WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap About the Water Global Practice Launched in 2014, the Word Bank Group's Water Global Practice brings together financing, knowledge, and implementation in one platform. By combining the Bank's global knowledge with country investments, this model generates more firepower for transformational solutions to help countries grow sustainably. Please visit us at www.worldbank.org/water or follow us on Twitter @WorldBankWater. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap © 2018 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. 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Cover design: Jean Franz, Franz and Company, Inc. Cover photos: Toilet manufacturer, AusAID/Wikimedia Commons; dry soil, Yeowatzup/Wikimedia Commons; father and son drinking, Bro. Jeffrey Pioquinto/flickr. Contents Acknowledgments vii Preface ix Abbreviations xi Executive Summary 1 Institutional and Legal Framework 2 Water Resources Development 2 Irrigation 2 Urban Water Supply and Sanitation 3 Rural Water Supply and Sanitation 3 Roadmap—Priority Responses and Way Forward 3 Notes 4 Chapter 1  Sector Overview 5 Country Context 5 Development Context 5 Water Resources Development Challenges 8 Climate and its Challenges 9 Surface Water Resources 11 Groundwater Resources 12 Protection from Water-Related Disasters 14 Notes 15 Chapter 2  Institutional and Legal Framework 17 Institutional Sector Arrangements 17 Legal and Regulatory Framework 20 Key Policy and Institutional Challenges 22 Notes 22 Chapter 3  Water Resources Management, Development, and Water Use 25 Water Resources Management 25 Water Use 27 Key Water Management Challenges 33 Notes 34 Chapter 4  Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Services 35 Status of Operation and Service Delivery 35 Financing 38 Notes 40 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap iii Chapter 5  Rural and Peri-Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Services 41 Status of Operation and Service Delivery 41 Financing 46 Key Rural Water and Sanitation Challenges 47 Notes 47 Chapter 6  Roadmap—Priority Responses and Way Forward 49 Roadmap Overview 50 Realizing the Roadmap 56 Appendix A  Organigram of the Water Sector 57 Appendix B  Water Sector Targets 59 Appendix C  Development of Lakes and Springs as a Water Resource 63 Appendix D  Maps of the Republic of Timor-Leste 65 References 67 Figures 1.1. GDP at Constant Prices (2015 = 100), 2010–15 6 1.2. Change in Average Monthly Rainfall in Timor-Leste during El Niño and La Niña Years for the Northern Watershed and for the Southern Watershed 10 1.3. Mean Monthly Precipitation Based on Elevation, Selected Locations and the North and South Coasts 11 3.1. Public Spending in Agriculture versus AgGDP at Constant Prices (2016 US$) 29 4.1. Access to Urban Water Supply 36 4.2. Access to Urban Sanitation Facilities 37 5.1. Access to Rural Water Supply 42 5.2. Access to Rural Sanitation Facilities 44 A.1. Organigram for Water Supply and Sanitation Service Delivery in Timor-Leste 58 Maps D.1. Political Map of Timor-Leste 65 D.2. Topographical Map of Timor-Leste 65 Tables 1.1. AgGDP of the Timor-Leste Economy, 2008–15 7 1.2. Overall Aquifer Vulnerability 13 iv Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 3.1. MAF Plans for Irrigation Development 2013–20—Areas to be Irrigated (ha) 29 3.2. Completed, Ongoing, and Planned Irrigation System Development and Rehabilitation— MAP Systems to be Funded Out of the Infrastructure Fund 30 4.1. Basic Figure of Population Served in Selected Municipalities 36 4.2. Timor-Leste Capital Spending from the Consolidated Fund of Timor-Leste and the Infrastructure Fund Relevant to Water Supply and Sanitation, 2011–15 39 5.1. Peri-Urban (Capital of Administrative Post) Population Estimation 46 6.1. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Policy, Regulations, and Strategies 50 6.2. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Service Delivery 51 6.3. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Institutional Development 52 6.4. Overview Priority Actions for Water Supply and Sanitation—Policy, Regulations, and Strategies 53 6.5. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Service Delivery 53 6.6. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Institutional Development 55 B.1. Legal Documents Related to Water and Sanitation Development 59 B.2. National Policy Objectives and Targets for Water in Timor-Leste Compared to SDG No. 6 for Water 60 C.1. Examples of Spring Yield and Associated Hydrogeology from Timor-Leste 63 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap v Acknowledgments The World Bank team was led by Martin Albrecht • The National Director for Irrigation and Water (Water and Sanitation Specialist) and Deviariandy Management of the Ministry of Agriculture and Setiawan (Senior Water and Sanitation Specialist) and Fisheries includes Marcus Wishart (Senior Water Resources Specialist), Paul van Hofwegen (Water Resources and • The Head of Environmental Health Department of the Ministry of Health Irrigation Consultant), Craig McVeigh (Water Resources Consultant), Job Supangkat (Water and Sanitation The team is grateful for support provided by Claudia Consultant) and David Ginting (Water Resources Sadoff, Bill Young, and Edoardo Borgomeo from the Consultant). Lilian Pena Pereira Weiss (Senior Water Water Resources Management and Water Security and Sanitation Specialist) and Joop Stoutjesdijk (Lead Global Solutions Group of the World Bank’s Water Irrigation Engineer) provided valuable support and Global Practice and by Professor Jim Hall and Tess Sudipto Sarkar (Practice Manager) provided overall Doefflinger from the Environmental Change Institute guidance. of Oxford University, who have kindly helped compile The team would like to extend its appreciation and data and information for this assessment. gratitude to the following members of the Government Special thanks are extended to the peer reviewers of of Timor-Leste who were available for discussions this work, Bill Young (Lead Water Resource Management between May and June 2017: Specialist), Greg Browder (Lead Water Resource • Director General for Water and Sanitation and his Management Specialist), Dominick van der Waal (Senior Directors of the time, the Ministry of Public Works, Water and Sanitation Specialist), and Iwan Gunawan, Transport and Communications (Senior Natural Resource Management Specialist). Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap vii Preface Recognizing the importance of water management to Improving water management takes time and has to be the government’s objectives of economic diversifica- undertaken in multiple phases over the course of many tion, the World Bank has been supporting the General years. This rapid assessment should therefore only be Directorate for Water and Sanitation in the Ministry of considered as a first phase that sets the ground for fur- Public Works, Transportation, and Communications. ther discussions about the direction of potential This sector assessment and roadmap has been pre- engagement. The information included in this report pared at the request of the General Directorate for was based on a review of existing data and analyses, as Water Supply and Sanitation as a contribution to the well as discussions conducted with government repre- advisory services and analytics. It has been conducted sentatives and sector stakeholders. Given the reliance as a just-in-time assessment between April and June on secondary data sources and given the priorities of 2017, including a 10-day mission to Timor-Leste for past donor engagement in the water supply and sanita- discussions. The data collection and stakeholder ­ tion sector, this assessment results in a heavier focus on report was finalized after the parliamentary elections water supply and sanitation, while only providing gen- in July 2017. However, after unsuccessful attempts to eral information on water resources and irrigation. form a government, the President of Timor-Leste Nonetheless, the scope included the entire water sector announced in January 2018 that early reelections to set the tone for a comprehensive dialogue across the would be held in the first half of 2018. Given this main thematic areas and the importance in providing a uncertainty of institutional arrangements in the sector foundation for economic growth, diversification, and at the time of publication, this assessment builds on improved disaster resilience. The roadmap aims at the analysis of information and conditions prevalent identifying investment options to meet the sector tar- under the former, 6th Constitutional Government. gets outlined in Timor-Leste’s Strategic Development The assessment and the roadmap are intended to Plan 2011–30. Based on this initial work and the result- highlight key priority areas in the sector and identify ing dialogue, the government would be able to develop potential investment options necessary  to achieve a more comprehensive sector strategy, including rec- the goals set out in the Strategic Development Plan ommendations on policy, institutional, and infrastruc- 2011–30. ture development matters. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap ix Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank ADN Agência Nacional de Desenvolvimento (National Agency for Development) AgGDP agriculture GDP ARP Agriculture Rehabilitation Project BESIK Be’e Saneamentu no Ijiene iha Komunidade (Community Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene Program) CAP community action planning CLTS community-led total sanitation CRI Climate Risk Index CSC Community Score Card CVTL Cruz Vermelha de Timor-Leste (Red Cross) DFAT Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade DGAS Direção Geral de Água e Saneamento (General Directorate for Water and Sanitation) DNGRA Direção Nacional de Gestão de Água (Directorate for Water Resources Management) DNSA Direção Nacional de Serviços de Água (National Directorate for Water Services) DNSB Direção Nacional Saneamento Básico (National Directorate of Basic Sanitation) DNSP Direção Nacional de Saúde Pública (National Directorate for Public Health) DSDMP Dili Sanitation and Drainage Master Plan DUWS Dili Urban Water Supply EOM operation and management team ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FPA facilitator at postadministrative level GDP gross domestic product GIEWS global information and early warning system GMF Grupu Maneja Fasilidade (Community Water Management Group) HPA Humanitarian Partnership Agreement ICT information and communication technology IOD Indian Ocean Dipole IPG Instituto de Petróleo e Geologia (Institute for Petroleum and Geology) IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency JMP Joint Monitoring Programme MAP Ministério da Agricultura e Pescas (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries) MCIA Ministério do Comércio, Indústria e Meio Ambiente (Ministry of Commerce, Industry, and the Environment) MDG Millennium Development Goal Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap xi MNEC Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros e Cooperação (Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation) MJO Madden-Julian Oscillation MMPR Ministério dos Minerais e Recursos Petrolíferos (Ministry of Minerals and Petroleum Resources) MS Ministério da Saúde (Ministry of Health) MOPTC Ministério das Obras Públicas, Transportes e Comunicações (Ministry of Public Works, Transport, and Communications) MoU memorandum of understanding MSTAM Ministério da Administração Estatal e Gestão Territorial (Ministry of State Administration and Territorial Management) NGO nongovernmental organization NPP net primary productivity NRW non-revenue water NVE Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate O&M operations and maintenance ODF open-defecation free PAKSI Planu Asaun Komunidade ba Saneamentu no Ijiene (Community Action Plan for Sanitation and Hygiene) PDD Programa de Desenvolvimento Descentralizado (Program of Decentralized Development) PDID Planeamento de Desenvolvimento Distrital Integrado (Integrated District Development Planning) PDL Programa Desenvolvimento Local (Local Development Program) PDO Pacific Decadal Oscillation PHD Partnership for Human Development PNDS Programa Nacional de Desenvolvimento dos Sucos (National Program for Village Development) SAPIP Sustainable Agricultural Productivity Improvement Program SMASA Serviços Municipais Água, Saneamento, e Ambiente (Municipal Water, Sanitation, and Environment Services) SDG Sustainable Development Goal SDP Strategic Development Plan SIBS Sistema Informasaun Bee no Saneamentu (Rural Water and Sanitation Information System) SIDJRI Sistema Informasaun Dados Jestaun no Rekursus Idricos (Water Resources Data and Information Management System) SOI Southern Oscillation Index SoL Seeds of Life UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WASH Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene WHO World Health Organization WSSI Water Supply and Sanitation Index WSP Water and Sanitation Program WUA Water User Association xii Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap Bridge in Aileu. © Nuno Marquez/Wikimedia Commons. Executive Summary Despite significant progress since gaining indepen- of the population is in poverty, earning less than dence in 2002, Timor-Leste’s economy is still struggling US$48.37 per month (World Bank, forthcoming[b]), with declining oil revenues and slowing economic and because of malnutrition and poor access to growth, while access to improved basic services is clean water and sanitation, 50.2 percent of children still low and vulnerability to natural disasters were stunted in 2013, falling to 49.2 percent in remain high. Timor-Leste is one of the smallest 2014.3 countries in Southeast Asia, with a population of 1.18 million people in 2015, about 70 percent living Strategic investment in the water sector is critical for in rural areas. Decades of conflict have left as much 1 economic growth. Some of Timor-Leste’s most as 90 percent of the infrastructure destroyed at the substantial investments in water have been in irriga- time of independence, including health facilities, tion infrastructure, however there has been an under- water supply, and irrigation systems. The govern- investment in the development of the water resources ment has since made efforts to rebuild the country and water supply infrastructure for domestic, sanita- and the economy with emphasis on the provision of tion, and industrial needs. Investing appropriately in key public services, restoring infrastructure, and Timor-Leste’s water sector will have a significant posi- developing the oil and gas sectors. Today Timor- tive economic impact on the economy by improving Leste is still fragile in its economic and social devel- access to safe, reliable, and sustainable water supplies opment, with high dependence on declining oil and to the economy, including individuals, industry, gas resources for state revenue. About 41.8 percent 2 ­ commerce, and agriculture. The economic benefits Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 1 of  investments in the water sector are not always the  delivery of water and sanitation services to immediate, but are accrued because those who municipalities in the future, but will require a process are benefiting from the investment, benefit from of capacity building for municipalities to be able to improved employment opportunities, nutrition, fulfil their service delivery responsibilities. Delivery health, and education outcomes and become produc- models for the operations and maintenance (O&M) of tive members of the labor market sometime later water supply, sanitation, and irrigation infrastructure (WWAP 2016). To date, investment in the water sector also lack appropriate guidance from policy and law, has not been a significant part of Timor-Leste’s eco- and current tariff frameworks to support the cost nomic development and improvements in water devel- recovery of the delivery of those services are inade- opments and management will benefit the economy. quate and need to be updated. Addressing water management is crucial for Timor- Water Resources Development Leste to meet its national and international develop- ment commitments and to stimulate economic Potential for the development of the water resources growth. Water management is multifaceted and exists in Timor-Leste, although it is constrained by requires coordinated multisector approaches to be limited data as well as by the institutional capacity to addressed. The government needs to establish sector implement integrated water resources management priorities that align to national and international (IWRM) solutions. The development of surface water development targets, to enhance economic growth, resources is challenged by the steep catchment topog- and to improve the health and well-being outcomes raphy, karst geology, land-use practices, wet-dry tropical of its citizens. A range of options are available for monsoon climate, and variable runoff that transports Timor-Leste, but underlying many of these is the large volumes of sediment, especially during flash need to undertake strategic analytical studies to floods. To date, surface water development has guide investment options and decision making. Also, focused on irrigation diversion weir infrastructure, there is a need to consider the conditions in the coun- and while some multipurpose dams are being pro- try, taking into account the water-related natural posed by the government, none have been constructed disasters and climate change. yet. Limited data and information means that all water resources development proposals require further Institutional and Legal Framework detailed investigations and surveys to support deci- sions around them. The development of groundwater Many of the institutions as well as the legal and policy resources offers potential for Timor-Leste to meet frameworks for the water sector are still evolving and some of its water management challenges. developing their capacity. A law and policy for water resources management and a policy for water supply Irrigation are pending approval by the Council of Ministers. Coordination of water responsibilities across the Irrigation scheme rehabilitation has been driven by a government, particularly where they intersect with ­ target of self-sufficiency in food production. However, health, catchment management, forestry, irrigation recent studies reveal that there are alternatives and and agriculture, and planning, needs to be improved more economically viable models for achieving this to reduce inefficiencies and improve outcomes. policy target. Agriculture is the most important An overlay to all of this is the government’s policy of non-oil and gas sector to the Timor-Leste economy, ­ decentralization, which is currently being imple- with nearly 70 percent of the population participating mented. This will have a significant impact on in the sector, predominantly through subsistence 2 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap agriculture. Together with access to safe water supply, sector coordination and strong leadership is required to sanitation, and hygiene, agriculture is the main con- provide efficient services, one of the biggest challenges tributor to fighting the high malnutrition and stunting in water supply and sanitation. If water supply and san- rates. Targets on food self-sufficiency and reduced itation is to continue improving in Dili, Timor-Leste’s malnutrition cannot be achieved without enhanced biggest urban center with a population of 277,279 peo- water management. The focus until now is on rehabil- ple or 23.4 percent of the total national population,6 the itation and enhancement of existing river weir diver- Dili Sanitation and Drainage Master Plan must be sion irrigation infrastructure. The government’s implemented soon, together with the Water Supply irrigation policy targets the identification of new irri- Master Plan, which is currently being finalized. gation schemes, small and large dams, and the expan- sion of the use of groundwater tube wells to improve Rural Water Supply and Sanitation production output. While any additional bulk water Timor-Leste missed its MDG target for rural water, supply should be supported by further investigations with only 60 percent of the rural population with into the sustainability of specific water resources, con- improved access to water supply and 30 percent with tinuation of the past investment strategies to improve access to improved sanitation. The targets set out in agriculture gross domestic product (AgGDP) should be the MDGs were 75 percent and 55 percent respec- reconsidered in light of recent studies, which con- tively. Investments in rural water supply systems clude that weather, including droughts, floods, and rely heavily on financing from development part- the recent El Niño, has an impact on the volatility of ners, and on Community Water Management Groups the agricultural outputs. One option is to achieve (Grupu Maneja Fasilidade, GMFs) for maintenance higher levels of water management by developing and operations. Service delivery in rural areas needs more cost-effective and reliable conjunctive use or to be improved and supported by specific programs groundwater-based irrigation systems. to implement O&M, and with tariff collection. The Community Action Plan for Sanitation and Hygiene Urban Water Supply and Sanitation (Planu Asaun Komunidade ba Saneamentu no Ijiene, PAKSI) has been successful in changing community Timor-Leste met its Millennium Development Goal behavior to stop open defecation and encourage the (MDG) targets in relation to water in urban areas, with construction of latrines; however, their construction 91 percent of the urban population in 2015 having is limited by their affordability and availability. access to improved urban water supply and 73 percent PAKSI has been implemented in a limited number of with access to improved sanitation facilities.4 Starting locations and needs further investments to expand from a low baseline, Timor-Leste has met the MDG tar- implementation, and as communities improve their gets on urban water supply and sanitation. Despite this sanitation status, their sanitation needs will require success, access to household connections remains low, access to larger volumes of water necessitating bet- and water supply systems in the national capital, Dili, ter coordination with water supply development perform poorly on all performance measures with investments. non-revenue water (NRW) estimated to partly be as ­ high as 90 percent of the total volume supplied (WaterAid 2010).5 Even though Urban Water and Roadmap—Priority Responses and Way Forward Sanitation Master Plans have been finalized for priority municipal capitals (towns) with agreed priorities for Investing in Timor-Leste’s water sector will have interventions to improve water and sanitation, better broad and significant benefits to the economy, Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 3 community, and the environment in Timor-Leste. A service levels for all citizens, and provide more secure national water resources management and develop- and cost-effective water supplies for various users. ment strategy supported by strategic studies and The implementation of these priorities further analysis is required to guide investment priorities in requires improvements in human resources capacity, the water sector in Timor-Leste. The studies and anal- organizational, governance, and leadership capacity ysis contributing to such a strategy will fill the many of the government. knowledge gaps that exist in the sector and will guide Timor-Leste on an appropriate trajectory toward achieving national and international development Notes commitments by 2030 and improve water manage- 1. Timor-Leste 2015 Census. www.statistics.gov.tl/2015-timor-leste​ -population-and-housing-census-data-sheet/ ment to support sustainable economic development. The approach should seek to expand the options 2. World Health Organization (WHO) Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition. available to finance and deliver infrastructure. The 3. 2015 Census. National Directorate for Statistics. investment decisions need to make judicious use of scarce public and concessional resources, to encour- 4. JMP 2017. Data listed for 2015. A census was conducted in Timor- Leste in 2015, which provides detailed data of access to water supply age commercial capital, and minimize the public debt and sanitation services that might differ from the numbers provided burden on governments, while delivering sustainable here. For water and sanitation access data in this report, JMP is used and affordable infrastructure services. With appropri- as a source to maintain consistency with previous years and allow for the estimation of trends. ate investments, Timor-Leste can reduce risks to the quantity and quality of the water resources, improve 5. WaterAid 2010 and personal communication from DNSA. access to water supply and sanitation, improve the 6. 2015 Census. National Directorate for Statistics. 4 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap Saline lakes in Tasitolu. (c) Yeowatzup/Wikimedia Commons. Chapter 1 Sector Overview Country Context elevated government spending directly raising growth construction and service sectors. This in the private ­ Despite significant progress in its 15 years of indepen- has created opportunities for local suppliers and labor. dence, reduced economic growth and declining oil Overall, 46 percent of the growth during 2010–15 was revenues are affecting efforts to improve and sustain due to public administration, while another 24 ­percent health and livelihoods of the population. While the was seen in the public sector-led construction sector. country has moved away from conflict and violence, Consumer price inflation, which was running at above Timor-Leste is still fragile in its economic and social 10 percent in 2012 and 2013, has fallen sharply, remaining development. Per capita gross domestic product (GDP) below 1 percent from 2014 to early 2017 because a stronger is US$1,216 (2015, current U.S. dollar) and held high dollar brought down prices of imported goods  and by  oil revenues (see figure 1.1). However, economic remained low at 0.6 percent over 2015. growth in the oil sector has been hit by declining inter- national prices, with double-digit growth in 2011 Development Context falling to 5 percent in 2012 and a contraction of ­ 18.7 percent in 2013. Non-oil growth was 4.3 percent Timor-Leste is one of the poorest countries in Asia in  2014 and 5 percent in 2015, but remains below and the second-most oil-dependent nation in the the  levels seen over the last decade. Public sector world. In 2015, the total population was 1,183,000 and spending has been the key driver of growth with was growing at 2.37 percent per year, with an Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 5 FIGURE 1.1. GDP at Constant Prices (2015 = 100), 2010–15 country’s non-oil exports, with coffee being the main commod- 4,000 ity. Agriculture also provides 3,500 direct employment to approxi- 3,000 mately 64 percent of the total US$ (millions) 2,500 active workforce (2015 census). 2,000 The total cultivable area 1,500 of  Timor-Leste is 40 percent of 1,000 the total land area of around 500 1.5  million ha. Of this about 0 220,000 ha are cultivated and 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 34,650 ha are equipped with irri- Years gation facilities, 98 percent of Non-oil GDP Oil GDP Total GDP Agriculture GDP which is from  surface water Source: Timor-Leste’s National Accounts 2010–15. and 2  ­percent from groundwa- ter. In  2010, only 28,900 ha or estimated 70 percent living in rural areas. The econ- only  83.4  percent of the total omy has grown rapidly since independence, however, equipped area was used for agricultural purposes, high unemployment and poverty are prevalent. The due to inadequate maintenance of irrigation sys- present level of poverty is 41.8 percent and has tems, lack of water, and availability of land p ­ repared reduced from 49.9 percent in 2007 (World Bank, forth- for cultivation. Value-added agriculture is essential coming[b]). A  lack of skilled personnel adversely for both poverty reduction and for addressing sea- influences the effective functioning of the govern- sonal food insecurity. Small farm holdings and ment and the delivery of public services. Food secu- resource constraints imply that improved water- rity remains fragile. Malnutrition and poor health are shed management, farmer groups, and reducing widespread and continue to hamper the efforts of the post-­ harvest losses are essential activities for people to improve their livelihoods. At present, addressing the economic growth and food security around 49.2 percent of Timor-Leste’s population needs in Timor-Leste. This is one of the elements experiences stunting, a rate that is among the worst in addressed in the  World Bank-funded Sustainable the world (Lehman et al. 2016). The three-year average Agricultural Productivity Improvement Program of  the prevalence of undernourishment in 2016 was (SAPIP). 26.9 percent (FAO Aquastat Database, 2017). Timor- The country depends heavily on imports to meet its Leste ranks 134 on the Human Development Index consumption needs, which increases when dry condi- (United Nations Development Programme [UNDP]- tions prevail, such as the El Niño-induced 2015/16 Timor-Leste Data). drought, which also resulted in reduced rice and maize Agriculture is the most important sector in the ­country crop production levels. According to official estimates, after oil and gas, contributing to the subsistence of approximately 350,000 people, mainly located in the an estimated 63 percent of the country’s population. central highlands and eastern and southwestern parts The sector generates 17.5 percent of the non-oil GDP of the country were affected by prolonged drought (see table 1.1) and an average of 90 percent of the during 2015/16.1 6 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap TABLE 1.1. AgGDP of the Timor-Leste Economy, 2008–15 Non-oil GDP Oil GDP Total GDP AgGDP AgGDP (% of AgGDP Year (US$, millions) (US$, millions) (US$, millions) (US$, millions) non-oil GDP) (% of total GDP) 2006 804 2,191 2,995 277 34.5 9.3 2007 896 2,138 3,034 268 29.9 8.8 2008 1,023 2,387 3,411 268 26.2 7.9 2009 1,156 2,138 3,294 291 25.1 8.8 2010 1,274 2,050 3,323 283 22.2 8.5 2011 1,374 2,345 3,719 241 17.6 6.5 2012 1,443 2,454 3,897 263 18.2 6.7 2013 1,481 1,989 3,470 282 19.0 8.1 2014 1,544 1,022 2,566 280 18.1 10.9 2015 1,607 1,496 3,102 281 17.5 9.1 Source: World Bank, forthcoming (a). Note: Agriculture GDP (AgGDP) includes all agriculture, forestry, and fisheries occurring within the Timor-Leste economy. Data on weather conditions and agricultural outputs come from the Global Information and Early Warning System (GIEWS) Country Brief published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) for the period 2009 to 2016. Although weather data are relatively reliable, production data should be considered with caution as low capacity and lack of adequate resources result in low-quality crop monitoring and production estimates by the ministry. ­ Official production estimates tend to be higher than surveyed data from development partner projects/programs. Timor-Leste has met the Millennium Development Unlike in urban areas, Timor-Leste did not meet the Goals (MDGs) for urban water supply and sanitation. MDGs in the rural water supply and sanitation sector. According to the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) According to JMP, total coverage of access to improved 2015, total coverage of access to an improved water water sources in rural areas in 2015 was 60 percent source in urban areas was 91  percent. This rate is and to improved sanitation services only 30 percent.9 beyond the MDG target on urban water supply, which The targets set out in the MDGs for water and sanita- is aimed at 81 percent (JMP 2015). It was therefore tion services in rural areas were 75 percent and recognized by the international community that 55 percent, respectively (JMP 2017). Seven percent of Timor-Leste has met its MDG target for urban water rural households required more than 30 minutes to supply. Aside from the households with access to an collect water from an improved source, and 32 percent improved water source in urban areas, about 2 percent did not have access to an improved source at require more than 30 minutes to collect water from all. More than 7 percent used shared sanitation facili- an improved source, and 7 percent do not have access ties, 30 percent used unimproved sanitation facili- to an improved water source at all Total coverage of ties and almost 33 percent still practiced open access to improved sanitation facilities in urban areas defecation (JMP 2017). Given the reduction in donor was 73 percent in 2015 (JMP 2017). This rate is beyond funding, serious efforts must be made to signifi- the MDG target for urban sanitation, which was aimed cantly increase the rate at which water supply and at 64 percent. The remaining 27 percent of the popu- sanitation services in rural areas are being expanded lation without access to improved sanitation facili- and sustained. Improving health and fixing nutrition ties consist of 15 percent with limited (shared) access, deficiencies in Timor-Leste will require a multisector 7 percent with unimproved access, and 5 percent still approach in which enhancing water resource devel- practicing open defecation. opment will be a key element for all these sectors. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 7 Water Resources Development Challenges The physical conditions in Timor-Leste combined with inadequate infrastructure investments and capacity to Water resources development is a crucial element for manage water resources services has resulted in a low sustainable economic growth and the improved health level of water management, high levels of catchment and livelihoods of the people. In Timor-Leste water degradation, and high vulnerability to climate change. resource development priorities are: access to safe, Enhancing water management requires important reliable, and sustainable water and sanitation services investments in the development of infrastructure, for households in urban and rural areas; availability institutions, and management capacity. The main of  water in sufficient quantities and quality ensure challenge to overcome the regular water shortages economic development in irrigation, industry, and for during the dry season by the development of inter-­ businesses; and protection of people, infrastructure, seasonal or multiyear water storage facilities at differ- and productive sectors from water-related disasters ent levels, the development of the huge groundwater such as floods and droughts. The vulnerability to water potential for agriculture in the river valleys and for insecurity is considerable due to the present high level domestic water supply, and the development of infra- of dependence of the population on ecosystem ser- structure for water supply and irrigation utilities to vices as the basis for their livelihoods. enhance water productivity and reduce water losses. Timor-Leste has adequate water resources that can be developed but suffers the lack of adequate infra- Timor-Leste is vulnerable to several natural hazard structure, institutions, and management. With a risks, which include floods, landslides, droughts, sea- long-term average precipitation of 1,500 mm per level rise, and cyclones that only will be enhanced by year, the total annual long-term precipitation by vol- climate change. Timor-Leste’s topography is character- ume in Timor-Leste is estimated at 22,300 million m 3 ized by steep slopes and unprotected soils that are per year (Mm /yr), which results in total internal 3 prone to erosion and rivers that are susceptible to flash renewable water resources of 8,215 Mm /yr or 6,932 3 flooding after severe rainfall events. Analysis of disas- Mm3/ yr per inhabitant of internally renewable water ter impacts from 2001–11 show that more than 20,000 resources. Timor-Leste ranks 63 out of 179 countries 2 people were affected and 10,000 houses were damaged on renewable water resources availability per capita, by natural disasters in that period, with the most severe which is considerably lower than countries in a impacts related to climate disasters, particularly floods similar context and development, such as Indonesia, (UNDP 2012). From 2003 to 2011, there were about 17 Myanmar, and Laos, who for example, have 7,389, cases of landslides recorded with a total of 234 dam- 21,671, and 49,030 m /yr per inhabitant respectively. 3 3 aged houses and 222 affected people. Timor-Leste also However, there is ample scope to develop the water experiences drought, sometimes induced by El Niño resources because, in 2004, the total actual water conditions which has a severe impact on precipitation withdrawal was approximately 1,172 Mm /yr or 1,203 3 and water availability and AgGDP. AgGDP is highly vol- m per capita, or about 14 percent of the actual renew- 3 atile in volume as it is sensitivity to weather conditions able water resources. Of this amount 1,071 Mm /yr 3 such as drought, floods, and particularly to El-Niño (91  percent) was used for irrigation and livestock, rainfall patterns (World Bank, forthcoming[a]). If risk 99  Mm /yr for domestic use (9 percent), and only 3 reduction measures are not implemented over time, 2 Mm /yr for industrial use. These figures are likely 3 4 the consequences from such hazard-induced events be higher now after a decade of economic growth. will remain extremely high, potentially reversing devel- The data nonetheless suggests that there is potential opment gains. For example, Timor-Leste is expected to to enhance water management. incur, on average, US$5.9 million per year in losses.5 8 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap In the next 50 years, Timor-Leste has a 50  percent institutional capacities and information systems to chance of experiencing a loss exceeding US$88 mil- support decision makers. lion and casualties of more than 300 people, and a 10 percent chance of experiencing a loss exceeding Climate and its Challenges US$ 530 million and casualties of more than 2,100 Timor-Leste has a dry tropical monsoon climate, with people.6 The country is also located in an area of distinct wet and dry seasons and a high temporal high seismic activity exposing it to periodical earth- and spatial variability in rainfall because of its moun- quakes and tsunamis. This places Timor-Leste at tainous topography and regional climate influences. position 181 out of 187 among the most risk-affected The  monsoon rains in the wet season are influenced countries on the Global Climate Risk Index (CRI) by the Asia and Pacific Ocean air masses and the dry 2017 for the period 1996–2015 (Kreft, Eckstein, and season is influenced by the Australian continental air Melchior 2017). mass (Norplan 2012). The high mountains running east Climate change is predicted to have a negative impact to west along the length of the country contribute to on water management, because the projected increase the drier conditions in the north and wetter conditions in rainfall intensity and variability, as well as sea-level in the south. The wet season on the north coast gener- rise, increases the risk of floods and droughts. Climate ally commences with the northeast trade winds from change projections indicate an increase in tempera- around November to December and lasts for four to ture of around 1.5°C by 2050 and an increase in rainfall six months, while on the south coast, the wet season is of around 0–10 percent over the next 50 years, increas- bimodal, peaking first in December with the northeast ing with altitude. Storm events and heat waves are trade winds and then again with the southeast trade projected to intensify and sea-level rise is predicted to winds in April to June. In the south, this results in increase in the order of 11–12 cm by 2020, 18–21 cm by seven to nine months of monsoon rain. 2050, and 32–42 cm by 2090. This poses not only an inundation risk at the coastlines but also an increased Rainfall risk of riverine floods due to higher backwater and Monsoonal influences result in distinct differences salt intrusion in freshwater surface and groundwater in rainfall in the north and south of Timor-Leste (see bodies that are essential for domestic water supply of figure 1.2). Annual rainfall is low along the northern ­ coastal urban centers. The size of current costs and 7 coastline being about 1,000 mm per year and as little economic damage due to climate and water-related as 600 mm per year in some locations, such as risks and disasters needs to be updated. 8 Manatuto, whereas Same in the south receives over 2,000 mm per year. In  the central and elevated Enhancing water management requires investments in regions of the country, the rainfall generally ranges institutions, infrastructure, and sustainable manage- from 1,500 mm to 2,000 mm per year, up to 2,500 mm ment of water resources and services. It requires the per year at the highest elevations. While rainfall gen- development of a legal and regulatory framework that erally increases with altitude, some exceptions occur, sets out roles and responsibilities of the numerous such as in Liquica and Viqueque, which are near sea stakeholders involved with water resources, including level, but receive relatively high annual rainfall, at the mandate for technical leadership for broader 1,349 mm and 1,610 mm, respectively. water-related sectors such as water supply, irrigation, environmental protection, and disaster risk manage- Interannual variation in rainfall strongly affects the ment. The development of this legal framework needs reliability and volume of monsoon wet season rains in to go hand in hand with the development of the Timor-Leste. Several global climate influences impact Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 9 FIGURE 1.2. Change in Average Monthly Rainfall in Timor-Leste during El Niño and La Niña Years for the Northern Watershed and for the Southern Watershed a. Northern region (AEZ 1–3) b. Southern region (AEZ 4–6) 300 400 350 Average monthly rainfall Average monthly rainfall 250 300 200 250 150 200 150 100 100 50 50 0 0 n b ar r ay n l g p ct v c n b ar r ay n l g p ct v c Ju Ju Ap Ap De De No No Ja Ju Ja Ju Fe Au Se Fe Au Se O O M M M M La Niña Average EL Niño Source: SoL 2012. Note: AEZ = Agro-ecological zone. on the regional climate of Timor-Leste, including the Timor-Leste (figure 1.3) both with regard to timing and El Niño South Oscillation (ENSO), the Madden-Julian total amount of rainfall. Oscillation (MJO), the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). These influence Climate Change the regional climate on intra-annual, interannual, and Climate change will likely increase the variability of inter-decadal time scales and have a substantial impact water availability and the exposure to water-related on the level of precipitation and water resources avail- disasters. The impacts on the water resources, their ability in Timor-Leste. Improved knowledge is needed availability and use, need to be better understood so about these influences on Timor-Leste’s climate and that water developments can be designed to provide only the impact of ENSO has been investigated water users with greater levels of certainty that they specific to Timor-Leste. During an El Niño event, indi- will receive the level of water services that the infra- cated by a positive Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), structure has been designed for, during the entire the  monsoon rains generally commence around a period. Climate change impacts on the water resource month later and will end earlier than normal. This in Timor-Leste are generally not well understood at results in reduced total rainfall and increased likeli- the local scale, however at a national scale it is known hood of dry periods within the wet season. Daytime that total rainfall is likely to increase and both rainfall temperatures also tend to be higher resulting in and heat wave events are predicted to intensify. Using increased evapotranspiration (SoL 2012). A negative this information to design climate change resilient SOI represents a La Niña event, characterized by a lon- water infrastructure is not an established process, ger wet season. The impact of El Niño and La Niña because technical capacity to undertake such work events can vary considerably depending on location in and the availability of information and the correct 10 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap FIGURE 1.3. Mean Monthly Precipitation Based on Elevation, Selected Locations and the North and South Coasts a. Selected locations b. North and south coasts 600 400 350 Mean monthly precipitation (mm) 500 Mean monthly rainfall (mm) 300 400 250 300 200 150 200 100 100 50 0 0 br y M y ch ril ay ne A ly em t O ber ve er ce er r br y M y ch ril ay ne A ly pt st ct r ve er ce er r be O be be pt us Fe uar r ar r Ju Ju Se ugu ua ua No tob De mb No ob De mb Ap Ap M M ar ar Ju Ju Se ug nu m em m n c Ja Ja Fe Region (elevation) Region (elevation) Dili (1,953–74 m) Northern lowlands (0–100 m) Maliana (1,953–74 m) Northern slopes (100–500 m) Bobonaro (1,957–74 m) Northern highlands (>500 m) Ermera (1,968–74 m) Southern lowlands (0–100 m) Liquica (1,956–74 m) Southern slopes (100–500 m) Average Southern highlands (>500 m) Source: Panel a, Kironi 2010; panel b, ADB 2004 (as adapted by Wallace et al. 2012). scale is generally not available. This places the delivery monthly estimates of stream flow across all the major of water from many water infrastructure develop- river catchments in Timor-Leste. The reliability of ments at risk with projected climate change. these stream flow estimations is subject to data limita- tions at the time and should be used with caution. The Surface Water Resources report recognizes the need to update the stream flow estimations as soon as new data becomes available Data on river discharges is limited to a few locations (ADB 2004). Enhanced hydrological monitoring and and modeled streamflow estimates have low levels of further river discharge monitoring stations are needed confidence. Measured river discharge is limited, in to support development of surface waters. Timor-Leste, to two main studies and several disparate monitoring programs conducted by the govern- The monsoon climate results in highly variable river ment  and development partners. In 2004, the Asian flows from wet season peaks and flash floods to low or Development Bank (ADB) completed an assessment of no dry season flows. Along the northern coastline are water resource availability and demand based on his- many of the smaller river catchments that are either torical data from between 1952 and 1974, that model semi-permanent or ephemeral, flowing for short Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 11 periods in the wet season after heavy rainfall events. studies into the sustainability of specific aquifer sys- This contrasts with the south coast where the bimodal tems is required. wet seasons and higher rainfall has resulted in many Groundwater is often the cleanest and most accessible large permanent rivers that have high peak flows in the water source in Timor-Leste, however the reliability of wet season, which are reduced to the base flow during these sources, especially during drought, could be the dry season. At all times, subsurface flows occur improved with better aquifer-level data. The availabil- below the gravel and cobblestone riverbeds of most ity of groundwater varies considerably across the rivers, and in the dry season, this can represent the pri- country depending on the location, the hydrogeologi- mary flows within a river, particularly in lowland areas. cal setting, recharge, and the season. In Timor-Leste, The steep topography and lack of catchment manage- there are three types of hydrogeology: localized, fis- ment activities result in high sediment loads in streams sured karst, and inter-granular alluvial aquifers. The and rivers creating substantial design and manage- distribution of the hydrogeology has been mapped at ment challenges for water resources developments. the national scale, which provides a useful resource It  is estimated that over 44 percent of the terrestrial for  national scale planning and generalized under- landscape is at slopes greater than 40 percent (Wallace standing of their hydrogeological characteristics. et al. 2012). Coupled with generally poor land manage- Downscaling of the hydrogeological records would ment practices, such as wood harvesting and slash and enable greater local interpretation and development burn agriculture, catchment soils are vulnerable to of groundwater resources. high rates of erosion, particularly in high-intensity rainfall events in the monsoon. Most rivers carry large Localized aquifers are commonly found in the moun- volumes of fine sediment at all times of the year and tain areas and have low potential yield and limited with the high wet season flows, the rivers move large opportunities for development of groundwater volumes of gravels, cobblestones, and other detritus resources. Localized aquifers with confining units are from the catchment. No data of the sediment loads in found in the central mountain areas and to the west. rivers are available for Timor-Leste (Norplan 2012), but Aquifers with confining units cover large areas of the sediment loads in the lower catchment areas along the municipalities of Bobonaro and Oecusse and parts of coast can reach significant volumes with the potential Manatuto and Manufahi, and they are very low yield- to shift riverbeds. ing and tend to have lower potential yield than the localized fractured rock aquifers (Wallace et al. 2012). Groundwater Resources The low porosity of the rock results in water infiltrat- ing and flowing along the rocks fractures, later Groundwater resources development offers potential emerging as springs. In general, springs discharging for Timor-Leste to meet some of its water challenges. from fractured rock localized aquifers have highly Hydrogeological studies at the national level and for variable flow characteristics related to seasonal some specific groundwater areas have improved the recharge (Wallace, et al. 2012). In areas of localized knowledge of their potential for development and for rock aquifers, potential water sources have already improved water resources management. This potential been identified and exploited. The development of has resulted in substantial assistance from develop- more secure water sources needs to be supported by ment partners to support groundwater development hydrogeological studies. investment decisions for domestic water supply. However, to address water management challenges Fissured karst aquifers have a high potential yield and through groundwater development, additional many springs discharging from them are already 12 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap TABLE 1.2. Overall Aquifer Vulnerability Aquifer Type Vulnerability to Rainfall Changes Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise Intergranular (large catchments) Medium (PI = H, AC = H) Medium (PI = H, AC = H) Intergranular (small catchments) High (PI = H, AC = L) High (PI = H, AC = L) Fissured (topographic high) High (PI = H, AC = L) Low (PI = L, AC = M) Fissured (topographic low) Medium (PI = M, AC = M) Medium (PI = L, AC = L) Localized (topographic high) High (PI = H, AC = L) Low (PI = L, AC = M) Localized (topographic low) Medium (PI = M, AC = M) Medium (PI = L, AC = L) Source: Wallace et al 2012. Note: Vulnerability Classes: High = higher potential impact + lower adaptive capacity; Medium = comparable potential impact and adaptive capacity; Low = lower potential impact + higher adaptive capacity. PI = potential impact; AC = adaptive capacity; H = high; M = medium; L = low. developed for water supply; however, to date, the drill- sea-level rise, particularly when coincident with the ing of boreholes has generally been unsuccessful small catchments (Wallace et al. 2012). because of their complex hydrogeology. Fissured karst Current approaches to groundwater development aquifers can be found throughout Timor-Leste, but are need a better planning framework to meet strategic principally located in the municipalities of Baucau and targets of the government and reduce risks to the sus- Lautem in the east. Some springs venting from fis- tainable management of the groundwater. In line with sured karst aquifers have very high discharges, from the country’s draft of the policy objectives,9 ground- tens to hundreds of liters per second. Fissured karst water is currently developed by the government for aquifers generally support large communities at their the provision of public water supplies and at the natural points of discharge, springs, however in some household level to supplement or replace unreliable fissured karst aquifers, such as those near Baucau, it is public water supply. Only 2 percent of groundwater is expected that further hydrogeological studies will used for irrigated agriculture and the volumes used for reveal important exploitable groundwater resources industry is unknown. This approach is uncoordinated (Wallace et al. 2012). This is important for the city of and places the total groundwater resource at risk of Baucau as it does not have secure water supplies identi- unsustainable practices in some areas. Most house- fied to match population growth projections of the city. holds in urban areas source water supplies from shal- low aquifers that often also receive untreated Inter-granular alluvial aquifers can store large volumes wastewater. The density of boreholes and volume of of groundwater, have high potential yield, and present water extracted from them in large urban areas, such opportunities for further development if supported by as Dili, is unknown but it is expected to continue to studies to define their sustainability. The sedimentary grow while water supply services under perform. deposits that form intergranular aquifers can be found throughout Timor-Leste in sedimentary plains that are The groundwater resources in Timor-Leste are vulner- concentrated around the coastline and along river able to rainfall changes and sea-level rise (see table 1.2). channels. In general, these aquifers are more resilient The principal impacts of climate change on the aquifers to climate variability than other hydrogeological types of Timor-Leste will be a prolonged dry season extend- because they have the potential to store large volumes ing the period of stress and, along coastal areas, an esti- of groundwater, but they are susceptible to seawater mated sea-level rise of 9 mm per year, exceeding the intrusion from inefficient management practices and tectonic uplift rates of 0.5 mm per year. Aquifers with Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 13 the highest vulnerability are the coastal inter-granular drought, and earthquakes, which can have a signifi- alluvial aquifers associated with small catchments and cant impact on water management. These events have the fissured karst and localized aquifers at high topo- a substantial impact on both the government’s ability graphic elevations. When combined with their limited to deliver water-related services, and on the life, live- adaptive capacity for management, these aquifers are lihoods, and property of communities. Mitigating highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. against natural disasters and adapting to climate change requires improvements in the design and maintenance of water-related infrastructure, improve- Water Quality and Pollution Control ments and better coordination in catchment and land Bacteriological contamination of water sources is management practices, and establishment of moni- widespread in urban and rural areas and within some toring and warning alert systems. public water supply systems. Routine water quality testing occurs annually at each public water supply AgGDP is sensitive to weather conditions, such as system and at other locations for a range of different floods, droughts, and changes, in particular, due to purposes. Other than widespread bacteriological con- rainfall patterns. A recent expenditure review El Niño ­ tamination, natural water quality is generally within of the Timor-Leste agriculture sector has revealed that WHO guidelines. There are no known locations of nat- weather patterns were the strongest determinant of urally occurring levels of metals or arsenic. It is not AgGDP in Timor-Leste during 2008–14. AgGDP has known whether inorganic pollutants are present in increased in response to favorable rainfall and good Timor-Leste’s water resources, and there are no testing weather conditions at certain times and decreased at facilities for inorganic chemistry in Timor-Leste. other times as a result of severe flooding and land- slides. The 2015/2016 El Niño caused erratic rainfalls Coastal aquifers, especially along the northern coast- resulting in crops losses, a reduction in planted area, line, are susceptible to saline intrusion. The risk of low yields, and consequently a  reduction in AgGDP seawater intrusion in Timor-Leste is the result of (World Bank, forthcoming[a]). Later, in Chapter 4, the groundwater extraction without sufficient recharge. It role of public sector investment in  this scenario of comes because of climate change driving projected sea- weather and AgGDP is discussed further. level rises (9 mm per year) at a rate greater than Timor- Leste’s tectonic uplift (0.5 mm per year). The risk of Floods seawater intrusion is greater along the northern coast- In Timor-Leste, floods are frequent and they have a line because of limited groundwater recharge to main- significant impact on property, infrastructure, food tain hydraulic pressure against the ocean and inadequate production, water supply, and health. Flash flooding regulation of groundwater extraction which can lead to has one of the most severe disaster impacts on people overuse resulting in reduced groundwater pressure. and damage to housing in Timor-Leste (UNDP 2012). The risks are greater during storm surges and enhanced Despite flash flooding being a regular event in Timor- weather events, such as La  Niña, when the local sea Leste, flood preparedness, such as flood monitoring level can be 20 cm above normal (Wallace et al, 2012). and flood warning systems, has not been established. The main focal point for disaster risk management, Protection from Water-Related Disasters including floods, is the National Directorate for Disaster Climate, topography, geology, and land management Risk Management in the Ministry of Social Solidarity. practices result in Timor-Leste being susceptible to However, MSTAM is responsible for works to prevent natural disasters such as flash floods, landslides, disasters and provide protection and assistance to 14 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap populations affected in the event of fires, floods, land- reduced water availability for drinking water supplies, slides, and earthquakes, and develop, in coordination sanitation, and agriculture (HPA 2016). The prolonged with other competent entities, civic education pro- El Niño-induced dry weather thereby affecting crop grams to face natural disasters. production. Actual harvest figures for selected crops are not available for 2016, however FAO’s forecast in Droughts December 2016 for aggregate rice production for 2016 While floods cause damage, droughts can have impacts was set at 60,000 tons, 6 percent below the sharply that are deeper and longer lasting than previously reduced 2015 output levels, and 30 percent below the believed. Damania et al. (2017) note that despite the five-year average. The municipalities of Bobonaro, well-known impacts of floods on the economy and Covalima, and Lautem, as  well as coastal regions of society, droughts can have a deeper and longer-lasting Viqueque, Oecusse, and parts of Baucau, which impact on health, hamper firm productivity, accelerate together account for close to two‑thirds of the coun- the destruction of forests, and compromise agricul- try’s annual paddy production, were among the most tural systems. There are few documented drought affected. The same conditions affected the 2016 maize events recorded in Timor-Leste before independence, crop, which was forecast at 60,000 tons, 8  percent though anecdotally droughts are known to be a fre- down from the 2015 reduced level and 21  percent quent occurrence in the country. Periods of below-­ below the five-year average.10 average precipitation in a given region, resulting in Past El Niño events reportedly also had civil and shortages in its water supply and causing adverse social impacts, including internal displacement. The impacts on vegetation, animals, and/or people are 2006/07 El Niño resulted in a 30 percent drop in agri- common in Timor-Leste. Southeast Asia is among cultural production in 2007 because of the late onset the regions most severely affected by food production of the rainy season and erratic rainfall pattern. In losses due to changes in rainfall patterns, and Timor- many areas, seeds were planted late and crops did not Leste is one of the most severely affected countries in grow well, such as in Manatuto where it was reported Southeast Asia. Recent investigations have identified that farmers had to plant seeds three times, because that several significant droughts have occurred since the crop kept failing because of lack of rain (NDDM 1990, which are correlated to recorded El-Niño events 2007). The Seeds of Life (SoL) Program have since (Barnett, Dessai, and Jones 2007; SoL 2012): 1991–95; identified that, during an El Niño, Manatuto generally 2002–03; 2006–07; and 2015–16 (ADPC 2012; Wallace does not receive wet season rains (SoL 2012). While et al. 2012). The improved understanding of the link- the reduced crop production was driven by the El ages between El Niño and drought in Timor-Leste, and Niño induced drought, the scenario was made even the predictability of El Niño through monitoring of the more serious by the civil and social impacts of dis- SOI has enabled preparation by the government and placed people from the April and May 2006 violence development partners to the impacts of drought, such across the country. This also resulted in food stocks as the one during the 2015–16 El Niño event (HPA 2016). running out earlier than normal during the dry season El Niño-induced drought conditions have a substan- and, with regional shortages, the market price of rice tial impact on the vulnerability of communities to and other foods increased significantly (NDDM 2007). food insecurity in Timor-Leste. The impact of the 2015/16 El Niño was well documented through Notes improved monitoring efforts and mitigation programs. 1. FAO GIEWS: Country Brief, Timor-Leste. Accessed 14 June, 2017. Many vulnerable communities were affected by http://www.fao.org/giews/countrybrief/country.jsp?code=TLS. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 15 2. Index Mundi: Renewable Internal Freshwater Resources Per Capita. 8. There are no records from which the current cost of climate/water www.indexmundi.com Accessed June 2017. related risks/disasters can be estimated. 3. FAO AquaStat Database, 2013–17 for selected countries. Accessed 9. The proposed Water Resources Law and Policy outline the objective May 30,2017. of promoting the coordinated planning, development, manage- 4. FAO Aquastat Database, data from 2002–04. ment, and protection of the nation’s water resources, to optimise social, economic, and cultural benefits without compromising 5. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDISASTER/Resources​ the  sustainability of essential water dependent ecosystems and /­TimorLeste.pdf. the  environmental benefits which those ecosystems provide for 6. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDISASTER/Resources​ people. See also table B.1 in appendix B. /­TimorLeste.pdf. 10. FAO GIEWS: Country Brief, Timor-Leste. Accessed June 14, 2017. 7. World Bank Climate Change Portal, accessed May 1, 2017. http://www.fao.org/giews/countrybrief/country.jsp?code=TLS. 16 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap Municipality of Liquiçá. (c) Torbin Brinker/Wikimedia Commons. Chapter 2 Institutional and Legal Framework Institutional Sector Arrangements (a) Ministry of Public Works, Transport, and Communications (MOPTC) is responsible for the In Timor-Leste, the protection, preservation, and management of water resources, the distribution of management of water as a natural resource is part of public water supply, sanitation, and drainage. the fundamental rights of the citizens and the duty and priority of the state. The Constitution of Timor- (b) The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAP) is Leste aims to improve the well-being of citizens and responsible for the management of irrigation develop, conserve, and preserve water in accor- water associated with conducting feasibility stud- dance with national interests. Under the 6th ies for irrigation schemes and water storage, and Constitutional Government, Decree Law No. 6.2015 their construction, and in coordination with the further established the division of responsibilities Ministry of Commerce, Industry, and the among the ministries of the Government of the Environment (MCIA) manage forest resources and Republic of Timor-Leste for the management of catchments. water resources, public water supply, sanitation, (c) The MCIA is responsible for protecting the environ- catchment management, and irrigation water man- ment by assessing the environmental impact of agement . In relation to water, the following minis- 1 developments and by establishing environmental tries had responsibilities. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 17 licensing and prevention measures and monitoring and design, on technical aspects, and in operation of pollution. and maintenance (O&M). (d) The Institute for Petroleum and Geology (IPG) is The MOPTC is responsible for water resources, the responsible for improving knowledge on and distribution of public water supply, and sanitation and undertaking investigations into the geological these responsibilities are delivered through the DGAS structure of soils, sub-soils, and hydrogeological and its three national-level directorates: the DNSA, the resources of the nation (Article 28 (1) n). National Directorate of Basic Sanitation (DNSB), and the National Directorate of Water Resources (e) The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Management (DNGRH). Cooperation (MNEC) is responsible for any trea- ties and bilateral and multilateral agreements The sanitation responsibilities within the MOPTC concerning shared water resources with any evolve primarily around sanitation infrastructure other state. development, while the MS through the National Directorate for Public Health (DNSP) takes leadership (f) The Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources in sanitation and hygiene promotion at the house- (MPRM) is responsible for activities related to the hold level. extraction of minerals and petroleum, including sand and gravel mining on the riverbeds and Water Resources banks. The DNGRH is responsible for monitoring and research The legal and policy framework for water, as well on the quality and volume of water resources to sup- as  the main institutional organizational chart port current water supply needs and future develop- for  the water sector is outlined in more detail in ment of the water resource. Alignment of their work appendix A. program to the water supply needs of the rest of the  government and the private sector is limited, The administration of public expenditure for water under-resourced and challenged by institutional infrastructure often lies with other agencies of the capacity. The DNGRH is primarily focused at the government. The National Agency for Development national level on developing law and policy and imple- (ADN) administers grants for infrastructure greater menting monitoring programs, for hydrometeorology than US$1 million through public tender. Line minis- and seawater intrusion. The DNGRH has approxi- tries administer infrastructure expenditures mately 60 staff, 45 of whom are throughout the munic- between US$500,000 and US$1 million. The ipalities supporting the National Hydrometeorological Integrated District Development Planning (PDID) Monitoring Program. Water Resources staff of the program administers infrastructure investments Municipal Water, Sanitation Service and Environment between US$150,000 and  US$500,000. The MOPTC Services (SMASA) coordinates that program for that through the National Directorate of Water Services municipality. (DNSA), administers investments of over US$150,000, and the Ministry of State Administration and Water Supply and Sanitation Territorial Management (MSTAM) administers grants The DNSA and DNSB are responsible for the manage- to the Suco Administration for less than US$50,000. ment, regulation, and oversight of planning, design, When these grants are for water and sanitation infra- financing, constructing, O&M, monitoring, rehabilitat- structure, the General Directorate for Water and ing, and replacing of water supply and sanitation Sanitation (DGAS) provides some guidance in survey systems and their assets. ­ 18 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap According to the Decree Law 4/2004, the DNSA is DNSB has the mandate to construct, operate, and responsible for establishing national policy priorities, maintain wastewater treatment facilities and con- financing capital investments, and all capital mainte- struct public toilets in urban areas. Staff under SMASA nance cost of public water supply, and community in each of the 12 municipalities have the responsibility water management groups (Grupu Maneja Fasilidade, to perform DNSB-related tasks at the municipal level GMF) support the delivery of water by maintaining and submit monthly reports to the DNSB on sanitation public water supply services. The National Policy on development in the respective municipalities. The Public Water Supply, which is pending approval, pro- DNSB is also responsible for execution of sewerage and vides guidance to achieving access to potable water for drainage management in Dili, especially for storm all of Timor-Leste’s citizens and outlines how roles water collection systems, with the overall responsibil- and responsibilities are distributed across the water ity at the Ministry of Development and Institutional supply sector. Reform. However, those connected to roads such as trenches, pits, and pipelines are under the responsibil- At the municipal level, rural supply provision is man- ity of the National Directorate for Roads, Bridges, and aged by the SMASA, which under the decentralization, Flood Control. is part of the municipal government and reports to the municipal administration. Previously, all municipal Rural sanitation is led by the MS through the water supply systems were part of a municipal depart- implementation of the Community Action Plan for ­ ment of the DNSA and received an annual budget from Sanitation and Hygiene (Planu Aksaun Komunidade them. Under decentralization, SMASA is required to Saneamentu no Ijiene, PAKSI). It embraces the concept plan its own program to be reviewed and approved by community-led total sanitation (CLTS), which of ­ the municipal administration that will receive a bulk focuses on behavior change as the driver of change transfer from the central government to implement toward safe access to sanitation and hygiene services. the approved programs. Under guidance of the SMASA, The goal outlined in the Strategic Development Plan and technical assistance of DNSA, rural public water (SDP) 2011–30 is to achieve open-defecation free (ODF) supply systems can be managed by a GMF. In addition communities nationwide by 2018. to the government, many development partners PAKSI implementation at the municipal level is led by actively provide support of capital investment and the municipal administration and involves several technical assistance for provision and sustaining water institutions such as the MS, SMASA, and the adminis- service to rural areas. The water supply systems are trative post. They are organized into sanitation work- then recorded and transferred to state ownership, with ing groups. Supported by local nongovernmental their management and support for the GMFs being organizations (NGOs),2 these working groups mobi- provided by the DNSA/SMASA. lize local stakeholders such as chiefs of administra- tive posts, chiefs of Suco and Aldeia, and other Part of SMASA staff includes the facilitators at post informal leaders to mobilize the communities attend- administrative level (FPAs) to provide support to the ing “PAKSI triggering”3 and its follow-up activities to GMFs. However, most of the FPAs are not technical achieve ODF status. and cannot provide direct support to the GMFs once the system is nonfunctional and requires repair beyond Agriculture and Fisheries the technical capacity or finances of the GMFs. The MAP broad responsibilities from forestry, agricul- For sanitation, the National Basic Sanitation Policy ture, fisheries, and livestock. Those most directly related guides this sector on programs. For urban areas, the to water include the National Directorate for Irrigation Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 19 Water Management and the National Directorate for the MCIA and the process of obtaining a license is long Forestry and Catchment Management. and often unclear. This Decree Law has an impact on developments in all sectors, including water, and its National directorates are responsible for the develop- implementation has improved in recent years. ment of the various subsectors, including planning, monitoring and policy development, administration Legal and Regulatory Framework and finance, and regulatory services. Outside of Dili, the MAP is supported by municipal directorates, who Water Resources follow government policy and program direction. Each Guidance for the sustainable management of water municipal directorate consists of three departments: resources comes from the Environmental Framework Agricultural Extension, Technical Services Support, Decree Law as there is no water resources law or policy. and Administration and Programs. This law requires that the state must, protect, conserve, and improve the quantity and quality of the surface The MAP has a large role in the development of the and groundwater, and promote the sustainable use of rural sectors, with personnel from national to local the water resources through the adoption of integrated levels working with farmers, other government agen- water resources management (IWRM). cies, the private sector, and development partners. The MAP, therefore, has established coordinating A legal and policy framework for water resources has mechanisms at all levels for harmonizing functions, been prepared, which addresses the water manage- planning, implementation, and monitoring prog- ment and water productivity challenges associated ress  toward the achievement of impact in rural with economic development and adaptation to cli- development. mate change, but the government is yet to approve the framework. The Water Resources Management Policy Forestry and Catchment Management and Decree Law are pending decision by the Council of Formally under the responsibility of MAP, there Ministers. They were designed to support the objec- are,  however, no laws governing forestry or catch- tives of the National Policy on Public Water Supply, ment  management activities. The Environmental which is also pending approval, and the 2012 National Framework Law provides high-level principles by Basic Sanitation Policy, among others the draft decree which catchments should be managed and identifies law and policy create an enabling environment for the other laws that should be developed. The National development of water resources by establishing prin- Policy and Strategy for Forestry, provides  policy ciples and legal instruments to guide and regulate guidance on forestry activities and ­ catchment water resources management in Timor-Leste. Key management. legal instruments include the institutional framework for water resources; water resources management Environmental Licensing planning; use of water resources; requirements and The Environmental Licensing Law, requires the conditions for water abstraction; flood, drought, pol- environmental impact of all developments to be lution, safety, and contingency protection plans; com- assessed. Developments are categorized based on size pliance and emergency, inspection and monitoring, and impact, which determine the type of impact assess- and sanctions for not complying with regulations. ment to be completed and conditions for the develop- Both the Constitution and the drafted decree law and ment that are issued with the environmental license. policy recognize the role of customary practices of Environmental management plans and monitoring of natural resource management. The water resource impacts is generally required. Licenses are issued by legal and policy framework has the potential to 20 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap provide greater clarity on rights to access and use sewer along the waterfront to take the effluent from water, which will contribute to the certainty of water the intercepting sewers. The expectation is that by access for all water users. 2020 there will be appropriate, well-operated and maintained, sustainable infrastructure for the col- The legal and policy framework is designed to sup- lection, treatment, and disposal of sewage in Dili port the development of water resources and sets out (Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste 2011, 77–81). the obligations of water users to obtain an entitlement Although not by 202, to be achievable by 2030, the to abstract water. The framework clarifies the rights works must be outsourced, and a proper, opera- to use public water, restrictions on those rights, and tional, and detailed infrastructure plan established.6 priorities for water usage. It also further details requirements and conditions of water abstraction Decentralization of the government’s responsibilities from the two types of water resources recognized will result in institutional and financial arrangements under the Civil Code—public water and private water. for the water and sanitation sector devolving to rural Different types of licenses, concessions, or permits areas. The government has commenced this transition; are proposed and they form the basis of sustainable however, considering the challenges of institutional water abstraction management by the government. capacity at the national level it is highly unlikely to find The decree law and policy are important for address- sufficient institutional capacity in the municipalities. ing water management issues in Timor-Leste, how- The government needs to devolve budgetary power ever the implementation of these needs considerable gradually so that the municipalities put the skills and technical assistance if they are to be effective. systems in place before being given a large budget.7 The Water Supply for Public Consumption Decree Law Water Supply and Sanitation provides the legal framework for managing public water supply systems in a sustainable manner and col- SDP 2011–30 establishes the target of improving lecting cost recovery from customers in both urban access to clean water and improved sanitation for all and rural settings. It includes an obligation for the citizens by 2030.4 This includes the construction of a establishment of universal water distribution service major sewerage collection system as well as a drain- but no commitment on timing to deliver this. It also age system Dili, providing a safe, 24-hour, piped includes an obligation to establish water supply water supply to households in 12 municipal centers, services in urban areas appropriately, securely, and and installing water supply systems, community and sustainably and it has provisions for the total recovery household latrines in rural areas. The target for of costs from customers ‘in the long run.’ urban districts is to provide 93 percent access to appropriate and improved sanitation facilities by The public water supply sector requires a national pol- 2020. The SDP includes targets for the rehabilitation 5 icy to clarify roles and responsibilities, and to provide of existing sewers, the separation of sewage from guidance on financing, investment, construction, and storm water drainage through intercepting sewers, management if it is to achieve national and interna- the installation of example toilet facilities in house- tional commitments by 2030. The National Policy for holds, and the facilitation of local treatment of sew- Public Water Supply is pending approval by the Council erage. These initiatives include investing in of Ministers and has been required by the sector for appropriate treatment facilities in a staged way— some time. This draft policy establishes principles for connecting commercial properties first, then resi- the delivery of water services in Timor-Leste, aligns to dential septic tanks, followed by all households with national and international commitments identified to flush toilets. Other options include building a trunk be achieved by 2030 in the SDP and the SDG, provides Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 21 guidance on service delivery models, and outlines pri- Key Policy and Institutional Challenges orities for the government and sector. To overcome the fragmentation of roles and responsibil- The current tariff framework is inadequate for the deliv- ities in the water supply and sanitation sector, the coor- ery of water services and needs to be updated to reflect dination among sector institutions needs to be the greater complexity of the sector since 2004. The 2004 systematically strengthened. A lack of coordination not regulations establishing tariffs for water supply are inad- only inhibits effective and efficient work between gov- equate for the current context. Currently, this framework ernment institutions internally, but also creates over- is applied only to parts of Dili and rates of tariff collection laps, delays, and inefficiencies between national are very low. In rural areas, GMFs collect fees from house- stakeholders and development partners due to an holds to cover the cost of minor water supply system absence of strategic direction and agreed milestones. To maintenance, however the fee level is not based on the overcome these issues, sectoral strategic plans are tariff framework or a cost recovery model. In addition, required outlining sector targets and investments and the role of GMFs in collecting and managing public clearly defining institutions in charge. These plans can finances is unclear legally and needs updated legislation. also consider grouping or splitting investments and The pending national policy on public water supply management packages to reduce complexity of the requires a new tariff framework that is transparent, equi- ­ system and improve management for their O&M. table, and affordable, with provisions for subsidies for At the implementation level, given complexity and mul- vulnerable households, cross-subsidies from commer- tiple factors influencing sustainability of rural water ser- cial, industrial, or institutional water uses, and the tariffs vices, in particular, a collaborative action among and charges covering at a minimum the O&M costs for the ministries, is required to formulate an integrated plat- delivery of water. There is little data available on the full form for sustaining rural water systems. A common cost of delivering water services in Timor-Leste to guide result framework should be developed that combines the effective setting of tariff levels, however it is widely specific interventions to improve institutional, techni- acknowledged in the government that establishing a new cal, and financial aspects in parallel. tariff framework is critical to the delivery of financially Along with strengthening roles and responsibilities, sustainable public water supply in Timor-Leste. legislation is required to clearly define entitlements for The provision of sufficient and recurrent financing for water use for each user or user group. While this is the O&M of water supply infrastructure along with pending the current draft legislation, it is worth defining a model for their delivery still needs to be emphasizing the importance of establishing a legal addressed to improve the delivery of water-related framework that outlines the rights and entitlements of services. For public water supply infrastructure, water use per user type to prevent unsustainable use, the  maintenance of services to consumers is chal- pollution, and water shortages and all consequences lenged by financial and human resources, organiza- associated with that. tional capacity and governance, and leadership. As a result, reliability of water supply is very low, which Notes has a considerable impact on the health and well-­ 1. Until the time of publication of this report, the responsible political being outcomes of individuals and the potential for parties of Timor-Leste have not been able to form a government fol- economic development of water dependent indus- lowing the parliamentary elections in July 2017. Consequently, the tries (World Bank, forthcoming[a]). Guidance on the president announced in January 2018 that early reelections were to be held in the following months. A Decree-Law (No. 35/2017) was pro- delivery model for O&M is outlined in the pending posed in November 2017 outlining the structure and responsibilities national policy on public water supply. of the cabinet ministries, which also affected the institutional 22 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap arrangements for the water sector. However, with new elections and commit to change their behavior toward ODF status. Also, refer scheduled for the first half of 2018, the institutional arrangements are to the rural sanitation section in chapter 6. likely to change again. This report therefore maintains its assessment 4. The link between the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), SDP, based on the institutional arrangements of the 6th Constitutional and national policy targets is identified in appendix B. Government, which was in place until July 2017 and which drove water sector development over the past years. 5. As of 2015, access to improved sanitation in urban areas was percent (JMP 2017). See chapter 4 for more information. 73 ­ 2. NGOs contracted by the Partnership for Human Development (PHD) funded by Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT), 6. Timor-Leste Strategic Development Plan, 2011–30, as cited in “Progress whose one objective is to continue work on rural sanitation and and Challenges of Infrastructure Spending in Timor-Leste” by Antonio behavior change and strengthen existing rural sanitation services. Vitor, ADB. 3. PAKSI triggering is an interactive community gathering event that 7. http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2015/04/03/decentralisation-and​ helps communities to analyze and identify their sanitation situation -rural-development-in-timor-leste/. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 23 Sand mining in the Comoro River in Dili. © Martin Benedikt Albrecht/World Bank. Chapter 3 Water Resources Management, Development, and Water Use The sustainable development of Timor-Leste’s water organizational capacity, budgetary constraints, and resources is challenged by limited available data and the lack of a legal and policy framework results in most technical knowledge of water resources, by the high management actions being ad hoc because they are investment costs for infrastructure solutions in remote neither informed by monitoring efforts nor conducted areas, and by the capacity of the government to apply as part of broader strategic planning. Considering the effective IWRM. Addressing these challenges has the importance of water resources development as part of potential to have a substantial impact on the economy improving water management, the government of Timor-Leste by improving the water management to needs  to improve its IWRM to identify effective and water-dependent areas of the economy, including irri- cost-efficient solutions to the most pressing challenges. gated agriculture, water supply and sanitation, and Individual data collection and monitoring systems set industry, and by enhancing the resilience of vulnera- up by former externally funded projects are still being ble communities against the impacts of water-related used, but no analysis or reports are being produced disasters. that inform management actions. The collection of water resources data in Timor-Leste has mainly been Water Resources Management associated with programs of development partners, The government needs to systematically increase two of which have resulted in continued system- activities to manage water resources. Technical and atic  monitoring by the government. The National Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 25 Hydropower Master Plan project supported by water resources data and information is being finalized the  Norwegian Government resulted in a National within the MOPTC, however the ICT capacity to manage Hydrometeorological Monitoring Program which the information and training needed for the operators consists of 35 rainfall stations and 6 river height moni- of the database is limited. Thus, the current scenario toring stations, which have been collecting daily data results in missed opportunities to convert this data into from 2009 to the present. In 2012, with support from knowledge and water management actions. Community Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene Past hydrological modeling studies suggest that there Program (Be’e Saneamentu no Ijiene iha Komunidade, are substantial volumes of water resources available for BESIK), four seawater intrusion monitoring boreholes development, but more in-depth studies are required were established in the Dili Aquifer to record ground- to support concrete investment decisions. In 2004, water depth and water quality, every hour. However, hydrological modelling studies calculated water bal- there is no public reporting on the data or internal ances for total water demand and total water availabil- analysis informing management action or decision ity (both surface and groundwater) at hydrologic unit making from either of these programs. and river basin scale, based on modeled estimates of Uncoordinated meteorological and hydrological data stream flow and groundwater sustainable yield (ADB collection programs result in duplication of efforts and 2004). This study then defined water balances under missed opportunities. Nationally, there are approxi- future scenarios with increased water demand and cli- mately 76 meteorological monitoring stations in mate change for 2020. Predictions indicate future avail- Timor-Leste collecting either just precipitation or a full ability of substantial groundwater resources available suite of meteorological parameters. These sites are for development, however, low data availability at the supported by the MAP Agrometeorology Program and time of modelling (2004) resulted in low confidence the MOPTC National Hydrometeorological Program. levels in the streamflow data; it is suggested that this There is little standardization of equipment and pro- modeling exercise be repeated to verify the results, cesses of quality control of the data, however these especially as new data are now available on the water ministries have a data-sharing the Memorandum of capita water supply demand, and for resources, on per ­ Understanding (MoU) in place, but no systematic pro- irrigation. Downscaling of the results to specific water cesses for efficient data sharing. For severe droughts, resources would also benefit water resources develop- such as the 2015/16 El Niño, improved access to these ment investment decisions. data sets across ministries would have improved mon- Detailed studies on specific water resources issues are itoring of its impact and the responses of the govern- needed to support further water resource development, ment and relief agencies. particularly to reduce the vulnerability of public water Ad hoc and disparate datasets on water resources are supplies to climate variability and climate change. available but many are not readily accessible in one Detailed studies on specific water resources to determine location with the information and communication spatial and temporal characteristics and sustainable technology (ICT) infrastructure being finalized. Since yield are generally not available. The development of independence, development partners and the govern- water sources for water supply to Timor-Leste’s major ment have been collecting water resources data from population centers is generally based on a few spot data many locations to support their projects and programs. over several years or primary data collection of a few This has resulted in a large volume of data that currently years to support water supply augmentation projects. exists in inaccessible or incompatible formats across Generally, there is no systematic monitoring on these different organizations. A centralized database for water resources or long-term datasets (greater than 26 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 10 years) that capture their natural variability. This resources within the community and for sacred (lulik) leaves them at risk to climate change and climate vari- sites. Water resources management will benefit from ability. Hydrogeological studies have occurred on a few understanding how tara bandu guides decisions on aquifer systems, including the Baucau Karst Limestone how to protect, manage, share, and resolve conflicts Aquifer, Dili Aquifer, and Liquica Coastal Aquifer, which around water. Sustainability and community partici- contributed substantially to the improved knowledge of pation in water resources management or the develop- those resources, however these studies remain incom- ment of water resources will need to take tara bandu plete with regard to providing the necessary levels of principles into account. confidence needed to support investment decisions for water resource development. Appendix B provides Water Use more information on the development of lakes and The latest national level data for water usage are from springs as a water resource. 2004 and identify that total actual water withdrawal Better cross-ministerial coordination is needed for was at around 1,172 Mm3/yr or 14 percent of the actual areas where different ministries have overlapping renewable water resources. Of this, 1,071 Mm3/yr objectives related to water resources management. (91 percent) was used for irrigation and livestock, There are no formal coordination avenues within 99 Mm3/yr for domestic use (9 percent), and only the government or between development partners to 2  Mm3/yr for industrial use (ADB 2004). More recent coordinate activities related to the management of data is not available, but these figures are likely to be catchments for watershed protection, forestry, and higher after a decade of economic growth. water resources management. As outlined in chapter 2, MOPTC, MAP, and MPRM are involved in catchment Irrigation management, water resources management, or envi- Irrigation is the highest water user in the country ronmental management or other activities related to abstracting 90 percent of the total freshwater with- water resources management. Coordination of these drawals mainly from free or unregulated river intakes activities will become more important in the future (ADB 2004). This makes abstraction during the dry with the implementation of the World Bank-funded season difficult and limits the area that can be irrigated Sustainable Agricultural Productivity Improvement during the dry season. Program (SAPIP) and if the government approves the Agriculture is the most important sector in the country, pending National Water Resources Management Policy but faces challenges of low productivity, inadequate and finalizes the draft National Forest Policy. infrastructure, weak institutions, and a variable climate Plans to develop water resources must consider the besides natural resource depletion and degradation. communities’ cultural and spiritual connections to Agriculture holdings tend to be small with 97 percent of water as these still guide most communities in their plots being under 1 ha. Typical crops of a farming water resources management decisions. Water has a household in mountainous Timor-Leste are grains strong cultural and spiritual significance for many peo- (maize and rice), root crops (sweet potato and cassava), ple in Timor-Leste, and, over time, a system of tradi- peanuts and various vegetables, fruits, spices and tree tional norms and customs (tara bandu) has evolved for crops. Maize and other rain-fed crops are usually grown the protection, management, and sharing of water in mixtures in homestead plots or in ‘slash and burn’ resources. Tara bandu is still in effect across the coun- fields, often on sloping land, usually using farmer try, forms the basis of most local scale water decisions, recycled seed and without chemical fertilizer or pesti- ­ and is important for the management of water cide or even organic manure, resulting in low yields.1 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 27 Consequently, most farming families suffer from food mainly involved small-scale communal irrigation insecurity because they have produced insufficient schemes. Considerable support was provided by the cereal staples of maize and/or rice to last a full Japanese Government especially for the rehabilita- 12  months. In most farming households, this ‘maize tion and expansion of irrigation areas for rice pro- deficit period’ can range from 1 to 9 months and house- duction (JICA 2008). Post 2008, development holds are required to purchase maize or rice, or rely on partners in the agriculture sector changed their focus foraging from the natural vegetation. There is seasonal to improvement in productivity and the market sup- food insecurity, with 90 percent of rural households ply value chain. exhausting their homegrown maize and rice supplies The irrigation policy is embedded in the MAP Strategic by September of each year. To address this deficit, rice Plan 2014–20 which targets sustainable increase in imports in average years of around 100,000 megatons production and productivity and identification of ­ are required. Despite these imports, about 70 percent of areas for water resource development. The target is the population felt moderately or severely food inse- to  increase agricultural production through more cure according to the 2011 Food and Nutrition Survey. efficient use of available water supply and includes Increasing production and productivity by improving rehabilitation, extension, and protection of irrigation agriculture practices and enhancing water manage- systems, water use efficiency, and groundwater explo- ment for agriculture are important for enhancing ration and production, including popularization of nutrition and food security. Currently there is a tube wells. Proposed activities include a comprehen- renewed recognition of the fundamental importance sive irrigation system inventory, a large dam feasibility of agriculture to Timor-Leste’s economy and the study, and small dams and schemes in appropriate central role it plays in poverty reduction, food and locations, building new dams (for water conservation), nutrition security, economic growth, and income and rehabilitation and construction of new irrigation employment generation through its linkages with the schemes, groundwater exploration, and tube well other sectors of the economy. development. Timor-Leste has a long experience with irrigation. The current irrigation policy is based on the rehabilita- Irrigation in Timor-Leste began during the tion of irrigation schemes connected to cross diversion Portuguese colonial period, when numerous small- weirs, some of which have not been designed suffi- scale communal irrigation systems were developed ciently to supply water to second and third season using simple irrigation technology that relied on crops. After independence, designs changed from free water supplies from small springs and runoff from intakes to weir-based river diversion systems. While the mountainsides. During the Indonesian occupation, latter are more reliable with regard to ensuring sustain- free-intake river diversion irrigation schemes were able water supplies, these schemes are much more constructed with total design irrigation area expensive to construct and maintain, especially as cli- estimated at 72,159 ha, covering more than 427 ­ mate change and land degradation begin to increase the schemes. In 2002 after independence, only 34,649 already enormous sediment loads in the wet season ha  (48  ­ percent) remained, of which 5,384 ha are and reduce the basal stream flows in dry season. These technical schemes, 7,770 ha are semi-technical weir diversion irrigation systems will be unable to schemes, and 21,495 ha are traditional schemes. 2 ensure reliable supplies of irrigation water late in the After independence, development partners funded a growing season, particularly in the dry season, as crops series of Agriculture Rehabilitation Projects (ARPs) mature. This means that second and perhaps third in the period from 2000 to 2008. These projects season crops can only be grown in very limited areas. ­ 28 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap TABLE 3.1. MAF Plans for Irrigation Development 2013–20—Areas to be Irrigated (ha) 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Total Area currently irrigated 46,300 46,300 46,300 46,300 46,300 46,300 46,300 46,300 46,300 9 schemes in pipeline 2,488 5,946 11,909 12,409 12,409 12,409 12,409 12,409 20 new schemes 2,500 5,000 7,500 10,000 10,000 6 schemes + new dams 1,500 3,000 4,500 6,000 6,000 PDD I and II schemes 2,500 5,000 7,500 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 Total hectares irrigated 48,800 53,788 59,746 68,209 72,709 76,709 80,709 84,709 Incremental hectares 2,500 4,988 5,958 8,463 4,500 4,000 4,000 4,000 38,409 irrigated Source: World Bank 2015. Note: The current irrigated area reported by the MAF is approximately 46,300 ha. However, investigations (Freach 2013) indicate that the currently irrigated area may cover only 33,300 ha. The MAP Strategic Plan contains FIGURE 3.1. Public Spending in Agriculture versus AgGDP at Constant approximately US$590 million Prices (2016 US$) for investment in the irrigation 90 310 sector from 2014 to 2021, how- 80 300 AgGDP (millions, US$) ever the sources of funds to Agriculture spending 70 290 (millions, US$) implement this fully have not 60 280 been identified. These plans 50 270 include (a) further sector plan- 40 260 30 250 ning; (b) completion of a master 20 240 plan prepared with support from 10 230 Japan International Cooperation 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Agency (JICA); (c) farmer reset- MAF IF PDID Ag ODA AgGDP tlement in irrigation schemes Source: World Bank, forthcoming (a). which are sparsely populated; (d) Note: Data on weather conditions and agricultural outputs come from the Global Information and rehabilitation of nine schemes Early Warning System (GIEWS) Country Brief published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) for the period 2009 to 2016. Although weather data are relatively reliable, which are in the approved pipe- production data should be considered with caution as low capacity and lack of adequate resources result line (see table 3.1 and figure 3.1); in low quality crop monitoring and production estimates by the ministry. Official production estimates tend to be higher than surveyed data from development partner’s projects/programs. Agriculture (e) a study of 20 new schemes for GDP (AgGDP) includes all agriculture, forestry, and fisheries occurring within the Timor-Leste which sites have been selected; economy. Ag ODA = Agriculture Official Development Assistance; IF = Infrastructure Fund Expenditure; MAF = Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries; PDID = Integrated District Development Planning. (f) studies for and the construc- tion of 12 large multipurpose been incorporated in the Public Expenditure Review dams; (g) irrigation schemes mentioned below indicates that there are more cost-­ associated with these dams; (h) ongoing Programs of effective ways to enhance the productivity of irrigated Decentralized Development (PDD I and PDD II), and agriculture. National Program for Village Development (PNDS)3 support for irrigation; and (i) the funding of mainte- The Master Plan for Agriculture and Irrigation nance and operational costs. An evaluation which has Development, prepared with JICA funding, was Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 29 TABLE 3.2. Completed, Ongoing, and Planned Irrigation System under construction (table 3.2). Development and Rehabilitation—MAP Systems to be Funded The remaining three schemes are Out of the Infrastructure Fund planned for implementation in Funding Source System Name System Area (ha) District Status the coming fiscal year. Detailed ARP3 Caraulun 600 Manufahi Completed designs have been made, by inter- JICA Maliana 1 1,050 Bobonara Completed national consultants, of intakes as JICA Laclo 507 Manatuto Completed part of the 20 new schemes, JICA Buluto 1,371 Bacau Under construction which are financed by JICA. In MAP Bebui 1,090 Viqueque — 2015, the Ministry of Planning MAP Galata 216 Baucau Under construction and Strategic Development MAP Larisula 347 Lautom Under construction decided that the responsibility for MAP Dardau 356 Viqueque Under construction the development of dams be shifted from the MAF to them- MAP Beikala 1,547 Ainaro Under preparation selves for implementation MAP Raibere 225 Ainaro Under preparation through the Infrastructure Fund. MAP Oebaba 2,263 Covalima Under preparation To date, there are no activities MAP Muakola 2,916 Covalima — planned to proceed with these MAP Tono 1,717 Oecusse Under construction potential dam sites. Note: — = not available; ARP3 = Third Agricultural Rehabilitation Program; JICA = Japan International Cooperation Agency; MAP = Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. There are insufficient studies to support investment decisions on the three rivers identified completed in November 2014. The aim of the master to have potential irrigation dam sites. A preliminary plan is to increase the production of local commercial study was conducted by the MAP and Salu Corpora- rice in designated rice bowl areas to achieve national tion Unipessoal Ltd. of 15 rivers for potential dam sites, self-sufficiency and to enhance subsistence farming in but only three rivers were considered to have potential other areas. Selection of priority systems is led by irri- for further development: Beiruli, Caraulun, and Lac- gation potential, paddy productivity, and market lo Rivers.5 Less favorable but still with a potential for development potential. dam sites were the Sahen, Malibaka, Laleia, Weberek, To ensure and enhance production potential in the and Watuwa Rivers. For all identified dam sites, fur- south coast systems under rehabilitation, a program ther studies and investigations on hydrology, geology, of incentives for farmers to settle in the area is morphology, and water utilization are required before required. The south coast schemes have been suffer- investment decisions can be made. ing from a lack of farming population since indepen- Generally, reliance of infrastructure is justified as buf- dence 4 while self-sufficiency objectives require fer against the effects of rainfall variability. A study by farmers to operate these systems. Details of the reset- Damania et al. (2017) confirms that large irrigation tlement program, however, are not available. infrastructure provides a healthy boost to net primary productivity (NPP), the primary parameter of crop pro- The government developed an investment plan for duction used in this analysis. The benefits are largest rehabilitation and development of new irrigation sys- in middle-income countries, where NPP increases by tems. The program of rehabilitation of nine irrigation 12 percent on average in regions where infrastructure systems is now being implemented, however currently is present, and perhaps more importantly, in most only six of the nine planned schemes are completed or 30 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap areas that are equipped for irrigation, NPP shows little combined with government programs promoting the sensitivity to rainfall variability, both for positive and adoption of new technologies, resulted in higher yields negative rainfall shocks. This implies that irrigation in 2012. State allocations are decided from one year to infrastructure provides a complete buffer against rain- the next, based on expected weather patterns. The fall shocks in these areas. government tries to adapt to changing circumstances through virements and budget rectifications, but with In arid areas and low-income countries, large irrigation very limited results with regard to impact on the over- infrastructure can be less effective at buffering agricul- all budget allocated to the sector in a year. Large invest- tural yields against shocks and halting the expansion ments in irrigation are yet to deliver the expected of cropland; this possibly applies to Timor-Leste. results and have been slow to improve water manage- In some regions, large irrigation infrastructure is found ment, which could be instrumental to farmers’ to be less effective at buffering agricultural yields ­ resilience. In parallel to the 2015/16 El Niño, the against shocks and may also accentuate their impact. government started reducing allocation to the agricul- In these areas, NPP declines when negative rainfall ture sector from 2015 onward, while major develop- shocks occur, and if irrigation infrastructure is in place, ment partners were simultaneously reaching the end NPP declines even further. This finding may seem sur- of a program cycle, which temporarily translated into prising at first, but it is also entirely predictable. lower expenditures in the sector and reduced AgGDP Infrastructure fails to buffer against dry shocks in (World Bank, forthcoming[a]). those arid regions where a disproportionate amount of land is used to cultivate water-intensive crops. As the A public expenditure review recommended revis- water resource is provided for (almost) free, it will inevi- ing the current irrigation strategy to a hybrid strategy tably increase the cultivation of water-intensive crops, that maintains past investments in physical infrastruc- which increases vulnerability to drought, that in turn ture, optimizes surface water abstraction, while it magnifies the impacts of dry shocks. The end result is complements this with investments for high returns in maladaptation—a dependence on water sensitive crops tubewell irrigation, as well as in farmer support ser- in arid areas that increases vulnerability to dry shocks vices and market development programs. The Public (Damania et al. 2017). Expenditure Review (World Bank 2015) identified that Weather and water-related natural disasters have a better results might be obtained with a more cost-­ greater impact on AgGDP than public investment in the effective groundwater-based supplementary irrigation sector. A review of public expenditure in the agricul- strategy. This was based on the high investment, high ture sector between 2008 and 2014 has revealed the O&M costs, and disappointing results from past invest- comparative influences of weather and investment on rehabilitation of irrigation schemes. The ments in the ­ AgGDP. During the period, favorable weather and high proposes a hybrid strategy that maintains past review ­ level of public spending led to high level of output in investment in  infrastructure combined with a 2010 and 2014. In the absence of an adequate private strengthening of  agriculture support services and sector, Timor-Leste’s predominantly subsistence farm- introduction of  ­ groundwater-based irrigation sys- ing sector is dependent on the delivery of public fund- tems. This approach could not only result in higher ing inputs, including extension services and as a result cost effectiveness but it also opens opportunities for is highly sensitive to levels of goods and services public higher levels of crop diversification, introduction of spending for increases in AgGDP, and the return from horticulture, higher levels of  farm productivity and public funded capital investment is more tenuous. possibilities for irrigated agriculture at locations Favorable weather at the end of 2011 and into 2012, traditionally not used for irrigation. ­ Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 31 O&M of irrigation schemes is inadequate because they management and O&M of public facilities is an obvious rely on water user associations (WUAs) with limited path for governments but this needs to be supported financial resources and capacity, while more sustain- technically and financially especially in the case of able funding mechanisms and implementation larger and complicated improvement works. The arrangements await approval. The National Directorate development of an O&M fund that can be accessed by for Irrigation Water Management has limited budget organized communities is a logical step that merits for the O&M of irrigation infrastructure. Once some piloting. constructed, the O&M of irrigation schemes is in prin- ciple managed at the local level by WUAs with some Domestic Water Supply guidance from MAP officers. Each municipal adminis- Improved water safety planning is required to improve tration office has around two MAP irrigation officers the management of risks in delivering safe water ­supply. who train and assist WUAs in O&M of the irrigation Bacteriological analysis on samples of surface and infrastructure. While maintenance is in some cases groundwater resources and in water supply networks partly covered by WUA membership fees, on an ad hoc regularly indicate widespread bacteriological contami- basis, the MAP also provides some annual funding nation. Contamination at the water source is generally support of approximately US$5,000 per system. at unprotected water sources from animal and domes- Generally, however, the O&M budgets are the first to be tic waste. In urban areas, distribution system leakage cut when budget savings are sought. and inadequate construction standards have resulted Meanwhile, several O&M models are in discussion to in multiple sources of contamination throughout the improve the sustainability of the systems. It is pro- distribution network. Further effort is required on posed that depending on the size of the scheme, water source protection and water safety planning if maintenance should be shifted to an outsourcing the government is to achieve its national and interna- model whereby multiyear maintenance contracts are tional commitments for the delivery of safely managed awarded to local contractors at an estimated annual water from public water supply systems, by 2030. This value of US$10,000 per system. It is further proposed must be done in conjunction with improved sanitation to implement these contracts by moving the O&M drainage and wastewater treatment, especially in areas budget from “Goods and Services” to “Capital of higher population density found in urban and Investment” of the National Directorate’s budget. peri-urban areas (administrative posts). This proposal has not been approved, as the legal Additional secure water sources are needed to framework to enable such an approach is not in place increase coverage and improve water supply and san- and capacity to manage maintenance contracts is itation services to households. Many water sources lacking. Moreover, investments in irrigation infra- are vulnerable to changes in rainfall because of cli- structure comes mainly from the Infrastructure Fund mate variability and climate change, and some water which does not allow its money to be used for main- supply systems are not designed to deliver water sup- tenance, because it is only for investments in new plies at the levels required to meet the higher levels of infrastructure. This issue persists not only for irriga- services that are planned under the achievement of tion but also for other public infrastructure such as the SDG 2030 targets. Providing the additional supply roads and water supply. is challenged by limited knowledge of the sustainabil- Communities play an essential role in the management ity of specific water resources currently being used. and protection of water resources, water use, and land Also, there are no large operational water storages use. Enhanced participation of communities in the available for water supply, and no feasibility studies 32 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap have been completed to support the development of Bulobo Hydropower Plants. Despite NVE constructing large water storage facilities. The use of decentralized the Gariuai Mini-Hydropower Plant in Baucau for storage options, such as domestic rainwater tanks has demonstration purposes, the Government of Timor- had limited adoption in Timor-Leste, despite wide- Leste has not committed to developing any of the spread promotion of this concept. hydropower sites from the master plan (Norplan 2012) and prioritizes other sources of energy under their cur- Water Supply for Industrial Use rent energy policy. The master plan provided a strong Industries are poorly served with water supply, affect- economic case for the development of small-scale ing the potential for economic growth in this area, hydropower to compliment the current heavy oil particularly where water is a key input to production. power plants in Timor-Leste. Current reliance on Water supply for industrial and commercial purpose imported fuels for energy limits national energy secu- needs to be reliable regardless of climate variability to rity, leaving Timor-Leste vulnerable to international allow certainty in production and investment returns. oil price fluctuations. Any investigations into multi- At the moment, the level of industrial or commercial purpose infrastructure should consider hydropower water use in Timor-Leste is unknown as there is no as  a source of available energy and also to enhance data separating the water use of different parts of the national energy independence. economy. Outside of the petroleum industry, how- No multipurpose surface water storages exist in ever, industrial water use is expected to be small with ­Timor-Leste yet, though the concept has been ­discussed only a few industrial developments with significant for water supply to the city of Dili. Development of the water consumption. In most areas, reliability of pub- water resources in Timor-Leste for public water supply lic water supply is low, resulting in industries relying are primarily related to groundwater boreholes, hand on private groundwater abstractions to meet their dug wells, and springs. The sediment loads of riv- water needs. ers,  peak flow events, and geotechnical constraints challenge the design and O&M of constructing water Hydropower storage structures across rivers in Timor-Leste. To date, Small-scale hydropower development has been identi- no comprehensive studies have been completed on fied as viable at several locations in Timor-Leste, how- potential sites for constructing large multipurpose ever in their current energy policy, the government is water storage facilities. Only one possible site has been prioritizing other sources of energy. Installed capacity identified in the Comoro Catchment combining the for energy supply is adequate for present needs and needs of urban water supply to the capital, Dili; recre- comes from two oil fueled power stations that rely on ation; hydropower; and flood control. Current weir imported fuel. There is no significant hydropower structures for irrigation and the proposed small dams facility in Timor-Leste. From 2009–14, the Water for hydropower, each use low dam wall heights, from a Resources and Energy Directorate of the Government few meters to 15 m, for the diversion of flows rather of Norway (NVE) supported the Government of Timor- than the storage of water (Norplan 2012; ADB 2004). Leste to investigate opportunities for the development of hydropower at locations across the country. As a Key Water Management Challenges result, the National Hydropower Master Plan was final- ized in 2012 and it identified 14 locations as economi- Management of water resources still lacks coherent cally viable for hydropower development. Full and systematic management practices leading to ad feasibility studies were completed for three locations: hoc, inefficient, and ineffective actions. This is partly the Iralalaru, the Atsabe Magapu, and the Maliana due to unavailability of data and partly to a lack of Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 33 analysis of existing data, falling short of producing anymore, only a few years after construction, this information necessary for decision makers. It also needs to be addressed as a priority. Additionally, exist- makes it difficult to further explore the water resource ing water supply schemes are vulnerable to variations development potential for which it is necessary to sys- in water availability at the source. Solutions could tematically carry out in-depth studies and process the entail storage capacity to overcome variations in water analysis into concrete information necessary for discharge at the source, but more studies and analyses investment decisions. are needed before making decisions. Water use for irrigation lacks clarity on which service Notes delivery model is best suited for the circumstances 1. SoL website. Accessed April 28, 2017. in  Timor-Leste. Although plans for investment into 2. According to the definition by FAO, technical schemes are irrigation rehabilitation and development of irrigation schemes systems in which distribution of water can be fully controlled from exist, conventional flood irrigation schemes should the source to the field. It is characterized by permanent canals, con- trol structures, and measuring devices. Semi-technical schemes are be combined with tube well irrigation where neces- characterized by permanent canals and a few control or measuring sary to increase productivity and ensure the viability devices. Traditional schemes are characterized by only a few perma- of the schemes. This should be combined with opti- nent control or distribution structures. mization of surface water abstraction practices based 3. PDD is the Program of Decentralized Development and has been delivered in two program phases, I and II. PNDS is the National on sound water management and improved O&M Program for Village Development, providing support to Sucos follow- capacity. ing a community-driven development approach. Key challenges for domestic water use is to ensure sus- 4. During Indonesian times, before independence, these systems at Timor-Leste’s south coast were mainly operated and maintained by tainability and functionality of services through proper transmigration workers from other parts of Indonesia, who left O&M carried out systematically by the responsible Timor-Leste after independence. entities and with sufficient resources. With large parts 5. Based on a desk study and site reconnaissance (Salu Corporation of existing water supply systems not functioning Unipessoal Ltd., October 2015). 34 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap Urban coastline in Dili. © Martin Benedikt Albrecht/World Bank. Chapter 4 Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Services Status of Operation and Service Delivery (d)  Desalination, and (e) Program and Technical Support. Although established with a strategic plan Water Supply and clear mandate, the DNSA operates with a limited Timor-Leste has met the MDGs for urban water sup- autonomy in decision making, other than for basic ply. According to JMP 2017, total coverage for urban operations, and exhibits little accountability to ser- improved water supply in 2015 was 91 percent (figure vice users. The capacity of the DNSA to operate and 4.1). This rate is beyond the MDG targets on urban maintain urban water supply systems is constrained water supply, which aimed at 81 percent (JMP 2017). by the limited annual budget to fund O&M. It was therefore recognized by the international com- Consequently, maintenance is reactive, planned munity that Timor-Leste has met its MDG targets for asset maintenance programs are not implemented, urban water supply. and system functionality and service quality are Despite high access rates in urban areas, the capac- declining. ity and funding of the DNSA to operate and manage In line with decentralization, institutional arrange- the system is limited. The responsibility for O&M of ments and the capacity to manage water supply Timor-Leste’s 13 urban water supply schemes lies services need to be strengthened at the local level. with the DNSA. The DNSA comprises the following decentralization, part of the current SMASA’s Before ­ departments: (a) Planning and Design, (b) Customer staff belonged to DNSA, receiving an annual budget Service, (c) Dili Urban Water Supply (DUWS), allocated for their operations. With decentralization, Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 35 FIGURE 4.1. Access to Urban Water Supply the SMASA service model, the sector targets, and service stan- 100% dard needs to be performed as part of municipal obligation to 80% 48% 48% serve the citizens. 60% 46% Efficiency of water supply sys- 40% tems in Dili is performing below 43% 47% standard with extremely high 20% 34% non-revenue water (NRW) and 0% O&M without proper planning. 2005 2010 2015 Piped onto premises Other improved Other unimproved Surface water Performance levels of urban water systems are particularly Source: JMP 2017. challenging in the capital, Dili, where the water supply system is Basic Figure of Population Served in TABLE 4.1. constrained by low pressures in the distribution sys- Selected Municipalities tem, inadequate maintenance of main pipes, and a Urban Population Population Served high record of illegal connections, resulting in NRW Municipality in Service Areaa (%)b estimated to be partly higher than 90 percent of the Dili 128,033 30–35 total volume supplied (WaterAid 2010). The reason Baucau 22,461 49 why the network is so difficult to maintain is because Los Palos 13,435 39 of (a) the poor condition of much of the piped network, Same 16,732 70 (b) the extremely high NRW rate, (c) frequent modifi- Viqueque 10,005 86 cations to the system without following the overall a. 2010 census. system design, (d) insufficient budget allocated, (e) a b. Estimation from ADB 2015a. lack of documentation for many small upgrades and the mandate for water supply and sanitation service repairs, creating a complicated and inefficient distri- provision is transferred to the municipal administra- bution system, and (f) a lack of archiving and record tion including the authority for both programming keeping practice (ADB 2015b). and budget allocation. However, without the staff pre- viously provided through DNSA, there now is a short- Service in other municipal towns varies and details age of qualified staff at the municipal level assisting about the quality of urban service provision is often with the management of urban systems. In 2017, the unknown (table 4.1). In some reports (ADB 2014; WSP first year that decentralization has come into effect, 2015), the water supply systems in municipal centers the SMASA has experienced difficulties in developing are characterized as low service levels with low cover- proposals and getting approvals for them from the age; highly intermittent supplies and low pressures; municipal administration. This resulted in generally unmetered and uncontrolled connections without a low disbursements under the SMASA, with several stop valve installed; illegal connections with poor municipality administrations being unable to approve quality of construction and insufficient maintenance, SMASA proposals in time.1 Municipal administrations leading to high leakages during transmission, distribu- need to develop their understanding about water tion, and household connections; lacking systematic supply and sanitation service provisions, specifically water quality monitoring and irregular water 36 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap treatment with chlorination; and generally low levels sets prices for water. Tariff reform would also need to of ­satisfaction by households with public water supply. address greater autonomy for the DNSA to retain and Although national drinking water standards exist, control revenues, rather than the Ministry of Finance, so water quality monitoring is not systematically carried that O&M can be effectively addressed. This reform out outside of Dili, due to the cost, time, and logistics would require a utility approach with autonomous ser- of collecting samples and transporting them between vice provision and regulation functions to be separated. municipal towns and the DNSA laboratory in Dili. A regulation study would be needed to assess the best institutional and organizational arrangements for host- Water tariffs for urban areas have been established by the ing economic and service regulation (WSP 2015). Minister of Finance2 together with DNSA, the collection is not yet done systematically. Water tariffs in Dili are around US$7.54 per household per month (ADB 2015a), Sanitation but only around 27 percent of DUWS connections are reg- Timor-Leste has met the MDG target for urban sanita- istered and billed. Billing is limited because the DNSA tion. According to JMP, total coverage for urban access currently only bills those who have a water meter. to improved sanitation in 2015 was percent (figure Normally, there are no penalties for customers who do 4.2). This rate is beyond the MDG target for urban san- not pay their bills and corrective actions to address illegal itation, which aimed at 64 percent (JMP 2017). The water connections are not taken. Payment procedures remaining 27 percent of population without access of are complex and time consuming for customers. Discrete3 improved sanitation consist of 17 percent shared, trials of metering and tariff collections in piped water 7 percent unimproved, and 7 percent people in urban subzones in Dili have been conducted with ADB financ- areas still practicing open defecation. ing. After technical assistance support for training and Access rates to urban sanitation is relatively high procurement of equipment to support the reintroduction compared to its peers, but most of these services are of tariffs including billing and collection, the DNSA is on-site without a properly functioning fecal sludge now continuing billing without external support. The service. Almost all sanitation facilities in urban area valuable experiences from the Dili trials are expected to comprise simple pit latrines, septic tanks, or direct inform a broader tariff ­ implementation program. discharge to public ­ surface water. No centralized Lack of revenues from user fees restricts the execution piped wastewater collecting system exists despite of O&M necessary to maintain a quality service, which in turn FIGURE 4.2. Access to Urban Sanitation Facilities users are willing to pay for. 100% Without tariffs, the direct account- ability between customer and ser- 80% 16% 17% vice provider is absent. Tariffs 14% 60% used in the subzone trials in Dili are identical to those in the 40% 66% 69% Ministerial Diploma n. 1/2004 of 59% 20% 11th of February, and while deemed adequate for present cir- 0% 2005 2010 2015 cumstances, a tariff policy and Improved Shared Other unimproved Open defecation review process will need to be developed in future that rationally Source: JMP 2017. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 37 the development of several master plans in Dili, Similar to urban sanitation, the DNSB is responsible Baucau, Same and Viqueque. In urban areas, it  is for the sewerage systems with regard to planning, ubiquitous to observe the wastewater from residential ­ design, and management. In 2012, the Dili Sanitation areas flowing into small channels dug in the ground, and Drainage Master Plans (DSDMPs) were approved discharging directly into the environment without by the Council of Ministers. The plans aim at improv- treatment. A septage treatment plant exists in Tibar to ing s ­ ewerage and drainage in Dili for the overall pur- treat fecal sludge collected from some government pose of  reducing health risks and contributing to facilities, hotels, hospitals, companies, and some resi- economic  development. Concretely, the sanitation dencies. Fecal sludge is collected by private fecal master plan seeks to achieve improvements to sani- sludge collection services, serving based on requests. tation through a staged approach, as well as to reha- A total of nine private fecal sludge collection compa- bilitate existing sewers to separate sewage from nies exist in Dili, collecting fecal sludge mostly from storm water drainage. Various projects on sewerage nonresidential areas. and drainage, have been designed in accordance with the DSDMPs since August 2014. As a part of the drain- Overall development of Water, Sanitation, and age master plan, plans exist to construct and improve Hygiene (WASH) in urban areas has been dominated drainage facilities in priority areas in Central Dili, by water supply programs with little attention to san- West Dili, and East Dili regarding cleaning of regular itation or hygiene promotion initiatives. There is lim- channels and drains, channel resloping, channel ited information available on the progress of urban reshaping, and construction of road side drains and sanitation development in Timor-Leste. None of the curb inlets from 2013 to 2017 (JICA, Nippon, and urban areas have centralized sewage treatment facil- Pacet 2016). Implementation of the detailed engi- ities. Only Dili has one simple septage treatment neering designs is currently waiting decision on facility. Meanwhile, by regulation, individual house- funding options. holds in urban areas are obligated to install on-site sanitation. The operation and service delivery of urban sanitation is under the responsibility of the Financing DNSB. There is no regular program for urban sanita- After external funding has been reduced in recent tion at the municipal level, rather ad hoc programs years, overall investments into the urban water sup- implemented both by the central government and ply and sanitation sector have declined with the external partners. There is no clarity yet on how this majority of funding coming from the government. In implementation arrangement will be affected by the national budget, there are currently two major decentralization. In March 2016, the government sources of capital spending for water supply and sani- launched the development of master plans for the tation infrastructure, (a) the Consolidated Fund of Water and Sanitation Master Plans in four municipal- Timor-Leste and (b) the Infrastructure Fund (table ities: Baucau, Lospalos, Viqueque, and Same, sup- 4.2). The Consolidated Fund captures all minor capi- ported by the ADB. In May 2017, the draft sanitation tal expenditures as well as expenditures for O&M car- master plans were under discussion for final inputs ried within the budget of ministries (particularly by various stakeholders. MSTAM, Ministry of Finance and MOPTC), including the local development programs, as well as salaries, Dili Drainage and Sanitation goods and services, and transfers as part of local Efforts are under way to rehabilitate and development programs. The Consolidated Fund improve  sewers and drainage urban areas of Dili. finances many local development programs that are 38 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap TABLE 4.2. Timor-Leste Capital Spending from the Consolidated Fund of Timor-Leste and the Infrastructure Fund Relevant to Water Supply and Sanitation, 2011–15 (US$ millions) Spending Item 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Total Capital and Development from Consolidated Fund of which: 86.6 124.8 152.5 158.6 164.9   PDD I subdistrict, Suco, and Aldeia (reappropriation) 15.8 34.4 9.4 — —   PDD II district (reappropriation) 26.6 30.1 6.3 — —   PDID program (from 2013 on) — — 71.3 90.5 94.1  Ministries/agencies 44.1 60.3 65.5 68.1 70.8 Total Capital and Development from Infrastructure Fund, of which: — 430.8 604.4 868.3 918.4   Water and sanitation — 4.9 10.1 13.2 27  MDGs — 14 46.3 81.5 64 Source: WSP 2015. Note: — = not available; MDGs = Millennium Development Goals; PDD = Program of Decentralized Development. major sources of decentralized spending for invest- in urban areas, only about half are connected through ments in rural and urban water supply services, as house connections. The rest receive drinking water well as in public sanitation services. The MSTAM through other methods. According to the 2015 cen- manages funds for local development programs such sus, 34 percent of urban households have individual as the Local Development Program (PDL), the PDD connections with piped water onto their premises. and the PNDS. The Infrastructure Fund currently Significant sections of the population still rely on includes funding for five major areas under the water public taps (30 percent), tubewells or bore holes supply and sanitation program: (a) Studies for master (16 percent), and protected springs (5 percent)5. plans regarding water and sanitation at national level; The number of urban people that had access to (b) The DSDMP; (c) Construction and supervision of improved water source in 2015 (around 320,000) has sewers and drainage in Dili; (d) Construction and more than doubled compared to 1995 (129,000), sug- supervision of water and sanitation systems at gesting access has more than kept pace with popula- national level; and (e) Improvement of water supply tion growth and high rates of urbanization. system in Dili. In addition, the MDG Suco Fund included a budget of US$6.9 million in 2013 and The biggest challenge for the urban water supply sector US$7.5 million in each year from 2014 to 2018 for water is to improve efficiency of service. This can be achieved and sanitation.4 by reducing the NRW rate and by applying corporate principles into the management of the service that has Key Urban Water Supply and Sanitation more independent and clearer role and responsibility. Challenges This, however, not only requires political will but also Despite achieving the MDGs, access to piped house- institutional transformation in line with realistic hold connections in urban areas remains low. From expectations around the availability of human the households with access to improved water supply resources and sources of financing. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 39 In the urban sanitation sector, it is crucial to ensure Notes the incorporation of elements of the National Basic 1. The SMASA in the Liquiça municipality did not disburse any funds Sanitation Policy into planning at the municipal level. due to pending approvals of their proposals. A special effort will be required to ensure urban sanita- 2. WaterAid 2010 and personal communication from DNSA. tion is included in the municipalities’ priority agenda. 3. Households report that in addition to their water bill of around The implementation of this policy further requires the US$7.54 per month, they have to pay around US$3.76 on transporta- dissemination and enforcement of the need to install tion cost to pay the bill. (ADB 2015a). proper sanitation facilities based on national stan- 4. Government of Timor-Leste: The MDG Suco Fund provides water dards and a functioning sludge management service. and sanitation to the new houses in Sucos (5 per year per Aldeia). Water Supply and Sanitation in Timor-Leste: Turning Finance into Services for the Future, April 2015. To properly manage drainage development, the imple- 5. Government of Timor-Leste: The MDG Suco Fund provides water mentation of the DSDMP should proceed. Focusing on and sanitation to the new houses in Sucos (5 per year per Aldeia). a new organizational and regulatory framework is the Water Supply and Sanitation in Timor-Leste: Turning Finance into first part of implementation of the master plan. Services for the Future, April 2015. Developing a detailed engineering design, establishing social safeguards, and ensuring quality construction should be observed carefully, as this could be a model for similar development for other municipalities in the coming years. 40 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap Unprotected water source. © Guilherme Valle/UN Women. Chapter 5 Rural and Peri-Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Services Status of Operation and Service Delivery at which water supply and sanitation services in rural areas are being expanded and sustained. Rural Water Supply Unlike in urban areas, Timor-Leste did not meet the Development of rural water supply systems heavily ­ ector. MDGs in the rural water supply and sanitation s relies on financing from ­ development partners and According to the JMP, total access to rural improved NGOs. In rural areas, where approximately 70 percent water supply in 2015 was 60 percent and to improved of the population lives, the development of water sanitation services only 27 percent (JMP 2015). The tar- supply systems relies heavily on the support from gets set out in the MDGs for water and sanitation ser- development partners and NGOs for financing. BESIK vices in rural areas were 75  percent and 55 percent, was a program largely funded and supported by the respectively. Access to rural improved water supply Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade of the has increased at an average rate of only 1.2 percent per Government of Australia (DFAT). DFAT has provided year over the last 10 years (figure 5.1). Over the last substantial support for rural water supply and sani- 5 years, this rate was even less at only 0.4 percent per tation from 2003–15, but  has scaled down its com- year. Given the  reduction in foreign funding, great mitments for the  sector since. National and efforts must be made to significantly increase the rate international NGOs play an important role in rural Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 41 FIGURE 5.1. Access to Rural Water Supply to operate and maintain com- munity water supply systems is 100% ­ limited, and the failure rate is 8% 10% 11% high (as  much as 50 percent 80% 38% 31% 28% within 2 years of commission- 60% ing) (ADB 2015c). Tariffs are 40% usually between US$0.25 and 45% 47% 42% US$0.50 per family per month 20% and in several cases cover basic 12% 14% 14% 0% maintenance works. Larger 2005 2010 2015 repair or replacement costs, Piped onto premises Other improved Other unimproved Surface water however, cannot be financed through tariffs. The primary Source: JMP 2017. causes of failure of the commu- nity schemes are likely to be the WASH, with a number of international organizations lack of funding for O&M, lack of also active in the sector including the United Nations replacement parts, and limited maintenance skills Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Plan International, within communities. Whalen and Belo (2013) found WaterAid, Triangle, Cruz Vermelha de Timor-Leste in their GMF study that approximately 90 percent of (CVTL) (Red Cross), World Vision, and Child Fund. GMFs formed since 2010 were at least partially func- O&M of community water supply systems are done by tioning and that GMFs are essential for ensuring the communities (GMF), assisted by the DNSA if larger functionality of rural water supply schemes, particu- works are required. The Decree Law No. 4/2004, Water larly as the system ages. However, many GMFs are Supply for Public Consumption, allows the govern- struggling to organize and undertake all of their ment to delegate some management responsibilities responsibilities. Most GMF members have little expo- for rural water supply systems to communities, either sure outside of their village and have limited access through formal GMFs or informal structures. This is to information that can support them in fulfilling complemented and strengthened by the community their responsibilities. action planning approach (CAP) introduced by DNSA. Management, financial, and technical issues are the GMFs are tasked with the day-to-day O&M of commu- major causes of rural water supply system breakdown. nity water supply systems. If maintenance require- Hamel’s 2009 review of rural water supply sustainabil- ments of a particular water supply system are beyond ity in Timor-Leste found that the major causes of break- the technical capacity and resources of GMFs, they will down were issues with community management and request the DNSA and SMASA assistance, but the technical problems. Addressing these issues could mechanisms for them to register for assistance is gen- resolve 81 percent of the problems for nonfunctioning erally unclear. The DNSA has limited capacity or bud- systems surveyed. Whalen and Belo (2013) found that get to provide support to rural water supply systems. post-construction support to the GMF is an essential Few GMFs are able to recover costs for basic O&M, ingredient to the success of community managed and many are not functioning sufficiently well to col- service delivery and the FPAs perform an essential sup- lect any payment for water services. Evidence from port role. However, further support and resourcing for studies has found that the capacity of communities many community water management groups would 42 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap be required in the case of substantial rehabilitation and also facilitates peer learning among GMFs, with each replacement. GMF disseminating best practices and diagnosing problems as well as developing actions to The issues on O&M are confirmed with the PNDS tech- mitigate issues. nical evaluation report on 2015 that quotes: To strengthen citizen engagement, a community Some of these EOM (operation and management score card (CSC) has been introduced in selected teams) did not seem to be very active – we inspected communities to compile user perceptions on the many reservoirs that had not been cleaned in over quality of the service provider. This initiative, sup- a year. Most systems are not yet collecting any ported by WaterAid, targets community members user fees from the villagers. We heard from several during two gender-segregated community meet- EOM that the setting and collection of fees to pay ings, by asking each group to rank the quality of for system maintenance were being discussed at their service provided using a scale from “1” (very Aldeia meetings, but that no firm plans to institute good) to “5” (very bad), across criteria they perceive a user fee had been made. It was not clear whether to be important. Meanwhile, the service provider, in a GMF has been established to oversee the facilities. this case the GMF, is asked to rank the quality of the (Neate and Herawati 2015) service they provide using the same criteria and scale. The scores are then consolidated and dis- Based on data from the Rural Water Information System cussed at the interface meeting to arrive at a consen- (Sistema Informasaun Bee no Saneamentu -SIBS and sus. Actions are agreed for items that score lower Sector Planning Tool) in June 2017, 889 rural water sup- than “3.” ply systems were registered across the country. Also, based on SIBS, 84 percent of the rural Aldeias (hamlets) To support GMFs, umbrella organizations have been report that they have access to a water system, however established in selected municipalities to provide only 46 percent of those have access to a water system coordinated support. In Liquiça Municipality that is always functioning. Moreover, 979 rural “alde- (2010)  and Manufahi Municipality (2014), associa- ias” have a GMF, and from those “aldeias” with a GMF, tions were established to act as umbrella organiza- 60 percent have access to a water system that is always tions that provide support to member GMFs. The functioning. support of these associations includes guidance to To strengthen the sustainability of water supply sys- work with local government staff (FPAs) in monitor- tems, a variety of activities are supported by NGOs at ing services and collecting data. Currently the A-GMF the community level. These activities range from in Liquiça has approximately 90 GMFs as members, post-construction support to communities, improving representing around 45 percent of the total in  the service provision through citizen engagement, and municipality. The association in Manufahi has providing post construction support in selected ­ 67  GMFs as members representing around 84 per- ­ municipalities. These activities try to strengthen the cent of the total GMFs. The joint process of informa- link between GMFs and municipal governments so tion collection, sharing, and analysis has helped to that rural water supply is better integrated into the ­ significantly strengthen working relations between municipal administration agenda. These programs municipal government and the associations, to the regularly monitor and conduct field visits to selected extent that the local government now recognizes the Aldeias and get direct feedback from communities of added value of the work of the associations ­ ervices. The task force water supply and sanitation s (Lockwood, Grumbley, and Casey 2017). Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 43 Rural Sanitation and Hygiene MS as the lead national agency for rural sanitation Timor-Leste also did not meet the MDGs for rural san- and promulgates that demand-led approaches, in itation and access rates have been decreasing. particular, CLTS, lead the implementation of rural According to JMP, only 30 percent of rural households sanitation with technical guidance from the MOPTC. had access to improved sanitation facilities in 2015, CLTS is encapsulated within the MS’s national thereby not meeting the targets set out in the MDGs approach to improving sanitation and hygiene prac- for sanitation services in rural areas, of 55 percent. tice, PAKSI. While open defecation rates in rural areas has been PAKSI evolved from several years of experimenting decreasing over the past 10 years, access to improved with participatory approaches at community level sanitation facilities has grown at a very slow rate of and was formalized into a national program in 2012. only 0.2 percent per year (figure 5.2). In recent years, Over the past decade, Timor-Leste has piloted differ- PAKSI has been expanding with a non-hardware sub- ent approaches to CLTS and ultimately adopted a sidy approach to households. While the program has phased sanitation approach in the National Basic been comparatively successful in changing commu- Sanitation Policy. PAKSI includes a form of CLTS mod- nity behavior to stop open defecation, the latrines ified to suit Timorese conditions and cultural sensi- constructed by communities are mostly simple and tivities for behavior change which is designed to be unimproved ones. This is a typical development when easier for field workers and communities to under- progressing along the first steps of the sanitation lad- stand and support. Further contributing to the cre- der1 but further assistance is required to help commu- ation of PAKSI was the success of the DNSA’s CAP nities continue progressing up the sanitation ladder approach to water supply development and the deci- toward improved (safe) sanitation and hygiene. sion that the MS district offices should lead the pro- The CLTS approach to sanitation was introduced in cess. Since 2012, BESIK has supported the MS in Timor-Leste in 2007 by international NGOs and has delivering the PAKSI program. PAKSI further includes now been established as the lead approach to sanita- hand washing with soap and undertook a major cam- tion in Timor-Leste. In 2012, the National Basic paign on this topic between 2012 and 2013. Sanitation Policy was adopted, which establishes the Over the past five years, PAKSI has delivered results in increasing access to rural sanitation through the use of FIGURE 5.2. Access to Rural Sanitation Facilities trained facilitators, however attrition levels are high. It 100% spread to all 12 municipalities in 80% 39% 36% 47% Timor-Leste, and to approxi- 60% mately 80–128 Sucos (villages) 27% 31% out of 401 rural Sucos (20–30 17% 40% 6% percent). Since 2012 there 6% 6% 20% has  been a consolidation of 30% 28% 27% local NGOs implementing CLTS 0% 2005 2010 2015 with  both local and interna- Improved Shared Other unimproved Open defecation tional NGOs leading the sector. 2 By 2016, PAKSI has trained Source: JMP 2017. 44 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap approximately 200 facilitators nationwide but only practicing open defecation. Based on a study con- 55 of them are still active.3 Of these 55, 15 are from ducted by UNICEF, about 20 percent of ODF communi- WaterAid, 20 from UNICEF, and 5 from PLAN and the ties could not sustain their status beyond two to three remaining are from local NGO partners. Facilitator years after achieving ODF status. Despite generally attrition is often the result from NGO staff moving following a non-subsidy approach under PAKSI, a to new unrelated jobs. Out of the 55 trained facilita- “smart subsidy” concept in the form of a voucher sys- tors, a core group of 10–15 are classified as tem to support ODF communities to move up the san- “super-trainers.” who are highly competent trainers itation ladder has been developed with UNICEF and and CLTS facilitators. Facilitator skills have been currently is being tested by the DFAT-PHD program. improved through training, particularly focusing on The intention is to provide financial support to the pre- and post-triggering. Five batches of trainings to 4 community to have access to improved latrines. improve facilitations skills involving 200 facilitators have also been held. Peri-Urban Areas (Capital of Administrative Post) Compared to water supply services in urban and Aside from community triggering, institutional rural areas, the service provision in peri-urban areas triggering has also been introduced to motivate ­ follows a different approach that is not as formalized participation by municipal authorities and to increase ­ as in urban areas, but requires a higher degree of awareness on sanitation issues, showing significant investment and management than rural systems. No results. The first institutional triggering occurred in clear definition exists of what comprises peri-urban 2015 in the Bobonaro Municipality, with a process to Timor-Leste. Using a common international areas in ­ motivate and gain commitment from leading institu- urban areas can be identified as definition, peri-­ tions (administrative post, Suco, and Aldeia) in mobi- the  capital of an administrative post. A total lizing communities to participate in PAKSI. A roadmap administrative posts exist in Timor-Leste. of  65 ­ for Bobonaro to become ODF was developed under the When  applying the  national average propor- leadership of the municipal administrator, and BESIK/ tion of urban-rural distribution of the population, PHD, UNICEF, and World Vision are supporting the an estimated 152,732 persons live in peri-urban areas plan on the ground. The result of this triggering has (table 5.1). been a sharp increase in access to sanitation in Bobonaro from 46 percent in 2015 to 96 percent cur- Water supply services at administrative post level rently. Lessons learned in Bobonaro have been dis- are managed by the municipal water supply depart- seminated through a national workshop by inviting ment (SAS) although services are basic, O&M require- municipal administration and other district ments are limited, and customer satisfaction is low. leaderships. Findings from field visits to the administrative post A voucher system has also been introduced by the of Maubara in Liquica Municipality identified very PHD program to support the communities to gain basic water services comparable to rural systems access to improved sanitation, not just to stop open with limited operation and management responsibil- defecation. PAKSI is assumed to be a successful pro- ities for the SAS officer, basically comprising only of gram to change community behavior to stop open def- switching the power on and off to distribute water to ecation. However, as reflected in the JMP report and customers on a daily basis. There is no record on mentioned above, most of latrines constructed by either the amount of water distributed to customers communities are unimproved, so there remains a risk (no master meter exists at the main reservoir) or on that communities declared as “ODF” may slip back to the actual water usage by each customer. Any service Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 45 TABLE 5.1. Peri-Urban (Capital of Administrative Post) Population Estimation Timor-Leste Peri-Urban Population Total Population: 1,183,643   Urban (29.5%) 349,208   Rural (70.5%) 834,435 Total population excluding Dili, Oecusse, and other municipal capitals is the 553,134 total population in 65 administrative posts in the country Administrative Post (total): 553,134   Peri-Urban (29.5%) ratio applied 163,174   Rural (70.5%) ratio applied 389,960 Source: Based on 2015 census data. Note: Although no clear data and definition for peri-urban population is available, they are estimated to be located in admin- istrative posts and were calculated by applying the national urban/rural ratio to the total population in administrative posts. Percentages are rounded and can differ from the exact number. expansion is conducted by the customers after they available, while other sanitation infrastructure inter- receive an informal/verbal permit from the SAS. The ventions are still being focused on the municipal quality of the water distribution system is often poor. centers. Piped networks are mostly above the ground and water distribution is done unsystematically with a Financing lack of proper maintenance for the overall facilities. Although the government has allocated funding for Community satisfaction about the quality of service capital investment in rural water supply through vari- is low and consequently the willingness to pay for ous decentralization development programs, O&M water services is low as well. funding appears to be a lower priority. In 2015, the gov- To improve the service quality in the capitals admin- ernment allocated US$13 million for construction or istrative posts would require substantial ground-up rehabilitation of new water systems (an increase of planning and investment, starting with an audit of about 100 percent from US$6.7 million in 2014). existing infrastructure to establish an inventory of Funding allocated for O&M in the same year only assets and their condition. Further, based on gaps in reached US$3 million (including US$1 million for a the system, it is necessary to develop a comprehen- pump maintenance program with BESIK), which is not sive plan to expand the system as well as to improve enough to meet O&M funding needs (DFAT n.d. 9). quality of the existing system through proper O&M as Similar to urban settings, rural communities are well as management according to basic corporate expected to invest in their own sanitation facilities. principles. Household investments are supported by subsidies There is no separate program for peri-urban sanitation. to vulnerable households and community incentives The only sanitation intervention that covers peri-​ to offset some sanitation hardware cost. A total san- urban areas is PAKSI, which intends to create ODF sta- itation program, using a non-subsidy approach, tus for all municipal residents, including those who costs approximately US$110 per household per year live in peri-urban areas. In fact, people living in (BESIK 2010). Based on this cost estimate, the total peri-urban areas have the benefit of better access to budget required to reach all households without market where sanitation products and services are access to improved sanitation facilities in 2017 46 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap (using the 2015 annual growth rate) would be approx- affordable sanitation products and developing imately US$12.25 million. financing mechanisms such as smart/targeted subsidies. Key Rural Water and Sanitation Challenges Scaling up best practices through horizontal and peer One of the biggest challenges to sustain and expand learning among municipalities. The PAKSI program rural water services is the absence of funds for O&M. has proven to be successful, once municipal leaders Financing recurrent expenditures for repairs and life support the program and mobilize district resources cycle asset replacement from public funds is limited and stakeholders. Creating peer learning events among and only conducted on an ad hoc basis. In addition, tar- municipalities is one alternative way to scale up the iffs are only collected sporadically, limiting available program. The event should be designed to not only funding in the majority of community organizations. share the best practices, but also as an advocacy venue to create a competitive environment among munici- While the SMASA has a staff member in each adminis- palities with regard to their sanitation issues. trative post, technical and organizational capacity at the administrative post level is a constraint. This has In parallel, coordination between the MS and DNSB led to delays in providing support for repairs that can- needs to be improved. This would ensure more effec- not be resolved by GMFs alone and to ineffective mon- tive interventions, especially in peri-urban areas so itoring and reporting of service levels and sector that behavior-change messages and infrastructure can performance. To address this issue, a systematic and be delivered in synergy for an overall better outcome. comprehensive approach will need to be adopted. Given the limited availability and affordability of Notes improved sanitation products, other aspects of the 1. The simplified concept of the sanitation ladder refers to the gradual improvements in access to sanitation services that a normal house- rural sanitation approach need to be strengthened to hold would go through, starting from becoming ODF (lowest status), ensure inclusive progress. Sanitation in rural areas is moving to an unimproved pit-latrine, then to an improved pit latrine, implemented through hygiene promotion and sani- to an on-site septic tank, to a communal system and finally to a centralized, piped wastewater collection and treatment system. ­ tation behavior change. But limited availability and affordability of services, specifically has a negative 2. http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/country/timor-leste​ -east-timor. impact on the poor, who might not be able to improve 3. http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/country/timor-leste​ access to safe sanitation at the same rate as higher-­ -east-timor. income households. It is therefore important to 4. Triggering is awareness raising at the community level through leverage the PAKSI program to strengthen the sanita- analysis of their sanitation behavior and facilitating of collective tion supply side through developing options for action toward an ODF status. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 47 Sedimentation in the Comoro river. © Martin Benedikt Albrecht/World Bank. Chapter 6 Roadmap—Priority Responses and Way Forward The following proposed priority options represent discussions with government officials from differ- ­ the results of the first phase of the engagement, ent ministries as well as sector stakeholders and which aimed at undertaking an assessment of development partners. They are intended to be a the  water sector and identifying specific options foundation for a future sector dialogue in a second of  how existing challenges can be addressed. phase to elaborate these options further, including priority actions build on the key challenges The  ­ an estimation of costs. Tables 6.1 to 6.6 provide an elaborated in the previous chapters and were overview of the proposed priority options. derived through a consultative process that included Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 49 Roadmap Overview TABLE 6.1. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Policy, Regulations, and Strategies Activity Description Expected Outcome Timeline Develop a national • Determine water resources availability and water Provide the necessary data and Short term (1–5 years) strategy for the demand under a range of water demand and information to support effective development and climate scenarios; conducted at a national scale, investment decisions on water resources management of water with downscaling to priority areas. development for water supply for resources • Determine the sustainable yield of water domestic, agricultural, and industrial resources, including the identification trade- uses. Provide a strong foundation for offs focusing on water used for traditional and developing water supplies that are more customary uses and by the environment. resilient to climate change and climate variability. • Investigate options to provide long-term secure water for public water supply and other water resources developments, based on new studies that identify specific water resources for development. • Based on the above analysis develop investment options and priorities for the development of Timor- Leste’s water resources to meet its water needs. Monitoring and • Enhance the exiting hydrological monitoring Protect communities, livelihoods, Short term (1–5 years) early warning network for water resources to align water and the economy from the impact of systems to reduce supply and sanitation needs more closely. water-related disasters. Improve the the vulnerability of • Establish monitoring of the water supply system safety of water resources development communities to support the provision of safe, secure, and infrastructure. sustainable water supply. • Establish monitoring and alert systems for early warning of climate-driven events that have an impact on water management, such as drought and flood. Improving the • Support the completion of regulations, The government will be managing the Short term (1–5 years) certainty of rights to technical, and operational guidelines for the nation’s water resources assets more access water establishment of the water entitlement system, sustainably and the rights of all water water borehole licensing, construction, and users to access water will be better water bore driller accreditation. protected, giving greater certainty of • Establishing monitoring and compliance of water water supply. entitlement users. table continues next page 50 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap TABLE 6.1. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Policy, Regulations, and Strategies (continued) Activity Description Expected Outcome Timeline Strengthen the • Develop a strategy for the operations, The project will improve the Short term (1–5 years) service delivery maintenance, and funding for existing irrigation functionality of irrigation schemes model for infrastructure including financing models and a by improving the technical skills of existing irrigation framework of fees and charges to cover costs. WUA’s and the funding for the O&M infrastructure • Provide professional development and of irrigation infrastructure. As a result, benchmarking of WUAs. irrigation infrastructure will be more sustainable and will contribute to the targets of national self-sufficiency in food production. Improved water • Carry out pilots of integrated models for water This project would improve intra- Short term sector coordination development. At a peri-urban level, test delivery government coordination on water (1– 5 years) and integrated of improved integration of water resources data supply development by improving planning models into investment decisions for water supply and the policies, systems and procedures sanitation and irrigation water needs. for coordination. This will result in • Integration of rural water supply development improved delivery of water services and watershed conservation program/water in Timor-Leste and contribute to the resources conservation program. delivery of national and international development commitments. TABLE 6.2. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Service Delivery Activity Description Expected Outcome Timeline Invest in tube well • Investigate opportunities for the optimization of Higher productivity of farm systems, Short irrigation schemes surface water abstraction and the development diversified cropping, and improved term (1–5 years) of tube well irrigation schemes. nutrition outcomes • Improve the market value chain for irrigation, including access to famer support services. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 51 TABLE 6.3. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Institutional Development Activity Description Expected Outcome Timeline Integrated basin In selected (sub)basins covering 2–3 Sucos, the Protected and developed water Short to medium development pilots program will resources providing communities with term (1–7 years) for catchment • Investigate and determine existing water higher levels of water management, management and availability, water use, and use rights irrigation, water supply, and sanitation water resources services and increased productivity of • Investigate the potential for enhancing water protection households. management for water supply and sanitation, agriculture, ecosystems, and so on also in the More (climate change) resilient context of the bigger basin system through established institutional governance structure • Through participatory planning processes with on sub-basin levels and established users and government agencies and based and strengthened local government on regulations: (a) decide on a governance services. structure for the sub-basin; (b) map and agree on present water-use rights and water-sharing arrangements; (c) identify water management and safety issues and further study options for enhancement of water management levels; (d) agree on a plan for water resource protection and erosion control through agriculture practice improvement, social forestry and household fuel management, to be leveraged by enhanced water supply and sanitation services and improved accessibility (roads and all-weather tracks) • Development of a multiyear investment plan using participatory implementation approach Preconditions: Enabling legal framework (pending approval), political willingness to invest in local institutions, firm agreement, and commitment on decentralized funding and assurance of O&M funding of government assets. 52 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap TABLE 6.4. Overview Priority Actions for Water Supply and Sanitation—Policy, Regulations, and Strategies Activity Description Expected Outcome Timeline Strengthen and expand • Develop guidance and manual for intervention MS implements the five pillars of Short term existing PAKSI initiative beyond access to improved sanitation outcomes PAKSI. (1–5 years) for broader outcomes (such as hand washing with soap, domestic MS has an improved monitoring solid waste, and food and drink handling at the instrument to measure key indicators household level) in sanitation programs. • Develop enhanced monitoring instrument to DNSB implements regulation within measures key indicators including access to the wastewater sector. improved sanitation and other related means • Strengthen the regulatory framework for wastewater systems, including constructions guidelines Water sector service • Giving priority to the SIBS and SIDJRI and With better information and data Short term delivery benchmarking improvement of the information value chain. on the water resource and the (1–5 years) • Develop WSSI for benchmarking the urban water performance of the water services supply services. delivery, the sector will be able to manage its resources better and • Develop water services performance indicators to make more effective investment benchmark the delivery of rural water supply. decisions to improve water service • Develop a benchmarking and possibly competition delivery. for managing water supply system. DNSA implements regulation within • Review the regulatory framework of the water the wastewater sector. supply sector. TABLE 6.5. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Service Delivery Activity Description Expected Outcome Timeline Expanding and • Infrastructure audit and develop investment options • The updated status of water supply Short term sustaining rural and for public water supply and sanitation to achieve system functionality, and availability (1–5 years) peri-urban water and national and international commitments. This information of their infrastructure sanitation services includes updating the GMFs profile and registering quality and investment options, and benchmarking their performance. including updated and registered GMFs’ • Pilot finance options for rural water supply and profiles. sanitation (financing portion from various sources • The availability of sanitation market including public [central/municipal], development information and different service partners, and customers through application of provider models for both sanitation and tariff for services). Experience from other countries rural water supply system management. could be used as reference. table continues next page Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 53 TABLE 6.5. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Service Delivery (continued) Activity Description Expected Outcome Timeline • Investigate tariff framework options and means of • Policy inputs and recommendation for collecting tariffs and delivering recovered fees and implementation of smart subsidy for charges back to the water delivery.Assess market sanitation. opportunities for sanitation products and services in rural areas • Assess market opportunities for sanitation products and services in rural areas. • Test and pilot smart subsidy to support, particularly for vulnerable households to gain access to improved sanitation. Develop new • Based on new information invest in the The construction of new safe, secure, Long term safe, secure, and development of new water sources for the provision and sustainable water supplies will give (5+ years) sustainable water of safe, secure, and sustainable water supplies. Timor-Leste a strong foundation for the sources achievement of national and international development commitments related to water. It will also have a substantial impact on the health and well-being of Timor-Leste’s citizens. Invest in water • Improvement of selected urban water supply Improvement of overall urban water Medium term supply and and systems: supply services. NRW is reduced to (3–5+ years) wastewater services • Establishment of zoning system for the the acceptable level and increased distribution network to control leakage urban water supply access/household connections. • Investment program to reduce NRW Improved water system quality equipped • Construct new water supply system and rehabilitate, with water safety plan program and and/or expand the existing water system increased access of water supply service • Construct new water supply systems and for rural and peri-urban (administrative rehabilitate and/or expand existing water systems in post) areas. rural and peri urban areas. Well-targeted subsidy program for • Application of smart subsidy to help vulnerable sanitation implemented. households gain access to improved sanitation. • Support development of water safety planning for water supply systems. Invest in wastewater • Develop and pilot appropriate and scalable wastewater Increased access to improved sanitation Medium term systems treatment technology for urban and prei-urban areas. with impacts to health, education and (3–5+ years) • Construct new wastewater systems and rehabilitate nutrition. These outcomes will have an and/or expand existing wastewater in urban and peri- accrued positive impact on the economy. urban areas. • Implement wastewater treatment in priority areas and develop the institutional systems, including the O&M to support their sustainability. table continues next page 54 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap TABLE 6.5. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Service Delivery (continued) Activity Description Expected Outcome Timeline Application of • Integrate the rural water service program into a • The municipal administrators have the Short term service delivery municipal development cycle to ensure that water capability to design rural water service (1–5 years) models to improve supply and sanitation is a sector priority for municipal program and provide adequate budget the functionality administration with clear targets and to develop a and develop their strategy to achieve and management municipal rural water profile and strategy. the water supply service targets of water systems as • Strengthen O&M program for water services such as • The MOPTC and MSTAM determine the part of municipal through financing match (options) for O&M Pathway financing option and deliver improved development (O&M Roadmap) and creation of rural water O&M programs for rural water systems program supply chain: spare parts, pump system, borehole including the development of rural contractor, O&M operators, and application of tariff water supply chains setting for rural/peri-urban water supply. • The DNSA has tested the citizen • Develop, pilot, and implement a tariff framework, engagement initiative and feedback including collection systems for the delivery of mechanism and is ready to implement it water services in both urban and rural areas. nationally • Strengthen citizen engagement initiative for rural water development through various feedback and participation mechanisms. TABLE 6.6. Overview Priority Actions for Water Resources—Institutional Development Activity Description Expected Outcome Timeline Water sector • Capacity development programs to support water • The MOPTC and municipal administrators Short term capacity sector human resources, organizational capacity, gain measurable improvement capacity (1–5 years) to development and leadership and governance capacity. Develop development program in water sector. medium term staff performance indicators for the water sector. The key performance indicators for (more than • Development of water supply training center for water sector human development 5 years) for urban and rural area, to strengthen performance of programs has been tested and are ready development water supply operators, services provider, including to be implemented, of training urban water utilities and GMFs. • Regional training center for water center • Technical assistance to support program for supply system are established and decentralization development program/village operationalized in target areas, development program (PDD/PNDS). • The MOPTC has better cooperation and measurable performance with decentralization development program/ village development program related to the water supply infrastructure development. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 55 Realizing the Roadmap The sector assessment and roadmap provide a structured diagnostic to look at the structure of the ­ The proposed priority responses provide a strong water sector, the legal and regulatory framework, framework for improving water management and sus- governance arrangements. These inform the and ­ tained service delivery in Timor-Leste. The strategic framework for decision making required to studies and analyses, infrastructure, and measures to improve  infrastructure access and performance. improve institutional and management capacity are Systematically addressing the conditions for facili- estimated to be implemented with a phased approach tating investments, while advancing the enabling over the next 5 to 10 years. environment through support to the policy frame- Public sector spending has been the key driver of growth work, and prioritizing reforms that remove binding and is likely to continue over the short term. However, constraints will help expand infrastructure finance dependency on the oil sector and its volatility coupled and delivery options over time. Realizing the road- with increasingly scarce public and concessional resources map will require a sustained commitment from a calls for a range of options to finance and deliver infra- range of government and other stakeholders but has structure. The priority interventions are structured to help the potential to improve water management and pro- identify opportunities that can minimize the public debt vide the foundations for a more sustainable, diverse burden and crowd in commercial capital, while delivering economy, and prosperous nation. sustainable and affordable infrastructure services. 56 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap Appendix A Organigram of the Water Sector Institutional arrangements for water supply, sanita- tion, and water resources management in the MOPTC as well as in the MS. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 57 FIGURE A.1. Organigram for Water Supply and Sanitation Service Delivery in Timor-Leste Ministry of Public Works, Ministry of Health Transport and Communication Other general General Directorate General Directorate directorates (electricity, of Water and of Health Service roads and bridges, Sanitation Provision telecoms) National Directorate National Directorate National Directorate Municipal director of of Water Resources of Basic Sanitation of Water Supply health Management Municipal water Municipal public Municipal water Municipal sanitation supply department health officer, resources officer officer Head of department environmental health Rural Urban Community water supply development officer Administrative post facilitator (FPA)1 Administrative post facilitator (FPA)2 Administrative post facilitator (FPA)3 Administrative post facilitator (FPA)4 58 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap Appendix B Water Sector Targets TABLE B.1. Legal Documents Related to Water and Sanitation Development Title Description Status Strategic Development Plan The plan provides water supply coverage targets for Timor-Leste. In particular, stating Current 2011–30 the target of having “…a safe piped 24-hour water supply to all households” by 2030. Decree Law No. 3/2016 on Municipal administration and the municipal authorities are required to ensure the con- Current The Statutes of the Municipal duct of administrative functions of the state through the implementation of policies Administrations and Municipal and government programs at the local level, for the promotion and guidance of eco- Authorities nomic and social development through the provision of goods and public services in the municipalities, including health, water, sanitation, and environment National Basic Sanitation The policy objective is to reduce mortality and morbidity and bring about social, Current Policy, 2012 economic, educational, and environmental gains for all through the safe elimination of harmful waste from the environment and the practice of healthy behaviors. National Drinking Water Quality This document provides details of the methods and procedures for routine sampling and Current Standards and Monitoring testing of water quality and the standards which apply. The standard is issued by the MS Guidelines, 2011 but designed to be used by the key stakeholders in water supply for both urban systems managed by government and rural systems managed by communities. Decree Law No. 5/2011 Establishes requirements for all developments to undergo an assessment for environ- Current Environmental licensing mental impact. Large water supply, sanitation, and water resources development proj- ects are affected by this law. Decree Law No. 4/2004 on Water The key objective of the decree is to guarantee people of Timor-Leste have access to Current Supply for Public Consumption adequate, safe, and sustainable domestic water supply services. Ministerial Diploma No. 1/2004 Outlines a table of tariffs for the consumption of public water supply Current Table of Tariffs Decree Law National Water This Decree Law sets out the institutional framework for water resources; water Final Draft Resources Management resources management planning; use of water resources; requirements and conditions for water abstraction; flood, drought, pollution, safety and contingency protection plans; compliance and emergency, inspection and monitoring, and offences and sanctions. National Water Resources The policy sets out the government’s responsibilities, intentions, and objectives for Final Draft Policy, 2017 water resources management. The policy provides a general framework and direction for the National Water Resources Management Policy until 2030, and indicates early implementation priorities (2015–20). table continues next page Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 59 TABLE B.1. Legal Documents Related to Water and Sanitation Development (continued) Title Description Status National Policy in Public Water The policy (a) clarifies ownership of public water supply assets; (b) directs public water Final Draft Supply, 2017 supply investment activities; (c) defines the government’s objectives for expanding and sustaining access to public water supply; (d) provides guidance on the policy instru- ments, operational guidelines, and standards, and financing rules; and (e) clarifies institutional roles and responsibilities in public water supply planning, delivery, and management in Timor-Leste. Decree-Law n.5 / 2009 Regulation This regulation establishes procedures for the licensing related to bottled water business Current of licensing, commercialization intended for human consumption. The provisions are applicable to bottled water produc- and quality of drinking water. tion, excluding the public water supply system provided for under Decree-Law No. 4/2004. Diploma ministerial n.1/2009 de 5 Regulizes water supply and sanitation services, ensuring economic development; de Outubro – Fiscalização ao siste- ma de abastecimento de água TABLE B.2. National Policy Objectives and Targets for Water in Timor-Leste Compared to SDG No. 6 for Water National Policy Objectives SDG 2030 SDG 2030 Subtargets Strategic Development Plan 2011–30 of Timor-Leste for Water and Sanitation Medium Term (2020) Long Term (2030) Goal 6. Ensure 6.1: By 2030, achieve uni- • Dili and 12 municipal centers • All citizens will have To provide equitable access availability and versal and equitable access will have safe piped 24-hour access to improved to adequate, safe, and sus- sustainable to safe and affordable water supply to households water supply tainable water services at an management of drinking water for all. (priority given to Baucau, by 2030. affordable cost to all citizens water and sanita- Manatuto, Lospalos, Dili, and guaranteeing at least their tion for all Suai). vital human needs, and to • In rural areas, water systems institutional and commercial will be installed. and industrial uses. (pending approval) • Provide clean piped water to all government schools by 2020. 6.2: By 2030, achieve access • 90% of MS buildings will • All citizens will have To reduce death and disease to adequate and equitable have access to electricity, improved access to and bring about social, sanitation and hygiene for water, and basic sanitation. sanitation by 2030. economic, educational, and all and end open defecation, • All municipalities and environmental gains for all paying special attention to administrative posts through the safe elimination the needs of women and will have appropriate of harmful waste from the girls and those in vulnerable sewerage systems. environment and the prac- situations. tice of healthy behaviors. table continues next page 60 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap TABLE B.2. National Policy Objectives and Targets for Water in Timor-Leste Compared to SDG No. 6 for Water (continued) National Policy Objectives SDG 2030 SDG 2030 (sub targets) Strategic Development Plan 2011-30 of Timor-Leste for Water and Sanitation Medium Term - 2020 Long Term - 2030 6.3: By 2030, improve • DSDMP • All administrative Draft of Decree-Law. water quality by reducing • Sewerage collection system posts will have pollution, eliminating in Dili improved drainage dumping and minimizing systems. • Community latrines in rural release of hazardous chem- areas icals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater, and substan- tially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally. 6.4: By 2030, substantially — — — increase water-use effi- ciency across all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and substan- tially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity. 6.5: By 2030, implement — — To promote the coordinated integrated water resources planning, development, and management at all levels, management and protec- including through trans- tion of the nation’s water boundary cooperation as resources, to optimize social, appropriate. economic, and cultural ben- efits without compromising the sustainability of essential water-dependent ecosys- tems and the environmental benefits which those eco- systems provide for people. (pending approval) table continues next page Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 61 TABLE B.2. National Policy Objectives and Targets for Water in Timor-Leste Compared to SDG No. 6 for Water (continued) National Policy Objectives SDG 2030 SDG 2030 (sub targets) Strategic Development Plan 2011-30 of Timor-Leste for Water and Sanitation Medium Term - 2020 Long Term - 2030 6.6: By 2020, protect and — — — restore water-related eco- systems, including moun- tains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers, and lakes. 6.a: By 2030, expand inter- — — — national cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water- and sanitation-relat- ed activities and programs, including water harvesting, desalination, water effi- ciency, wastewater treat- ment, recycling, and reuse technologies. 6.b: Support and strength- — — — en the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation man- agement. Note: — = not available; DSDMP = Dili Sanitation and Drainage Master Plan; MS = Ministry of Health. 62 Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap Appendix C Development of Lakes and Springs as a Water Resource Lakes in Timor-Leste are generally small and/or unsuit- In Timor-Leste, springs are generally confined in dis- able for augmentation to create additional water stor- tribution to localized and fissured karst aquifer sys- age. Most lakes in Timor-Leste are small, being less tems and take many different forms ranging from high than 1 km2 and are located along the coastline. A few to low permanent to perennial flows. In localized aqui- larger lakes exist at higher altitudes, such as Lake fers, discharge rates are typically a few liters per sec- Iralalalu and Seloi Kriak Lake (DNCQA 2012). These ond or less, while in springs venting from fissured karst larger lakes are generally located in remote areas away aquifers discharge rates can be up to hundreds of liters from population centers and/or their geographical set- per second (see Table C.1). The water resources from ting creates other limitations on their appropriateness many of the more productive springs have already for development. been developed by rural communities as sources of water supply to households or for irrigation, as histori- While springs are widespread in Timor-Leste the cally these are the locations that communities have development potential of these resources is limited as settled in. many are already in use for community water supplies. TABLE C.1. Examples of Spring Yield and Associated Hydrogeology from Timor-Leste Spring name Hydrogeology Flow (l/s) Municipality Merabati Spring Fissured karst 280 Same Uailia Spring Fissured karst 40 Baucau Loi Huno Spring Fissured karst 60 Viqueque Assor Localized fractured rock 0.1 Ermera Makoke Localized confining unit 0.8 Bobonaro Boralara Localized confining unit 3.52 Bobonaro Source: National Directorate for Water Quality and Control (DNCQA) (2008) unpublished dataset of spring yields. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 63 Appendix D Maps of the Republic of Timor-Leste MAP D.1. Political Map of Timor-Leste TIMOR-LESTE MAIN CITIES AND TOWNS DISTRICT CAPITALS NATIONAL CAPITAL RIVERS MAIN ROADS DISTRICT BOUNDARIES INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES MAP D.2. Topographical Map of Timor-Leste TIMOR-LESTE 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 KILOMETERS 0 5 10 15 20 MILES MAIN ROADS ELEVATIONS: AIRPORTS 2000 METERS AND ABOVE SELECTED TOWNS AND VILLAGES 1500–2000 METERS This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. NATIONAL CAPITAL 1000–1500 METERS The boundaries, colors, denominations and anyother information shown INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES 500–1000 METERS on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank Group, any judgment on the legalstatus of any territory, or any endorsement or 0–500 METERS acceptance of such boundaries. Timor-Leste Water Sector Assessment and Roadmap 65 References ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2004. “Integrated Water Resource JMP (Joint Monitoring Programme). 2015. 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