WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUM3ER 149
FISHERIES SERIES
Fisheries and Aquaculture Research
Capabilities and Needs in Africa
Studies of Kenya, Malawif Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Mauritania, Morocco, and Senegal
The World Bank/United Nations Development Programme/Commission
of the European Communities/Food and Agriculture Organization
000.00X,$<f.   AC00000V0 7  ;01



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Booklet
Study of International Fishery Research: Summary Report



WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 149
FISHERIES SERIES
Fisheries and Aquaculture Research
Capabilities and Needs in Africa
Studies of Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe,
Mauritania, Morocco, and Senegal
The World Bank/United Nations Development Programme/Commission
of the European Communities/Food and Agriculture Organization
The World Bank
Washington, D.C.



Copyright © 1991
The International Bank for Reconstruction
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ISSN: 0253-7494
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Fisheries and aquaculture research capabilities and needs in Africa:
studies of Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Mauritania, Morocco,
and Senegal / the World Bank ... [et al.].
p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper; no. 149) (Fisheries
series)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0-8213-1853-5
1. Fisheries-Research-Africa. 2. Aquaculture-Research-Africa.
I. Series. II. Series: Fisheries series.
SH332.2.A35F57 1991
338.3'727096-dc 20                                    91-27796
CIP



ABSTRACT
This Technical Report contains the results of two missions. One mission deals with the state of fisheries and
aquaculture research as well as research needs in four countries in Southeastern Africa: Kenya, Malawi,
Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Following an analysis of relevant criteria for evaluating fisheries and aqua-
culture research, an account is given of the factors affecting the effectiveness of research in the four
countries covered by the mission and also more generally in subsaharan Africa. A discussion of how such
constraints could be addressed forms the subject matter of the next section. The Report then provides a
description of a successful fishery research institution in Mozambique and analyzes the possible reasons for
its success. The comprehensive annexes provide the mission's country-specific findings.
The second mission report deals with fisheries and aquaculture research capabilities and usefulness in
Northwest Africa: Mauritania, Morocco and Senegal. The report starts out with a description of the
importance of northwest African fisheries for national economies. It then examines research needs and
priorities taking into account past experiences and research objectives. Following this, the report deals with
the ways and means of developing successful research. General conclusions on the status of fisheries and
aquaculture research as well as priority areas for international aid are also presented.
v



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Members of the Mission are grateful to the following agencies for supporting this study:
Multilateral Agencies: (Steering Committee) The World Bank; United Nations Development Programme;
Commission of the European Communities; and Food and Agriculture Organization.
Bilateral Agencies: DANIDA - Danish International Development Agency; AIDAB - Australian Interna-
tional Development Assistance Bureau; ICOD - International Centre for Ocean Development (Canada);
NORWAY: ICEIDA - Icelandic International Development Agency; SIDA - Swedish International De-
velopment Authority; ODA - Overseas Development Administration (United Kingdom); ITALY;
FRANCE; USAID - United States Agency for International Development; THE NETHERLANDS; GTZ -
Deutsche Gesellshaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (Germany).
vi



FOREWORD
This Technical Paper is one of seven mission and working group reports prepared during the Study of
International Fishery Research (SIFR) in 1989-90. The juxtaposition of potentially high socio-economic
benefits from fisheries and the relatively low level of success achieved in fisheries development projects has
been a matter of serious concern and challenge to the donor comnuunity as well as to national fishery
administrations. In view of this, the First Fishery Development Donor Consultation held in 1986 decided to
undertake a Study of International Fishery Research to determine ways in which research could bring
about improvements. This comprehensive effort has now been completed, thanks especially to the effective
financial support of a group of multilateral and bilateral donors and the essential intellectual contributions
made by virtually hundreds of professionals from academia, fishery administrations and donors who were
associated with various stages of the Study.
The objectives of the Study were to identify the specific constraints to fisheries management and develop-
ment (including aquaculture) posed by the lack of information or the inaccessibility of existing knowledge;
to determine high priority research needs; to examine the capacity of developing countries to undertake
research; and to propose a strategy and an action plan for improving donor support. It was carried out
through a series of missions and by four working groups which addressed specific research topics under
the direction of a Study Team Leader and a Deputy. SIFR identified a number of key strategic research areas
which are vital for the future development of the sector. Institutes in developing countries may not
immediately be able to carry out all of this research, but the Study clearly identifies them as the ultimate
beneficiaries of its thrust. In the meantime, countries with important fishery resources and the willingness
to further develop their research for improved management and sustainable use of their resources should
be assisted in drawing up national research agendas and building up their capacities. In this context, the
findings of regional missions are a useful starting point. This volume contains the reports of missions to
Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Mauritania, Morocco and Senegal and is intended as back-
ground information to support the main Study which is being published as "Study of International Fishery
Research".
I wish to express my sincere thanks to the fisheries researchers, and fishery administrators in developing
countries, as well as the leaders and members of the missions and Steering and Advisory committees for
their vigorous effort and thoughtful contributions. It is my sincere hope that these Technical Papers will
prove stimulating and provide practical guidance to donors, research institutions and fishery administra-
tions in making progress toward sustainable resource utilization and the realization of new opportunities
from fisheries and aquaculture in developing countries.
Michel J. Petit
Director, Agriculture and Rural Development Department
vii



ACRONYMS
ASFA         Aquatic Science and Fisheries Research Abstracts
CCCE         Caise Centrale de Cooperation Economique, France
CECAF        FAO Committe for East Central Atlantic Fisheries
CIDA         Canadian International Development Agency
DIFMAQ       Diploma Course in Fishery Management and Aquaculture
FAO          Food and Agriculture Organization
IFAD         International Fund for Agriculture Development
ICLARM       International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management
IDPE         Institute for the Development of Small Scale Fisheries, Mozambique
IIP          Instituto de Investigacao Pesqueira
IUCN         International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
JFRD         Joint Fishery Research Organization
KMFRI        Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute
ODA          Overseas Development Administration
SADCC        Southern Africa Development Co-ordination Conference
SIFR         Study of International Fishery Research
UNDP         United Nations Development Program
WWF          World Wildlife Fund
viii



TABLE OF CONTENTS
FISBRIES ANDAQUACULTURE RESEARCH CAPABILITIES AND NEEDS 1N SOUTHFASTERNAFRICA:
STUDIES OF KENYA, MALAWI, MOZAMBIQUE AND ZIMBABWE  1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................... 3
1. INTRODUCTION   ..................                                ......................................  5
MISSION PURPOSE AND IMPLEMENTATION   ................................ 5
Fisheries ........................................................                                   6
Aquaculture ......................                   .................................. 7
2. ON RESEARCH FOR FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE SUPPORT
IN  SOUTHEASTERN  AFRICA  ..........................................................   8
THE STATE OF FISHERY RESEARCH   .............                               ............................ 8
MAJOR CONSTRAINTS  ......................................................   8
Institutional Arrangements ..................................................... 8
Personnel ........................................................                                   9
Funding ........................................................                                     9
Anti-research Attitudes ........................................................ 10
THE NEED  TO  SUPPORT INDIVIDUAL SCIENTISTS   ......................... 10
The Logic  .....................                  ................................... 10
Potentially Useful Support Schemes ..........................................11
Remarks on Academic Fellowships ........................................ 12
SOME NEW ARRANGEMENTS FOR SUPPORTING FISHERIES RESEARCH .... 13
Research Contracts ...................................... 13
Changed Status for Research and Development Projects ............                   .............. 13
On Recruiting Non-biologists to Do Fisheries Research ........................... 14
A FUNCTIONING LABORATORY: THE INSTITUTO DE INVESTIGACAO
PESQUERIA IN MAPUTO (MOZAMBIQUE) . . ................................. 14
Institutional Aspects  ..............                  .............................. 14
Assigned Tasks .............................................. 14
Staff Education and Cohesion  .......................................... .... 15
Financial Incentives   ..............                  .............................. 15
External Contacts ............................................                                      15
The Lesson to be Learned . ............................................. 15
Annex I
Mission Itinerary   .......................................................  16
Annex II
General Terms of Reference of Missions to Assess
Countries Research Capacities ........................................................ 17
Annex III
Checklist for Evaluation of National Research Agendas ...........                             ...........................  18
Annex IV
Names and Affiliations of Contacted Persons  .                    ..............................................  21
ix



Annex V
Mission Findings by Countries
1. KENYA   ...........................................................................    24
GENERAL BACKGROUND   ...............                          ................................... 24
FISHERIES RESEARCH . ...................................................... 24
AQUACULTURE RESEARCH   .............                           ................................... 26
2. MALAWI  ............................................................................  28
GENERAL BACKGROUND    ................................................. 28
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ON FISHERIES RESEARCH   .....                                         ............... 28
EXTERNAL SUPPORT TO RESEARCH   .......................................  29
Project for the Promotion of Integrated Fishery Development Stock Assessment
Program (1972-76; funding: UNDP; implementation: FAO) ........................ 29
Fisheries Extension Project (1977-82; funding: UNDP; implementation: FAO) ....... 29
Traditional Fisheries Assessment Project (1986; funding: Overseas Development
Administration (UK)/Malawi Government) ...................................... 29
Demersal Fisheries Assessment Project (1989; funding: ODA and
the Malawi Government) ...................................................... 30
Ornamental Fish Trade Assessment Project (1975-83; funding: South Africa) ..... ... 30
Conservation of Threatened Fish Communities in Lake Malawi National Park
(1984-86; funding: IUCNIWWF)  ................................................ 30
Bangula Lagoon Study (1975-76; funding: ODA)  ................................. 30
Feeding Ecology of Cormorants on Lake Malawi (1978-81; funding: ODA) .....                  ..... 30
Other Externally Funded Projects ............................................... 31
FISHERIES DEPARTMENT RESEARCH PROGRAMS UNDERTAKEN
WITH EXTERNAL FUNDING   ................................................ 31
Lower Shire Fisheries Research Project (1970-78; funding:
Malawi Government and ODA  ................................................. 31
Karonga Baseline Survey (1978-81; Funding:
Malawi Government and ODA ................................................. 31
Lake Chilwa Coordinated Research Project (1966-76; funding:
Leverhulme Trust/University of MalawiIMG/ODA/WENELAJ...).. 32
ONGOING  INTERNAL RESEARCH PROGRAMS  ............................. 32
Commercial Fisheries Studies ..................             ................................ 32
Taxonomic Research  .......................................................... 32
"USIPA" Studies  ............................................................. 32
Lake Chiuta Studies ........................................................... 33
"Mpasa" (Opsaridium microlepsis) Research Program  .......                   ..................... 33
Fisheries Bibliography Compilation  ............................................ 33
River Fisheries  .............................................................. 33
Anadromous Fisheries Study  ..................              ................................ 33
AQUACULTURE RESEARCH   ...............                           .................................  33
CONSTRAINTS IN FISHERIES RESEARCH  ................................... 34
FISHERIES ADMINISTRATION   ............                           ................................. 35
CONCLUSIONS   ............................................................   35
3. MOZAMBIQUE ............................................................... 37
GENERAL BACKGROUND .                         ................................................. 37
x



FISHERIES RESEARCH  .              ..................................................... 38
The Instituto de Investigacao Pesquiera (IIP) .........         ........................... 38
The Institute for the Development of Small Scale Fisheries  ......         ................. 40
The Department of Biology in the E. Mondlane University ......            .................. 41
AQUACULTURE RESEARCH  ..............                       .................................. 41
Freshwater Aquaculture . ....................................................... 41
Mariculture  ................................................................. 42
4. ZIMBABWE .................................................................. 45
GENERAL BACKGROUND  .................                      ................................. 45
FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE RESEARCH   ............................... 46
THE ZAMBIA-ZIMBABWE SADCC (LAKE KARIBA) PROJECT   .....                                 ........... 47
Annex VI
Note on Past Activities and Present State of Fisheries Research in Uganda  .....                   ................ 49
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND   ............                        .................................. 49
PRESENT SITUATION   .              ..................................................... 51
MAJOR CONSTRAINTS ...................................................... 52
FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE RESEARCH CAPABILIIES AND NEEDS IN NORTHWESTAFRICA:
STUDIES OF MAURITANIA, MOROCCO AND SENEGAL    53
1. INTRODUCTION   .................................................................   55
ORGANIZATION OF THE MISSION  ..........                          ............................... 55
THE IMPORTANCE OF NORTHWEST AFRICAN FISHERIES
IN COASTAL COUNTRIES' ECONOMIES  .................................... 55
2. RESEARCH NEEDS AND PRIORITIES  ...............                         .................................. 57
PAST EXPERIENCE   .            ........................................................ 57
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES . .................................................... 57
RESEARCH PRIORITIES  .                ................................................... 58
3. WAYS AND MEANS FOR DEVELOPING SUCCESSFUL RESEARCH  .....                                        ................ 60
REQUIREMENTS AT NATIONAL LEVEL  ..................................... 60
OPPORTUNITIES FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION  .......................... 60
PRIORITIES FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION  ......................... 61
ADEQUATE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK  ................................ 62
PUBLIC VERSUS PRIVATE RESEARCH   ...................................... 62
4. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON THE STATUS OF
FISHERIES RESEARCH  ..............................................................  64
5. PRIORITY AREAS FOR INTERNATIONAL AID  ........................................ 66
IMPROVING THE RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH   .............................. 66
IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF RESEARCH   ................................. 66
xi



IMPROVING THE USE OF RESEARCH  ....................................... 67
Fisheries Management ..............                 ............................. 67
Development ............................................ 67
IMPROVING THE CREDIBILITY OF RESEARCH  ..                              ........................... 67
Annex I
Terms of Reference of the Mission  ......................................................   69
Annex II
Participants at the Casablanca Meeting
(21 -26 August 1989)  .................                   .......................................  70
Annex III
Names and Affiliations of Contacted Persons in Morocco  ...........                    ......................... 71
Annex IV
Documentation Reviewed by the Mission  .................................................. 72
xii



MISSION:
7-26 January 1990
MEMBERS:
Daniel Pauly (Leader)
Taddeus 0. Acere
Chris Newton
Michel Vincke






EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This document, an input to the Study of International Fishery Research (SIFR1), is a report on the state of
fisheries research and fisheries research needs in four countries in Southeastern Africa: Kenya, Malawi,
Mozambique and Zimbabwe. It is based on field visits of a mission from 7-26 January, 1990:
Messrs. D. Pauly,           ICLARM2, Manila, Philippines,
Fishery biologist,
Mission Leader,
T.O. Acere                  UFFRO3, Jinja, Uganda,
Fishery biologist,
C. Newton,                  Department of Fisheries, FAO, Rome (Italy)
Fisheries economist,
M. Vincke                   Department of Fisheries, FAO, Rome, Italy
Aquaculture biologist.
Following a brief presentation (Chapter I) of relevant criteria for evaluating fisheries and aquaculture
research, an account is given (Chapter II) of the factors affecting the effectiveness of research in the
countries visited and, more generally, in Subsaharan Africa. Some conventional and unconventional
schemes through which such constraints could be reduced are presented. They are all structured around
the concept that fishery research is a scientific endeavor, performed by skilled individuals, rather than by
the institutions that employ them. Chapter II concludes with a description of an effective fishery research
institution, the Instituto de Investigacao Pesqueira (IIP) in Maputo, Mozambique, and a brief tentative
analysis of possible reasons for this achievement.
A comprehensive set of Annexes is provided. They give details on the mission's country-specific findings.
(i) Kenya
The ambiguous role of the Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) and its location in a
ministry different from that of the Department of Fisheries raise questions on the effectiveness of
fishery research. The research agendas and structure of KMFRI do not seem to match adequately
national research needs and opportunities: although 90% of Kenya fisheries catches stem from inland
waters, especially Lake Victoria, most human resources are concentrated in the Mombasa Headquar-
ters, where "basic" research of dubious relevance to present fishery problems is conducted; at the
same time, the Kisumu station on the Lake Victoria is starved of direction and means.
(ii) Malawi
The fisheries and aquaculture research conducted in that country appears appropriate, but is clearly
donor-driven. It is not obvious that, in the future, local staff and funds will be available to maintain
current activities. Furthermore, owing to lack of means, important research opportunities, e.g. on
prospects and ways to enhance the Lake Malawi fish production, are not addressed.
1 For a presentation of SIFR, the reader is invited to refer to:
SIFR, 1898 - "Assessing Fisheries research needs in Developing Countries. An Approach and a
Framework". First meeting of the Advisory Commnittee, Washington, DC, USA, 15-17 May 1989.
2 International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management
3 Uganda Freshwater Fisheries Research Organization, Jinja, Uganda.
3



(iii) Mozambique
The number of qualified graduates staffing the various fishery research institutions in that country
appear to be, besides the security situation, the major factor limiting fisheries and aquaculture
research. On the other hand, the mission identified the Instituto de Investigacao Pesqueira (HIP) in
Maputo as an effective fishery research institution and indicates several factors explaining its effec-
tiveness.
(iv) Zimbabwe
The major factors limiting fisheries and aquaculture research appear to be the administrative tug of
war between various governmental departments, involved in fisheries research and development, the
limited supply of graduates, and the lack of a clear-cut aquaculture development plan.
(v) Uganda
An Annex on fisheries research in Uganda is added. Although the country was not visited by the
mission, it is where one mission member spent his working life. National research capabilities have
been severely affected by the recent political instability and violence. They still are seriously con-
strained by a general lack of means.
4



1. INTRODUCTION
MISSION PURPOSE AND IMPLEMENTATION
The present report is a contribution to the Study of International Fishery Research (SIFR4), whose objective
is to assess: (i) the fisheries research needs in developing countries, (ii) the capacity of those countries to
undertake the investigations that are needed, and (iii) ways and means to improve the effectiveness of
international aid to fishery research in the Third World.
The Study assessed the research capacities of developing countries through a series of field mnissions. The
present report presents the findings of a mission which visited Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique and
Zimbabwe, from the 7th to 27th January 1990 (see Annex I for itinerary). It analyzes, in the light of the
mission's terms of references (Annex II), the information collected by the authors on the state of fishery
research5 in the four countries.
The SIFR did not undertake a census of fisheries research conducted in all developing countries. Rather, for
each developing continent, two groups of countries thought to be representative of a broader region were
selected. The four countries visited in Southeastern Africa include two with marine fisheries and two that
are landlocked. In all of them, inland and small scale fisheries are particularly important, on both social and
economnic terms.
Just as the "sample" of four countries visited is intended to represent a larger region (Southeastern Africa),
the information gathered during the short visits may be viewed as a small "sample" of what could have
coRlected, had the mission been longer in the field.
In addition to relying on consensus statements resulting from various recent conferences, the mission relied
on the direct experience that several of its members had of the state of research in the area to correct for
unavoidable biases in its sample. Indeed, the mission did not hesitate to inject, throughout the document,
its own views and interpretations, since there was no other way to make sense of the limited information
collected.
The mission does not consider, however, this approach to be a questionable aspect of its work. Scientific
research is complex and, thus, difficult to evaluate, guide or improve. It may well be that a subjective, but
reasoned argument, will end up being more relevant than an inexperienced interpretation of a mass of
quantitative data.
Criteria for Evaluating Fisheries and Aquaculture Research
The following suggestions were made ahead of this mission by Mr.Jean-Paul Troadec, SIFR Team Leader,
to the Mission Leader. These may be viewed as giving focus to the mission's term of reference:
(i)  "The chief purpose of the mission is to assess the potential contribution of research to develop-
ment, and the ways and means to enhance such conditions in the context of the region; it is not
to assess the conditions of development as such".
4 Study of International Fishery Research: for a general presentation of the Study, please refer to the
following document;
SIFR, 1989 - "Assessing Fisheries Research Needs in Developing Countries. An Approach and a
Framework". First Meeting of the the Advisory committee, Washington, DC, USA, May 15-171989.
5 In this document, fishery research refers both to capture fishery and aquaculture research; which
meaning is meant will be obvious from the context.
5



(ii) "If research contributes to development, it is also an output of the latter. Conditions for effective
research are difficult to create in Africa. In several countries, there has been a downfall of
research capabilities. The reasons are many, some within our reach, some outside. The mnission
should give particular attention to these aspects and come, if possible, to innovative but sound
proposals on ways (national, regional, international) to effectively strengthen African research
capabilities in the field of fisheries and aquaculture".
The mission found these points rather useful and shall return to them throughout its report, and particu-
larly in Chapter II which presents the mission's general conclusions.
Before presenting the major findings and conclusions of the mission, a brief introduction on the potential
role and contribution of fisheries research to development will be given. Research needs differ between
capture fisheries and aquaculture, if one goes beyond the trivially true point that research and hence,
knowledge are "good things". The aim here is to narrow down the long "checklist for evaluation of
research programs" provided to the mission (Annex Il) and to make evaluation criteria explicit.
Fisheries
Capture fisheries exploit living and, hence, renewable resources. In the overwhelming majority of cases,
fisheries resources are "common property". In many cases, they are also "open access" - i.e., fishing licenses
are not needed, or available at nominal fees, or other entry limitations are not effectively enforced. Open
and free access generally implies competition for the resources which, in an unregulated fishery, leads
ultimately to biological and economic overfishing. The former has different effects (growth or recruitment
overfishing with regard to single species, ecosystem overfishing with regard to a multispecies resource).
Economic overfishing is also multifaceted. When one considers the first boat operating in a fishery,
"trouble" actually begins when a second unit starts fishing and, thus, reducing the biomass (and hence,
catch/effort and, hence, economic returns) available to the first unit. The process of progressive reduction
of the resource culminates when there are so many units in the fishery that fishing boats cannot manage in
average to break even and fishery operators clamor loudly for subsidies (e.g., in the form of tax reductions
on fuel or gear, subsidies for the renewal of fishing boats. or even in the form of more research and
management).
At the level of society, trouble begins when the difference between the total revenue in a fishery and the
total costs of fishing - i.e., the net economic yield or resource rent, starts to decline. Fisheries resources rents
can be considerable, but are dissipated in unmanaged fisheries. This dassical form of economic overfishing
is discussed at length in manuals on fisheries economics. It puts emphasis on fishing units - generally an
"industrial" vessel and, hence, economic returns to capital. Recently, the need has emerged, in conjunction
with development conditions in poor countries, to define and use a concept of overfishing relating to what
happens because of massive rural poverty and landlessness: "Malthusian overfishing" refers to the effects
on coastal marine and inland fisheries of rapid increase of fisherfolk6 due to population growth, landless-
ness and internal migrations.
The points above imply a general task for public fishery research institutions to provide their paymaster,
i.e., the government, technical advice for managing the country's fisheries (in order of importance):
(i)  maintaining the productivity of fish stocks since, when there is no stock left, there is no fishery,
no need to bother with its optimization;
6 "Fisherfolk" refers to both fishermen and fisherwomen: in shallow water systems, artisanal
fisherwomen and children often catch or glean a substantial part of the communities production.
6



(ii) maintaining the economic profitability of the fishery: developing countries cannot afford to
subsidize their fisheries - i.e., to transfer financial resources from other economic sectors to
fisheries; on the contrary, because their economies are little diversified, the major source of
investments available to them for developing new economic sectors and the building of infra-
structure - including education or health, comes from the exploitation of their natural ressour-
ces; it is, therefore, critical that such exploitation be efficient;
(iii) matching the activities of the fishery sector with the country's overall development plan - e.g.,
via the elaboration of local fish processing capacities, or fish export ventures, of fisherfolk
community development schemes, etc.
Some fisheries resources of Southeastern Africa appear to be underexploited - particularly in inland
water bodies in which a combination of factors (remoteness, lack of suitable gear and craft, lack of
markets, or insecure conditions) have affected the building of fishing capacities. To account for such
cases, the above list of tasks of research institutes must also indude:
(iv) the evaluation of the potential yields of underutilized water bodies, taking the need for resource
conservation into account;
(v)  the adoption and improvement of suitable fishing gear and craft combinations (e.g., through
fishing trials), as well as of processing methods and marketing;
(vi) technical assistance for the formulation of development schemes that allows a phased growth of
the fisheries, and readjustments of sustained yields and corresponding levels of effort.
Aquaculture
In Africa, numerous earlier ventures have failed because they were not integrated into the rural and
agricultural economy surrounding them. This observation, and the recommendations made in a number of
mnissions and conferences reports identify the following three areas as priorities for freshwater aquaculture
research in the region:
(i) integration of aquaculture with agriculture: research on freshwater aquaculture in Southeastern
Africa should have farmers as the ultimate target groups; this should be reflected in the planned
schemes for fingerling supply, processing, marketing, etc.; it implies also that the relevant
investigations should be performed, not only by biologists, but involve economists, rural sociol-
ogists, and experienced agricultural extension officers;
(ii) for a successful integration of aquaculture to agriculture, farms must have readily available
by-products of agricultural production (e.g., maize bran) for direct feeding of the stocked fish, or
wastes (e.g., manure) for pond fertilization. Investigations on feeding prtotocols is a priority.
(iii) to fulfill the above conditions, the choice of suitable species and strains, either for single species
or multispecies culture, is critical; constraints in this respect come from legislation on imports,
previous introductions, and the difficulties inherent in conducting genetic research; species
selection and genetics are other important areas of research in support of small scale aquaculture
development.
Research priorities (i.e., evaluation criteria) will not be presented for marine aquaculture (mariculture),
because this sub-sector is too heterogenous to warrant such treatment. In addition, it concerns two of the
visited countries only. Instead, the mission attempted to assess local needs and opportunities for maricul-
ture research by comparison with similar systems elsewhere.
7



2. ON RESEARCH FOR FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE SUPPORT
IN SOUTHEASTERN AFRICA
THE STATE OF FISHERYRESEARCH
The majority of institutions in charge of fisheries research in the four countries visited by the mission (and
in Uganda) do not perform the tasks outlined in the above chapter. Specifically, fishery management
options are not identified and quantified, nor are fishery management plans formulated. Certain develop-
ment opportunities are not investigated. As for aquaculture research, fisheries research has failed to have a
local impact in all countries visited. Most fishery or aquaculture research consists of isolated projects,
largely disconnected from the sectors major needs, and from the mainstream of fishery science in general.
Specific examples are given in Annexes V and VI of this document. Many reasons could be given for the
apparent failure of fishery research to take root and perform a useful role in national development. In the
following, we shall address some of the constraints which have contributed to the present situation.
MAJOR CONSTRAINTS
Although short, the mission was able to identify the following factors as major impediments against
research effectiveness:
(i) problematic institutional arrangements and policies,
(ii) lack of trained personnel and questionable personnel policies,
(iii) lack of operating funds, and
(iv) a basic misunderstanding among most fisheries administrators of what fishery research is and
can do, leading to an attitude which may be called "anti-research".
In the following section, we expand on and illustrate items (i) to (iv), above dealing with constraints to
research, and then present some ideas, some conventional, some less so, which, if implemented, could help
overcome these constraints.
Institutional Arrangements
Foremost among the constraints facing fisheries research in Southeastern Africa are inappropriate institu-
tional arrangements, resulting in a lack of cooperation or even competition among governmental research
institutions.
For the conduct of effective research programs, a critical mass of scientists must be built up, either within an
institution or by pooling the resources from several institutions. Competition between research groups may
be viewed as being one of the strength of research in developed countries. However, in developing
countries with very limited scientific means, such competition cannot only have a devastating impact when
it occurs between small groups, each of which is too small for a sustained qualified research effort.
In at least two countries visited by the mission, strong evidence of the crippling effect of interagency
competition was observed.
One specific form of institutional cooperation that appears crucial is that between universities and the
institute in charge of fishery research (or analogue) witiin the Department of Fisheries (or analogue).
8



Only in one country (Mozambique), did we find university-institute relationships leading to a positive
impact on research - i.e., institute staff lecturing at the university and acting as "field supervisors" of
students working on research topics related to fisheries.
In the other countries visited by the mission, there appears to be a serious communication gap between
universities and fishery research institutions, ranging all the way down to the perception that the universi-
ties function essentially as playgrounds for would-be Ph.D.s and whose "basic" research is by definition
irrelevant to fisheries research and management - or national economic development for that matter.
Personnel
The four countries visited by the mission do not suffer from the same personnel problem as far as junior
technical staff is concerned. Thus, Kenya, whose university has been producing aquatic biology graduates
for quite a while, has a much larger pool from which to recruit fishery research personnel, than Zimbabwe
or especially Mozambique, where graduates are a rare and precious conmmodity, carefully allocated be-
tween different government departments, and nurtured by those departments which received them.
However, all the four countries visited by the mission suffer from the same dearth of Ph.D.-level scientists
contributing on a sustained basis to the scientific and development literature.
The extent to which this problem is addressed, or even recognized, varies considerably between and within
the various countries visited, ranging from the view that Ph.D.-level research is "useless" to a clear
recognition of this problem, matched by well-structured programs of staff development.
From this diversity of views, the mission concluded that the SIFR should be wary of simply restating the
need for 'more" personnel, but that is should deal instead with the more thorny issue of the development
of top-level researchers, and of the institutional, career, financial and other arrangements which would
enable fisheries research institutes to attract and retain good scientists. This point explains why the report
deals at some length, further below, with the Instituto de Investigacao Pesquiera, in Maputo, Mozambique,
and the need to support individual scientists, rather than the institutions that house them.
One aspect of personnel development that may appear as a side issue, but is still worth mentioning, is the
retirement age of scientists. It can be as low as 50 years in some countries of the region visited by the
mnission. Certainly, such early retirement of experienced, well-trained staff should not be mandatory, and
the option should exist for such staff to continue to be productive, at least into their 60s.
Funding
One doesn't really need a field mission to know that funding for fisheries research may be too low in
Southeastern Africa for investigations to be effective, since this is a situation prevailing throughout the
developing world.
Some important points specifically relevant to this report are:
(i)  Over 30 countries in Africa are implementing structural readjustment programs promoted by
the World Bank, the IMF, and other international agencies. These programs are designed to
improve the output of the productive sectors, particularly exports, while emphasizing fiscal
restraints through cuts in public expenditures on health and social programs, primary eduction,
research and higher education. Some governments have openly declared that education and
research are not priorities in their development programs.
9



(ii) Fisheries research receives a very small share of the national budgets and also from the donor
agencies, given that about 50% of the animal protein consumed in the area covered by the
mission comes from fish.
(iii) The separation of fisheries research institutions from the sectoral fisheries ministries forces
donors to deal excdusively with the national fisheries departments for the identification and
funding of research projects. These arrangements are not operational and have led to continuous
losses in scientific leadership and personality conflicts.
Anti-research Attitudes
The strong words in this heading are used to describe a mind set, encountered among several fisheries
administrators in the countries visited by the mission, which not only do not appreciate the potential
contribution of research to the sector development, but actually cripple research by assigning its execution
to non-scientific personnel (technicians, extensionists), providing marginal means to research investiga-
tions and then blaming "the researchers" for not delivering anything useful.
The mission found this attitude quite widespread among fishery administrators, and considers this mind
set to be one of the key reasons why fishery research is not progressing in the region and contributing to the
sector's economic progress. The problem is compounded by the ease with which one can - at the verbal
level - distinguish between basic (i.e., "useless") and applied (i.e., "useful") research.
Indeed, most of the mission's interlocutors condemned "basic" research for its utter uselessness, which
"our country cannot afford", and stressed the need for "practical and useful research", such as needed "to
feed our growing population". These are ritual incantations which hide the key feature of fishery research
as presently conducted throughout the region - i.e., the fact that it is largely bad research, conducted in
isolation from the mainstream of the relevant scientific disciplines and based on paradigms and methods
that are often several decades old.
When poorly conducted, "applied" research which aims to develop implementable solutions is as "useless"
as decidedly basic research. Basic research that deals with long-resolved issues is, on the other hand,
probably less instructive than high school science experiments.
The key issue here is that contemporary fishery research, whether basic or applied, ought to be quantitative
- i.e., refer to state and/or rate variables whose values are estimated from appropriate fisheries data - and
relevant - i.e., address to major opportnuties and constraints for economic and social development. Com-
puters needed to perform quantitative analyses appear to be available throughout most institutions in the
region. KMFRI, for example, has six in its Mombasa headquarters (but only one at Kisumu). The reason
why quantitative analyses are not performed in sufficient numbers, and/or are not of adequate standard, is
related to the lack of high calibre scientists who could guide their younger colleagues into such analyses.
The IIP of Maputo has partly resolved this problem by maintaining close contacts with experts abroad, and
by inviting them to review its research programs. Schemes of this type ought to be promoted throughout
the region. This would imply new modes of operation for some research institutions and some donors.
THE NEED TO SUPPORTINDIVIDUAL SCIENTISTS
The Logic
For representatives of donor institutions which aim at supporting research in developing countries, it is
natural to support research institutions
10



Thus, laboratories are built, equipment purchased, and reports then written which document how research
has been boosted. However, research is conducted by individuals. Somebody has to see a need for a given
piece of investigation, formulate a hypothesis, and design an experimental protocol and a sampling
scheme. Somebody has to conduct the experiments or to collect the samples. Somebody has to analyze the
data. Somebody has to interpret them and write up the conclusions, and make sure that the report is
appropriately published and disseminated. "Anonymous", the most common author in the scientific
literature, has never been shown anywhere to be capable of doing any of these tasks. Only real persons can
actually conduct these tasks.
The notion that improving research institutions is sufficient for improving research implies that the heads
of institutions in question are really interested in seeing their younger staff conduct investigations and
publish findings. But often enough, this is not the case.
Indeed, the preponderance of senior scientists as authors of scientific publications and their near-exclusive
access to international scientific gatherings is one feature by which active and productive research institu-
tions in many developed countries differ from those in developing countries. Clearly, there is a role there
for external donors to support the professional development of young researchers.
Potentially Useful Support Schemes
A tool that could be used to augment the output of fishery researchers in the region is individual research
fellowships, such as those granted by the International Foundation for Science or the Asian Fisheries
Society Research Fellowship Awards. An equivalent African Fisheries Research Society does not exist yet
The following paragraphs, reproduced from a brochure of the Asian Fisheries Society, provide some details
on this scheme:
"Fisheries Science in Asia"
Active fisheries research in Asia began less than half a century ago and scientific data and publica-
tions from this research are limited. An analysis of recent publications in the Indo-Pacific region
reveals that only one-fifth of the overall literature consists of scientific articles, the majority of which
deal with taxonomy, distribution, ecology and other biological topics. Biotechnical and socio-eco-
nomic research work is scanty. There is little significant measurable impact of fisheries research on
fisheries development at the present time. The lack of dear direction in conducting strategic and basic
research to resolve fundamental problems encountered by the industry and inadequacy in research
design and methodologies are two of the major causes. These issues need to be addressed if Asian
fisheries scientists are to be in the forefront of the industry.
"Asian Fisheries Society Research Fellowship Scheme"
The Asian Fisheries Society Research Fellowship Scheme has the sole objective of upgrading the
quality of research of young fisheries scientists in developing nations in Asia. Research fellowships
will be awarded each year to a limited number of deserving young scientists to enable them to
conduct well-designed, properly planned research which will produce measurable outputs and add
to the wealth of scientific knowledge of relevance to fisheries development.
The Society encourages young scientists to embark on hypothesis-based, problem-oriented fisheries
research with technical assistance from members of a Panel of Scientific Advisers - eminent senior
scientists of the Society, whose functions are to critically assess research progress of the awardees and
to provide technical advice. Proposals are examined by a Research Proposal Review Committee,
consisting of senior scientists in the region. The Committee reviews applications each year to assess
11



and approve new applications or renewals. The Review Committee also monitors research progress
of Research Fellows and recommends ways to improve the Research Fellowship Scheme.
One of the visible outputs of the scheme is the development of a pool of professionally trained,
scientifically oriented fisheries scientists made up of alumni of the Research Fellowship Scheme. It is
hoped that this group of scientists will grow in number and make positive contributions to fisheries
research in the region. Outstanding Research Fellows whose research work could lead to further work
can be recommended by the Society for additional financial support from other donor agencies.
"The Fellowships"
Young scientists from nations in Asia are invited to submit research proposals for funding under the
Scheme. Awarding of fellowships is based on the nature and quality of the research proposals on a
competitive basis. Research projects should be up to one year duration. Extension of research fellow-
ships is possible for another year for longer projects and/or pending satisfactory performance but not
for more than a total of two years. The amount awarded will depend on the research proposal but will
not exceed US$10,000 per year. The selected scientists will be able to obtain regular advice and
assistance from at least two senior scientists whose field of specialization can help improve the
research work of the selected candidate. A member of the Review Committee or the Panel of Scientific
Advisers may visit the Research Fellow to assess and assist the progress of the research. Fellows are
expected to publish their Asian Fisheries Science. Outstanding Fellows may also be selected to present
their work at the triannual Asian Fisheries Forum.
The main target applicants are new Ph.D. or M.Sc. graduates. Applications from postgraduate stu-
dents doing research work leading to the Doctor of Philosophy or Master of Science degree are also
welcome.
"Criteria for Selection"
The proposed study must meet the following critexia:
- scientific merit,
- significance to fisheries research & development,
- uniqueness or innovative nature.
Competence of proponents is likewise considered and research capability of mother agency (in terms
of existing research facilities, etc."
A similar scheme would be immensely useful in the African context, in which research funds are even
scarcer than in Asia. As might be noticed, the fellowship scheme illustrated above is operated by a
professional society, the Asian Fisheries Society. Africa would immensely benefit as well from a well-or-
ganized stable professional society, which would eventually run a scientific journal meeting international
standards (as does the Asian Fisheries Society, whose journal, called "Asian Fisheries Science", is now in its
third year).
Remarks on Academic Fellowships
Some remarks regarding academic fellowship to degree-granting institution are also appropriate.
Students from African countries are encouraged to seek higher degrees in Europe and North America, and
sometimes in Asia. However, some of the receiving institutions are not really capable of fully accommodat-
ing the students they receive. To offer optimal conditions, receiving institutions should:
12



(i)  have at least one permanent faculty with a professional interest in tropical fisheries research;
(ii) allow students from developing countries to return to their respective countries for field data
collection - i.e., not involve them in research projects of local interest, e.g., on salmon or cod;
(iii) have limited, or staggered residence times, which fully take into account the course work
performed by the students before they started their studies abroad.
Justifications of the first two points are self-evident, although they are often overlooked. The last point is
particularly important for students from developing countries who tend to be older than their counterparts
in developed countries, and who are frequently married. In the case of married women (especially those
with small children), residence time in excess of a semester at a time is not feasible, a feature often ignored
in planning curricula, which thus, unintentionaly discriminate against married women.
SOME NEWARRANGEMENTS FOR SUPPORTING FISHERIES RESEARCH
Research Contracts
While some of the fishery research institutions and intemational arrangements supporting fisheries re-
search in the four countries visited do appear to work, future improvements of fishery research in the
region would depend on new arrangements. Research contracts are an example of such arrangements.
None of the research institutions in the region appears to execute research investigations on contract for
third parties (e.g., parastatal agencies, or the private sector). On the other hand, most research institutions
in developed countries have such contracts, and seek to augment their contribution to their total budget.
International funding agencies should investigate the possibility of supporting African fisheries research
institutions through allocation of research contracts. This would be particularly appropriate in those
countries where basic equipment is available, but is not maintained due to lack of operating funds.
On the part of the donor agency, such contracts would involve:
(i)  the identification of worthwhile research projects and of the basic requirements for their execu-
tion;
(ii) the assessment of proposals from the research institutions potentially capable of executing the
contracts;
(iii) the provision of scientific supervision - e.g., via scientific consultants, and auditing of expendi-
tures.
Beyond the research findings, the key output of such contracts would be that the group of researchers
completing the contract would have learnt to perform in a project-oriented environment, in which concise,
defensible results must be presented within a certain time frame.
Changed Status for Research and Development Projects
Another example of new arrangement that could usefully be considered would be for externally funded
fishery research and development projects to enjoy in the host country a status similar to that of private
firms which can recruit their own staff. This would allow the research projects, which would have to extend
over a period of at least a decade, to qualify and motivate their staff irrespective of civil service regulations.
Such research staff, upon completion of the projeet, would join either the government service, universities,
13



consulting firms, or NGOs, for which there is a great need in Africa where govermments monopolize all
science-related activities.
On Recruiting Non-biologists to Do Fisheries Research
In several countries visited by the mission, the supply of biology graduates is one of the factors hindering
fisheries research, and prospects for increased supply of qualified hydrobiologists and fishery biologists in
the next decades is not necessarily bright. This statement has two implications.
First, fisheries research institutions in the region should begin to enlarge the scope of their research
agendas, and hire social scientists - especially resource economists and sociologists. As described in
Chapter I, because fisheries and aquaculture research aims at enhancing the sector contribution to national
economies, it needs to have an important social science component which can be addressed competently
only by social scientists. This component has largely been overlooked so far. This has resulted in imbal-
ances in research agendas which must be redressed.
Second, fisheries institutes should also consider hiring engineering or other graduates with a strong
quantitative background for positions in fisheries research. The reason for this suggestion is that engineers
usually have a much better background in applied mathematics and use of technical apparatus than
fishery/aquatic biologists. This enables them to absorb quicldy the important quantitative elements of
fishery science, something which is not easily done by fishery biologists, whose output is often descriptive
and of limited use for resources management. This applies also to aquaculture research, in which zoologists
predominate. This suggestion is derived, among other things, from the observation that one of the leading
fisheries research institution in the world, Denmark's Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, has a
significant number of scientific staff with backgrounds in engineering and related disciplines.
A FUNCTIONING LABORATORY: THE INSTITUTO DE INVESTIGACAO
PESQUERIA INMAPUTO (MOZMBIQUE)
Among the research institutions that the mission visited, the Instituto de Investigacao Pesqueira (HIP) in
Maputo, Mozambique, is performing the bulk of the tasks that can be expected from a functioning fisheries
research institution (see Chapter I). Some of the factors of the UIP success are discussed, since they give clues
on ways and means to improve fishery research effectiveness in developing countries.
Institutional Aspects
IlP is placed directly under the Subsecretariat for Fisheries (SEP) which is the sole body in charge of
fisheries assessment, development and management in Mozambique. In several of the other countries
visited, the responsibility for fishery research and that for management are in distinct departments of the
same ministry, or even in different ministries, and coordinating mechanisms are weak or non-existent.
Assigned Tasks
IIP's task of assessing the (marine large scale) fisheries of Mozambique is dear and undiluted by subsidiary
tasks, such as performing biological oceanographic research, or dealing with pollution issues. This is in
stark contrast to Kenya Marine Fisheries Research Institute in Mombasa.
14



Staff Education and Cohesion
The senior scientific staff consists of a group of colleagues who have studied and graduated together, and
to whom the departure of Portuguese researchers following independence has offered unique opportuni-
ties for professional development. They have thus stayed at the Institute, while gradually picking up
increasing responsibilities. This group now provides the Director, other senior staff, and leaders of key
research projects. They also serve as mentors for junior staff.
Financial Incentives
IIP staff salaries are not particularly high. However, they are competitive with other job opportunities in
the country. Moreover, the Institute has an ongoing program to provide cars for senior staff, and this
appears as a strongly motivating factor, considering the lack of altemative options to acquire vehicles in
Mozambique. Staff can also effectively attend workshops and conferences abroad, as well as shorter
training courses.
There is an ongoing fellowship program for all staff to acquire additional degrees and this indudes Ph.D.'s
(the first Ph.D. candidate will probably be leaving for the U.K in 1991).
There appears to be no discrimrination against females. Indeed, the senior staff of TTP consists predomi-
nantly of females. This is in strong contrast to other institutions visited by the mission, where women were
largely invisible or held traditional roles (secretaries, clerks, etc.).
External Contacts
Another dearly identifiable factor for the success of UP is the quality of the professional advice it received
from NORAD. Particularly notable were:
(i) the scientific competence of the experts that were sent from Norway and who did their job,
together with their Mozambican counterparts;
(ii) the integrity of those experts, who did not take the opportunity to use the consultancy in
Mozambique to further their own researcxh interests, but rather concentrated on the problems
that were considered key issues in Mozambique.
The Lesson to be Learned
The case of the IIP illustrates that, while external support may still be important for an African institution to
thrive, key factors for effectiveness in research include:
(i) support to well-trained, properly paid individual scientists to do their job well;
(ii) institutions with a dear mandate, in dose contact with the fishery sector, and free from a
tug-of-war with agencies in other governmental departments.
15



Annex I
Mission Itinerary
Date     Kenya                Malawi               Mozambique        Zimbabwe
Jan. 06  Pauly
07  Newton, Pauly
08  Pauly                Newton
09  Pauly                Newton
10                       Acere, Newton                           Pauly
11                       Acere, Newton                           Pauly
12                       Acere, Newton                          Pauly
13                       Acere, Newton                          Pauly
14                       Acere, Newton                          Pauly
15                       Acere, Newton                          Pauly, Vincke
16                       Acere, Newton        Pauly, Vincke
17                                            Pauly, Vincke     Acere, Newton
18                                            Pauly, Vincke     Acere, Newton
19  Acere, Newton                             Pauly, Vincke
20  Acere, Newton                                                Pauly, Vincke
21  Acere                                                        Pauly, Vincke
22  Acere, Pauly, Vincke
23 Acere, Pauly, Vincke
24  Acere, Pauly, Vincke
25  Acere, Pauly, Vincke
26  Acere, Pauly, Vincke
27  Acere, Vincke
16



Annex II
General Terms of Reference of Missions to Assess
Countries Research Capacities
A - Terms of Reference
The assessment will cover the following aspects:
- relevance of research programs;
- means available: staff, equipment, budget;
- status of scientific personnel: salaries, role;
- cooperation (and mechanisms for) with the:
* scientific community - national level (basic, agricultural, food research, ...); regional level
(fisheries research); international level (advanced institutes, universities);
* national administrations (fisheries, environment, agriculture, plan);
* national fishing industry (harvesting, farming, processing);
* small-scale fishing communities;
* development and aid agencies.
The assessment will cover national institutes, regional centers, regional cooperative mechanisms.
B - Mission Composition
Each mission will indude in principle:
- 1 biologist (fisheries or aquaculture),
- 1 technologist (fishing or fish technology),
- 1 economist,
of which one will be from the country(ies) to be visited.
C - Places to Visit
- Ministries in charge of fisheries and research,
- Directorates of fisheries,
- Planning administration,
- Fisheries and agriculture research institutes,
- Food technology research institutes,
- Regional research institutes,
- Regional fisheries bodies.
D - Missions
- Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal;
- Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Ziimbabwe;
- Ecuador, Chile, Peru;
- Argentina, Uruguay;
- India;
- Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand:
- Small isaland states.
17



Annex III
Checklist for Evaluation of National Research Agendas
1- Description of current and future research programs
1.1 -Current programs
- Description of current research activities; costs, manpower, duration;
- Changes over past activities and reasons for changes;
1.2 - Future research activities, planned and anticipated
- Short run;
- Long run;
1.3 - Evaluation
- Adequacy between research programs and research needs;
- Relative importance, applied and innovative research;
- Research strategy;
- Allocation of topics between public institutions and private sector;
2 - The formulation of national research programs
2.1 - Sources of ideas
- Internal thinking;
- Exchange of ideas with potential research users (administrations, industry, small-scale
fishing communities, international aid agencies);
- Exchange of ideas with the foreign fishery research community through regional and
international mechanisms, with the national scientific community (universities, agricul-
tural research, food technology institutes.);
2.2 - Processes for formulating and adopting national research programs and their funding:
- Internal mechanisms, including programs and staff pre and post evaluation procedures;
- External mechanisms with the funding administrations;
2.3 - Existence of national long-term fishery and research policies.
3 - The implementation of research programs
3.1 - Means
- Staff
* number, distribution by disciplines;
* training of scientists and technicians;
* recruitment capacities;
* status;
- Budget
* investments and operating funds;
* outside resources;
* long term funding guarantees;
18



- Equipment
* computers;
* laboratory equipment;
* research vessels;
3.2 - Data base
3.3 - Research effectiveness
4 - The transfer and use of research findings
4.1 - Formal structures and mechanisms for transmission to users
- National administrations;
- Industry;
- Small-scale sector;
- Potential investors;
- Aid agencies, etc.;
4.2 - Actual use of research findings
4.3 - Causes of lack of effectiveness
- Relevance;
- Inadequacies of mechanisms and media.
5 - Regional and international cooperation
5.1 - Regional cooperation
- Areas: scientific cooperation, management of shared stocks;
- Existing mechanisms: effectiveness and weaknesses;
5.2 - International cooperation
- Areas: institution building, development of new research disciplines, scientific back-
stopping;
- Forms of cooperation: training abroad, local projects, cooperative programs, consultan-
cies, funding (including equipment);
- Effectiveness and limitations.
6 - Ways and means to improve research contribution
6.1 - Internal capabilities
- Means and status of research;
- Administration of research (programming, evaluation, procedures);
- Cooperation with national scientific community (e.g., as a way to strengthen innovative
targeted research in countries where fishery research institutes can only have limited
medium and long term research capabilities);
19



6.2 - Use of research
- Completing the expertise of research users to increase their capacity to use research
findings;
- Developing cooperative mechanisms between each kind of user and research institu-
tions;
6.3 - Strengthening regional and international cooperation in research
- Issues which could be better investigated at regional or international levels;
- Need for regional research activities:
* scientific library and fishery research magazines;
* dissemination of information to potential users
* joint research programs - networking;
* regional research institutions;
* international research institutes, by fields;
- Mechanisms to improve N/S cooperation
* twinning arrangements, exchanges of scientists;
- How to improve the use of international aid (multi and bilateral).
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Annex IV
Names and Affiliations of Contacted Persons
A - Kenya
Mr. N. Odero               Director of Fisheries,
Ministry of Regional Development
Mr. P.N. Kamande           Deputy Director of Fisheries,
Ministry of Regional Development
Mr. B.W. Oduor             Assistant Director of Fisheries (Marine)
Mr. J.0. Keoro             Planning Officer,
Ministry of Regional Development
Mr. R.M. Nzioka            Deputy Director,
Kenya Institute of Marine and Fisheries Research
Mr. Peter Eigen            Resident Representative, The World Bank
Mr. John MacGregor         The World Bank, Nairobi
Dr. Edgardo C. Quisumbing   The World Bank, Nairobi
Mr. Larry K. Ngutter       National Program Officer, UNDP
B - Malawi
Mr. S.B. Alimoso           Department of Fisheries
Mr. J.H. Magasa            Department of Fisheries
Mr. N. van Zalinge         FAO
Mr. John Balarin           ICLARM/GTZ Malawi Project
Dr. Barry Costa-Pierce     ICLARM/GTZ Malawi Project
Mr. Dennis Tweddle         Overseas Development Administration (UK)
C - Mozambique
Mr. M. Sulemane            Director, External Relations,
Secretary of State for Fisheries
Mr. Joaquin Russo de Sa    Director, Marine Fisheries Management,
Secretary of State for Fisheries
Mr. David Sumbana E.       Chief, Human Resources (Division), Institute
for the Development of Small Scale Fisheries
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Ms. Christina Silva        Director, IIP
Mr. Fernando Laforte Ribeiro  Aquaculturist, IEP
Ms. Barbara Palhade Sousa    Fisheries Biologist, HP
Ms. Lizette Palha de Sousa    Fisheries Biologist, IIP
Mr. Rui de Paula e Silva   Fisheries Biologist, IIP
Ms. Maria Celeste Gasper   Director, Biology Faculty,
Mondego                  Eduardo Mondlane University
Mr. Agustinho Pontes       Chief of Finance Division,
Societad de Fomento Pesqueiro
Mr. Nils 0. Tcheyan        Resident Representative, the World Bank
Mr. Hugo Eloy Garcia       Mozambique/Nordic Agriculture Program
Mr. Oscar do Porto         Improvement of Salted Fish and Dry Fish Production, FAO project
TCP/MOZ/8953
D - Zimbabwe
Mr. R. Fenner              Director, Department of Research and Specialized Services, Harare
Mr. Pazvakavamba           Director, Department of Agricultural Extension, Harare
Mr. G.N. Pangeti           Assistant Director,
Department of National Park and Wildlife Management, Harare
Mr. S. Chimbuya            Chief Ecologist, Department of National Park and
Wildlife Management, Harare
Dr. J.M. Gopo              Chairman, Biological Sciences Department, University of Harare
Ms. Fortune Feresu         Graduate student in fish genetics, Biological Science Department,
University of Harare
also National Parks and Wildlife Department
Dr. B. Marshall            Department of Biological Sciences,
University of Zimbabwe, Harare
Dr. James H. Howard        University of Zimbabwe
Frostburg State University (Maryland, U.S.A.)
Mr. C. Nobbs               Chief of Animal Husbandry, Agritex
Dr. C. Machena             Officer-in-Charge,
Lake Kariba                Fisheries Institute, Kariba
Mr. J. Langeman            Manager, Kariba Prawn Farm, Kariba
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Dr. D. Lewis              Project Coordinator,
Zambia-Zimbabwe-SADCC
Fisheries Project, Kariba
Mr. H. Masundire          Graduate student, University of Zimbabwe
Kariba Research Station
Mr. P.K. Pohland          Deputy Resident Representative, World Bank Mission, Harare
Mr. W.C. Chidawanyika     Program Officer, World Bank Mission, Harare
Mr. Jan Winderickx        Senior Program Officer, FAO, Harare
Mr. A. Andreasson         Project Manager,
Aquaculture for Local Community Development Program, Harare
Mr. B.A. Haight           Aquaculturist, Aquaculture for Local Community Development
Program, Harare
Mr. Felipe Butlig         Support of Small Holder Irrigation Project, DANIDA
Mr. C.J. Nugent           FAO/UNDP, Harare
23



Annex V
Mission Findings by Countries
1. KENYA
GENERAL BACKGROUND
Kenya has an area of 582 644 km2, and ranges from 34oE to 4loE longitude and from 4oN to 4oS latitude,
straddling the Equator. Kenya has about 640 km of coastline, but a very narrow shelf, not extending beyond
50 miles at the widest point. Of the shelf area, 3224 nm2, i.e., 11 092 km2, are trawlable. This area compares
to that of freshwater lakes in Kenya (10 900 km2) which, however, provided over 90% of the total national
fish production (131 000 tonnes in 1987).
In Kenya, fisheries and aquaculture research is handled mainly by the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Re-
search Institute (KMFRI), which presents itself as follows:
"The Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute was established in 1979 by the Science & Tech-
nology (Amendment) Act, and was charged with the responsibility of carrying out Scientific Research
in the field of Marine and Freshwater Fisheries, Aquatic Biology induding Environmental and
Ecological studies, marine research including Chemical and Physical Oceanography. The research
programs of the Institute are divided into two major groups namely the marine sector research and
freshwater sector research.
The main objective of the marine sector situated at Mombasa is to collect and consolidate all available
fishery resources data. In addition and with realization of the importance of environmental factors the
Mombasa Laboratory carries out research programs on the physico-chemical parameters. Of particu-
lar importance is research on the effects of pollutants of hydrocarbon origin on the environment and
associated animal life. Other research activities include coastal aquaculture, particularly the cultiva-
tion of shrimp in aquaria. This work includes Artemia production with aid from Belgium. The
Biological Oceanography Program which is a Kenya/Belgium Cooperation covers biological and
chemical studies of the inshore waters, mangroves ecosystems as well as oyster culture in the creeks.
Few major coordinated continental shelf programs are being undertaken, yet these are the type of
programs that are important in making scientific advances and assisting in the management of near
shore resources. Few deep-sea projects are being carried out because of lack of ocean-going research
vessels.
The freshwater sector has two major Laboratories, Kisumu and Turkana, and two sub-stations of
Kisumu, namely Sangoro and Gogo Falls. In Kisumu Laboratory, research programs have been
directed towards the biological studies of fishes in Lake Victoria. Environmental studies particularly
in the rivers which enter the Lake and are subject to a lot of pollution are being carried out. It is also in
Kisumu laboratory where a project has been lodged to utilize the by-products of Nile perch. The
established substation Sangoro on River Sondu is involved in breeding techniques of the most
important species especially Labeo and Barbus spp.
The Turkana station at Lake Turkana is carrying out aquaculture studies on tilapia at the shores of the
lake with aid from NORAD. Limnological studies are also incorporated in the aquaculture project."
FISHERIES RESEARCH
The information presented in this section was obtained in three meetings, in Nairobi and Mombasa, with
representatives of the Department of Fisheries (Ministry of Planning and Development) and of KMFRI. It
24



may be mentioned that the first of these discussions began with a reference to a recently conducted mission
by a Nordic donor, whose representatives talked "only with volunteers", and not with "real experts". The
mission was told that it could write what it wanted, but that it should be helpful and not criticize.
The view given of fisheries research in Kenya was extremely positive. Thus, the mission was told that there
is an abundance of well-trained graduates, and both the Department of FisheAies and KMFRI have the
means to hire them at salaries (equivalent to US$ 225/month for a B.Sc. degree holder) that are competitive
with those offered by universities (and higher than those of civil servants). Also, the promotion of young
scientists is based on their publication output, and support is provided for publication in foreign journals,
attendance of conferences abroad, etc.
Coordination between the Department of Fisheries - the user of fisheries research findings - and the KMFRI
- the provider of such results - is assured via a committee which meets every three months, or through ad
hoc meetings when required. The major factors hampering fishery research were reported as "lack of
equipment" and "lack of operating funds".
The picture presented to the mission appears too optimistic. Indeed, the mission found various aspects of
Kenyan fishery research to be quite problematic, ranging from its very definition to the institutional set up
to the distribution of research activities.
At the conceptual level, fishery research was repeatedly described by Departnent of Fisheries representa-
tives as something that can and should be done by extension officers, as a "practical" side aspect of their
extension work. University-based "academic" research, on the other hand, was described as what academ-
ics do "to get their Ph.Ds", utterly irrelevant to development or extension.
This conception of research is probably due to the ambiguous role played by KMFRI, which attempts to
deal with both "basic" aquatic (oceanographical and limnological) and with "applied" fishery manage-
ment-oriented research. Because of this dual role, KMFRI does not contribute as much as might be wanted.
Indeed, by monopolizing resource the way it does, KMFRI may be hindering the growth of an effective
fishery research capability in the country.
This is particularly evident with the marine (fisheries) activities. The following quote, relating to the
significance of a research project from a list of current KMFRI projects, illustrates this point.
"Little is known of the systematics and ecology of tropical planktons in East African waters, which is
necessary for understanding primary and secondary productivity and hence, vital for managing the
fisheries resources".
The Mombasa office of the KMFRI is the host institution of RECOSCID-WIO, an information project
supported by Belgium and the IOC for "Regional Cooperation in Scientific Information Exchange in the
Western Indian Ocean Region", and essentially devoted to the dissemination of abstracts extracted from the
ASFA (CD ROM disk version). It will be interesting to see if this will lead to the KMFRI researchers now
initiating research activities on topics that are current and relevant to the Kenyan fisheries.
The only quantitative evaluation of the Kenyan marine resources potential conducted to date stems from
NORAD and other foreign-sponsored activities. With regard to the freshwater sector and the explosive
growth of the Lake Victoria Nile perch fishery, this development was, and still is, driven by the private
sector, with little research input from KMFRI.
Indeed, locating the headquarters of a fishery research institution where less than 10% of the catch is taken,
and maintaining only a branch at Kisumu where nearly 90% of harvests take place, is indicative of a serious
imbalance in the research agendas.
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There is a lack of effective mechanisms for transmitting research requirements to KMFRI. The coordinating
committee mentioned above, where the 'Directors meet to coordinate research" does not appear to have
met in the last three years. Also, KMFRI researchers appear to interact rarely with fishermen and boat
operators, and very few of their current research project are based on data collected from an existing
fishery.
AQUACULTURE RESEARCH
Freshwater aquaculture research started in Kenya during the colonial period, with the introduction of trout
(Salno gairdneri and S. trutta) from 1910 to 1921. Experimental work with indigenous species (Tilapia
nigra) was initiated later, in 1924.
At present aquaculture research, both in freshwater and marine sectors, comes directly under the responsi-
bility of KMFRI, even though some applied research activities are in progress at the freshwater Sagana Fish
Culture Station, under the Fisheries Department of the Ministry of Regional Development.
Some investigations are conducted at the Kenyatta University, Nairobi. At the University of Nairobi, the
Department of Zoology and the Gecaga Institute of Fish Endocrinology have research programs in aquatic
biology, fisheries and aquaculture. There are also ongoing programs on improvement of tilapia strains for
aquaculture and also trials on rice-cum-fish culture. The University of Nairobi uses the facilities at the
Sagana Fish Culture Station for the implementation of its field experiments.
The major activities in freshwater aquaculture research are taking place in the KMFRI substations at
Kisumu and Songoro on Lake Victoria, and Kalokol on Lake Turkana. Songoro is the main Freshwater
Aquaculture Centre, since the Kisumu station is mainly involved in the study of the Lake Victoria fisheries
and the Nile perch limnology, and the Kalokol Station with the Lake Turkana fisheries.
Research activities at the Songoro Station are related to induced breeding of Labeo victorianus and Clarias
gariepinus, and feed formulation using Nile perch processing wastes and Azolla weed.
The UNDP/FAO project KEN/77/014 "Development of Coastal Aquaculture" has set up in 1978 the first
experimental coastal shrimp farm at Ngomeni, near Mombasa. Culture trials and experimental hatchery
operations were carried out during the period 1978-1985 on Penaeus indicus and P. monodon.
Globally, the results of aquaculture research in Kenya are meager. Both the University of Nairobi and
+MFRI have little field facilities for aquaculture research. Collaborative arrangements between the Univer-
sity of Nairobi, the Department of Fisheries and KMFRI exist, but it has proven difficult to coordinate a
single program involving all these institutions, notably because facilities are widely distributed. No coordi-
nating mechanism appears to exist at present to ensure the smooth running of combined collaborative
programs within the country. The Sixth National Development Plan (1983-1993) indicates some broad
policy objectives, but there is no national plan for aquaculture development.
The need for a national plan for aquaculture development, identifying research needs, both in freshwater
and marine sectors, is obvious. The lead in these matters should be taken by the Fisheries Department who
has the primary responsibility for fisheries and aquaculture management and development in the country.
Considering research needs, a comprehensive aquaculture research program should be prepared under the
leadership of KMFRI, but in very close collaboration with the Fisheries Department, the University of
Nairobi and the Lake Basin Development Authority (LBDA), making use of all aquaculture research
facilities available in Kenya.
During previous FAO missions, aquaculture research priorities were identified as follows:
26



(i)  refinement of techniques for the production of tilapia fry and all-male tilapias;
(ii) nutrition and feed formulation;
(iii) development of integrated crop-livestock-fish culture systems;
(iv) improvement of pond fertilization practices and use of compost;
(v) trials on polyculture of tilapias and Clarias gariepinus.
Fisheries and aquaculture training is given in the Naivasha Wildlife and Fisheries Training Institute. The
institute was built with a World Bank Loan and has very good physical facilities. The Institute offers basic
courses for Game Rangers and Fish Scouts, certificate courses for Fisheries and Game Assistants, and
Industries courses for new graduate Fisheries Officers and Assistant Game Wardens. The Institute had
proposed to run a Diploma course in fisheries management and aquaculture (DIFMAQ), but this proposal
has not been implemented so far. The syllabi of both the certificates and diploma courses in fisheries
management, include aquaculture as one of about ten subjects covered.
While the Institute has good physical facilities at the main campus, the fisheries complex off the campus is
not yet developed. The laboratories and library are well-designed, but have no adequate equipment. The
library has very few books on fisheries and aquaculture matters. The personnel available do not have
adequate qualifications for running a full fisheries program, and one in aquaculture.
There is no other training or retraining facilities in fisheries in the Department of Fisheries, even though
there is a need for training at all levels. The extension work would be improved by such training. The
Sagana fish farm has the best field facilities in the country, but because available accommodation and
laboratory facilities are insufficient, those are not fully used. However, the Sagana farm has recently
conducted some local training courses in aquaculture at the lower level. This should be encouraged. Staff
trained at ARAC could be assembled at Sagana to conduct effective training courses and short-term
programs. If technical facilities, staffing and accommodations were improved, studies on applied aquacul-
ture research could be conducted at Sagana.
The University of Nairobi gives aquatic biology and fisheries/ aquaculture oriented training at the B.Sc.
and M.Sc. levels. There are a few competent staff to teach these programs. Again for training in aquaculture
research, field facilities are 80 km away from Sagana.
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2. MALAWI
GENERAL BACKGROUND7
Malawi is a land-locked country with an area of 118 484 km2, of which waters extend over 24 405 km2. The
1987 fish production was estimated at 88 000 tonnes, of which 80 000 came from the traditional fishery and
8 164 from commercial operations. Recorded fish exports and imports are negligible. The above production
is a record high, the highest since the 1972 peak of 84 000 tonnes, after which it kept declining to the lowest
level of 51 300 tonnes in 1981. In the early 1980s, production stabilized between 62 000 and 65 000 tonnes, to
reach 72 800 tonnes in 1986. The variations in production levels seem to reflect normal fluctuations in stock
reproduction, perhaps influenced by climatic conditions - notably rains as far as the floodplain fishery is
concerned. On the other hand, fluctuations may also be enhanced by heavy fishing pressure.
The bulk of production comes from Lake Malawi, whose largest portion is under Malawi's jurisdiction.
Other important water bodies indude Lake Chilwa (2 500 km2), Lake Malombe, Lake Chiuta, and the Shire
River and its flood plain. Lake Chilwa dries out almost totaUy during certain years, but becomes exception-
ally productive on refilling. With such large water areas, fisheries play an important role in the national
economy.
Total catches from the Lake Malawi fisheries are stable. They are still as in the 1970s when trawling and
intensive fishing with ringnets and other gears started. Catches per unit of effort have, however, declined,
and changes in the species composition of harvests have taken place. The Labeo fishery has disappeared
with the decline of the species.
In purely economic terms, fisheries contribute some 4% to the national GDP and give permanent employ-
ment to some 20 000 artisanal fishermen, and a further 1 000 in the commercial sector. Another 20 000
people work ashore as fish traders, boat builders, net makers and in other support industries. The fishing
industry is the major occupation along the lakeshore and other major fish producing areas such as Lake
Chilwa. Despite the contribution fish makes to the GDP, the development budget allocated to fisheries was
only 1.3% of the Governnent's total expenditures for the years 1984-1986.
The fisheries sector falls under the responsibility of the Fisheries Department. The Department was created
in 1965 under the Ministry of Forestry and Natural Resources. The Department is headed by a Chief
Fisheries Officer (CFO) stationed in Lilongwe, supported by an Assistant Chief Fisheries Officer, a Principal
Fisheries Officer, two Fisheries Officers and several technical and support staff. Compared to the neighbor-
ing countries, the Malawi's Department of Fisheries has a relatively substantial cadre of professional and
technical staff.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ON FISHERIES RESEARCH
The first fishes from Lake Malawi to be collected and preserved date from the expeditions of Dr. Living-
stone. Prior to 1939, research on the lake fisheries was restricted to taxonomic studies of preserved
collections in natural history museums. In 1939, the first fisheries survey of the lake was conducted.
The next study on the "Chambo" tilapia fisheries was a survey of the southeastern arm of Lake Malawi,
conducted in 194547.
In the 1950s, emphasis shifted to northern Lake Malawi where the Joint Fisheries Research Organization
(JRO) of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi) established the Nkata Research Station in
7 Adapted from SADCC/EEC Regional Fisheries Survey. Final report. Gopa Consultants (1989).
28



1954. A major report on the initial studies from 1954-55 included hydrological data from the lake and
affluent rivers, studies on invertebrates, an annotated checklist of the fishes, and notes on ecological
zonation, observations on the biology of commercially important fish species, results of experunental
fishing programs and descriptions of traditional fisheries. A detailed study of "Mbuna" (rock-dwelling
cichlids) was also conducted at that time.
Investigations continued at Nkata Bay until 1962, when laboratories were created at Monkey Bay. Results
of the Nkata Bay studies (hydrology, planktivorous "Usipa" - biology and fishing experiments) are pub-
lished in the JFRO annual reports.
At Monkey Bay, early investigations were conducted on the biology of "Nchila' and "Kampango". Exten-
sive gillnetting trials were carried out. Research on trawling started in 1968 and successful techniques were
developed. The exploitation of virgin stocks of cichlid species previously unknown justified taxonomic
research and investigations into cichlid biology. Data collected from 1968 onwards proved valuable when
detailed stock assessment studies were later undertaken by FAO.
Since 1966, the Fisheries Department research section actively participated in a 10-year Lake Chilwa
Coordinated Research Project, a multidisciplinary University of Malawi study on the Lake Chilwa ecosys-
tem.
EXERNAL SUPPORT TO RESEARCH
Project for the Promotion of Integrated Fishery Development Stock Assessment
Program (1972-76; funding: UNDP; implementation: FAO)
Recommendations made on trawl catch and effort levels have enabled the fishery to be successfully
managed since the project was completed.
The traditional fisheries were surveyed in detail and a functional recording system established in 1976; it is
still in use. Investigation into the ringnet fishery for "Chambo" tilapia was conducted and potential yield
assesses.
Investigations of environmental effects of the proposed Chintheche pulp mill were started in this project
and continued in 1977-82, in the follow-up FAO project.
Fisheries Extension Project (1977-82; funding: UNDP; implementation: FAO)
This project aimed at establishing a reasonable forecast of the pelagic fish stocks and their potential yield in
Lake Malawi, and continued investigations into the enviromnental effects of the proposed Chintheche pulp
mill.
The overall findings were that the pelagic fish resources in the northern lake are insufficient to support a
large mechanized fishery and that much of the production was going into lake flies rather than fish.
Traditional Fisheries Assessment Project (1986; funding: Overseas Development
Administration (UK)/Malawi Government)
Aerial and ground coverage check surveys were conducted for the whole of Lakes Malawi and Malombe
and the linking Upper Shire River.
29



Fishing programs and detailed chirimila and seine net surveys were conducted to obtain baseline data for
future monitoring of changes in the fisheries.
Papers on "Usipa" and "Chambo" fisheries in the southern area were published, and experiments in gillnet
selectivity conducted.
Demersal Fisheries Assessment Project (1989; funding: ODA and
the Malawi Government)
This was a repeat of the experimental trawling surveys of the early 1970s, using identical gear at the same
stations, to reassess the biomass of the trawl-caught cicdlids and determine if any changes have taken place
in the intervening period. Investigations on the species composition of catches to assess the effects of the
increase in minimum mesh size introduced in 1977 are being undertaken.
Ornamental Fish Trade Assessment Project (1975-83; funding: South Africa)
The results of this study have led to several recommendations - i.e., a closed season; not more than three
licenses with no overlap in licensed areas; quota restrictions for certain popular but vulnerable species;
prohibition of introduction of species to areas where they do not occur naturally; establishment of orna-
mental fish farms; phasing out of exploitation in Lake Malawi National Park.
The research revealed that approximately 200 species of "Mbuna" (Haplochromines) occur in Malawi
waters. Most of them have very restricted distributions and are, therefore, vulnerable to over-exploitation.
The great diversity of species on any rock habitat is maintained by resource partitioning between the
species. It is not a result of super abundance of food as previously believed.
Conservation of Threatened Fish Communities in Lake Malawi National Park
(1984-86; funding: IUCN/WWF)
It appeared that no single endemic species of "Mbuna" was in immediate danger of extinction, as a result of
introduction of exotics. It is probable that, in time, a state of equilibrium will be reached in terms of the
exotic-endemic balance.
This research project is being followed up by a development and extension project in the park.
Bangula Lagoon Study (1975-76; funding: ODA)
The study examined most aspects of the lagoon ecology - i.e., hydrology, vegetation, soils, algae, water
chemistry and zoobenthos, substrate zoobenthos, invertebrate fauna and the food of fish, fish-eating birds
and fisheries. It was concluded that Bangula Lagoon represents a complex ecosystem which undergoes
profound seasonal changes in water volume and quality. Local fishermen have responded with ingenuity
to changes in fish populations that are well exploited. Productivity is considerably increased by the
presence of 3 000 heads of cattle in the area.
Feeding Ecology of Cormorants on Lake Malawi (1978-81; funding: ODA)
This was a study of the feeding ecology of the cormorants in the southern part of Lake Malawi, and a
determination of the impact of the cormorant population on exploited fish stocks. Approximately 10 000
cormorants were estimated to live on Lake Malawi, consuming about 1 000 tonnes of fish per year.
However, there was no reason to suppose that cormorants have appreciable impact on commercial fishing,
as carried out at present on Lake Malawi.
30



It was recommended that improved protection be given to the cormorants and their habitat, with local
fishermen firmly discouraged from cutting down the bird-nesting trees, because of the attraction of the bird
colonies to lakeside tourists.
Other Externally Funded Projects
Other investigations have been conducted, under various sources of funding, on various aspects of Lake
Malawi ecology. They include:
- the ecology of fishes of the sandy shores of Lake Malawi;
- zooplankton studies;
- fish taxonomy;
- electrophoresis;
- interactions of fish and snail populations, etc.
FISHERIES DEPARTMENT RESEARCH PROGRAMS UNDERTAKEN
WITH EXTERNAL FUNDING
Lower Shire Fisheries Research Project (1970-78; funding:
Malawi Government and ODA
The research into the biology of the fishes of the Lower Shire River and marshes revealed that of the 62
species recorded by Tweddle and Willoughby (1977), three make up 90% of the fishermen's catch.
The ecology of the important commercial fishes revealed that populations are strongly influenced by
environmental factors and the operation of the barrage at Lilonde on the Middle Shire River. Recruitment is
influenced by the degree and extent of flooding in the rainy season as the two catfishes, Clarias garriepinus
and C. ngamensis, which make up 75% of the commercial catches, spawn in flooded grasslands and marsh
vegetation. Thus, high river levels and consequent large expanses of flooded terrain yield large catches in
subsequent years. There are two peaks in the catch per year.
Karonga Baseline Survey (1978-81; Funding:
Malawi Government and ODA
The research program at Karonga, the northern part of Lake Malawi, covered all fisheries aspects in the
area. Gillnetting experiments showed generally low catch rates, correlating well with estimates obtained
for the traditional fisheries by the beach recording system. The gillnet fishery for the migratory 'Mpasa'
(Opsaridium microlepsis) around the mouth of the North Rukuru River area demonstrated a gradual build
up in catches during the rainy season to a peak at the end of the rains in April and May. Catches in this
localized fishery were greatly underestimated by the current recording system.
Few areas in the north could sustain a cormnerciaUly viable operation.
Shallow water pair-trawling is uneconomnical in the area because of the limited area available. However,
deepwater trawling using the fisheries research vessel "E. Trewavas" gave more encouraging results.
31



Lake Chilwa Coordinated Research Project (1966-76; funding:
Leverhulme Trust/University of Malawi/MG/ODA/WENELA/...)
Three species out of 30 positively identified in the Lake Chilwa catchment area are important in the lake's
catches and the ecology of these species have been studied in detail.
The recovery of the fish populations after total dessication of the open lake in 1968 was extremely rapid
with catches reaching former levels after three years, a cycle which was repeated after the less severe lake
recession in 1973. The fish population are, therefore, highly resilient and can dearly sustain heavy fishing
pressure.
A shallow water pair-trawling technique was developed. Pair-trawling was initially successful, but has
since become uneconomic as rises in fish prices have not kept pace with increased fuel and engine
maintenance costs.
The results of this research are being used in the planning and implementation of a fisheries development
project for the Chilwa/Chiuta Basin.
ONGOING INTERNAL RESEARCH PROGRAMS
Commercial Fisheries Studies
This program is effectively the long-term continuation of commercial fisheries assessment following on
from the UNDP/FAO Project (# 2.3.1 above). Catches of commercial fishing firms are monitored and stock
assessments carried out for determining effort quotas on a regular basis.
Breeding seasons are staggered and, hence, regulation of effort by imposing a closed season during the
peak breeding season is not feasible. Other results covered the influence of newly-introduced small-meshed
gear on commercial "chambo" catches; the influence of lake level changes and changing gear efficiency on
"chambo' catches; and general reviews of "chambo' biology and of Malawi's fisheries.
Taxonomic Research
The taxonomy of the Lake Malawi cichlid fauna is extremely complex and the present best estimate for the
number of species occurring in the lake is between 500 and 1 000. A major step forward has been achieved
with the publication of a recent revision of all the known haplochromine cichlids. The Lethrinops species of
importance in the trawl industry in the south have been described. But, still, many species of other genera
remain to be formally described. Confusion in the naming of fish for the aquarium trade has been tackled,
and the genus Labidochromis, with its species, has been descrbed. The genera of "mbuna" have been
revised and new groupings proposed. Further studies on "mbuna" taxonomy are being conducted in other
institutions.
"USIPA" Studies
A considerable amount of data has been collected on the fluctuations of fisheries in the Monkey Bay area.
However, the information on the pelagic zone of the lake remains to be analyzed.
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Lake Chiuta Studies
Data on physical characteristics, water chemistry, vegetation, plankton, fish and fisheries collected on a
number of brief visits, have been published.
A haplochromine species discovered during an electrofishing survey of the lake has been formally de-
scribed as Astatochrornis tweddlei.
"Mpasa" (Opsaridium microlepsis) Research Program
The general biology (breeding habitats, growth rates, etc.) of "mpasa" is now fairly well known. However,
information is still lacking on juveniles in the transitional stage from riverine/inshore to offshore habitats
and on the impact of the fisheries on the breeding success and migrations of both adults and juveniles.
Investigations, undertaken following the drastic declines in catches in the early 1970s, have shown that
catches are closely related to river levels, both in the year of capture and in the year when the fish were
spawned. A succession of high rainfall years has led to excellent catches and very healthy stocks in the
rivers in the 1980s. The need for clean gravel and well-oxygenated running water for spawning illustrates
the importance of the Nkhotakota Game Reserve in protecting the "mpasa" spawning grounds in the Bua
River. It was recommended to conserve the wooded catchments of the important "mpasa" rivers - e.g., the
Linthipe/Lilongwe, Bua, Luweya, North Rukuru and Songwe Rivers.
Fisheries Bibliography Compilation
A list of all scientific papers, books and reports ever published on all aspects of Malawi waters was
compiled to provide a primary source of reference for all future research. The bibliography contains over 1
700 references. New references are added to a file to be published periodically in the future.
River Fisheries
Information is collected, as opportunities arise, on the fish and fisheries of lesser known rivers in Malawi.
Anadromous Fisheries Study
Preliminary investigations have been made into the run of migratory cypriuids up the Nkhandwe Stream
near Monkey Bay when the stream is in flood. A trap as been made which has proved successful in catching
migrating fish, despite torrential flood conditions. Although "nchila", the main target for the proposed
cyprinid aquaculture project, has not yet been reared, another cyprinid "tamba" (Barbus litamba) has been
successfully reared to fingerling size.
AQUACULTURE RESEARCH
The Malawi center for aquaculture is in Domasi, 15 km from the town of Zomba. There are 45 employees of
all categories; three of them are expatriate researchers.
A project funded by the Federal Republic of Germany (GTZ) and implemented by ICLARM is also based at
Domasi. This project, "Research for the development of tropical aquaculture technology appropriate for
implementation in rural Africa", has two components: one is directed towards the growing of two native
tilapiines and Cyprinus carpio in low tropical environments; the second towards trout farming in the
colder waters of the upland areas.
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Facilities include staff offices, a student laboratory, a food store, a storeroom, a garage, and a storage
compound. The new research facilities consist of 36 x 200 m2 ponds in a securely fenced area, 36 x 5 m2
bioassay tanks and 78 x 500 1 experimental tanks. Pond construction was done manually. The task force of
100 laborers was drawn from the local community. The workers gained experience in pond building during
the six-month construction period, a skill which may benefit them as aquaculture expands in Malawi. The
library houses the Africa Aquaculture Information Component of ICLARM's Selective Fisheries Informa-
tion Service, which is coordinated from Manila. Telefax communication and Aquatic Science and Fisheries
Abstracts (ASFA) on CD-ROM have been installed to facilitate speedier communication and responses to
enquiries from African researchers. In 1989, an ICLARM librarian spent eight months organizing fisheries
information systems and training national librarians. A considerable quantity of scientific literature has
been distributed through the project to African researchers and libraries.
These developments have turned the DEFF into one of Africa's leading aquaculture research centers.
In May 1981, ICLARM signed a cooperative linkage agreement with the University of Malawi. The first
joint endeavor was the establishment of a Master's level scholarship scheme. Four students were registered
with the Biology Department and one with the Sociology Department at Chancellor College. Their thesis
research projects complement the main program underway at the DEFF and they gain valuable hands-on
experience. This cooperative linkage agreement has also facilitated a number of collaborative studies with
University staff. Data gathered as background information to help in the formulation of these various
studies will be used in the context of a monograph to be published in 1990 by ICLARM and GTZ.
As of February 1990, ICLARM has three professional aquaculture staff members in Malawi, two based in
Zomba/Domasi and one at the Bunda College of Agriculture. Other aquaculture activities in Malawi
includes a recently initiated major project supported by the Commission of European Communities in the
northern region and projects by Nordic countries in cooperation with the SADCC, the Malawi Fisheries
Department, Lilongwe, and the University of Malawi.
CONSTRAINTS IN FISHERIES RESEARCH
There is a major manpower shortage. Presently, five scientists are currently doing research on Lake Malawi.
Three of them are Malawi citizens, the other two are expatriates. Two others Malawian researchers are
undergoing training. There are 20 technicians and/or technical assistants.
There is a drain on the research staff as researchers are transferred to carry out administrative duties for the
Fisheries Department. Salaries for local research scientists are very low compared with those paid to those
teaching in the university. This results in a lack of continuity in staffing, leading to recurrent recruitment
and training.
The price control imposed on the sale of fish hinders the collection of catch statistics.
The lake fisheries have been well nurtured through the "conservation" ethic of the Department's Ministry.
The creaticn of national parks around the watershed areas of the lake have provided protection for the
fisheries, and the country's attitude toward wildlife protection as undertake by the Ministry applies also to
fisheries. This is further demonstrated by Government policy prohibiting the introduction of non-native
fish species. There are, however, conflicts between logging and watershed preservation potential, and a
new one has emerged with the pulp mill project.
Much of the knowledge on the fisheries has been acquired through research, which can be credited for the
successful way those are managed, but the infertility of the northern lake remains an outstanding area for
research. Although there is a national awareness of the role that research has played, and can play,
necessary means have not been provided for by Government. In fact, historically, most research inputs
came from donors and expatriates and one would have liked to have seen an increase in national capacity
34



to undertake such research. It is, of course, recognized that scientific skilI is a scarce commodity in many
developing countries and this is particularly the case for a small country such as Malawi.
The water space in the northern part of the lake is unproductive, although ranching or cage growing could,
in terms of space, offer development significant opportunities. Investigations directed at determining the
limiting factors that cause the situation in the northern part of the lake would offer significant economic
benefits. However, such task is clearly beyond the existing research capacity of the Department, as well as
beyond current levels of aid.
Perhaps, fisheries science is presently beyond the capacity of this country, in which case donor support will
be required if the limiting factors of the northern part of the lake are to be properly identified. This will
become especially important when the RMF structural adjustment programme requires reductions in civil
service staffing, which is intended to be met by lowering retirement age to 50 - in effect removing both the
fisheries research officers at Monkey Bay who will be 50 next year.
FISHERIES ADMINISTRATION
Within the Ministry of Forestry and Natural Resources, the Department of Fisheries is one of five depart-
ments. The others are forestry, parks and wildlife, geology, and mining. The staff in the Department of
Fisheries is small: there is a Chief Fisheries Officer, with a Deputy and an Assistant Chief Fisheries Officer.
The Deputy is responsible for statistics and administration, whereas the Assistant coordinates the three
senior fisheries officers who are each located in a region and are in effect the regional officers. The
remaining staff are fisheries technicians and administrative category staff.
Although staffing for the fisheries administration was not provided to the mission, it is clear that the
scientific requirement for the lake is not accorded much priority and that less than a minimum cadre of
research officers is provided. This can be understood within the context of a stable, well managed fishery
whereby most of the duties for managing the fishery are of an administrative and routine nature.
However, there is no career advancement within the research arm of the Department. Officers can only
receive career advancement in the administrative side of the unit The Chief Fisheries Officer is in fact a
former research officer. Given this level of staffing for fisheries research, the donor community continues to
provide necessary support to research for the lake, ODA consistently, and more recently FAO.
There was, unfortunately, no time to visit an agricultural research station to compare with Monkey Bay in
order to evaluate government policy toward agricultural research in general, and compare staffing and
operational budgets.
CONCLUSIONS
The so far successful maintenance of the commercial and traditional fisheries catches is a direct result of
past and present research efforts. Statistics are regularly collected on the commercial fisheries, as well as on
the traditional fisheries (since 1976). Their analysis provides a sound basis for management.
There is no inter-governmental mechanism for managing the lake's resources, since Mozambique, dis-
rupted by war, has little fishing effort. This is also the case for Tanzania which, due to the boundary with
Malawi following the northern shoreline, should, in theory, not have access to the lake's resources.
Whereas limnological observations commenced with earlier research efforts, it is regrettable that these have
not been maintained, given the potential benefits to be gained from developing production in the northern
part of Lake Malawi. Perhaps in time, as agricultural practices intensify, nutrient loading of the lake from
agricultural run-offs may enhance production.
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Foreign support has sustained fisheries research for a considerable period of time. However, part of the
funds have been used to cover the costs of expatriate researchers, while insufficient attention was given to
the promotion of national expertise. This shortcoming should not be repeated in the provision of foreign
assistance for the promotion of aquaculture research.
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3. MOZAMBIQUE
GENERAL BACKGROUND8
The history of fisheries in Mozambique can be separated into two phases, the periods before and after
independence. Whereas a subsistence fishery has been existent for a long time, the large scale fisheries only
date back to the late 1950s when commercial operations began to increase very slowly under the colonial
order (trawling in Mozambican waters was then prohibited, the supply of fish being based on imports from
Angola and Portugal).
No Mozambicans were involved in the development of the commercial (mainly shrimp) fisheries which
started in 1965. All activities within the sector (i.e, the fishing, the service industries, sale and distributions,
etc.) were operated and managed by Portuguese or other foreign interests. The collapse of the fishery sector
was therefore inevitable when Portuguese emigrated massively after independence.
The Mozambican rejuvenation of the fishery sector began in 1976, with the formation of an incipient
fisheries administration within the Ministry of Industry and Commerce. From its start, the administration
faced a number of acute problems such as a restoration of the commercial fisheries and other basic subjects
- legislation, stock assessment, fisheries education, development of artisanal fisheries, etc.
In the early 1980s, the fishery administration had managed to implement a basic reorganization of the
sector, which was reflected in steadily increasing catch figures. Within the last years, further national and
international efforts have been made to secure a continuous development of the sector, which has gained
even more economic and nutritional importance after independence.
Fishery resources of Mozambique are estimated to be able to support an annual catch of approximately 300
000 tonnes, of which 40 000 may stem from fresh waters. The country also has a good natural potential for
aquaculture, both marine and fresh waters.
Since 1977, a number of surveys have been made to assess the marine fish resources of Mozambique.
Vessels from the USSR, GDR, Norway and FAO have participated and the work has mainly been concen-
trated on the continental shelf and slope. No surveys have so far been made of the shallow waters ( 10
meters depth), amounting to some 3-4 000 km2 and which are mainly exploited by artisanal fishermen and,
to some extent, by the shrimp fleet.
The continental shelf (down to 200 m) covers an area of about 70 000 km2. Most of the shelf is in the central
and southem part of the country. In the north, the shelf is very narrow, often only a few hundred meters
wide, coral-edged and with submarine canyons. Off the mouth of large rivers, the shelf receives consider-
able quantities of silt.
The relatively warm waters of the Mozambican current have lower primary production than upwelling
regions, such as off West Africa and South America. Still, there is potential for increasing the catches of fish
from the present 70 000 tonnes.
Mozambique has one of southern Africa's largest lake and river systems, amounting to 20 000 km2 (lakes
60%, rivers 25%, and flood plains 15%). The largest lake, Lake Nyassa (i.e., Malawi, see # II above) covers
an area of more than 30 000 km2, of which 6 500 km2 is under Mozambican jurisdiction. The coastline in
Mozambique (approximatively 400 km) is very different from that in Malawi, as there is almost no shelf on
the Mozambican side.
8 Based on "Nordic Support to the Fisheries in Mozambique. A Sector Study". National Swedish Board
of of Fisheries, Gothenburg, 1986.
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The second largest lake is the man-made one of Cabora Bassa, which covers an area of 2 700 km2 and has a
coastline of 1 000 km. There are also many other lakes and some large rivers - the Zambezi, Rovuma and
Limpopo, of respectively 820 km, 650 km and 560 km length in Mozambique.
Fish catches from the Cabora Bassa were estimated (1982) at 4 300 tonnes of table fish. 1 200 fishermen are
operating. The average yield is, thus, ca 350 kg/fisherman/year. Based on calculations and experiences
from other African lakes and inland waters, the Mozambican inland fishery potential yield is estimated at:
Water Bodies            Potential Yield      Present Catch (1985)
Lake Cabora Bassa      10 000 t (37 kg/ha)         2 000 t
Lake Nyassa            10 000 t (13 kg/ha)         2 000 t
Other areas            20 000 t (18 kg/ha)         1 000 t
Total                  40 000 t (20 kg/ha)         5 000 t
The most important commercial groups include: Alestes, Clarias, Engraulicypris, Entropeus,
Haplochromis, Hydrocynus, Labeo, Lethrinops and various tilapias.
FISHERIES RESEARCH
The Instituto de Investigacao Pesquiera (IIP)
In Mozambique, fisheries research is conducted exdusively by the Instituto de Investigacao Pesquiera (UP),
which was created 15 years ago as a Portuguese "overseas mission". Its present staff was recruited in two
batches: in 1975, as a group now representing the senior staff, and in 1980. They all have "licenciatura" - i.e.,
a thesis degree acquired after five years of study in general biology, with a marine biology orientation in the
final (thesis) year.
Four IIP technicians were trained in Cuba. Of these, one was subsequently trained in Bergen.
The mandate of the Institute covers both marine and freshwater (e.g., Cabora Bassa Lake, Lake Nyassa).
Small freshwater bodies are kept by default under the authority of the Department of Agriculture, but may
be put under that of the Subsecretariate of State for Fisheries (SEP) and, hence, can be studied by HIP
wherever requested. Presently, the IIP does not appear to be interested in expanding its research into such
water bodies, however.
The IIP headquarter is in Maputo, with branch laboratories in Beira (biological and statistical data collec-
tion, some works on shrimps) and Quelimane (statistical data collection). IIP is structured in five divisions:
(i)  Oceanography,
(ii) Resource assessment,
(iii) Aquaculture,
(iv) Documentation publication,
(v)  Electronic Data Processing (Computer).
The resource assessment Department is by far the most important. Its activities are divided into site-specific
(e.g., "Maputo Bay") or resource- specific (e.g., deep-water shrimp) projects, of which there are about half a
dozen.
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The UIP sees its main role in providing advice for fishery management. Its advice is provided in the form of
assessments updated twice a year for major fisheries, plus annual catch quotas for the national joint venture
and foreign vessels. Quotas have been rather stable since 1985.
For the highly valuable coastal (penaeid) shrimp fishery, which produce 7-8 000 t/year, a longer (plus one
month) season has recently been proposed, along with an increased mesh size; results are still pending.
This fleet discards its (fish) by-catch.
For deep-water shrimps, which support a 3 000 t/year fishery but for which detailed stock information is
lacking, the assessments are still strategic, not operational. Effort (increasing 10-15%/ year) and catches are
closely monitored (by onboard observers).
Demersal food fishes are caught off Mozambique by two fleets, (i) the MOSOPESCA and (ii) four GDR
trawlers operating near Beira. The latter's operation is part of a cooperative agreement with the Fishery
Research Institute in Rostock, which has outposted one of its staff member in Beira.
The IIP obtains the data it needs for assessments from (i) logbooks supplied to the fleets, (ii) observers'
catch records, and (iii) port landing records. (Tasks (ii) and (iii) are conducted by institute staff with
primary school education.)
The observer program is presently being intensified. Also, a new fishery law is being formulated which will
transfer all authority concerning fishing operations from the Department of the Merchant Marine to the
SEP and to fisheries "holdings" (= "combinados", see later).
Licensing of foreign firmns will be completely phased out by 1992-1993, and all fishing firms operating along
the Mozambique coast will be national firms, or joint ventures (at least 51% Mozambican). This implies
renegotiations with firms from the German Democratic Republic, South Africa, the Soviet Union and other
countries.
Up to now, the IIP has not operated a research vessel (although it has access to and sometimes uses the
"Canopus", a small vessel formerly operated by FAO and now belonging to a nautical school). This
decision was deliberately taken by the institute which prefered to make, instead, maximum use of ships of
opportunity. This decision may now be revised, and NORAD's offer of a small research vessel may be
accepted, although a sharing arrangement with Tanzania and Angola (plus Namibia, eventually) in the
framework of SADDC may also be considered. Ships of opportunity included a number of Soviet and East
German vessels, as well as the R/V Fridtjof Nansen, whose various surveys off Mozambique represent
milestones.
For the Oceanographic Department, working up data from ships of opportunity (i.e., preparing data
volumes and maps) still represents the main activity. Indeed, the only field-based activity appears to be a
small project on the physical and biological oceanography of Maputo Bay (an earlier field-based activity,
conducted by a Norwegian scientist, allowed the establishment of a relationship between the outflow of the
Zambezi River and shrimp catches off Mozambique).
The Oceanographic Department presently consists of Mr. Antonio Mubangco Hoguane (who will soon
leave for Bangor, Wales, U.K. to obtain a first degree in Physical Oceanography), Mr. Domingo Zafanias
Gue (a tuna biologist) and Mr. Jan-Erik Steen who will leave the IIP in late 1990 or 1991. This section may
become temporarily inactive when Messrs. Mubangco and Steen leave Maputo. Physical oceanographic
work, although it is assumed that it will become useful ultimately, is not perceived as urgent, and a lull of
activity, thus, not considered to be a great loss. Eventual reinitiation of activity may be around the
processing of remote sensing data (SPOT imagery).
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All equipment purchases abroad are via NORAD. Interestingly, the IP's allocation for equipment tends to
remain underutilized, because of the Institute's emphasis on analysis of fisheries data and on data from
ships of opportunity.
Study groups and laboratories devoted to biological oceanographic studies (e.g., plankton studies, or
studies on the food and feeding habits of exploited species) are entirely absent at IIP. This makes this
institution unique among fishery research institutions in Southeastern Africa (as compared to KMFRI in
Mombasa notably).
Scientific priorities are determiined by the institute staff in conjunction with SEP. They generally correspond
to the assessment of opportunities to develop new fisheries.
The quality of investigations is controlled via:
(i) national seminars, where results are presented, with external experts invited (next seminar
planned for early 1991);
(i) involvement of knowledgeable researchers from abroad (i.e., scientifically credible experts),
especially from Norway, Denmark and Portugal (and never in contexts where conflict-of-inter-
ests situations could emerge);
(iii) regular publications by staff of cruise reports, data volumes, description of fisheries and other
documents (in Portuguese);
(iv) regular publications of scientific contributions in English (in the Rev. Invest. Pesq. and starting
soon in international journals).
Perceived problems in research are related to:
(i)  the reluctance of national fishing companies to supply detailed catch data (this is a problem of
IIP which does not insist strongly enough on these data, probably because it may not really have
the staff to process them all);
(ii) the observers' program needs strengthening (it is not only a cost problem; there are not enough
graduates for the available observers' positions).
The Institute for the Development of Small Scale Fisheries
The Institute for the Development of Small-Scale Fisheries (IDPE) depends also on the SEP, but is devoted
to the management of small-scale fisheries (as opposed to the HP, which basically looks only at the large
scale sector).
The history of this relatively new institution is quite convoluted and needs not be recalled here. Important
is perhaps the fact that it emerged from the split of a previous entity devoted to all aspects of small-scale
fisheries - ranging from the provision of infrastructure to the development of gear and improved fishing
and processing methods. This all-encompassing approach was abandoned in 1987, in the frame of the
Economic Rehabilitation Program. The operational aspects of small-scale fisheries are now concentrated in
"holdings", which organize various groupings of small-scale fishermen (there appears to be about one
holding per province, but their successful operation or even existence is very doubtful, given the present
security situation in all but a few areas of the country).
The mandate of the IDPE appears to be one of extension and coordination. However, the institution
appears to be more or less completely adrift, and clearly followed no comprehensive plan. Indeed, the
40



small-scale fishermen's development activities presently conducted in Mozambique appear to be deter-
mined largely by various bilateral agencies and NGOs. Various projects are implemented in different parts
of the country on motorization schemes, fish processing, community development, and IDPE is unable to
coordinate or even to monitor these activities. IDPE receives no input from research, which is very
regrettable given that first signs of Malthusian overfishing (see Chapter I), with attendant resources and
habitat destruction as well as conflicts with the commercial fisheries, are beginning to appear along the
Mozambique coast.
The Department of Biology in the E. Mondlane University
The education of personnel for IIP and for other fisheries-related institutions is the task of the Department
of Biology in the Eduardo Mondlane University, the only university in Mozambique. The University,
which now has 2 800 students, was closed between 1980 and 1985, because of a lack of students from the
secondary school sector. The first batch of graduates produced since 1985 will soon be released. Of these,
five (1/3) will be retained as faculty members of the Biology Department. The Department teaches in the
following areas:
(i) marine and fisheries biology;
(ii) agriculture, wildlife and forestry;
(iii) health and microbiology.
A full study course consists of four years of theoretical and practical studies, plus one year devoted to
writing a thesis. Some students are from neighboring countries, having been sent under bilateral agree-
ments. The Department of Biology presently has four research projects. Of these, four are funded by SAREC
(Sweden) and NORAD (Norway):
(i) marine ecology of Inhaca Island,
(ii) flora of Mozambique (plus seed exchange project),
(iii) mangrove ecology,
(iv) ecology of terrestrial habitats of Inhaca Island.
AQUACULTURE RESEARCH
Freshwater Aquaculture
Freshwater aquaculture research started in Mozambique in the beginning of the 1950s on a very small scale.
The aim of this research was to test local species for pond fish farming, but the results were not docu-
mented.
Three freshwater fish farming stations were constructed by the colonial administration to stock ponds and
reservoirs, using the indigenous Oreochromis mossambicus and T. rendalli (= T. melanopleura).
Initial attempts to develop freshwater fish farming through stocking small dams, reservoirs and ponds
were undertaken at the end of the 1950s by large-scale commercial farms, missions and commercial
enterprises. All these activities, and particularly research, came to a standstill in 1975, at the time of
independence when the Portuguese research personnel left the country.
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In 1978-79, the government expressed a renewed interest in freshwater fish farming, particularly as a means
to supply fish to rural populations suffering from animal protein deficiency and beyond the reach of
existing marine and freshwater fish distribution networks. Under the authority of the SEP, two experimen-
tal fish farms were rehabilitated at Umbeluzi (Maputo Province) and Sussundenga/Chizizira (Manica
Province), and development research reinitiated.
The main research topics were:
(i) reproduction techniques of 0. mossambicus and 0. niloticus (the latter species was introduced
from Kenya in 1981);
(ii) pond culture of 0. mossambicus and 0. niloticus, integrated with animal husbandry (pigs and
ducks).
At the same time, fry production for small-scale fish farmers and cooperatives was initiated, and fish
farmers and extensionists trained.
Since the govermment policy gave agriculture production the highest priority, fish farming was, in 1983-
1984, considered as a secondary activity and became more or less neglected, particularly in state farms and
cooperatives.
In October 1984, the freshwater fish farming was transferred from the SEP to the Agriculture Ministry
(Departamento de Picicultura (DdP), under the National Directorate of Animal Husbandry or DINAP).
Since 1985, the IIP takes care only of marine aquaculture. However, research both in marine and in
freshwater is still the responsibility of the IIP. Research prograrns are prepared by the IIP in cooperation
with DINAP.
Due to the insecurity prevailing in large parts of the country, freshwater aquaculture research is only
carried out at the Umbeluzi Experimental Fish Farm. Some experimental work is done on reproduction of
0. niloticus and induced spawning of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) which was introduced from
Zimbabwe in 1986.
MaiicultWre
Mariculture research started in Mozambique only in 1977, with the experimental culture of the mussel
Perna perna in the bays of Maputo and Inhambane. Growth rate was between 7 and 9 mm/month.
Insufficient spatfall was the main constraint for commercial production, and trials are presently conducted
at 11P to artificially produce spat in laboratory conditions. Since 1985, the SEP has given mariculture a high
priority.
HP research aims at promoting investment by the commercial sector into two major potential aquaculture
resources: bivalves - specially mussels, oysters and clams, and marine shrimps (Penaeidae). At present,
research programs focus on shrimp culture.
Mozambique has more than 170 000 ha of tidal swamplands, which have a high potential for shrimp
farming. This area is exclusive of some 680 000 ha of mangrove which should remain as natural nursery
grounds for various marine species, including shrimps, whose recruitment is critical for the marine fisher-
ies. At the request of the Government, a pilot project for coastal shrimp culture was prepared by FAO in
1986-87. This UTNDP-funded project (MO2/86/033) was signed in 1988 and started in January 1989 at Costa
del Sol, 6 k north of Maputo, in an abandoned salt pan area of 18 ha. One of the activities of this project is
applied research on the following topics:
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i)  testing technical feasibility and economic profitability of coastal shrimp farming in Mozam-
bique, using the local species (Penaeus indicus, P. monodon and Metapenaeus monoceros);
ii)  determining the availability of natural stocks of post-larvae and juveniles to stock the shrimp
ponds and the availability of natural food organisms growing inside the ponds as feed for
shrimps;
iii) assessing basic culture parameters, such as growth and survival rates of shrimps under local
conditions, using fertilizers and artificial feeds.
The results of this three-year project should allow the formulation of an investment program for the
development of coastal shrimp farming in Mozambique.
In the meantime (1987), the government of Mozambique negotiated with the French Ministry of Coopera-
tion the assessment of commercial marine shrimp farming opportunities in Mozambique. This study,
financed by the CCCE (Caisse Centrale de Cooperation Economique, France) was executed by a consortium
of three French consulting firms under the leadership of FRANCE AQUACULTURE. Field surveys were
carried out in 1987-88. The results were submitted to the SEP in July 1989 for comments and review. The
proposals have no research components. Two pilot projects are recommanded: one in the region of Beira,
the other in the vicinity of Quelimane. Only hatchery-reared P. monodon will be grown in semi-intensive
conditions. Each pilot project will consist of a hatchery, 300 ha of production ponds. The expected annual
production is 750 tonnes of whole shrimp by pilot project, with a yield of 2 500 kg shrimp/ha/year.
According to available information, the proposed teehnology for commercial shrimp culture, evolved in
Asia, the Pacific and Latin America, has not yet been successfully demonstrated in Africa.
Due to the high prices of meat and poultry, there is a readily increasing demand in Maputo and other
coastal cities for mussels and clams which are sold at lower prices than meat.
The availability of fry for stocking ponds and reservoirs is a problem, hampering freshwater fish farming
development.
There is an urgent need to prepare a national plan for aquaculture development in Mozambique, covering
both the freshwater and the marine sectors. Such a plan should indude:
(i)  the assessment of freshwater aquaculture and mariculture prospects;
(ii) the identification of systems and sites suitable for development;
(iii) the evaluation of the need for rehabilitation of existing experimental fish culture stations;
(iv) planning manpower training for the implementation of the national aquaculture development
plan.
Based on the research needs identified during the preparation of the national plan, a detailed aquaculture
research program should be prepared by the IUP, in close cooperation with DINAP. The means needed for
implementation should clearly be identified (funds, equipment, facilities and qualified personnel).
According to experience acquired in other African countries with similar ecological and socio-economic
conditions as Mozambique, the following research topics could have an impact on future aquaculture
development, once adapted to the local conditions:
(i)  polyculture in ponds of tilapia with common carp at different stocking densities;
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(ii) polyculture of tilapia and common carp, combined with animal husbandry (pigs, ducks, chick-
ens and rabbits);
(iii) trials on year-round induced spawning of common carp and production of all-male 0. niloticus
fingerlings;
(iv) comparative trials on use of manures and compost for pond fertilization, with and without
supplemental feeding;
(v) testing of locally available agro-industrial by-products as feeds for fish;
(vi) rice-cum-fish culture in irrigation schemes;
(vii) trials on stocking and management of existing small water bodies - e.g., barrage ponds and
reservoirs (culture-based fisheries).
(viii) pilot project for the culture of mussels and dams, to assess the technical and economic feasibility
of such cultures.
However, if more trained and qualified personnel at all levels are not available, research would not be able
to contribute effectively to aquaculture development At university level, biologists (general biology) are
trained (5 years) at the Faculty of Biology of the Eduardo Mondlane University of Maputo, but there is no
specialized training in aquaculture.
Technicians are trained in several Agriculture Colleges and receive on-the-job training in the government
fish farms. A group of eight technicians will be trained in shrimp culture during the implementation of the
UNDP/FAO pilot project "Coastal Shrimp Culture". Furthermore, ALCOM (Aquaculture for Local Com-
munity Development Program, Project GCP/INT/436/SWE) will train nine medium level technicians as
fish culture extensionists.
44



4. ZIMBABWE
GENERAL BACKGROUND9
Zimbabwe is a land-locked country with an area of 390 308 km2. Its population in 1986 was 9.1 million, and
according to population projections, it may reach 13.8 million by the year 2000 (at a medium growth rate of
3.0%). The 1986 CDP was about Z$ 4 billion (two Z$ correspond to about one US$). Agriculture and forestry
contributed 13.6% to GDP.
There are no natural lakes in Zimbabwe, but in addition to the artificial Lake Kariba, there are about 8 000
dams with several more constructed recently or under construction, primarily for the purpose of irnigation
and water supply. Approximately 6 500 dams with a total surface of about 35 000 ha are privately owned.
The number of dams ranging between 10 and 100 ha is approximately 1 500. However, many of them are in
the low rainfall area and suffer from erratic water levels. It is estimated, that if properly managed, the small
dams could produce more than 3 000 tonnes of fish a year, at a rate of some 150 kg/ha/year. There are
about 50 dams exceeding 100 ha producing approximately 2 000 tonnes of fish a year, with yields around 50
kg/ha/year. Lake Kariba accounts for approximately two-thirds of total fish production. The main re-
source exploited is the "kapenta" (Limnothrissa miodon), a clupeid. The inshore fishery relies on some 40
species, of which 7 are commercially important. The 1986 production was 16 000 tonnes of kapenta and 1
500 tonnes of other fish. In 1987, the production of kapenta was 15 824 tonnes and the total national fish
production grew to 21 000 tonnes.
The approximate retail value of the 1987 fish production was as follows:
kapenta dried (approx. 4 750 tonnes)      Z$ 23 600 000
other fish fresh or frozen                Z$ 35 000 000
Total                                     Z$ 58 600 000
This represents the fourth of the value of livestock meat, minl and butterfat production in 1986. The fish
production is, therefore, of great importance to the national economy.
The kapenta fishery provides jobs to 900 fishermen and 5 500 people work ashore. The number of artisanal
fishermen is approximately 600-800 on the Kariba Lake and 100 in other fisheries. The total employment in
fishing and shore-based fish handling amounts to about 7 200 persons. In addition to that, a large number
of persons find employment in fish trading, transport, fishing gear manufacturing and other related
activities. The natural fishery resources potential of Zimbabwe does not offer much scope for production
increases relative to projected trends in population and demand growths. Present catches are approaching
the level of potential estimates. Further production increases will probably have to come from aquaculture.
The Aquaculture Section of the National Parks Department, Division of Aquatic Ecology, is promoting a
number of fish farming projects, but there is, as yet, no overall plan for long-term aquaculture develop-
ment, nor is its potential known. The division of responsibilities for aquaculture development among
ministries adds difficulties in developing a coherent, objective plan. Development programs, and especially
external technical assistance, experience difficulty due to the dispersed responsibilities and conflicting
interests, although the primary responsibility for fisheries development rests with the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Tourism.
This Ministry has the overall responsibility for fisheries in Zimbabwe. The Ministry has four subject matter
departments: Natural Resources, Forestry, Parks and Wildlife, Zimbabwe Tourism Development Corpora-
tion. The direct responsibility for fisheries rests with the Department of Parks and Wildlife. The Chief
Ecologist (Aquatic) of the Department is the de facto head of the national fisheries administration. Actually,
9 Adapted from SADDC/EEC Regional Fisheries Survey. Final Report. Gopa Consultants (1989).
45



the Division of Aquatic Ecology is a small unit within the Research Branch of the Department of National
Parks.
The staffing of the Division of Aquatic Ecology comprises 16 graduates and 7 non-graduate officers.
Graduate officers are stationed at the Lake Kariba Fisheries Research Institute, Nyanga Trout Research
Centre, Matobo Fisheries Research Station, Lake Kyle Fisheries, Lake Mdlwaine Fisheries, Sebakwe Fisher-
ies and Henderson Research Centres. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism is the only govern-
ment body to have at least a nucleus of qualified staff. Some limnological research is being carried out,
additionally, by the University of Zimbabwe Research Station at Kariba.
The Division of Aquatic Ecology has established management groups in the following areas:
(i) kapenta management group,
(ii) fisheries (other than kapenta) management group,
(iii) aquaculture management group,
(iv) pre-impoundment (limnology group).
The responsibility for collecting and compiling statistics is dispersed among the various research units. The
central office in Harare does not compile fishery statistics on a national basis. The situation is further
aggravated by the fact that the units collecting statistics do not circulate them to other units or to a central
office. As a result, no consolidated fishery statistics on Zimbabwean fisheries are available.
FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE RESEARCH
The background material presented in the preceding section briefly alluded to one of the two major factors
hindering fisheries research in Zimbabwe, ie., the conflict between the Department of National Parks and
Wildlife Management (of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism), and two powerful departments
of the Ministry of Agriculture - Agritex and the Research and Specialized Services (RS & S) Department.
Conflicts among these three entities appears to shape all fishery research plans and their execution. Unless
tlhis institutional problem is resolved, it appears difficult to conceive Zimbabwean fisheries research
forcefully moving ahead, and attracting substantial external funding. Indeed, the relatively successful
research program on Lake Kariba "sardine" or "kapenta" conducted to date under the sole authority of the
Department of National Parks and Wildlife suggests that Zimbabwean fisheries research can produce
scientifically founded, implementable management advice, when and where the problem of overlapping
competence is resolved.
The other factor hindering Zimbabwean fisheries research, although apparently less so than the above
mentioned problem, is the legacy of the "Rhodesian" past. Before independence, virtually all agricultural
research (inclusive of fisheries research) was devoted to the "commercial" segment of the agricultural
sector, as opposed to its "communal" segments. In the colonial context, "commercial" and "communal"
were euphemisms for "white" and "black".
In fisheries research, this expressed itself in an emphasis on "sport" fishing - still a major industry in
Zimbabwe, and on commercial trout farming as a topic for aquaculture research. This legacy is now
gradually being overcome and present research and development plans give major emphasis to the many
small water bodies (artificial and natural) scattered throughout the country, which will be used for aquacul-
ture and culture-based fisheries by the communal segment. Both types of use will include stockin& mainly
with Oreochromis mossambicus fingerlings. (There is a policy not to import the better performing 0.
niloticus into the country, although both 0. niloticus and 0. aureus have already been introduced into
46



several commercial farms). "Henderson's farm", a famous research station which became derelict and
which has been recently rehabilitated in the frame of a FAO/TCP project, will play a crucial role in this
scheme, as the main supplier of fingerlings.
In addition to the two limited factors mentioned (conflict of competence between institutions, gap between
"commercial" and "communal" sectors), the production of a sufficient number of graduates in the appro-
priate disciplines appears to be the third major constraint to the growth of fishery research in Zinbabwe.
The Biological Science Department of the University of Zimbabwe does not yet have a regular course in
hydrobiology (although plans are being debated to establish one), and appears to have presently only two
graduate students with specializations in fisheries-related fields (one in zooplankton dynamics, the other in
tilapia genetics).
In-the-field training by executive agencies and externally-funded projects (e.g., the Sweden-funded Aqua-
culture for Local Country Development Program which just transferred its regional office from Lusaka to
Harare) wil thus continue to be important in Zimbabwe.
THE ZAMBIA-ZMBABWE SADCC (LAKE KABA) PROJECT'0
In February 1982, at the first SADCC subcommittee meeting on fisheries and wildlife held in Malawi,
SADCC member states were requested to prepare proposals for regional projects to be carried out jointly by
neighboring countries. Consequently, Zambia prepared a proposal for a project aimed at coordinating
fisheries research and development activities on Lake Kariba. The project was to be conducted jointly by
Zambia and Zimbabwe. Zambia's fishenes are estimated to produce 70 000 tonnes of fish per year and to
provide direct or indirect employment to approximately 300 000 people. Fish accounts for approximately
55% of the animal protein consumed in Zambia and the fishing industry is the country's third largest
source of employment after agriculture and mining.
Zimbabwe's lack of large natural water bodies has meant that, historically, fisheries have assumed a minor
role in the country's economy. The damming of the Zambezi to form Lake Kariba in the late 1950s gave
Zimbabwe its first potential fishery of significant size, though the lake's fish stocks were initially seen
primarily as a recreational facility rather than a major source of protein and employment. It was only when
the Lake Tanganika sardine, Limnothrissa miodon or "kapenta", was successfully introduced in the 70s
that a productive fishery developed. The rapid growth of the kapenta fishery in the Zimbabwean section of
the lake (from about 1 000 t in 1977 to over 18 000 t in 1988) transformed the status of the Zimbabwean
fisheries sector, and kapenta now contributes significantly to the protein consumption of low income
groups.
The artisanal fishery, based on inshore demersal fish, is an important source of employment and income in
the lakeshore region and 2 830 fishermen (1940 in Zambia and 890 in Zimbabwe) are currently involved in
fishing activities. A recent survey indicates that the traditional fishery is growing in both countries.
Between 1985 and 1988, the number of people actively fishing increased at a rate of 5.8% per annum in
Zimbabwe and by 7.9% per annum in Zambia. In terms of fish production, the artisanal fishery is consider-
ably smaller than the commercial kapenta fishery and is estimated to be currently yielding about 6750
t/year. On the eastern part of the Zimbabwean shore, most fish is marketed fresh by major food companies
who buy from the fishermen but, over the rest of the shoreline, the greater part of the catch is smoked or
dried and distributed by small traders. The artisanal fishery, thus, generates considerable ancillary employ-
ment, and over 800 traders make a living from the fishery on the Zambian side alone.
Lake Kariba supports a demersal fish population which is concentrated around its shallow perimeter, and
a single pelagic fish population which occupies the open waters of the lake. However, the Zam-
10 Adapted from Zambia-Zimbabwe SADCC Fisheries Project. Project Proposal. Kariba, May 1989.
47



bia/Zimbabwe border, which passes through the middle of the lake, divides it into two sections which are
managed by separate organizations that have had little communication with one another. Whereas the
management of the inshore artisanal fishery in one country has little influence upon the equivalent fishery
in the other country, since there is negligible exchange between the stocks, the situation with regard to the
commercial pelagic fishery is very different.
The kapenta population upon which the commercial fisheries of the two countries depend, occupies the
whole pelagic zone of the lake and there are no indications, in recent or earlier surveys, of any division into
discrete stocks. Fishing effort directed at harvesting kapenta from either country will therefore influence
the kapenta population of the lake as a whole and, thus, fishery performances in the other country. Both
countries agree that, in order to improve the living standards, security and social status of the lake-shore
communities, it is necessary to establish study programs that will lead to the preparation of comprehensive
land- and water-use plans for the region. In view of the substantial differences between the Zambian and
Zimbabwe sides of the lake (in terms of land use, access to fishing, ethnic composition, etc.), separate
lakeshore development plans for each side of the lake will be required. Only when the administrative,
political and social factors is addressed and a new order established, will it be rational to attend to such
matters as strengthening extension activities and introducing improved capture and processing methods.
As noted above, Lake Kariba supports two distinct and very different fisheries. They are usually referred to
as the "commercial fishery" (or kapenta, or offshore, or pelagic fishery) and the "artisanal fishery" (or
traditional, or inshore, or demersal fishery). They differ in many respects and it is axiomatic that the
requirements for their development and optimization are also different. The only obvious feature common
to both fisheries is the fact that they come under the administrative responsibility of the Department of
Fisheries in Zambia and the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management in Zimnbabwe.
Most of the proposed project activities relate clearly to one or other of the fisheries. Thus, for planning the
project and identifying its objectives and the activities required to achieve them, it is constructive to
consider the project as consisting of two sub-projects. They will be linked by the fact that both will be
executed by staff in the same departments and that some components, notably the strengthening of
institutional capabilities by the provision of training and equipment, the establishment of a coordinated
fisheries database, etc. will be relevant to both. The development of a technology which will give the
artisanal sector access to kapenta stocks will also tend to link the two components of the project.
It is important to stress that the division is solely a means of clarifying the objectives, activities, etc. of the
project components, and that administratively, the project will function as a single operation.
48



Annex VI
Note on Past Activities and Present State of Fisheries Research in Uganda
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Uganda is a small landlocked country in sub-Sahara Africa with a population of about 16 million people.
The country is endowed with good rainfall, fertile land and a large number of water bodies, including Lake
Victoria (shared with Kenya and Tanzania), Lakes Albert and Edward (shared with Zaire), George, Kioga
Complex, Wamala, Kachera, Nakivale, Kijaneboloa, Bunyonyi, plus minor crater lakes, damps, rivers and
swamps.
The major fish groups are the cichlids, Nile perch (Lates niloticus), catfishes, charicids, many of which are
endemic to the different habitats. They are exploited by artisanal fishermen. Fish contributes more than
50% of cheap animal protein intake, with a per capita consumption of about 13 kg per person per year.
Cattle, the other source of animal protein, have virtually disappeared from eastem and northern Uganda
and so there is a greater demand for fish.
Fisheries research in Uganda dates back to the 19th century when European explorers and subsequent
scientific expeditions in the early 20th century collected fish specimens for identification in various natural
history museums in Europe. Papers and books were written by several authors, such as Gunther, Boulen-
ger, Poll, etc., on the taxonomy of various fish species. The lakes were also charted. Worthington undertook
the Cambridge expedition to Lakes Albert and Kioga in the 1920s and 1930s, and identified the fish species
of these lakes. Belgian scientists also worked on Lakes Albert and Edward.
In 1927, Graham determined the status of the Lake Victoria fisheries, following the decline in catch per unit
effort in the fishery for Oreochromis esculentus. A minimum gillnet mesh was established at 127 mm (5 in)
in 1933.
In 1947, the East African Fisheries Research Organization (EAFRO) was established at Jinja, with the
responsibility to do research on Lake Victoria. In the same year, the Lake Victoria Fisheries Service was
started and based in Kisumu to control fishing effort and collect the necessary statistics for the management
and monitoring of the fishery. The Lake Victoria Fisheries Service was disbanded in 1959 and its responsi-
bility handed over to the Fisheries Departments of the three riparian countries. Up to the 1950s, the
management of Uganda's fisheries was handled by the Game Department which came into existence in
1925, and in 1960, a separated Fisheries Department was created.
In the 1950s, there was intensified research activity on fish ecology and taxonomy. The biology of Or-
eochromis esculentus was studied in detail by Lowe. The food and feeding habits of the non-cichlid fishes
was studied by Corbet, while Fryer busied himself with fish and invertebrate ecology. Greenwood worked
on the haplochromiine cichlids.
In a second attempt to halt the declining catch rates in Lake Victoria in the mid 1950s, Garrod, Lowe and
Beverton taclded the dynamics of the fisheries, particularly of Oreochromis esculentus and 0. variabilis.
They strongly recommended maintaining the minimum mesh size of 127 mm (5 in) and, thereby, sacrificing
the catches of 0. variabilis in order to save 0. esculentus from biological and economic overexploitation.
However, their recommendation was not taken seriously by the colonial management in the three riparian
tezritories. The legal mesh size of 127 mm was abolished by Uganda and Tanganika (now Tanzania) in
1957, and by Kenya in 1960. It was argued that the minimum mesh could not be enforced and that there was
not enough manpower to patrol the lake. This resulted in untold damage to the fisheries of Lake Victoria.
The mesh size below 127 mm caught immature 0. esculentus and other non-ichlids. The end of the 1950s
saw the dissolution of the Lake Victoria Fisheries Service and ushered in a partial collapse in data collection
in the lake.
49



The 1950s was a decade when the species composition of Lakes Victoria, Kioga, Kijanebolola, Wamala,
dams and minor lakes was affected by the introduction of Nile perch, Oreochromis niloticus, 0.
leucostictus and Tilapia ziUii by the Game Department. This was done ostensibly to improve and increase
fish production in the different habitats. These introductions were later to strongly impact fish yields,
particularly in Lakes Kioga and Victoria. The fisheries section of the Game Department was busy experi-
menting with tilapiines, catfishes and carp (Cyprinus carpio) at Kajansi for aquaculture, which yielded
good results. Fish farming spread across the country as a result of the aquaculture research in Kajansi.
The 1960 decade of independence brought about partial africanization of research in Uganda. Science
graduates from Makerere, Nairobi and also overseas universities were recruited. EAFFRO was africanized.
There was a reappearance of Nile perch in Lake Victoria in 1960 and subsequent official introduction in
1962/63. The 1960s were good years for aquaculture research and fish farming practices, in which Uganda
was the leading country in the region. Aquaculture research led to monosex culture of tilapia hybrids and
also fish farming for minor carp (Cyprinus carpio). The polyculture of Bagrus docmac with tilapia was
investigated. Pond studies on Nile perch were conducted to assess the proposed introduction of Lates into
Lake Victoria to crop haplochromiines. The Regional Fisheries Officers in charge of various lakes made
research observations on various fish species and other aquatic organisms, besides monitoring the state of
the fisheries in their respective lakes. The Fisheries Department carried out experimental bottom-trawling
in an attempt to can or produce fish meal from the abundant haplochromiines. The canned product was
very expensive, and the experiment terminated.
At EAFFRO, the research activities were extended to also cover Lakes Kioga, Edward and Albert besides
Lake Victoria. The work on Lake Albert was largely devoted to studying the distribution, food and feeding
habits of Nile perch, Lates niloticus, whose feeding habits were also investigated through aquarium
experiments. Okedi and Gee looked at the introduced Nile perch in Lakes Victoria and Kioga. Okedi also
looked at the mormyrids in detail. Welcomme dwelt on the cichlids in pools and a small stream flowing
into Lake Victoria and the effects of the high rise of the lake leveL Gee then turned his attention to
haplochromine taxonomy, while Chilvers pursued studies on growth of Bagrus docmac. Ssentogo exam-
ined the dynamics of Oreochromis niloticus in Lakes Edward, Albert and Wamala. Tailing pursued
lihnological work on Lake Victoria.
The International Biological Program (IBP) started a research project on Lake George, with a team of young
British scientists under the supervision of Prof. Beadle of the Makerere University. For a long time, the team
comprised only expatriates, until eventually one Ugandan science graduate from Makerere University
College was recruited to handle stock assessment. Unfortunately, the efforts by the Fisheries Department to
send at least one departmental scientist to work with IBP were resisted and, consequently, at the end of the
program, there was no Ugandan to continue similar work. Beadle published the results of his studies on
Ugandan swamps and small crater lakes in the western region of the country.
The UNDP/FAO/EAFFRO project on Lake Victoria started in 1968 and continued until 1972 when the
expatriate staff left after the expulsion of Indians from Uganda. The project involved stock assessment of
Lake Victoria in waters deeper than 5 m by bottom-trawling, using the research vessel "IBIS" which was
purchased for the work. The results of these bottom-trawling cruises indicated that there was a standing
stock of fish of 600 000 tonnes, 80% of which was composed of haplochromiines. These results also showed
that bottom-trawling was the best and most feasible method of harvesting the abundant haplochromiines.
Bazigos developed a catch data system. Some work was also done on limnology.
However, the estimates of biomass for other exploited fish species, such as 0. esculentus, were questioned
by G. Fryer as they were much lower than what continued to be harvested by the artisanal fishermen
annually. The vital statistics of the various species were not provided. Thus, critical parameters other than
catch of standing stock estimates (which were also incorrect) were not taken into consideration. It is no
wonder that haplochromiines were not able to support a fish meal plant established by Tanzania in
50



Mwanza. Fryer summarized the results of the bottom trawling operations as a waste of time and money as
they did not lead to any meaningful management strategies.
The 1970s were a decade of political instability and violence. Expatriate research scientists were withdrawn
by the development agencies such as UNDP/FAO. East African researchers, fearing for the safety of their
lives, were transferred from Jinja to the sub-stations at Kisumu and Mwanza. Every lake shore became a
"security zone". Even research activities on Lake Victoria had to be deared with the army before any cruise
could be undertaken. The purchasing power of the population was greatly reduced. The research scientists
based in Jinja preferred to carry out work in either Kenya or Tanzania.
However, some research continued to be done on Lake Victoria. Marten in the 1970s analyzed data from the
artisanal fishermen catches and made predictions on the continued use of beach seines, mosquito seines
and small gillnets, which was destructive to large fish species and would be economical only for a short
term. He recommended the use of large-meshed gillnets and hooks, which he predicted, would lead to
increased sustained yields.
During the East African Community days, UNDP, USAID, CIDA (Canada) and ODA (UK) were the major
external funding agencies for EAFFRO research. The three partner states also contributed to the
Community's budget which, among others, induded research and social services. After the breakup of the
Community in June 1977, UFFRO (formerly EAFFRO) was placed in the President's Office and had no
source of external funding. So UFFRO could only afford to carry out limited research in the nearby waters
of Lakes Victoria and Kioga, with occasional trips to Lake Albert.
During the civil war (1978-79), research activities came to a halt, especially in 1979. The research vessel
"IBIS" was stripped of its accessory generators and navigational aids.
PRESENT S17UATION
The early 1980s saw the return to a civilian government. UFFRO and other former research institutions
were placed in the Miinistry of Regional Cooperation which, however, manifested limited interest in
regional research issues. The few funds which went to UFFRO sustained research activities for Lakes Kioga
and Victoria only. The other lakes remained unattended. From this limited research work, several papers
were published in the proceedings of the meetings of the CIFA Sub-Conmmittee for the Development and
Management of Lake Victoria. The research vessel "IBIS" continued to render trawling facilities until 1986.
In the last half of the 1980s, there was no water-borne transport at UFFRO.
In 1986, there was a change of government and UFFRO was transferred to the Ministry of Animal Industry
and Fisheries. This was a welcome move as UFFRO scientists could then interact directly with the manag-
ers in the Fisheries Department.
In 1987, the International Development Research Center of Canada (IDRC) accepted to fund a Nile perch
study covering Lakes Victoria, Kioga and Albert. The Center also provided various equipments and
textbooks. The Center has also sponsored project scientists to attend CIFA meetings and undertake study
tours abroad for both short and longer periods. This aid has boosted morale and encouraged research
activities.
The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) started work on Lake Kioga. Two expatriates
and two Ugandan counterparts have carried out stock assessment and statistical data analysis of Lake
Kioga. However, the ongoing insecurity in the area north and east of the lake has hindered the IFAD
program. The only major recommendation is that the bays and gulfs in the lake should be utilized for
"acadja-type" culture by individual fishermen.
51



In 1987, EEC provided funds for one UFFRO scientist to carry out an artisanal fisheries resources study
which involved collection and analysis of old catch statistics and compilation of published material. This
scientist subsequently visited ICLARM in April-June 1988. So far, two bibliographies, one on Lake Victoria
and the other on Lates niloticus, have been completed. A third bibliography on Lake Edward is also ready
for publication. Bibliographies for Lakes Albert and Kioga are in progress.
In 1988, EEC funded a catch assessment of Lakes Victoria, George, Edward, Albert, Wamala and
Kijanebolola by UFFRO scientists. EEC has also committed funds for stock assessment in Lake Victoria and
rehabilitation of the "IBIS" and other facilities at UFFRO.
MAJOR CONSTRAINTS
Present constraints to fisheries research in Uganda are:
(i) insecurity, which also scares away donor agencies;
(ii) insufficient operating funds for research from the national budget; most researchers are unable
to attend seminars and meetings outside Uganda;
(iii) inadequate land and water-borne transport;
(iv) very low salaries; therefore, researchers are unable to concentrate on their jobs;
(v) a general shortage of everything, from stationery to laboratory equipment.
52



MISSION:
16 August - 3 September 1989
MEMBERS:
Francis Poinsard (Leader)
Lucay Han Ching
Rongvaldur Hannesson
Mohamed Rami






I. INTRODUCTION
ORGANIZATION OF THE MISSION
A Study of International Fishery Research (SIFR) has been undertaken under the auspices of a group of
development and aid agencies. Its purpose was to provide a diagnosis of development constraints and
management requirements, to determine the priority research needs in developing countries, to assess their
capacity to undertake the corresponding investigations, and the ways in which the donor community could
contribute effectively in strengthening developing countries research capacities.
To appraise the present research capabilities of developing countries, the SIFR organized a series of
missions to different tropical regions. The purpose of the present mission was to evaluate the state of
fisheries research in the Northwestern part of Africa. The mission's terms of reference is given in Annex I.
The mission was composed of:
Francis POINSARD               Mission leader
Lucay HAN CHING                Fish technologist
Rognvaldur HANNESSON           Fishery economist
Mohamed RAMI                   Stock assessment expert
Two mission members had direct experience of fishery research in the region, as well as of international aid
in this field.
According to its original schedule, the mission was supposed to visit three countries, namely Mauritania,
Morocco and Senegal, to meet representatives of research institutions, fisheries administrations, the fishing
industry and the small scale sector. For unexpected reasons, this plan had to be modified at the last
moment.
The mission went only to Morocco. Visits to Mauritania and Senegal were replaced by a five day meeting
(21 - 26 August), held in Casablanca, to which present and former directors of fisheries, food technology
and agricultural research institutes in these countries were invited. Together with the mission members,
they reviewed the state of fishery research in the area, the ways and means of enhancing its effectiveness,
and the impact of international aid. The list of participants at this meeting is given in Annex II.
In Morocco, the mission met representatives of high seas fishing companies in Casablanca. In Rabat, the
mission had meetings with the fishery administration, and with representatives of FAO and UNDP. The
mission also made a trip to an aquaculture farm on the Mediterranean coast. It visited several sites of
coastal and artisanal fisheries along the Atlantic coast. In Agadir, the mission had the opportunity to see a
large, vertically-integrated fishing company, and an experimental plant for the production of surimi, built
with a bilateral input. The list of the persons that the mission met in Morocco is given in Annex III.
Finally the mission consulted various documents on the subject (Annex IV).
THE IMPORTANCE OF NORTHWESTAFRICAN FISHERIES
IN COASTAL COUNTRIES' ECONOMIES
The state of the region's fisheries is well known. It is described in many documents and does not need to be
summarized in detail.
55



In the exclusive economic zones of Mauritania, Morocco and Senegal, abundant and rich fishery resources
support important domestic fisheries, both small-scale and large-scale. With national differences, the
fishery sector is one of the first sources of foreign exchange, and also a major source of food and employ-
ment in these three countries.
For a long time, these abundant resources have attracted long distance fishing fleets from Europe and the
Far East. These fleets, operating under various bi-lateral agreements, are still very active. In physical terms,
their catches make up about two thirds of the total production in the sub-region.
Although aquaculture is only in an infant stage in the area, its development opportunities are not over-
looked. Countries have initiated experimental and commercial production of oysters, shrimp and finfishes.
Governments are fully aware of the great economic and social significance of the fishery sector, and the
potentially greater contribution it can make to the growth of national economies. Countries are eager to
increase their shares, and to maximize the benefits that can be drawn from the sector through the develop-
ment of domestic fisheries and the efficient use of resources that, despite their richness, are already heavily
exploited. In the region, the future of the sector depends on progress in both development and manage-
ment.
Important actions have already been taken to that effect. In particular, national plans give a prominent
place to the building of effective research capacities and competent fishery administrations. With certain
differences between countries, bi-lateral and multi-lateral aid programs have significantly contributed to
the take-off of national research capacities. Experience has been accumulated on various forms of aid,
bi-lateral and multilateral, from which useful comparisons of their respective merits can be drawn.
All countries are actively engaged on research programs covering various fisheries-related disciplines, with
emphasis on resource assessment and monitoring, environmental studies and, more recently, fishery
economics. The information accumulated by research is currently used for the formulation of fishery
policies, of development and management schemes, and in the negotiation of fishing agreements with
foreign countries. National programs differ, however, in relation to specific national needs and means. All
countries are aware of the need to broaden the scope of their research programs, and to enhance their
effectiveness and the use of research findings for development and management purposes.
The findings of the mission, and of the Casablanca meeting, are presented as follows.
Section II reviews the research needs, as perceived by research managers, and the users of research, both
public and private, interviewed by the mission.
Section III analyzes, on the basis of the experience accumulated in research institutes, ways conducive to
developing successful research. It further examines the institutional arrangements that condition the
enhancement of performance and effectiveness of national and regional research.
Section IV develops more general conclusions on the status of fisheries research in the region.
Section V lists the specific areas where, and the actions through which, international aid could most
effectively contribute to the strengthening of research capabilities in the area.
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2. RESEARCH NEEDS AND PRIORITIES
PAST EXPERIENCE
In the three countries, bi-lateral and multi-lateral aid programs played a key role in the building of national
research capacities - i.e., in the definition of research objectives, in the implementation of research pro-
grams, in the transfer of research methods and approaches, in the provision of equipment and in the
training of research personnel.
External aid, and particularly multi-lateral assistance, contributed markedly to raise national awareness,
notably in governmental departments, of the importance of research for the formulation of sound fishery
policies and development and management actions. However, even when scientific achievements were
satisfactory, research was not necessarily effective, as programs were not always properly matched to the
specific needs of the countries concerned, nor to their ability to assimilate and use the research outputs.
Thus, an essential condition for the effectiveness of international assistance appears to be the full apprecia-
tion by national authorities that the objectives of aid projects fit their perceived national needs. This is
essential to ensure that governments make adequate commitments for the provision of counterparts and
the overall support without which research programs initiated with foreign inputs are discontinued once
external aid ceases. National awareness is also critical for the effective use of project findings in develop-
ment and management actions.
RESEARCH OBJECTIES
In the three countries, research programs focus directly on fisheries management needs and development
opportunities. Research priorities are determined by the research institutions themselves, on their interpre-
tation of government's policy statements and the needs of the private sector.
All national research programs need strengthening. Although research outputs contributed significantly to
the preparation of national sector policies, and the formulation of development plans and management
measures, the mission noted that, in several instances, the use of the knowledge accumulated on national
fisheries is far from being optimum, and that serious difficulties are experienced in the formulation and
implementation of management schemes that work. Although important and promising programs are
conducted on the economic and social conditions of small scale fisheries, and on the economics of fishery
management, relatively less work is carried out to quantify the constraints that affect fisheries develop-
ment, in the large scale and medium-scale sector. This is important because some domestic fisheries that are
not resource-bound are not developing and, presently, certain large stocks can be exploited profitably only
by foreign fleets. However, research institutes are aware of the need to expand their research programs
onto the economic aspects of development.
Actually, research priorities differ from fishery to fishery. In that respect, it is useful to distinguish between:
(i)  fisheries that are constrained by supply;
(ii) fisheries that are bound by demand; and
(iii) aquaculture.
In the first category, analyses of the efficient utilization of naturally-limited yields (stock assessment,
bio-economic modeling for optimizing investments in production means, technical and institutional mech-
anisms for regulating access, environmental studies) have the priority. In the second category, research
should aim at improving economic efficiency through technological innovations in fish preservation,
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processing technology and marketing. In both cases, economic analyses aiming at determining optimum
balances of inputs are required for the formulation of sound management and development strategies. In
aquaculture, a useful distinction can be made between existing and latent production systems. Transfers of
technologies and research on feeding, reproduction, epidemiology,..., may contribute to the development
of economically established systems. For the development of latent systems, economic and social analyses
of development prospects, conditions of known systems and local conditions, are often crucial for selecting
appropriate farming systems.
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
On the basis of the information assembled during the discussions with research users and reviewed during
the meeting with the directors of research institutions, the mission prepared the following table. It gives the
relative priority (H = high; M = medium; and L = low) of major research topics.
Topics                                                               Priorities
A - Support to Fishery Administrations (Development and Management)
- Ecology and dynamics of exploited stocks:
e small-scale fisheries:                                                 H
* coastal (medium-scale) fisheries:                                      M
• high seas (large-scale) fisheries:                                     L
- Statistical analysis for the design of systems for the collection of
commercial statistics, and of surveys for resource monitoring:             H
- Social and bio-economic analyses of fisheries:
i small-scale fisheries:                                                 H
e coastal (medium-scale) fisheries:                                      M
e high seas (large-scale) fisheries:                                     L
- Institutional aspects of fishery management:                                H
- Effects of environment on stock production and distribution:                M
B - Support to the Production and Marketing Sectors (Development)
- Upgrading the economic efficiency of harvesting operations through
technological innovations (fishing gear and methods, preservation of harvests, etc.):
* small-scale fisheries:                                                 H
* coastal (medium-scale) fisheries:                                      H
* high seas (large-scale) fisheries:                                     L
- Adding value to harvests (notably through fish technology):                 H
- Market analysis (domestic markets and international trade):                 H
- Fish quality control (methodologies):                                       H
C - Aquaculture
- Selection of farming systems:                                               H
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- Identification of sites, carrying capacity of fresh water and coastal environments,
and ecological risks of aquaculture at production sites:                        H
- Husbandry techniques (zootechnology, epidemiology)H
- Institutional aspects of aquaculture development (e.g., territorial use rights):  H
- Feasibility studies of development projects:                                     H
All items in the above list justify the conduct of scientific research or technical work in the region. For those
which are not parts of national research agendas yet, programs need to be initiated according to a sequence
reflecting the relative priorities indicated in the table.
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3. WAYS AND MEANS FOR DEVELOPING SUCCESSFUL RESEARCH
REQUIREMENTS AT NATIONAL LEVEL
If any research is to develop successfully, a number of conditions must be met at national level:
(i)  to focus research on government priority actions, sector policies setting clearly national develop-
ment and management objectives are needed; on the other hand, sector policies can be substan-
tially improved if research competence is used (provision of information and analysis) for the
formulation of sector policies;
(ii) the participation of public administrators and private operators in the selection of research
priorities and in the evaluation of research findings (e.g., through the boards of research insti-
tutes) is essential for ensuring a two-way flow of information between research and its users, as
well as for optimizing the use of research findings;
(iii) research personnel should enjoy working conditions - notably salaries comparable to those
offered in the private sector and other public administrations for similar professional experience
and duties; otherwise, staff with the qualifications required for research are difficult to recruit
and retain;
(iv) research institutions should provide adequate opportunities to researchers to keep abreast with
conceptual and methodological developments in their disciplines;
(v)  cooperation with other national research institutions, notably with universities, is important for
optimizing the use of national capacities as well as for stimulating exchanges of knowledge and
ideas, and scientific competition;
(vi) similarly, sectoral research institutes should collaborate actively with the private sector in
technical fields of common concern, as well as for facilitating transfers of research findings;
(vii) through the exchange of information, knowledge and experience, and the coordination of
activities of common interest, regional cooperation offers considerable opportunities for greater
efficiency, enhanced quality of research, and cost savings; it can also stimulate scientific compe-
tition;
(viii) regular relationships and exchanges with research institutions in developed countries (e.g.,
through twinning arrangements) can greatly facilitate the training of national personnel, the
transfer of methodologies, and the provision of scientific assistance that is finely tuned to
national needs.
Many shortcomings identified by the mission in the sub-region with respect to relevance, performance or
use of fisheries research have their roots in the fact that these conditions, and these opportunities, are not
totally satisfied, or fully utilized.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION
It is the mission's understanding that regional cooperation, if properly organized and effected through
adequate structures, offers considerable opportunities for stimulating national research, sharing common
opportunities, talents and costs, and making better use of research findings. Regional cooperation is
already on its way. Governments have already taken important initiatives to that effect. In early 1989, a
60



Ministerial Conference, held in Rabat, decided that cooperation in all fields of fisheries, including research,
should be developed between all coastal countries in West Africa.
Mauritania, Morocco and Senegal have particular reasons to intensify their collaboration in fisheries
research. Their resources are components of the same or similar ecosystems. They share certain fish stocks
which cannot be effectively managed without active regional cooperation. Their national fisheries are
confronted with the same basic development and management issues. The development of national re-
search capabilities poses similar problems. They have acquired sizeable research capacities and accumu-
lated experience in this field. A tradition of cooperation already exists between institutions and individual
researchers in the assessment and management of shared stocks. There is a common will to intensify
collaboration.
Sectoral research institutes have already adopted cooperative agreements for the exchange of information
and findings on programs of common interest. This cooperation aims at developing the research capacities
in the region through a better utilization of existing means. In practice, cooperation takes into account
national priorities and capabilities by major fields. External assistance is also shared when necessary.
This cooperation must be strengthened, notably for the joint analysis of research strategies, the develop-
ment of scientific methods and approaches in response to specific problems of local fisheries, the exchange
of information, and the organization of training activities.
International assistance is needed primarily to foster human resources and research institutions that exist,
and for the dynamic implementation and expansion of programs that have been initiated. Countries
consider that international assistance should be provided only in areas where conditions for an optimum
impact of such assistance are met at national level. This includes the availability of a sufficient number of
trained research personnel, and of facilities and infrastructure (working and living conditions) that would
allow research programs to successfully continue with national means once the international support
comes to an end.
Countries have adopted that policy on the basis of the experience they have gained from past assistance
projects. Some of these projects failed when, owing to lack of means, awareness or other reasons, recipient
countries were unable to provide the contribution that would have permitted a lasting impact of aid
projects.
PRIORITIES FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
This does not imply that international cooperation, both bilateral and multilateral, is not critically impor-
tant for the further development of national research capacities. However, past experience has shown that
the impact of aid projects is maximized when the following conditions are satisfied:
(i)  Since the appreciation of the usefulness of individual aid projects conditions the mobilization of
the necessary resources (manpower, equipment) from the counterpart side and the capacity of
the latter to assimilate the project inputs, topics for assistance should fit the priority needs
identified by the recipient countries.
(ii) Consequently, creation of artificial needs should be avoided.
(iii) As continuity depends on the promotion and development of national capabilities, assistance
should aim primarily at institution building.
(iv) Assistance should focus on the provision of opportunities for upgrading the scientific knowl-
edge of national researchers and their involvement in innovative targeted research.
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(v)  When the aim is to initiate research programs in new areas, in particular in more innovative
fields, a nucleus of adequate national capacities must exist as a pre-requisite for ensuring the
impact of aid and the continuity of the research programs when aid projects are terminated.
(vi) External assistance should complement national efforts in the strengthening of regional cooper-
ation in research.
(vii) Aid programs should be subject to systematic joint evaluations, in terms of relevance to needs,
quality of inputs, and impact on national capacities.
ADEQUATE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
Since research is only one component of development or management, there are many examples of good
research findings that have had little impact on fisheries. Adequate demand, proper structures, and
effective mechanisms are critical conditions for the use of research outputs.
First, the respective tasks of the research institutions and the management bodies should be clearly defined.
Their roles must be separated. Research institutions should assemble and analyze facts and figures for the
provision of scientific advice, while decisions should remain the exclusive responsibility of fishery admin-
istrations, management bodies and economic operators. This is essential for building the scientific credibil-
ity of research institutions. Moreover, without the autonomy that is associated with such distinction of
roles, research institutions will be unable to develop their capabilities and to conduct anticipatory research
programs that are needed to respond efficiently to future needs and opportunities.
Second, clear and credible (i.e., effectively implemented and enforced) management policies are needed, at
the national level and, for shared stocks at the regional level. This will help research to focus on priority
issues, and will ensure that the potential benefits of expensive investigations are not dissipated in ineffi-
cient management of common property resources.
Third, to enhance the relevance of research programs, to make management operative, and to promote
better informed management decisions and development policies, national management committees in-
volving representatives of the fishery administration, the fishing industry, and research institutions should
be established. Such committees should have a formal status, and the staff and means required to work in a
regular and effective manner.
Consequently, there is a need for a shift in priority of international aid, from the provision of equipment
and financial support, to institution building and the promotion of human resources. This will contribute to
the emergence of an adequate demand for research that will foster the development of the latter.
PUBLIC VERSUS PRIVATE RESEARCH
There is a component of "public good" in all research that benefits, actually or potentially, more than one
company. This calls for government participation in research, financially and institutionally. The public
good component varies, however, from case to case. Stock assessment for instance, is to a large extent a
public good in an adequately managed fishery. It directly benefits the nation as a whole, to the extent that
the society captures resource rents and the assessment improves fisheries management. It benefits the
industry by enabling it to draw up better informed plans. The fishing industry should, therefore, contribute
financially to such research. Such involvement would undoubtedly contribute to a better focussing of such
research, and could also improve its factual basis, as this depends to no small degree on information
available mainly within operating units in the industry.
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Development of new activities with an uncertain outcome (aquaculture, for example) is another example of
research and development activities with a large public good component calling for govermment financing,
wholly or in part. Research that benefits consumers through better sanitary control and quality enhance-
ment also has a large public good component and, hence, is to a large extent the responsibility of govern-
ments.
Product development largely benefits the particular company which will produce and sell the product.
Whenever possible, such research should be in the hands of the private sector. However, the private sector
may need to be organized to be able to undertake research which interests it particularly when its costs
exceeds the amount which individual enterprises can cover. The administration may have to stimulate such
organization. This is particularly true for long-term product development projects.
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4. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON THE STATUS OF
FISHERIES RESEARCH
The mission based its assessment of the research capacities in the area on three postulates:
(i)  For improving the contribution of fisheries to national economies, hard data and scientific
research are necessary in all fields of economic activities, from the understanding of environ-
mental effects on fish stock productivity, to the marketing of the products.
(ii) The formulation of sector policies and the enforcement of rules and regulations that are needed
for effective development and management are the responsibility of the fishery administration
and decision makers at governmental level. It is, therefore, also their duty to organize and
support the public research that they need to perform these tasks.
(iii) For fishery management to be effective, it is important that all parties involved in the exploita-
tion of common property resources realize the need for regulation, and participate in the
formulation, adoption and implementation of management schemes.
The mission attempted to assess whether decision makers, researchers and private operators have the same
understanding of the above requirements. Differences of appreciation between administrators and re-
searchers, and among private operators were noted.
At the government level, the critical importance of good research for dynamic economic growth of the
sector is well appreciated. This understanding materialized in the development of national research institu-
tions and in the support of regional cooperation between research institutions involved in the monitoring
of shared resources. In the three countries, administrations tend to rely on research for the management of
national fisheries.
A major gap remains in the lack of any effective cooperation in research with countries foreign to the region
that exploit the resources in the EEZs of coastal countries. Working relations with research institutions in
these countries remain problematic. To day, coastal countries consider that CECAFI, which has this
mandate, does not help to improve the situation.
It is, however, recognized that multilateral organizations played a determinant role, through their coopera-
tion with national research institutions, in raising government awareness on the opportunities for fishery
development, on the technical approaches to fishery development and management, and in the formula-
tion of national sector policies.
At the industry level, the need for research for fisheries management was not recognized until overfishing
eroded the profitability of fishing activities to the point of threatening their existence. As reported to the
mission by fishing operators, one of the reasons for this lack of confidence in research, is their feeling that
the affiliation between the sectoral research institute and the fishery administration is too strong. However,
there is a willingness in the industry to support public research and development activities, and to develop
private research when possible, with the purpose of increasing profitability through the enhancement of
fishing productivity and adding value to raw material.
It is the mission's view that research institutes have a sound understanding of the goals and components of
fisheries management, at both national and sub-regional levels. Research plays a determinant role in the
formulation of government policies, and is deeply involved in the preparation of various inputs for their
implementation.
1 FAO Committee for East Central Atlantic Fisheries.
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The mission's conclusion is that the strengthening of national research capacities and the effective use of
research findings for the economic growth of the sector depend on three conditions:
(V   Because existing research capacities are under-utilized and research institutes are capable, with
adequate means, to expand their programs into new areas that would appear necessary, short-
comings in national institutions are stronger constraints than current weaknesses in research
programs;
(ii) International aid should be tailored to the needs that are specific to individual countries, and to
the priorities that are set by governments. A critical mass of national researchers has to be
created; the knowledge they have accumulated needs to be permanently upgraded and ex-
panded; the environment of research has to be improved step by step. This requires coherence
and continuity that only national institutions can provide; and
(iii) The third condition is the strengthening of regional cooperation in research.
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5. PRIORITY AREAS FOR INTERNATIONAL AID
Several conclusions can be drawn with regard to ways and means of improving the impact of international
aid in fisheries research. It is the mission's understanding that the actions listed in the following section are
particularly appropriate to enhance national research capacities, and would be welcomed by governments
of recipient countries.
IMPROVING THE RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH
National sectoral research institutes need boards for policy guidance The mandate of such bodies should be
to assess research priorities, to facilitate a two-way information flow between research and research users,
to ensure the matching of means to needs, and to evaluate performances. Membership of research institute
boards should include: (i) representatives of the administration in charge of the sector, as well as from
departments responsible for government expenditures; (ii) representatives from the private sector, both
large scale and small-scale; and (iii) representatives of national research institutions working in comple-
mentary fields.
IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF RESEARCH
Evaluation of research programs should be the task of Scientific Committees. Their mandate would be to
assess the scientific quality of research programs, and to facilitate communication and, possibly, coopera-
tion between national research institutions. Their membership should include senior researchers from the
center concerned, scientists from other related national institutions and universities, as well as, if necessary,
specially invited scientists of international reputation from foreign institutions, notably from those with
which national research institutions have established cooperative programs (e.g., through twinning ar-
rangements).
The stability of research staff should be improved by providing living and working conditions matching
the requirements of dynamic research. This includes the provision of:
(i)  an adequate status for the research personnel;
(ii) procedures for evaluating individual performances of the staff, linking promotions and rewards
to performance; and
(ii) ad hoc solutions to improve living and working conditions when formal schemes are immedi-
ately beyond the reach of research institutions.
A cadre of scientifically qualified staff has to be developed by increasing the training facilities for existing
post-graduate researchers and technicians, and for those to be recruited.
Availability of unbiased facts and figures is a condition for reliable assessments. In the region, this need
cannot be met without an effective monitoring and control of fish catches and fishing effort in national and
foreign fleets. Consequently, the quality of applied research depends critically on the effectiveness of
enforcement. International cooperation should contribute to the development of adequate control and
surveillance systems (developing system concepts, transfer of technologies).
In the institute agendas, more attention should be given to prospective research. For that purpose, the
scientific and technical background of researchers must be upgraded. However, as long as current manage-
ment approaches are not changed and the institutions that are required for more effective fisheries manage-
ment are not in place, fisheries scientists will still have to devote much of their time to routine tasks of data
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collection and analysis, and interpretations of research findings for the administration. Therefore, the
possibility for them to be involved in creative research is presently limited. One practical solution would be
the development of twinning arrangements between national and foreign research institutions involved in
prospective research programs relevant to local needs. This is an area where the support of international
aid would help.
Regional cooperation offers considerable opportunities to enhance national capacities. International aid
could contribute to the important initiatives that research institutes in Mauritania, Morocco and Senegal
have already taken. An analysis of options available for consolidating existing arrangements, and of
opportunities associated to the linking of regional cooperation with other international research set-ups,
would be particularly useful to that effect.
IMPROVING THE USE OF RESEARCH
Fisheries Management
National authorities in the region are fully aware that the efficient contribution of fisheries to national
economies is conditioned by management. They recognize the constraints imposed by the limited nature of
the resources. What they fail to see is how the objectives of management can be achieved in practice.
National administrations need assistance to acquire the necessary technical expertise, and to set up the
institutions and mechanisms that condition effective management. More specifically:
(i)  economic units should be created in fisheries directorates to improve the use of research find-
ings and their translation into fishery policies, development plans and management schemes;
(ii) management committees need to be set up for each major fishery unit in which representatives
of fishermen associations and the administration would collaborate in the monitoring of the
fisheries, the analysis of management needs and objectives, and the adoption of mechanisms for
use rights allocation;
By transferring existing concepts and foreign experiences, international cooperation could help coastal
countries to develop their own fishery management institutions and structures.
Development
For aquaculture development, the upgrading of harvesting and processing technologies, and fish quality
control, experimental projects are needed to speed up the transfer of technologies and know how, to test
them in the context of local fisheries, and to translate research findings into technological innovations.
International cooperation has an evident role to play in the development of national expertise, notably the
one that is needed for analyzing the feasibility of private and public investment projects.
IMPROVING THE CREDIBILITY OF RESEARCH
As discussed above, both the fishery administration and economic operators have to be formally involved
in the management of common property resources. In this task, assessments of the resource productivity
and state of exploitation, inputs on methods to analyze optimum balances between means of production
and resource productivity, and technical advice on institutions and mechanisms to regulate access, are
crucial. This input depends on the credibility and acceptability of research. How to ensure this credibility
when the industry feels that public research is too heavily affiliated with one of the parties?
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An analysis, at international level, of the institutions that are required for sharing management decisions
between producers and the administration in charge of resource conservation, and for ensuring indepen-
dent scientific inputs from public research institutions, is needed urgently.
Some of the above proposals do not lie within the direct purview of research. They are, however, necessary
prerequisites for the consolidation of research institutions in the region and the use of research outputs. If
the decision making process whose effectiveness depends critically on research inputs is improved, then,
the demand for research will increase and expand. This, in turn, will be a powerful factor for enhancing
national research capabilities.
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Annex I
Terms of Reference of the Mission
I - TERMS OF REFERENCE
The assessment should cover the following aspects:
- relevance of research programs;
- means available: staff, equipment, budget;
- status of scientific personnel: salaries, role;
- cooperation (and mechanisms for) with the:
* scientific community: national level (basic, agricultural, food research, ...); regional level
(fisheries research);international level (advanced institutes, universities);
* national administrations (fisheries, environment, agriculture, planning);
* national fishing industry (harvesting, farming, processing);
* small-scale fishing communities;
* development and aid agencies.
The assessment should cover national institutes, regional centers, regional cooperative mechanisms.
II - ADDITIONAL COMMENTS FROM THE MISSION LEADER
In addition to these general terms of reference, the Team Leader of the Study instructed the mission as
follows:
- to give emphasis to the analysis and formulation of proposals for improvement, even at the
expense of the description of the current situation in the sub-region as the latter is well known.
- to assess the potential contribution of research to development and not to assess the conditions of
development as such.
- to be as prospective as possible. The working horizon should be 10/25 years; although the mission
and the study have to be realistic, they should be looking for more than simple improvements, but
for changes in the current situation.
- to keep in mind that African countries are already receiving aid from various sources; it may be less
the amount of aid than the ways aid is used which can and need to be improved.
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Annex II
Participants at the Casablanca Meeting
(21- 26 August 1989)
Modar BA                   Director of the Centre National de Recherches Oceanographiques,
Nouadhibou, Mauritania.
Mouhamadou DIOP            Director General of the Institut de Technologie Alimentaire,
Dakar, Senegal
Andre FONTANA,             Director of the Institut Francais de Recherche en Cooperation pour le
Developpement (ORSTOM),
Dakar-Thiaroye, Senegal;
Former Director of the Centre de Recherche Oceanographiques,
Dakar, Senegal.
Lucay HAN CHING            Institut Francais de Recherche pour l'Exploitation de la Mer,
Nantes, France.
Rognvaldur HANNESSON       Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration,
Bergen, Norway.
Francis POINSARD           Institut Francais de Recherche pour l'Exploitation de la Mer,
Paris, France.
Mohamed RAMI               Director of the Institut Scientifique des Peches Maritimes,
Casablanca, Morocco.
Diafara TOURE              Director of the Centre de Recherches Oceanographiques, Institut
Senegalais de Recherches Agronomiques,
Dakar-Thiaroye, Senegal.
Moctar TOURE               Secretary of the Special Program for African Agricultural Research,
World Bank,
Washington, D.C., (USA).
Former Director General of the Institut Senegalais de Recherches
Agronomiques,
Dakar, Senegal
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Annex III
Names and Affiliations of Contacted Persons in Morocco
Ministry of Fisheries, Rabat
Mohammed TANGI                  Director (Relations internationales, formation et affaires
juridiques);
Mohammed Rachad BOUHLAL         Director (Peches industrielles);
Mohammed ROCHDI                 Deputy Director (Direction des peches);
Abdelkabir RAFIKY               Division des relations internationales;
Abdelaziz TALEB                 Division des relations intemationales.
APAPHAM (Boatowner association, high seas fishery), Casablanca
Mustapha OKACHA                 President;
Mohamed DOUKALI                 Vice President;
El Hachimi GHMIRA               Board Member.
MAROS (fish farm), near Nador on the Mediterranean coast
Moulay Tayed Aziz ALAOUI        General Director;
Mohammed ENNABLI                Financial Director;
Abderrahman ABOUHALA            Technical Director;
Hafid BOUKINE                   Engineer;
Hassan NHALA                    Engineer;
El Mustapha TALBAOLI            Engineer.
SONARP/GEFS (processing plant), Agadir
T. JOUNDY                       General Manager, SONARP;
A. KACHANI                      Finance Director, SONARP;
T. HAROUCHI                     General Manager, GEFS;
L. IKZARN                       GEFS.
UN Organizations, Rabat
Mr. CORTAS                      FAO Representative;
Mr. Jaeger                      UNDP Representative.
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Annex IV
Documentation Reviewed by the Mission
1) Regional background information
FONTANA A. et al, 1989 - "Bilan et enjeux des peches maritimes en Afrique de l'ouest - Possibilites et
pertinence des interventions". ORSTOM: 85p.
JOSUPErT H., 1987 - "A survey of external assistance to the fisheries sector in developing countries (1978 -
1985). FAO Fish.Circ., 755, Rev.2: 60p.
WEBER J. et H. DURAND, 1986 - "Le secteur de la peche dans les pays d'Afrique". ONUDI: 32p. + annexes.
2) Development of sub-regional cooperation
Compte rendu de la Reunion Tripartite des Directeurs des Instituts Scientifiques des Peches du Maroc, de
la Mauritanie et du Senegal. Casablanca, 4-8 Fevrier 1989.
Conference Ministerielle sur la Cooperation Halieutique entre les Etats Riverains de l'Ocean Atlantique,
Rabat, Maroc (30 mars - ler Avril 1989) - Rapport final.
Requete de financement du programme sous-regional de recherche et d'amenagement des pecheries de
cephalopodes (Maroc, Mauritanie, Senegal). Casablanca, Juillet 1989
3) National background information
CNROP, 1989 - "Rapport annuel d'activite 1988. Programmes de recherche 1989". Nouadhibou, Mauritanie.
CNROP, 1989 - "Plan de developpement 1988-1992. Strategie et programmes de recherche". Nouadhibou,
Mauritanie.
DOUCET F., P. PEARSE et J.-P. TROADEC, 1981 - "Politique de developpement et d'amenagement des
peches dans la zone economique exclusive. Mauritanie". FAO:FITCP/MAU/001: 135p.
GARCIA S. et T. DO CMI, 1986 - "Rapport de mission de formulation et d'analyse du projet PNUD/FA0
d'appui a l'amenagement et au developpement des peches maritimes". Projet FAO, Casablanca,
Maroc.
GILLY B. et A. MAUCORPS,1987 - "Elements pour l'amenagement des principales pecheries de la
Republique Islamique de Mauritanie et pour le developpement de la recherche halieutique". Rapport
FAO, Nouadhibou, Mauritanie.
ISPM, 1987 - "Programme a moyen terme (1987-91)". Casablanca, Maroc.
ISPM,1987 - 'Programme d'action pour l'annee 1988". Casablanca, Maroc.
ISPM, 1989 - "Profil des peches au Maroc". Casablanca, Maroc.
ISPM, 1989 - "Evolution des peches maritimes au Maroc, 1980-88". Rabat, Maroc.
LAUREC A., 1985 - "Gestion des pecheries et evaluation des ressources halieutiques au Maroc. Bilan et
perspectives de l'action de l'ISPM". FAO Project MOR/81 /002, Rapport de consultance, Casablanca,
Maroc..
72



Ministere des Peches et de l'Economie Maritime, 1987 - Declaration de Politique de Developpement du
Secteur de la Peche". Nouakchott, Mauritanie.
POINSARD F., 1988 - "Rapport de mnission. Preparation du programme de travail du projet PNUD/FAO
MOR 86/019". Mission d'appui, 13p. + annexes. Casablanca, Maroc.
TROADEC, J.-P., 1988 - "Institutions et amenagement des pecheries au Maroc". Projet PNUD/FAO
MOR/86/019. Rapport de consultance: 160p.
73



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RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS (continued)
No. 116    Nelson, Dryland Management: The "Desertification' Problem
No. 11 7    Barghouti, Timmer, and Siegel, Rural Diversification: Lessons from East Asia
No. 118    Pritchard, Lending by the World Bankfor Agricultural Research: A Review of the Years 1981
through 1987
No. 119    Asia Region Technical Department, Flood Control in Bangladesh: A Plan for Action
No. 120    Plusquellec, The Gezira Irrigation Scheme in Sudan: Objectives, Design, and Performance
No. 121    Listorti, Environmental Health Components for Water Supply, Sanitation, and Urban Projects
No. 122    Dessing, Support for Microenterprises: Lessons for Sub-Saharan Africa
No. 123    Barghouti and Le Moigne, Irrigation in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Development of Public
and Private Systems
No. 124    Zymelman, Science, Education, and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa
No. 125    van de Walle and Foster, Fertility Decline in Africa: Assessment and Prospects
No. 126    Davis, MacKnight, IMO Staff, and Others, Environmental Considerations for Port and Harbor
Developments
No. 127    Doolette and Magrath, editors, Watershed Development in Asia: Strategies and Technologies
No. 128    Gastellu-Etchegorry, editor, Satellite Remote Sensing for Agricultural Projects
No. 129    Berkoff, Irrigation Management on the Indo-Gangetic Plain
No. 130    Agnes Kiss, editor, Living with Wildlife: Wildlife Resource Management with Local Participation
in Africa
No. 131    Nair, The Prospects for Agroforestry in the Tropics
No. 132    Murphy, Casley, and Curry, Farmers' Estimations as a Source of Production Data: Methodological
Guidelines for Cereals in Africa
No. 133    Agriculture and Rural Development Department, ACIAR, AIDAB, and ISNAR, Agricultural
Biotechnology: The Next 'Green Revolution"?
No. 134    de Haan and Bekure, Animal Health in Sub-Saharan Africa: Initial Experiences with Alternative
Approaches
No. 135    Walshe, Grindle, Nell, and Bachmann, Dairy Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Study of Issues
and Options
No. 136    Green, editor, Coconut Production: Present Status and Priorities for Research
No. 137    Constant and Sheldrick, An Outlookfor Fertilizer Demand, Supply, and Trade, 1988/89-1993/94
No. 138    Steel and Webster, Small Enterprises under Adjustment in Ghana
No. 139    Environment Department, Environmental Assessment Sourcebook, vol. I: Policies, Procedures,
and Cross-Sectoral Issues
No. 140    Environment Department, Environmental Assessment Sourcebook, vol. II: Sectoral Guidelines
No. 141    Riverson, Gaviria, and Thriscutt, Rural Roads in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from World Bank Experience
No. 142    Kiss and Meerman, Integrated Pest Management and African Agriculture
No. 143    Grut, Gray, and Egli, Forest Pricing and Concession Policies: Managing the High Forests of West
and Central Africa
No. 144    The World Bank/FAO/UNIDO/Industry Fertilizer Working Group, World and Regional Supply
and Demand Balances for Nitrogen, Phosphate, and Potash, 1989/90-1995/96
No. 145    Ivanek, Nulty, and Holcer, Manufacturing Telecommunications Equipment in Newly Industrializing
Countries: The Effect of Technological Progress
No. 146    Dejene and Olivares, Integrating Environmental Issues into a Strategyfor Sustainable Agricultural
Development: The Case of Mozambique
No. 147    The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Capabilities and Needs
in Asia: Studies of India, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and the ASEAN Region
No. 148    The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Capabilities and Needs
in Latin America: Studies of Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru



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