The Water and Sanitation Program (www.wsp.org) is a multi-donor partnership administered by the 58191 October 2010 World Bank to support poor people in obtaining affordable, safe, and sustainable access to water and sanitation services. Field Note Climate Risk Screening of the WSP Portfolio in India Identifying Key Risk Areas and Potential Opportunities This Field Note discusses the risks of climate change and the adaptation measures that need to be taken to minimize these risks. Adaptation can be seen as an opportunity to improve current systems of working, enhance policy and design procedures, and bring communities together as they face a common problem. Background The 2009 Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change meeting in Copenhagen, and the latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Report (2007), has confirmed the consensus amongst scientists and policy makers that human-induced global climate change is now occurring. The Copenhagen meeting also confirmed the need for action to mitigate and adapt to climate change. India has recently signed the Copenhagen accord, agreeing to work with other nations to address the issues and threats posed by climate change. The threats of climate change to the global and local water balances are expected to be significant. The donors who provide aid to countries such as India are now concerned that the aid given may not deliver the expected benefits. Thus the risks posed by climate change need to be assessed and practical adaptation measures are required to minimize the threats of man-made climate change. In this report, the major issues of climate change as they affect rural and urban water supply and sanitation in India are addressed through a risk screening of the Water and Sanitation Program’s (WSP’s) work during 2009–10. Also, the potential to adapt to climate change is going to be a key issue for the future and so recommendations on adaptation measures are presented. Finally, a draft action plan is developed to achieve these adaptations. Box 1: Terms of Reference The Department for International Development is one of the Water and Sanitation Program–South Asia’s (WSP-SA’s) main donors in India and has requested a climate change screening exercise throughout the WSP India portfolio identifying key risk areas and potential opportunities. Specifically, the deliverables for this risk screening are: ■ Review the India FY10 business plan project sheets in the areas of rural and urban water supply and sanitation. ■ Prepare a short report identifying the risks posed by climate change to activities in the project sheets, as well as opportunities in the form of mitigation or adaptation strategies. ■ Provide recommendations on how to address the risks and opportunities. Based on findings from the above study, an action plan is also needed on how to take forward the various recommendations (addressing key risks and opportunities). Box 2: The Water and Sanitation Program The Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) is a multi-donor trust funded program that operates through four regional offices in Africa, East Asia, Latin America, and South Asia. The mission of WSP is to help poor people gain sustained access to water supply and sanitation services. It achieves this in partnership with client governments and other agencies through analysis of sector problems, identification of solutions, and documenting and sharing lessons from the field. This provides the evidence needed for WSP to support its government clients as well as to develop and implement policies, strategies, and investments. All of these are aimed at achieving the Millennium Development Goals. There are four specific projects considered in this report, concerning WSP's work in India: SA/IND/55: Improving sustainability of rural drinking water supply. SA/IND/56: Scaling up and sustaining rural sanitation outcomes. SA/IND/57: Improving urban water service delivery in India. SA/IND/58: Improving urban sanitation and municipal solid waste management services. Potential Impacts of over Northern India will be highest Mumbai in July 2005 when nearly Climate Change In India over the winter seasons 1 meter of rainfall fell and many As part of the process to understand the (December–January–February). hundreds of people died. Over India, potential impacts of climate change, ■ There will be wetter and more these extreme events typically occur there has been extensive research by variable monsoon conditions. only once every few years. If levels of many leading research groups across These are likely to be associated carbon dioxide in the atmosphere the world (IPCC 2007). As part of this with higher rainfall intensities reach double their preindustrial level process and other initiatives, there have causing higher peak flows in rivers (something that is almost certain to been extensive studies of the potential and increases in flood magnitude happen this century), then rainfall impacts of climate change on India and and frequency. Tanner et al. (2007) events like this could be around South Asia. A recent Department for suggests drier winters in addition to 10-15 per cent heavier. Moreover, the International Development (DFID)- wetter monsoon summers with research reinforces the earlier findings funded report on climate change (Nair these effects becoming larger by that breaks in the monsoon, when the et al. 2007) presented a comprehensive the 2050s. rains fail, are likely to become more review of the likely impacts of climate prolonged. This would lead to reduced change on India and South Asia. More recent research studies by irrigation water for agriculture and also Turner and Slingo (2009) at the Walker reduced water for public supply. As an Some key points that emerge from that Institute at the University of Reading example of this, the extended analysis are: also show that the summer monsoon monsoon break of July 2002 led to a ■ Surface temperatures in India rains over India could become less reduction in both agricultural output already show a warming of about reliable as a result of climate change. and economic growth in India. 0.3 degrees Celsius between 1901 Very heavy rainfall events over India and 2000, with considerable could occur twice as often in the future A new report by Wilby et al. (2010), regional variation with warming as a result of climate change and so funded by the DFID, states that occurring in all four seasons. increase the risk of flooding. Periods climate-driven changes in water ■ Future temperatures will increase when the rainfall fails during the quantity, water quality, and biology will by 2 to 3 degrees Celsius by 2100 monsoon could also become more affect the performance and operation (assuming a greenhouse gas prolonged. This recent study indicates of existing water infrastructure— emission scenario which allows for that climate change is likely to bring including hydropower, structural flood extensive regional development heavier rainfall bursts over India (that defenses, drainage, and irrigation and quite strong economic growth). is, storm events when significant rain systems—plus water management ■ Warming across India will be falls over a short time period, say, a practices. These impacts will be highest in post-monsoon periods few hours). This increases the risk of exacerbated by nonclimatic pressures (October–November). Warming the sort of devastating flooding seen in arising from population and economic 1 In this report, the major issues of climate change as they affect rural and urban water supply and sanitation in India are addressed through a risk screening of the WSP’s work during 2009-10. In addition, recommendations on adaptation measures, and a draft action plan, are also presented. growth, as well as by trends towards new zones of infection. The report Also, increased rainfall could lead to greater urbanization and agricultural concludes that the Eastern Ganga enhanced erosion of sediments and intensification. There is evidence that basin (including parts of India, Nepal, increased sediment concentrations variability in the timing and strength of and Bangladesh) is susceptible to in rivers. the monsoon are already affecting glacial melt, flooding, and drought due hydropower and production of staple to delayed onset or weakening of the Climate Risks and crops in the region. However, perhaps monsoon. The report also points out Development the greatest concern is that long-term that the densely populated mega-deltas From floods and cyclones to drought wastage of the region’s snow and ice of the Indus, Ganga-Brahmaputra and conditions and water scarcity, poor stores (the ‘water towers’ of the Cauvery rivers are susceptible to people in India are already vulnerable continent) will have a profound impact flooding, sea level rise, saline intrusion, to climate-related shocks and stresses. on water security. Mountain and wetland degradation. Despite the limited contribution to the communities also face increased risks causes of climate change, India is associated with glacial floods, thawing Finally, climate change will have amongst the most adversely affected permafrost, slope instability, soil impacts on river water quality and by its impacts. erosion, and associated impacts on ecology. A summary of the likely rural infrastructure. Coastal and island impacts are given by Whitehead et al. Climate change is raising average communities are threatened by water (2009), and illustrate that low flows in temperatures and is likely to exacerbate scarcity (due to physical shortage or droughts will increase pollutant extremes, as well as causing new saline intrusion) as well as by the concentrations, possibly affecting hazards such as sea level rise. The combined effects of sea level rise, public water supplies. In addition, achievement of the Millennium changes in the frequency and severity temperature-dependent hydrochemical Development Goals (MDGs) is of cyclones, and associated fluvial processes will be affected which could threatened by climate shocks and flooding and tidal surges. The incidence have deleterious consequences for stresses, and development agencies of water-related and waterborne water quality, such as the release of are increasingly aware of the diseases is expected to increase and mineralized nitrogen in rivers or the significance of these risks to poverty the distribution of vectorborne diseases lowering of dissolved oxygen levels, reduction. A recent Organization for may change, in terms of the timing and with subsequent damage to fisheries. Economic Co-operation and 2 Climate Risk Screening of the WSP Portfolio in India: Identifying Key Risk Areas and Potential Opportunities Development study estimated that over staff and partners, as well as existing assessments, and plans and half of the aid flows to countries such as recognize the complexity of decision practices. Also, these India, Bangladesh, and Nepal may be making where information is often recommendations are assessed for at risk. Extreme climate events have uncertain and data gaps are frequent. impact, cost-effectiveness, and frequently set back the development While it will not be feasible to reduce feasibility prior to the integration of process for decades. Humanitarian all climate risks, this allows for measures into planned and ongoing responses to disaster impacts already systematic risk consideration in the DFID-funded activities. Recent DFID cost donors an annual US$6 billion or 7 context of development assistance. ORCHID reports cover whole countries per cent of Official Development The process may also help to such as Bangladesh (Tanner et al. Assistance flows and this proportion is determine some of the limits of 2007) and India (Tanner et al. 2007). rising. In many cases this adaptive risk reduction responses. funding is reallocated from ongoing ORCHID provides country-based In this report, the ORCHID type development activities. portfolio screening of projects and screening process has been adopted programs, as well as a broader and applied to the four specific WSP Development agencies such as the strategic assessment that relates projects listed in Box 2. The key to the DFID are committed to reducing donor activities to national priorities ORCHID methodology for the current climate-related vulnerability by and plans. Based on profiles of climate work is to undertake risk screening of integrating adaptation and risk and future hazard and vulnerability, climate-related events on the four reduction into development the process prioritizes key planned poverty reduction programs. It also cooperation. To tackle these issues, and ongoing activities that are high addresses the need for adaptation to the DFID has piloted the use of climate risk and present good opportunities for reduce the risks posed by climate risk management through a process to risk and vulnerability reduction. change to people’s lives and assess and address climate risks to Recommendations are made for livelihoods. The DFID integrated report development programs. This process integrating disaster risk reduction and on India (Tanner et al. 2007) produced called ORCHID (Opportunities and climate change adaptation within an overall summary table for the WSP Risks from Climate Change and program activities. These program as a whole and this is shown Disasters) emphasizes the need to recommendations draw on further in Table 1. These give a broad raise awareness and interest among inputs on hazards, vulnerability and indication of the WSP area. Table 1: Climate risks, management, and adaptation strategy for the Water and Sanitation Program Identified climate risks Climate risk management and adaptation Current practices Additional opportunities Damage to drinking Help central government with ■ Improve compliance and build awareness of water pipelines and management of technical and planners on building codes and best practices sewage lines financial frameworks for maintenance ■ Conduct vulnerability and risk assessment to of WSP services inform building codes prior to infrastructure development in low-lying areas Changes in water supply Help central government with demand and supply development of best practices for ■ Analyze spatial and temporal changes in water resource management drinking water supply and incorporate the results in contract documents of local Occurrence and spread State-level water quality monitoring service providers of waterborne diseases and surveillance to check the nature ■ Ensure integrated flood or disease warning of secondary order impacts and rapid evacuation procedures for vulnerable areas 3 The issue of water security is fundamental to government policy on rural water. WSP is currently working on activities that include integrated water resources planning, water safety planning, periodic review of improvement programs, introduction of standard operating procedures and operator service agreements, as well as inputs to government policy, strategy and capacity building. Climate Risks, Adaptation, function as a means of matching water source, sampling and and Opportunities bottom-up determined needs and analysis on occasional checks delivery with top-down overall policies against interim standards. for WSP India and financing. The large size of the ■ Operations: Technical surveys to In this report we are concerned not districts (on average there are 1,000 establish current technical and only with the risks of climate change villages per district in India) provides financial situations and advice on but also the adaptation measures that for consideration of integrated water how to protect water supplies need to be taken to minimize these resource planning covering surface against flooding including risks. In many ways adaptation can be water, groundwater and rainwater protection of sources and treatment seen as an opportunity to improve harvesting, and convergence of and consideration of the state of current systems of working, enhance different development programs. The drainage channels, maintenance of policy and design procedures and, approach moves away from top-down distribution systems including perhaps, bring communities together infrastructure provision to service leakage control. as they face a common problem. provision considerations. In the context of climate change it is It is not for each gram panchayat to try Improved Sustainability of instructive to consider what should be to make its predictions on climate Rural Drinking Water included in the advice provided to change but to respond to the advice Supply (SA/IND/55) gram panchayats1 by states through coming down from the districts based The issue of water security is the district planners, and what on state policy, and prepare plans for fundamental to government policy on measures the gram panchayats should submission to the districts. However, rural water. Government policy can be include in their plans. they know what problems are being broken down into (a) ensuring a good experienced now, whether from source in terms of quantity and quality; In practice the gram panchayats will droughts or flooding, and should aim to (b) source conservation and protection require a lot of technical support and optimize their current operating measures; (c) water quality training in applying advice. So, for systems to minimize the impacts. The management; and (d) effective example, state policy advice would be risks posed by climate change to these operation and maintenance including required along the following lines: policies and to the sustainability of investments in minor repairs as well as ■ Water resources: Minimum rural drinking water supplies are major renewal, replacement, and acceptable per capita amounts, considerable. Climate change will expansions. Whilst policies and minimum acceptable conditions impact rural water supplies in financing are moving in the right for access, required water storage several ways. direction, establishing effective (in days) based on estimates of implementation approaches for new rainfall predictions, codes of Flooding approaches are still a challenge. WSP practice for rainwater harvesting The warmer temperatures are likely to is currently working on activities that and aquifer recharge, multivillage increase evaporation and trigger include (a) integrated planning (district scheme options. higher magnitude precipitation events, water security planning) including ■ Drinking water quality: Interim leading to larger floods (Wilby et al. periodic review and ongoing financing standards (based on Bureau of 2010). If a well has been flooded there for new infrastructure and India Standards IS 10500 and the is a risk of contamination causing maintenance; (b) water safety World Health Organization) with diseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, planning; (c) standard operating emphasis on microbiological cholera, typhoid, and so on. It is critical procedures including key operating quality and known key that the well is disinfected by tasks and assessment of cash flows; contaminants such as arsenic and chlorination or drinking water is boiled and (d) operator service agreements. fluorides, drinking water safety before consumption. There may also The approach to the project has been plans, recommended treatment be contamination of the well by to develop the district planning approaches according to type of chemicals such as pesticides or the 1 A ‘gram panchayat’ is the lowest tier of local government. 4 Climate Risk Screening of the WSP Portfolio in India: Identifying Key Risk Areas and Potential Opportunities well may be filled with sediment. It will depletes the resource; local wells, India. It is strongly recommended that not be easy to deal with devastating dams, and ponds will dry up. This will such initiatives be expanded to floods as the damage could be quite obviously create problems for improve the understanding and severe; however, it is possible to domestic and public water supply. validation of rainwater harvesting as a mitigate the effects of most floods by means of stabilizing rural populations reviewing the construction of Measures to improve the sustainability and redressing urban drift. infrastructure such as well aprons and of these water sources include more drainage, well heads, storage and extensive local small dams to give However, increasingly, lower treatment facilities, local dams, water increased storage and also systems to groundwater tables are leading to a storage ponds and irrigation systems. encourage groundwater recharge such shift from shallow tube wells and This has to be done at the local level as Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR). handpumps, to piped water supplies but there is a need for state and This is crucial for drought-prone areas such as mechanized mini water supply national policy to refine the guidelines where it is imperative that a proportion systems (tank and tap), single village for construction, engineering design, of the surface run-off is encouraged to mechanized piped water supply, or and hydrological management rules. infiltrate the soil and recharge the bulk supply for multivillage schemes Models of catchment hydrology can groundwater, rather than run off into based on surface water. Many states also be used to give advance warning rivers. This can be achieved using (such as Karnataka) are discussing of floods using rainfall gauge networks agricultural techniques such as the possibility of large regional bulk or weather radar systems. Such contour plowing or bunds to prevent water supply (as is already found in models have considerable utility in run-off so that surface ponding and, Gujarat, for example, and the Churu providing flow and flood level hence, enhanced infiltration into the scheme in Rajasthan). forecasts, which can save lives and soil, is achieved. also restrict damage. Also, an analysis Thus, there seems to be a move of the threats of low-lying areas to There are some impressive case towards replacing traditional flood could assist in preventing studies which demonstrate the efficacy groundwater supplies with surface construction in these areas, thereby of present day small scale water water storage and supply. States that saving lives and the costs of flooding. harvesting, especially in Rajasthan. adopt such a strategy will need to Flooding is also an opportunity, in that These studies emphasize the ensure that there are adequate good the surface waters can be encouraged importance of reintroducing concepts quality surface supplies sufficient to to recharge the groundwater, as of traditional ideas with proven supply public needs. In addition, the described in the next section. success over centuries. These costs are significantly higher that local successful studies have typically been rain-fed systems. Droughts and Extended Breaks in bottom-up and facilitated by the Monsoon nongovernmental organizations. Good Therefore, in many ways, the climate The expected increase in droughts examples of these are coordinated by change issue provides a stimulus and and the likely extended breaks in the Wells for India (see an opportunity to improve the level of monsoon rains will create problems for www.wellsforindia.org) and the Alwar service and sustainability of rural water supply in rural areas, which rely project initiated by Rajendra Singh water supplies. heavily on groundwater and local (Sharma 2006). In such examples, storage of water. In many areas community participation has been the Waterborne Diseases groundwater is being drawn from fossil key to success which has led to One of the likely effects of climate sources or in exceedence of recharge perennial water access and two or change will be to increase the rates with the consequence that there even three crops per year. The presence of waterborne or water are excessive draw downs and successful impact of water harvesting controlled diseases. For example, removal from storage; this has recently projects has been proven by satellite enhanced contamination of wells and been graphically demonstrated from images and by field studies (Sharda et water supplies by E. coli will cause remote sensing (GRACE satellite) by al. 2006; Stiefel et al. 2009). Such more stomach infections and food Rodell et al. (2009). Groundwater initiatives are now being promoted and poisoning. E. coli bacterial growth levels will fall as continued abstraction encouraged by the Government of increases in warmer conditions and 5 Scaling up and sustaining rural sanitation outcomes involves the promotion of ‘total sanitation’, focusing on achieving open defecation free communities through behavior change. Improved drainage and solid waste management are critical, especially with urbanization of rural communities. this, coupled with flood events has already been made of the need for externally funded new research following drought conditions, will flush new design codes for water initiatives where they can provide higher concentrations of bacteria into infrastructure, and these need to be additional information for WSP wells and public supplies. There could agreed and instituted at national, state, projects. One good example of this is also be increased crosscontamination and local levels. This is a big task, and the need for a regional climate model, from human and animal waste beyond the specific scope of the WSP based on say a 25-km grid, which disposal, leaking into water supply program, but could help in achieving could provide more local information. pipelines. Again, the resolution of this more sustainable rural supplies. Such a model has been set up by the is a design and policy issue to ensure Similarly, education can play a major Walker Institute at the University of pipelines are adequately separated for role in informing people of how to Reading for the Middle East region sources of waste and also that improve local management of water and applied to assess climate change, adequate testing at well heads is supplies, to enhance groundwater drought, and flooding in the Jordan undertaken to prevent drinking recharge, and to minimize the risks to Valley (www.waterlifecivilisation.org). contaminated water. Other diseases infection and disease. This education Such a model could be set up and such as schistosomiasis are also can start in schools and local applied across India, providing much spread by irrigation and water community groups and be supported better estimates of the impacts of movement (Maszle et al. 1998) and by research in colleges and climate change in regions and local there may be an enhanced exposure universities, and also make use of areas in India. of rural people to such diseases. media such as the internet, mobile Again, it is possible to take measures phone system, television, and radio. Task Action Plan that reduce the risk of the spread of Adequately funded research is a key The adaptation measures and such diseases. requirement to redesigning opportunities highlighted earlier for engineering codes, to evaluate the rural water supplies could give rise to Policy and Education impacts of climate change across India a significant set of tasks and potential Policy and education are also key and to improve flood forecasting actions, including: aspects of the WSP project and these techniques. Again, large scale ■ Redesigning the engineering codes have a big role to play in combating research is beyond the remit of the for pipelines, water treatment, the effects of climate change. Mention WSP, but WSP should support water supply systems, local dams, 6 Climate Risk Screening of the WSP Portfolio in India: Identifying Key Risk Areas and Potential Opportunities and irrigations systems. This is Flooding enhanced in warmer conditions. The beyond the scope of WSP’s The main threat from flooding arises great advantage of installing sanitation activities, but WSP can support from the possible inundation of is the resultant reduced pollution and government policy to achieve this. domestic and public toilets, especially hence the reduced likelihood of ■ Increasing use of rain-fed systems in low-lying areas. This would create diseases being spread in rural areas. to enhance the sustainability of many problems with damage to For example, enhanced contamination local water supplies. infrastructure and additional public of wells and water supplies following ■ Introducing measures to enhance health problems that may arise. The flooding is restricted significantly by groundwater recharge following roll out of sanitation services in rural rural sanitation. all rainfall events. areas could be affected if enhanced ■ Providing improved flood protection is required and it will not be Droughts and Extended forecasting measures based on easy to deal with devastating floods as Breaks in the Monsoon measure precipitation gauges or the damage could be severe. It is, The expected increase in droughts weather radar systems, linked to however, possible to mitigate the and the likely extended breaks in the catchment models. effects of most floods by reviewing the monsoon rains will create problems for ■ Helping refine policy at national, infrastructure. Climate change will sanitation in rural areas, where water state, and local levels to require greater emphasis on protecting is required for flushing of public toilets. incorporate the above four tasks. toilet facilities and districts and states Climate change also raises the ■ Supporting educational systems to should provide advice on the location question of the reuse of sewage inform local people and also and design of toilet blocks to protect effluent for irrigation, as this may be encourage research funded against flooding. Likewise, improved possible where there are water outside of the WSP project to drainage and solid waste management shortages. Again, states should decide support the above five tasks, are critical, especially with on policy in relation to water source as well as the development of a urbanization of rural communities. situations and advise gram regional climate model which can panchayats accordingly. be linked to local water use Water Quality and patterns, thus helping to better Waterborne Diseases Policy and Education estimate impacts of The WSP approach towards ‘safe Policy and education are also key climate change. water and sanitation for all’ addresses aspects of the WSP project and these quality aspects of water to make it safe have a big role to play in combating Scaling up and Sustaining and also an inclusive approach to the effects of climate change. There Rural Sanitation Outcomes address the poor. The climate change may be a need to reevaluate the (SA/IND/56) challenge will require a higher order of design of public toilets and sanitation This WSP project involves the capacity of service providers and a systems, but this is a task for state and promotion of ‘total sanitation’ greater level of responsible behavior national governments. Increased focus (including safe disposal of excreta and hygiene adaptation at the on solid and liquid waste management and solid and liquid waste household level. Water Safety is critical and has already been made management) with a focus on Planning frameworks in WSP areas a priority by the national government. achieving and sustaining open are the starting points to work towards defecation free communities through addressing water quality issues. One Task Action Plan behavior change. The risks posed by reason for decline in water quality is The adaptation measures and climate change to the sustainability of the increase in run-off and opportunities highlighted earlier for rural sanitation are potentially precipitation that carries with it higher rural sanitation could give rise to a significant. The major threats are levels of nutrients, pathogens, and significant set of tasks and potential rising temperatures, increased pollutants, especially in cases where actions, including: droughts, increased flooding, and a there are sanitation problems. Another ■ Providing support to state and more variable monsoon. These significant source of water degradation national governments for the changes could impact rural sanitation results from an increase in water improved design of toilets and in several ways. temperature as bacterial growth is sanitation systems to ensure these 7 The density and size of populations in urban areas mean that climate change problems are magnified. Associated with reliability of water supply are improved leakage control, policy on nonrevenue water, improved controls on drinking water quality derived from water safety plans, and public education programs. are not damaged by floods and implementation of operational of reservoirs or dams, for supplying the remain effective in droughts. improvement programs. Also, city and larger city populations than rural However, care must be taken to public education programs are areas. In theory, such extra capacity ensure that the costs of improved essential for demand management. As should provide greater supply codes do not become counter- intermittent supplies are one of the reliability. However, groundwater, productive to the acceptance of greatest risks to drinking water safety, direct river abstraction or dam systems sanitation behavior change. 24x7 supply also provides for safer supplying urban centers may be ■ Supporting integrated approaches water. Policy should include the themselves vulnerable to excessive for water supply and sanitation requirement for improved controls on floods. Floods can overwhelm planning that anticipate risks to drinking water quality derived reservoirs or dams, especially if the urbanization and water scarcity, from water safety plans. Moreover, flow volumes exceed the dam design through initiatives for solid and operational matters are for the cities, criteria, which are based on past liquid waste management, water whether or not they contract out the rainfall and flow regimes. Also, safety planning, and ensuring management of the services. groundwater and river water can be adequate quantity of water for How they meet the required system contaminated by flood water, so there domestic needs. capacity and performance targets are clearly several issues here that ■ Supporting educational systems to should be a matter for them. States need addressing. WSP can support inform local people and also should check that city plans are national and state governments in providing the expertise and appropriate to achieve and sustain checking current design criteria and research needed to undertake the those service requirements. ensuring that the water infrastructure above tasks. can cope with increased rainfall and The major threats as a result of climate floods. Also, it is necessary to ensure Improving Urban Water change are rising temperatures, that water treatment plants have increased droughts, increased sufficient capacity to handle the extra Service Delivery in India flooding, and a more variable monsoon volumes of contaminated water. (SA/IND/57) with the unpredictable intermittent In many ways, the risks posed by breaks in the monsoon. These There is also the possibility that water climate change to the urban water changes will impact urban water treatment plants and pumping stations service are similar to the rural water service delivery in many ways. will be located in low-lying areas and supply but operate at a larger scale. they will be vulnerable to flooding. For The density and size of populations in Flooding example, recent floods in the United urban areas mean that climate change The flooding problems are likely to be Kingdom caught water supply problems are magnified. Demand severe in urban areas as the authorities by surprise as water controls are vital, especially with a impermeable surfaces (for example, treatment plants were put out of action growing population. It has now been car parks, roads, and so on) retain no for up to three weeks (Severn Trent shown in India that 24x7 supply water and provide a rapid overland Gloucester area in summer 2008). systems actually reduce overall water route for the water. Houses, buildings, demand, so an important policy and factories intensify flooding as roof The severe threat to human decision is the timetable for its drains are overwhelmed and rapid flow populations by floods in low-lying achievement across all cities. The occurs. Moreover, drains and streets areas can be limited by a flood reliability of supply provides for public focus the water flows through low-lying warning system and by the prevention confidence and a greater willingness urban areas, especially where culverts of building in low-lying areas. to pay for a sustainable service. and drains have not been adequately Models of catchment hydrology can Associated with 24x7 supply is a policy designed to take the extra flow also be used to give advance warning on nonrevenue water including volumes. These extra flow rates and of floods provided data is available improved leakage control. the force of the water are quite likely to from rainfall gauge networks or Performance indicators and damage infrastructure such as drains, weather radar systems. These are benchmarking are already being culverts, and water supply pipelines. In outside the remit of the WSP projects introduced by national and state general, urban areas have larger but WSP can provide support for governments to drive the external storage capacity, in the form such initiatives. 8 Droughts and Extended Breaks in Policy and Education community at the heart of the Monsoon Policy and education are also key the process. In urban areas, the expected increase aspects of urban water services and ■ Integrating adaptation into in droughts and the likely extended these have a big role to play in development plans to develop breaks in the monsoon rains will combating the effects of climate climate proof infrastructures in create problems for water supply but change. Urban populations can be urban areas. these may not be as immediate as for assisted by flood warning systems rural areas because of the larger and also warnings about water Improving Urban capacity backup storage available in contamination. WSP can support the Sanitation and Municipal urban areas. However, groundwater review and updating of design codes SWM Services (SA/IND/58) levels will fall as continued abstraction for water infrastructure but this is a The risks posed by climate change to depletes the resources, and policy issue for national, state, and the sustainability of urban sanitation reservoirs and rivers will dry up if a local levels. are also significant. The major threats drought persists. This will obviously are rising temperatures, increased create problems for public water Task Action Plan droughts, increased flooding and a The adaptation measures and supply. Measures to improve the more variable monsoon. These opportunities highlighted earlier for water sources are costly in urban changes could impact urban urban water services could give rise areas because of the large scale sanitation in several ways. to a significant set of tasks and infrastructure required to supply the potential actions, including: larger populations. This can only be Water Reuse and ■ Improving data collection and addressed with major funding and Solid Waste Management providing reliable information to planning. There is also a need to Sanitation is an integral part of the help policy makers make refine the estimated effects of climate water cycle and water reuse in urban better decisions. change in urban centers, use the best areas is a possibility. Thus improved ■ Supporting national and state information to redesign the water sanitation will increase the water governments to assess supply systems, and put in place long availability in towns and, if treated, engineering codes for street term plans. However, as in the case of drains, culverts, roof drains, this wastewater can be recycled to the rural situation, the climate change water treatment plants, water meet industrial and agricultural water issue provides an opportunity to pipeline and supply systems, needs. Moreover, the nutrients in the improve the sustainability of urban local reservoirs, dams, and wastewater can partially offset the water supplies. groundwater resources. need for fertilizers. This will also ■ Supporting improved flood produce considerable savings in Water Quality and forecasting measures based on energy as fewer fertilizers have to be Waterborne Diseases measure precipitation gauges or manufactured, which will contribute to Waterborne disease will also be an weather radar systems, linked to lower green house gas emissions. issue for urban areas, especially if catchment models for urban flood water contaminates the public low-lying areas. Climate change will also have a water supply system or droughts ■ Supporting educational systems to substantial impact on solid waste cause people to drink untreated water inform local people and also management practices, underlining because of the lack of supply. Again, providing the expertise and the need for urgent action on these. the only adaptations possible to this research needed to undertake the The major threat of rising are educational, to warn people of the above tasks. temperatures will be to augment the dangers, and to increase the basic ■ Taking a community-centered rate of decay of solid waste that is water treatment infrastructure to approach, since adaptation is dumped on land without treatment minimize the contamination or the loss necessarily local and would be and safe disposal. This will lead to of supplies. best tackled by putting the affected increased emissions of methane gas, 9 Climate Risk Screening of the WSP Portfolio in India: Identifying Key Risk Areas and Potential Opportunities which is 21 times more powerful than service providers and a greater level carbon dioxide in terms of its impact of responsible behavior and hygiene on climate change. It is thus critical to adaptation at the household level. step up attempts to ensure timely Water Safety Planning frameworks in treatment and disposal of solid WSP countries are the starting wastes, especially in urban areas, points towards addressing water which are major generators. quality issues. Flooding Where sewerage systems take both The main threat from flooding arises sewage and street run-off (that is, from the possible inundation of combined systems), cities need to domestic and public toilets, especially consider how to improve flow capacity in low-lying areas. This would create to avoid contaminated flood water. many problems with damage to Attention should be given to means of infrastructure and additional public slowing down and reducing run-off health problems that may arise. The through porous paving, installation of roll out of sanitation services in urban vortex devices in gullies, and local areas could be affected if enhanced network storage. Where there are protection is required and it will not be separate storm water drainage easy to deal with devastating floods as systems, these should be kept clean the damage could be severe. and cleared of garbage. Sewage However, it is possible to mitigate the treatment works should be protected effects of most floods by reviewing the from river flooding. infrastructure and improving Task Action Plan engineering codes for toilet systems. The great advantage of installing The adaptation measures and Also, increased flooding in areas sanitation is the reduced pollution opportunities highlighted earlier for where untreated waste has been and, hence, the reduced likelihood of urban sanitation could give rise to a dumped carries the risk of groundwater diseases being spread in urban areas. significant set of tasks and potential contamination, and the spread of For example, enhanced contamination actions, including: infection. Treatment of wastes and of wells and water supplies following ■ Supporting a review of design codes land-filling of inert pollutants and waste flooding will be restricted significantly for toilets and sanitation systems to can mitigate this risk. by urban sanitation. cope with floods and droughts. ■ Increasing focus on water reuse Water Quality and Policy and Education and treatment and disposal of Waterborne Diseases Policy and education are also key solid waste. Water quality is affected by the aspects of the WSP project and these ■ Adopting Water Safety Plans to increase in run-off in urban areas that have a big role to play in combating focus investments towards carries with it higher levels of the effects of climate change. There health-based outcomes. nutrients, pathogens, and pollutants. may be a need to reevaluate the ■ Redefining policies at national, In addition, increased water design of public toilets and state, and local levels to temperatures enhance the pathogens sanitation systems. The expected encourage the authorities to in water. The WSP approach towards increase in droughts and the likely expand the use of sanitation ‘safe water and sanitation for all’ extended breaks in the monsoon systems as quickly as possible. addresses quality aspects of water to rains will create problems for ■ Supporting educational systems to ensure potable water for poor people. sanitation in urban areas, where inform local people and also The climate change challenge will water is required for flushing of providing the expertise and research require a higher order of capacity of public toilets. needed to undertake the above tasks. 10 Climate Risk Screening of the WSP Portfolio in India: Identifying Key Risk Areas and Potential Opportunities Conclusions change and the frequency of extreme materials for sensitization of policy This review of climate change risks as events. A bigger risk may be the makers and designers on they affect urban and rural water ongoing rapid population growth or safeguards for future infrastructure supplies and sanitation has indicated migration. In parts of India this has assets or refurbishment of existing that there is considerable risk to these resulted in the gross over-abstraction assets based on review of programs by climate change. of groundwater to the point where engineering design standards and However, adaptation is possible and, there is no alternative but to develop building codes. in many ways, the threats can be surface water sources and promote ■ To flag the need for counterpart used as an opportunity to further aquifer recharge through rainwater ministries of rural and urban refine the programs and help harvesting and reuse. development to engage with the many more poor people in rural and ministry of health to undertake urban India. Broad issues where WSP can research on the likely impacts of participate in sector dialog include: climate change on disease Inevitably, in a general overview of ■ Additional climate change response and identify measures to this nature, it is not possible to go into research for a fine scale regional combat such disease outbreaks. great detail on every program. climate change model for India to ■ Support improved use of data However, a series of tasks have been provide much greater detail of the collection and provision of reliable identified which can be pursued to specific threats in different regions information to help policy makers climate proof the WSP programs. of India. This can be linked to local make better decisions in areas Whilst these are not all tasks that water use patterns to better relating to climate change WSP can fulfill directly, they are estimate impacts of climate impacts including integrating tasks that WSP can support so that change. Funding such a program adaptation into development plans the program officers have the is beyond the scope of WSP, but to develop climate proof necessary information. the information from such research infrastructures. will be valuable for WSP projects. ■ Develop simple communications A crucial point to consider is that of ■ Advocacy for government to support detailed studies on climate strategy and associated guidance separating extreme events which are change impacts on water materials for informing local difficult to manage but can be planned resources and water quality in communities, and a check list of for in advance, and ongoing specific catchments, with results safeguards to consider when challenges that can be managed but being fed to authorities and designing new infrastructure or may have some costs. In practice aid agencies. refurbishing existing assets. both will have costs because there is Identify coastal aquifers that could ■ Support educational systems and a cost/uncertainty (risk) trade-off and, ■ be affected by saline intrusion community-centered approaches critically, there is a need to consider planning time horizons. from rising sea levels, and areas to inform local people and provide affected by wastage of the region’s the expertise and research needed Another key point is that climate snow and ice stores. to undertake local safeguards. change factors are ‘merely’ items to ■ Provide flood forecasting ■ Flag the use of rainwater be included in a risk assessment measures based on measure harvesting, groundwater recharge, alongside other risks to the precipitation gauges or weather and water reuse, and improved sustainability of water and sanitation radar systems, linked to catchment solid waste management. services. There has always been models to warn local people in uncertainty about rainfall both in the rural and urban areas. This 10-point plan (outlined above) provision of water resources and in will require major investment but will intensity of rainfall whether on Issues which WSP can take up strike at the heart of the problem and, monsoon yields or local storms in directly are: over time, radically improve the water regard to flooding. The difference now ■ For policy and design, it is supply and sanitation systems in rural appears to be the extent (range) of necessary to develop a module or and urban India. 11 References ABOUT THE SERIES: Agarwal, A, and S. Nairan. 1997. Dying Wisdom. Centre for Science and the Environment, Delhi. WSP Field Notes describe and IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Summary for Policymakers. Fourth analyze projects and activities in Water and Sanitation Program Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental water and sanitation that provide Panel on Climate Change, ed. M. L. Parry, O. F. The World Bank lessons for sector leaders, Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, and 55 Lodi Estate, New Delhi 110 003 administrators, and individuals C. E. Hanson. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge India tackling the water and sanitation University Press. Phone: (91-11) 24690488, 24690489 challenges in urban and rural Maszle, D. R., P. G. Whitehead, R. Johnson, and R. Fax: (91-11) 24628250 areas. The criteria for selection of C. Spear. 1998. Hydrological Studies of Schistoso- E-mail: wspsa@worldbank.org stories included in this series are miasis Transport in Sichuan Province, China. Web site: www.wsp.org Science of Total Environment, Vol. 216, 193–203. large-scale impact, demonstrable sustainability, good cost Nair, Sreeja, Souvik Bhattacharjya, Sangeet Kumar Srivastava, Pradhan Parth Sarthi, Meena recovery, replicable conditions, Sehgal, Thomas Tanner, Daniel Kull, and Unmesh and leadership. Patnaik et al. 2007. Climate Risk Screening in DFID India: Technical Appendix. Institute of Development Studies, Brighton. Rodell, M, I. Velicogna, and J. S. Famiglietti. 2009. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v460/ n7258/full/nature08238.html - a2#a2 Satellite-Based Estimates of Groundwater Depletion in India. Nature, 460: 999-1002 WSP MISSION: Sharda, V. N., R. S. Kurothe, D. R. Sena, V. C. Pande, and S. P. Tiwari. 2006. Estimation of WSP’s mission is to support poor people in Groundwater Recharge from Water Storage Structures in a Semi-Arid Climate of India. Journal of obtaining affordable, safe, and sustainable Hydrology, 329: 224-243. access to water and sanitation services. Sharma, A. 2006. Water Harvesting in the Context of the Indian Subcontinent. http://gwadi.org/ WSP FUNDING PARTNERS: allepo/AnupmaSharma.pdf The Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) is Stiefel, J. M., A. M. Melesse, M. E. McClain, R. M. Price, E. P. Anderson, and N. K. Chauhan. a multi-donor partnership created in 1978 2009. Effects of Rainwater-Harvesting-Induced Artificial Recharge on the Groundwater of Wells and administered by the World Bank to in Rajasthan, India. Hydrogeological Journal, 17: 2061-2073. support poor people in obtaining affordable, safe, and sustainable access to Tanner, T., A. Hassan, K. Nabiul Islam, D. Conway, R. Mechler, A. Uddin and M. Alam. 2007. ORCHID: Piloting Climate Risk Screening in DFID Bangladesh. Institute of Development Studies, water and sanitation services. WSP Brighton. provides technical assistance, facilitates knowledge exchange, and promotes Tanner, T., S. Nair, S. Bhattacharjya, Srivastava S. Kumar, P. Parth Sarthi, M. Sehgal, and D. evidence-based advancements in sector Kull. 2007. ORCHID: Climate Risk Screening in DFID India. Synthesis Report to DFID. Institute dialogue. WSP has offices in 25 countries of Development Studies, Brighton. across Africa, East Asia and the Pacific, Turner, A. J., and J. M. Slingo. 2009. Walker Institute, University of Reading, UK. Quarterly Latin America and the Caribbean, South Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, DOI: 10.1002/qj.401. Asia, and in Washington, DC. WSP’s donors include Australia, Austria, Canada, Wells for India. www.wellsforindia.org Denmark, Finland, France, the Bill and Whitehead, P. G., A. J. Wade, and D. Butterfield. 2009. Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Melinda Gates Foundation, Ireland, Water Quality and Ecology in Six U.K. Rivers. Hydrol. Res., 40 (2-3), 113-122. Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Whitehead, P. G., R. J. Wilby, R. W. Battarbee, M. Kernan, and A. J. Wade. 2009. A Review of United States, and the World Bank. For the Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Surface Water Quality. Hydrol. Sci. J. des Sci. Hydrologiques, 54 (1), 101-124. more information, please visit www.wsp.org. Wilby, R. 2010. Climate for Development in South Asia (ClimDev-SAsia). An inventory of AusAID provides WSP-SA cooperative programs and sources of climate risk. Report to DFID, London. programmatic support. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Task Managers: Nicholas Pilgrim and Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) reports are published to communicate the results of WSP’s work to the Nabaroon Bhattacharjee development community. Some sources cited may be informal documents that are not readily available. 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