WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? A POLICY NOTE ON URBAN FLOODS Maitreyi Bordia Das and Shruti Majumdar ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are grateful to Sameh Wahba (Director, Urban) for overall guidance and to Jolanta Kryspin-Watson (Regional Disaster Relief Management [DRM] Coordinator and Lead DRM Specialist, East Asia and Pacific), Marc S. Forni (Lead DRM Specialist), and Jana El-Horr (Senior Social Development Specialist) for their comments on the initial drafts. B  WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? FOCUS ON URBAN FLOODS Cities today face an unprecedented risk of natural hazards compounded by serious governance challenges. How can cities ensure that in building resilience, they address the needs of those most at risk of being excluded? How can they develop strategies that simultaneously foster resilient infrastructure and social inclusion? This note focuses on urban floods—one of the most pervasive forms of disasters that strike cities—and illustrates who may be left behind, and how building city resilience and social inclusion can work together. It is intended to stimulate thought and debate, and to lead the way for a more in-depth analysis of the problems and solutions, and towards more effective and sustainable city resilience. WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? FOCUS ON URBAN FLOODS  1 What is Resilience? The World Bank uses a working definition of resilience as “the ability of a system, entity, community, or person to adapt to a variety of changing conditions and to withstand shocks while still maintaining its essential functions.” World Bank 2014, 8 Why Focus on Urban Floods? Flooding in urban areas affects Organisation for Sixty-five percent of the world’s urban population Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and lives in coastal areas, and by 2025, almost three- non-OECD countries alike.1 A dearth of research on fourths are expected to do so (UN-Habitat 2011). the “hidden challenge” of floods in the United States Most megacities are located either on seacoasts or led to the first-ever nationwide assessment of urban linked to riverbeds. According to the International flooding in 2018 (Galloway et al. 2018). In this study, Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2012), by 2100, it is a survey of public and private flood-management a near certainty that sea-level rise will contribute to professionals across 48 states concluded that urban upward trends in extreme coastal high-water levels. flooding is a growing source of economic loss, social Potential hazards in coastal areas and cities built disruption, and housing inequality, and that the social near rivers arise from coastal flooding, beach erosion, impacts of flooding are generally not well understood sedimentation in river floors, and landslides. These by many public officials nor by the unaffected public. hazards will be intensified by the increased frequency While multiple communities across the world face of strong tropical storms (Gencer 2013). urban flooding challenges, each incident has unique Figure 1 shows the increase in floods over time. In hydrological, physical, and social characteristics. And most metropolitan areas, floods account for almost while the magnitude of urban flooding challenges half of all natural hazards. The last decade has seen requires federal-level policy and institutions, solutions some catastrophic floods in cities across the world, are best developed and implemented at the local level. with reports of an increase in chronic flooding as well. Urban floods are sometimes the result of catastrophic weather events, but they often assume a more chronic nature. Many low-lying areas Figure 1: Floods have increased over time experience flooding during normal rains. Often these areas are inhabited by informal settlers or by residents NUMBER who lack access both to government services and to OF FLOODS political influence. Lack of roads, poor drainage, and 3,000 poor solid-waste management can contribute to and compound the negative effects of floods. Lack of a 2,000 clear delineation of roles and responsibilities in the city governance structure compounds the problem. Consider two of several areas that are at heightened 1,000 risks due to urban flooding—one in Indonesia and the other in Peru. In the former, the cities of Jakarta, 1 Bandung, and Surakarta accounted for 39 percent 1950–1966 1967–1983 1984–2000 2001–2018 YEARS of the disasters impacting the nation’s metropolitan areas, with all three far exceeding the average of 173 events between 2003 and 2017.2 Across many Source: Global Commission on the Economy and Climate 2018. cities in Indonesia, as in other parts of the developing world, poor solid-waste management and a lack of 2  WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? FOCUS ON URBAN FLOODS community awareness about it contribute to flooding. In addition, sea-level rise is of special concern in Jakarta because parts of the city are already subsiding due to the over-exploitation of groundwater and soil compression from heavy construction. The areas that are most vulnerable to inundations from tidal waves and riverine flooding are inhabited by Jakarta’s poorest, who live in informal settlements. Who Is at Greatest Risk during Urban Floods? Throughout the world, poor people are overexposed to urban floods This stands in contrast to rural flood- ing, which threatens both poorer and more well-off households equally. Some cities where poor people suffer disproportionate impacts of floods are coastal cities, where more frequent flooding is expected in the future, such as Mumbai, Ho Chi Minh City and Jakarta. Problems created by living in a flood-prone area are compounded by secondary effects, such as the loss of hourly wages when a flood prevents people from traveling to work, or from hours lost to traffic detours (Galloway et al. 2018). A case study of the floods in Chennai, India, in 2015, describes the ways in which In Peru, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the catastrophic floods affected the city and its residents Andes, the capital city of Lima is prone to floods, (Chakraborti and Rajasekhar 2017). And some impacts mudslides, and landslides as well as to earthquakes. on health or education from flooding can be irrevers- With the Pan-American Highway linking Lima to other ible. For example, in Mexico, once children have been port cities, rapid urbanization along the coastline taken out of school, even for a temporary traumatic has contributed to increased levels of risk (UNISDR event such as a flood, they are 30 percent less likely to 2010 (1): 60). In addition, within the last few decades, proceed with their education as compared to children poor urban planning has led to informal squatter who remain in school (de Janvry et al. 2006). settlements that have proliferated around the fringes While the relationship between poverty and of Lima, on unstable alluvial soil along riverbanks or exposure to urban floods is clear, it is less so hillsides (Oliver-Smith 1999, 248–94). between excluded groups and their vulnerability Flooding in cities and towns distorts markets to such events, or their ability to cope and recover. and services for residents, and puts municipal Excluded groups are often (though not always) poor. governance to the test. As the effects of floods on They comprise, inter alia, migrant workers, the elderly, the lives of citizens occur through several pathways— persons with disabilities, and people working in trades earnings, education, health, transport, and others. and jobs that are particularly susceptible to disruption For instance, students end up missing days of school, during natural hazards, such as street vendors or workers lose time and earnings, drinking water waste pickers. Figure 2 highlights the intersection of gets contaminated, vector diseases proliferate, social identities that cause disadvantage. Oftentimes and regular services are interrupted. Floodwaters the response to floods can exacerbate existing forms also often enter homes, causing serious health and of social exclusion—for instance, people of a specific hygiene hazards, loss of assets, even apart from the ethnicity, race, caste, or place of origin may be left out inconvenience and the repair costs. of the evacuation or relief process, because they have WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? FOCUS ON URBAN FLOODS  3 Figure 2: Social identity often drives exclusion situation, increasing the chance of discrimination on the basis of disability. Also, disasters themselves can cause disabilities among the population from injuries suffered, requiring urgent medical attention and rehabilitation resources, as experience from several disasters has shown. Yet persons with disabilities are not passive sufferers. They also exercise their agency in the wake of catastrophic events and use their informal and formal networks to tide over shocks. The gendered impacts of urban floods deserve special mention, in part because many anecdotes emphasize female vulnerability during disasters. Such anecdotes persist despite the widespread knowledge that women and men are heterogeneous groups and not all women are vulnerable. For example, a historical review by Doocy et al. (2013) indicates that males are more likely to die in developed countries during catastrophic floods while females have higher levels of mortality in developing countries. Source: World Bank 2013. SPOTLIGHT 1 less power, weaker voice or are actively discriminated Effects of Flooding through against. Spotlight 1 shows how street traders in the Eyes of Accra’s Street Traders Ghana described the effects of floods. In a dialogue between informal street traders and Persons with disabilities face unique challenges officials from the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) during emergency and disaster events. These and the Ga East Municipal Assembly in Ghana, the challenges can be due to several factors such as poor following issues resulting from flooding were highlighted: accessibility, warnings and evacuation notices not • Lack of refuse collection containers means rubbish reaching them, and being left out of shelters, camps, collection becomes the traders’ responsibility and food distribution. They can also be excluded from • Irregular garbage collection long-term recovery efforts (for example, see Tarisayi [2014]). Persons with mobility challenges may become • Flooding, even with small amounts of rainfall, chokes homebound during floods. Persons with disabilities the gutters due to poor drainage may also be more affected by a disruption to physical, • The storm drain from Accra Polytechnic to Makola social, economic, and environmental networks, such Market is blocked by a building erected in its path as a breakdown of support systems. They may be • Flooding due to telecom and other wires blocks more likely to be left behind or abandoned during drainage at strategic points disaster evacuations; they may be separated from their family members and caregivers, as well as from • Some fruit and food venders sell in close proximity to unsanitary conditions their assistive devices (for example, wheelchairs or prosthetics), or may be unable to operate electrical Policy dialogue results were facilitated by the Women devices during a disaster. Weak data on persons with in the Informal Economy Globalizing and Organizing disabilities and limited knowledge on how to respond (WIEGO) in Accra, Ghana. to their needs are additional factors that heighten Source: http://www.wiego.org/wiego/accra-street- their vulnerability in a disaster or emergency situation traders-make-their-concerns-heard-municipal-officials. (Smith, Jolley, and Schmidt 2012). Further, resources and necessities may become scarce during a disaster 4  WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? FOCUS ON URBAN FLOODS low-lying areas, or have precarious housing situations. They may lack resilient infrastructure, and their schools, homes, and health centers may be the last to be rehabilitated. Urban residence patterns across the world highlight the intersection of social and spatial exclusion (World Bank 2013). Hurricane Katrina is the starkest recent example of how the adverse effects of disasters disproportionately affect the poor and people of color, and how resources for resilience are unequally distributed (Mohai, et al 2009; Rodríguez and Russell 2006; Satterthwaite 2008). Much of the locational disadvantage that some groups face has to do with poor management of urban land and housing markets. Catastrophic flood events in rural areas may lead to the forced migration of residents to cities and towns, testing the resilience of the more urban areas. The inflow of migrants who escape a disaster places The gendered impacts of floods in urban areas (as additional burden on city infrastructure. For example, in other areas) are mediated by various factors cities such as Karachi, Pakistan, receive waves of including occupation, assets, access to services, and migrants who want to escape natural hazards in their the degree of voice and agency that each group can villages. Forced migrants tend to be the most bereft of exercise. Ajibade, et al (2013) for instance, explored the resources and possibly the least-welcome individuals gendered effects of flash floods in Lagos, Nigeria, and in a city. In Kochi, India, for example, most migrant found that women did not report concerns regarding workers settle in the city’s outskirts, in neighborhoods gendered impacts of flooding. However, the evidence such as Alwaye, Perumbavoor, Kalamassery, Eloor, showed that, the impacts were in fact differentiated and Costal Ernakulam (Jaswal et al. 2015). These by gender and income level. Women in lower-income locations are themselves prone to flooding and neighborhoods experienced more intense negative waterlogging during monsoons and are surrounded impacts and took longer to recover, compared to by wetlands or close to bodies of water. Many of these other groups. The results were statistically significant habitats may also be polluted by industrial waste and only for the differences between low-income and sewage from chemical and allied industries in the city, high-income neighborhoods, but not between middle- making them more hazardous to residents. income and high-income neighborhoods. Another The impacts of natural hazards, and of urban floods study (Abiona and Koppensteiner 2016) looked at in particular, are not socially neutral; neither are the effects of rainfall shocks on domestic violence relief, recovery, and reconstruction processes. in Tanzania, and found a positive correlation, but These processes are each socially differentiated and also showed that several empowerment variables can reinforce pre-existing exclusionary dynamics. attenuated the negative effects. These examples Therefore, they become matters of social inclusion illustrate the diversity of women’s experiences, the fact and justice. Moreover, the effects of resilience can that the intersection of gender and income confers the conceal “the continuing reproduction of hierarchical greatest disadvantage, and also the fact that women’s power relations” (Joseph 2013, 41). Some researchers agency is important. also assert that inequality and social exclusion lead to Location matters in general, and especially in greater environmental degradation, and that a more relation to urban floods. Some groups are spatially equitable distribution of power and resources would excluded because they live in high-risk areas and lack result in improved environmental quality (Agyeman et voice, infrastructure, and services. These groups may al. 2002; Boyce et al. 1999; Solow 1991; Stymne and live on fragile lands, in informal settlements, or in Jackson 2000). WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? FOCUS ON URBAN FLOODS  5 In addition to adaptation, mitigation becomes a way of life, based primarily on informal and private solutions. For example, households may invest in suction machines that pump water out of homes and lanes; communities may pool their resources to hire drain cleaners before and during the rains. In less- sustainable solutions neighborhoods may ensure that solid waste does not clog their own drains but is How Do Communities React deposited in another neighborhood. This situation may lead to inter-neighborhood clashes and violence. to Urban Floods? All too often, state-sponsored solutions to flood Communities and households that experience risk management do not consider communities as frequent flooding practice resilience on a daily being active partners, with top-down initiatives often basis. They often have no choice but to adapt to being the norm. However, shared decision-making the predictable nature of their reality—chronic on urban water supplies, sanitation, and solid-waste floods. When both the state and markets fail them, management can create resilient communities, and communities and households react by developing a help cities adapt to a rapidly changing climate. To web of informal strategies, institutions, and networks. build local-level collective resilience, governments For example, during and after flooding, makeshift and communities need to reduce inequalities in risk schools may emerge in a neighborhood; supplies may and resources, engage local residents in mitigation, be sold by spontaneous community entrepreneurs; build strong civic leadership, create organizational emergency transport may be provided by local youth linkages, boost and protect social capital, and “plan for who have access to bicycles or motorbikes. Adaptation not having a plan,” which requires flexibility, decision- becomes a way of life. making skills, and trusted sources of information that function in the face of unknowns (Norris et al. 2008; O’Neill 2016). The next section outlines some examples. PHOTO: ©HUMPHERY / SHUTTERSTOCK.COM 6  WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? FOCUS ON URBAN FLOODS some of the ways in which these benefits can be achieved (see Spotlight 2). While many cities have innovated and experimented with initiatives that seek to strengthen communities, municipal governance, and infrastructure, few of these initiatives have been well-documented. This section provides examples of cities in Indonesia, Brazil, India, Thailand, Vietnam, and Mexico that have What Do We Know about engaged with communities in the resilience process. Initiatives that Enhance Indonesia’s experience demonstrates that Inclusion in City Resilience? communities are key to emergency and response activities. For example, in December 2016, Bima Much of the literature on local-level resilience experienced flash floods, originating from the to floods comes from rural settings. While the Padolo River and the Wawo District, that inundated experience of rural areas informs the knowledge large parts of the city (with up to three meters of base, some examples of urban initiatives are also water), flooding thousands of houses and displacing highlighted, below. over 115,000 residents—more than two-thirds of the city’s population at the time. A key strength of Community-driven initiatives are often the strategy the community network was the rapid sharing of of choice when disaster strikes and when both states and markets are unable to respond. Communities organize spontaneously in the face of flooding, but SPOTLIGHT 2 specific formal initiatives are often sponsored by Social Protection Measures to Adapt and governments and external agencies. Community Mitigate against Floods resilience activities include bottom-up approaches that make use of social networks and support Ex-ante support to reduce risk and strengthen coping autonomous adaptation based on the experience of the capacity by: poor and of excluded groups (Arnold et al. 2014). Such • Increasing household savings to deal with climate initiatives also support communities in diversifying change and disaster-related shocks and stresses, and developing fallback options, and enhance particularly for vulnerable groups social learning and sound governance as forms of • Enabling accumulation of productive assets regulatory feedback (for instance, building capacity in participatory approaches to scenario-based planning • Strengthening resilience of community infrastructure or measures to increase social accountability in the • Creating community assets that strengthen use of public finance for climate change response). resilience Ex-post support to facilitate effective recovery and Several social protection programs, especially social strengthen adaptive capacity by: safety nets and other cash-transfer programs, have a successful track record in both mitigation • Smoothening consumption during lean times and adaptation to disaster and other shocks. For • Enabling continued access to education and health example, Argentina, Brazil, and Peru have shown the during disasters importance of having an inclusive recovery system via • Enabling post-disaster recovery of sustainable social protections for disaster resilience.3 In fact, the livelihoods benefits of a more inclusive recovery increase with the level of pre-existing income inequality (Hallegatte • Supporting post-disaster recovery of resilient community infrastructure et al. 2018). While most of the evidence comes from rural areas, the lessons are highly applicable to urban Source: Asian Development Bank, 2018. floods as well. The Asian Development Bank highlights WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? FOCUS ON URBAN FLOODS  7 two in Rio de Janeiro and five in Porto Alegre. Both Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre grapple with climate risks, fatal flooding, and unequal urban growth. Both are members of the 100 Resilient Cities (100RC) network (https://www.100resilientcities.org), which enabled them to develop urban resilience strategies (McGray and Elias-Trostmann 2014). The overarching findings were that cities should focus on urban planning and services, measure social networks by their strength rather than their size, and improve communications and training. In another example, an educational project in São Luiz and Cunha connected various aspects of disaster risk reduction with communities through a dialogue-oriented learning process. The process information to assist with response actions. Since linked municipal civil defense systems, high the 2016 flooding, various measures have been taken school students and teachers, local communities, to improve the city’s flood resilience, such as the universities, and Centro Nacional de Monitoramento rehabilitation of affected areas, the normalization e Alertas de Desastres Naturais (CEMADEN) of river channels, the relocation of people living in researchers. Marchezini et al. (2017) documented floodplains, improvements to urban infrastructure, how the educational system and young people can the strengthening of river dikes, and the sustainable be involved in early warning systems by integrating reforestation of land in upstream areas. disaster risk reduction into school curricula and adopting citizen science and crowdsourcing Brazil provides three examples of city engagement approaches. The project adopted several additional in the resilience process. In Teresina (Das 2017), a empowering activities, including peer education and project called “Enhancing Municipal Governance the intergenerational transfer of knowledge. and Quality of Life” was intended to modernize and improve the municipal government’s capacity to In India, several states have experimented with protect poor residents from perennial flooding in the developing resilience to floods. For example, the Lagoas do Norte region. This project involved the Surat Municipal Corporation (SMC) established an resettlement of at-risk persons to safer areas, and Urban Health and Climate Resilience Cell (UHCRC) to expanded access to sanitation and water services for provide support services, such as the documentation the resettled families. In a second phase, the project of health and climate challenges, to the SMC health received additional financing and focused on both department. The UHCRC also engaged in advocacy strengthening community associations to improve for health, gender equality, and equity in urban access to basic services and to daycare providers, and climate resilience. This approach has helped and on activities for crime and violence prevention reduce both flood impacts in cities and hardship for targeted to the most vulnerable groups, such as migrants who tend to live in flood-prone peripheries Afro-descendants. As part of the violence prevention of cities (Jaswal et al. 2015). In another instance, in activities, the project focused on ex-ante diagnostics Odisha, Cyclone Phalin led to significant reductions of the problem, job training, public awareness by residents in all household expenditures, with these campaigns, and support services for survivors of reductions being the largest for women. A program violence. In all these activities, there has been a focus called Tripti, implemented by the government and on both men and women (Das 2017). supported by the World Bank, mitigated some of the reductions in household nonfood expenditures and in In another case, the World Resources Institute worked women’s consumption, working, inter alia, through with municipal governments and local partners to pilot women’s self-help groups (Christian et al. 2018). a planning tool4 in seven poor urban communities— 8  WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? FOCUS ON URBAN FLOODS IMAGES: VUUP Lives Transformed: The Story of the Urban Poor in Vietnam BEFORE THE VUUP PROJECT AFTER THE VUUP PROJECT Thailand and Vietnam provide additional pointers. to build resilience to flash floods. The community In the aftermath of one of Thailand’s worst floods in used strategies independent of those of the local 2011, a community-driven rehabilitation program, government, with the overall result being a significant supported by the World Bank and implemented by the increase in resilience. The community’s ultimate Community Organization Development Institute (CODI), goal was to generate effective collaboration between provided financial support for small infrastructure community members and risk managers in a projects, housing repairs for flood affected individuals successful governance framework (Joerin and Shaw and households who were struggling to recover, and 2012; López-Marrero and Tschakert 2011). income support for community members to conduct A study of the 2015 floods in Chennai, India, showed the construction work themselves. CODI included that both the state and communities worked together community-based targeting and prioritization.5 The and made effective use of technology and social media Vietnam Urban Upgrading Project (VUUP), also to the benefit of the relief and rehabilitation process supported by the World Bank, focused on community (Chakraborti and Rajashekhar 2017). More recently, in participation, especially in monitoring the time and Kerala, communities, civil society, the private sector, frequency of floods, identifying contextual causes, and the state worked seamlessly in response to and developing housing designs with community catastrophic floods. inputs. VUUP also facilitated economic activities in flood-prone areas to mitigate the effects of flooding, In Thailand, a study of Bangkok’s urban fringe—an particularly through loans to communities to engage area prone to chronic flooding—found that localized in productive work. adaptation strategies have positive effects on communities. However, the disconnect between the Lasting resilience is only possible if community- private sector, the government, and communities has based strategies are seen as a core part of often led to negative outcomes (Limthongsakul et al. governmental and private sector efforts. For 2017). Yet once an extreme event passes, federal, state example, a study by Julio-Miranda et al. (2018) and local governments often return to business as analyzed the efforts of a neighborhood in Mexico usual, leaving households and communities to plan for WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? FOCUS ON URBAN FLOODS  9 the next event. this observation would be that cities view community-level adaptation as integral to their mitigation and adaptation efforts, instead of being small, local, parallel, and separate. Third, it is the abiding responsibility of city governments to know who is likely to be left out of efforts towards city resilience, through which channels, and in which ways. The premise of the World Bank’s inclusion framework is to ask the right questions for the best possible interventions (World Bank 2013). The Social Inclusion Assessment Tool Conclusion (SiAT) provides four simple guiding questions for ex- ante analysis, both in response to catastrophic events This note provides three clear policy (as a part of the post-disaster needs assessment), and takeaways: more importantly, during times of stability, to help plan First, municipal governance and capacity are for both chronic and severe flooding (World Bank n.d.). necessary preconditions for city resilience. The The SiAT is meant to help policy makers, development causes of urban floods need to be addressed practitioners, and communities assess how social upstream. In other words, mitigation is in some inclusion can be addressed in projects, programs, cases even more important than adaptation. For policies, or analysis. example, cities should ensure that solid-waste In conclusion, this note is intended to spark management is well-organized, clear mandates discussion and debate about how social inclusion exist for service delivery, and good regulations are can become intrinsic to building urban resilience. in place and enforced effectively and transparently. It is imperative to have more structured and informed They should additionally address the distortions in conversations between a variety of state and non- land and housing markets. Sustainable city resilience state actors, so as to have greater impact on both can only be built on a robust system of adaptation and mitigation efforts in urban areas. municipal governance, where functions Ultimately, the conversation needs to be about and responsibilities of different tiers of preventing chronic flooding and catastrophic events. governance are clearly delineated. 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Inclusion Matters: The Foundation of Shared Norris, Fran H., Susan P. Stevens, Betty Pfefferbaum, Karen F. Wyche, Prosperity. Washington, DC: World Bank. and Rose L. Pfefferbaum. 2008. “Community Resilience as a Metaphor, Theory, Set of Capacities, and Strategy for Disaster Readiness.” ———.2014. An Expanded Approach to Urban Resilience: Making American Journal of Community Psychology 41 (1–2): 127–50. Cities Stronger. Washington, DC: World Bank. O’Neill, H. Katherine, Andrew J. McLean, Renetta Kalis, and James ———. N. d. “The Social Inclusion Assessment Tool (SiAT).” http:// M. Shultz. 2016. “Disaster Averted: Community Resilience in the pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/478071540591164260/SiAT-Logo-web.pdf. Face of a Catastrophic Flood.” Disaster Health 3 (3): 67–77. Oliver-Smith, Anthony. 1999. “Lima, Peru: Underdevelopment and Vulnerability to Hazards in the City of the Kings.” Crucibles Endnotes of Hazard: Mega-cities and Disasters in Transition. 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Data are from Indonesia’s National Disaster Management Agency 2 (Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana – BNPB). Smith, Fred, Emma Jolley, and Elena Schmidt. 2012. “Disability and Disasters: The Importance of an Inclusive Approach to Vulnerability The Rapid Social Response (RSR) - Grant for Disaster Relief 3 and Social Capital.” Sightsavers, Haywards Heath, UK. https://www. and Reconstruction (GFDRR) partnership at the World Bank has sistemaprotezionecivile.it/allegati/1476_Disability_and_disasters.pdf. helped support a variety of activities in countries with varying degrees of social protection systems. Solow, Robert M. 1991. “25. Sustainability: An Economist’s A new World Resources Institute paper (Elias-Trostmann, et al. 4 Perspective.” Economics of the Environment: Selected Readings. 2019) introduces the Urban Community Resilience Assessment (UCRA), a planning tool designed to help cities measure various Stymne, Susanna, and Tim Jackson. 2000. “Intra-generational needs for climate resilience. Equity and Sustainable Welfare: A Time Series Analysis for the UK and Sweden.” Ecological Economics 33 (2): 219–36. Community-based Livelihood Support for the Urban Poor project, 5 http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P143770/community-based- Tarisayi, Kudzayi. 2014. “Assessment of the Impact of Floods on livelihood-support-urban-poor?lang=en. People Living with Disabilities in Masvingo Province, Zimbabwe.” https://ssrn.com/abstract=2491645 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ ssrn.2491645. 12  WHAT DOES SOCIAL INCLUSION MEAN FOR A RESILIENT CITY? 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