Dc~eome t____22880 ~Developlnent P VT T ING K NO E T 0 W O R K F O R D E V E 1, 0 P MS E NT T FEB RoLIm 01-ai R..WORtD BAIN ,,tNJiTU>:' ended r 7 M ALSO N . :DEBT XRELIEF FOR : ; POOR COUNTRIES :'3 -~~~ A reader from India reacts to an article on community enipowerment, and the author rIesponds. To the Editor, The author's reply: Development OUTREACH I have written several times in my Madam, columns about the need for si l k '- g t 'b t r empowerment, including a full col- This is in reference to the article umn on the Uttar Pradesh Sodic "Using Community Empowerment - Soils project. But I find that this to Reduce Poverty," by issue tends to attract the least Swaminathan S. A. Aiyar, which feedback from readers. Nandita appeared in the Department Roy is right: there is a widespread "Voices from the Field." Mr. Aiyar lack of interest in what should be a is a well-known journalist in India Swaminathan. It is here that I have realized key subject. where he writes in two of the major print that mainstream Indian newspapers do little Why? I can only hazard a few guesses. publications-The Times of India and to report on issues relating to community First, the urban middle-class readership of Economic Times. Mr. Aiyar's observations empowerment and gender development, newspapers has very limited interest in make interesting reading. They also bring While Mr. Aiyar has written a scholarly arti- grassroots issues of rural India. Sad, but to light what community empowerment can cle on the subject in Development OUT- true. Second, local empowerment is some- do to bring about well-rounded social and REACH, I wonder why he has not been tak- thing everybody agrees with in principle, economic development of communities. ing up these issues regularly in his more and threfore it does not spark the adversar- A few months ago, as a journalist for widely read column Swaminomics in The ial debates characteristic of other econom- one of the mainstream Indian newspapers, Times of India or even in his frequent writ- ic and social issues. The implementation of I had the opportunity to witness first-hand ings in Economic Times. Would such arti- empowerment is very patchy, but fails to the social and economic benefits brought cles find space in mainline newspapers? attract much attention since almost all about in a remote hill village in the northern Mr. Aiyar is well-placed to use media as a government programs are poorly imple- Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. These weretd Indian saeoUtaPrdpressure point to force governments to mented. the results of a community empowerment empower the community for development The whole point of empowerment is, of project supported by the World Bank. On work so that such projects can be imple- course, to improve implementation. The my visitto the Uttar Pradesh hills, I saw mented faster and the financial resources Marxist government in West Bengal is the how a small village community had suc- spent by global funding agencies better uti- only one to have made local empowerment cessfully adopted a water management ini- lized the central thrust of its policies, and this is tiative under the Swajal project. The suc- Nandita Roy the main reason why it has won five state cess of the initiative came across even Programme Officer elections in a row. Other states like more convincingly as the village had Development Communications Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and emerged as one of the major suppliers of National Foundation for India Kerala are beginning to follow suit. That is a fresh vegetables to the cooperative-owned positive trend. Mother Dairy retail vegetable outlets in Yours truly, New Delhi, some 600 km away. I reported Swaminathan Aiyar the story in The Indian Express, where I worked until recently. I have subsequently joined the National Foundation for India, a national-level fund- ing agency for non-government organiza- tions working on community development issues. The organization is headed by the eminent agriculture scientist Dr. M. S. ___ 2 W O R L I) B A N K I N S T I ' U T E Development News News highlights on development issues from around the world Justice in Bangladesh visit www.worldbank.org/tuberculosis. For The World Bank has approved a $30.6 mil- hJ information on World TB Day and related lion credit to assist Bangladesh in making activities go to www.stoptb.org its civil justice system more efficient, effec- tive and accountable. The Legal and Abbott to Cut African AIDS- Judicial Capacity Building Project is Drug Prices, and UNDP to Help designed to address the most pressing India's AIDS Prevention problems of timeliness and accessibility In the latest response to the growing public while paving the way for subsequent outcry over international AIDS-drug pricing, reforms in other areas. A Consultative Abbott Laboratories is planning to sell its Group, comprised of a broad spectrum of . two AIDS drugs and its HIV diagnostic test Bangladesh civil society, will meet at least at "no profit" in sub-Saharan Africa. once a year to receive and provide input on Abbott's decision comes amid a striking broad issues. For more information see the tT round of price cuts for AIDS drugs in Africa World Bank's Bangladesh Country Office by several major drug companies and two website, at to rrch O1 generic-drug makers. At the same time, http://worldbank-bangladesh.org/. however, several other companies, most 'Virtual' Research Group to notably Pfizer Inc. and Roche Holding Ltd., Philippines: Helping Out-of-School Research Gre have yet to reduce the prices of their AIDS- -.outh A "virtual" research organization combining lated ted iDes assharpry. The Philippines new president, Gloria the resources of charitable foundations, In India, the AIDS program that is Macapagal-Arroyo, launched a business, academia and the pharmaceuticals industry financed by the Indian government the civil society, and government partnership to is to begin funding projects aimed at dis- World Bank and UNAIDS, provides money share and complement funds and resources covering desperately needed new drugs for to local governments, which in turn give that will change the lives of the Filipino tuberculosis (TB) The Global Alliance on much of it to hundreds of nongovernmental youth. The World Bank Office in Manila has Tuberculosis Drug Development was found groups. India is an example of the perils of strongly supported the project since its ed last October with initial funding of about starting late. Although the first AIDS cases inception. The project is also part of the $45 million from the Gates and Rockefeller were seen in 1986, in 1993 the country Global Partnership for Youth Development foundations and others. The alliance spent less than a million dollars on AIDS (GPYD), under the Business Partners for describes itself as a "lean, virtual research prevention. Generic manufacturers in India Development (BPD). GPYD partners and development (R&D) organizations that are negotiating to sell a cocktail of AIDS strengthen and scale up best practices in outsources R&D projectS to its partners or medicines to African governments for $600 youth development. The project has to industry." All contracts it signs contain a year. But India's government does not buy received close to $1 million through the clauses that any drugs developed are these drugs. It claims that even $600 a year Asia Europe Meeting Fund and another $ 1 affordable in the developing world. is too much and would drain health budg- million from the Japan Social Development The World Bank has been a principal ets. UNDP pledged $1.5 million to India's Fund. For more information on South Asia financier of TB programs since the early drive for the prevention and control of the programs see www.worldbank.org/epa 1990s and has committed more than $350 deadly AIDS virus. The UNDP-supported million in TB control efforts worldwide. That project is a joint initiative between the gov- ernment, NGOs, UNAIDS and thelIndian cumulative figure is expected to grow by a e - - ., . . . . ~~~~~~~~~~~corporate sector. Visit: third within the next fiscal year, with new corporatseor. Visit: large-scale investment expected in the www.worldbank.org/aids and European and African regions and ongoing www.unaids.oro investment in other regions. For more infor- mation on the Bank's work in TB control, D E V E L O P M E N T O U T R E A C H * S P R I N G 2 0 0 1 3 Gender Equality and Social Incl tion I n 1913, a young American author and avid supporter of women's suffrage in his country, wrote a book entitled Women as World Builders, in which he said: "The idealism of women is one that works itself out through the materials of workaday life, and which seeks to break or remake those materials by way of fulfilling that idealism. . . woman as re-constructor of economics, woman as political agent of enormous potency, woman as worker, woman as organizer of the forces of labor-the real women of today and tomorrow." This author was my grandfather, Floyd Dell, a novelist, a poet, literary and social critic. Growing up with this man, and my father who agreed with him, I took for granted that men thought like this. So it came as a great surprise to me in 1974 when I first joined the World Bank to find that very little attention was paid to women as contributors to their countries' growth. A few years later, then Bank President Robert S. McNamara told me he had been struck by the same thing, and was just as puz- zled as I was about it. Twenty years later, in discussions with the Bank's current president, Jim Wolfensohn, I learned that he too was baffled as to why gender equality has seemed such an elusive goal over the years. Therefore, it has given me enormous pleasure as guest editor of this issue of Development Outreach to celebrate aR turning of the tide where gender and the Bank are concerned. This issue features a special report on problems highlighted in a recent World Bank publication, Engendering Development, which makes a compelling case for economists to focus on gender as a normal part of their analytical work. Perhaps I was naive twenty seven years ago to believe that social critics and economists ought to agree about this even then. But perhaps not. Perhaps it has taken econometricians some time to prove what observation has suggested all along, that womenX are world builders, and the world will v suffer if it doesn't give these women the tools and resources they need to do the job right. Jerri Dell, guest editor 4 W 0o R LD BANK INSTITtT E ENG ENDERING DEVELOPM ENT THROUGH GENDER EQUALITY dgreat deal of evidence from around the world indicates that gender inequalities undermine the effectiveness of development policies-in fundamental ways. Yet gender issues are o om policy dialogue and policymaking. In a new World Bank Policy Research Report, Engendering Development- Through Gender Equality tn Rtghts, Resources, and Voice, published in January, we examine the many links between gender inequality and public policy and conclude that promoting gender equality is good development policy. Here are some of the key findings and conclusions of that report. Despite progress, gender disparities persist The last half of the 20th century saw great improvement in the absolute status of - ~~~~~~~~~~~women and in gender equality in many parts of the world -with respect to schooling, health status, labor force participation, and wages. Despite the progress, however, significant gender inequalities in rights, resources, and voice persist in all developing countries. For example: In no region do women and men have equal rights. In a number of countries XD women still lack independent rights to own land, manage property, conduct business, or even travel without their husbands' consent. * Women continue to have systematically poorer command over a range of pro- ductive resources, including land, information, and financial resources. J *~~~~~ Despite considerable increases in women's education relative to men, women continue to have limited opportunities and earn less than men in the labor mar- ket-even when they have the same education and work experience as men. * Women remain vastly underrepresented in politics and policymaking. They hold less than 10 percent of the seats in parliaments in most regions and less than 8 percent of government ministerial positions. While women and girls bear the most direct and severe costs of these inequali- ties, the costs cut more broadly across societies, ultimately harming everyone. D EVE LOP AtENT O UTREACH * SP RING 2 00 5 Among the poor, these disparities contribute to significant Gender inequalities harm well-being, hinder risk and vulnerability in the face of personal or family development crises and during economic shocks. A large body of evidence from a range of countries demonstrates that societies that discriminate on the basis Gender inequalities tend to be greater among of gender pay a significant price in terms of higher pover- the poor ty and lower quality of life, slower economic growth and One of the striking patterns from data across countries is development, and weaker governance. The costs of gender that gender disparities, especially in basic indicators of well- inequality are particularly large in low-income countries - being and development, are greatest on average in poorer and within countries the costs are largest for the poor. Let countries. And within countries, these disparities tend to be us consider a few examples. greatest among the poorest households (figure 1). Well-beinq. Young children are disadvantaged directly by their mothers' illiteracy and lack of schooling. Lack of Figure 1 Gender Disparities Tend to Be Greater schooling means poor quality of care, which means more among the Poor than the Rich illness, more malnutrition, and higher child mortality. Male to female enrollment ratio among the poor Mothers with more education are more likely to adopt 3.0- appropriate health-promoting behaviors, such as having young children immunized, which translates into better 2.5- * health and well-being for their children. * Raising household income improves child survival rates 2.0- * 7 . and nutritional status. But who controls this additional 1.5- + * .__ income also matters. In the hands of women within the $4 * > household, it has a larger positive impact. This is the con- 1.0- * F clusion of studies from a number of countries, including Bangladesh, Brazil, and C6te d'Ivoire, and underscores 0.5 . the fact that the balance of power between women and men within the home is important. Why? Because women 0.0- are more likely than men to spend the additional house- 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 hold income for schooling, health expenditures, and food. Male to female enrollment ratio among the rich Gender inequality can harm adults in drastic ways. Note: The enrollment ratio pertains to the proportion of children ages 614 One case in point: A recent cross-country study indicates enrotled in schoot, regardless of level. Poor households are those in the bottorm 40 percent of a wealth distribution; rich households, those in the top 20 percent. that countries with the largest gender gaps in schooling Source: Filmer 2000, as cited in World Bank, Engendering Development, (New and urban employment have experienced the fastest York: Oxford University Press, 2001). growth of HIV infection rates -a relationship that holds even after controlling for many other factors that explain Does poverty cause larger gender disparities, or does HIV prevalence. Unchecked, the AIDS epidemic will gender inequality lead to poverty? This is a question that spread rapidly over the next decade-until up to one in the report addresses. And the evidence suggests that the four women and one in five men become infected, already relationship goes both ways. Reducing poverty will go the case in several countries of Sub-Saharan Africa. some way towards reducing harmful gender disparities. Productcity and economc growth. Gender inequalities also But neither gender disparities nor poverty can be eliminat- reduce output and productivity in farms and enterprises. ed without addressing gender issues directly. Recognizing These losses result from inefficiencies that arise from sys- that poverty and gender inequality are intertwined can tematically excluding women or men from access to pro- help us formulate more effective development strategies. ductive resources, public services, and employment. One study estimates that if the countries in South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Middle East and North 6 WORLD SANK INSTITLTE Africa had started with the gender gap in schooling that government officials than those owned or managed by East Asia had in 1960 and had closed that gender gap at women. As with the other studies, this result holds the rate achieved by East Asia from 1960 to 1992, their regardless of the characteristics of the firm and the charac- income per capita could have grown 0.5-0.9 percentage teristics of the owner or manager. While these findings are points faster per year -substantial increases over actual still only suggestive, they argue for a larger presence of growth rates (Figure 2). Even for middle and upper women in the labor force and in politics -since they can income countries with higher initial education levels, an be an effective force for rule of law and good government. increase of one percentage point in the share of women with secondary education is associated with an increase in Public policy matters to gender equality per-capita income of 0.3 percentage points. Because gender inequalities exact high human costs and Governance. Finally, evidence suggests that gender high costs to development-and because the factors that inequality weakens a country's quality of governance - cause gender inequalities to persist are difficult for individ- and thus the effectiveness of its development policies. uals alone to change -there is a strong case for public action to promote gender equality. In this context, Figure 2 Faster Progress in Closing Gender Gaps Engendering Development outlines a three-part strategy in Schooling Would Accelerate Economic to promote gender equality. Growth * Reform insdtittions to provide equal rights and equal Average annual growth in per capita GNP, 1960-92 opportunities for women and men Percent 4 * Foster economic developmzent to strengthen incentives for more equal resources and participation 3 * Tzke active nzeasures to redress persistent disparities in command of resources and political voice 2 Establishing a level institutional "playing field" for women and men will promote gender equality. Legal, social, and economic rights provide an enabling environ- 1 - ment in which women and men can participate produc- tively in society, attain a basic quality of life, and take 0 advantage of the new opportunities that development Sub-Saharan South Asia Middle East and affords. Africa North Africa U Actual D Predicted At the same time, when economic development raises incomes and reduces the number of people who are poor, Note: "Predicted' represents the average predicted GNP growth rate for a region if its gender gap in education had narrowed as fast as East Asia's did in 1960-92. gender inequalities often narrow. For example, by Source: World Bank, Engendering Development, (New York Oxford University Press, 2001) expanding employment opportunities and returns to work, economic development strengthens incentives for families to invest in girls' health and education and for women to Several recent studies find that in countries where women ticipat in thealabo edu when delopment have more equal rights or greater participation in public priiaei h ao oc.Adwe eeomn results in better infrastructure -say for safe water and fuel life, corruption is lower. The findings hold even when in rural areas-this reduces the time required to carry out comparing countries with the same income, civil liberties, household chores (often considered female tasks), education, and legal institutions, enabling girls to go to school and women to participate A study of 350 firms in the republic of Georgia con- . cludes that women in business are less likely to pay bribes It is now well accepted that strengthening institutions to government officials. Firms owned or managed by men adpooigeooi eeomn r rtcleeet are 10 percent more likely to make unofficial payments to DEF V E LO0 P M E N T 0 U T R E A C H U S P R I N G 2 0 0 1 7 of any long-term strategy for sustainable development. In local level. And because policymakers must make their the context of promoting gender equality, however, to be decisions in the face of limited budget and administrative effective it is important that institutional reforms and resources, it is important they be strategic, selecting those development policy take account of existing gender differ- interventions that provide the largest benefits both in ences and disparities. terms of gender equality and development more broadly. Because institutional reforms and economic develop- Together, the evidence in our report makes clear that ment can take some time to implement and to have their there is considerable scope for both increasing gender impact felt, active measures to redress persistent gender equality and development effectiveness by taking gender disparities in the command of resources and political voice considerations into account in the design of public inter- are often needed in the short- to medium-term. Active ventions-on a wide range of issues. Indeed, the evidence measures are concrete (often targeted) steps aimed at makes a compelling case for policymakers to integrate redressing specific forms of gender discrimination and gender considerations into mainstream policy analysis as exclusion-whether in the home, the community, or the well as into the design of policies and programs, and in workplace. doing so, capturing the significant benefits associated with The available policy "levers" are many. Some exam- greater equality between women and men. ples: (a) reducing the costs of schooling, addressing parental concerns about girls' modesty or safety, and Elizabeth M4J. Ktng ist lead economnist in the Deel- improving school quality to increase the returns to families opment Redearch Group of the World Bank; from investing in girls' education; (b) designing financial Andre", D. Aaedon id dentor economzist in/ the Getz- institutions in ways that account for gender-specific con- der and Developnzezt Group of the Poiverty Reduc- straints, such as women's lack of collateral or constraints tion and Economic Management Network of the on women's travel; (c) enacting land reforms that provide World Bank. for joint titling of husband and wife or that enable women to hold independent land titles; and (d) making selected Elizabeth AM. Kintg and Andrew D. Mason are co- investments in water, fuel, or other time-saving infrastruc- authors of Engendering Development- ture-or providing public support for out-of-home child Through Gender Equality in Rights, care-that can reduce women's and girls' time on domestic Resources, and Voice. Engendering Devel- chores. opment, a co-publication of the World Bank and Women and men also often face different risks during Oxford University Presd. To order, call 800-645- economic shocks or policy reforms. To better protect both 7247 or 703-661-1580. Or you can order the women and men, social protection programs ought to report online at www.worldbank.org/publica- account for factors that can result in gender inequalities in tions. (Pri-ced inzc developinig countrie.s may he program participation and benefits. For example, safety lower than the lItted price. For more informna- net programs have frequently, if inadvertently, excluded tton, pleade check with local did tributors lidted on women by failing to account for gender differences in the publications w'ebdite.) A coinplete summary of labor supply behavior, access to information, or the types the report, as well as somne of the background of work that women and men consider appropriate. papers prepared for the report, are available on Similarly, old-age security programs that do not account the webedite www.worldbank.org/gender/prr. for gender differences in employment, earnings, and life expectancy leave women -especially widows - particular- ly vulnerable to poverty in old age. There is no "one-size-fits-all" approach to implementing active measures. To be effective, decisions about specific policies and programs need to be based on a clear under- standing of gender systems and gender inequalities at the 8 w 0 R 1. 1) B A N K I N S T I T U T E Engendering Development: A comment by Nicholas H. Stern . ........-. - _.. 1.-. __ ... . ..... .. plv hilosophically, one can approach the issue of gender in development from at least three perspectives: equality, empowerment, and development effectiveness. The first view stresses equality as the basis of the social con- tract: everybody, male or female, should be treated equally in the economy, in politics, under the law, and in society. This is a powerful argument drawn from the field of political philosophy. The second argument is derived from the notion of empowerment and the con nept cing a mother's education appears to of 'development as freedom." affect the age-specific mortality rates of Development is about expanding the her children into their 30s, 40s, and choices and control that people have beyond. In fact, a woman's education over their own lives. From this perspec- improves not only her children's health, tive, stressing gender means emphasiz- but also her own health and that of ing that empowering women, as well as other adults in the family. As men, is central to development. Enenderin Development highlights, HIV The third approach -the one that I infection rates are lower where gender will focus on here-argues that gender gaps in education are smaller-a finding concerns have an impact on develop- with important irnplications for our ment effectiveness. Although narrower fight against the spread of HIV/AIDS. than the other two perspectives, this argument may It is equally important to take gender into account in serve to persuade those who are skeptical about the role the field of social protection and the design of public of gender in development policymaking. transfers. Consider an example from South Africa, If we look across key aspects of developmnent and where the government recently extended pension rights focus on the role of women -as the World Bank has (previously enjoyed only by whites) to the black popu- just done in its Policy Research Report Engendernyg lation as well. Careful study of household survey data Development-we learn a very powerful lesson: the shows that expenditures by grandmothers do more to active participation of women, whether in education, increase family welfare, and particularly the welfare of income generation, social protection, or governance, grandchildren, than do expenditures by grandfathers. contributes consistently to more effective development. On average, grandmothers spend a higher share on The impact of women's education on the nutritional clothes, food and schooling, while grandfathers spend status, life expectancy, and general welfare of chidren more on goods for their own consumption (such as is already well documented. More recently, as more alcohol or cigarettes). Therefore, the effect on the fami- results from longitudinal studies have become available, ly welfare is very different if the government transfers we have learned that many of these effects are long-last- pension benefits to older women rather than older men. D E V E L O P M E N T O U T R E A C H * S P R I N G 2 0 0 1 9 Continued: Enejidoring DevoIopmnt A commeiit This should not come as a surprise, since micro stud- plots that are managed by men te those plots that are jes from a number of countries, including Bangladesh, managed by women. Iflrazil, Cape d'Wofre, Ethiopia, and Indonesia, show simi- The economics of this is pretty straightforward. The lar patterns. Increases in household income are alw4ys level of inputs being used on female farmers' plots is expected to have a positive effect on child welfare -on lower, so the marginal productivity of odditional inputs is their education, health, and nutrition. Iloweven the higher Productivity and development effectiveness can effect on the child welfare is stronger if the additional therefore be increased by improving women's access to income is controlled by-or channeled through-the productive resources. The evidence suggests furthei' that mother. such gains in productivity and income at the household Note that this is an area where different philosophical and farm levels would translate into higher growth rtes approaches to gender sometimes cut different ways. For in many countries. example, the evidence on social protection ma uot argue Finally, a Eagadrriiq Dr dopment discusses, there is for equality between women and men, Rather, there may new evidence that greater involvement of women in the actually boa case, from a development effectiveness per- labor market, in business, and in politics is associaied spective, for targeting larger transfers towards women, with lower levels of corruption and better governance. In the area d niicrocredit, studies show that women These relationships are strong, even controlling for other repay more reliably than men do. And evidence from factors that help to explain corruption. Although we Bangladesh indicates that lending to women has greater need to do more policy research to understand die causal positive inpacts on household income than does lending mechanisms underlying these relationships, the finding is to men. Women use the resources more productively certainly intriguing. and sensibly womens borrowing is more strongiy associ- All of this evidence adds up to an overwhelming argu- ate4 with child schooling and nutritional status than is intent for greater gender awareness in development poli- men's borrowing; and there is evidence that households cymaldag. Gender should be incorporated into the way more successfully "smooth" their consumption in the face we think about and approach development, from project of economic shoehs when women borrow, design to methods of work and statistics. When we look at productivity in agriculture, we find Gender awareness is central to the wW of the World similarly strong evidence. If we evaluate how inputs, Banik and to the wy we think about the whole spctrwn such as fertilizer or labor, are used on a particular plot of of development problems, In this context, Ei.rrdtrin,j land, we find that the agricultural productivity for a Devdopment is a very important publication for the World given level of inputs is not affected by the farnier's gen- Bank. It provides staff, policy makers, other donors, and der. The difference comes in the level of inputs that are members of civil society with powerful ammunition -and actually used. lEa woman is farming a plot, then fewer tools-to make development more equitable and more household resources are used on inputs than if a man is effective. farming the same plot. In many cases, these unequal allocations of productive resources by gender are ineffi- NtcbolasH $trn is cbi.r/tcanomist, T6r World Pznk cient. Total household production and income could be increased by shifting over some resources from those 10 V,QRLL BArI( LNSTI1LTE WITH AN LSLtLA3I7 | E N D I N [9WJ)Is | SIGHT BY NOELEEN HEYZER .jEt VIOLENCER J A flA1LY AND OFTEN ffG )bEADLY, fact of life for millions of women andl girls around the world. Women are attacked on the street, in the workplace, in the home, in war and armed conflict, and while in state custody. The actual and human costs of this violence are tremendous; violence devastates lives, r fractures communities and inhibits development in every nation. The facts and numbers are shockilng: 60 million women who should be alive today are 'missing' because of gender discrimination. Each year 2 mil- lion girls between ages 5 and 15 are introduced into the commercial sex market; more than 130 million girls and women, mostly in Africa, have undergone female genital mutilation; between 20,000 and 50,000 women and girls were raped in Bosnia- - - Herzegovina during the war in the Balkans; in 9 '. Latin American countries, a rapist who marries his victim stays out of jail; and studies suggest that one- - fourth to one-third of the 170 million women and girls currently living in the European Union are t ; subjected to male violence. Women everywhere live with the risk of physical harm in ways that have no direct parallels for men. In every nation, violence or the threat of violence, shrinks the range of choices open to women and girls, narrowing their options in almost every sphere of life - public and private. It limits their choices directly by destroying their health, disrupting their lives, constricting the scope of their activity; and indirectly, by eroding their self-confidence and self- esteem. For those who are concerned with the be realized. Gender-based violence must be development of societies, this is an inescapable and addressed as a pervasive human rights violation as urgent challenge that must be addressed sVstemati- well as significant health and development issues, cally in all areas of work. As long as gender violence with powerful implications for coming generations. continues to hinder women's participation in devel- Research findings from studies done both in the opment, the full potential of development will never Northern and the Southern hemispheres, show that D) E V E L O P M E N T O U T R E A C H * S P R I N G 2 Q 0 1 1 1 the phenomena of violence ~ ~ ~ ~ &OS(\I1c? ~The mrec of vio- against women affiects women lenie against women on throughout their lives - LA the worl agenda extending from prebirth and I I\ At the beginning of the infancy (sex-selected abortion Decade for Women (1976- and infanticide) through to old 1985), the issue of violence age (violence against widows and elder abuse); affects against women was not on the agenda which called for women of every natilonality, class, race and ethnic group; E-quality, Development and Peace. Yet as women have and is exacerbated by poverty but cannot be solved exclu- sought full and equal participation in their societies, the sively through economic remedies. problem of gender violence has surfaced in everyv country It is a bleak and daunting picture, and yet, when I was as one of the major obstacles to alt three of the goals of the recentlv asked by a journalist if I really believed that a decade. problem as common and as widespread as violence against At the Fourth World Conference on Violence against women could be ended, my response was an unequivocal Women in Beijing in 1995, women's groups insisted that "Yes." We are not helpless in the face of this scourge. It is the roots, causes and consequences of gender-based vio- a matter of changing attitudes and refusing to sustain lence be further articulated, and commitments to concrete andl/or collude with a cruel construct of tolerated violence, action included. At the 5-year review of the Beijing Gender violence devastates lives and fractures communi- Conference (June, 2000), the Beijing +5 Outcomes ties, impeding development in every nation. If we are to Document included recommendations aimed at aspects of understand the causes of this epidemic of violence and violence against women not included in the 1995 Beijing how to eradicate it, we must view violent acts not only in Platform for Action, such as recommendations on dowry- terms of individual culpability but in the structural and related violence and deaths, violence against widows and cultural context of families and institutions -gender vio- indigenous women, racially motivated violence, and mari- lence threatens to shred the entire social fabric. Women tal rape. It also urged governments to eliminate discrimi- everywhere have come together and committed themselves nator-y legislation by 2005 and reaffirm their commitments to creating a safer, more humane future for generations to to adopt measures to end traditional or customary prac- come. I have witnessed heroism at work, in the extraordi- tices affecting women and girls. nary efforts of women the world over to turn back the t'ide of violence against them. The courage and indomitable The next step: response strategies andl actions work of womnen and women's groups to combat gender In the shorter term, the overarching priority is to put in violence has brought them repeatedly to the corridors of place protection mechanism-s that ensure women's safety the United Nations conferences to provide testimony to and respond appropriately to cases of abuse by bringing the pervasiveness and range of abuses, to demand action perpetrators to justice and offering medical and legal with an end in sight. remedies to survivors. In the longer term, the challenge must be to reverse retrenched attitudes, gender stereo- types and power structures that lie at the root of the pan- demic. 1 2 W ORL1 1 ANK I NST I UTE In 1995, the UN General Assembly established a Trust In 1998 UNIFEM launched a major advocacy effort to Fund in Support of Actions to Eliminate Violence against set in motion a series of UN Inter-Agency Regional Women, under the auspices of UNIFEM. The Trust Fund Campaigns, on ending violence against women. In Latin is the only small grant mechanism of its kind on gender America and the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and Pacific violence in the UN system, and has supported 106 projects regions, Eastern Europe and Central Asia the campaigns in over 66 countries. It has become a kind of small grants worked to create a favorable environment for breaking the 'laboratory' for testing strategies and exploring successful silence on gender-based violence, for engaging men in approaches in the struggle to end gender violence. ending this violence, for initiating changes in policies and Strategies used by projects supported by the Trust Fund legislation, and for providing protection, services, and jus- range from awareness-raising campaigns and community tice where violence has occurred. based activities on human rights education and legal litera- cy to training programs directed at key government per- Violence against women and human security sonnel, law enforcement officials, members of the judiciary On February 22, 2001, the International Criminal and health care agencies. Although Trust Fund grants Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) issued its first have been relatively small financially, they have supported convictions for rape as a crime against humanity (in the innovative approaches to eradication of violence, and Kunarac, Kovac and Vukovic Case). Judge Florence shown that supporting indigenous efforts to combat gen- Mumba read out the judgment, which found that rape was der violence will yield results and good practices that can "used by members of the Bosnian Serb armed forces as an be adapted and multiplied on a larger scale. instrument of terror". These were also the first convictions for enslavement as a crime against humanity. In address- Lessons learned from innovative projects ing the accused, Judge Mumba said that they were "not In the year 2000, UNIFEM published With an End iz ordinary soldiers, whose morals were merely loosened by Sight, which culled lessons learned from the experiences of the hardships of war." "These are men with no known innovative projects funded by the Trust Fund. The stories criminal past," she said. "However, they thrived in the are inspiring and thought provoking, and pave the way for dark atmosphere of the dehumanization of those believed further gains in the struggle to end violence against to be enemies, when one would not even ask, in the words women. of Eleanor Roosevelt, 'Where, after all, do universal Projects in Kenya, Nigeria and Honduras illustrate human rights begin? In small places, close to home .......' how community responsibility is key to ending the cycle of You were a soldier with courage in the field, somebody violence. In Cambodia and India, women's groups focused whom your men undisputedly are said to have held in high on building partnerships with police and judges to esteem. By this natural authority you could easily have put strengthen their commitment to take action to defend an end to the women's suffering. Your active participation women's rights. In Bosnia-Herzegovina and the West in this nightmarish scheme of sexual exploitation is there- Bank and Gaza, emphasis was placed on research and fore even more repugnant." data collection to document and expose the problem of so- This ground-breaking judgment illustrates the gains that called honor crimes and domestic violence. In Honduras, have been made internationally in the recognition of the sports were used as a tool to encourage men to discuss the atrocities committed against women as weapons of war. problem of domestic violence. In order to participate in a However, it also, tragically, illustrates the enormity and local soccer tournament, men in the district of Comayagua severity of these persisting violations. In a time when war had to attend weekly training sessions on peace in the and strife and ethnic conflicts are proliferating around the family, machismo and violence against women. globe, women continue to be targeted. Rape and sexual vio- As a result of the project, police in Cambodia now work lence continue to be used as weapons of war. Many victims more closely with village chiefs, and they have men who become infected with sexually transmitted diseases and, exhibit violence towards their wives sign a contract stating increasingly, HIV/AIDS. The vast majority of all refugees that they will discontinue this behavior. The contract can and displaced people, doubly vulnerable to violence, are be used against the man in court if the violence persists. women and children. In addition, women and girls are In Kenya, an alternative rights of passage project was forced into sex for safe passage, food and other protection. developed to create new coming-of-age ceremonies with- Women are seldom protected from these threats, and too out the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM). As a seldom are their aggressors brought to justice. What kind of result of the project, one community abolished FGM and sadly ambiguous message does this send to the predators the alternative rights project will now be expanded who continue to rape, exploit, torture and mutilate? throughout Kenya. D EVE LO PM ENT O UT REA CH SP RPI NG 2 0 0 1 13 At the same time, it is essential that the international significant numbers, are there to represent them. Gender community recognizes that this critical resource - women expertise must inform the planning of these operations - is at the foundation of all efforts to build peace and from the very beginning. For instance, disarmament, resolve conflicts. For almost ten years, UNIFEM has pro- demobilization and reintegration must be designed to meet vided assistance to women in crises and has supported the special needs of women combatants, and of the girls their participation in the peace processes. UNIFEM and women who have been abducted; civilian police must shapes its activities for women in conflict situations address the issues of trafficking and sexual violence which around five fundamental points: are associated with conflict. 1) Understanding the tbnpact of armed conflict on .onmen and girls 5) Supporting genderiustice in post-conf/Ict reconstruction We know, without question, that insensitivity to gender After conflicts, resources are depleted, infrastructure is Issues can have severe consequences. This was the case in destroyed, and social, economic and political relationships Kosovo last year. Thousands of displaced men, women and are strained. Women, who have held social and economic children had gathered together in a stadium. With a mega- fragments together, represent the most precious and phone, an official made an announcement for all women under-utilized of these resources. Unless a country's con- who had been raped to report to a particular area. Not a stitutional, legal, judicial and electoral frameworks deal single woman came forward. Not a single woman was pre- with gender equality, no matter what happens after the pared to risk the stigma or the potential repercussions of conflict, no matter how peaceful a transition, the entire having identified herself publicly in this way. As a result, country will never have a fair chance at development, and survivors lost the chance of holding their aggressors violence against women will continue to inhibit its accountable and of receiving life-saving support. progress. Understanding the way conflict affects women and girls is crucial to ensuring their protection and to designing gen- Finally, women in every region are taking action, using der-responsive policies and programs. innovative strategies and approaches to end the scourge of 2) Improving protection and adssidtancefor women and girls gender-based violence, and they have created a powerful International protection and assistance systematically neg- momentum for change. UNIFEM is proud of its role in lects women and girls. In my visits to war-torn countries, I supporting, and even, at times, igniting this momentum. have seen these gaps with painful clarity. I have heard Over the past 25 years UNIFEM has sought to facilitate about the unanswered fate of the mothers and the thou- the inclusion of women's voices and concerns into the halls sands of children born of rape and forced impregnation. I of the United Nations. There are successes, and progress have met mothers of the disappeared, and walked through has been made in raising awareness and fighting violence the valleys of widows - huge communities of women left against women in all its forms. However, UNIFEM will alone to fend for themselves and their families. As if this not rest, and will not consider our task complete until strife were not enough, they are also struggling to claim every woman knows the joy and freedom of living a life their property, their inheritance, and their land. Protection free from the threat of violence - until shame and silences and humanitarian assistance for women is glaring in its break into joyful melodies, where women and men gain inadequacy. the power and the courage to live their lives to their full 3) Supporting qomen a leadership in peace-buiLding potential. In conflicts, women are activists, caretakers, providers and survivors. We know that some women participate actively Noeleen Heyzer is executive diirector, United in conflicts. But the vast majority have held their families Nationd Development Fund for Women and communities together. Ending conflict is a key compo- (U/ANIFE ) nent in eradicating gender-based violence. From the grass roots level to the peace table, UNIFEM supports women s participation in peace-building. We try to leverage politi- cal, financial and technical support so that women can have an impact on peace efforts nationally and regionally. 4) Bringing a gender perspective to inter-governmental peace and security initiattvLes Peace support operations establish the framework for international and regional action. Women's concerns will only be addressed when women with gender expertise, in 14 WO R L D BANK INS T IT UT E - ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ * ive years ago in Beijing, the NGO of panels around five themes that were A N D identified as the global forces with the greatest impact on the human community, especially women. These forces were the globalization of the economy, including the impact of the tech- P O WE w wnological revolution on work; threats to peace and human security, including the effects of militarization, violence and pover- ty; approaches to governance, including questions of citizenship i~and political participation; the rise of conservatism in its various forms - religious, nationalist, racial/ethnic and homo- phobic; and the global- ization of the media, culture and communica- tion. Panelists spoke of the erosion of such rights resulting from the wide range of nega- tive circumstances now facing women: unregu- lated labor markets; the failure of development policies to provide sus- tainable livelihoods; the ascendance of repres- siepolitics which threaten women s repro- ductive rights and access to health care; the rise of homophobic, racist, and nationalistic assaults which target the most vulnerable; violence against women, including that resulting from warfare and ethnic conflict, domestic abuse, and sex traffick- ing across national bor- ders; and, last but not D E V E LOPM 15 least, the commodification of women in the media. with them the listening and negotiating skills so necessary Emerging from the plenary presentations and discussions to pave the road to peace. were certain cross-cutting themes with broad implica- tions for the future of the women's movement. These Rights, resources, participation included issues of identity; human rights; the respective It is therefore very interesting to note that the Bank's poli- roles of the state, civil society, the private sector, interna- cy research report on gender and development has chosen tional organizations and NGOs; and institutional trans- rights, resources, and participation as the three areas of formation. Five and a half years after Beijing, we must focus to enhance gender equality in the world. The choice admit that the global forces discussed at the NGO of these three areas is strategic. Rights, resources and par- Forum are still at work. ticipation form the cornerstone of power, one reinforcing the other, all three forming a synergy for structural The effects of war change. Because of their ability to bring about a profound My country is now in the process of reconstruction after change in structures, it is important to focus our attention two and a half years of inept and corrupt leadership. To on understanding them and analyzing what works. raise his sagging popularity, the former President waged a Underdevelopment as well as gender inequality is the war in Mindanao, in southern Philippines. It was a war story of power and powerlessness: who has it, who wields we could not afford. Our island-economy was still reeling it, how, and for what purpose. The goal of our work is to from the economic and social havoc wrought by the Asian equalize power between women and men in the home, at financial turmoil and the El Nino phenomenon. The poor, work, under the law, in public office, in public policy, and especially women and children, bore the brunt of this dou- in every other area of life that matters. But precisely ble whammy. because of its potential to equalize power relationships and The human costs and economic losses arising from this to transform structures, there will be tremendous resist- civil strife stem from the fact that the war is an affront to ance. The Bank's report gives compelling evidence about the most disadvantaged members of Philippine society and the benefits to the entire society when it pursues gender the least progressive regions of the country. Mindanao is equality. There is a mountain of evidence that proves our home to half of the country's poor, with a majority of the contention that investment in girls' education, enhance- poorest among the poor residing in the conflict-ridden ment of women's reproductive rights, improving women's areas. The unstable peace and the precarious order situa- access to micro-finance, and giving women land rights, do tion exacerbated the underdevelopment of the island-econ- redound to the benefit not only of the girl or the woman omy. Aggravating the situation was globalization moving herself but of her community and society as well. But why at breakneck speed. While global integration opens many is it that in this new millennium we are still compelled to opportunities, the gains are unevenly distributed. They make our case? accrue to economies that are equipped with the technology I contend that it is because women's political voice is and capabilities that make their tradable goods and servic- still weak in most parts of the world, especially in develop- es more attractive to the world's consumers. In other ing countries. I believe, therefore, that this is one of the words, not everyone can become full-fledged citizens and most significant areas for intervention not only because beneficiaries of the global village. the numbers on women's political representation are dis- This scenario is not an uncommon one in many devel- mal but also because of the high impact to society of an oping countries today. Unable to isolate themselves from improvement in women's political participation. In public globalization and the forces they unleash, they reel from representation, Dr. Pippa Norris of Harvard University one crisis to another. Sometimes the military solution is the has a starkly simple statistic that tells it all. She says that most attractive, in the vain notion that it will "finish off" since 1975 or the year the UN declared International the problem of local discontent. Women and children suf- Women's Year, there has been a one percent increase fer most in situations of conflict. But women are also every decade in the numbers of women in positions of showing that they are leaders in peacemaking, bringing public leadership. 1 6 W OR LI) B AN K INS T IT LI' E Redefining power peace-making and peace- But it is more than a building strategies as integral numbers game. The goal pr-eustes of develop- is to transform politics ment. It is therefore impor- and leadership so that tant to continue to emphasize many of the deleterious the significant role of women decisions that have in periods of crisis, including brought us inequality, economic crisis, and in sstua- injustice, and even war tions of violent conflict. would be diminished if It is likewise important to not totally eradicated. acknowledge that, indeed, The contribution of rights are intertwined with women in the redefini- emotional aspects of identity tion of power is proba- whether these be based on bly going to be their gender, race, ethnicity, or most transformative religion. With the rise of con- contribution. It has servatism, the politics of something to do with identity have become particu- bringing about a just larly important, as the NGO and harmonious social order, exercising democratic leader- Forum on Women pointed out. With a rights-based ship, promoting a participatory process, and protecting the approach, people will not be forced into increasingly nar- rights of the minority. As Mary Robinson, has said it so row definitions of self with characteristics assumed to be eloquently, "As women lead, they are changing leadership; essential to them rather than being the political, social, and as they organize, they are changing organization. Women cultural constructs of a given historical time and place. have fresh and imaginative skills of dialogue and are setting The prevention of the marginalization and stigmatization a more open, flexible and compassionate style of leader- of women based on their other multiple identities as les- ship." There is evidence in many countries that women's bians, indigenous women, women with disabilities and political leadership and participation have led not only to others will have to be an integral part of any action for changes in style but most especially to priorities with the women. accompanying changes in budget allocations. And as has Women have shied away from power because it has already been pointed out in the Bank's report, there is a always meant control, domination and manipulation. decrease in the level of corruption as the number of women Power needs to be redefined in order for women to claim in public office increases. Do we dare name the strategy as it. Power, I believe, is the potency to act for what is good. transformative politics? Much as we named "women's When power is based on women's vision and values, it is rights" as "human rights" or "gender", naming the strategy transformative. Politics and governance will change when is important. Transformative politics calls for new rules, not women engage in public discourse and play a significant just new numbers; new goals, not just new actors. From part in decision-making. As we continue to search for the likes of Mary Robinson to the Panchayat Raj women development that is humanly meaningful and ultimately leaders in India, there is much evidence that in positions of sustainable, the political space opened by women from the power, women want to make the world "less brutish, less grassroots to the highest reaches of the UN is the one dangerous, less ungenerous, less unreasonable", as someone space where women must belong. once wrote about Mary Robinson's goals. Lastly, the continued breakout of ethnic violence and Irene MI. Santiago is convenor, Global Forum of subsequent militarization in many parts of the world, Women Political Leaderd including in my own country, challenges us to consider da ntiago@dv. weblinq. con D E V E 1 0 P M E N T O U T R E A C H * S P R I N G 2 0 0 1 17 GENDER-SENSITIVE LOCAL AUDITING INITIATIVES FROM INDIA TO BUILD ACCOUNTABILITY TO WOMEN BY ANNE MARIE GOETZ AND ROB JENKINS articipatory planning and India are engaging the poor, particularly women, in closer budgeting, which are key scrutiny of local spending and policy implementation. elements of progressive What is notable about these initiatives is that they are nei- decentralization programs today, provide opportunities for ther cosmetic gestures towards 'consultation' with the better local accountability to the poor. But the only way poor, nor do they substitute for poor public services by of verifying that both national and local-level budgetary replacing them with NGO-run alternatives. They are commitments, such as spending in areas of particular con- efforts to hold the state accountable for its commitments cern to women, are actually implemented is through direct to gender equity and anti-poverty measures. Ultimately, auditing by poor communities and service users. they aim to enhance public-sector accountability. Participatory auditing measures, however, are almost The two important arenas in which women and the never included in public-sector accountability reforms. As poor are trying to engage in local budgeting and auditing a result, poor people, and particularly poor women, do not are decentralized government and the implementation of normally closely scrutinize government spending at the centrally funded safety-net programs such as food-subsidy local level. Financial auditing is seen as the preserve of skilled officials. Equally unusual is the engagement of >;s.r poor service users in 'social audits' that involve detailed X . monitoring of public-service ,_ delivery and the use of official mechanisms for actionable complaint. Andyet, experi- ence suggests that the most effective means of improving the quality of public spending i from the point of view of poor women is to ensure that they ; engage in gender-sensitive r processes of monitoring and auditing public services. Several current state- and civil society-initiated efforts in 18 W o R L D E A N K I N S T I T E T E systems and employment-generation schemes. Auditing legislated into existence. In Kerala women's groups have government spendling at the local level enables citizens to been rebuffed by local politicians and government off- witness and comment upon the direct links between rev- cial s when they tried to follow up on how the earmarked enegenieration and expenditure, and between planning funds for women's development have been spent. Local and the actual implementation of public policies. Local- power relations obstruct effective use of such provisions, level auditing contributes to more gender- and poverty- even in Kerala, where the poor and womnen enjoy com- sensitive planning and policy implementation in that it paratively high degrees of literacy and social welfare. makes it easier to pin-point both poorly targeted spending When poor people challenge local decision-making and and outright corruption. spending patterns, the interests of local elites andl officials are profoundly threatened. Monitoring gender-sensitive budgets Followinig the passage of the 73rd amendment to India's Verifying anti-poverty spending in Raasthan Constitution in 1993, state governments have not only Given the risks this implies for the poor, as well as the created multi-tiered systems of elected local government, technical difficulties of effective monitoring of public but some have gone even further, vesting village assem- spending, civil society mobilization or social movement blies with powers to both plan and audit local spending. support for accountability struggles is critical. Two exam- Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, and lately Rajasthan have gone ples from elsewhere in India reinforce this point. In furthest in legislating for people's audits of local planning Rajasthan, a small organization, the MVazdoor Kisan and spending, and have also enacted measures to ensure Shakthi Sangathan (literally, the Workers and Peasants women's participation in these processes. All three states Power Association) has pioneered methiods for the partici- have 'right-to-information' provisions through which vil- patory audit of local spending. Women represent about lagers can, in theory, have access to documents detailing 60% of the approximately 1000-strong membership of this official expenditures. All three states not only have pro- group, and the MIKSS has focused on challenging official visions ensuring that one-third of elected representatives corruption on public works programs that provide women on village councils are women, but also that a minimum with employment during the dry season. These women proportion of village assembly are routinely denied the statutory minimum wage for their parlticipants must be women for work on rural roads, culverts, and drains, often on the the (required) public meeting grounds that they were not moving the minimum quan- __ ~~~~~~~to constitute a quorum. For tum of earth per day. The MKSS's own research indicated instance, Kerala has earmarked that the actual quantity of work being done by the women 10% of local planning funds for was routinely under-measured. False entries in employ- women's development, and ment registers enabled project foremen to underpay women-only sub-committees women, and thereby to pad the registers with bogus within the village assembly names whose payments the supervisors then pocket. decide on how this should be Other malpractices include inflated estimates for public- & ~~~~~~~spent. This last provision gives works projects, the use of poor-quality materials, and women a direct interest in see- over-billing by suppliers. To combat these forms of fraud, ing that spending plans are the MKSS sought (and somnetimes obtained) access to implemented properly. official expenditure documents - such as employment reg- It is too early to judge the isters and receipts for the purchase of materials -that effectiveness of any of these could be ven'fied by MNKSS workers investigating each of novelmeasuesFarly evidec the recorded transactions. however, suggests that women's The MKSS's struggle to obtain such documentation engagement in local accounta- became the basis for a national campaign for legislation -U ~~~~~~~~bility systems cannot simply be granting citizn a rihoinformation. Government D EV'ELOP M ENT O UTREACH U SP RI NG 2 00 1 1 9 accounts are thus submitted to a process of collective vern- ally detected, thus providing prima facie evidence for an fication by the villagers - the very people most likely to investigation by the ration inspectors into whether the know whether funds have been spent as claimed. At pub- cause of the discrepancy was 'leakage' of some portion of lic hearings, employment registers are read aloud, and the original consignment onto the open market. women who were underpaid come forward to contradict However, even before the departure of their high-level official accounts showing them to have been paid the mini- bureaucratic patron, the women in the vigilance commit- mum wage. tees lacked another important resource - the time needed for effective monitoring. Keeping track of the arrival and Surveillance of subsidized food distribution in 'leakage' of commodities required constant surveillance Mumbai over the shops. Although women deployed children to In the city of Mumbai a coalition of 40 community-based keep an eye on the shops, they could not get around shop- organizations of women from low-income neighborhoods keepers' tactics, like arranging deliveries in the middle of has worked since 1992 to make the government's network the night to avoid inspection. of fair-price shops - the Public Distribution System Citizens' efforts to audit directly the activities of devel- (PDS) - more responsive to the poor. Though a critical opment programs are an important complement to official resource for the food security of the poor- and women, monitoring or auditing mechanisms. Our examples show who manage household food supplies - the PDS suffers that social movement support is critical in overcoming from a number of management problems, but above all, gender-related constraints (such as illiteracy or intimida- from a 'leakage' of subsidized grains by the licensed PDS tion by officials) to women's efforts to improve the func- shopkeepers to the open market, where they are sold ille- tioning of official accountability processes. But, in India gally at higher prices. The Rationing Kruti Samiti (RKS), and elsewhere, citizens' efforts to hold officials account- or Action Committee for Rationing, sought originally to able can trigger significant resistance. The MKSS has cut these leakages by working closely with concerned state encountered obstruction from the local administration. officials. The PDS is, in theory, monitored and 'perform- The RKS has been forced into retreat. These experiences ance-audited' by citizens' vigilance committees. In prac- suggest the importance of seeking public-sector allies for tice, these are controlled by local politicians who, for a fee, citizen-based monitoring and auditing. shield crooked shopkeepers from prosecution. The RKS has formed parallel informal Vigilance Committees com- Anne Marie Goetz is a ec floii of the Institute of posed of five women consumers for each PDS shop. The De( elopnment Studies, Unic'ersity o7f Sussex, women attempt to track the amount and quality of subsi- Brci;hton, UK. a.m.goetz@icds.ac.uk dized commodities that arrive in the shops from govern- Rob Jenkins teaches att th e Departmetnt of Po'litics ment warehouses, and to monitor their sale by constantly ainod Sociology at BLrkbeck College, Univer.sity of checking shop ledgers. This system, which flourished in London. r.jetnkind@bbk.ac.uk the early to mid 1990s broke down in the latter part of the Reierences on this subject: decade, largely because it relied upon the support of one -Jenkins, Rob, and Anne Marie Goetz. 1999, 'Constraints on high level bureaucrat, who was ultimately transferred to civil society's capacity to curb corruption: Lessons from the another department. The RKS experience showed that Indian Experience', IDS Builletitn, vol. 29, no. 4 (October 1999) women's illiteracy was not necessarily an obstacle to scru- pp 39 -49 tinizing policy implementation. The RKS's bureaucratic -Jenkins, Rob, and Anne Marie Goetz, 1999, 'Accounts and ally had required the shopkeepers to attach sealed samples Accountability: Theoretical Implications of the Right-to- of the displayed bulk products, such as foodgrain. This Information Movement in India', Third World Quarterly. Vol. 20, allowed the women monitors to compare the quality of the No. 3, pp: 603-622. product delivered from the government warehouse, as -Goetz, Anne Marie, and Rob Jenkins, 2001, 'Hybrid Forms seen in the sealed transparent bag, against what was on of Accountabilitv: Citizen Engagement in Institutions of Public- sale for PDS consumers. Any adulteration could be visu- Sector Oversight in India', Public Manquement, (forthcoming). 20 W o R L D B A N K I N S T I T U T E Gender and a Growth: a II the study Can Africa IC/ai'm the 21st Centur,y?,' we made the argument that Africa has enormous unexploited potential. It has hidden growth reserves in its people, especially its women, who now provide more than half the region's labor but lack equal access to education and factors of produc- tion. We concluded that gender equality can be a potent force for accelerated poverty reduction in Africa. There is increased recognition of the relevance of gender for develop- ment work in Africa. In this region, factors of production as credit, fertilizer, and edu- we addressed the linkages between cation. Women farmers receive only 1 percent of gender, growth, and poverty in the total credits to agriculture. Women are less likely 1998 Poverty Status Report prepared for the Strategic to control the product of their labor than men, reducing Partnership with Africa (SPA)2 This helped to frame the their incentives to pursue productive, income-earning gender debate in terms of economic growth and produc- opportunities, despite the increasing evidence that income tivity, i.e. in terms of development effectiveness, and not earned by women is more likely to be used productively just in terms of social equity- although equity considera- for family needs: food, clothing, health, and education. tions are important, too. African women work far longer hours than men. On average, their workdays may be 50 percent longer, and Men and women in African economies their work is closely integrated with household production A distinguishing characteristic of Sub-Saharan African systems. Indeed, the boundary between economic and economies is that both men and women play substantial household activity is less well drawn in Africa than in economic roles. Much of African economies is in the other regions. In addition to their prominence in agricul- hands of women -agriculture and the informal sector in ture, women bear the brunt of domestic tasks: processing particular. But women in Africa have less access to pro- food crops, providing water and firewood, and caring for ductive assets, including land, and to such complementary the elderly and the sick, this latter activity assuming much D EVELO P M EONT O UT REACH N SP RI NG 2 0 0 1 21 severe, especially given Africa's chronic food insecurity and vulnerability. Gender-inclusive growth Africa is losing out on the productive potential of more than half its effective workforce. Measures to increase *'!___.______, gender equality in Africa, in addition to their social and distributional implications, have considerable potential to 2. accelerate growth and poverty reduction. More needs to be done to ensure gender equality in access to productive E 1 .. 4 tft ++-/Wassets and services. In addition, patterns of capital forma- tion tend to be biased against investments, such as wells t _ '^! and fuel-efficient stoves, which have the potential to unlock more female time for high-productivity activities - and education. greater significance iF 'n the face of the HIV/AIDS pandem- Public policy has a key role to play in promoting gen- ic. The time and effort required for these tasks, in the der-inclusive growth and poverty reduction. Key policy almost total absence of even rudimentary domestic tech- measures to promote gender-inclusive economic growth in nology, is staggering. Surveys of rural travel and transport u owg patterns in villages in Burkina Faso, Uganda, and Zambia Pronoting the i,cret.ied partte4p7atu of rpoor nzen tind) v'onmen have found that African women move, on average, usually izn ecoioniet7 decislion-nakitng. One promising approach, via headloading, 26 metric ton-kilometers a year (especial- related to economic management and priority-setting, is ly water and fuel wood), compared with less than 7 metric the development of "gender budget initiatives." South ton-kilometers for men. This, combined with women's con- Africa has gone far in pioneering this work. Gender tribution to agriculture, has led to estimates that women budgets examine the efficiency and equity implications contribute about 2/3 of the total rural transport effort. of budget allocations and the policies and programs that lie behind them. This would encourage public spending Gender inequality limits growth priorities to focus on investment in rural infrastructure Country case studies throughout Africa-and emerging and labor-saving technologies, as indicated below. macroeconomic analysis-consistently show that gender- Inz iestnzent in gender-inclnoiee grotbvt. Agricultural growth based inequality acts as a constraint to growth and pover- strategies, especially policy, research, extension, and ty reduction. They point to patterns of disadvantage technology development, need to support the livelihood women face, compared with men, in accessing the basic strategies of smallholder households. The key policy pri- assets and resources needed to participate fully in realizing i i ority Is to break through the asset pover-ty of wvomen SSA's growth potential. Gender differences in access to farmers. Agricultural institutions need to treat women assets limit the options of women farmers; differences in farmers as priority clients, and develop outreach systems labor remuneration lead to conflict and to sub-optimal to them. The right mix of assets, including land, labor, labor allocation at the household level; and differences in technology, and financial services, is critical to ensure labor (and other factor) productivity limit economic effi- that women can fully contribute to Africa's growth and ciency and output. These gender-based differences affect development. Policy needs to focus on the food crop sec- supply response, resource allocation within the household, tor where there is an urgent need for more women- and labor productivity. They have implications for the focused integrated packages. This would give a different flexibility, responsiveness, and dynamism of African dimension to what agricultural technologies are devel- economies, and directly limit growth (see Box). These dif- oped, what crops/tasks are prioritized, what extension ferences are too important to ignore, and their impacts too 22 WO R l I) B A N K I N S T I 1 U T E messages are created and delivered and by whom, what bulk harvests, fertilizer can be moved to villages and research priorities are pursued, and, most importantly, stored in local facilities, and hired farm labor can move how all of these will be done in ways that really reach more readily to the fields. c) Improving marketing opportu- Africa's women farmers. nities. Isolated rural communities have great difficulty marketing their crops. Crops can be moved in bulk by Investment in the household) economy and' in raising labor pro-. trucks, but also in smaller quanotites by cart or bicycle ductivity. Efforts could include giving much higher pri- ifuadequt adso pt ar avaie. d) Expanding ority in national poverty reduction strategies to invest- acevto social services andz non-agricultural income-generating ments which reduce the acute time burdens on African activities. These include health clinics, for which travel women. This could be done through providing clean, accessible water and fuel wood, and prioritizing labor- tion to rervces and constron in teuan saving technology, to reduce the time burden of domes- informal sector. tic work. Time savings in these activities will benefit In parallel, it is critical to invest in girls' education, to women most. Transport interventions need to reflect women most. Transprtintrventonsnedensure gender-inclusive land policy and legislation, and the different needs of men and women, to improve to build women's skills and capabilities aimed at enabling women's access to transport services (including inter- their greater participation in household, community, and mediate means of transport), commensurate with their t t national decision-making, where investment priorities load-carrying responsibilities. Improvements in rural and resource allocations are defined. At present only one infrastructure can raise the incomes of the poor, par-tic- anreoceloatnsredfe.Atpsn,oryoD in four rural girls attends primary school, let alone com- ularly women, through several mechanisms: a) Reducing pletes it. the time spent collecting water andfuel wood. The time freed can be used for leisure or for productive purposes such Making gender isdues visible in data and analydis. Statistics as education or agricultural activities. There is evidence and indicators on the situation of women and men in all that a significant portion of time saved is used produc- spheres of society are an important tool in promoting tively. 6) Increasing crop production. Agricultural output gender-inclusive growth. Gender statistics have an can benefit, particularly where bulky, low-value crops essential role in eliminating stereotypes, in formulating are involved. For example, trucks can be hired to move policies, and in monitoring progress. Key tasks are the systematic sex-disaggregation of data, including eco- _ I 0 3 3 A nomic production data, integration of intra-household . ,,ln|E,nn, _and gender modules in statistical surveys and poverty _ * * * * * analysis, expanded use of gender budget initiatives, greater use of country-focused time budget surveys, *vatlsnll!gl]lllalfhlfll * m -l . llll:l: . l:l*ll* l. u l'lli . and the inclusion of the household economy and home- L=LE:Ie11*:i@lXe 3 Irxl-isIIt 3hl{ll1Z *tIe:l:Ss 3tl * tiss 1 a_ based work in national accounts. -- . _ I I I S S Alan Gelb is chief econotnist, Africa Region, -m II r Im n I3; I l*z]. rI I _ = i~. * .31 _ * *. . TheWorld Bank 1. Can Africa Clatm the 21ot Century? 2000. Report prepared jointly .I _ I_ 3 _ _ _ by the African Development Bank, African Economic Research * a. * .. . Consortium, Global Coalition for Africa, Economic Commission for Africa, and the World Bank. Washington, DC. * _ - _ _ _ ,*, . ** .* *2. C. Mark Blackden and Chitra Bhanu, 1999. Gender, Growth *] 'II ==I I:r-.3=33 ,. and Poverty Reduction, 1998 SPA Status Report on Poverty in * 1_ __ * 1l_ Sub-Saharan Africa, World Bank Technical Paper No. 428, Washington, D.C. D EvE LOP M ENT O UT REA CH R SP RI NG 2 0 0 1 23 Gender A and ~~~~~~~~.5 BY DANUTA HUBNER T^g u 1 ransition is a process of a grand change which brings dramatic challenges to all i 11 i j ] - ~~~~~~~di mensions of economic, ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~daai chlene to al social and human develop- ment. On the one hand, it gen- erates the rise of job insecurity, 1W7 ,, *- -unemployment and poverty. On the other, new opportunities emerge that are related to democratization, development of entrepreneurship and the mp ritprivate sector. Today we know that those risks and opportuni- .- _ -: tf||ta ties are distributed in a very uneven way, of which gender is 4 7; ^ ~ j The gender impact of transition differs by country and regions. In general, there is evidence that in most countries women take over a disproportionally high share of costs of systemic changes while their access I, . to opportunities remains low. However, the lack of opportunities has also devastat- ing effects on many men, especially those * O R L D B A N K I N S T I r U T e with narrow technical skills. In any declining regions, terms of respecting human including one company towns and rural areas, jobs are dif- rights of individuals. ficult to find even for young men, leading to anti-social Engendering transition policies behaviors such as drinking, drug use, crime and domestic is also necessary to fully use violence. human potential which is a key In transition economies, women have limited impact on factor in economic growth. Gender equality is thus a pri- establishing new laws, institutions and policies as they ority for improving economic efficiency and development remain vastly underrepresented in new decision making prospects. structures, especiali ly at national level. The share of women in parliaments varies, with few exceptions, Women's losses in the labor market between 1.5 percent to 15 percent of all seats. Women's Economic recession, the closure of plants, restructuring losses in the labor market have been very high in a num- and the financial squeeze have had especi'ally negative ber of countries and the erosion of the welfare system of effects on women's jobs and participation in the labor mar- the past has required that women play a much bigger role ket. According to the Economic Survey for Europe 1999, in performing caring functions. Although the full extent of issued by the United Nations FEconomic Commission for female poverty is difficult to evaluate due to the lack of Europe (ECE), the longer term trends indicate that the data, deep cuts in women's employment and income, lower female labor force and employment shrank in all countries wages, dependency on shrinking family benefits and for which data are available. Between 1985 and 1997 the increasing costs of living and raising a family strongly sug- female labor force in Hungary fell by over one third and in gest that poverty among women is widespread. The rever- Latvia by nearly one fourth. It declined even in those sal of these negative trends in gender equality is crucial in countn'es where the male labor force remained stable, such D E VE LOPMAlE NT O UT R E A CH U iP RIN G 2 0 01 25 as Estonia and Poland, or where it increased, as in the In many transition economies, women were encouraged Czech Republic, Lithuania and the Russian Federation. to leave the labor market through early retirement policies Women's share in employment also declined more than (the Czech Republic and Poland) and more attractive men's share, with the exception of Slovenia where employ- parental leave schemes (Belarus and Ukraine). Women's ment cuts were proportional for men and women. Twelve withdrawal from the labor force has been seen as a reme- percent cut in female employment in the Czech Republic, dy for massive male unemployment and cuts in childcare though one of the smallest, was more than 10 times larger provided by the state. than the cut in male employment. Women were hurt more than men by employment cuts Self-employment and entrepreneurship in agriculture and industry. Female jobs cuts in industry Self-employment and entrepreneurship have become were related to the shedding of clerical positions and the important avenues to improve women's chances on the restructuring of light industries, such as textiles, which labor market. In all countries with economies in transition, had already lost state support in the early phase of transi- there are success stories of women entrepreneurs, and tion as opposed to male-dominated heavy industry. many are related to opening of new markets. The number Women were also affected by large cuts in employment in of successful female entrepreneurs is, however, relatively the feminized public service sector and lost many jobs in small. The instability of the tax system and other regula- transport and communication. This was not balanced by tions in the private sector, the lack of access to credit, any meaningful increase in women's employment in weak institutional networks of information and business expanding market-related services. In most transition support services limit development of new companies. economies, women's position in these services has deterio- Women face also gender specific barriers. Most networks, rated, such as in the increasingly well paid financial sector. such as trade and business associations as well as informal Between 1993 and 1997 women's share in the financial "old-boys" networks, do not include women. Women are sector has declined by 24 percentage points in Latvia and thus in a worse position than men in terms of getting by 10-14 percentage points in Hungary, Lithuania and important information on credit, training opportunities, Russia. At the same time women's share in employment in finding business partners and markets. They have also less underpaid public services such education and health has access to collateral as privatization has given men more increased. access to assets than women. Finally, the social climate in many countries and stereotype views of gender roles trans- Discrimination and labor market policies late into a negative public attitude towards women entre- The deterioration in the position of women in the labor preneurs, unequal treatment by the state administration market is also explained by discriminatory practices and and/or discrimination in connection with bank loans. In labor market policies. Discriminatory practices are seen many countries, women are also more vulnerable as vic- especially in the private sector and reflect de facto discrim- tims of new forms of criminal offense, widespread in a ination in hiring and employment. Such discrimination is number of transition economies. often difficult to quantify and is possible due to gaps in Clearly entrepreneurship is not an option open to all legislation and the lack of law enforcement mechanisms. It women looking for employment. For many of them, the is based on claims that women are less able to work under only option is to accept low pay and insecure jobs in a pri- pressure and less available to work overtime which is vate sector where their jobs are seen as a way to lower required by firms in the private sector, and that they operating costs. Women most often find labor-intensive increase labor costs due to maternity and child benefits. In and low paid jobs in small firms, partly in the "grey econo- reality, however, many welfare benefits remain in force my", while men get better paid managerial positions in only on paper and are no longer observed. This puts larger companies. Private employers tend to offer short- women at a double disadvantage. Working mothers are term contracts or casual work to women to avoid costs less competitive on the labor market, and at the same time, which might arise from maternity and childcare. Part-time do not benefit from social protection. and other less secure work contracts are on the rise and in 26 W o R L D B A N K I N S T I T U T E time. Decentralization and the transfer a '. : of enterprise-rmanaged childcare facili- ties to municipalities has cut many ~~new journal for ~~~~~services, especially in r-ural communi- oreig\ p.ic 18M 5 % |ties and in small towns. Kindergarten enrollment declined in all countries, but especially in the Russian Federation teen 0euationtaje Po ilk (T a and some other former Soviet l1s K y choi<;e fosrrEut an awareness of the "Voices 'JpJL IIypotential of solar Women in - home systems and from the rnnr+, disseminate the Field" il. 4informlation. Technology in _? if The provides first-hand Government's Bangladesh _ t development strat- insight Into Issues -I By Nilufar Ahmad - gyemphasizes the of current importance of a "When I first started work in the comprehensive, concern to the Woe' D.Lm nepie supply to those served is poor. Women's DC Lamp Enterprise, A recent World Bank study has integrated approach to reduce development the consertvatcve local ite found that a significant number ou poverty in rural areas. Improved wanted to close us down in the oun t at a slgnlflcant number of access to rural electrification will community. pretext that we women are break- the twenty million un-electrified be essential to accelerate and ing the religious/social norms by households can afford electrifica- broaden rural economic growth To partimpate. going out of the household and tion, but cannot be economically and thus reduce poverty. Power send your views working in a public space. Now connected to the national power facilitates many productive and they are the ones who are buyg supply grid in the near term. The service activities and also makes to: devoutreach aln. Government's objective is to our lamps and energy services. an important contribution to Through our work, we were able achieve universal electrification by human development. Famiies can worldbank.org T hrough our work, we were able h 20huadelomn.Fiiscn to demonstrate that women need the year 2020, but given the finan- work and study longer and more Make your voice not be passive beneficiaries, rather cial and institutional constraints, efficiently in electrified environ- Makeyourvoic no be assie beefiiaris, rthe this seems to be an unrealistically heard. they are the change agents for t ments, and the substitution of socialtambitious objective. In order to clean electricity for firewood and soia rasorato; nlwt meet the unmet demand, alterna- access to technology and energy, kerosene reduces indoor pollution, they will be able to increase capa- tive technologies for off-grid elec- which is a serious health hazard. bilities and economic opportunities trification such as renewable ener- The World Bank's Energy for the households and communi- gy and modes of service delivery Sector Mlanagement Assistance througrh commun'tr atcaio ties." This iS the remark of Ms. tIy participation Program has financed an action- ties. is is ~~~need to be exprlored. A blend of Razia Begum, president of the 35 n research project "Opportunity for member women's cooperative private-public )oint service deliv- Women in Renewable Energy managing the Women's DC Lamp ery modes needs to be developed Technology in Bangladesh". which Enterprise, situated in Char to expand access to electricity by has been implemented by Montaz, a tiny island of 2,000 harnessing the potential for non- Prokaushali Sangshad Ltd (PSL) households in the Bay of Bengal. conventional energy in many rural since 1999. This project relies on Bangladesh faces an electricity areas until the national grid system community driven development supply crisis, as indicated by low reaches them. A recent market activities, pursuing poverty reduc- coverage and frequent power out- assessment of the potential for the tion and gender equity by target- age in electrified areas. application of solar photo-voltaic ing the rural poor and disseminat- atinwide,tonlye1 prenot technology in Bangladesh conclud- ing technologies which can Bangladesh population have ed that half a million rural house- enhance the quality of their lives. Bangladesh popelectric ond the cover holds could afford solar home sys- The World Bank encourages com- access to electricity, and the cover- tems as a source of electric power. age rate in rural areas is only tas ase o eectric powert muenty driven modes of develop- about 10 percent. The quality of Ways have to be found to create about 10 percent. The LuaSty ofDment because they are usually the 36WOLiAJINTUT most effective way to improve local The second outcome of the project The Opportunity for Women in service delivery and empower the has been the establishment of a sales Renewable Energy Technology poor, thus strengthening the account- network for low-cost, affordable off- Project is an example of a community- ability of local governance. In this grid lighting devices in markets in six driven project, which in this case is process funds are channeled to com- different islands. The project has exploring at an affordable price the munities which are supported in their enabled women to master lamp con- possibility of energy service delivery development efforts through an effec- struction, quality control, business by rural women. By shifting away tive support system. development and marketing. The from the traditional unskilled farm The project components include national rural electrification program labor to skilled off-farm labor-creating support for women's micro-enterpris- will not serve these remote islands in employment in rural energy services, es which employ renewable energy the foreseeable future, mainly due to the project has elevated the knowl- technology and capacity building. the prohibitive cost of service across edge base of rural women and devel- Today thirty-five rural women of the rivers. Hence, this project has oped new opportunities for their Char Montaz, are engaged in a micro- introduced and given access to mod- empowerment. Additionally, the proj- enterprise which assembles and sells ern lighting at an affordable price ect has identified a low-cost solution DC lamps. These are efficient flores- through decentralized electrification for improving the quality of indoor cent lamps which can be operated of rural households. with 12 or 8 volt direct current batter- The third prominent fea- ies. Within two months of project ini- ture of the project is the par- tiation, more than five hundred lamps ticipation of rural women and are being used with small batteries for the rural entrepreneurs in lighting residences, shops, a mosque implementing the project. In and fishing boats. The project has rural Bangladesh electricity is demonstrated that with proper train- normally supplied by a public ing, r-ural women are capable of utility from the national grid. assembling electric lamps which meet In contrast, the project has their needs. Women hold the title of created a niche in which the the manufacturing facility, which is private sector can make a sig- certified by the local government as a nificant contribution to rural business co-operative. The women's development even before link- daily household income has increased age with the national grid. It is the lighting, which also reduces pollution by an average of 100 Taka ($1 = Taka first model of its kind in Bangladesh. and health hazards for rural house- 50) with the manufacturing and sales Based on the lessons learned, a holds, by replacing the traditional of two lamps a day. More significant- draft guideline for the incorporation kerosene lamps by modern electric ly, this activity has enabled women to of renewable energy technology in lamps. The next challenge is to see have a significant role in improving different kinds of projects has been how such successful activities can be their lives. About 54 percent of developed and incorporated in the scaled up economically and efficiently. women have education of grade 6-8 national plan of the government. level and the rest have completed up Furthermore, thirty-five women pro- Nilufar Abmad is senior social to grade 5. None of these women had fessionals belonging to government scientist, The World Bank, prior employment opportunity or and NGOs were trained. A network Bangladesh experience. The women also have a of professional women has thus been n ilufarahma d @ worldbank. org highly profitable battery charging sta- established to develop the institutional www.worldbank-bangladesh.org tion in the local market for providing capacity and disseminate the knowl- lights to 150 shops. edge gained more widely. D EVE L O PM EN T O UT RE AC H O SP RI NG 2 0 0 1 37 Knowledge Resources Lookrig for rleve o0orent _ ; . -n infornatLoc., iet- a__ I-i;- I working oapportu- nities, likerrd- e(d oaetilers, a . - profensecnal MaNGO Online is a web-based exchange? _ _ _ . service produced both by and for all NGOs active in Macedonia. and the donor community, as well Reac'rnc thse. The website, available in as researchers and academicians g4oas IS as close Arab Women Connect website Macedonian and English, features, who are searching for information was launched by UNIFEM among other things, fortnightly on development in the country. as your corrputer Western Asia. AWC website is a news, an events calendar, and an www.tzonline.org screen A net- bilingual clearinghouse providing e-Bulletin service. easy access to online information, www.mango.org.mk The Multilateral Investment work of develop- analyses and resources about Arab Guarantee Agency (MIGA) has ment werhsrtes women s issues, which may be of il revamped PrivatizationLink, its interest to policymakers, -~ free online service on privatization vvAil take you to researchers, NGOs, government investment opportunities in emerg- roe foar corners agencies, donors, and UN agen- ing markets. The new version fea- cies. AWC is part of a comprehen- tures significant content and func- of the world anrd sive Internet nerworking and tion upgrades, as well as enhanced will prt you nr training strategy formulated by design and navigation. The site UNIFEM Western Asia to furnishes contact information on toucil wo a encourage and facilitate the use of over 8,000 privatization profes- multicuitural cor- new ICTs by Arab women. For The International Institute for sionals and potential investors more information, Communication and through a searchable online direc- nucopia of www.arabwomenconnect.org/eng Development (IICD) has official- tory. PrivatizationLink works xnowlerlge lish/main.html lv launched its new website. The with privatization agencies in or email site, which has a new design and more than 70 developing countries infr@aral'u'omrneizconiect.org an improved navigation structure, to provide hundreds of profiles of features valuable information on enterprises being offered for sale kiOtgl~g~Ag,L. all IICD's activities in the area of to domestic and foreign investors. ICT for development. The home- This content comes bundled with page offers an overview of IICD's links to relevant resources. core activities, including links to www.privatizationlnk.com the Global Teenager project, as For more information, contact well as links to stories on best Birgit Braunwieser at practice in ICTs. The website also 6braun'I eder@wortdbaik.org. Digital Governance website was provides easy access to recent developed bv KnowNet Initiative. information on IICD's Country Digital Governance is based on the Programmes. belief that good digltal governance www.iicd.org can help ensure that citizens have equal opportunities in decision- Tanzania Online Information _ making processes that affect them. Center is a gateway to information The site explores various models of on development issues in electronic forms of governance. It Tanzania. A UNDP/UN, provides descriptions of programs Government of Tanzania and based on these models, along with Economic and Social Research relevant electronic governance case Foundation (ESRF) initiative, the studies, articles, publications, and website will benefit government upcoming events. officials, policymakers, members www.digitalgovernance.org of the private sector, civil society 38 W OR L D B AN K INS T IT UT E --z-~~~Sn Eve d Seed: Biology, Western morals and legal standards in fHldtoric Cities and the Sexes and the entrenched patriarchal societies. - Sacred Sites: Course of Hidtory, Nussbaum shows that, even when - Cultural Rootsfor by Robert S. women in developing countries defend Urban Futureds, by lIMcElvaine. the discriminatory practices of their Ismail Serageldin, McGraw-Hill culture, both men and women can be Ephim Shluger, Professional very resourceful in adapting the reli- Joan Martin- Publishing, 2000 gion's moral understanding to a Brown, eds. The changing reality. The author sends out World Bank, 2000 In this provoca- a warning that there must be a global tive reinterpreta- effort to help the millions of women This book brings fresh contributions tion of the human experience, Robert suffering from malnutrition, drudgery, to the debate on the preservation S. McElvaine works from the bad marriages, and illiteracy. management of built heritage in this assumption that among the most basic period of economic globalization. It and obvious aspects of our evolution- Altaking Waves: contributes to a better understanding ary heritage are the biological differ- Stories of of why historic cities and sacred sites ences between the sexes and the psy- Partietpatory are important, and how cultural roots chological disparities they engender. Comm uniecationfor may influence and improve urban McElvaine develops a startlingly Social Change, by futures. It emphasizes the necessity fresh thesis: that misperceptions Alfonso Gumucio for including the social and cultural about sexual difference and procre- Dagron. The dimensions in economic development ative power have, along with mislead- Rockefeller and offers cases of best practice. The ing sexual metaphors, been the major Foundation, 2001 focus is on ways to strengthen local forces in history. Drawing on a wide preservation capacity, and reuse his- range of sources, from biology, Making Waves is a toric buildings. The book also pro- anthropology, archeology, mythology, report of the vides examples of how to enhance religion, and popular culture, Rockefeller local economies by building on cultur- McElvaine shows how the interplay Foundation, which examines the role al roots, generate employment oppor- between our evolutionary heritage of participatory communication in tunities in the inner-city historic dis- and changing environments and development programs worldwide. tricts, and develop sustainable financ- between the sexes have shaped the Through 50 case studies, the book ing policies for preservation of cultur- course of history, from hunter-gather- examines innovative communication al heritage. ers to the contemporary world. for social change projects from African, Latin American and Asian Culture, Citizewnhp, and Community: A Women and Human regions. With useful information on Contextual Exploration of Judtice as Development: The the background and context of issues Evenhandednesd, by Joseph H. Carens. Capabilities addressed, the book provides insightful Oxford University Press, 2000. A a Approach (The John analyses on aspects of social change, S1 Robert Seeley the medium and methods used as well This book contributes to contempo- - A ^> l Lectures), by as their constraint. Data are organized rary debates about multiculturalism Martha Craven by year, medium and country and are and democratic theory by reflecting Nussbaum. informative to academics and practi- upon the ways in which claims about Cambridge tioners alike. "Mlaking Waves is not culture and identity are actually University Press, meant to be the definitive resource," advanced by immigrants, national 2000. said Denise Gray-Felder, vice presi- minorities, aboriginals and other dent for communication and adminis- groups in a number of different soci- The book advocates global feminism tration, "but is an excellent guide to eties. to address the conditions of women in participatory communication strategies developing countries. Nussbaum used in the field." illustrates her argument with case his- tories and personal anecdotes, and considers the challenge of introducing D E V E L O P M E N T O U T R E A C H U S P R I N G 2 0 0 1 39 -Calendar of Events M a y 2 00 1 21-25 CGIAR Mid-Term Meeting 2001 25-27 Annual Bank Conference on Durban, South Africa Development Economics 1-2 13th Annual Bank Conference on '(ABCDE) Europe Development Economics 29-31 Annual Meeting of the African Barcelona, Spain (ABCDE) Development Bank Washington, DC Valencia, Spain 27-29 8th Conflict Prevention and Post 2-11 Infrastructure Forum Contact: valenciapress@afdb.org Conflict Reconstruction Network Washington, DC June 2001 (CPR) Meeting Washintacton, Samia Benidir uneKyoto, Japan Contact Samia Benidir 6-8 World Free Zone Convention J u y 2 00 1 sbenidir@worldbank.org London, UK Contact: icn@geventbookings.com 9-11 Empowerment, Opportunity, 6-12 Reform Strategies and Private Tel: 44-1730-231809 Security through Law and Participation In the Oil and Gas 68 Implementation of the Outcome Justice. Sector - the Outc The second Global Conference Rueil Malmaison, Paris-France on hUN Serents on Legal and Judicial Reform, co- Contact : Josee Foucault OHan Seteet hosted by the World Bank and josee.foucault@enspmfi.com VHabitats ,u s the Government of the Russian Visit: www.unchs.org Federation 9-11 Annual Meeting of the Asian 11-14 The Third Asia Development St. Petersburg, Russia Development Bank Frm Honolulu, Hawaii Foru tu: E 18-19 Project Finance for Emerging Contact: annualmeeting@adb.org sia's Future conomy Markets Bangkok, Thailand Warsaw, Poland 14-20 Third UN Conference on the 23-26 Sixth Annual International Contact: SMI Conferences Least Developed Countries Conference on Transition customerservices@smiconfer- Brussels, Belgium Economics ences.co.uk 16-17 Lawyers' Forum IlIl Portoroz, Slovenia 20-22 G8 Summit Meeting the New Challenges of Visit: www.wdi.bus.umich.edu Genoa, Italy the Legal Profession through 24-26 Africa Energy Forum Partnership Lyon, France Alexandria, VA, USA Contact: Rod Cargill Contact: Julie Bockarie rod@energynet.co.uk 202-473-2345 juzuegbu@worldbank.org Subscription fee applies to readers in the following developed countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kuwait, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Oman, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, and Vatican City. 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Through "state-of-the-art" presentations, peer-based learning methods, and case-method analysis, participants are expected to improve th%eir conceptual know-how and practical skills in developing creative and cost-effective mar- keti n communication approaches, including publicity and sales promotional techn'iques, especially for fee-based training courses and learning materials. For further information on this Workshop, please contact: Rosa L. Abdel Malek Ronny Adhikarya SPAAC/Human Empowerment Center World Bank Institute (WBI) Cairo 11211, EGYPT Washington, DC 20433, USA Fax: (20-2) 735-4338 Fax: (1-2021 522-1492 E-mail: spaac@idsc.net.eg E-mail: radhikaryaWworldbank.org Or visit the workshop Website at: www.worldbank.org/wbi/imc-2 Workshop Sponsors I i __ MobiNiL ! Z i $ . 0 | | ~~~~~~~~~~~~I amses Hlilton !1*TTl.ll"-rvw .s .H lt Con ROME i WASHINGTON NOOR L L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Lr I .00-2001 U 0*.AN-NUALt M0EETIN9GS.- Sharin the^f . .S A i 5Srng n Benefits of Growth Friday, September 28 through Monday, October 1,2001 MarriottWardman Park Hotel Washington, D.C. A . ]k < A :: The Program of Seminars brings together high-level business executives S Ef0-t ivz I .N ti. -L-............... \2 0 - A f S rom around the world, government ministers and the central Bank Governors from 180 countries, representatives of civil society and the ;Qr ft*rther in.or . io please . ntac- media,and World Bank and IMF officials. No other annual gathering creates such an interface among key players and decision makers in the global community, u |MF -World Bank Group * ; 0 0The Program, which includes at least 35 interactive seminars and plenary sessions, begins on Friday, September 28 with the Keystone Roundtable: |VVashipg t in; - D.C. 2043010 ;US.A. 0:-0 t0- Achieving Sustainable Growth and Development-Who Owns the Agenda? Confirmed Keynote Speakers: Telephone:(lJ(202) ~ * Queen Noor: Grassroots Efforts to Imprve Life andAchieve Fac~imile: fI](202) 623A 100 Sustainable Development Email: seminars@worIdbank.org * David M.Walker, Comptroller General of the United States: W~~bsite: www.worldbank.orglpos ~ Global Aging and Social Security Zf \F < --~~-- Subscribe to a flagship magazine that is on the cutting edge in the field of global knowledge for development, reaching 25,000 readers in 1 30 countries. Annual subscription fee for readers in developed countries: $24 (four issues). 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