WATER KNOWLEDGE NOTE Groundwater Management in Balochistan, Pakistan A Case Study of Karez Rehabilitation Muhammad Ashraf and Faizan ul Hasan1 Balochistan is an arid region with limited and seasonal surface water resources. It is also home to the ancient Karez water supply system that has long served as a buffer against droughts. About one-third of the 3,000 such systems that were believed to be in place in 1970 are still functioning. Aside from its cultural and historical significance, the Karez system has helped transform the agrarian landscape of the uplands, improving socioeconomic conditions. However, recurring droughts since the 1960s resulted in reduced recharge to groundwater supporting the Karez systems at a time of growing demands. To maintain their livelihoods, farmers installed tubewells, aided by energy subsidies from the provincial government. The number of tubewells has increased from 5,000 to more than 40,000 during the since the 1970s. Correspondingly, groundwater has been diminishing at an accelerated rate, with the level in some basins declining by more than 5 meters per year. This decline has seriously impacted the Karez systems, many of which have dried up. Nonetheless, the Karez system still serves as a lifeline for the poorer members of the community as a source of drinking, domestic, and livestock water, along with small- scale agriculture. To safeguard water supply for the poor people of Balochistan, there is a need to preserve and enhance the Karez systems. Practical ways forward include identifying the Karez recharge zones, enhancing groundwater recharge through integrated watershed management and aquifer recharge techniques, and banning tubewells within the Karez recharge zones. © Faizan ul Hasan. The information in this case study was prepared as part of the South Asia Water Initiative (SAWI) technical assistance project, “Managing Groundwater for Drought Resilience in South Asia.” SAWI is a multidonor trust fund supported by the United Kingdom, Australia, and Norway and administered by the World Bank. Background to by a host of names, including Afalaj (Oman, Arabian Peninsula), Auyoun (Egypt), Foggara (North Africa), Pakistan is an arid country with an average annual rainfall of Galleria (Spain), Kanerjing (China), Karez (Pakistan, just 297 millimeters. Balochistan, which covers 44 percent Afghanistan, and India), Khotara (Morocco), Mambo of the country’s land mass and has a 770-kilometer-long (Japan), and Qanat (Iran) (Martin 1982; Okazaki 1980; coastline, is unique in its geopolitical significance. However, Oostenbaan 1983). The Karez system is a long-standing it is also the smallest province in terms of population at and environmentally sustainable socioengineering solution 12.34 million, according to the 2017 census. Its arid but that portrays the creativity of people living in water-stressed diverse climatic zones have contributed to a rich animal and dry areas of the world (Govindankutty 2016). and plant biodiversity while building a definitive cultural heritage that allowed survival in this rugged and harsh The physical components of a typical Karez system commence landscape. The province lies in the arid climatic region with a well, known as the mother well, constructed to tap where rainfall is low and its spatial and temporal variability groundwater upgradient from a community, often in an is high. Moreover, annual evaporation is about 10 times alluvial fan near the base of hills or mountains. This mother higher than rainfall. Lift irrigation, springs, and the Karez well serves as an outlet point for the upstream groundwater are the main sources of water for agriculture and domestic that then discharges into a gently sloping subsurface, uses (Ashraf and Majeed 2006). subhorizontal channel and flows under gravity to the village, where it is routed through above-ground channels for The Karez system is arguably the most interesting and oldest various uses. The horizontal shaft is constructed in sections among gravity-fed irrigation systems, built centuries ago by that include vertical shafts (manholes) at either end, spaced the local people. It has been reported that some of the Karez about 15 to 30 meters apart. At the time of construction, were built in Balochistan before the arrival of the Mughals these vertical shafts are used for removing debris and later in 1525 A.D. (Kahlown, Khalil, and Munir 1988). Ideally, serve as air vents or wells. The main purpose of the air it provides safe and cost-free water for both irrigation and vents is to undertake operation, maintenance, and removal domestic purposes around the clock and throughout the of accumulated debris from the underground horizontal year (Ashraf, Majeed, and Saeed 2016). The evaporation shaft. They also provide ventilation, prevent accumulation losses are minimal, and its underground coverage protects of gases in the underground water galleries, and allow the against sediment deposition from windstorms. Karez fetching of water through bucket and pulley systems. The systems are owned and managed by the community, and point where water comes out from the subsurface channel every community member benefits from them, directly or is known as a daylight point. From there, farmers construct indirectly. The Karez irrigation system is found in many surface channels, storage tanks, and diversion channels for countries, including those in Asia, Africa, and the Middle agricultural, livestock, and domestic uses. A typical cross- East, as well as the United States. These Karez are referred section of the Karez is shown in figure 1. FIGURE 1. Schematic Diagram of a Typical Karez Mother well Recharge area Air vents (wells) Alluvial land Daylight point Farm land Alluvial aquifer Groundwater level Rock Impermeable layer Drawn by: Rana Asif Source: Kahlown, Khalil, and Munir 1988. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 2 The Karez system was designed in a way that its command pumps even within the irrigation command areas served by area (the cultivated area supported by the system) was Karez. Khan and Nawaz (1995) and Rahman (1981) found developed according to the flow rate of the Karez. that this might ultimately destroy the fragile ecosystem of This arrangement allowed for the sustainable use and Balochistan, including the age-old Karez irrigation systems. management of groundwater and provided resilience to the local population against recurring droughts (Khan The successful operation of a Karez system depends not and Nawaz 1995). As recently as a few decades ago, the only on its technical and structural arrangements but also agricultural economy in the uplands of Balochistan was on numerous social factors, including (a) opinions and mostly dependent on the supply of Karez water. aspirations of the shareholders, (b) the nature of social participation (cooperation and conflicts), (c) tribal values Sociotechnical Context toward water management, (d) community leadership, and (e) the role of government functionaries. Clear The Karez system is an example of one of the engineering understanding of these factors can help in setting up a and technology monuments of the classic world (Oleson feasible program for efficient operation of Karez. 2008), but unfortunately, few studies have been conducted on it. This system can serve as a cost-effective water supply Drought in Balochistan and Its Impact on for agricultural and domestic uses to the people living in Groundwater the area, without using any energy. As water flows under gravity, water supply in Karez is continuous unless the There is growing concern about the increasing frequency horizontal tunnel is damaged or the mother well dries up and severity of drought in Pakistan, particularly because from local groundwater level decline. a significant increase in the frequency of heat waves, an indicator of forthcoming drought, has been reported. Drought has been observed to occur in approximately four Sociocultural Context out of every 10 years (Ahmad et  al. 2016). Balochistan The establishment of Karez systems allowed nomadic tribes is among the most drought-prone regions of the country of Balochistan to settle and grow fodder crops for their where severe droughts have been recorded in 1967–69, livestock. Therefore, a decline in the performance of the 1971, 1973–75, 1994, 1998–2002, and 2009–15 (Ahmad Karez strongly impacts the socioeconomic situation of its et al. 2016). There are four types of drought, and all exist dependent community (Farooqi and Rehman 1998). The in Balochistan, leading to unsustainable exploitation of the introduction of new technologies such as tubewells has groundwater. brought about great change in the region, but the small landholders and poor communities still depend on Karez Meteorological Drought water. The kinship culture among tribes is also transferred to Karez water rights. Karez are not only a perennial source This form of drought exists when precipitation is deficient of water supply but also a system around which community in amount, intensity, and timing. This deficiency reduces attitudes and their social relations revolve (Farooqi and water infiltration and effective runoff to make surface water Rehman 1998). available and limits deep percolation, negatively affecting groundwater recharge. Upland Balochistan is the most The Karez-irrigated farming is threatened by a number affected area of the province for this kind of drought. of factors: (a) lowering of water tables and mining of Rainfall has been decreasing since the 1980s, which has groundwater resulting from indiscriminate development of contribute to the drying up of surface water resources and deep tubewells, (b) reduction in flow because of siltation decreased flows from springs and tubewells. Figure 2 shows of channels as a result of deferred maintenance, (c) soil a declining trend in precipitation in Quetta, the provincial erosion affecting the mother well and the vertical shafts, capital. This situation has increased reliance on groundwater (d) lack of skilled manpower, and (e) lack of support from and further exaggerated its exploitation. the government regarding repair and maintenance of the systems (Ahmad 2007; Anwaar, Chaudhry, and Ambreen Hydrological Drought 2007; GWP 2015; Jamali and Hufty 2011; Mustafa 2014; Mustafa and Qazi 2007). As a result, most of the Karez Hydrological drought occurs from lower water availability in are facing operational challenges, which are exacerbated by surface water bodies and is generally attributed to metrological the emergence of tubewells and modern electric-powered droughts (Farzaneh, Eslamian, and Mirnezami  2014). WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 3 FIGURE 2. Rainfall from 1971 to 2016 in Quetta Valley 1,000 900 800 Rainfall (millimeters) 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 0 0 0 0 0 20 19 20 20 19 19 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 Year Source: Pakistan Meteorological Department, unpublished reports; UNDP 2014. It is caused by a disturbance in the frequency of rainfall or Socioeconomic Drought snowfall, which leads to a shortage in surface water, lakes, and groundwater reservoirs. Many areas of the province have Socioeconomic drought is different from other types of been experiencing a drought-like situation (UNDP 2014). droughts in that it determines the impacts of the other In Balochistan, stream flow data are not as readily available droughts by widening gaps in supply and demand. The to assess the hydrological droughts. Therefore, hydrological impacts are enormous because they affect people in terms of drought is estimated by groundwater abstraction and loss of livelihood sources: agriculture, livestock, and related recharge, which shows a negative balance of 0.459 billion enterprises (UNDP 2014). The drought of 1998–2002 cubic meters per annum (van Steenbergen et  al. 2015; was the major cause of reducing the economic growth table 1). from 12  percent in 1981–82 to only 2.6  percent during 1998–2002. The drought caused a loss of US$250 million Agricultural Drought to the national revenue during 2000–02 (PDMA 2012). During drought periods, groundwater supplies, particularly Reduced precipitation in arid climates results in the loss from Karez, played a crucial role in providing drinking of soil moisture, leading to agricultural drought (Hong water for human and livestock populations as well as for et  al. 2014). This drought is linked to various aspects of limited levels of agriculture. meteorological and hydrological droughts through the difference between actual and potential evapotranspiration, Groundwater Situation Analysis soil moisture loss, and increases in water demand— eventually causing further exploitation of groundwater Groundwater in Balochistan is present in both confined and resources (UNDP 2014). The drought of 1998–2002 unconfined aquifers in all river basins and sub-basins and was one of the worst in recent history and greatly affected generally flows from catchment boundaries to the axis of the agriculture and livestock sectors. About 80 percent of apple valleys. Thus, it largely follows the general trend of surface and other fruit orchards were damaged. The rangeland drainage and is found in the alluvial fans and piedmont vegetation providing food to large numbers of livestock plains. The Water and Power Development Authority withered, resulting in the death of thousands of domestic (WAPDA) evaluated these resources from 1976 to 1980 for animals (Ahmad 2008). a number of basins. In 2007, Halcrow Pakistan (Pvt.) Ltd. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 4 TABLE 1. Groundwater Balance in the River Basins of Balochistan Average People Livestock Agriculture Total Balance River Basin recharge (BCM) (BCM) (BCM) (BCM) (BCM) (BCM) Dasht 0.100 0.013 0.012 0.069 0.094 0.006 Gaj 0.070 0.001 0.001 0.070 0.072 –0.002 Gwadar-Ormara 0.040 0.004 0.003 0.017 0.025 0.015 Hamun-e-Lora 0.040 0.001 0.001 0.139 0.141 –0.101 Hamun-e-Mashkel 0.300 0.008 0.007 0.012 0.027 0.273 Hingol 0.200 0.005 0.007 0.156 0.168 0.032 Hub 0.080 0.001 0.001 0.086 0.088 –0.008 Kachhi Plain 0.180 0.017 0.012 0.140 0.169 0.011 Kadanal 0.030 0.000 0.005 0.110 0.115 –0.085 Kaha 0.190 0.000 0.004 0.315 0.319 –0.129 Kand 0.010 0.000 0.000 0.018 0.019 –0.009 Kunder 0.050 0.000 0.000 0.048 0.048 0.002 Mula 0.120 0.002 0.001 0.126 0.129 –0.009 Nari 0.270 0.006 0.004 0.171 0.180 0.090 Pishin Lora 0.170 0.024 0.029 0.513 0.566 –0.396 Porali 0.140 0.002 0.003 0.142 0.146 –0.006 Rakshan 0.050 0.003 0.003 0.075 0.081 –0.031 Zhob 0.160 0.002 0.001 0.267 0.270 –0.110 Balochistan 2.210 0.091 0.054 2.474 2.659 –0.459 Sources: Balochistan Irrigation Department and Re-assessment of Water Resources of Balochistan; Halcrow Pakistan reported in van Steenbergen et al. 2015. Note: BCM = billion cubic meters. (reported in van Steenbergen et  al. 2015) reassessed the tremendous increase in the drilling of tubewells. The groundwater resources of 14 of 18 basins. The total annual number of tubewells has increased from 5,000 in 1985 to potential was estimated to be 1,071 million cubic meters more than 40,000 by 2014 (figure 3) and has had a drastic per year, out of which 604 million cubic meters had already impact on the functioning of Karez. been utilized. Table 2 provides details of the groundwater development potential in various river basins. The Pishin- A high subsidy on the operational costs is the main cause Lora Basin, consisting of districts Mastung, Pishin, Quetta, behind expansion of privately owned tubewells in the and part of Kalat, forms the main deficit area, where the province. As a result, extensive groundwater abstraction, abstraction of groundwater exceeds the recharge (table 2). followed by inefficient use of the pumped water, has led to declining water tables by as much as 5 meters per year The Mangochar, Pishin, and Quetta sub-basins are the in some areas. Because prevailing drought conditions are areas where groundwater abstraction rates are alarmingly pushing farmers to pump more water for their survival, high. The Nari basin, in the districts of Loralai and Ziarat, the groundwater balance in most of the basins is showing a is also in deficit, with no further groundwater potential negative budget (table 1), which is a serious issue in the era of left for exploitation. The Qila Saifullah sub-basin is an area growing water demand in almost all sectors. Indiscriminate with enough groundwater; however, recent commissioning installation of tubewells has been a major reason for the of many tubewells has led water tables to decline in drying up and abandonment of Karez. The percentage of this basin. Because of favorable climatic conditions, the total area irrigated by Karez decreased from 43 percent improved communication networks, and the introduction in 1971 to 11  percent in 2005 to 3.7  percent in 2015 of electricity with subsidized flat rates, there has been a (figure 4; Government of Pakistan 2016). Figure 4 shows WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 5 that the major focus of the government has been on A situation of prolonged droughts followed by developing canal infrastructure with little or no focus on overexploitation of groundwater has impacted Karez. Still, these Karez are major sources of domestic and conventional irrigation resources drastically. Ahmad drinking water. (2007) reported that of 1,328 Karez in Balochistan, 270 were nonfunctional and many others were only partially functional in 2015 (table 3). TABLE 2. Annual Groundwater Development Potential in River Basins Political Economy of Groundwater A major reason behind the sharp increase in tubewells is Available Remaining that the government provided flat-rate tariffs on electricity No. River basin potential (MCM) potential (MCM) for tubewell operation from July 2001. During 2015–16, 1 Hamun-e-Lora 34 17 the subsidy provided by federal and provincial governments 2 Kachhi 38 26 on electricity was on the order of PKR28 billion (UNDP, 3 Nari 26 0 2016) or US$280 million.2 According to the Agricultural 4 Pishin Lora 130 0 Statistics of Pakistan in 2014–15, there were 30,387 private electric tubewells in Balochistan. Therefore, the subsidy per 5 Porali 149 75 tubewell comes to about PKR0.92 million (US$ 9,200) 6 Hub 119 60 per year. Most of the large farmers own more than one 7 Windar Nai 11 6 tubewell. Only a small fraction (less than 0.3  percent) of 8 Zhob 112 9 the population receives direct benefits from this subsidy 9 Dasht 46 37 (Ashraf and Sheikh 2017). A tariff was proposed for the 10 Rakhshan 24 20 electric-driven tubewells in the draft Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Policy 2006 by removing Hamun-​ 11 e-Mashkel 61 56 the flat rate of electricity. However, the Provincial Cabinet 12 Hingol 265 132 approved the IWRM policy for all the policy thrust areas except “electric tariff for the tubewells,” highlighting 13 Gaj 34 16 that political decisions strongly affect the groundwater 14 Mula 23 14 economy. Moreover, the advent of renewable energy has Total 1,071 467 promoted solar-powered tubewells all over the country. Note: MCM = million cubic meters. The government of Balochistan is also promoting these FIGURE 3. Increasing Numbers of Tubewells in Balochistan 45 Number of tubewells (thousands) 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 19 –97 0 5 19 85 19 –86 19 87 88 8 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 94 4 19 95 19 –96 19 –98 99 99 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 6 0 7 0 8 20 –09 20 10 20 11 20 –12 20 13 20 14 5 20 –0 20 –0 20 –0 20 –0 20 –0 –1 19 –8 20 –0 20 –0 19 –9 20 –0 20 00 – – – – 9– – 4– 10 – – – – 19 8– – 11 14 12 90 13 0 86 96 91 87 92 85 97 95 6 1 93 4 2 7 89 5 8 3 –2 0 8 9 19 Years Public Private Total Source: Government of Pakistan 2016. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 6 FIGURE 4. Comparative Development of systems through subsidized schemes, and this may speed Irrigation Sources up unsustainable withdrawal of groundwater resulting from the high daylight potential of the province. This is 700 pro-poor technology and the government of Balochistan 600 has not invested in preserving traditional and indigenous Area (thousand hectares) heritage of the province such as the Karez irrigation system. 500 In the 2006 IWRM policy of Balochistan, management 400 of the Karez system has been neglected. In the National 300 Water Policy 2018, the Karez have not been specifically mentioned, although considerable attention is devoted to 200 groundwater management. 100 Water Rights 0 1971–72 2005–06 2014–15 The Baloch, Pashtuns, and Brahvis are the three major Years linguistic groups in the province, and there are various tribes Canals Wells Tubewells Karez within these groups. Water rights vary from one group to the Source: Agricultural Census of Pakistan 2015–16. other and are governed mostly by the customary tribal laws, TABLE 3. Number of Karez in Balochistan No District Total number Functional Nonfunctional 1 Ziarat 32 30 2 2 Sherani 88 78 10 3 Khuzdar 19 15 4 4 Awaran 45 40 5 5 Chagai 13 12 1 6 Washuk 10 8 2 7 Kharan 10 9 1 8 Kech 235 171 64 9 Qila Saifullah 226 165 61 10 Loralai 59 50 9 11 Zhob 65 59 6 12 Qila Abdullah 183 173 10 13 Panjgur 85 85 0 14 Pishin 68 40 28 15 Jhal Magsi 20 15 0 16 Musakhail 40 33 7 17 Kohlu 12 7 5 18 Kalat 57 31 26 19 Mastung 36 16 20 20 Sibi 13 9 4 21 Quetta 12 7 5 Total 1,328 1,053 270 Source: Adapted from Ahmad 2007. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 7 though sometimes they are modified according to water and implementation of various water development projects. availability. Under such circumstances, local communities The Public Health Engineering Department is responsible act as managers and make their own decisions. Traditionally, for the supply of water for domestic purpose. Quetta’s there is no restriction among any of the ethnic groups on Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) is responsible for the use of water from any source, including tubewells for supplying water for domestic use in Quetta City, which domestic or livestock purposes. People can fetch water for mainly comes from groundwater (deep tubewells). As per their domestic uses but are not allowed to convey water by the WASA Groundwater Management Act of 1989, the channels or pipes to individual households (Majeed and functions related to groundwater management are: Qureshi 2000). • Approve all new, extension, or rehabilitation works on Pashtuns recognize the rights of water users along a stream the water supply, sewerage, and sanitation system in or river for all uses. There are no such rights established the area; and among Balochs and Brahvis in the central and coastal parts • Monitor and control water resources in the area, of the province. For Karez development, the Pashtuns both surface and underground, and issue licenses for recognize that whoever owns the mother well also owns the abstraction of water from such resources in the area in water rights, and the conveyance tunnel transporting water accordance with regulations made by the authority. must pass through the owners land. In rare cases, however, if the tunnel must pass through another’s land, the owner of This act provides a legal authority to WASA for the the mother well must pay compensation to the landowners. development of new groundwater sources and to issue The Balochs and Brahvis allow construction of a Karez on licenses for abstraction of groundwater. However, it has land owned by several people, all of whom share the Karez never been implemented in its true letter or even in spirit water. In the Mekran coastal areas dominated by Balochs, for political and cultural reasons. a Karez can pass through any land without compensation as a common property. The share of water is in accordance Rehabilitation and Sustainable with the investment made in the construction of the Karez, Management of Karez in Balochistan: irrespective of water demand (Majeed and Qureshi 2000). A Case Study Legal and Institutional Framework Pakistan pleaded the case to include Balochistan Karez in the sites suitable for inscription on the World Heritage list Balochistan is the only province of the country that has some of The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural sort of legal protection in terms of groundwater management. Organization (UNESCO) in December 2015. Such a The government of Balochistan issued a notification in “the declaration could put peer pressure on the government and Balochistan groundwater rights administration ordinance, other stakeholders to preserve these systems. To develop a 1978” (GOB 1978). This ordinance was framed because model site for this process, two partially notable Karez (Nau there was no law in the province regulating the use of water Sanjidi and Sanjidi) were selected. The Karez are close to from tubewells or open wells located within the vicinity each other and located at village Abdulzai in Quetta (map 1 of Karez. In some areas, there was a tradition that no and figure 5), which is situated 30 kilometers southwest of well should be allowed to be dug within the distance of the city of Quetta. The landscape of the valley is mostly 250 meters of the first well of Karez in case of soft land rocky, and the hills surrounded by the valley are dry and (alluvium) and 500 meters in case of hard land (hard rock). composed of coarse sand and gravels. The ordinance was therefore to provide a uniform policy for the entire province for regulating the use of groundwater, Baseline Survey specifying that areas having groundwater resources are to be identified and declared as designated “groundwater basins” Following site selection, a complete area profile and data for which a law should be framed. Implementation of this about the Karez were collected through a baseline survey. ordinance is still uncertain because there is a lack of political A questionnaire was developed to assess the socioeconomic, commitment and the Karez do not serve the interests of the agricultural, and irrigation conditions of the beneficiary more endowed and powerful members of the community. community. Informal, in-depth interviews with the community elders and community members were also The Irrigation and Power Department of Balochistan is conducted. Because the target population was small, there mainly responsible for the planning, investigation, design, was scope to include all of them in the interview process. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 8 MAP 1. Project Area Saran Tangai Approximate Kuchlagh KHYBER Line of Control Que tta Te hs il AFGHANISTAN PAKHTUNKHWA Shaikh Manda Urak Peshawar Jammu and Kashmir Samungli Cantonment ISLAMABAD Kirani ISLAMABAD Project CAPITAL TERRITORY Area Sariab Lahore PU NJA B Quetta I.R. OF CHI BALO CH I ST A N IRAN INDIA PROVINCE CAPITALS SI NDH NATIONAL CAPITAL PROVINCE BOUNDARIES Karachi INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES Arabian Sea IBRD 44502 | JUNE 2019 Socioeconomic Condition of the Area the household, number of people employed, total members of the household, secondary sources, and so forth. The village is composed of 16 households with a population of 1,000 people. By definition, a household is a place where Agriculture and Irrigation System people live in one boundary, cook together, and eat together. This makes the family size quite big in Balochistan—about 63 All the households are engaged in agriculture and depend people per household. All the households in the area depend on it as their primary source of income. Annual cropping on agriculture, and most of the male members are engaged revolves around four major crops: wheat, onion, maize, and in farming. Some household members also have other barley. In addition to conventional cropping, large orchards occupations such as government jobs, private business, and of grapes and apples also exist that are well-known for being labor work. Monthly household income varies depending on of high quality. There are two main sources of irrigation: multiple factors such as area of land owned and cultivated by Karez and tubewell. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 9 FIGURE 5. Schematic Diagram of the Karez at Abdullah Zai Village, Quetta Farmland Abdulzai village N Water channel Existing tubewells Water channel Unlined/lined channel Hills Surface tank Existing tubewells Sanjidi Karez Nau Sanjidi Karez Daylight point Air vent Air vent Daylight point Drawn by: Rana Asif Source: Author. The entire village depends on these two Karez (Nau Sanjidi shabana roz is defined as 43 hectares of land. The maximum and Sanjidi Karez) and share water from them. A water share is five and the minimum is two, which means that the user association (WUA) also exists in the village that is farmer will get five days’ water and two days’ water every 15 responsible for distribution, operating, and maintaining the days, respectively. However, there is no onus on the farmer Karez system. The WUA is composed of all the shareholders, to take his share of five days or two days consecutively. If a and the members are heads of all the households. However, farmer does not need water for the consecutive five days or the two Karez have some distinctive physical, social, and two days, he would hand over the water control to the next political characteristics. farmer and irrigate his land at that farmer’s turn instead. Thus, the farmers borrow their share of water from one The Nau Sanjidi Karez starts in the foothills of Chiltan another when it is needed and return it at their turn. Mountain and flows to the west. It was constructed about 200 years ago. It has 50 air vents (wells) and the total A pond has been constructed at the end of the Karez, in length is 4.1 kilometers. The distance between the last which the water is stored and used for irrigation. There are well to the daylight point is 15.5 meters and the distance 98 hectares of land in the command area. However, this between the daylight point and the mother well is about land is irrigated using both Karez and tubewell water, and 1 kilometer. The rest of the Karez flows in a lined open it was difficult to estimate the exact area that was being channel, although part of the channel is still not lined. The irrigated through the Karez. There are seven tubewells discharge was measured at the daylight and distribution installed by the community downstream of the Karez, the points. During the physical survey, the discharge at daylight main reason for which is to tap the seepage water from the point was recorded at 4.48 liters per second whereas at the flowing Karez. These tubewells are thus used conjunctively distribution point, it was 2.07 liters per second. The water with the Karez to maximize the irrigation water availability. loss between the daylight and distribution points was about Every member owns at least one tubewell, and these are 54 percent and was mainly caused by damaged channel and mostly operated when the turn for Karez water goes to the evaporation. The water rights of this Karez are distributed tubewell owner. The tubewell water is mixed with Karez among five households. Among these households, water water and stored in the pond. However, sometimes farmers has been distributed into 15 shares. A basic unit for one also operate these tubewells when they need water. On-site WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 10 measurements reveal that average depth to groundwater the mother well. The 15 shabana roz are distributed to each level of these tubewells is 107 meters. All the tubewells were shareholder based on the area owned. The total area under installed by using pipes with 7.6-centimeter diameters. irrigation is 306 hectares. However, the farmers use both Submersible pumps have been used in all the tubewells. tubewell and Karez as sources of irrigation. The water from Generally, the discharge of these tubewells is one-quarter of both the sources is stored in ponds and subsequently used a cusec (about 7 liters per second). These tubewells are being for irrigation. All the farmers grow a minimum of three operated on the flat rate of electricity—that is, PKR10,000 crops per year. There are 18 tubewells installed downstream and PKR6,000 (US$100 and US$60) per tubewell per of the Karez that are owned by 15 members, and one month in cities and rural areas, respectively. tubewell, which is currently nonfunctional, was installed by Public Health Engineering. Sanjidi Karez starts from the foothills of the Chiltan Mountain and flows in the northeast of the village Abdulzai. Rehabilitation and Maintenance Work It is believed that the Karez was constructed more than 350 years ago. The total length of the Karez is 3.8 kilometers Based on the results of the baseline survey, engineering and the total number of air vents (wells) that contribute to structures (leaky dams, check structures, and ditches) and the Karez is 31. The daylight point is at 8.9 meters from biological treatments (planting of shrubs) were designed the last well and 840 meters from the mother well. The and implemented for rehabilitation and improvement on average distance between Karez wells is about 15 meters. the selected Karez (Ashraf and Sheikh 2017). The basic Maximum depth of wells was measured at 21 meters, and purpose of these interventions was to reduce the velocity the minimum depth of Karez was measured at 2 meters. of rainwater runoff and thereby maximize the opportunity The distance between the daylight point and the storage for recharge to the aquifer. Low-cost gabion structures have pond is 3.0 kilometers. The water flows through an open been constructed using a cascade approach so that rainwater channel, which is lined in part with stone pitching. The coming from the catchment area is harvested and no runoff discharge was 5.4 liters per second at the daylight point water should leave the hydrological system (photos 1 and 3.7 liters per second at the distribution point. There are and 2). Rehabilitation works were carried out to minimize several reasons for reduced discharge between the daylight water losses and to increase the conveyance efficiency of the point and the distribution point, including sloughing in the channels. tunnel, seepage, landsliding, and evaporation. The water rights for this Karez system are divided into 15 equal shares The interventions started in October 2016, and by among 16 households. These households own different 2019, only 135 millimeters of rainfall was received with sized areas of land around the Karez but downgradient from 11 complete dry months. Despite this measurement, a PHOTO 1. Leaky Dam Constructed Upstream of PHOTO 2. Check Dam and Ditches Constructed the Karez (May 18, 2018) in Series (May 18, 2018) Source: Faizan ul Hasan. Source: Faizan ul Hasan. WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 11 TABLE 4. Discharge Improvement in collected would be 252 cubic meters per day. Therefore, a Nau Sanjidi Karez single tubewell provides a little more than half of the total volume of water provided by a Karez—but with large capital Before After and operational costs. However, a Karez provides double interventions interventions this amount of water almost free of cost. Karez should be Location (September 2016) (October 2017) protected because they are masterpieces of engineering, part Daylight point of the local cultural and social integrity, a buffer against (lps) 4.48 4.8 drought, and the best hope for poor communities that Distribution cannot afford to continue to install tubewells. point (lps) 2.7 3.1 Note: lps = liters per second. Conclusions and Recommendations Karez irrigation systems have been in place in Balochistan noticeable increase has been observed in discharge at the for many centuries, with about 3,000 believed to have daylight point of the Nau Sanjidi Karez (4.8 liters per second, been established throughout the province. These Karez a 10 percent increase) and at the distribution point (3.1 liters systems provided enough irrigation and domestic water in per second, a 38  percent increase) (table  4). One storage the preindustrial era. However, rapid growth in population pond with capacity of 453 square meters is available at the and improvements in socioeconomic conditions, along distribution point. As reported by the community, it is now with the availability of new technologies, have led farmers filled within 24 hours. Previously, it was filled in two to to find alternate means to access groundwater, such as three days. tubewells. The farmers started to grow crops on bigger areas of land than ever before. They also started growing Total investment to rehabilitate (including introduction high-water-use crops such as potatoes, onions, and apples, of recharge techniques and repair of the main Karez and replacing wheat, barley, and maize, which require less channels) was about PKR25 million (US$25,000). The water. community also provided in-kind assistance to maintain the Karez and clean the storage water tank. With this Although the Karez is a “poor man’s technology,” it reliably small investment, free water is made available year-round provides water for the community and its livestock free of cost to fulfill drinking water requirements of the community around the clock and throughout the year. These systems act and its livestock, in addition to irrigating agricultural as a buffer and are resilient against droughts. Therefore, from crops. However, some money must be spent for routine the point of view of safeguarding the poorest households maintenance of the system, which may vary from PKR10,000 in rural Balochistan, they must be protected. One of the to PKR30,000 per year (US$100 to US$300 per year). challenges is to develop a proper regulatory framework to control the placement of tubewells and enforce these rules In contrast, there are seven tubewells for which the effectively, given that subsidies provided by the government community must pay US$5,040 per year in electricity to operate tubewells have led to their proliferation and the charges, in addition to repair and maintenance. The cost of corresponding neglect of Karez systems. The quantity and drilling a tubewell for a depth of 150 meters and discharge quality of water from these Karez can be improved by proper of 7 liters per second is more than PKR1.0 million maintenance and watershed management activities in the (US$10,000). Moreover, the government is bearing about catchment areas of the mother wells. These improvements PKR0.987 million (US$9,870) per year per tubewell (Ashraf can make the indigenous Karez system competitive with and Sheikh 2017). The life of these tubewells is five to seven more energy and capital-intensive alternatives. years, after which the farmers must sometimes redrill the tubewells to replace the pump/turbine or, in most cases, to NOTES deepen the tubewells. For effectiveness, Nau Sanjidi Karez is compared with an electric-driven tubewell. The total 1. Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, volume of water from the Karez is 415 cubic meters per day Islamabad, Pakistan. (that is, a discharge of 4.8 liters per second), whereas for 2. US$1 @ PKR100 (Pakistani rupee) in 2017 (The State the tubewell that is being operated 10 hours a day (with a Bank of Pakistan, http://www.sbp.org.pk/ecodata/rates​ discharge of 7 liters per second), the total volume of water /­war/2017/Months.asp) WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 12 REFERENCES Government of Pakistan. 2016. “Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan 2016-17 Islamabad. Ministry of National Food Ahmad, K., S. 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