector in the Bank. In developing this strategy, careful thought has been given to lessons learned: why have some efforts in education fallen short of their objectives, and others succeeded? Key errors of the past are noted: failing to place enough emphasis on the quality of teaching and on learning outcomes; designing overly complex projects that make unrealistic demands on clients’ institution- al capacity; focusing too narrowly — on a single sub-sector in isolation from the rest of the education system, or on expanding physical infrastructure without adequate concern for the activities and policies that determine learning outcomes. This strategy learns from shortfalls and builds on successes. It reinforces many trends already under way: making the qual- ity of teaching and learning the preeminent concern rather than being satisfied with increased enrollments; analyzing the education system as a complex whole, and then being selective about where to focus efforts; and monitoring progress based on results rather than inputs. This, together with the strengthened insistence that the particular circumstances of each country demand carefully tailored solutions, and the realization that progress towards the education goals requires purposeful partner- ships — will help the Bank avoid past pitfalls, improve performance and outcomes in education, and better serve clients. The ultimate success of this strategy will need to be judged country by country: Is there a clear and coherent educa- tion plan? Is implementation of the plan on track, and are specified performance targets being met? Are the planned activities resulting in gains in access and learning outcomes? The work of the Bank can affect the answers to these questions significantly. But the most important actors and decision makers are the key education stakeholders and government staff in client countries. Progress in education is in their hands and depends in large part on local traditions and culture. The role of the Bank is to support and help strengthen their hands, where values and priorities converge. The Bank’s education staff are fully committed to implementing this sector strategy, with the wider endorsement of other managers and of the shareholders. There is no time to lose. 1 �Post-basic education� includes upper general secondary, technical and professional training, community-based adult education and higher education. A B B R EV I AT I O N S & AC RO N Y M S ADEA Association for the Development of Education in Africa AED Academy for Educational Development AFR Africa Region (World Bank) APL Adaptable Program Loan AVU African Virtual University CAP Country Action Plan CAS Country Assistance Strategy CCF Christian Children’s Fund CPRE Consortium on Policy Research in Education DAC Development Assistance Committee (OECD) DEC Development Economics Department (World Bank) DECDG Development Economics Data Group (World Bank) DFID UK Department for International Development EAP East Asia and Pacific Region (World Bank) ECA Europe and Central Asia Region (World Bank) ECD Early child development EdStats Education Statistics Database (World Bank) EFA Education for All EKMS Education Knowledge Management System ESW Economic and sector work FAWE Federation of African Women in Education GER Gross Enrollment Rate GNP Gross National Product HDN Human Development Network (World Bank) HIPC Highly Indebted Poor Countries (IMF/World Bank) xii HNP Health, Nutrition and Population Sector (World Bank) IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IDA International Development Association IDB Inter-American Development Bank IEA International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement IFC International Finance Corporation IIEP International Institute of Education Planning ISG Information Solutions Group (World Bank) LCR Latin America and Caribbean Region (World Bank) LIL Learning and Innovation Loan MNA Middle East and North Africa Region (World Bank) NER Net Enrollment Rate NGO Non-governmental organization OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OED Operations Evaluations Department (World Bank) PAHO Pan-American Health Organization QAG Quality Assurance Group (World Bank) SAL Structural Adjustment Loan SAR South Asia Region (World Bank) SSA Sub-Saharan Africa SSER Social Sector Expenditure Review STC Save the Children TF Trust Fund TIMSS-R Third International Mathematics and Science Study Repeat UN United Nations UNAIDS United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNSIA United Nations Special Initiative for Africa USAID United States Agency for International Development WBI World Bank Institute (formerly EDI and LLC) WEI World Education Indicators WHO World Health Organization I M P L E M E N TAT I O N P L A N IMPLEMENTATION PLAN Performance Policy Directions Specific Actions Partners Outcome Indicators Indicators PRIORITY AREAS Basic Education Focus efforts in priority Activities under way UNESCO, Norwegian EFA/DAC goals for basic s for the poorest countries in AFR through in 16 target countries Trust Fund education met in target UNSIA program countries s for girls Focus efforts in 31 Activities under way in UNICEF, DFID, Movement towards target countries having the 31 target countries Rockefeller EFA/DAC goals for girls largest gender disparities in 31 target countries in basic education enrollment Early Interventions Develop ECD programs in Number of free-standing HNP, IDB, UNESCO, Intake improved into pri- s early child development priority countries programs increased from UNICEF, PAHO, bilaterals, mary education in target 8 to 14 NGOs countries s school health programs Focus efforts in priority Activities engaged in 19 HNP, WHO, UNESCO, Learning improved in countries in AFR and LCR countries in AFR, and 8 PAHO, UNICEF, UNAIDS, target countries through the International countries in LCR bilaterals, NGOs School Health Program Innovative Delivery: Develop an education Strategy and survey AFR, EAP Worldwide knowledge distance education, technology strategy completed of distance education open learning & the for AFR and undertake enhanced use of new technologies a survey in EAP xiii Improve information Four (4) scholarships AFR sharing with educators in offered to African client countries education Enable exchange of Six (6) external Global Open universities in knowledge about Distance EducatioNet Canada, HK/China, Costa distance learning sites operational Rica, Indonesia, South amongst client countries Africa, Spain, and UK Systemic Reform Support efforts to On-going Bank member- UNESCO, IEA, OECD, Education systems s standards, curriculum increase internationally ship of UNESCO Institute UNICEF, UNDP, UNFPA operating more efficiently & assessment comparative information of Statistics body and (TIMSS-R, WEI, EFA 2000 and more equitably on education access and Bank dialogue with Assessment) achievement clients about participation in international studies Increase knowledge Public exams database in of evaluation and FY00 (CD-ROM in FY01) examinations Education performance indicators (FY00) Establish worldwide Launch website in FY00 U of Twente, U of network of science and Witwatersrand, technology educators UNESCO, US National Science Foundation s governance and Increase sharing of Internet site in FY00 OECD decentralization knowledge about tertiary Contributors’ network education reform developed Increase institutional Education reform training WBI, IIEP/UNESCO, capacity for education course developed for OECD, CPRE reform clients and staff s providers and financiers Link private investors to Electronic exchange IFC, private compa- outside of government education institutions operational in FY00 & nies use evaluated in FY01 IMPLEMENTATION PLAN Policy Directions Specific Actions Performance Outcome Partners Indicators Indicators OPERATING PRINCIPLES Focus on the client Promote staff Annual staff training WBI Client rating of Bank participation in achieved services improved training in listening and negotiation skills Analyze Develop Country Action 80% of Country Action Country Teams Bank resources more comprehensively, Plans Plans updated within efficiently used to impact act selectively last six (6) months to education access and be selective and achievement country results-focussed by country Develop Regional Six (6) strategies by FY00 Regional Management Education Strategies Undertake Economic s 5 ESWs completed DEC, Country Teams Sector Work and Social annually Sector Expenditure s CASs informed by Review SSER not more than 3 years old Disseminate lessons First phase of pilot OED OED, QAG from OED/QAG relational database operational for education xiv in FY00 Review use and Experience of APLs OED effectiveness of new and LILs distilled and lending instruments disseminated Promote staff Annual staff training WBI participation in training achieved in the use of new lending instruments Ensure strategic Annual review of CASs Country Teams directions are included finds 80% satisfactory in CASs of priority treatment of education countries Concentrate on Establish a set of robust s Development indicator DEC, QAG, OED Bank interventions better development impact development impact set developed in FY00 targeted indicators for Bank s 80% of new projects use indicators within 2 years Use knowledge well Open access to clients External websites for 3 Task teams, DECDG, Knowledge about and partners new themes each year OED, WBI, ISG education used more (FY00, 01, 02) effectively to improve access to and quality of education for all Conduct EKMS user Survey completed Task teams survey annually Work with others in In Country Action Plans, 100% of updated CAPs Bank’s comparative productive partnerships include section outlining include section on advantage maximized how the Bank will work partners and respective with other players comparative advantage T H E C O N T E X T: C H E D U C AT I O N I N A A P T E R C H A N G I N G 1 o n e WO R L D As the new millennium approaches, education has become more important than ever before in influencing how well indi- viduals, communities and nations fare. The world is undergoing changes that make it much more difficult to thrive without the skills and tools that a high quality education provides. Education will determine who has the keys to the treasures the world can furnish. This is particularly important for the poor, who have to rely on their human capital as the main, if not the only, means of escaping poverty. In this way, new challenges and opportunities arise for education. The stakes are high. The choices that countries make today about education could lead to sharply divergent outcomes in the decades ahead. Countries that respond astutely should experience extraordinary progress in education, with major social and economic benefits, including “catch-up� gains for the poor and marginalized. Countries that fail to recognize and respond risk stagnating or even slipping backwards, widening social and economic gaps and sowing the seeds of unrest. DRIVERS OF CHANGE Education is vital: those who can compete best (with lit- Among the major drivers of change are five key trends. eracy, numeracy, and more advanced skills) have an First, democratization has spread rapidly in the last enormous advantage in this faster paced world economy 1 decade. Over a hundred countries now have democrati- over their less well prepared counterparts. cally elected governments, almost twice as many as a Third, globalization of markets and the factors that decade ago. This change has often been accompanied by drive them — especially knowledge — is reinforcing decentralization of decision-making. In Latin America, these impacts. Global capital, moveable overnight from for example, with the exception of a few small countries, one part of the globe to another, is constantly seeking virtually all legislative and executive authorities are now more favorable opportunities, including well-trained, elected in 13,000 units of local government.1 Citizens are productive, and attractively priced labor forces in market- gaining an increasing voice through civil society organi- friendly and politically stable business environments. zations and community groups, local chambers of Employers, seeing local markets more exposed to global commerce, religious organizations, parents’ associations, competition, are requiring production processes that are etc. If all this democratization is to survive and flourish, much faster, ensure higher quality outputs more reliably, education will have a key contribution to make in help- accommodate greater variety and continuous innovation, ing citizenries develop the capabilities required to be well and cut costs relentlessly, as wafer-thin profit margins drive informed, understand difficult issues, make wise choices, win-or-die outcomes. These pressures, in turn, are trans- and hold elected officials accountable for delivering on forming the sorts of workers needed. Tomorrow’s workers their promises. will need to be able to engage in lifelong education, learn Second, market economies2 now prevail in countries new things quickly, perform more non-routine tasks and accounting for over 80 percent of the world’s population, more complex problem solving, take more decisions, up from under 30 percent a decade ago. Where other understand more about what they are working on, require (mainly centrally planned) systems used to provide fewer less supervision, assume more responsibility, and — as vital opportunities but more certainty, market systems now tools to those ends — have better reading, quantitative, reward enterprise, risk-taking, skill, and agility, but offer reasoning, and expository skills. Again, education will be less security and a constantly changing environment. center stage: failure to recognize the importance of invest- ing in human capital and equipping workers for the Fifth, public/private roles are also changing. Govern- challenges ahead will handicap them severely. ments are becoming less the direct producers and Fourth, technological innovation will likely have the providers of goods and services and more the facilitators most far-reaching implications of all. The new technolog- and regulators of economic activity. Old stereotypes — of ical advances of the years ahead will facilitate some of the purely public agencies on the one hand and purely pri- other developments — e.g., by providing people with vir- vate for-profit firms on the other — are giving way to tually unlimited access to information. They are already better understanding of the reality that there actually are resulting in a shift in the structure of economic activity a wide spectrum of players involved, including quasi-pub- that increases the importance of knowledge: in the hyper- lic institutions, non-governmental, not-for-profit groups, competitive global market economy, knowledge is rapidly community-level organizations, and corporations with replacing raw materials and labor as the input most public commitments. In education, government still critical for survival and success. The revolution in inform- plays a leading role — and most likely always will — ation technology will provide unprecedented opportuni- especially in the financing of primary and secondary edu- ties to change education itself (Box 1). New ways to cation. But other entities also are involved and likely will expand access and improve quality — and fundamentally become increasingly so in the decades ahead. For exam- rethink what should be learned and how — will become ple, the private sector, through its training of workers, widely available at affordable costs. already provides a large part of the effective learning that B O X 1 AFRICAN VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY The African Virtual University (AVU) (website: www.avu.org) is a first-of-its-kind interactive-instructional telecommu- nications network established to serve the countries of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The objective of the AVU is to train world-class scientists, technicians, engineers, business managers, health care providers and other professionals need- 2 ed to support economic and social development in Africa. The AVU seeks to achieve its objectives by harnessing the power of interactive satellite and computer-based tech- nologies, to share some of the highest quality academic faculty, library resources, and laboratory experiences available in the world. Using technologies that provide the flexibility and cost-effectiveness of a virtual academic infrastructure, the AVU will be in a position to produce large numbers of scientifically and technologically literate pro- fessionals and support them with lifelong learning opportunities. The AVU can thereby contribute to overcoming the existing barriers of declining budgets, too few faculty, outdated equipment, and limited space and facilities that pre- vent increased access to higher education for a significant majority of students in SSA. The increase in the number of scientifically and technologically literate professionals will, as a consequence, better position countries in SSA to be part of the global information age and the new knowledge economy. The AVU is currently in its pilot phase, during which the virtual university concept is being implemented and tested in fourteen English-speaking universities across SSA. From an initial summer course at Kenyatta University in July 1997, the AVU has offered nine courses by satellite, in science and engineering, from seven universities in the US, Canada and Ireland to twelve universities in Africa. In addition to credit courses, the AVU is currently transmitting executive management, teacher training and other professional development seminars to the public and private sector at the AVU university sites. A digital library service was recently launched and made available to all currently participating universities. The AVU in anglophone countries is transitioning to the operational phase, offering full-fledged degrees in computer science, computer engineering and electrical engineering. L’Université virtuelle africaine (the AVU net- work for francophone countries at website uva.ulb.ac.be) was launched in July 1998, when the first in a series of seminars was transmitted to four sites in Benin, Niger, Mauritania and Senegal. Ten more sites in francophone Africa joined early in 1999. Transmissions to lusophone Africa began in mid-1999. many people retain, and this contribution may grow fur- spending some of the lowest around the world. In terms ther as skill requirements increase and if firms find public of access to education they have some of the greatest schools inadequate. The supply of good quality textbooks problems due to the lack of trained teachers, materials, and other learning materials on a sustained basis is more destroyed buildings and fragmented or shifting commu- likely to be assured where a flourishing private sector nities. The aftermath of conflict is a social vacuum, publishing industry and distribution system exist. which affords a brief window of opportunity in which Television and other media, community initiatives, and to lay the foundations for constructive change. This is a non-governmental schools are among the many other window with high risks attached, for conflicts may be possible growth areas. The vital question now is not rekindled, investments lost, and wrong decisions taken. whether other-than-government roles in education will However the human and economic costs of not maxi- expand — they will — but rather how these develop- mizing donor inputs to creatively construct new and ments should be incorporated into countries’ overall forward looking societies may be even greater. In this strategies. Partnerships will be crucial. light, plowing gains made from debt relief — through These five drivers of change — and possible other the Highly Indebted Poor Countries initiative, for developments, some of which cannot be predicted yet — example — back into education and health care will have powerful ramifications. Some impacts will be becomes crucial. strongly positive. For instance, the spread of knowledge Another world wants to maintain the status quo. and opportunities could lead to greater economic and Parents, teachers, administrators, textbook publishers, social participation that benefits the poor and least students — all can have reasons to prefer things to advantaged as well as the better off — enriching stan- remain as they are, or to change only very gradually. dards of living for all. Other impacts could be damaging Representative groups — from school boards to teachers’ for some groups. In particular, unless timely measures are unions to local councils — tend to be more cautious taken to ensure wide access to the improved possibilities, than their members individually. Issues such as teachers’ the gap between rich and poor could widen. salaries and conditions can grind change to a halt. So can debates over curriculum content, especially when reli- 3 gious, ethnic or cultural questions are involved. WORLDS APART Yet another world that includes only a fortunate few These changes add to the complications already faced by in some well-off communities mainly in rich countries, the many different “worlds� that live alongside one another. is rapidly reinventing education. New, much more effec- One world is still struggling with fundamental edu- tive approaches to learning are being developed. cation issues. This world is a daily reality for the two- Computers for every student, easy Internet access, highly thirds of the global population that live on less than competent teachers, self-guided curricula consistent with three dollars a day. No books, the wrong books, teachers the latest research — each new advance is followed who desperately need more and better training to be able quickly by another. to deliver a modern curriculum, rote learning of irrele- Futurists predict still another world. This world will vant material, classes with over a hundred students, have much more education occurring outside of schools language barriers, dirt floors, no buildings — these are and will draw on vastly more powerful technology (e.g., but a few of the problems. Child labor practices mean two-way voice-activated computer-assisted self-paced that poor parents face high opportunity costs in sending learning). It will harness much better understanding of their daughters and sons to school. Some 145 million how people learn and what they need to learn. Learners children in poor communities worldwide never get to go will be able to go beyond the classroom and obtain infor- to school. Some 60 percent of them are girls.3 Hundreds mation in a variety of forms (text, data, sound, video) of millions of others get only a few years and retain little from all over in the world, at any time of day or night, at or nothing. Even many who complete basic education rapidly diminishing cost. are illiterate. There have been many past prophecies of massive This world includes countries emerging from con- improvements in education. Yet the result has often been flict. These countries are amongst the poorest, their little progress, or even regression. Many schools today use education systems the weakest, and their education the same methods — a teacher using a standard text, with rows of students memorizing words and figures — that some planners confidently predicted three decades ago would be long gone by now, supplanted by more advanced instruments. Will the next twenty-five years be different? No one can know for sure. So, many countries will need to hedge their bets. Concerted efforts to take advantage of new opportunities should be on everyone’s agenda, but so also should prudent steps to use already existing options more effectively, whether or not the new possibilities are successful. 4 1 See Tim Campbell, 1999, The Quiet Revolution: The Rise of Political Participation and Local Government with Decentralization in Latin America and the Caribbean. 2 �Market economy� is used here to cover a range of economies—from the few true market economies to the many economies that are regulated through a mix of market mechanisms and central planning. 3 UNESCO, World Education Report 1998. Figure for 1995. T H E V I S I O N : C H QUA L I T Y A P E D U C AT I O N T E R F O R 2 t w o A L L THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION Paramount among the many reasons why education is important is that it contributes to improving peoples’ lives and reducing poverty. It does so through multiple pathways, including: (1) helping people to become more productive and earn more (because education is an investment, strengthening their skills and abilities — their human capital); (2) improving health and nutrition; (3) enriching lives directly (e.g. the pleasure of intelligent thought and the sense of empowerment it helps give); and (4) promoting social development through strengthening social cohesion and giving more people better opportunities (and thus greater equity through opportunity). In addition, many of the world’s states, through international conventions and commitments, have recognized education as a human right. Education thus contributes, within the context of a sound macro-economic and political environment, to the entire society’s growth and development, which in turn raises incomes for all (Figure l). A good education system is a necessary but insufficient condition for development, and its benefits are strongest when crucial other areas of public policy are equally well managed. In particular, macroeconomic policies, political processes, regulatory practices, the enabling environment for business development, public participatory processes, and labor market processes need to be sound. To be effective, educa- 5 tion planning and implementation in turn need to take into account the social, cultural, religious, economic and political context in which they take place. Human capital development productivity 1 2 Health & Improved lives Macro growth EDUCATION 3 Nutrition Reduced poverty & development 4 Social capital development cohesion and equity Figure 1 The Importance of Education It has long been self-evident to many educators and par- and skilled citizens who can operate in a democratic soci- ents that education, in addition to its immediate benefits, ety, workers who can meet changing labor market needs is also a form of investment, building people’s capacity to and compete in global markets, learners capable of bene- be more productive, earn more, and enjoy a higher quality fiting from the technology revolution, and policies of life. The rise of human capital theory since the 1960s, capable of harnessing the evolving public/private inter- and its widespread acceptance now after thorough debate, face. The abrupt reversals in East Asia’s strong economic has provided conceptual underpinnings and statistical evi- growth and economic and social turmoil elsewhere in the dence. Estimates by Nobel-laureate economists have world increased the recognition that sustainable develop- shown that education is one of the best investments, out- ment requires many things in addition to strong stripping the returns from many investments in physical economic performance. Education is a key component of capital. Related analysis has demonstrated that the total the Bank’s “Social Agenda� or “Comprehensive stock of human capital worldwide has a higher value by Development Framework�, which encompass all these far, in terms of its contribution to production, than the other elements. They include strong participatory stock of physical capital. democracy and competent and clean governance, an While human capital ideas focus on links among effective judicial and legal system, good financial sys- education, productivity, and economic growth, other dis- tems, social services and safety nets, social and economic ciplines have emphasized additional reasons why infrastructure and protection of the environment and education is important (pathways 2, 3 and 4 in Figure 1). national culture, many of which depend in part on the These further reasons stress education’s contribution to educational system. building social cohesion. They note that education trans- mits values, beliefs, and traditions. It shapes attitudes and aspirations, and the skills it develops include crucial inter- A VISION FOR EDUCATION and intra-personal capabilities. It empowers people. It The long-term goal for education should be nothing less frees them to learn and think for themselves. It has bene- than to ensure that all people everywhere have the fits for health and the environment. opportunity to (1) complete a primary and lower sec- 6 The more rapidly the world changes and the more ondary education of at least adequate quality, (2) acquire complex it becomes, the more important are the skills essential skills to survive and thrive in a globalizing econ- that a good quality education can provide. The implica- omy, (3) benefit from the contributions that education tions for education of the trends driving change today makes to social development, and (4) enjoy the richness were noted in Chapter 1. All countries need educated of human experience that education makes possible. Well-Functioning Education System Transparent allocation of resources Solid Macro-Context Equitable access to learning Sound macro-economic context Comprehensive evaluation system High level of social cohesion Equitable and efficient tax regime Focussed Institutional Management Flexible labor markets Strong leadership interested in education Environment of openness Sound governance arrangements Clear goals and high expectation for staff and students Relevant evaluation mechanisms Quality Teacher-Learner Interaction Nurturing Family/Community Setting Relevant teacher training Adequate shelter and nutrition Financial incentives for teachers Strong parental support Professional opportunities for teachers Safe and stimulating home Decent physical environment Good physical and mental health Sound teaching/learning materials Committed community Relevant and culturally appropriate curriculum Appropriate language of instruction Figure 2 What Makes for Good Education Outcomes? At a minimum, this includes ensuring that every girl B O X 2 and boy has the chance to learn to read, write, and do EDUCATION FOR ALL—A JOINT ENDEAVOR basic arithmetic, and that every adult has access to life- (Website: www.unesco.org/education/efa/) long learning opportunities. Inequality in educational access and quality must be reduced, since it condemns at In 1990, UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, the World Bank and least half of the world’s population, and most of the poor (later) UNFPA launched the World Conference on and vulnerable, to much worse lifetime prospects than Education For All (EFA) in Jomtien, Thailand. Under the more fortunate have. the auspices of these partners and other development Specific targets have been set for universal primary agencies, 155 nations and 150 NGOs came together education and adult literacy in the Education for All ini- and committed to: tiative (EFA, Box 2). Many players have endorsed OECD’s Development Assistance Committee call for s expansion of early child care and universal primary education and gender parity in primary developmental activities; and lower secondary education (OECD, Shaping the 21st s universal access to, and completion of, Century, 1996; website: www.oecd.org/dac/indicators/ primary education by the year 2000; htm/backgrd.htm). The World Bank is committed to s improvements in learning achievement; working towards these internationally agreed targets, and s reduction in adult illiteracy to one-half has developed a set of special programs to do this. its 1990 level by the year 2000; The broad goals will not be achieved easily or soon. s expansion of provisions of basic education Parts of them are attainable in less than a decade, but and training in other essential skills most will take longer. But to aim for anything less would required by youth and adults; be to aim too low, and would fail to set the right direc- s increased acquisition by individuals and tion with the right sense of urgency and expectations. families of the knowledge, skills and values required for better living and sound sustainable development. 7 ACCESS IS ONLY THE BEGINNING, QUALITY IS THE KEY Following the Jomtien Conference, an International The international goals for education include targets for Consultative Forum on Education for All was set up as increasing access to educational opportunities, as well as a mechanism to monitor and promote progress for raising learning achievements. So far, the main towards EFA goals throughout the 1990s. By 1996, pri- emphasis has been on improving access and participation. mary enrollments had significantly increased, with 50 In the challenging environment people face today, access million more children enrolled in 1996 than in 1990. is only the beginning. The education that people have But progress in education access and achievement has access to must be of good quality in order to provide the been modest. Many countries will not be able to meet skills needed to operate successfully in complex, democ- EFA commitments. ratic societies with changing labor market needs. Countries’ education strategies must include ways to In order to help countries continue to work towards improve the quality of education, as well as the child’s these critical international education targets, the physical and mental readiness to learn. Improving quality EFA partners continue to address these issues. Their means achieving detectable gains in the knowledge, skills collaboration includes the UN Special Initiative for and values acquired by students, through upgrading the Africa (focusing on providing primary and lower sec- environment in which those students learn. The learning ondary education for all African children) and the E-9 environment includes the students’ immediate surround- Initiative (focusing on EFA in nine high population ings, as well as the system in which students, teachers, developing countries — Bangladesh, Brazil, China, administrators, managers and other service providers Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria and Pakistan). operate1. The quality of learning outcomes influences and These activities paved the way for EFA 2000, a follow- is influenced by factors outside the education system, up initiative to plan for the third millennium. such as the home environment and perceptions of the dren’s earliest years for their future well-being. Countries future labor market (Figure 2). that have not yet fully achieved these essentials need to Children’s health affects their ability to learn. give high priority to doing so as soon as possible. Children who are ill, hungry and malnourished attend Countries that are well advanced need to continue mov- school irregularly, and when they do attend, are often ing forward. unable to concentrate. Although more of the poorest Thirdly, opportunities to learn more advanced skills children have access to schools, they often suffer most need to be strengthened as well. Improvements in upper from ill-health. Fortunately, schools themselves provide a secondary and tertiary (i.e. vocational, technical and cost-effective means of providing simple, well-tried higher education) must move forward along with health services, such as deworming and micronutrient progress on basic education. Deferring the acquisition of (e.g. iron) supplements to solve the most prevalent advanced skills by part of the population until the foun- immediate problems, as well as promoting healthy dation skills are universally acquired does not make sense lifestyles with life-long benefits. Health programs offer if countries are to succeed amidst the global changes now most benefits to the most disadvantaged — girls, the taking place, and given the long lead times for generating poor and the malnourished — and should be part of a strong outflow of competent graduates. Nevertheless, efforts to achieve universal education. basic education should remain a policy priority even Improving quality will require countries to deal with when greater attention is paid to tertiary education. a number of crucial issues. First, especial attention will Adopting curricula compatible with equipping students have to be paid to the processes of teaching and learning. broadly and flexibly for the world of work is vital, as Given the impact that classroom teachers can have on many of the best systems have found. students’ attainment and the share of most education Finally, the trends in public/private roles have the budgets that go to pay teachers’ salaries, an education potential to offer new options for stimulating more and policy that highlights the importance of quality better education at more affordable cost. Achieving uni- teaching — where teachers have the opportunity for regularly upgrading their skills in order to maintain mas- 8 tery of their subject area — is likely to bear fruit. Since B O X 3 active learning is generally superior to learning by rote, ESSENTIAL SKILLS IN THE ARAB countries that move strongly toward more participatory REPUBLIC OF EGYPT and individualized modes of learning will be at an advan- tage relative to those where teachers talk and write and Egypt’s goal for the 21st century is “a quality educa- students listen and read. And countries that provide tion system that provides all students with a learning opportunities for people to learn at all ages — as their experience relevant to their current and future needs, work or lives change, and as new knowledge replaces in order to stimulate continued Egyptian economic old — will have an edge over those who do not. Greater and social development�. So Egypt is embarking on a use of new technologies inside and outside the classroom series of far-reaching education reforms that will will give more learners greater access to information. include a radical revision of (1) the outmoded curricu- Secondly, emphasis on acquisition of foundation lum and examination system of general secondary skills — literacy, numeracy, reasoning, and social skills education and (2) the excessively fragmented such as ability to solve problems together — is of utmost approach to vocational and technical education. importance, especially in countries with low levels of The new curriculum will cover nine “essential learning attainment currently (Box 3). These fundamentals are a areas� and stress the acquisition of a core set of prerequisite for acquiring advanced skills and for making “essential skills� — communication, numeracy, infor- use of new technologies. All countries thus need to mation handling, problem solving, physical skills, ensure that (1) primary education is readily available and self-management and competition, cooperation and of good quality for all, (2) secondary education, in the leadership, and work and study skills. It will also focus lower years first and eventually in all years, soon follows on certain “values and attitudes� — family, democra- suit, and (3) early childhood needs are starting to be met, cy, justice, equality and social integration, patriotism, given the growing evidence of the importance of chil- and cooperation and sharing. versal primary education and broadening access to higher levels of the system while maintaining fiscal discipline requires countries to find more efficient ways of deliver- ing quality education and of involving private financing in ways that ensure equity. The choices that countries face will include such issues as (1) devolution of school control to parents and communities, (2) policies regard- ing private schools (including those run by religious organizations, NGOs, and employers), (3) student loans and tuition levels for tertiary education, and (4) the degree of choice that families have among different edu- cational options. THE WAY AHEAD This chapter has laid out the vision for education and the ambitious international goals to which the Bank sub- scribes. The Bank’s mission in education is to help countries identify and implement their next strategic steps to improve access to relevant and good quality learning. The factors that help produce education of good quality are known. Good ideas and analyses abound; the need is to use the best of them to achieve better and faster results. It is useful to take stock of how far the world has progressed towards the vision and goals 9 (Chapter 3) before laying out the specifics of the Bank’s education strategy — what the Bank is doing to work towards these goals and vision (Chapter 6). 1 Research undertaken by UNESCO’s International Institute of Education Planning shows that the provision of education of acceptable quality depends on two determining factors: (i) an adequate system of school management, and (ii) a reliable information system enabling the operation of the education system at the local level to be monitored (www.education.unesco.org/unesco/ educprog/iiep/res1.htm). See also Annex 1 and Heneveld, Ward, 1994, Planning and Monitoring the Quality of Primary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington D.C.: World Bank. E D U C AT I O N TO D AY: C H P RO G R E S S AC H I EV E D , A P T E R P RO G R E S S 3 t h r e e N E E D E D Developing countries have experienced extraordinary progress in education and the social sectors generally in the last thirty years — more so than in any prior period in human history. However, the unfinished agenda remains large — and in fact growing — due in part to the pressure of high population growth. PROGRESS ACHIEVED PROGRESS NEEDED The greatest successes have been in access to schooling. A Despite these successes, much remains to be done (Table larger proportion of young people go to school than ever 1). In some countries, progress in enrollment has slowed before. In 1960, slightly less than half of all children of or been reversed during the eighties and nineties. In primary school age were enrolled in school. By the early many countries, there is inequitable access across popula- 1990s, more than three-fourths were enrolled.1 The pro- tion groups, and in most countries, the quality and portion of 12- to 17-year-olds enrolled has more than relevance of education leave much to be desired. Also, doubled (from 21 to 47 percent), and has almost quadru- institutional capacity in many countries, at all levels of pled (4 to 14 percent) for those aged between 18 and 23 government, is too weak to sustain the kind of educa- 11 years (Figure 3).2 In the decade from 1980 to 1990, the tional development that is needed to respond to the expected years of schooling that an average six-year-old challenges ahead. would receive rose by almost a year (from 7.6 to 8.5). ENROLLMENT BY AGE GROUP IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 80 60 6-11 year-olds % enrolled 40 12-17 year-olds 20 18-23 year-olds 0 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 Figure 3 (Source: UNESCO Statistical Yearbook 1985, 1994) Table 1 Indicators by Region (Source: World Development Indicators 1998, 1999) Region Gross Gross Gross Pupils in Pupils in Estimated % enrollment enrollment enrollment primary: % secondary of population rate: primary, rate: sec- rate: tertiary, female* general: % aged 15-24 % of relevant ondary, % of % of relevant female* illiterate age group* relevant age age group* group* 1980 1996 1980 1996 1980 1996 1980 1996 1980 1993 1980 1996 East Asia & Pacific 111 118 43 69 3 8 45 47 40 44 10 3 Europe & Central Asia 99 100 87 83 30 32 49 48 53 52 3 2 Latin America & Caribbean 105 113 42 52 14 19 49 - - - 11 6 Middle East & North Africa 87 96 42 64 11 16 42 45 37 45 39 21 South Asia 76 100 27 48 5 6 38 43 31 38 50 37 Sub-Saharan Africa 78 77 15 27 1 3 44 45 34 41 45 25 * Average weighted by population Faltering progress on access. Some countries have had The corresponding figure for the rest of the develop- little improvement in access since 1980. Despite the ing world is expected to remain fairly constant. increase in the absolute numbers of children enrolled, sub-Saharan Africa has had falling enrollment rates. The Inequitable access across population groups. Girls and proportion of 6-11 year-olds in school in sub-Saharan women, rural populations, indigenous peoples, the hand- Africa declined from 59 percent in 1980 to 51 percent in icapped, the urban poor and other disadvantaged groups 1992 (Figure 4).3,4 get less access than others to learning opportunities. And in sub-Saharan Africa, Southern Asia and Latin The gender gap (Figure 7) is of particular concern, America and the Caribbean, only two thirds of the chil- given the positive impact that girls’ education has on fer- dren who start the first year of primary school are still tility rates, infant and child mortality rates, maternal 12 there five years later (Figure 5). Progress to date suggests mortality rates, as well as intergenerational education and that many countries will have difficulty reaching the the environment. Education for All goals in the timeframe originally envis- As in the case of enrollment in general, gender dif- aged (Box 2). ferences in enrollment vary from region to region (Figure Reversing the downward trend in Sub-Saharan Africa 8). In the case of students of secondary school age, the will be complicated by continued population growth. largest differences are in Arab states, Southern Asia, and The out-of-school population there aged between 6 and Sub-Saharan Africa. 11 is projected to rise from 39 to 56 million (an increase Many factors contribute to the persistence of the of 44 percent) through the 1990s (Figure 6). gender gap: traditional values and beliefs about the roles A PPA R ENT S UR V I V A L R A TES E NROLLMENT OF 6-11 YEAR-OLDS BY REGION F R OM GR A D ES 1 TO 5 % survived to Grade 5 (1994/95) 100 100 Male Oceania 90 Female LCR 80 80 70 Asia (excl. Arab States) 60 Arab States 50 % enrolled 40 60 30 Africa (excl. Arab States) 20 10 40 0 Sub-Saharan Arab States Countries in Asia/Oceania Southern Caribbean America/ transtion Eastern Asia Latin Africa 20 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 Figure 4 (Source: UNESCO Statistical Yearbook 1985, 1994) Figure 5 (Source: UNESCO World Education Report 1998) E ST IMATED OUT OF SCHOOL 6-11 YEAR -OL D S ENR OL L MENT OF 6 -1 1 Y EA R -OL D S I N D EV EL OPI NG C OUNTR I ES B Y GE N D E R 60 Sub-Saharan Africa 85 Southern Asia Number (millions) 75 40 % enrolled 65 Eastern Asia/Oceania 55 Male 20 Female Arab States 45 Latin America/Caribbean 0 35 1985 1990 1995 2000 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 Figure 6 (Source: World Education Report 1991, 1993) Figure 7 (Source: UNESCO Statistical Yearbook 1985, 1994) of females and males in the society; fear for the safety of Lack of access to relevant education and quality girls going to and from school; lack of separation of the teaching. Attendance in a formal education setting does sexes; lack of female teachers; monetary costs (e.g. out- not automatically lead to learning. A range of inputs are of-pocket expenditure on books); opportunity costs; and required (Figure 2), all within a sound financial and reg- perceptions about the value of schooling for daughters ulatory framework. Even in high-income countries with unlikely to enter the marketplace and about the quality well-established universal basic education, achievement of schooling itself. levels vary widely and can be surprisingly low. Figure 9 The emergence in many countries of a class of mar- shows literacy data for a range of (mainly OECD) coun- ginalized youth — involved neither in training nor in tries: while all ten countries have secondary net 13 paid work — is another reflection of inequitable access enrollment rates above 80 percent, the functional literacy to education. Extending access to quality basic education rates for 16 to 25 year-olds5 vary between 35 percent and should have the effect of stemming the flow of young 80 percent. Comparable data are not yet available for people into this group. In the short term however, pro- developing countries, but the relationship between viding training opportunities for already marginalized enrollment rates and achievement rates is likely to show youth is essential to offering real labor market opportuni- at least as much variation, and point just as starkly to the ties in rural areas and in towns, thereby contributing to a need for improvements in the quality of learning. reduction in urban drift and urban violence. S C H OOL I NG A ND L I TER A C Y ENROLLMENT OF 12-17 YEAR-OL D S 100 100 "Literate" youth 1995 (%) Male Sweden % enrolled (1995) 80 Female 80 Germany Canada Belgium 60 (Flanders) 60 Australia UK 40 Ireland New Zealand 20 40 USA Poland 0 Sub-Saharan Africa America/Caribbean East Asia/Oceania Southern Asia 20 Arab States Developed Countries 0 Latin 80 85 90 95 100 Net enrollment ratio, secondary 1995 Figure 9 (Source: World Development Indicators 1997, Figure 8 (Source: World Education Report 1995) OECD Literacy Skills for the Knowledge Society 1997) s appropriate means of allocating resources and The implications of moving to a situation where stu- their efficient use; dents not only have access to schools but are also learning s information systems that improve decision-making are enormous. First, there will be better use made of all and enhance accountability; the resources invested in education: buildings, teachers’ s effective quality assurance and quality assessment salaries, and the direct and opportunity costs borne by mechanisms; learners and their families. Second, having convinced par- s continuing professional development opportuni- ents, often with considerable effort, to send their sons ties; and and daughters to schools, governments will avoid having s making sure that resources go to schools, disenchanted parents withdraw their children from empowering school boards to make improve- school. And third, enhanced quality in schools will enable ments in the learning environments appropriate countries to build up the educated population they need to local conditions. to achieve higher levels of development. The trade-off between increasing access to an educa- tion system and improving its quality is partly apparent, FOCUSING EFFORTS TO MAKE PROGRESS partly real. Apparent because quality improvements lead The accomplishments in education are remarkable, but to greater efficiencies — fewer repeaters in the short term there remains much to be done to wrestle with the fac- and a more productive labor force in the longer term — tors that are blocking progress: population growth that which in turn free up resources to create more places for outstrips expansions in access in some areas; widespread new students. Real because there are limits to the effi- inequality (for females, the poor, minorities and rural ciency gains to be made from improving quality. The populations); low quality manifested in poor or irrelevant nature of those limits depends of course on particular learning; and weak institutional capacity. country circumstances. Regions and countries vary greatly in how far they have progressed and what the most pressing needs are to Weak institutional capacity. Education institutions are keep them on course towards realizing the vision for edu- 14 often ill-equipped to deal with the many problems they cation. Classifying countries by their stage of develop- currently face and to meet the greater challenges that lie ment can help point towards the likely priorities for ahead for them. New developments such as the trend education in each country (Box 4). For example, most towards more decentralization in education systems have countries in the “mature� category are beyond the stage highlighted weaknesses not only in central governments, where raising primary enrollments needs to be the princi- but also in sub-national layers of government and in pal focus, and should be concentrating on higher-order schools themselves. Decentralization raises questions problems, including quality enhancement at all levels. about the distribution of functions between central and Most countries in the “reform� category also can focus on local administrations, the implications for quality and higher-order problems, but of a different nature: their equity, and how to strengthen administrative and plan- education systems, once well functioning, are now ailing ning capacity at all levels of the system. for many reasons, not the least of which is the mismatch Efforts to strengthen institutional capacity typically between what students are taught and what is required in focus on: the training of teachers, faculty, and administra- the new world of work they aspire to enter. tors; the provision of evaluation/accreditation services by “Emergent� countries tend to have vexing equity, ministry officials and external consultants; and the distri- financing, and public-private issues to resolve as they bution of textbooks, guides and other materials. But the struggle to make the transition from old elitist systems to long-term solution to management capacity lies in: modern systems that prepare their entire populations — s productive post-basic institutions that ensure a through opportunities for lifelong learning — to com- supply of well-trained graduates; pete in globalizing economies. Finally, most of the “least s civil service reform, including pay scales and regu- developed� category still have major progress to achieve lations governing promotion; even in access, and must ensure that other needs do not s recruitment and placement of individuals on the unduly fragment limited resources. Obviously, variety basis of merit, talent and training; exists within these four broad categories and even within a single country. B O X 4 C O U N T R Y C L A S S I F I C AT I O N BY TYPE Mature systems (such as the OECD nations and specif- ic others in the Middle East and East Asia) with well-developed educational infrastructures, generally high achievement, but with residual problems of inef- ficiency and inequity (with gaps between the rich and the poor, and between males and females being some- times severe). Reform systems (such as Russia and much of Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States), which face serious quality and growth demands but where the education system may appear to be of reasonable quality (but where maintenance of the system is under strong threat and, in some con- texts, subject to future collapse). Emergent systems (especially in Latin America, North Africa, and Asia) where education participation rates are high but inequality in access and especially in quality is acute, and where rapidly expanding private involvement is common. 15 Least developed systems (especially in Sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia but in isolated instances in most regions) where universal basic edu- cation provision remains the exception rather than the rule, and where long-term interventions will be required to create modern education systems. 1 Age group enrollment rates show the proportion of the population in the relevant age-group enrolled at any level of education. Published aggregate data from 1992 is the latest available (UNESCO, Statistical Yearbook 1985, 1994). 2 The comparative figures for developed countries are: 6-11 year-olds (1960) 91 % (1992) 92 %; 12-17 year-olds (1960) 69 % (1992) 86 %; 18-23 year-olds (1960) 15 % (1992) 40%. (UNESCO, Statistical Yearbook 1985, 1994) 3 The 6-11 year-old enrollment figures represent the number of 6-11 year-olds enrolled in formal education, while the primary education figures in the preceding table are “gross� (i.e. include over-age pupils in primary education). 4 UNESCO regional categories vary in some cases from those used by the Bank. For example, “Arab States� does not include Iran, where the Bank region “MNA� does. 5 Figure 9 shows the proportion of persons aged 16-25 scoring at levels 3 to 5 on the “document literacy� scale in an international standardized functional literacy test. At level 3, the easiest of the three top levels, the test tasks are varied: “some require the reader to make literal or synonymous matches, but usually the reader must take conditional information into account or match on the basis of multiple features of information; some require the reader to integrate information from one or more displays of information; others ask the reader to cycle through a document to provide multiple responses� (OECD, 1997, Literacy Skills for the Knowledge Society). PA RT N E R I N G : A C O F H WO R L D A P T E R O P P O RT U N I T I E S 4 f o u r Progress on the above issues requires strong, productive partnerships. The job of strengthening education is too big for any single institution, and too important to be left to one perspective only. Governments, NGOs and local stakeholders, with the support of bilateral and multilateral development agencies, will have to work closely together in a prolonged effort to ensure each country’s objectives for education are met, and to build public and educator understanding of the need for educational change. Partnerships amongst central government, local government and communities, within a more decentralized form of management, can improve service delivery; and poor communities and rural non-government providers can be effective part- ners in upgrading the quality of education. Local partners, in particular, have the local knowledge and the understanding of local values, culture and traditions that are an essential feature of sustainable development. Many others have important roles to play alongside the various levels of government. These other players include stu- dents, parents, families, communities, local and non-governmental organizations and foundations, teacher groups, various forms of private and public-private ventures, and numerous international organizations. The more this rich array of partners can work together effectively, the better the results will be — and the faster education will improve. Many partnerships are exemplary now, but some are not and most could be strengthened further. 17 GOVERNMENT institutions), and in addition to being direct providers of Governments have become dominant in education only education themselves, often subsidize education provided in the last century or two, after eons when humanity by private institutions. Public spending on education can educated its young without formal schooling. Public edu- be a strong instrument for equity — expanding opportu- cation’s achievements in this relatively short time have nity and raising living standards for all, but especially for been impressive, despite oft-cited criticisms. The the poorest. Overall spending on education in developing advances in literacy and other learning, made possible countries has been found to be progressive — in that the through universal primary education, may well have benefits received by the poorest groups are greater relative done more to improve the human condition than any to their incomes than those received by richer groups. other public policy. Despite this, subsidies to education are not always well Governments remain the largest funders and targeted. The richest households gain by far the largest providers of education in most countries. Public sources share of the subsidies. While primary education spending account for well over half of education spending in is targeted to the poorest groups, spending on secondary developing countries as a group and most governments and tertiary is not.1 Making public spending in education generally spend between 10 and 20 percent of their bud- pro-poor will be an on-going challenge, as countries gets on education (or between 3 and 7 percent of GNP). move to the lifelong learning approach that is becoming The role of government in creating and sustaining a key factor in economic growth. the kind of macro-economic environment that provides Arguments about the equity of local participation incentives for education and helps education systems ful- and the effectiveness of local decision-making are often fill their potential is critical. Governments generally advanced to push for greater decentralization of the man- regulate the education sector (e.g. by defining curricula, agement of education systems. Central governments setting standards, monitoring performance, accrediting around the world have decentralized education manage- ment to varying degrees — and with different ends in factors are important in ensuring effective implementa- mind. Some have delegated responsibilities to their own tion of girls’ education programs in developing countries. local representatives, while others have transferred author- ity to locally elected governments and, in some cases, to parent-elected school boards. PRIVATE SECTOR Although they have a major role to play in educa- Private involvement pre-dates government provision of tion, governments cannot do everything. Fiscal education, and is once again substantial and growing. considerations, including competing claims on the public Employers, singly or in groups, provide on-job training purse, make it difficult for most governments — even for their workers, or can purchase such training from those whose philosophies might push them in this direc- specialized firms. Employer groups and professional asso- tion — to be the sole provider of “free� education to all ciations are involved in setting standards for the who seek it at every level. There are many areas of educa- assessment of job-related skills and knowledge, as well as tion service provision (such as text books and vocational in establishing the desired learning outcomes in the edu- training) where actors other than the government tend to cation sector more generally. Private sector publishers be more effective and efficient. provide increasingly larger shares of books and learning materials to schools in Latin America and Eastern Europe. Not-for-profit associations and for-profit entre- PARENTS AND COMMUNITIES, preneurs provide training and education to students, NGOS AND FOUNDATIONS often subsidized in part or in full by the government. Students, their families, and communities have some of the And private sector organizations mentor, help implement most crucial and too often under-appreciated and under- technology initiatives, provide equipment and otherwise supported roles, extending far beyond just being consumers collaborate with institutions. of schooling. Parents and other family members can make a Privately-owned schools account for over 30 percent particularly important contribution to children’s cognitive, of primary enrollment in countries as diverse as Spain, social and cultural development. Active local participation 18 in the governance and activities of schools, with a sense of shared ownership of their policies and affairs, has been B O X 5 found to be vital to school success. N G O PA R T N E R S I N E A R LY Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and phil- CHILD DEVELOPMENT (ECD) anthropic foundations also have a large role. For example, the primary education system in Haiti is delivered largely NGOs have long been pioneers in the area of ECD. through religious organizations and other NGOs. A Save the Children, for instance, is an international multi-country community-based primary education ini- NGO that has worked with at-risk children and fami- tiative, Fe y Alegría, provides schooling for children in lies since 1932 and is now active in forty countries the most disadvantaged urban and rural areas in Latin worldwide. The Aga Khan Foundation is working in America and the Caribbean. Using a combination of parts of Pakistan and with Muslim communities on the public and private sources, this initiative supports over coast of Kenya. Local pilot programs initiated by the 500 schools serving more than 500,000 students in 12 Bernard van Leer Foundation in Colombia have been countries. In the area of early child development, NGOs scaled-up into a nation-wide ECD program which aims are major providers in all regions (Box 5). Many founda- at universal coverage. The Soros Foundation focuses tions also participate actively in the education sector, a large share of its resources on pre-school education providing resources for a range of activities, such as stud- in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, while the Christian ies, seminars and project work. For example, the Children’s Fund is very active in East Asia. Rockefeller Foundation has invested heavily in girls’ edu- Increasingly, the Bank works in close cooperation with cation and is part of a recently-established multi-agency these and other partners, for the design and imple- partnership established together with British DFID, mentation of individual projects, as well as in regional UNICEF and the Bank to examine more closely what and global networks of knowledge sharing (e.g. the Consultative Group for ECD). Chile, and Belgium, and over 70 percent in Lebanon. B O X 6 The private share generally increases at higher levels of T H E I F C A N D E D U C AT I O N education. Currently, more than half of all tertiary-level enrollments in Brazil and Columbia are in private insti- The IFC has stepped up its activities in the education tutions. Early child education is almost completely a sector, with seven investments in fiscal year 1998. private affair. Eight of the IFC’s ten approved education investments While in some cases the costs of public as well as to date are in low-income countries. A recent IFC private education are covered by governments, in many study on 12 countries found good opportunities in six cases the contributions by parents and communities of them and reasonable prospects in the remaining amount to over 20 percent. In some countries they six. Loan financing can be developed for diverse activ- exceed 50 percent.2 Beneficiaries who pay a share might ities such as support for “South-South� investment, monitor more carefully the quality of the services they student loan companies, expansion of the use of new receive. And in principle, fees and other contributions technology, and the construction of new campuses. paid by non-poor beneficiaries could free up public To ensure targeting towards lower income groups, the resources for targeting to the poor. study recommends that the IFC play a role in the fur- The growing understanding of the actual and poten- ther development and nurturing of that private tial roles of private sector involvement in education segment of the education market that expands educa- points up an opportunity for the International Finance tion opportunities for low income students. IFC Corporation (IFC), one of the constituent organizations financing of secondary and higher education can help of the World Bank Group. IFC support for private facilitate the redirecting of government subsidies to investment in education can complement the Bank’s aim the poor, where they belong. The more that better-off of having public monies targeted more on helping the families pay for education (as they do when they poor gain access to quality basic education (Box 6 and choose private education), the more the government IFC Education Strategy). can use its resources for the poor. In addition to government schools and private 19 providers, joint public-private ventures are becoming more common. New forms of corporate involvement in various participants must be weighed in the balance — education are attracting growing interest. In the former with the ultimate decision being a political one. The Soviet Union, where the transition to a market economy interests of teachers, as workers, have to be considered in has diminished the importance of traditional public pro- relation to the preeminent interests of students and their vision of vocational and technical training, new parents, as consumers. information technologies are bringing about a marked convergence between the world of production and the world of just-in-time learning and training. INTERNATIONAL, REGIONAL AND BILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS United Nations organizations — including UNESCO, TEACHERS AND TEACHERS’ UNICEF, UNFPA, and UNDP — have made major ORGANIZATIONS contributions to global education efforts for many Teachers are the crucial determinant of what is being decades, in their own fields of expertise and in global learned in their classrooms, and teachers’ commitment to cooperation (Box 2). UNESCO, the UN agency respon- improvement is essential if change is to have a real sible for education, has the mandate to play a impact on learning. Teachers, and the local, national and coordinating role among international organizations, and international organizations that represent them, must in its own words, aims to “contribute to peace and secu- therefore have the opportunity to participate not only in rity in the world by promoting collaboration among implementing reform, but also in developing new pro- nations through education, science, culture and commu- grams. As in all cases of consultation with the civil nication�. Regional development banks (such as the society, however, the information provided, the view- Inter-American Development Bank, the African points expressed and the interests represented by the Development Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the Asian attention and weight to partnerships in the years ahead Development Bank) and bilateral aid agencies commit than it does currently, recognizing that government-led large shares of their technical and financial resources to and government-coordinated efforts are the most likely the education sector. to deliver sustainable reform. Collaboration at the coun- And finally, a range of professional bodies, such as try and global level, through projects and other vehicles, the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, the International Association B O X 7 for Educational Assessment, and the International COMPREHENSIVE DEVELOPMENT Reading Association, also have a role in sharing informa- FRAMEWORK (CDF) tion and promoting good practice around the world. The Bank seeks to work closely with these and other partners, The CDF takes a holistic approach to development. It by making its decision-making and lending procedures seeks a better balance in policymaking by highlighting more flexible, open and responsive to the views of other the interdependence of all elements of development — players in the education field. social, structural, human, governance, environmental, economic, and financial. The CDF seeks to move beyond discrete indicators of economic performance PRODUCTIVE PARTNERSHIPS ARE BUILT and human capacity to address, in concert, the “fun- ON COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE damental, long-term issues of the structure, scope, The Comprehensive Development Framework acknowl- and substance of societal development.� This is an edges explicitly that countries need to be very much in the ambitious transition that must be led by a country “driver’s seat� when planning their development and itself, with vigorous participation of civil society and working with the various agencies in deciding how each the private sector — and with the support of multilat- one can best contribute. The benefits from partnerships eral and bilateral organizations. derive, in no small part, from the potential synergies of pooling together different capabilities, and creatively shar- Fundamentally, the CDF is a means of achieving 20 ing the comparative advantages of diverse entities (Box 7). greater effectiveness in reducing poverty. It is based The entities involved in education have a wide range on the following principles: of different comparative advantages and strengths, such as strong presence on the ground, good local knowledge and s Ownership by the country, which determines cultural understanding, ready access to global knowledge, the goals and the phasing, timing, and sequenc- special expertise or a unique mandate, the natural authori- ing of the country’s development programs. ty of being the families and communities most affected, the ability to convene stakeholders, the political power to s Partnership with government, civil society, bring about change, and the capacity to mobilize resources assistance agencies, and the private sector in including finance. The future lies with those who combine defining development needs and implementing needed contributions from multiple sources. programs. The implications for the Bank are twofold. First, the Bank’s education work will need to devote even more s A long-term vision of needs and solutions, built on national consultations, which can engender sustained national support. LENDING sustain long- provide s Structural and social concerns treated equally term commitment finance and contemporaneously with macroeconomic employ multi- offer objective sectoral approach policy advice and financial concerns. share global promote knowledge dialogue The CDF is meant to be a compass — not a blueprint. LEARNING How the principles are put into practice will vary from country to country depending on economic and social Figure 10: The World Bank’s Comparative Advantage needs and the priorities of the stakeholders involved. is already a major part of what Education staff do in the universal basic education and child labor; between voca- Bank. But there will always be more that can be done. tional training and labor market regulation; and between The importance of such work will grow rather than language of instruction and decentralization. diminish in the coming decade, as countries become The challenge for the Bank for the years ahead is to more interlinked under the pressures of the changing respond effectively to the implications of partnership world noted in Chapter 1 and adaptation to the local and, in doing so, to achieve the best impact possible on context becomes more complex. More time, effort, and the people that development aims to serve. This will nec- cost will be required for partnering, but the alternative essarily involve good communication between the Bank would be increasing irrelevance. and its partners, at the country level, the regional level Second, the Bank will need to understand, nurture, and at headquarters — along with a sense of openness to and apply its own areas of comparative advantage careful- new possibilities and different points of view, an ly. The Bank’s advantages in education, as in its other acknowledgment of one’s own strengths and weaknesses, work, include: the global and cross-country knowledge a willingness to compromise, and above all else, an that it can mobilize and bring to bear; the people and enthusiasm for the many tasks ahead. expertise it can dedicate to vital and often difficult policy and implementation tasks; and the finance it can assem- ble from its own and others’ resources — the Bank can use its position as the largest external source of funds in most developing countries to encourage other partners to contribute to priority activities. In addition, the Bank’s involvement in the full gamut of sectors germane to development, and its access to economic and finance ministries, enable it to take multi-sectoral approaches and reach key decision-makers (Figure 10). This multi-sectoral coverage offers a particu- 21 lar advantage in education, given the interaction between education and other sectors (Chapter 2). Education outcomes are heavily influenced by learn- ers’ poverty status, health status, and perceptions of labor market opportunities. Relatively unknown but potentially severe, for example, is the impact of HIV/AIDS on the education system: HIV/AIDS affects the supply of teach- ers and influences parents’ ability and/or willingness to pay for schooling. In addition, education status has an impact on the individual’s future income, fertility and health, and at the societal level, on institutions, on the economy as a whole and, in the long run, on values, tra- ditions and culture. The Bank’s comparative advantage in this area is played out, for instance, in its work on school deworming and micronutrient programs, reproductive health education and information on STDs and HIV pre- vention. Further links can be made between early child education and health services, parent education, and shel- ter and nutrition for the poorest families; between teacher service reform and broader civil service reform; between 1 See Florencia Castro-Leal, Julia Dayton, Lionel Demery and Kalpana Mehra, “Public Social Spending in Africa: Do the Poor Benefit?� The World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 14 No. 1, February 1999, pp. 49-72. Note that the degree of targeting of primary education subsidies to the poorest groups depends very much on the measure of welfare used. 2 See Mark Bray, 1996, Counting the Full Cost: parental and community financing of education in East Asia. T H E B A N K ’ S RO L E C H T H U S A P L E A R N I N G FA R : T E R B Y D O I N G f 5 i v e The Bank’s work to help countries improve their education systems has changed fundamentally across 35 years of lending, analytical, and advisory support. Understanding these trends, along with the lessons of experience, helps define what needs to be done in the years ahead to be as effective as possible. AN EXPANDING PORTFOLIO Since its first education loan in 1963 — to Tunisia Total external financing1 for education, including bilater- for vocational training — the Bank has been expanding al aid, averaged around US$6 billion from 1989 to 1996, its financing of education projects as part of its mission with the World Bank accounting for almost 30 percent to reduce poverty (Table 2). of that total (Figure 11). This expansion has paralleled the growing recognition that education is the cornerstone of a growing economy and of an open and cohesive society, and that investment BANK SHARE OF EXTERNAL EDUCAT I ON FINANCE TO DEVELOPING COUNTRI ES in education is essential for a country’s development 10000 (Chapter 2). The total amount of new commitments each 23 year varies considerably around the rising trend (Figure Annual Flow (US$ million) Other External Finance 8000 Bank 12). Disbursements have risen more steadily. 6000 The proportion of Bank education lending commit- ted as IDA credits varies from year to year, but has been 4000 around 40 percent during the last decade (Figure 13). 2000 Primary education is an important and substantial part of 0 IDA-funded investment in basic social services, which also 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 include clean water and sanitation, preventive and repro- Year ductive health, nutrition and basic community services.2 Figure 11 (Source: OECD & World Bank) ED UC A TI ON L END I NG F Y 8 6 -F Y 9 8 Table 2: Education Lending (Source: EdStats) 3.5 3.5 New Commitments (current US$bn) IBRD Disbursements (current US$bn) 3.0 IDA 3.0 Year New New Education Disbursements Commitments Commitments 2.5 2.5 (Annual Average) as % of Total 2.0 2.0 Constant 1996 Bank New US$ millions Commitments 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1963-1969 153 2.9 0.5 0.5 1970-1979 660 4.6 0.0 0.0 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 1980-1989 1029 4.5 1990-1998 1982 8.5 Figure 12 (Source: World Bank) on the agenda of many new post-colonial governments, IDA CREDITS AS SHARE OF BANK and needs were great. Subsequent support to Africa has EDUCATION LENDING FY63-FY98 grown but other regions have expanded their programs 100% even more (Figure 14). 80% 60% MORE FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION... WITHIN 40% A HOLISTIC APPROACH 20% Lending for primary education has grown, in dollar 0% terms and as a proportion of all education lending. The 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 share of lending going to primary education has been above 20 percent since 1975, and above 30 percent since Figure 13 (Source: World Bank) 1990. This reflects the Bank’s commitment to the objec- tives of the 1990 Education for All Conference. The Bank was one of the sponsors of the Conference, and continues to be closely involved in follow-up activities. EDUCATION LENDING BY REGION The lending share for general secondary education Average Annual Volume of Lending (1997 US$ million) 700 dropped through the 1970s and 1980s, but rose again 1963-9 through the 1990s, and now stands at 20 percent. 600 1970-4 1975-9 Lending for vocational training rose quickly through the 500 1980-4 1960s and 1970s, but fell back slightly from a peak in 1985-9 1990-4 the early 1980s — due no doubt in part to the new 400 1995-8 emphasis on basic education and a questioning of 300 approaches traditionally taken in vocational training. 200 Both teacher training and tertiary education saw steady 24 increases, with a small drop off in recent years. Early 100 child development is a relatively new — but increasingly 0 important — area of lending (Figure 15). AFR EAP ECA LCR MNA SAR Other Year Staff now look more at education as an integrated system, one part of which cannot function well if another Figure 14 (Source: EdStats) is ailing. The emphasis on basic education, for instance, does not mean that nothing should be done in tertiary education: the role of tertiary institutions as centers of A relatively small number of countries account for a excellence, research hubs and training grounds for tomor- large share of the Bank’s work in education, mostly row’s teachers and leaders is critical. The holistic because they are large countries with long established approach is most clearly seen in projects that support sec- programs with the Bank. For example, 17 countries, with tor-wide reform (e.g. the Bolivia Education Quality and 70 percent of the world’s population among them, Equity Strengthening Project that inter alia aims to pro- account for three-quarters of the Bank’s education lend- vide integrated infrastructure and educational process ing, actual and planned, in fiscal years 1995 to 2001. improvements) and in cross-cutting programs, such as Another 35 countries, with 13 percent of global popula- the following: tion, account for 21 percent of lending. The remaining s early child development (e.g. strengthening early lending goes to some of the other 91 eligible countries, child care centers in Kenya through teacher train- most of them small (Table 5, Chapter 7). ing and a health and nutrition scheme, to improve Lending for education has increased in each region, children’s readiness for school and hence increase but at different rates. Sub-Saharan Africa (AFR) was cho- enrollment and reduce repetition and drop-out in sen for special emphasis when lending operations in lower primary school); education began the 1960s, because education was high Average Annual Volume of Lending (1997 US$ million) EDUCATION LENDING BY SUB-SECTOR ED UC A TI ON L END I NG B Y I NPUT C A TEGOR I ES Volume of Lending (% of constant 1997 US$) 100% 1963-9 800 1970-4 80% 1975-9 600 1980-4 1985-9 60% 1990-4 400 1995-8 40% 200 20% 0 0% Pre-primary Primary General secondary Vocational Teacher training Higher Other -9 -4 -9 -4 -9 -4 -8 63 70 75 80 85 90 95 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 Other Training Technical assistance Textbooks Equipment Civil works Figure 15 (Source: EdStats) Figure 16 (Source: EdStats) s higher education (e.g. reform of administration an integrated institutional structure for curriculum and financing in the post-secondary sector in development and assessment, and updating sub- Chile, aimed at removing perverse incentives faced ject curricula for grades 1-9); by secondary students as they choose among com- s technological innovation (e.g. WorldLinks for peting institutions and programs); Development, aiming to establish educational on- s demand-side financing (e.g. the Girls’ Secondary line communities for students and teachers in Education Support Program in Tanzania, involv- 1500 secondary schools around the world by the 25 ing targeting secondary school bursaries to poor year 2000); girls); and s language of instruction (e.g. teaching the national s management information systems (e.g. a multi- language of Laos to ethnic minority students, tiered system at the district, state and national using second-language teaching methodology); levels in India, to monitor information on input s teacher labor reform (e.g. addition of a new cate- costs and learning achievement). gory of university teacher in Tunisian legislation, bringing flexibility into the higher education labor market); A CHANGING FOCUS s management decentralization (e.g. financial, Initially, most Bank project assistance was for constructing administrative and pedagogical autonomy granted and equipping buildings. Continuous rethinking based on to schools in Brazil, to improve the quality of lessons learned and changing needs has broadened the teaching and learning). focus considerably. The most dramatic change has been the investment shift from “hardware� to “software�. The This shift from “hardware� to “software� reflects the share of Bank funds going into civil works and equipment growing realization that physical expansion by itself does has fallen from almost 100 percent in the 1960s to 45 not lead to sustainable and good educational outcomes. percent in 1995-98 (Figure 16). The shares for training A strong focus is also needed on the main elements that and technical assistance have increased significantly. lead to good quality education (Figure 2): s a supportive learning environment (e.g. support “Software� covers many aspects of the education system, for Jordan’s National Center for Human Research including: and Development, which has played a major role s curriculum reform (e.g. improving the quality and in improving the quality of education); relevance of learning in Moldova, by establishing s students ready to learn (e.g. deworming education operations. Research has had an important children and providing them with micronutrients impact on priorities and strategies in education; for exam- in Ghana); ple, in making clear the broad benefits to investing in s motivated staff (e.g. improving quality and teacher primary and girls’ education, the role of textbooks in pro- morale in Uganda in the wake of civil conflict); moting school quality, and the potential importance of s adequate access to resources (e.g. acquisition of the private sector in financing and provision. books for Bolivian school libraries through inter- What can be done in the face of tight research bud- national competitive bidding). get constraints? First, good partnerships are being built between the Bank and a host of other national and inter- The shift also reflects broad conceptual changes in national groups active in education — drawing on response to new challenges. For example, in post-conflict research funding not only from the Bank but also from situations, physical infrastructure and sources of income other donors and foundations. There may be greater need to be recreated, and basic social services restored. potential for encouraging the academic community to Education is a high priority because of its contribution to undertake research that is relevant to the issues that long-term sustainable growth and social inclusion. clients face. In India, for example, an explicit aim of Delivering education in post-conflict situations is com- recent analytic work was to stimulate, through research plex. Simply building schools would be a hopelessly partnerships, the interest and capacity of local researchers inadequate response where governments are weakened in such work. (In addition, this sector work has support- and incomes eroded, school buildings and roads ed a stream of new loans.) destroyed, communities scattered and devastated, chil- Second, projects are building in research and evalua- dren psychologically damaged as combatants and tion to analyze outcomes and the impact of project refugees, and many teachers lost as refugees or victims of investments. Third, research carried out by the Bank has the conflict. In conflict-torn areas where government pro- become more focused and selective. Operational rele- vision of education services has been suspended, the vance is now the main criterion for choosing new peace-time role of the patchwork of religious, communi- research topics in education. Most recent research aims at 26 ty, NGO or other private providers must be resolved. The evaluating rigorously the impact of investments and poli- changes in the emphasis of the Bank’s work in education cy changes that the Bank is supporting, in order to and in the way that the Bank does business are making determine the preconditions and circumstances needed to possible the new and creative approaches that are needed. maximize the chances of success of a project, program, or reform process. For example, there is a multi-country study of the impact on student learning and welfare of ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH education decentralization initiatives. This looks at the Good analysis of issues and options is the foundation for consequences of shifting responsibility of management effective project lending and sound policy advice. Reviews from central governments to local communities and of the education portfolio find a consistent link between schools, and of providing vouchers to facilitate student good analytic work and high quality projects. In educa- choices and to stimulate girls’ education. Another study tion as in other sectors, staff are over-stretched, working is experimenting with various input mixes to determine hard to do more and do it better, and analytic work is the relative contributions of materials and teacher incen- being crowded out. Ways must be found through dialogue tives to student performance and retention. New research between sector staff and country directors to reverse this is beginning on the impact of early childhood interven- decline in sector work, since it could jeopardize future tions, which are a growing part of the portfolio. portfolio quality. Analysis need not result in lengthy reports. What is important is clear thinking about how best to improve educational outcomes, using knowledge ASSESSING THE BANK’S of good practice and conditions “on the ground�. WORK IN EDUCATION The recent decline in the Bank’s role in research in The complex causalities involved in education and the education is inconsistent with the Bank’s quest to become long time lags between intervention and outcome (e.g. in a “knowledge bank� and with improving the impact of student loan programs) make it difficult to measure the impact of projects. This makes the choice of objectives momentum and sustaining the Bank-borrower rela- and indicators a crucial aspect of project preparation. tionship, projects are presented to the Board of Despite the difficulties, the evaluation systems put in Directors even when tough issues remain unresolved. place by the Operations Evaluation Department (OED) The presumption that these will be dealt with during and the Quality Assurance Group (QAG) provide valu- implementation is not always borne out. able insights on what has gone well and not well in s Projects with many goals and many disparate Bank-supported operations. components are much less likely to succeed. This A QAG assessment of the active loan portfolio rated is especially the case when sector institutions are education projects slightly better than the Bank-wide rat- weak, and when implementation timetables are ing on implementation progress and success in meeting unrealistic. Successful projects reflect realistic and development objectives.3 Education had fewer projects rigorous understanding of the implementation and a smaller percentage of the net commitments at risk capacity of sector institutions at central, local and than most other sectors — ranking third out of the six- school levels. There is still much to learn about teen sectors in fiscal year 1998.4 However, QAG’s rapid rigorous institutional and stakeholder analysis assessment of supervision quality in a sample of projects and more robust design of institutional capacity- in fiscal year 1998 found that the education sector had building components at local and central levels. improved in relation to its 1997 score but not as much as s It is difficult to design and implement “soft� the Bank as a whole. components (teaching-learning, curriculum, A recent OED review found a great improvement in staff development) well. This makes built-in the quality of economic analysis in education project monitoring and evaluation critical for corrective appraisal reports, and singled out recent Bank training action during implementation, accurate assess- efforts as a contributing factor. The proportion of educa- ment of impact, and appraisal of the realism of tion projects having acceptable or good economic follow-up operations. analysis rose from 65 percent of projects approved in fis- s Physical investments still make heavy demands on cal year 1996 and the first half of fiscal year 1997 to 94 implementation capacities, particularly for new 27 percent of those approved in the latter half of fiscal year borrowers unfamiliar with the Bank and for 1997 and first half of fiscal year 1998. decentralized and community agencies responsible OED also recently reviewed the 108 education pro- for small, scattered school building projects. Issues jects that exited the portfolio between fiscal years 1993 of location, design, construction quality and the and 1998.5 Of these projects, 76 percent were judged sat- ease and affordability of maintenance from local isfactory or better in overall outcome (compared to 69 resources are not always given enough attention in percent for all sectors). Fifty percent were deemed likely project development and appraisal. to be sustainable (47 percent for all sectors). But only 33 s Activities need to be sequenced appropriately percent achieved substantial institutional development when comprehensive qualitative reform is (32 percent for all sectors). attempted. For example, examinations can provide the incentive framework to which teachers and This OED review highlights the following lessons: students respond, yet examination reform typically s The Bank needs to learn better how to assess and lags behind teacher training and textbook delivery address factors that put project outcomes seriously financed under education projects. at risk. Ambitious policy reform and institutional s Meaningful beneficiary assessment and participa- changes carry political risks. Staff need to be tion is difficult, time-consuming and resource- helped to identify and analyze these risks, and intensive, but can make a world of difference to devise contingent strategies that respond to them. project outcomes. Even for things that might seem This includes deciding when to persevere in the to be technical pedagogical preserves (like curricu- face of severe implementation difficulties and lum reform), change and innovation is more likely when to withdraw until conditions for success are to “take� when supported by communities who more favorable. have been well informed and invited to participate. s Sometimes, in the interests of ensuring lending s Two other hallmarks of successful project imple- mentation are the right skills-mix among the project team, and staffing continuity over the entire project cycle. TAKING STOCK AND MOVING FORWARD This stocktaking of trends in Bank lending shows that a good balance has emerged, consistent with the broad con- sensus on the areas of intervention that make a difference to education outcomes, all the while moving countries closer to the international targets they have signed up to as their own. Chapter 6 provides details of the Bank’s pro- grams in four of these key areas of intervention. The cumulative results of past evaluation of the portfolio and project outcomes noted above have helped clarify a set of operating principles and a focus for staff development (Chapter 7) which are fundamen- tal to the strategy: s focus on the client — listen and learn, taking into account the cultural context; s analyze comprehensively, act selectively; s use knowledge well; s concentrate on development impact; 28 s work with others in productive partnerships. 1 OECD data include both overseas development assistance and other official flows (which in turn include debt rescheduling and forgiveness). 2 International Development Association, 1998, Additions to IDA Resources: Twelfth Replenishment (A Partnership for Poverty Reduction). 3 Quality Assurance Group, Annual Report on Portfolio Performance: Fiscal Year 1998, Table 3.9. 4 Quality Assurance Group, Annual Report on Portfolio Performance: Fiscal Year 1998, Table 3.10. Projects at risk comprise two types of projects: actual problem projects based on the Bank’s latest Project Supervision Report ratings, and potential problem projects which are associated with at least three of twelve leading indicators of future problems. Each of the indicators is a “flag� pointing toward final outcomes. Analysis of his- torical data suggests, for example, a high correlation between delays in effectiveness and unsatisfactory final outcomes. Similarly, if an operation has been in extended problem project status (over 24 months) in the past, it is highly unlikely to succeed. “Net commitments at risk� refers to the proportion of the dollar value of the portfolio that is attached to projects rated “at risk�. 5 These findings derive from OED’s review of the Implementation Completion Reports of the 108 education projects exiting the portfolio between fiscal years 1993 and 1998. OED ratings are based on a desk review of the regions’ own assessments and may be modified based on OED’s per- formance audits of selected operations. M OV I N G F O RWA R D : C T H E H A W H AT P B A N K T E R W I L L 6 s D O i x GLOBAL PRIORITIES have a big impact on the quality of teaching and learning: The Bank’s mission in education is to help clients identify s early interventions (i.e. early child development, and implement their next strategic steps to improve access school health and nutrition); to relevant learning opportunities of high quality — with s innovative delivery (e.g. distance education, open a particular focus on reaching out to the poor and the learning and using new technologies); marginalized. As in other sectors, it is essential to use s systemic reform (especially in relation to achieve- resources efficiently and equitably and to build the insti- ment standards, governance at the basic and tutional capacity that is critical to sustainable post-basic levels, and the role of providers and development. Chapter 7 sets out strategic guidelines to financiers outside of government). help staff do this as they work with client country gov- ernments and other partners. The success of this strategy These are global priority areas, but would not all be cho- will need to be judged country by country: is there a sen as the strategically most important steps in all regions clear and coherent education plan whose implementation and all countries. The set of activities in these areas is results in gains in access and learning outcomes? only a fraction of the full agenda of the education sector 29 Given the great diversity in education across and in the Bank. There is, however, significant overlap within client countries, this strategy avoids prescriptive between these four global priorities and the priorities dictates about what to do (such as “invest in primary identified in the regional strategies, and there are activi- education� or “provide more vocational education�). ties in these priority areas in many of the Bank’s client However, there are some “top-down� or global priorities countries (Annex 6). that emerge from the Bank’s commitment to the interna- tional education goals, and from the consensus that there must be an unrelenting focus on the quality of teaching BASIC EDUCATION: FOR GIRLS, and learning. These are described in this chapter, and the AND FOR THE POOREST specific activities and performance indicators against Basic education for girls. Despite the significant which the Bank’s education work in these areas will be progress made in expanding access to primary education, measured are summarized in Table 3. Table 3 also shows gaps in enrollment and achievement persist between boys the outcome indicators that the programs and activities and girls. The reasons are many and complex, but equity are designed to help achieve, but over which the Bank considerations and the high economic and social benefits and its partners have only indirect and partial control. associated with girls’ education require the Bank and oth- To help move faster towards the international educa- ers to work to reduce the gender gap. Investment in girls’ tion targets (Chapter 2)1 — as means to more productive education increases women’s labor force participation economies, more cohesive societies, more effective participa- rates and earnings; results in women having fewer chil- tion in collective affairs, and ultimately, healthier and dren; lowers infant, child and maternal mortality rates; happier populations — special global programs have been creates intergenerational educational benefits; and yields launched that focus on basic education for girls and in significant environmental benefits. This investment, the poorest countries with lowest enrollment rates. Three when made with long-term gains in mind, can be expected other areas are singled out where interventions are likely to to lead to positive demographic changes, reduction in Performance Policy Directions Specific Actions Partners Outcome Indicators Indicators Basic Education Focus efforts in priority Activities under way UNESCO, Norwegian EFA/DAC goals for basic s for the poorest countries in AFR through in 16 target countries Trust Fund education met in target UNSIA program countries s for girls Focus efforts in priority Activities under way UNICEF, DFID, EFA/DAC goals for countries in half of the 31 target Rockefeller girls met in target countries countries Early Interventions Develop ECD programs in Number of free-standing HNP, IDB, UNESCO, Intake improved into s early child development priority countries programs increased from UNICEF, PAHO, bilaterals, primary education in 8 to 14 NGOs target countries s school health programs Focus efforts in priority Activities engaged in 19 HNP, WHO, UNESCO, Learning improved in countries in AFR and LCR countries in AFR, and 8 PAHO, UNICEF, UNAIDS, target countries through the International countries in LCR bilaterals, NGOs School Health Program Innovative Delivery: Develop an education Strategy and survey AFR, EAP Worldwide knowledge distance education, technology strategy completed of distance education open learning & the for AFR and undertake enhanced use of new technologies a survey in EAP Improve information Four (4) scholarships AFR sharing with educators in offered to African client countries education Enable exchange of Six (6) external Global Open universities in knowledge about Distance EducatioNet Canada, HK/China, Costa 30 distance learning sites operational Rica, Indonesia, South amongst client countries Africa, Spain, and UK Systemic Reform Support efforts to On-going Bank member- UNESCO, IEA, OECD, Education systems s standards, curriculum increase internationally ship of UNESCO Institute UNICEF, UNDP, UNFPA operating more efficiently & assessment comparative information of Statistics body and (TIMSS-R, WEI, EFA 2000 and more equitably on education access and Bank dialogue with Assessment) achievement clients about participation in international studies Increase knowledge Public exams database in of evaluation and FY00 (CD-ROM in FY01) examinations Education performance indicators (FY00) Establish worldwide Launch website in FY00 U of Twente, U of network of science and Witwatersrand, technology educators UNESCO, US National Science Foundation s governance and Increase sharing of Internet site in FY00 OECD decentralization knowledge about tertiary Contributors’ network education reform developed Increase institutional Education reform training WBI, IIEP/UNESCO, capacity for education course developed for OECD, CPRE reform clients and staff s providers and financiers Link private investors to Electronic exchange IFC, private compa- outside of government education institutions operational in FY00 & nies use evaluated in FY01 Table 3: Implementation Plan FY99-FY01: Priority Areas health costs, and greater social cohesion and develop- external funding agencies, including the Bank, to support ment effectiveness. implementation. Within the Special Initiative’s education In working to improve girls’ enrollment, retention, component, one sub-program financed by a Norwegian attainment and achievement, the Bank and its partners trust fund and managed by the Bank focuses on primary are taking a number of approaches, including providing education, and aims to establish programs in 16 target incentives for girls’ attendance (e.g. scholarships, school countries: Angola, Burkina Faso, Chad, Djibouti, Eritrea, meals, basic health care, provision of textbooks), increas- Ethiopia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, ing access to close and safe schools with an adequate Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone and infrastructure, improving the quality and relevance of Somalia. With time the program may extend into other education, accommodating socio-cultural values and edu- components of basic education — e.g. adult literacy, espe- cating parents and communities about the benefits of cially for women — and into other countries. girls’ education, establishing supportive national policies The Special Initiative aims to: (1) help increase that target girls, and pursuing sound economic policies awareness among key national policy makers about the that do not create disincentives to women’s employment. crucial constraints that the presently low level of prima- The Bank has identified 31 countries where it is ry education development places on the country’s ability active and where the international goals will not be met to reach sustainable economic growth and poverty at current rates of progress. Of these 31 countries, 15 reduction, (2) provide extra financial and human have been targeted because they have exceptionally large resources to help develop a wide national consensus on gaps between girls’ and boys’ primary enrollment rates: difficult education reforms required to break out of the Burkina Faso, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Ghana, present low enrollment “trap�, and (3) promote greater Guatemala, Guinea, Mali, Morocco, Nepal, Niger, cooperation and synergy among the various activities Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Uganda and Yemen. The supported by UN agencies and bilateral donors to goal is to develop activities to narrow the gender gap in develop education. these 15 target countries, and to make additional efforts in these countries to improve the knowledge of girls’ 31 education issues and to orient financial and human EARLY INTERVENTIONS: EARLY CHILD resources towards increasing girls’ enrollment and attain- DEVELOPMENT AND SCHOOL HEALTH ment rates. A new multi-agency partnership to promote Early child development (ECD). Problems faced by girls’ education has recently been established by the poor children in the earliest years — such as stunted Bank, UNICEF, British DFID and the Rockefeller mental and physical development and lack of preparation Foundation to examine more closely what factors are for school — set the stage for low academic achievement, important in ensuring effective implementation of girls’ high dropout rates, functional illiteracy, low productivity education programs in developing countries. in the workforce, and even delinquency and dependency on society. Programs to tackle these critical deficiencies Basic education for the poorest. Education attainment are fundamental to a child’s learning and success in life. in perhaps half of the 48 sub-Saharan African countries ECD — with its cross-sectoral mix of pre-school educa- is well below the level required historically to achieve sus- tion, nutrition and basic health care, involving children tainable economic growth and poverty reduction. There and their parents and other caregivers — has a critical is an urgent need therefore for bolder policy and imagi- role in breaking intergenerational inequity cycles and in native mechanisms beyond “business as usual� to enhancing education achievement, provided it is followed accelerate primary enrollments. by sustained interventions beyond the early years. Within the framework of the United Nations Special The Bank has a number of free-standing ECD projects Initiative for Africa, a UNESCO/Bank-led education and social sector projects with an ECD component. These component aims to help countries build up education projects are packaged with specific objectives and program sector development plans that are technically sound and options tailored to the context of the client countries. For ambitious, as well as being financially sound and imple- example, in Bolivia, Colombia, India, and Indonesia ser- mentable in the social context of the country. These plans vices are directed to children at risk, with integrated health, will be used as the basis for mobilizing resources from nutrition, and stimulation services through either home- based or center-based child care programs; in Mexico, par- ence and English to primary level students in Africa, ent education is the focus of the project. In Uganda, mass Latin America and Asia. Many countries have used print communication strategies are targeted to parents in addition and other technologies to deliver training to teachers, to teaching women commercial skills, whereas in Nigeria, and television is being used effectively to deliver a wide mass communications are targeted to young children, range of training to children, teachers, and other adults. adapting the US Sesame Street model. In Kenya, the focus New technologies, especially the Internet, offer policy- is on improving the quality of caregivers through training. makers additional alternatives for delivering education The Bank’s ECD staff aims to increase the number of and training to learners of all ages. These technological stand-alone programs to 14, with new projects scheduled possibilities can reduce costs, increase access, and expand for Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Ethiopia, India, Jamaica, the range and quality of education and training options. Mexico, Samoa, Tunisia, and Yemen. An increasing number of countries are experiment- ing with various forms of new technologies to expand School health. Recent research has found that simple, education and training options, because they are able to well-tried health services, notably deworming and develop multimedia materials that reflect local values micronutrient (e.g. iron) supplements, and promoting and culture, provide visual images of desired behaviors, healthy lifestyles can be delivered in a highly cost-effec- collaborate across borders, and access information not tive way through school health programs. They are also previously available. The Bank’s role is to support coun- highly progressive, providing most benefits to the most tries not only as consumers but also as producers of disadvantaged — girls, the poor and the malnourished. these multimedia tools, to help them explore the poten- They can achieve significant improvements in children’s tial of new technologies while managing constraints health, in their school attendance and ability to learn and such as limited absorptive capacity and lack of an ade- thus school achievement; and have much longer-term quate infrastructure. benefits in adult health status and productivity. The Human Development Network (HDN) and the The Bank, in association with a wide range of part- Africa region together have produced a strategy paper for ners including WHO, UNESCO, UNICEF and the use of educational technology in a range of African 32 UNAIDS, as well as bilateral donors (especially USAID) countries. Four African educators will participate in fellow- and NGOs (especially Save the Children US), has estab- ships to expand regional expertise in educational lished the International School Health Initiative, technology and distance education. A survey of educational providing clients with access to expert advice, examples of technology and distance education in Asia has been good practice, and practical toolkits, as well as assisting launched, in collaboration with the East Asia Region, task teams to prepare school health components within WBI, UNESCO and the Commonwealth of Learning, and development projects. In Africa, school health projects will be followed over the next year by a series of in-depth will be developed in three target countries (Madagascar, case studies. In collaboration with InfoDev, an additional Malawi and Zambia) and as a sub-regional initiative in series of case studies will be conducted and a network will 16 countries in West Africa (including Guinea, Mali, be formed of countries that use technology to train teach- Mauritania and Senegal). The LCR team has launched an ers. Finally, the Network plans to extend Global Distance initiative in collaboration with the Pan American Health EducatioNet, its online guide to distance education, by Organization the aim of which is to promote the regional establishing six regional sites by FY00 (Box 8). implementation of school-based health services and life skills training in at least eight countries in the region. SYSTEMIC REFORM: STANDARDS, CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT; INNOVATIVE DELIVERY: DISTANCE GOVERNANCE AND DECENTRALIZATION; EDUCATION, OPEN LEARNING AND PROVIDERS AND FINANCIERS OUTSIDE THE USE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES OF GOVERNMENT Distance education has been used in a variety of develop- Standards, curriculum and assessment. High on the ing-country contexts and for a range of purposes. Radio agenda of many governments are activities aimed at has been used to deliver instruction in mathematics, sci- improving quality in both basic and post-basic education: establishing a common set of expectations for learners B O X 8 that relate to what is needed for later study and work; F O U R E X A M P L E S O F I N N O V AT I V E building up a curriculum framework within which teach- USE OF MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY ers can help their students meet those expectations; ensuring that the curriculum is delivered in a language The Development Education Program (www.world- that is appropriate for local students; devising assessment bank.org/depweb/) offers a website for teachers and instruments that enable teachers and policy-makers to students who want to study social, economic, and measure students’ achievement; and building capacity in environmental issues of sustainable development education leaders, school directors and teachers to lead around the world. The program uses learning mod- these educational changes. ules, maps, charts, data tables, case studies, photos, In addition to boosting quality in the fundamental outreach activities, teachers’ materials, on-line student areas of literacy and mathematics, many countries are newspaper, and much more. The Global Distance aiming to improve science and technology education. EducatioNet (www.globaldistancelearning.com) is a Broad access to basic scientific and technological knowl- knowledge guide to distance education, designed to edge and skills — for girls as well as for boys — is help clients interested in using distance education for essential if developing countries are to close the gap human development. The Net has its core site in the with developed countries. Global competition — based Bank and regional sites in all parts of the world. A in large part on the move to a knowledge-based companion service — the Global Distance Education society — gives technology transfer and scientific Directory — is being developed in partnership with a innovation a key role. The Bank, in association with a private sector company, to provide a listing of dis- number of internationally recognized partners, is estab- tance education providers of learning programs, lishing a Global Science Education Network that aims learning materials, communications technologies and to facilitate the sharing of good practice in areas such as distance education consultants. WBI’s “Global Links� curriculum development, teacher education, standards program (globallinks@worldbank.org) uses mass and assessment. media to broadcast to 100 million people in more than 33 In a bid to improve the coverage, quality and avail- 50 developing countries, diffusing information on key ability of internationally comparable data on education development issues including education reform and participation, attainment and achievement in ways that the role of government. The World Links for benefit countries looking to improve their education sys- Development (WorLD) (www.worldbank.org/ tems, the Bank is providing both technical and financial worldlinks/) program brings the vast educational support for the establishment of the UNESCO Institute resources available through the Internet into under- of Statistics. In addition, the Bank has introduced devel- resourced secondary schools, and trains teachers to oping countries into OECD’s World Education integrate computers effectively into the classroom. Indicators pilot project and into the International Students are linked with partner schools in OECD Association for the Evaluation of Educational countries for collaborative distance learning, and Achievement’s repeat of the Third International begin to acquire the computer literacy needed for par- Mathematics and Science Study (the results of which will ticipation in an increasingly global economy. By the be released in 2001). Education staff plan to build on year 2000, at least 1,500 secondary schools in forty this international work, both to increase the quality of countries from all developing regions will be linked each country’s contribution to internationally compara- through WorLD. tive data on education and, more importantly, to help countries draw on international experience to develop national assessment systems of their own. Governance and decentralization. Education reform is on the political agenda in virtually all of the Bank’s client countries, driven by concerns that improved edu- cation system performance is essential for greater economic competitiveness, lower poverty and inequality, reform implementation challenges and strategies for stronger democratic institutions, and greater social sta- overcoming them. bility. Major reforms are to be found in all parts of the education sector: professionalizing the teaching service; Appropriate roles for providers and financiers outside making tertiary institutions more autonomous, more of government. In many countries, most education is both responsive and more accountable; decentralizing school publicly financed and provided. While few would argue management to local levels; encouraging the emergence with the need for continued public finance at the basic edu- of quality early child education establishments; and cation level — where the externalities are greatest — there revising secondary curriculum to make it more relevant is no a priori reason for all education to be publicly provid- to the world of work. ed, funded and managed. There are arguments in favor of Teacher service reform, for example, is a complex (1) selectively encouraging management and/or ownership undertaking. In some countries and in some regions of institutions by NGOs, community or religious groups, within countries, teachers are highly paid relative to and entrepreneurs, (2) allowing students and their parents other workers in the economy, with their salaries taking to choose among different options, and (3) requiring some a share of the education budget so large that no funds level of private financing at post-basic levels. are left for other crucial components of quality educa- In fact, large private school systems exist in many tion. In other countries, teachers are poorly paid, countries, in some cases extending educational opportu- resulting in recruitment and retention difficulties as nities to less well-off children. Private financing and well as high rates of absenteeism. Professionalizing the provision can expand the number of student places, espe- teaching force — through reorganizing incentives and cially at secondary and tertiary levels — so critical for training — in ways that take account of local circum- building institutional capacity and absorbing technologi- stances (including the broader civil service context) is a cal advances. Private financing can also allow public major challenge for countries. resources to be better targeted to the poor; give families Although many reform efforts flounder, countries as choices beyond the public school system; be more effi- diverse as Australia, Brazil, Chile, El Salvador, New cient than the public sector, when quality is maintained 34 Zealand, Romania, Spain, South Korea and Thailand at a lower unit cost; and increase the potential for inno- have shown that it is possible to implement deep and sus- vation in education, especially in the presence of tained reforms in education. There are many lessons for competitive pressures. other countries on what works and what doesn’t and how “Private� is a broad concept and includes religious, to implement education reforms in politically sustainable NGO-run, community-financed, and for-profit institu- ways (in particular, how to weigh and successfully man- tions. In many countries, public funds are channeled to age political resistance to reforms, through coalition these private institutions, sometimes explicitly in order to building, reform sequencing, support for implementa- benefit the poor. Vouchers and scholarships are used to tion, compensation strategies and other actions). expand schooling opportunities for the poor in the To support its clients in dealing with systemic Dominican Republic through a Bank-financed primary reform in education, the Bank plans to work with a education project. The Bank supports scholarship pro- wide range of partners and leading academic institu- grams that allow girls to enroll in private schools in tions, to build a training course aimed at policymakers Pakistan, and helps extend secondary school opportunities from client countries and international agency staff to the poor through vouchers in Colombia, Tanzania and working on education. In addition, the Bank will pro- Bangladesh. Bank projects support equity in all municipal vide clients with access to former education ministers and government-subsidized private secondary schools in and other high-level officials with experience in imple- Chile. Another project aims to build public support for menting education reforms, detailed case studies of policy reform to promote private sector development of successful country experience (Australia, Brazil, Chile, education in Mauritania and Burkina Faso. New Zealand, UK, etc.), a website featuring global The IFC is expanding investment in private sector research on education reform, tools for assessing politi- education. As a new part of its strategy, the Bank (includ- cal readiness and institutional capacity for reform in ing the IFC) and private sector partners are building an education, and assistance to task teams in identifying online information exchange highlighting investment opportunities in education in client countries and value sets in which they operate, and developing (www.worldbank.org/edinvest). The exchange will pro- sound country-specific strategies and programs — and by vide information on investors from developed countries harnessing global knowledge to local know-how. interested in pursuing investment opportunities in devel- Education staff have been developing country-by-country oping countries. Investment conferences will be hosted in education action plans for over 120 countries. In addition, several client countries, beginning with West Africa in six regional education strategies have either recently been 1999. The World Bank is working in several West African completed or are in preparation. Boxes 9 and 10 outline countries (targeting especially Senegal, the Gambia, Côte the strategies being developed in Africa and South Asia. d’Ivoire and Mauritania), surveying the market for educa- The new regional strategies devote considerable effort tion and helping governments create an enabling to clarifying the outcomes that Bank support to education framework for private sector development in education. aims to achieve. The LCR strategy, for example, sets out The plan is to have the Internet-based investment six priorities: improving the teaching and learning process; exchange operational by FY00. The success of the site in including the excluded; meeting the needs of youth; the following years will be judged by the volume of use. reforming organization management; using technology to improve education; and reforming higher education. These regional priorities are consistent with the Bank-wide prior- REGIONAL AND COUNTRY PRIORITIES ities and reflect region-specific needs. The Bank’s activities in education, as in other fields, are If the relationship between the client and the Bank is shaped partly by the international priorities it adheres to characterized by mutual respect, careful listening, open- and the broad priorities it sets for itself, and partly by the ness to new ideas and responsiveness to new challenges, inherently region-specific and country-specific nature of the Bank and client should reach a common position on its work. Country education strategies, lending, and non- what the best strategy is for the country’s development lending tasks are shaped by Country Assistance Strategies and what role the Bank can best play in its implementa- (CASs), budget constraints, and dialogue among the tion. On occasion however, the Bank and the client Bank’s country directors and sector teams. All of these government may disagree on priorities. Then the Bank 35 factors are in turn shaped more importantly by consulta- will need to reassess its own analysis in light of a client tions with clients and partners. viewpoint that might not have been adequately taken The wide range of developmental status amongst the into account, try to convince the client that the Bank Bank’s client countries means that, while broad priorities analysis has greater benefits than other options, or with- can be established, uniform solutions are inappropriate. draw from the particular intervention the client wishes to Countries that have achieved over 90 percent primary embark upon. enrollments have different needs from countries still The development of the country and regional educa- below 50 percent. (Some 75 developing countries have tion strategies is not just an add-on to the overall strategy. primary gross enrollment rates over 90 percent, account- The joint effort — in producing country, regional and ing for three quarters of the developing world’s school Bank-wide products — provides a set of interconnected population.) Countries where enrollments for boys are strategies. This helps prevent inconsistencies, an issue in falling below those for girls have different problems from the past for some sectors. The entire initiative is under the the many countries where girls are at a major disadvan- overall direction of the Bank’s Education Sector Board, in tage. (At least 17 Latin American countries have higher consultation with the Education Network as a whole (the enrollment rates for girls than for boys, either at the pri- 250-plus Bank staff working in education) and the Sector mary or secondary level.) Board’s External Advisory Panel. This collective leader- The Bank will therefore help countries identify and ship, further strengthened by the fact that the regional implement whatever next steps are the most strategically Education leaders form the overwhelming majority of the important for them in reducing poverty. This will be Sector Board, would have been more difficult to achieve done by putting the clients first — listening carefully to in the old organizational arrangements where units were what they have to say, understanding the cultural context more separate and distant from one another. 1 The EFA goals are: the expansion of early child care and developmental activities; universal access to, and completion of, primary education by the year 2000; improvements in learning achievement; reduction in adult illiteracy to one-half its 1990 level by the year 2000; expansion of provision of basic education and training in other essential skills required by youth and adults; increased acquisition by individuals and families of the knowledge, and skills and values required for better living and sound sustainable development. In addition, the OECD’s Development Assistance Committee (DAC) has called for universal primary education in all countries by 2015, and the elimination of gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 (OECD, Shaping the 21st Century, 1996; website: www.oecd.org/dac/indicators/htm/backgrd.htm). B O X 9 B O X 1 0 S T R AT E G Y W O R K I N S U B - S A H A R A N S T R AT E G Y F O R E D U C AT I O N I N AFRICA COUNTRIES OF THE SOUTH ASIA REGION The Africa region first outlined its regional education (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, strategy in the 1988 paper “Education in Sub-Saharan Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka) Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization and Expansion�. The follow-up to the 1988 paper has been Diagnosis. Half of the world’s poor and half of the a model of donor-government partnership. It was ini- world’s illiterate adults live in South Asia. Enrollments tially coordinated by a donor organization (called have increased over the last decade, especially in pri- Donors to African Education) which developed into mary education, but India and Pakistan still account the Association for the Development of Education in for 30 percent of the world’s primary-aged children Africa (ADEA). It now includes African ministers of who are out of school. Girls remain disproportionately education and some 50 donor agencies. Its objectives left out. Completion rates and learning achievements are to provide to the African ministers a forum from are low, reflecting low quality of education and ineffi- where they can lead the dialogue with the donors to cient use of public resources at all levels of the enhance donor agency awareness that their own prac- education system. Institutional capacity is weak. tices should be adapted to the needs of national programs and to develop a consensus among minis- Objectives. The Bank supports the priority of all the ters and agencies on approaches to the major issues South Asian governments: basic education, i.e., facing education in Africa. At the heart of ADEA’s work increasing enrollments, completion rates and learning are 11 thematic working groups which undertake achievements. The Bank also supports several govern- studies and publish reports on areas of broad interest. ments in the region in articulating a vision for the ADEA has now decided to review progress made overall education sector and addressing system-wide since the 1988 paper through a participatory process issues of management and resource allocation. 36 that will be based on country papers and will include the close involvement of African education specialists Means. First, the Bank will continue its emphasis of and policy makers. The final version will be presented lending and non-lending services in basic education, at the 1999 ADEA conference. The Bank is supporting with the focus on quality, equity of access and efficien- this process. It is a member of the steering committee cy; second, the Bank is starting a major effort of that has been established to manage the stocktaking non-lending services to assist governments to articu- exercise. It has also begun to reflect internally on its late a long-term sector-wide vision; third, the Bank is own experience with lending for education in Africa working with governments in the region to and on ways to increase the effectiveness of its lending initiate reforms of higher education, starting with sec- and non-lending support. The first draft of a discussion tor work and policy dialogue; and fourth, related to paper was prepared in fiscal year 1998 and discussed improving basic education, the Bank is assisting coun- with senior education officials from Africa and other tries to improve secondary education, particularly stakeholders. This document was further developed access for girls, and non-formal education for young during fiscal year 1999 following discussions in the adults to provide them with a second chance to region and consultations within the ADEA group. The acquire basic skills. findings of the ADEA stocktaking will be a key element in the further development of the Africa regional strate- Implications for the Bank. The Bank will continue to gy. The Africa regional strategy is expected to be strengthen its client focus through more field-based finalized following the 1999 ADEA meeting. operational staff, supported by technical expertise and cross-country knowledge from headquarters. Given the scale of the task and the need for a coherent approach within each country, the Bank will continue its emphasis on cooperation with other donors in lend- ing and non-lending services. M OV I N G H OW F O RWA R D : T H E C H A P B A N K T E R W I L L D O s 7 e I T v e n OPERATING PRINCIPLES SYSTEMS AND TOOLS With a view to fulfilling its mission of assisting clients A range of systems and tools are available to assist identify and implement the relevant strategic steps and to Education staff in applying these operating principles to achieve their own targets in education, the Bank’s their work. In order to analyze comprehensively and act Education staff will apply a number of operating principles: selectively, for example, staff can think about their clients s Focus on the client. This means developing oper- and their needs in a number of different ways: in terms ations that respond to the local needs of clients of their size and hence the numbers of people who might and facilitate their participation as full partners in benefit, and the potential for making a real difference. design and implementation, all the while taking into account local culture and traditions. The client owns its programs and sets the pace for COUNTRY CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE change — an essential element of effective reform. Table 5 groups clients on the basis of their weight in the s Analyze comprehensively and act selectively. lending portfolio, which corresponds quite closely to This means taking a comprehensive view when population size. 37 assessing a country’s needs and developing sector- Seventeen major client countries with a combined wide solutions, but being selective when defining population of 3.4 billion account for three-quarters of the specific actions the Bank will support. the Bank’s education business. These large countries have s Concentrate on development impact. Bank oper- realistic prospects of each borrowing at least $200 mil- ations must do better at looking beyond inputs lion over the seven year period FY95-01. More than half and process effects to development impact, mea- of the FY95-01 education lending (actual and projected) sured in higher quality, increased efficiency, better of $16.5 billion is concentrated in just seven countries: equity, and greater accountability, as well as to the Brazil, Mexico, India, Indonesia, Turkey, Argentina and long-term sustainability of newly developed capac- Thailand. ities in education planning, financing and Thirty-five medium client countries with a com- implementation. bined population of over 600 million represent a fifth of s Use knowledge well. Promote knowledge manage- the Bank’s education lending. These countries vary con- ment, creation, and transfer among all involved, siderably in size, including, for instance, much of Latin so as to enhance understanding and experience in America outside the three large countries (Argentina, the sector. Brazil, Mexico). These countries have realistic prospects s Work with others in productive partnerships. of borrowing at least $50 million in the FY95-01 period. Capture the benefits of effective partnerships to The remaining five percent of the lending goes to maximize impact. fewer than half of the 91 minor client countries, concen- For each of these operating principles, the strategy identi- trated in Africa and in Europe and Central Asia. These fies specific actions and targets against which performance vary in size and include countries where conflict or unrest will be measured. These actions and the associated targets has resulted in the suspension of development activities. are summarized in Table 4. This classification raises the strategic question: where is the appropriate balance between concentrating on large Policy Directions Specific Actions Performance Outcome Partners Indicators Indicators Focus on the client Promote staff Annual staff training WBI Client rating of Bank participation in achieved services improved training in listening and negotiation skills Analyze Develop Country Action 80% of Country Action Country Teams Bank resources more comprehensively, Plans Plans updated within efficiently used to impact act selectively last six (6) months to education access and be selective and achievement country results-focussed by country Develop Regional Six (6) strategies by FY00 Regional Management Education Strategies Undertake Economic s 5 ESWs completed DEC, Country Teams Sector Work and Social annually Sector Expenditure s CASs informed by Review SSER not more than 3 years old Disseminate lessons First phase of pilot OED OED, QAG from OED/QAG relational database operational for education in FY00 38 Review use and Experience of APLs OED effectiveness of new and LILs distilled and lending instruments disseminated Promote staff Annual staff training WBI participation in training achieved in the use of new lending instruments Ensure strategic Annual review of CASs Country Teams directions are included finds 80% satisfactory in CASs of priority treatment of education countries Concentrate on Establish a set of robust s Development indicator DEC, QAG, OED Bank interventions better development impact development impact set developed in FY00 targeted indicators for Bank s 80% of new projects use indicators within 2 years Use knowledge well Open access to clients External websites for 3 Task teams, DECDG, Knowledge about and partners new themes each year OED, WBI, ISG education used more (FY00, 01, 02) effectively to improve access to and quality of education for all Conduct EKMS user Survey completed Task teams survey annually Work with others in In Country Action Plans, 100% of updated CAPs Bank’s comparative productive partnerships include section outlining include section on advantage maximized how the Bank will work partners and respective with other players comparative advantage Table 4: Implementation Plan FY99-FY01: Operating Principles borrowers — where there is the potential to have a may provide demonstration effects that have a lasting notable development impact on large populations — and impact in other countries. spreading activities and resources more broadly because Some of the “minor� clients (such as South Africa) the poor and excluded do not all live in the largest coun- are in fact relatively large countries who at present only tries? The total volume of the Bank’s education lending want non-lending services from the Bank. Here the ques- depends importantly on the 17 “major� countries (and in tion is whether to begin charging for technical assistance particular on the seven biggest borrowers). Yet business where it is not accompanied by lending — to avoid a sit- with these countries is subject to risk and uncertainty. uation where borrowing clients are subsidizing technical Having “many eggs in just a few baskets� imposes a par- assistance to non-borrowing clients. These are questions ticular obligation to manage the associated risks that need to be resolved at high levels of Bank manage- effectively and ensure a high quality of Bank operations ment, but the answers obviously affect the decisions the in the major client countries. A decision by China — Education sector makes in areas such as staff recruitment one of the major borrowers — not to borrow for social and deployment. sector projects under IBRD conditions would require the Bank to be prepared to reallocate the freed-up resources in accordance with its broad priorities. ROOM TO IMPROVE / It is important to assess periodically the value of ROOM TO MANEUVER current business in some of the minor clients, which Another principle in being more selective is to target may account for only five percent of lending but a efforts where they are likely to have the biggest impact. much higher proportion of the administrative budget. Substantial time and resources are at risk of being wasted Some of these countries have small populations and when efforts are pursued in the face of poor prospects of borrow very small amounts. Although unit costs tend success, especially when the obstacles involve weak gov- to be higher than in large projects, it may not be possi- ernment ownership of, or interest in the initiatives. ble, or even desirable, to scale down or phase out Curtailing marginal undertakings could allow greater education work in smaller countries. Equity issues support to more promising cases. In assessing whether 39 aside, implementing holistic reform in a small country action in some area makes sense in any country and Number of 1996 Lending Lending Countries Population FY95-01 FY95-98 (million) Actual & Actual Projected (US$million) (US$million) Major 17 3364 12284 5911 FY95-01 lending > US$200 million (70%) (74%) (75%) Medium 35 635 3432 1676 US$200 million > FY95-01 lending > US$50 million (13%) (21%) (21%) Minor (borrowers) 44 220 816 317 FY95-01 lending < US$50 million (5%) (5%) (4%) Minor (non-borrowers) 47 616 -- -- (13%) TOTAL 143 4835 16532 7904 Table 5: Distribution of Lending (Actual and Projected) by Country Categories indeed whether to engage in education in a country at all, it may help to pose a pair of linked questions: s Is there room to improve? If action were taken, would the results add much to what exists already? And thus, is there a need for action? High s Is there room to maneuver? Are the prevailing political and other conditions such that action could P robably P robably "NO" "YE S" succeed — i.e. that change could happen? Or are there too many obstacles, too many blockers, and Room to Maneuver too little stomach for altering the status quo? Almost certainly P robably "NO" "NO" In cases where there is both room to improve and room to maneuver (i.e. the northeast quadrant in Figure 17), Low Room to Improve strategies should be pressing for bold and timely action on the issue in question. In the opposite case (the south- west quadrant) — where conditions are unpropitious on both grounds — attempts to act aggressively on the Figure 17: Room to Maneuver and Room to Improve issue would likely lead only to thwarted efforts and wasted resources. The remaining two possibilities present more diffi- tional lending instruments, provide more flexible ways cult decisions. An example from the southeast quadrant of assisting in the education sector. The Comprehensive would be a country with low primary school enrollments Development Framework requires staff to move beyond and too little political stability and/or will to fix the prob- single projects and to look at the totality of effort neces- lem. Major improvements are needed but cannot be sary for a country’s development. This approach offers achieved. An example from the final quadrant (north- the opportunity to better integrate education policy 40 west) would be a strong government program to improve and practice into the “big picture� of economic and access when enrollments are already high. The will is social advancement. there but the potential gains are limited. In all cases, the Bank will need to consider the implications of interrupting Structural Adjustment Loans. Recent global economic any investment flow on the development of human and disruption in the EAP, ECA and LCR regions has caused social capital, a long and complex process. countries to seek large Structural Adjustment Loans (SALs). Learning from past experience with SALs in Africa in the 1980s, these new SALs will need to have CHECKLIST OF QUESTIONS strong social content. In EAP, for example, the Once target countries have been selected using the tools Indonesian $1 billion SAL contains actions to ensure the outlined above, key interventions within a target country availability of key goods with only modest price increas- can be identified through a set of questions that reflect the es, initiatives to maintain access to quality basic education issues and priorities of most importance world- education and health, and labor-intensive public works wide for the years ahead (Box 11). The questions programs. This challenges Education staff to address edu- operationalize the priority areas discussed in Chapter 6 cation issues more effectively within the “bigger picture�, and the operating principles established earlier in this and the HD Network will need staff who are confident chapter. The answers to these questions may vary greatly operating outside a narrow sectoral expertise. from country to country, but the same set of questions should always be considered. (For more explanation of Adaptable Program Loans and Learning and these questions, see Annex 2). Innovation Loans. Social sectors involve a wide variety of stakeholders with differing incentives, and these sec- tors are often in considerable disarray institutionally. LENDING INSTRUMENTS Specific investment loans are sometimes not appropriate New lending instruments, or new ways of using tradi- B O X 1 1 CHECKLIST OF QUESTIONS 1 Are the long-term vision and medium- and short-term objectives clear and appropriate for what is being proposed for the next steps for this particular country? Consider the ideas discussed in Chapters 1 and 2 relating to international goals, global changes, and developments in education. 2 Are the different levels of education being addressed adequately? Consider whether basic education policy and prac- tice (especially in early child development and primary education, but also in lower secondary education and adult literacy) are strong enough to warrant strengthening upper secondary, tertiary (higher education and vocational/ technical training) and advanced adult learning (work-related training, lifelong learning). 3 Are educational quality issues being addressed adequately? Consider the issues discussed in Chapter 2: access to relevant learning, not just access to a seat in a classroom; teachers and teaching conditions; and the fundamental questions — what is being learned? what should be taught? in what language? how? why? 4 Are equity issues being addressed adequately? Consider the broad need to include the excluded, the specific need to improve girls’ education (Chapter 6), and the special needs of places with very low primary school enrollments as in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Chapter 6). 5 Are spending and financing issues and public-private roles being addressed adequately? Consider how best to target public resources to the poorest beneficiaries, and enable poor families to overcome the schooling cost barrier (which often includes the opportunity costs of forgoing the immediate benefits of their children’s labor). 6 Is structural and management reform, including decentralization, being addressed adequately? 41 7 Where institutional capacity is weak, is it being strengthened adequately? 8 Is adequate attention being paid to linking education with the rest of the country’s development? Consider links with the world of work and links with social development and cohesion, including the passing on of culture, traditions and values. And consider teacher service reform in the wider context of civil service reform. 9 Is the strategy appropriate for this country at this moment, considering the prevailing political, economic, and social circumstances? Tools to help with such analysis include: typologies of country situations; the concepts of “room to improve and room to maneuver.� Special situations also need to be understood: crisis response, post-conflict situa- tions, and other turbulent conditions. 10 Are the emerging new opportunities being explored and utilized adequately? Consider the issues discussed in Chapters 1 and 2, particularly as regards technology and distance learning. 11 Are appropriate choices being made in the design and implementation of programs and projects? Consider the issues and suggestions discussed in Chapter 5. 12 Are partnerships being utilized sufficiently and appropriately? Consider the issues and suggestions discussed in Chapter 4. 13 Is the strategy sufficiently and appropriately selective? Consider the issues discussed in Chapter 7. 14 Is the strategy drawing sufficiently on pertinent knowledge — from other places and other sectors? 15 Is there sufficient provision for monitoring of progress, including measurable indicators? for process-driven goals that involve many stakeholders main goals are to document the corporate memory, and and institutions. New instruments — the adaptable pro- to include the best development knowledge outside the gram loan (APL) and the learning and innovation loan organization developed by partners (universities, founda- (LIL) — have been introduced to permit more open- tions, NGOs, multilateral and bilateral organizations). ended lending, based on specific objectives and a The primary focus of the EKMS is to improve the effec- long-term development strategy, and to allow for piloting tiveness of education sector staff through providing and innovation over a relatively short timeframe. information and building knowledge; the EKMS is in The flexibility and responsiveness of these new tools this way a key component of lifelong learning within the seem particular suited to the education sector, and Bank itself. The goal is also to serve clients and partners Education staff are taking advantage of them, with some directly, and the Education Network aims to develop 20 APLs and 15 LILs now in the AFR, EAP, ECA and three external websites in each of the next three years to LCR regions. Over the next three years, the Education help do this. Network will review the effectiveness of these projects, to The EKMS is organized around themes, including begin to establish whether they are better than traditional early child development (www.worldbank.org/children/) methods in producing the desired development objectives. and distance education (www.globaldistancelearning. com/). For each theme, good practice is identified and a HIPC Debt Initiative. The principal objective of the number of different channels are used to disseminate Bank-IMF debt initiative for heavily indebted poor knowledge: Internet, publications, study tours, training countries (HIPCs) is to bring the country’s debt burden seminars, mentoring, an Education Advisory Service to sustainable levels, subject to satisfactory policy perfor- and the EdStats database. The Education Advisory mance, so as to ensure that development is not put at Service helps about 50 internal and external clients each risk by continued high debt and debt service burdens. week, answering technical queries, providing referrals to To attain the debt relief, eligible HIPCs undertake sus- experts within and outside the Bank and disseminating tained improvements in their economic management, as packets of information. The EdStats database provides well as structural and social policy reform (with particu- users with easy access to country data on education 42 lar attention paid to improving social programs, indicators, Bank lending for education and topical especially in education and health). Education Network country data. staff need to work with clients to seize the opportunities Realizing the full potential of the Bank’s new this initiative presents for education, and to monitor knowledge management initiatives (such as websites) HIPCs’ progress closely to ensure that the benefits from will not happen overnight — and not without sus- the initiative are indeed going to the poorest, in terms of tained nurturing. Staff will be won over once they improved access to quality basic education services. The experience for themselves how new knowledge tools can Bank and the IMF have begun a process of consultation help them be more effective. Sharing knowledge effi- on debt relief and the HIPC initiative. ciently has particular value in unusual and turbulent country situations, which Bank staff are increasingly facing. In post-conflict countries and countries where EDUCATION KNOWLEDGE financial collapse or other shocks have precipitated MANAGEMENT SYSTEM crises, even the best approaches, tried and tested in sta- The emerging new opportunities created by the technolo- ble and peaceful environments, may not work. As gy revolution (including but not limited to distance education country teams struggle with each new learning) will be explored in the years ahead. Initiatives instance and need to rely heavily on the experience of are under way that will strengthen the Bank’s role as a their colleagues on how best to proceed, the power of a knowledge institution, and make it easier for staff to pro- good internal knowledge management system and the vide high quality advice and share information with Internet will be demonstrated. clients and partners. The Bank’s Education Knowledge Management PEOPLE: SKILLS, VALUES, System (EKMS) creates, captures, distills and dissemi- RECRUITMENT AND DEPLOYMENT nates relevant development knowledge on education. Its The Bank’s staff, including the more than 250 who work in education, are among its most important assets. from sectors outside education. Improving the task man- Investing in them — so that they thrive professionally agement skills of Education staff will be emphasized. and develop their full potential — is vital. Among the On staff deployment, the Bank needs to explore two key staffing issues for the years ahead will be: values, approaches to bringing staff closer to clients. One skills mix, recruitment and deployment. approach, inspired by experience in India, is for a senior The effectiveness of the Bank depends considerably Bank specialist stationed in the field office to coordinate on how well Bank staff relate to clients and partners. a team composed of locally-hired staff in that office and Interactions that convey openness, support, professional international staff stationed in Washington. Another excellence and service are essential. The Bank has recently approach is to coordinate the staff in several resident mis- been paying increased attention to the values, attitudes, sions through a regional hub, such as the human and behaviors that underlie how staff interact with clients, development team in the Budapest field office. Improved partners, and each other. Focusing on the client is essen- communications links amongst headquarters staff, field tial for getting the rest of the work right. Teamwork, staff, and clients help to bridge the gap where direct con- trust, partnership, participation, listening to others, learn- tacts are not possible. ing from the past, and sharing knowledge will continue to be vital in the years ahead. Likewise, as an international organization with a global reach — representing and serv- MONITORING THE BANK’S EFFECTIVENESS ing countries with very different traditions, the Bank and Continuing review and assessment of education opera- its staff must recognize that different social, cultural, ethi- tions by OED, QAG, and education staff themselves cal and political paradigms that operate around the world will help identify ways to improve performance and may produce different answers to common problems. impact. The quality of everything the Bank does in edu- On skills mix, strengthened efforts in recruitment, cation will need vigilant attention always (the job of staff training and professional standards will be focused improving quality is never done). The most obvious pri- around the requirements emerging from this strategy. orities are areas where impact and results are The emphasis on relevant learning and quality teaching disappointing, and where education projects under-per- 43 requires increased expertise in curriculum development, form relative to other sectors and where clear, practical classroom processes, learning theory, lifelong learning remedies have been identified. approaches, teacher training and multi-level education The Implementation Plan (Tables 3 and 4) sets out evaluation. In addition, recruitment will aim to ensure the specific actions the Bank’s Education Network will be that the Bank has the broad skills needed to deal with a undertaking over the period FY99 to FY01 to advance wider range of products and issues. This will require the global priority areas and to apply the strategic operat- adding people who have professional experience in educa- ing principles. The Plan shows the indicators against tion, understand the political economy of reform, which performance will be measured, the partners inside appreciate the complex relationships between education and outside the Bank for each activity, and the broad and other sectors, and recognize the importance of taking outcome which each item is intended to help attain, but account of local values and culture when providing assis- which is affected by many actors and factors beyond the tance to countries. A multi-disciplinary approach to control of the Bank. analyzing new situations requires staff who not only mas- Progress against the Implementation Plan will be ter particular tools — from economics, sociology, tracked on a six-monthly basis, with a report being present- anthropology, education, political science — but also are ed to the Education Sector Board (alongside the six- able to coordinate actions across different operational monthly report on the implementation of the annual busi- units and respect the value that other viewpoints can ness plan, which provides greater detail about progress on bring to the debate. specific actions). The experience with this first Implementation Staff training activities have been upgraded substan- Plan will enable the Education Sector Board to refine its tially in the past year, and will need to continue to benchmarks and expectations for future plans. improve in the next several years. Priorities will include: increased opportunities for resident mission staff; joint programs for Bank staff and clients; and inclusion of staff FINAL WORD The Comprehensive Development Framework that the Bank is exploring rests on the conviction that social and structural issues are as important to poverty reduction and sustainable development as sound macroeconomic perfor- mance. Education, along with the rest of the human development agenda is getting greater prominence. This growing recognition of education’s central role in reducing poverty and improving welfare requires Education sector staff to participate more fully in the broad strategic dia- logue with clients and within country teams about the overall priorities for each country’s development agenda, and the appropriate place of education. The outcome of this dialogue and the impact of this strategy on the Bank’s actions in education and on wider thinking about the importance of education for development will be reflected in the Country Assistance Strategies (CASs) and in the resources that Country Directors decide to allocate to the Education sector. If the strategy is successful, many new initiatives should be well under way by the time the next education strategy is developed, especially in the target countries to which special emphasis is being given. These initiatives, with the rest of the Bank’s work in education, should begin to yield gains in access to quality education in many of the Bank’s client countries. 44 The Bank’s Education staff are fully committed to implementing this sector strategy, with the wider endorse- ment of other managers and of the shareholders. To do so will require a combination of effective leadership, top notch professionalism, strong partnerships, and above all, deep interaction with developing country clients. There is no time to lose. E D U C AT I O N S E C TO R S T R AT E G Y: A N N E X E S Annex 1 The Three Pillars of a Good Education System Annex 2 Further Remarks on the Checklist of Questions Annex 3 Education Indicators (Maps) Annex 4 Education Indicators by Region and by Country (Tables) Annex 5 Education Lending by Region and by Country Annex 6 Summary of International Initiatives Annex 7 Summary of Regional Strategies Annex 8 Selected World Bank Education Bibliography T H E T H R E E PI L L A R S G O O D A O F N E D U C AT I O N A N E X S Y S T E M 1 o n e ACCESS QUALITY Students ready to learn Relevant curriculum Supportive learning environment Motivated staff Access to provision Teaching and learning process A GOOD EDUCATION SYSTEM DELIVERY Good governance Adequate resources Sound evaluation ACCESS QUALITY Students ready to learn Relevant curriculum Shelter, nutrition, health Competencies to thrive in global economy Parental support and home Contributions to social development and richness 47 Supportive learning environment Flexible and adaptable to changes Learning environment Motivated staff Leadership interested in education Solid initial training, with regular updating Clear goals and expectations for education Adequate pay and professional opportunities Access to provision Teaching and learning process Access for all Well matched to the requirements Equitable access to all levels of education Results- and output-oriented Decent provision within physical reach Monitoring with strong quality assurance Adequate supplies and materials DELIVERY Governance Clear responsibilities and accountability Policy analysis and planning capacity Appropriate decentralization of decision making Resources Arrangement of appropriate private contributions Level and allocation of public funds Pressure for efficient and effective use of resources Evaluation Sufficient (not excessive) information system Monitoring and feedback to influence plans F U RT H E R R E M A R K S A O N C H E C K L I S T N N T H E E X O F 2 t QU E S T I O N S w o This annex provides further elaboration on the checklist of questions discussed in Chapter 7, Box 11. Question # 1. Are the long-term vision and medium- and short-term objectives clear and appropriate — for what is being proposed for the next steps for this country? Thinking ahead strategically is especially important in education, where the timeframes for progress can be 10 to 20 years or more. Vital changes may take longer than the five to eight year cycle of most projects, the three to five year assignments of individual staff, and the one to four year terms of most ministers. Working on a long-term vision is often most valuable for the debate it stimulates, and the improved thinking that comes from that debate. Also, the absence of a long-term vision, or inconsistencies between long-term goals and proposed nearer-term actions, can be a signal that a problem needs resolving. Question # 2. Are the different levels of education (basic, beyond-the-basics, pre-primary, and adult learning) being addressed adequately? See Chapter 6. 49 Question # 3. Are educational quality issues being addressed adequately? The main issues that Bank Education teams need to think about here — in order to help coun- tries improve the quality of education they provide — are the points discussed in Chapter 2. The new strategies are stressing these issues. Quality improvement will be at the core of country programs in all regions, ranging from countries like Brazil and India to smaller ones like most African countries. Question # 4. Are equity issues being addressed adequately? Equity issues include inequality of access, outright exclusion, or biased distribution of resources — and the unfairly treated can be the poor, the remotely located, women, minority ethnic groups, indigenous peoples, or other marginalized or disadvantaged population segments. Getting progress on these issues is often tough going, but most country and regional strategies are planning substantial new steps to improve equality in the years ahead. The steps being con- templated will help “include the excluded�, the central theme of the President’s Annual Meetings speech in Hong Kong in 1997. The vehicles to be used concentrate on upgrading the services for the least advantaged. Two special equity issues should be — and are — targeted for extra effort. One is girls’ education. As noted earlier, many countries have a long way to go yet to achieve reasonable goals for gender equity in basic education. Some 31 countries fall seriously behind the rest of the world. Thus far, the Bank’s country-specific work has made less headway in helping acceler- ate progress than had been hoped. The strategies for the years ahead will need to find more effective ways to assist on this problem. The other special issue is the group of countries (16 of them are in Africa) where primary school enrollments are exceptionally low (below 50%). Africa education staff, with collaboration from Norway, have launched a long-term initiative to help these countries address this problem, the causes of which are typically deep and difficult. Question # 5. Are spending and financing issues and public-private roles being addressed adequately? The principal issues that country-specific education work should consider on these topics are well covered in the extensive sources that now exist, including many from the Bank (see for example, Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank Review). These issues remain cru- cial as a foundation for practically every other improvement needed in education. Many countries still have far-reaching problems to resolve in regard to how they spend money on edu- cation, how they finance that spending, how they adapt government’s role to changing realities, and how they harness appropriately the contribution that other-than-government entities (rang- ing from NGOs to private sector ventures) can make to facilitating educational progress. Finding and implementing balanced solutions — e.g., that tap the potential of the private sec- tor while also reducing inequality and helping the poor — will not be easy. These will be demanding but essential issues for the new strategies to deal with. The steps thus far are in the right direction, but the proof will come later. For countries that need to mod- ify old spending, financing, and public-private roles in order to move beyond outdated education systems (that are inequitable as in LCR, or ill-suited to modern economies as in ECA or MNA, or stressed by crisis as in East Asia), the Bank will need to help countries access perti- nent global experience. Question # 6. Are structural and management reform, including decentralization, being 50 addressed adequately? The number of countries that embark on fundamental reforms of their education systems seems to grow every day. Structural and management improvements are never far behind, and decentraliza- tion is hurtling forward in an even larger number of countries. The new strategies are responding boldly to expanding requests to the Bank for help in these areas. For example, large programs have been launched for Brazil, Turkey, India, Ethiopia, Egypt and several other countries. Question # 7. Where institutional capacity is weak, is it being strengthened adequately? Strengthening of institutional capacity, long acknowledged as a vital ingredient for sustained suc- cess, has proceeded more slowly than hoped in many countries. Many issues extend far beyond the education sector. High turnover of crucial leaders is a case in point: education ministers in some countries last less than 12 months before a new one takes over. Capacity building figures saliently in many of the new strategies. Question # 8. Is adequate attention being paid to linking education with the rest of the country’s development? The issues for Bank teams to examine in this area have evolved substantially beyond what the Bank focused on several years ago. The link with the world of work remains a core issue, but with an increased appreciation now that giving students a solid grounding of basic skills, and avoiding excessively specialized vocational training (e.g. becoming adept only at using a certain lathe is risky because that lathe could be obsolete soon), is not the only thing to think about. Involving employers in the advisory and governance processes of education and training systems is also important. Sorting out employers’ roles in the provision and financing of work-related training is relevant also. More prominently, the link with social development, through the influence that schools can have on strengthening social cohesion, building social capital, and transmitting values and behav- iors, has become much better recognized in recent years, as noted in Chapter 2. These considerations are particularly significant for countries where cohesion cannot be taken for grant- ed — e.g. countries in transition or emerging from conflict or divided by ethnic or other rivalries. The Bank has not dealt much with these issues in the past, and will need to focus more on them in future. Some of the new strategies are leading the way. The MNA strategy, for example, recognizes the particular challenges in that region. Questions # 9. Is the strategy appropriate for this country at this moment, considering the prevailing political, economic, and social circumstances? Evidence from many different perspectives, ranging from social development issues to QAG- demonstrated project risk concerns, has underlined the importance of understanding the local conditions that affect when various types of actions are or are not likely to succeed considering political, economic, and other developments. See Chapters 3 and 7 for a discussion of two ways to help think about this — country cat- egories, and an assessment of the likely impact of proposed actions. Question # 10. Are the emerging new opportunities being explored and utilized adequately? The technology revolution and its implications for education, including the unleashing of new possibilities for distance learning, have been discussed in Chapter 1. The risks for Bank teams are (1) not moving soon enough and fully enough to help countries benefit from the new 51 opportunities or (2) moving too far too soon — in the sense of counting on something that is not entirely ready yet or that has more technology sparkle than pedagogical value. The new strategies will need to tread carefully between those pitfalls. LCR’s thinking is the most advanced so far, reflecting the region’s lead generally in the area of distance learning. Question # 11. Are appropriate choices being made in the design and implementation of programs and projects? The intensified focus that education teams have been giving in the last two years to the quality of the country work they contribute to will need to continue and be deepened in the years ahead. This effort will require particular attention to the issues discussed in Chapters 2 and 5 above, especially the points under “Assessing the Bank’s Work in Education�. The country and regional strategies are developing these points further, customizing them to their countries’ special needs and problems. Also as noted in Chapter 5, the analyses from QAG and OED, and the reviews that the Network undertakes itself, are adding to and dissemi- nating the growing lessons on what works and what doesn’t. Question # 12. Are partnerships being utilized sufficiently and appropriately? The points in Chapter 4 cover the chief issues that need to be kept in mind here. The use of partnerships is now well established in the Bank’s education work. There will always be room to do better in working closely with a wider range of partners, but the challenges now are the prac- tical details of managing the busy schedules and agendas of multiple parties. Question # 13. Is the strategy sufficiently and appropriately selective? See Chapter 7. Question # 14. Is the strategy sufficiently drawing on pertinent knowledge — from other places and other sectors? Task teams now have more knowledge to benefit from, and vastly quicker and easier ways of obtaining it, than ever before. Experience from different countries, lessons from previous pro- jects and programs, findings from research studies and much more are available now at the touch of a button. The knowledge management initiatives that the Bank’s Education Network has launched, with web-based access to synthesized information and an advisory service for help- ing staff find answers and information, are looking now at further steps that will continually upgrade the knowledge services that support staff. It should therefore be regular practice now to inquire, of every country-specific task, whether the relevant knowledge from other countries and sources has been consulted. The new strategies are doing so, much more than previously, with fruitful cross-fertilization of ideas. Question # 15. Is there sufficient provision for monitoring of progress, including measur- able indicators? Country strategies and tasks that are specific enough define their own targets and monitorable indicators. For example, a proposed pipeline of projects and non-lending services for a given country, with quantitative objectives for what they are to achieve, provides a basis for later judg- ing whether the intended progress has been attained or not. Therefore, the work that country and regional strategies propose should be examined from the perspective of how clear and mea- surable the indicated goals are. As always, outcomes are more important in these endeavors than outputs or inputs. But in 52 education, outcomes are complicated — partly because of the very richness of the education endeavor (e.g. range of views on desired outcomes), partly because of the complex causalities that operate in the learning process (e.g. influence of formal schooling versus home environ- ment), partly because of the lag-time between an educational experience and its outcome (e.g. between an individual’s early childhood development and her becoming a parent), and partly because of the inadequacy of instruments called on to measure objects as textured as “know- ledge� and “skills�. It is therefore inevitable that country and regional strategies should consider outputs, inputs, and process — as well as outcomes. Vigilant attention to these issues will be important as the strategies are articulated further and implemented. CURRENT AND FUTURE WORLD BANK EDUCATION PROJECTS 1 OR MORE CURRENT AND 1 OR MORE FUTURE NEITHER CURRENT NOR FUTURE 1 OR MORE CURRENT, NO FUTURE* COUNTRIES NOT ELIGIBLE FOR IDA/IBRD FINANCING 1 OR MORE FUTURE, NO CURRENT * Barbados and Republic of Korea now “graduated� from IBRD lending. E D U C AT I O N A N N E X I N D I C ATO R S t This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations h and any other information shownon this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment r on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Source: OIS Query APRIL 1999 IBRD 30224 e 3 e 53 54 GIRLS ’ SHARE OF ENROLLMENT, SECONDARY LESS THAN 45% 45-55% GREATER THAN 55% NO DATA HIGH-INCOME ECONOMIES This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Source: Edstats. APRIL 1999 IBRD 30225 * GROSS ENROLLMENT RATIOS: PRIMARY/BASIC EDUCATION LESS THAN 50% 51 - 70% 71 - 90% GREATER THAN 90% NO DATA HIGH-INCOME ECONOMIES *Basic enrollment rates apply to ECA countries . only This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Source: Edstats. IBRD 30226 APRIL 1999 55 56 THE WORLD BY REGIONS Low- and middle-income economies: High-income economies: East Asia and the Pacific OECD Europe and Central Asia Other Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa No data South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. The boundaries, colors,denominations and anyother information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. AUGUST 1998 IBRD 29757 E D U C AT I O N I N D I C ATO R S B Y R E G I O N A N D B Y C O U N T RY SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA REGION A N N E X 4 f o u r Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 GNP per Estimated GER, primary NER, primary GER, NER, GER, Pupils capita, Atlas, Adult (%) (%) secondary secondary tertiary reaching 1997 US$ Illiteracy (%) (%) (%) grade 5 (% Rate (%) of cohort) 1997 1996 1995 1995 1995 1995 1996 1995 Angola 340 -- -- -- -- -- 1 -- Benin 380 66 73 60 16 -- 3 61 Botswana 3260 26 108 81 63 45 6 90 Burkina Faso 240 79 40 31 8 -- 1 75 Burundi 180 55 51 -- 7 -- 1 -- Cameroon 650 28 89 -- 27 -- 4 -- Cape Verde 1090 29 131 -- 27 22 -- -- Central African Republic 320 58 -- -- -- -- 1 -- Chad 240 -- 51 40 9 6 1 59 Comoros 400 45 75 52 21 -- 1 -- Congo, Dem. Rep. 110 -- 72 54 26 17 2 -- Congo, Rep. 660 23 114 -- 53 -- 8 55 Côte d’Ivoire 690 57 69 53 23 -- 5 75 Djibouti lower- -- 39 32 13 -- 0 79 middle 57 income Equatorial Guinea 1050 20 -- -- -- -- -- -- Eritrea 210 -- 56 31 19 15 1 71 Ethiopia 110 65 38 28 12 -- 1 55 Gabon 4230 -- -- -- -- -- -- 59 The Gambia 350 67 77 65 25 -- 2 80 Ghana 370 34 -- -- -- -- 1 -- Guinea 570 -- 48 37 12 -- 1 54 Guinea-Bissau 240 66 62 -- -- -- -- -- Kenya 330 21 85 -- 24 -- 2 -- Lesotho 670 18 111 73 31 16 2 80 Liberia low 52 -- -- -- -- 3 -- income Madagascar 250 -- 92 61 16 -- 2 40 Malawi 220 42 89 68 17 -- 1 -- Mali 260 65 41 28 10 -- 1 82 Mauritania 450 62 75 57 16 -- 4 64 Mauritius 3800 17 107 96 62 -- 7 99 Mozambique 90 60 60 40 7 6 1 46 Namibia 2220 20 133 92 62 36 9 79 Niger 200 86 29 -- 7 -- 1 73 Nigeria 260 40 98 -- 33 -- -- -- Rwanda 210 37 -- -- -- -- 1 -- Sao Tome and Principe 270 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Senegal 550 65 64 54 16 -- 3 85 Seychelles 6880 -- -- -- -- -- -- 100 Sierra Leone low -- -- -- -- -- 2 -- income Somalia low -- -- -- -- -- 2 -- income South Africa 3400 16 131 -- 94 52 19 75 Sudan 280 47 50 -- 21 -- 4 -- Swaziland 1440 23 121 94 53 47 6 87 Tanzania 210 28 67 48 5 -- 1 -- Togo 330 47 119 85 27 -- 4 -- Uganda 330 36 74 -- 12 -- 2 -- Zambia 380 25 89 75 27 17 3 -- Zimbabwe 750 9 114 -- 47 -- 7 79 Source: World Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Bank Operational Manual SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA REGION Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 School life Progression Public Pupil-Teacher Pupil-Teacher Girls as % of Girls as % of Private Private expectancy to secondary expenditure ratio, primary ratio, total enrolled, total enrolled, enrollment as enrollment as (years) school (%) on education, secondary primary secondary % of total, % of total, % of GNP primary secondary 1995 1995 1996 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 Angola -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Benin -- -- 3.2 52 34 36 30 5 -- Botswana 11 84 10.4 25 18 50 53 4 73 Burkina Faso 3 -- 1.5 51 35 39 34 8 -- Burundi 5 -- 3.1 50 -- 45 -- 1 -- Cameroon -- -- -- -- 31 -- 40 -- -- Cape Verde 9 -- -- 29 27 49 51 -- -- Central African Republic -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Chad -- -- -- 63 37 33 19 8 12 Comoros -- -- -- 52 36 45 44 9 -- Congo, Dem. Rep. 6 -- -- 45 -- 41 30 13 12 Congo, Rep. -- -- 6.2 70 33 48 42 2 -- Côte d’Ivoire -- -- 5.0 41 31 42 33 12 -- Djibouti -- -- -- 36 23 42 39 7 12 Equatorial Guinea -- -- -- 55 31 49 35 9 -- Eritrea 4 80 1.8 41 39 45 43 13 11 Ethiopia -- -- 4.0 38 32 36 43 8 9 Gabon -- -- 2.8 51 27 50 49 29 -- The Gambia 5 -- 6.0 30 -- 44 -- -- -- Ghana -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Guinea -- -- -- 49 27 34 25 9 -- Guinea-Bissau -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Kenya -- -- 6.6 30 15 49 46 -- -- Lesotho 8 71 -- 49 25 53 59 -- -- Liberia -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 58 Madagascar -- -- -- 37 18 49 50 21 -- Malawi -- 15 5.5 59 47 47 35 21 -- Mali -- -- 2.2 70 25 40 34 9 -- Mauritania -- -- 5.1 52 26 46 34 0 4 Mauritius -- -- -- 24 21 49 51 24 -- Mozambique 3 -- -- 58 38 42 40 -- -- Namibia 12 74 9.1 -- -- 50 54 4 4 Niger -- -- -- 39 27 38 35 3 13 Nigeria -- -- 0.9 37 -- 44 -- -- -- Rwanda -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Sao Tome and Principe -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Senegal -- -- 3.5 58 33 44 38 10 -- Seychelles -- -- -- 17 13 49 50 3 2 Sierra Leone -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Somalia -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- South Africa 13 -- 7.9 37 28 49 54 1 2 Sudan -- -- -- 31 32 45 47 1 19 Swaziland 11 79 7.3 34 24 49 50 -- -- Tanzania -- -- -- 37 18 49 44 0 50 Togo -- -- 4.7 51 34 41 26 29 -- Uganda -- -- 2.6 35 18 46 38 9 -- Zambia 7 -- 2.2 39 -- 48 38 -- -- Zimbabwe -- -- 8.3 39 26 -- 46 88 85 Source: Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC REGION Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 GNP per Adult GER, primary NER, primary GER, NER, GER, Pupils capita, Atlas, Illiteracy Rate (%) (%) secondary secondary tertiary reaching 1997 US$ (%) (%) (%) (%) grade 5 (% of cohort) 1997 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1996 1995 Cambodia 300 35++ 126 78* 27 -- 1 49 China 860 19 118 98 67 -- 6 94 Fiji 2470 9 -- 99** 64** -- 13 -- Indonesia 1110 16 115 97 48 42 11 89 Kiribati 910 -- -- -- -- -- -- 89 Lao PDR 400 43** 109 69 26 18 3 53~ Malaysia 4680 16 104 102 59 -- 11 99 Mongolia 390 17** 88 80 59 57 17 -- Myanmar low 17 121 -- 30 -- 6 -- income Papua New Guinea 940 28** 80 -- 14 -- 3 59~ Philippines 1220 6 114 101 78 60 35 -- Samoa 1150 -- 102 97 63 45** 5 86 Solomon Islands 900 -- 97 -- 17 -- -- 81 Thailand 2800 6 87 -- 54 -- 21 -- Tonga 1830 -- -- -- -- -- -- 92~ Vanuatu 1310 -- 106** -- 20** -- -- -- Vietnam 320 9 114 91**** 47 -- 5 -- Source: World Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Bank Operational Manual 59 EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC REGION Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 School life Progression Public Pupil-Teacher Pupil-Teacher Girls as % of Girls as % of Private Private expectancy to secondary expenditure ratio, primary ratio, total enrolled, total enrolled, enrollment as enrollment as (years) school (%) on education, secondary primary secondary % of total, % of total, % of GNP primary secondary general 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 Cambodia -- 53 2.9~ 45 18 44 38 -- -- China -- -- 2.3 23 16 47 45 -- -- Fiji -- -- 5.4** -- -- -- -- 96** 87** Indonesia 10 -- 1.4 23 14 48 46 18 37 Kiribati -- -- 9.9 27 14 49 54 -- 77** Lao PDR 7 -- 2.3 30 13 43 39 2 1 Malaysia -- -- 5.3 20 19 49 51 0 5** Mongolia 7 -- 6.0 25 18 50 57 -- -- Myanmar -- -- 1.2 48** 16 -- 50 -- -- Papua New Guinea -- 38 -- 38 27+ 45 40 2 3** Philippines 11 -- 2.2 33 36 -- -- 7 31 Samoa 12 -- -- 24 19 48 50 13 43 Solomon Islands -- -- -- 24 -- 45 38 11 17** Thailand -- -- 4.1 20** 20 -- -- 12 6** Tonga -- -- 4.7** 22 18 48 48 7 80** Vanuatu -- -- 4.9 31** 19** -- -- -- -- Vietnam -- -- 2.6 34~~ 28 -- -- -- -- Source: Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats * Source: World Development Indicators. Washington, DC: World Bank. 1998. ** Source: UNESCO. World Education Report. Paris. 1998. *** Source: "Cambodia: Poverty and Social Services". Draft. Washington, DC: World Bank. 1998. **** Source: "Vietnam Educational Financing, Statistical Annex." Washington, DC: World Bank. 1997. ~ Source: UNESCO. Statistical Yearbook. Paris. 1998. ~~ Source: USAID: Global Education Database. + Source: Department of Education. 1996. ++ Source: SIMA (Statistical Information Management and Analysis, World Bank). ^ Source: Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, Kingdom of Cambodia, "Education Statistics and Indicators 1997/98". Phnom Penh, Cambodia. 1998. EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA REGION Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 GNP per Adult GER, basic NER, primary GER, NER, GER, Pupils capita, Atlas, Illiteracy Rate (%) (%) general secondary tertiary reaching 1997 US$ (%) secondary (%) (%) grade 5 (% (%) of cohort) 1997 1996 1995 1996 1996 1995 Albania 750 -- 88 -- 29 -- 5 82 Armenia 530 -- 84 -- 30 -- 12 -- Azerbaijan 510 -- 87 -- 28 -- 11 -- Belarus 2150 1 94 -- 27 -- 19 -- Bosnia and Herzegovina low -- -- -- -- -- -- -- income Bulgaria 1140 2 94 -- 31 -- 27 -- Croatia 4610 2 88 -- 19 -- 17 98 Czech Republic 5200 -- 95 -- 19 -- 17 -- Estonia 3330 -- 91 -- 44 -- 19 96 Georgia 840 -- -- -- 24 -- -- -- Hungary 4430 1 99 -- 22 -- 23 -- Kazakhstan 1340 -- 91 -- 25 -- 13 -- Kyrgyz Republic 440 -- 83 -- 27 -- 13 -- Latvia 2430 0 90 -- 30 -- 23 -- Lithuania 2230 1 93 -- 39 -- 15 -- Macedonia 1090 -- 87 -- 18 -- 11 95 Malta upper- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- middle income Moldova 540 2 80 -- 19 -- 13 -- Poland 3590 0 99 -- 27 -- 20 98 Romania 1420 2 93 -- 20 -- 13 -- Russian Federation 2740 1 91 -- 25 -- 18 -- Slovak Republic 3700 -- 97 -- 21 -- 17 -- 60 Slovenia 9680 -- 97 -- 21 -- 25 -- Tajikistan 330 1 36 -- 22 -- 9 -- Turkey 3130 17 -- -- -- -- -- 95 Turkmenistan 630 -- 89 -- 36 -- 7 -- Ukraine 1040 -- 44 -- 26 -- 18 -- Uzbekistan 1010 -- 89 -- 27 -- 5 -- Yugoslavia FR lower- -- 72 -- -- -- 17 -- (Serbia/Montenegro) middle income Source: World Bank Edstats Edstats n/a Edstats n/a Edstats Edstats Operational Manual EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA REGION Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 School life Progression Public Pupil-Teacher Pupil-Teacher Girls as % of Girls as % of Private Private expectancy to secondary expenditure ratio, basic ratio, total enrolled, total enrolled, enrollment as enrollment as (years) school (%) on education, education secondary primary secondary % of total, % of total, % of GNP primary secondary general 1995 1996 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 Albania -- -- 3.1 18 17 48 53 -- -- Armenia -- -- 2.6 10 6 51 51 -- -- Azerbaijan -- -- 3.3 -- 9 48 51 -- -- Belarus -- -- 6.2 11 -- 48 50 -- -- Bosnia and Herzegovina -- -- -- 24 -- -- -- -- -- Bulgaria 12 -- 3.3 14 11 48 53 0 0 Croatia 12 -- 3.5 17 15 49 51 0 -- Czech Republic 13 -- 5.5 15 12 48 51 1 1 Estonia 13 -- 7.0 12 10 48 53 1 1 Georgia 10 -- -- -- 8 49 49 -- -- Hungary 13 -- 5.0 12 10 48 52 3 3 Kazakhstan -- -- -- 11 10 49 51 0 -- Kyrgyz Republic -- -- 5.4 11 13 49 52 0 0 Latvia 11 -- 6.5 10 8 48 52 1 0 Lithuania -- -- 5.5 11 10 48 52 0 0 Macedonia 10 -- 6.2 20 17 48 61 -- -- Malta -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Moldova -- -- 10.0 13 -- 49 51 0 -- Poland 13 -- 5.4 16 22 48 66 1 1 Romania 11 -- 3.5 15 12 49 53 -- 0 Russian Federation -- -- 3.7 12 12 49 52 -- -- Slovak Republic -- -- 4.9 17 13 49 49 4 -- Slovenia -- -- 5.8 14 -- -- -- -- -- Tajikistan -- -- -- -- 6 49 46 -- -- Turkey 10 -- -- -- 26 47 40 1 2 61 Turkmenistan -- -- 2.0 -- -- -- -- -- -- Ukraine -- -- -- -- 11 49 51 -- -- Uzbekistan -- -- 7.4 -- 9 49 48 -- -- Yugoslavia FR -- -- -- 18 14 49 51 -- -- (Serbia/Montenegro) Source: Edstats n/a Edstats TransMONEE* Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats *TransMONEE Database, UNICEF-ICDC, Florence, Italy LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN REGION Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 GNP per Adult GER, primary NER, primary GER, NER, GER, Pupils capita, Atlas, Illiteracy Rate (%) (%) secondary secondary tertiary reaching 1997 US$ (%) (%) (%) (%) grade 5 (% of cohort) 1997 1996 1995 1995 1995 1995 1996 1995 Antigua and Barbuda 7380 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Argentina 8770 4 113 -- 73 -- 42 -- Barbados upper- -- -- -- -- -- 29 -- middle income Belize 2740 -- 121 99 49 -- 1 70 Bolivia 950 16 -- -- -- -- 24 -- Brazil 4720 16 118 90 45 20 12 71 Chile 5020 5 99 86 70 55 30 100 Colombia 2280 9 109 81 61 50 19 73 Costa Rica 2640 5 103 88 48 43 33 88 Cuba lower- 4 105 99 80 59 12 100 middle income Dominica 3120 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Dominican Republic 1670 17 103 81 41 22 23 -- Ecuador 1590 9 123 94 50 -- 26 85 El Salvador 1810 23 88 78 34 21 17 77 Grenada 3000 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Guatemala 1500 33 88 -- 26 -- 8 50 Guyana 800 2 95 90 75 -- 10 -- Haiti 330 54 -- -- -- -- 1 -- Honduras 700 29 111 90 32 -- 11 60 Jamaica 1560 14 102 -- -- -- 8 -- Mexico 3680 10 115 101 61 51 16 86 62 Nicaragua 410 37 103 78 44 27 13 54 Panama 3080 9 104 -- 68 -- 32 -- Paraguay 2010 8 111 89 40 33 11 71 Peru 2460 11 123 91 70 53 31 -- Puerto Rico upper- 7 -- -- -- -- 48 -- middle income St. Kitts and Nevis 6160 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- St. Lucia 3620 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- St. Vincent and 2500 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- the Grenadines Suriname 1240 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Trinidad and Tobago 4230 2 98 90 74 -- 8 96 Uruguay 6020 3 108 93 82 -- 29 98 Venezuela 3450 8 90 82 35 19 25 89 Source: World Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Bank Operational Manual LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN REGION Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 School life Progression Public Pupil-Teacher Pupil-Teacher Girls as % of Girls as % of Private Private expectancy to secondary expenditure ratio, primary ratio, total enrolled, total enrolled, enrollment as enrollment as (years) school (%) on education, secondary primary secondary % of total, % of total, % of GNP primary secondary 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 Antigua and Barbuda -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Argentina -- -- 3.3 18 -- -- -- 21 -- Barbados -- -- 7.2 -- -- -- -- -- -- Belize 11 -- 5.3 26 14 48 52 -- -- Bolivia -- -- 6.6 -- -- -- -- -- -- Brazil 11 -- 5.5 23 -- -- -- 12 -- Chile 12 55 3.0 26 -- 49 54 41 25 Colombia 11 -- 4.0 25 22 49 -- 18 30 Costa Rica 10 67 4.6 31 21 49 52 5 8 Cuba 11 95 -- 12 10 48 53 -- -- Dominica -- 77 -- 20 -- 50 51 5 -- Dominican Republic 11 87 1.9 35 22 50 57 22 30 Ecuador -- -- 3.4 26 -- 49 49 20 -- El Salvador 10 -- 2.2 28 -- 49 48 15 -- Grenada -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Guatemala -- -- 1.7 34 -- 46 -- 17 -- Guyana 10 -- 4.3 30 29 49 51 -- -- Haiti -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Honduras -- -- 3.6 35 -- 50 -- 5 -- Jamaica 11 -- 6.4 -- -- -- -- -- -- Mexico -- -- 4.9 28 17 48 48 6 10 Nicaragua 9 -- 3.7 38 37 50 54 15 -- Panama -- -- 4.6 -- -- -- -- -- -- Paraguay 9 87 3.4 24 12 48 51 13 22 Peru 12 -- 3.9 28 19 49 48 12 16 63 Puerto Rico -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- St. Kitts and Nevis -- -- 3.7 -- -- -- St. Lucia -- -- 9.8 27 -- 49 -- -- -- St. Vincent and -- -- -- 20 25 49 56 3 -- the Grenadines Suriname -- -- -- -- -- -- 57 -- -- Trinidad and Tobago 11 -- 4.4 25 21 49 51 -- -- Uruguay -- 96 2.8 20 -- 49 55 16 -- Venezuela 11 -- 5.2 -- -- 50 -- 18 -- Source: Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA REGION Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 GNP per Estimated GER, primary NER, primary GER, NER, GER, Pupils capita, Atlas, Adult (%) (%) secondary secondary tertiary reaching 1997 US$ Illiteracy Rate (%) (%) (%) grade 5 (% (%) of cohort) 1997 1996 1995 1996 1996 1996 1996 1995 Algeria 1490 40 107 94 63 56 13 94 Bahrain upper- 14 108 98 97 84 19 99 middle income Egypt, Arab Republic 1180 47 100 93 75 68 23 -- Iran, Islamic Republic 1780 27 101 90 77 69 17 90 Iraq lower- -- 85 76 42 -- 11 -- middle income Jordan 1570 13 -- -- -- -- -- -- Lebanon 3350 16 109 76 81 -- 27 -- Libya upper- 24 111 -- -- -- 20 -- middle income Morocco 1250 54 84 74 39 -- 11 78 Oman upper- 33 79 69 66 -- 6 96 middle income Saudi Arabia upper 27 78 61 61 42 16 89 middle- income Syrian Arab Republic 1150 28 101 91 43 38 15 94 Tunisia 2090 33 117 98 65 -- 14 91 West Bank lower- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- middle 64 income Yemen, Republic 270 58 80 -- 34 -- 4 -- Source: World Bank Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Operational Manual MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA REGION Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 School life Progression Public Pupil-Teacher Pupil-Teacher Girls as % of Girls as % of Private Private expectancy to secondary expenditure ratio, prima- ratio, total enrolled, total enrolled, enrollment as enrollment as (years) school (%) on education, ry secondary primary secondary % of total, % of total, % of GNP primary secondary 1995 1995 1995 1996 1995 1996 1995 1996 1996 Algeria 11 80 5.8 27 17 46 47.1 -- -- Bahrain 13 -- 4.8 -- 21 49 53.5 17 13 Egypt, Arab Republic 10 -- 4.8 23 18 45 46.1 7 3 Iran, Islamic Republic -- 94 4.0 31 32 47 45.4 3 -- Iraq 8 -- -- 20 20 45 39.1 -- -- Jordan -- -- 8.7 21 17 49 50.3 25 6 Lebanon -- -- 2.6 -- -- 32 52 -- -- Libya -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Morocco -- -- 5.9 28 16 42 42 4 -- Oman 9 94 4.4 26 17 48 48 4 1 Saudi Arabia 9 -- 5.5 13 13 48 46 6 4 Syrian Arab Republic 9 -- 3.3 23 16 47 45 4 5 Tunisia -- 62 6.8 24 19 47 47 1 -- West Bank -- -- -- -- -- -- 46 -- -- Yemen, Republic -- -- 6.1 30 -- 28 21 -- -- Source: Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats SOUTH ASIA REGION Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 GNP per Adult GER, primary NER, primary GER, NER, GER, Pupils capita, Atlas, Illiteracy Rate (%) (%) secondary secondary tertiary reaching 1997 US$ (%) (%) (%) (%) grade 5 (% of cohort) 1997 1996 1995 1995 1995 1996 1995 Afghanistan low 67 49 29 22 -- 2 -- income Bangladesh 270 61 -- -- -- -- 6 -- Bhutan 400 -- -- -- -- -- 0 82 India 390 47 100 -- 49 -- 7 59 Maldives 1150 4 132 -- 49 -- -- -- Nepal 210 62 109 -- 38 -- 5 -- Pakistan 490 59 74 -- -- -- 3 -- Sri Lanka 800 9 113 -- 75 -- 5 83 Source: World Bank Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats n/a Edstats Edstats Operational Manual SOUTH ASIA REGION Data in red italics refer to the most recent data within two years of the indicated year. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 School life Progression Public Pupil-Teacher Pupil-Teacher Girls as % of Girls as % of Private Private expectancy to secondary expenditure ratio, primary ratio, total enrolled, total enrolled, enrollment as enrollment as 65 (years) school (%) on education, secondary primary secondary % of total, % of total, % of GNP primary secondary 1995 1996 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 1995 Afghanistan -- -- -- 49 28 25 25 -- -- Bangladesh -- -- 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- Bhutan -- 76 -- 31 -- 43 38 -- -- India -- -- 3 64 25 43 38 -- -- Maldives -- -- 6 -- -- 49 50 -- -- Nepal -- -- 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- Pakistan -- -- 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- Sri Lanka -- -- 3 28 22 48 51 2 2 Source: Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats Edstats n/a Edstats Edstats Edstats E D U C AT I O N L E N D I N G R E G I O N A N B Y B Y N E X C O U N T RY 5 f i v e SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA REGION: active projects under supervision (May 1999) WORLD BANK LOAN AMOUNT Country Project Cost IDA + IBRD IDA Share (US$ million) (US$ million) (%) Angola 31 27 100 Benin 23 18 100 Burkina Faso 86 50 100 67 Cameroon 6 5 100 Cape Verde 14 12 100 Chad 15 7 100 Comoros 8 7 100 Côte d’Ivoire 83 53 100 Ethiopia 100 100 100 The Gambia 51 20 100 Ghana 823 115 100 Guinea 71 53 100 Guinea-Bissau 19 14 100 Kenya 96 82 100 Lesotho 101 46 100 Madagascar 70 65 100 Malawi 80 71 100 Mali 23 13 100 Mauritius 105 36 0 Mozambique 196 173 100 Niger 76 17 100 Nigeria 217 128 100 Rwanda 28 23 100 Senegal 122 79 100 Somalia 33 26 100 Tanzania 24 21 100 Togo 37 37 100 Uganda 259 133 100 Zambia 60 40 100 EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC REGION: active projects under supervision (May 1999) WORLD BANK LOAN AMOUNT Country Project Cost IDA + IBRD IDA Share (US$ million) (US$ million) (%) China 1724 876 76 Indonesia 1907 1217 3 Korea 325 190 0 Lao, PDR 38 19 100 Malaysia 1130 355 0 Papua New Guinea 51 35 0 Philippines 611 149 24 Solomon Islands 17 17 100 Thailand 454 257 0 Vanuatu 18 8 100 Vietnam 184 153 100 68 EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA REGION: active projects under supervision (May 1999) WORLD BANK LOAN AMOUNT Country Project Cost IDA + IBRD IDA Share (US$ million) (US$ million) (%) Albania 10 10 100 Armenia 24 15 100 Bosnia and Herzegovina 12 11 100 Hungary 305 186 0 Latvia 40 31 0 Macedonia, FYR 13 5 100 Moldova 20 17 0 Romania 288 170 0 Russian Federation 97 71 0 Tajikistan 6 5 100 Turkey 2692 3900 0 LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN REGION: active projects under supervision (May 1999) WORLD BANK LOAN AMOUNT Country Project Cost IDA + IBRD IDA Share (US$ million) (US$ million) (%) Argentina 930 590 0 Barbados 58 18 0 Belize 13 7 0 Bolivia 419 166 100 Brazil 2195 1065 0 Chile 705 350 0 Colombia 250 142 0 Costa Rica 62 23 0 Dominica 6 6 50 Dominican Republic 130 52 0 Ecuador 119 89 0 El Salvador 215 180 0 69 Grenada 8 8 50 Guatemala 115 63 0 Guyana 19 17 100 Honduras 53 30 100 Jamaica 78 61 0 Mexico 2493 1504 0 Nicaragua 39 34 100 Panama 58 35 0 Paraguay 41 25 0 Peru 299 1460 0 St. Lucia 13 7 49 Trinidad and Tobago 85 51 0 Uruguay 85 60 0 Venezuela 279 147 0 MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA REGION: active projects under supervision (May 1999) WORLD BANK LOAN AMOUNT Country Project Cost IDA + IBRD IDA Share (US$ million) (US$ million) (%) Algeria 64 40 0 Egypt, Arab Republic 1197 211 86 Jordan 190 60 0 Lebanon 69 63 0 Morocco 408 222 0 Oman 28 14 0 Tunisia 438 313 0 Yemen, Republic 180 96 100 70 SOUTH ASIA REGION: active projects under supervision (May 1999) WORLD BANK LOAN AMOUNT Country Project Cost IDA + IBRD IDA Share (US$ million) (US$ million) (%) Bangladesh 873 229 100 Bhutan 21 14 100 India 2078 1649 98 Maldives 18 13 100 Nepal 241 75 100 Pakistan 11386 756 100 Sri Lanka 163 134 100 S U M M A RY O F Early Child I N T E R N AT I O N A L International A N Girls’ N E X Primary 6 s Private i I N I T I AT I V E S x Achievement Country Development Education Education in Investment Monitoring School Health Africa Exchange AFR 19 countries Angola ESW   Benin  Burkina Faso Interest   Probable Cameroon  Cape Verde ESW Chad   Côte d’Ivoire Interest  Certain Djibouti  Eritrea   Ethiopia CAS, Future   Probable Gabon ESW The Gambia Certain Ghana Interest  Probable Guinea Interest    Guinea-Bissau Interest  Liberia  Kenya Ongoing, CAS 71 Madagascar ESW  Malawi Interest   Mali Interest    Mauritania  Certain Mauritius CAS Mozambique ESW   Niger   Nigeria Ongoing, Interest  Rwanda ESW  Senegal Interest    Certain Sierra Leone   Somalia  South Africa ESW TIMSS, TIMSS-R Tanzania Interest Togo  Uganda Ongoing, CAS  Zambia ESW   Zimbabwe Interest EAP China Future Indonesia Ongoing TIMSS, TIMSS-R Korea TIMSS, TIMSS-R Lao PDR  TIMSS, TIMSS-R Malaysia TIMSS-R Papua New Guinea  Philippines TIMSS, TIMSS-R Samoa Future Thailand TIMSS, TIMSS-R Vietnam Probable Early Child International Girls’ Primary Private Achievement Country Development Education Education in Investment Monitoring School Health Africa Exchange ECA Albania TIMSS-R Bulgaria TIMSS-R Czech Republic TIMSS, TIMSS-R Hungary TIMSS, TIMSS-R Latvia TIMSS, TIMSS-R Lithuania TIMSS, TIMSS-R Macedonia, FYR TIMSS-R Moldova TIMSS-R Poland IALS Romania TIMSS, TIMSS-R Russian Federation TIMSS, TIMSS-R Slovak Republic TIMSS, TIMSS-R Slovenia TIMSS, TIMSS-R Turkey  TIMSS-R LCR 8 countries Bolivia Ongoing  Brazil ESW, Future Probable Chile TIMSS-R Colombia Ongoing Probable TIMSS Guatemala  Jamaica Future TIMSS Mexico Ongoing, Future Probable TIMSS, TIMSS-R MNA TIMSS-R Iran, Islamic Republic TIMSS-R 72 Jordan TIMSS-R Morocco  Tunisia Future Yemen, Republic Future  SAR Bangladesh Future  India Ongoing, Future  Probable Nepal  Pakistan  Probable Early Child Development: The Bank will put its efforts into building up ECD services, through supervising ongoing projects, bringing future projects to implementation, exploring government interest in ECD, undertaking ESW on ECD and including ECD in CASs. International School Health Initiative: The Bank, in partnership with a number of agencies, will provide clients with access to expert advice, examples of good practice, and practical toolkits, as well as assisting task teams to prepare school health components in 19 countries in AFR and 8 in LCR. Girls’ Education: The Bank, with its partners, will target its efforts on improving basic education for girls in the 31 countries where girls’ enrollment rates lag significantly behind boys’ rates, with special emphasis on 15 countries (). Primary Education in Africa (through the United Nations Special Initiative in Africa): The Bank, using Norwegian Trust Fund resources, will promote reform in 16 of the African countries where education attainment is well below the level required to achieve sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction. Private Investment Exchange: The Bank is initially targeting several countries, mainly in West Africa, to assist the government create an enabling framework for private sector development in education. Achievement Monitoring: In-country capacity for monitoring learning achievement has been, or is being, built up through both the OECD’s International Adult Literacy Survey and the IEA’s Third International Mathematics and Science Survey (TIMSS in 1995 and TIMSS-Repeat in 1998-99). S U M M A RY O F R E G I O N A L A N N E X S T R AT E G I E S s 7e v e n Diagnosis Bank-supported Bank Means Implications for Bank Objectives AFR Africa continues to face Increasing the average level While Bank lending repre- An action program designed daunting challenges: poverty of education attainment of the sents only about 20-25% of all to increase the Bank’s effec- remains pervasive, economies population through broad external education finance, it tiveness will focus on the function at the periphery of based investment in basic has considerable influence on following objectives: 1) the global economy, armed education, developing the policy discussions and aid pri- encouraging borrowers to conflicts disrupt civil society, technical and vocational skills orities. Education lending to take full responsibility for sec- population growth remains of the labor force and prepar- SSA declined in the mid-90s, tor analysis, project higher than in any other ing selected students for reflecting the turmoil in some development and implemen- region while the AIDS epi- scientific and technological of the larger countries, the tation; 2) emphasizing demic is growing faster than careers are the central educa- reluctance of other countries country capacity develop- elsewhere in the world. tion development challenges to adopt reforms and delays ment; 3) enhancing the Access to basic education in SSA. To accelerate in adjusting lending practices impact of sector work and remains insufficient to sustain progress in this direction, a and priorities in responding dialogue; 4) developing a economic growth and social radical shift needs to occur in more effectively to the high-quality expanded lend- development. Only 9 coun- the way education is financed region’s evolving needs. ing program; 5) developing tries have achieved primary and managed in the region Implementation ratings of high-quality staff expertise gross enrollment rates of and as far as priorities, scale, Bank-supported projects in and 6) strengthening partner- 100% or more, and the educa- speed and implementation SSA are lower than those for ships. Central to the success tion opportunities that are mechanisms are concerned. other regions: Bank education will be the region’s ability to 73 available are unequally dis- Most importantly, SSA coun- lending in the past has not (i) strengthen its knowledge tributed, with girls and poor tries will need to replace been as effective as it could base in key areas such as people in rural areas at a par- donor driven partial invest- have been. In recent years, early childhood education, ticular disadvantage. ment programs with sector- the AFR Region has taken distance education, strategies Moreover, the environment for wide investment programs steps to address these chal- for quality improvement and effective learning often does reflecting nationally defined, lenges. New staff have been capacity building, literacy and not exist and many students system-wide priorities that are recruited, the country focus of adult education and sec- drop out early. The education- locally developed and enlight- lending has sharpened, the ondary math and science; (ii) al disadvantage of the region ened by international lending volume for FY98-99 apply new and existing is further exacerbated by low knowledge and experience increased, collaboration with knowledge effectively to the quality of instruction in post- instead of international solu- other donors has improved, design and implementation of basic institutions. As a result, tions customized to local regional management has new operations; and (iii) take many people still have little or conditions. explicitly stated its readiness advantage of the new flexible no education, too few have to lend for all education sub- lending instruments to pro- the skills most demanded in sectors and borrowers are mote reform and innovation. the labor market, and the encouraged to take responsi- region is increasingly isolated bility for sector analysis and from the global knowledge project development. This is generation networks. expected to accelerate a shift Constraints on public from investment operations resources make it difficult for focused on input delivery with many countries to address loose linkages to a sectoral these challenges. External policy framework and narrow assistance has been fragment- national ownership to objec- ed and often more responsive tive driven national sector to donor agendas than to development programs. national system needs. Diagnosis Bank-supported Bank Means Implications for Bank Objectives EAP Rapid educational develop- Recognizing that education is The values that underpin how The Bank needs to take the ment in Asia provides no key to helping people build the Bank will go about help- following steps to address the justification for complacency. productive lives and cohesive ing clients are: needs of its clients: The recent financial crisis societies, the objectives are to: highlights the fact that major s equity - making education s create a focus on school challenges remain with s get all the children into open to all regardless of quality in our research and regard to the quality and rele- school and deliver a high income, location, gender dialogue with clients; vance of education, teachers quality basic education; or ethnicity; and teaching conditions, par- s support regional initiatives ticipation and equity, and s educate teachers and equip s efficiency - ensuring public to improve investment resource mobilization. These them with the tools and and private resources are strategies, indicators, and issues are especially difficult resources to be effective; used wisely and effectively; assessment; to tackle in countries experi- encing radical political and s promote universal literacy; s partnership - working with s develop diversified strate- economic transition. governments, communities, gies for countries at various s create a strong university civil society and other levels of income and educa- sector with world class donors to maximize impact; tional development; teaching, learning, and research; s responsiveness - putting the s leverage experience, people client at the center of our and funding from within s build a flexible and respon- business. the region; sive vocational education and training system. s provide critical analytical and financial support during periods of crisis and transition; s renew the basis for high quality lending with more and better sector work; 74 s build bridges to non-bor- rowing members through dialogue and sector work; s seek co-financing arrange- ments to make IBRD funding more attractive. The Bank seeks support for these actions in work pro- gram agreements with country directors, budget requests from the vice- presidency, and trust fund applications. Diagnosis Bank-supported Bank Means Implications for Bank Objectives ECA Educational "quality" for s Realign education systems s Bring international experi- s Nature of strategy puts pre- centrally planned economies to respond to demands of ence to policy dialogues mium on quality, sustained and closed societies is not market economies and about quality, efficiency, commitment: strategy is "quality" for market open societies. sustainability, governance less about building schools economies and open soci- and accountability, inequity. than about changing con- eties. The sector squanders s Get higher value for cepts, expectations, rules of inputs: space, labor, energy. education system by s Focus on policy reform, the game, incentives, capac- Education systems are spending money smarter. rules of the game, incen- ities. unaffordable either now tives, systems, policy- as currently structured, or s Secure sector’s fiscal relevant information. s Focus on quality: adjusting even if restructured, in the sustainability. skill mix and numbers of future as teacher salaries s Lend to support policy staff; constructing strong adjust. Governance and s Strengthen sector’s gover- reforms and required core team for each country; accountabilities are problem- nance and accountabilities. alignments. using QAG criteria to assess atic: accountability systems projects under preparation; of the era of party and s Prevent significant s Get smart about the starting thematic reviews by command-and-control inequities in learning from stakeholder interests that external panels. economies are no longer developing countries. major reforms mobilize. valid, and more appropriate s Sustain commitment to accountability systems are s Work with partners, use reforming / strengthening poorly developed. Emergent regional or sub-regional systems: exploiting possibil- governance structures are non-lending services to lay ities of LILs and APLs; ad hoc (functions missing or groundwork for country- minimizing staff discontinu- allocated to wrong levels; specific reforms. ities; exploiting responsibilities and resources complementarities between misaligned). The sector does s Integrate efficiency and sus- partners and Bank. not see educational equity tainability reforms with as its responsibility, but public sector management, human capital increasingly budgeting, and taxation determines wages in ECA. reforms; and public expen- There is evidence of emerg- diture reviews. ing differences in individuals‚ 75 learning achievements, and ECA is undergoing social and economic changes that will further exacerbate these differences. Diagnosis Bank-supported Bank Means Implications for Bank Objectives LCR Education is a priority for all The Bank’s comprehensive To realize its objectives, the The Bank has adopted new, countries of the LCR region. and systemic approach to Bank will: decentralized forms of opera- The Summit of the Americas confronting the education tion and flexible lending in 1998 outlined educational challenge and supporting the s promote active learning and instruments that will support goals to be achieved in the regional education agenda support teacher develop- effective responses to LCR next 12 years. However, most comprises a set of mutually ment; client needs in addressing countries will not meet such reinforcing strategic priorities. educational objectives. The goals with current efforts. The priorities are: s design targeted interven- Bank will conduct staffing Despite recent educational tions, especially at the with attention to developing achievements in access to s strengthen the teaching and preschool level; an appropriate skill base, education, inequalities persist, learning process to improve increase the use of new lend- and the quality of education is educational outcomes; s support curriculum reforms ing instruments (including LIL unsatisfactory. LCR educa- and alternative approaches and APL) that improve tional performance lags far s expand coverage of quality to increasing access at the responsiveness to clients; tai- behind that of its competitors education to underserved secondary level; lor solutions to country in the global economy. populations; circumstances through the School curricula have lost rel- s support student loan financ- use of social and beneficiary evance to the changing social s expand access to secondary ing and management and assessments and stakeholder and economic context, and education and increase its finance reforms in higher participation; facilitate global overall sector management is relevance to the global education; knowledge for local solutions often inefficient and lacking economy; through knowledge manage- accountability. s support school autonomy ment; and cultivate learning s promote higher education and school governance partnerships with clients on reform, encouraging diversi- reforms to improve account- cutting-edge issues. fication of services and the ability; and involvement of the private sector; s support pilots in educational technology. s support institutional and organizational reform and build capacity for education 76 sector management at all levels from the school to the ministry of education; and s promote strategic and cost- effective applications of technology in education. Diagnosis Bank-supported Bank Means Implications for Bank Objectives MNA Strong public investment in Emphasize “learning to learn� s Help to develop comprehen- s Ensure a priori reforms in education. Near universal cov- and reach internationally sive policy frameworks for place, and train counter- erage of primary and lower competitive performance long-term program support. parts in identification of secondary (basic) education, standards. priorities. strong demand for upper sec- s Provide supportive advice ondary and tertiary education, s Improve system effective- and high-quality non- s Make trade-offs with com- but pockets of low coverage ness in building human lending services. prehensive ESW. (e.g., girls and rural children capital and engendering in Yemen, Egypt, and social cohesion. s Use more flexible lending s Allocate more resources Morocco) and high dropout instruments for program to supervision; staff for girls age 12-17. Stable s Ensure universal completion support. Mashreq missions with school-age populations pro- of compulsory education of Arabic speakers. jected for all but Yemen, Iraq, good quality. s Facilitate greater public- West Bank Gaza and Jordan. private partnerships and s Continue/open dialogue High educated unemployment s At post-compulsory levels, non-public participation in with Syria and Iran. and widespread expectations reduce gender and other financing and providing for public sector work. social gaps in participation. education. Minimal private sector partici- pation (except for Lebanon, s Increase country-level infor- s Serve as a catalyst of dia- Jordan). Multiple quality mation on education and logue between ministries issues including emphasis on the effects of reform; main- and a coordinator of donor rote learning; lack of rele- tain a sustainable financial efforts. vance of much secondary foundation for education. (including vocational training) s Use evaluation research and tertiary education for programs to learn from requirements of market econ- experience in partnership omy; high levels of internal with clients. inefficiency. Lack of informa- tion regarding performance. s Focus on capacity building for planning, analysis and management during project implementation. 77 Diagnosis Bank-supported Bank Means Implications for Bank Objectives SAR Half of the world’s poor and The Bank supports the priority First, the Bank will continue The Bank will continue to half of the world’s illiterate of all the South Asian govern- its emphasis of lending and strengthen its client focus adults live in South Asia. ments: basic education, i.e., non-lending services on basic through more field-based Enrollments have increased increasing enrollments, com- education, with the focus on operational staff, supported over the last decade, especially pletion rates and learning quality, equity of access and by technical expertise and in primary education, but achievements. The Bank also efficiency; second, the Bank is cross-country knowledge India and Pakistan still supports several governments starting a major effort of non- from headquarters. Given the account for 30 percent of the in the region in articulating a lending services to assist scale of the task and the need world’s primary-aged children vision for the overall educa- governments to articulate a for a coherent approach with- who are out of school. Girls tion sector and addressing long-term sector-wide vision; in each country, the Bank will remain disproportionately left system-wide issues of man- third, the Bank is working continue its emphasis on out. Completion rates and agement and resource with governments in the cooperation with other donors learning achievements are allocation. region to initiate reforms of in lending and non-lending low, reflecting low quality of higher education, starting services. education and inefficient use with sector work and policy of public resources at all lev- dialogue; and fourth, related els of the education system. to improving basic education, Institutional capacity is weak. the Bank is assisting countries to improve secondary educa- tion, particularly access for girls, and non-formal educa- tion for young adults to provide them with a second chance to acquire basic skills. 78 S E L E C T E D WO R L D E D U C AT I O N A N N B A N K E X B I B L I O G R A PH Y 8 e i g h t Bray, Mark. 1996. Decentralization of Education: Community Financing. Series: Directions in Development. Washington, D.C. Economic Development Institute of the World Bank. 1996. 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King, Elizabeth M., and Anne M. Hill. 1993. Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, And Policies. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. Lockheed, Marlaine, and Adriaan Verspoor. 1991. Improving Primary Education in Developing Countries. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Middleton, John, Adrian Ziderman, and Arvil Van Adams. 1993. Skills For Productivity: Vocational Education and Training in Developing Countries. Washington, D.C.; Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Miller del Rosso, Joy, and Tonia Marek. 1996. Class Action: Improving the Performance in the Developing World through Better Health and Nutrition. Series: Directions in Development. Washington, D.C. Patrinos, Harry A., and David L. Ariasingam. 1997. Decentralization of Education: Demand-Side Financing. Series: Directions in Development. Washington, D.C. Psacharopoulos, George. 1995. Building Human Capital for Better Lives. Series: Directions in Development. Washington, D.C. van der Gaag, Jacques. 1995. Private and Public Initiatives: Working Together for Health and Education. Series: Directions in Development. Washington, D.C. World Bank. 1990. Primary Education. A World Bank Policy Paper. Washington, D.C. ----- 1991. Vocational And Technical Education And Training. A World Bank Policy Paper. Washington, D.C. ----- 1995. Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience. Series: Development In Practice. Washington, D.C. ----- 1995. Priorities And Strategies For Education: A World Bank Review. Series: Development In Practice. Washington, D.C. -----1997. Primary Education In India. Series: Development In Practice. Washington, D.C. Young, Mary E. 1996. Early Child Development: Investing in the Future. Series: Directions in Development. Washington, D.C. 80