21387 August 1996 Toolkit on Gender in Water- and Sanitation Gender Toolkit Series No. 2 Monica S. Fong, Wendy Wakeman and Anjana Bhushan !_____ __ _ _ _ _ _ FL .,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Vt , Gendr Aalyis nd oliy, Poverty and Social Policy Departmen The World Bank U ND P-World. Bank Watear and. San itation PrOgram, TWUWS Wsigo,DC Transportation, ~Water and Urban Dev,elopmenOnt Department 's go,DC Toolkit on Gender in Waterand Sanitation Gender Toolkit Series No. 2 Monica S. Fong, Wendy Wakeman and Anjana Bhushan Gender Analysis and Policy, Poverty and Social Policy Department UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, TWUWS The World Bank Transportation, Water and Urban Development Department Washington, D.C. Copyright 1996 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 Printed August 1996 Photos: Maurice Asseo: pages 1, 52: Curt Carnemark: front and back cover, pages 31, 42, 56, 73, 86; John Cleave: page 8. This document is published informally by the World Bank. Copies are available free from the World Bank. Contact Ms. Stella David, Room S10-135x, telephone 202-473-3752, fax 202-522-3237. The World Bank does not accept any responsibility for the views expressed herein, which are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank or its affiliated organizations. The findings, inter- pretations, and conclusions are the results of research supported by the Bank. The designations employed and the presentation of the material are solely for the convenience of the reader and do not imply the expression of any legal opinion whatsoever on the part of any country, territory, city, area, or of its au- thorities, or concerning the delineations of its boundaries or national affiliation. Contents Foreword Acknowledgments vii Acronyms viii Chapter 1: Purpose of Toolkit 2 Organization of Toolkit 2 Chapter 2: Gender Issues in the Water and Sanitation Sector 4 A. What is Gender? 4 B. What is Gender Analysis? 4 C. Principles of Sound Water and Sanitation Management 4 D. From Principles to Action 5 E. Borrower Country Ownership 7 F. Institutional Capacity 7 Chapter 3: Lessons from ProjectExperience 9 A. Introduction 9 Lesson 1: Gender is a central concern in water and sanitation. 10 Lesson 2: Ensuring both women's and men's participation improves project performance. 11 Lesson 3: Specific, simple mechanisms must be created to ensure women's involvement. 12 B. Country and Sector Work 14 Lesson 4: Attention to gender needs to start as early as possible. 14 C. Gender in the Program Cycle 14 Identification 15 Lesson 5: Gender analysis is integral to project identification and data collection. 15 Project Preparation and Appraisal 18 Lesson 6: A learning approach is more gender-responsive than a blueprint approach. 18 Lesson 7: Projects are more effective when both women's and men's preferences about 19 "hardware" are addressed. Implementation 22 Lesson 8: Women and men promote project goals through both their traditional and nontraditional roles. 22 Lesson 9: Non-governmental organizations and especially women's groups can facilitate a gender-balanced approach. 26 Supervision, Monitoring and Evaluation 27 Lesson 10: Gender-related indicators should be included when assessing project performance. 27 Chapter 4: Good Practice on Gender in Waterand Sanitation 32 A. Listening to Women in Project Design: the Baku Water Supply Project 32 B. Involving Local Communities in Low-Income Sanitation in Brazil 34 iii Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation C. Gender as a Critical Variable in Lesotho's Rural Sanitation Program 36 D. Learning About Integrating Gender Through a Pilot Project in Nepal 38 E. Integrating Gender into a Community-Based Project in Sri Lanka 40 Appendix 1: Where to Turn to forAdvice 43 A. Bank Staff Working on Water and Sanitation and Gender 43 B. Selected Agencies Working on Gender Issues in Water and Sanitation 45 Appendix 2: Terms of Reference for Consultants 53 A. TORs for a Gender Specialist in the Water and Sanitation Sector 53 B. TORs for Gender Analysis During the Preparation and Design Phases 54 C. TORs for Gender Analysis During the Implementation Phase 54 D. TORs for Gender Analysis During Monitoring and Evaluation 55 Appendix 3: Sources of Funding 57 A. Trust Funds 57 B. Other Funding Sources 69 Appendix 4: Selected References 71 Appendix5: Learning Tools 74 A. Principles of Participatory Gender Analysis 74 B. Participatory Tools and Exercises 74 Appendix 6: World Bank Projects in Water and Sanitation with Gender- Related Actions 76 Appendix 7 Selected Articles 87 A. Financing Agenda 21: Freshwater 87 B. Overview, from Gender Issues Sourcebook for Water and Sanitation Projects. 89 C. Overview, from Sourcebook for Gender Issues at the Policy Level in the Water and Sanitation Sector. 94 D. Demand-Based Approach: Making Large-Scale Rural Water Supply Projects Work 97 Appendix8& A Slide Presentation on GenderIssues in Waterand Sanitation 103 Endnotes 104 iv Contents List of Boxes 1. Recycling scarce water in the household 2. Women have preferences about hardware 3. Finding out women's priorities promotes project acceptance 4. Dealing with men's opposition 5. Women's strategies for maintaining public facilities 6. Working with women hand pump mechanics 7. Women make successful office holders of water committees 8. Profile of a latrine builder in Lesotho List of Tables 1. Suggested methods of data collection for gender analysis 2. Strategy options for incorporating gender 3. Incremental steps in promoting women's participation in the CWSSP 4. World Bank staff with experience in water and sanitation and gender 5. Gender focal points in the World Bank v Foreword More than one billion people in developing countries lack access to safe water and nearly two billion do not have adequate sanitation. Where clean water is available, it is often located at quite a distance from the household; the poor, usually women and girls, spend long hours collecting it-time that might have been spent more productively. Water and sanitation-related diseases lead to higher health costs, lost wages, and lower productivity. Successful strategies for designing and implementing policies, programs, and projects in the water and sanitation sector now rely on demand-driven, participatory approaches rather than supply-driven, blueprint approaches. Such strategies require the active participation of both men and women at all stages of the project cycle. Thanks to efforts ranging from the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981-90) to the Fourth World Conference for Women at Beijing in September 1995, women are now widely recognized as playing a central part in the water and sanitation sector. The design of programs, however, still does not sufficiently reflect this pivotal role. One reason is that practitioners often lack the tools and know-how for integrating gender perspectives in their work. This toolkit on gender in the water and sanitation sector has been prepared to respond to this need. The toolkit comprises ready-to-use material designed expressly for World Bank task managers working in the water and sanitation sector. It presents a range of tools for gender analysis and practical "how-to strate- gies collected from program and project experience around the world. It is one of a series of toolkits being designed to assist task managers in improving project performance by incorporating gender into their work. This first edition will be tested for its usefulness in all Regions. It will then be revised to incorporate lessons learned, as well as new developments and issues, regional perspectives, and additional examples of good practice. We are confident that staff in the Bank who are grappling with the day-to-day issues of gender-sensitive pro- gramming in the water and sanitation sector will find the toolkit useful and applicable in their work. To increase its value in the future, we would welcome users' feedback and suggestions. Please send them to Monica Fong, Gender Analysis and Policy/Group Poverty and Social Policy Department (GAP/PSP), or Wendy Wakeman, UNDP - World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, Water and Sanitation Division, Transportation. Water, and Urban Development Department (TWUWS). Ismail Serageldin Armeane Choksi Vice President Vice President Environmentally Sustainable Development Human Capital Development vii Acknowledgments This toolkit was prepared by Monica S. Fong, Wendy Wakeman and Anjana Bhushan under the overall guidance of Minh Chau Nguyen, Cecilia Valdivieso (PSP), Brian Grover and John Briscoe (TWUWS). The toolkit reflects advice given by a Bankwide consultative focus group guiding its preparation and the many thoughtful comments and contributions made by water and sanitation and gender staff across the Bank, in particular Michael Bamberger, Fathi Ben-Slimane, Gianni Brizzi, Chantal Dejou, Lea Donaldson, Karen Jacob, Vijay Jagannathan, Karl Kleiner, Dominique Lallement, Anthony Graeme Lee, Xavier Legrain, Alain Locussol, An- drew Macoun, Patricio Marquez, Andrew Mason, Rose Mulama, Josette Murphy, Erdogan Pancaroglu, Lars Rasmusson, Robert Roche, John A. Roome. Maria Teresa Serra, Najma Siddiqi, Anthony Van Vugt, Richard Verspyck and Julie Viloria. The toolkit was edited by Pamela Cubberly. Stella David and Zisa Lubarow-Walton provided word-processing and graphics support. The design and layout were done by Kathy Rosen. The production of the toolkit was made possible partly through funds from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which has given strong support to the water and sanitation sector and to integrating gender issues in the Bank's work. viii Acronyms CAS Country assistance strategy CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CTF Consultant trust fund CTFP Consultant Trust Fund Program CWSSP Community Water Supply and Sanitation Project DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DGIS Directorate-General for International Cooperation FINNIDA Finnish International Development Agency GAP Gender Analysis and Policy (group) IDA International Development Association ILO International Labour Office INSTRAW United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women IRC International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply and Sanitation ISW International Secretariat for Water IWTC International Women's Tribune Center JAKPAS Janta Ko Khane Pani Ra Safai Karyakram KAP Knowledge, attitudes, and practices KWAHO Kenya Water for Health Organization M&E Monitoring and evaluation NGO Nongovernmental organization NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation NRM Natural resources management NRSP National Rural Sanitation Program O&M Operation and maintenance PHED Public Health and Engineering Department PROWWESS Promotion of the Role of Women in Water and Environmental Sanitation Services RGA Rapid gender analysis RWSS Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Program SARAR Self-esteem, Associative strengths, Resourcefulness, Action planning. and Responsibility SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SWACH Integrated Sanitation, Water, and Community Health project TWUWS Water and Sanitation Division, Transportation. Water and Urban Development Department UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP United Nations Development Prograrnme UNDTCD United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation and Development UNICEF United Nations Children Fund UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women USAID U.S. Agency for International Development VLOM Village-level operation and maintenance WASH Water and Sanitation for Health WHO World Health Organization WID Women in Development ix WEN g X00V:S j i l S: g g WE | | N | EiSG g iE | I 1! | !l | | S a i | lE | ! | | | ! N | | Purpose of Toolkit Despite increased gender awareness, well-docu- practice in more detail in country case studies of mented research findings, and the availability of Bank projects in the sector that have utilized effec- much more information on women's and men's tive gender strategies. Appendix ] highlights some roles in water and sanitation, gender is not yet prominent agencies-international, bilateral, govern- mainstreamed into the World Bank's work in this mental, and nongovernmental-and Bank staff that sector. Bank task managers frequently lack practical constitute useful resources to which task managers tools to incorporate gender issues into water and can turn for expertise and advice on gender issues sanitation programs and projects. This toolkit is in water and sanitation. Appendix 2 presents designed to help fill that gap. samples of general terms of reference for gender No single strategy or package can cover the many experts hired at various stages of the project or busi- different situations that exist across countries. In- ness cycle. Task managers can adapt these to suit stead, this toolkit shows whyattention to gender is the particular country context in which they work. important and how such attention can be ensured. Because incorporating gender can entail costs for The toolkit is meant to familiarize Bank staff with which funds have not been budgeted, Appendix 3 some of the strategies and methodologies that are lists additional financial resources that are available of practical use in introducing gender perspectives within the Bank for task managers to tap. For task when working in the water and sanitation sector. managers who want to delve further into the sub- To do so, the toolkit distills lessons from project and ject, Appendix 4 furnishes a list of useful publica- sector work experience and draws on examples of tions, all of which are available in World Bank li- successful strategies, interventions, and promising braries. Finally, examples of interactive exercises approaches. It also helps identify resources avail- that constitute learning tools are given in Appendix able to task managers working in this sector. For the 5. These can be used in a variety of ways. For in- toolkit to best serve its purpose, however, task man- stance, they are useful in conducting meetings of agers should at the same time consult two project staff and participants to analyze local gen- sourcebooks, the Gender Issues Sourcebook for der issues in water and sanitation and to reach de- Water,and Sanitation Projects and The World Bank cisions that reflect the voice of the entire commu- Participation Sourcebook.' These resources contain nity on project activities. The table in Appendix 6 checklists, sample questionnaires, and other de- lists past and present World Bank projects in water tailed information on how to use some of the strat- and sanitation that include gender perspectives. egies and techniques introduced in the toolkit. Appendix 7 reproduces a selection of key articles that provide task managers with succinct discussions Organization of Toolkit of recent thinking concerning gender in water and sanitation, especially as it relates to increasing the The toolkit starts in Chapter2by presenting the sustainability of projects. Appendix 8 contains a rationale for consideringYgenderissuesinwaterand Power Point slide presentation giving an overview rationale for considering gender issues in water anda fgne susi ae adsntto n uln sanitation. Chapter3brings together ten salient les- of gender issues in water and sanitation and outlin- sons learned from experience in the sector around ing the main issues covered in this toolkit. Task the world and illustrates these lessons with concrete managers can use this presentation to help build examples. The chapter discusses what has and has consensus for attention to gender in water and sani- not worked as well as problems encountered and tation policy, programs, and projects. solutions found. Chapter 4 then illustrates good Gender Issues in the Water and Sanitation Sector Incorporating gender and other social issues in B. What is Gender Analysis? projects has been shown to improve project perfor- mance and facilitate achievement of the Bank's goal of poverty reduction, Successful strategies for de- At its simplest, gender analysis is seeing what signingeand iemention plciess poramsf ade our eyes have been trained not to see. It is asking signing and implementing policies, programs, andl questions about the differences between men's and prjcsin the water and sanitation sector now relyv usin bu h ifrne ewe e' n projects in the water and sanitation sector now rely women's activities, roles, and resources to identify on demand-driven, participatory approaches rather their developmental needs. Assessing these differ- than supply-driven, blueprint approaches.2 ences makes it possible to determine men's and women's constraints and opportunities within the A. What is Gender? water and sanitation sector. Gender analysis can help ensure provision of services that men and women In all societies men and women play different want and that are appropriate to their circumstances. roles, have different needs, and face different con- This requires understanding men's and women's straints, Genderroles differ from the biologicalroles roles in the sector by analyzing quantitative and of men and women, although they may overlap in qualitative information about their activities, re- nearly all societies. Gender roles are socially con- sourcesandconstraints, and benefitsandincentives. structed. They demarcate responsibilities between men and women, social and economic activities, C. Principles of Sound Water and access to resources, and decisionmaking authority. Biological roles are fixed, but gender roles can and Sanitation Management do change with social, economic, and technological change. Social factors underlie and support gender- An understanding of gender issues now in- based disparities. These factors include: forms statements made at international gatherings on water and sanitation, such as the 1992 Dublin * Institutional arrangements that create and International Conference on Water and the Environ- reinforce gender-based constraints or, con- ment. Among the four guiding principles set forth versely, foster an environment in which gen- at Dublin, gender issues are explicit in principle der disparities can be reduced number 3 and are also relevant to operationalizing * The formallegal system that reinforces cus- the other three. The four principles are: toms and practice giving women inferior le- gal status in many countries Principle No. 1: Fresh water is a finite and vul- * Socioculturalattitudes and ethnicand class/ nerable resource, essential to sustaining life, caste-based obligations that determine development, and the environment. men's and women's roles, responsibilities, and decisionmaking functions Principle No. 2: Water development and man- * Religious beliefs and practices that limit agement should be based on a participatory ap- women's mobility, social contact, access to proach, involving users, planners, and resources, and the types of activities they policymakers at all levels. can pursue. 2 Gender Issues in the Water and Sanitation Sector Principle No. 3: Women play a central part in water; women, therefore, often have a greater incen- the provision, management, and safeguarding tive to keep systems functioning. of water. Do From Princi les to Action Principle No. 4: Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized Operationalizing the principles of sound wate as an economic good. and sanitation management requires a demand- based, participatory approach that assesses what Some of the gender-related aspects of these prin- cosmr watadaewiln_opy n aii cile are brifl dicuse below consumers want and are willing to pay and facili- _ ciples are briefly discussed below. one of the first principles in sound water and tates their participation in project decisionmaking. sanitation management is that water should be Considering both men's and women's roles and in- managed as an economic as wellas a social good' terests is essential when determining community When analyzing , aterasan eco .omkgood gender demand and designing projects. Participatory ap- Whnalyss canalyzingorwativer an e ic gmport tod genter proaches require more time but increase the chances analysis can be informative. It is important to note o h cetne s,admitnneo ae the gender differentials in activities, resources, and and anitanciltis and tenabieity and beeft of hoshl wate use . Aswmnanil and sanitation facilities and the sustainability and benefits of household water use. As women and girls fnlipc fapoet are often the primary users of water facilities, de- termining what kinds of services they-as well as men-prefer will be essential. In parts of Ghana, for Transing thesi example, water is seen as the women's responsibil- ity; in some families, women are expected to pay * Services will result from, rather than pre- the pump tariffs.4 Knowing women's preferences cede, community initiative in water and and willingness to pay, therefore, is crucial. Women's sanitation. preferences regarding sanitation facilities need to Both men and women will be actively in- be known as well, if projects are to be truly demand- volved in selecting the type and level of based. service. When analyzing wateras a socialgood, assess- * The cost of services and maintenance will ing benefits separately for women and men can be shared by men and women in the com- be instructive, Because women and girls are so munity. closely involved in household water supply, they . Men and women in the community will also often benefit the most when the village supply is share in the investment and ownership of improved. When water quality and quantity im- fclte proves and water is available closer to home, many advantages exist for women: girls and women take Participatory and demand-driven approaches re- shorter trips carrying heavy containers, women quire continuing close interaction with the commu- may have more time for income-generating activi- nities involved.6 They provide a mechanism through ties and for leisure, and girls may be able to spend which communities can be actively involved in mak- more time In school.5 Recognizing these differ- morenes e in benefitscanelp Reogns thate projecs ing choices and communicating these to project staff. arendesigbenedito tak hefull advante ofthatpjem s Community preferences need to be ascertained right from the beginning of the design process and mecha- A second principle involves management and sis devised to ensure community involvement decisionma3kingat the lo westappropriate level involv- throughout the project cycle. Provision of services ing users in management and decisionmaking helps needs to be based on what people want and are will- ensure that systems meet consumer demand and are thus more likely to be used and maintained. As women iconstribute. The ma e or likel to payifo- are often the direct users of water facilities, involving tion facilities that have been built according to their them along with the men in management and tioeli choices. decisionmaking helps ensure that systems meet women's needs. Women use systems on a frequent T h basis and are in a good position to provide accurate. years that a participatory approach is related to im- up-to-date reporting on the functioning of a given sys- proved project outcomes and sustainability. Yet, cor- tem. if a system breaks down, women, not men, will munities are rarely homogenous entities: they are most likely be the ones who must travel farther to get composed of subgroups that differ in income, 3 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation ethnicity, gender, or religion. This is why it is im- and (bJ with linkages to the poor and marginalized. portant to incorporate both socialandgenderanaly- Such stakeholders may include nongovernmental sis into the project preparation and implementation organizations (NGOs), various intermediary or rep- process. Breaking down information about prefer- resentative organizations, private sector businesses, ences and water and sanitation practices by major and technical and professional bodies. social subgroups is useful. Stakeholder analysis in water supply and sanita- Truly participatory projects incorporate gender tion projects identifies the various groups of stake- and social analysis to ensure that all groups can be holders along with the appropriate degree of their involved appropriately in activities that are central involvement in sector activities. This brings to light to their lives. For example, project teams with tech- the different roles played by community men and nical and social skills can create capacity for collect- women and the different incentives that motivate ing baseline data on gender and other social issues. them. Men and women usually belong to separate Community men and women can be involved in subgroups of stakeholders and, therefore, will have selecting the level of service, location of facilities, different levels of involvement in project activities. and signing of contracts. Both men and women can receive technical and administrative training. Sub- Incentives and Constraints projects need to be evaluated in a participatory fash- ion and include indicators to assess performance Often, adequate incentives for women's partici- relating to gender issues. pation are already in place. The crucial issue, there- Special efforts may be needed to ensure that all fore, is to remove barriers to their involvement in groups participate adequately in decisionmaking and project activities, so that they may respond to in- other project activities. Such initiatives can enhance centives in ways that increase chances for project women's roles in sector activities and ensure their in- success. For example, because women have an in- volvement along with that of men in the community. centive to keep systems functioning, facilitating For example. female extension staff can be hired to their involvement in system management and op- meet with women, and water user committees formed eration and maintenance (O&M) allows them to re- with members of both sexes. Women as well as men port regularly on the status of a system, perform need to be involved in decisionmaking relating to tasks regular maintenance, and quickly obtain the services such as the siting of facilities and the organization of of a mechanic when more expertise is needed. With- community O&M. out women's involvement in these activities, the in- centives to perform these tasks as effectively and Stakeholder Analysis efficiently are reduced. Distinguishing between the various levels at One way to promote demand-responsive programs which barriers to women's participation may occur is to conduct stakeholder analysis early in the plan- is useful in the same way that distinctions are made ning process. Stakeholder analysis is a tool for under- between trunks and feeders in discussions on ur- standing the context within which a project or policy ban sanitation. The feeder (collection network) of is designed and operates. Analysis of the perspectives sewerage systems is located at the household and of people who have potential interests in policy or neighborhood levels. Through the feeder system, project outcomes or who can influence them permits sewage is taken away from the neighborhood to the strategic planning to then involve them. Different lo- main trunk level, which operates citywide. Each of cal contexts call for different kinds of stakeholder par- these two levels requires separate consideration and ticipation; in each particular situation, the appropri- different technological responses. Yet, each level ate degree of stakeholder involvement is not uniform must also connect properly to the next. Similarly, across the range of stakeholders. gender issues are relevant at various levels of op- Key stakeholders are clearly those directly af- eration and can be analyzed and addressed sepa- fectedby a proposed intervention, that is, those who rately: yet, interconnections between levels must may be expected to benefit or lose from Bank-sup- also be examined. For example, at the household ported operations or who warrant redress from any and neighborhood levels, projects can address bar- negative effects of such operations, particularly riers to women's participation in making choices among the poor and marginalized. Those indirectly concerning new systems and in managing these sys- involved or affected can include both persons and tems. A lack of awareness on gender issues at city, institutions (a) with technical expertise and public district, or national levels, on the other hand, may interest in Bank-supported policies and programs lead to project rules that impede rather than facili- 4 Gender Issues in the Water and Sanitation Sector tate the implementation of projects at the field level. enhance local institutional capacity in gender, task managers can: E5. Borrower Country Ownership *Initiate policy dialogue to broaden the Attention to gender requires sensitivity to local agenda culture. Gender issues are more complex and diffi- *IAppoint natonal for regind-alend coor- cult to address than technical or managerial issues: dAoint o they may need more time, sensitivity, and resources. dPnators The World Bank's policy7 is to: *Promote affirmative action to increase the number of women staff * Assist member countries in designing gen- ,Develop gender training programs for min- der-sensitive policies and programs istry and sector field staff der-sewansid polici ,an po ,grs Improve gender-disaggregated data collec- * Review and modify legal and regulatory tion and analysis. frameworks * Strengthen the data base for gender plan- Taking some or all of these actions can help ning and monitoring strengthen a country's national-level institutional * Obtain financing if necessary. capacity for gender analysis. It is equally important to address what can become a far more serious prob- Thiscanot b doe wihou coutryconslta lem, namely the gender biases that occur at the tion and ownership. The Bank, thus, undertakes feed actions to encourage country-level ownership of feeder or neighborhood level during project plan- gender-related policies and programs in the borrower ning, implementation, and O&M stages. Sensitiza- country, To encourage ownership, the World Bank's tion or training of technical and field-level staff has country. To encourage ownership, the World Bank's benfudteinorcmgsche- gender policy directs the Bank to: been found to be effective in overcoming such gen- • Assist borrowers in developing the insti- As this chapter shows, task managers of water tusistal . , , , and sanitation projects face the challenge of find- policies ing effective and efficient ways to incorporate gen- policsu der and other social issues into projects. The chal- * Biuild a consultation process with govern- ments, NGOs, and other donors on gender lenge of infusing a gender focus extends from the issues and so ensure the relevance of the design of programs and projects through to their actual implementation, supervision, and evaluation. BEnhank'saounryesstancxesratisegby This toolkit is intended to assist in this endeavor * Enhance awareness and expertise by em- ploying local consultants in data collection, by providing examples of strategies utilized to date, surveys, and analysis lessons, best practice pointers, and other resources * Increase women's participation in the for task managers. decisionmaking phase of project design. It is, therefore, important for the task manager to take the opportunity to introduce gender consid- erations early and at all levels in the country policy dialogue and programming discussion. Understand- ing of gender issues and a commitment to them at the highest level is essential but must be comple- mented by the agreement and ownership of techni- cal and field level staff. F. Institutional Capacity Strengthening the institutional capacity of the government and other partners to undertake gen- der-related actions required under a Bank-supported water and sanitation program may be necessary. To 5 w AS Lessons from Project Experience Lesson 1: Gen der is a cen tral concern ,ir water and sanitation. Lesson 2: Ec2suring both womeI '5 and men 5 parffcipation improves project perfor- mance. LXesson? S: SeciXfc simple imechanismws must be created to ensure women's in- voZl v.Ffemen t. Lesson 4: AtTeu'-. iYon to gendc?er n e eeds ito s-,art as early as possible. Lesson 5' Ge?7nder anaifysis is.integira? t ,project identification and ddta collection. Lesson? 6O: A le rnfing approach' .is m o.re gender-rtes.oonsive thlan a blu1eprin}t approach. Lesson / Pzroject.s are loi-re effective hen hoth women 's and men s preferences abou.t 'aXbrdware are addressed, Lesso. &. Wo;,2men and meren prom oteprojectgoals through both their iraditional and non. traditonal roles. Lesson 5: Jo Ir,ngo7erv emntal organ izations and especially women 's gro ups can facili- tatfe a gender-balanced approach. L,essoin 1Jo: G'ener-rela.eeadYcators should be included when assessingprojectper- A. Introduction A rich collection of experience on gender, water, be ensured. The following pages distill this experi- and sanitation has been gained during the last de- ence and present some of the most important les- cade, and many lessons have emerged. Successful sons. They identify effective strategies that task experiences from projects, both Bank-supported and managers can use to improve overall project perfor- others, not only show why attention to gender is mance by incorporating gender concerns in the wa- important but also suggest how such attention can ter and sanitation sector. 7 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Lesson 1: Gender is a central Box 1: Recyding scarce water in the house- concern in water and sanitation. hold Recognizing that gender is a central concern in In Yemen, where water is often scarce, women the water and sanitation sector is an important first are the primary managers of household water use. women use and reuse the same water. They save step in incorporating gender issues. the cleanest and freshest water for drinking, per- sonal washing, cooking, and washing drinking Centrality of Gender glasses, food, and flour-grinding stones. They save gray water for washing clothes and watering Under the gender-based division of labor in most plants. Water that has been used for washing food societies, women and men often have different roles is given to poultry and cattle; water used for and responsibilities in water and sanitation. Within clothes washing is reused to clean floors and wash this division, women have traditionally played cen- dishes. In Egypt, where water is also scarce, the tral roles. In some societies, men are more concerned same water is recycled in washing clothes, veg- with water for irrigation or for cattle. They usually etables, and, finally, dishes, in that order. The re- have_a greater role than women in public use sequencing conserves water and promotes have a greater role than women in public household health. decisionmaking about water and sanitation issues. Women, with the help of their children, are usually the primary collectors, users, and managers of wa- ter in the household. They select water sources on the basis of their perceptions about access, quan- tity, quality, and reliability of facilities and the time and effort required to use them. These perceptions and preferences determine the use and quality of water in the home. Box 1 gives an example of the ways in which women manage water in the house- hold. Women also play an informal but often invis- ible role in the public maintenance of water sources. In addition, women are traditionally responsible for disposing of household waste, maintaining sani- tation facilities, and educating and training children in hygiene. Men, women, and children in various societies have specific and different customs related to sanitation and cleanliness. For example, sensi- tivity to women's sense of privacy is important in designing new sanitation facilities. Studies show that women's demand for privacy is a crucial deter- minant in the acceptance of latrines by both women and men. Frequently, social norms involve gender segrega- tion in practices related to the use of water and sani- tation facilities. For example, norms may preclude time-sharing of one facility and instead prescribe separate locations for men's and women's bathing facilities. Tailoring project design to recognize such considerations helps ensure that project facilities will be used by both sexes. 8 Lessons from Project Experience Lesson 2: Ensuring both women's may have more time for income-generating activities. ancd men's participation im- * Gender analysis is equally revealing when proves project performance. water is viewed as a social good. Where wa- ter is of better quality and available in greater Experience shows that the participation of quantity and closer to homes, women and girls, as compared to men, benefit both di- women along with menin ct planng pre- rectly and indirectly. They have more time mentaton andmaintnance an enance pojectthrough shorter trips to collect water. Where efficiency. Benefits to project performance include better functioning facilities, more hygienic and bet- improved water supply reduces the inci- ter use of facilities, enhanced coverage of capital and dence of waterborne disease, women have maintenance costs, and improved maintenance. At better health and spend less time caring for the same time, good water supply and sanitation the sick. of * A demand-based, participatory approach _ can be integral to the success of other kinds thA indesaboth women'spanory m pref- projects, for example, education projects (many that includes both women's and men's pref- school programs now include the construction of cieites tat ael more likely tiob ue fan latrines and wells or hand pumps) and projects that maitied Not taking these prefernc promote women's employment, because women will maintocnsdeton t in pfaesre- have more time to seek work if they use less time to inin unsedabecauseethey do not mee collect water. ~~~~~~~maining unused because they do not meet collect water. A recent World Bank water and sanitation study8 the preferences of the users. For example, concludes that gender is an issue not only of equity in India compost pits located outside vil- concludes that gender IS an issue not only Of equitylaewntusdadwoncniud but of efficiency, because involving both women and to deposit waste near their homes-even men enhances project results, increases cost recov- wenofin for ng-a theyhdid ery, and improves sustainability; thus, sectoral spe- not wish to b ning loads of rfs cialists, especially those interested in poverty and a ath outskirts of tevla. community-based approach. must ensure the appro- priate inclusion of both men and women. A World Bank review of 121 rural water supply projects9 found that women's participation is among the vari- ables strongly associated with project effectiveness in the sector. Women's participation serves both practical and strategic gender needs. The practical gender needs of women are needs based on exist- ing divisions of labor and authority, whereas their strategicgenderneedsare those that require redress of gender inequalities and redistributing power more equitably.' Serving women's practical and strategic needs can do much to enhance project effectiveness, Gender analysis can inform water and sanitation projects, whether seen from an economic, social, or participatory perspective:" Gender analysis enriches the concept- ualization of water as an economic good. Women, as primary users, often have a greater incentive than men to keep facilities functioning, report breakdowns, and contribute their labor and money for construction and O&M of systems. Moreover, by recognizing women's preferences and willingness to pay along with men's, projects are more likely to be sustainable and women 9 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Lesson 3: Specific, simple Identifying barriers and constraints to women's participation can suggest specific mechanisms must be created to strategies to use at various stages of the pro- ensure women's involvement. gram/project cycle. For example, where male opposition is a barrier, contacting male lead- In most rural societies, poor women are more ers in the community to explain why women disadvantaged than poor men, first, because women should participate can help obtain men's in general usually have less power, access, and con- support. Special measures may be needed trol over resources than men, and second, because to ensure that women know about the men have more prominent public roles. For these project. Where women's literacy is low, reasons, it is easy to overlook the importance of in- printed information can be supplemented volving women in water and sanitation programs at by personal contacts, the use of nonprint all levels, unless a special focus on women is in- media, and meetings with women's groups- cluded. Gender-related interventions will, therefore, Both mwhen athen should be inter- more often focus on women than on men. viewed when gathering information, Where Apmartecus o nw en than on men. gender segregation is the norm, holding A paricptory but gender-neutral2approa ch may separate meetings with women permits not be enough to ensure that women are involved freer discussion of both water issues and in project activities. A World Bank study of 121 ru- sanitation and hygiene practices. In separate ral water supply projects"3 found that of twenty meetings, women find it easier to speak for highly participatory projects, about half successfully themselves rather than through the men. in reached women. The study also found that the fac- themselves the trategy of men In tors affecting women's participation were different some settings, the strategy of women inter- from those affecting overall beneficiary participa- viewing women will put women at ease. In tion. Women do not benefit equally from gender- joint meetings, culturally appropriate seat- neutral projects. Evaluations of a series of water ing arrangements can ensure that women suply and sanitation projects in Kenya'4 (Ln. 714, difficult for them to hear or speak out. Meet- Ln. 1105 and Cr. 543, Ln. 1520, Ln. 1550 and Cr. 791, ings need to be held at a time and lace suit- and Cr. 1566) found that women did not benefit agbe to be hen and place, equally from these projects. Women had difficulty not at the time when the main meal of the in meeting the selection criteria prescribed for self- day is being cooked. help housing construction and also faced discrimi- Women need to be included in localplan- nation in allotment procedures. Participation of ben- *in nd toabentd in particular, eficiaries, fostering community cohesion and em- women's involvement is crucial in matters ployment generation schemes to enable women and related to their own roles, knowledge, and the poor to participate were the evaluations' recom- interests and to water and sanitation, Pro- mendations for future investment programs. These ingerst adequateresentation of findings clearly suggest that programs need to make viding for adequate representation of women's participation a specific goal with simple women in village and higher-level commit- mechanisms built in to achieve it. tees can give women a greater say in deci- A World Bank sectoral review of gender issues'5 sions about operations, management, fi- recommends that professionals working in the wa- nancing, and sharing arrangements and fa- ter and sanitation sector should try to understand cilitate including their knowledge in the what men and women in communities want and project. how much they are willing to pay and for what; the w Linkint women sactivities under the project context in which they live; and the barriers, such as their participation. Gradually, their tradi- illiteracy and poverty, that hinder their participa- tional tasks can be expanded to include tion in projetts. Such efforts may require longer newer roles. Women's more traditional roles project gestation periods and special communica- ncle maagng wtre adil use tion strategie's yet they are crucial for uncovering or providing labor, whereas their newer roles demand for improved facilities, their effective use, or id ing as reir w ao and project sustainability and replicability. can include maintaining and repairing wa- ter points, imparting health and hygiene The following considerations are useful to keep in education, collecting and managing funds, mind in developing mechanisms to include women: and constructing latrines. Women also feel I0 Lessons from Project Experience encouraged to participate when project ac- tivities are linked with the possibility of generating income * Finally, it is often necessary to raise the awareness ofproject staffof the need for women's participation and strategies to fa- cilitate it. This may require training, inter- nal performance evaluations, as well as a good example set by the project manager. I 11 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation B. Country and Sector Work C Gender in the Program Cycle In the program cycle, program and project design Lesson 4: Attention to gender need to incorporate gender considerations early, pref- needs to start as early as possible. erably during the first stages. Involving key stakehold- ers, including government, NGOs, and the community, early in decisionmaking is also more effective. It is Gender analysis is best considered as a process g that starts with preproject planning and continues especially important to do this with community mem- through ,&M. Attention to gender is notan element bers, rather than having them later utilize systems they thatcanbe injected in the later stages of projectplan- have not chosen and which are not suited to their that can b dd in thelter sage, ofporotupl needs. Moreover, if the community members' views ning as an add-on component. In fact, opportumi- are not included at this point, they will more likely be ties exist for planners to begin to address gender excluded atlater stages as well. issues even before the actual project cycle com- mences. Key among these is incorporating gender issues into country and sector work. SectorAnalysis in WaterandSanitation To begin with, sector analysis in the water and sanitation sector can be strengthened by incorpo- rating critical gender elements. Among these issues are: * Women's and men's roles in water and sanitation * Women's and men's relative access to re- sources * Constraints to women's participation within the sector * National development policies and pro- grams in the sector that affect men and women as agents and beneficiaries * The institutional framework needed to pro- mote gender-balanced policies and projects in the sector. This information can be used in designing a coun- try-level gender programming framework to iden- tify and develop projects based on sector priorities. Such a framework will assess critical points of in- tervention in the sector and will: * identify goals and objectives for gender-bal- anced interventions within the sector, and the resources and time needed to achieve them * Establish gender-based criteria for selection of projects and analysis of project proposals * Develop a framework for monitoring and evaluating sector performance on gender issues."6 12 Lessons from Project Experience Identification lage situations. Managers may find these useful when data gathering is needed to verify informa- Lesson 5: Gender anaiysis is in- tion from other sources or when other data are not Lesson 5: Gender Xana5sIS is in- available. They can supplement the more conven- tegral to project identification tional sources of information, such as national sur- and data collection veys and research studies. Knowledge about differences in men's andwomen's preferences can help to explain subsequent failures The assessment of gender issues at the project and even predict constraints to project feasibility and identification stage is an important exercise. By in- sustainability. Social feasibility analyses are a useful cluding a strategy for gender issues in this phase, tool for specifically takinginto accountboth men's and the task manager can ensure that women are not women's needs and capabilities for the proposed left out or that men and women are not cast in in- project. Such analyses serve to: appropriate roles. At the identification stage, it is crucial to have Identify differences in women s and men 's information on: preferences. For example. evidence exists that in many situations, women are more * Men's and women's traditional roles in the interested than men in improving sanita- sector and in similar projects in the country tion, at least partly because of their greater * Factors that promote women's and men's interest in increasing privacy. participation in the project * Ascertain women 's specific concerns in im- * Constraints that hinder such participation proving water and sanitation facilities. For * Major organizations, especially women's or- example, if water supply is inadequate in ganizations, active in the project area that quantity, unreliable, or inconvenient, the could potentially be involved question of water supply may take priority * Whether the percentage of women heads of for women over the need for sanitation; households in the project area is high or sig- therefore, women may get more readily in- nificantly higher than the national average. volved in a sanitation project if their water supply needs have first been met. Again, When different project possibilities are consid- where women use open spaces for their sani- ered, examining existing country-level studies on tation needs, they sometimes do not want men's and women's roles and priorities is useful. to give up the associated social advantages. Sources for such studies include the national Women's Bureau, local offices of bilateral and inter- Social analyses can help planners ascertain national donors, census or demographic survey of- women 's and men 's existing knowledge, atti- fices, women's organizations, and social research tudes, andpractices (KAP) pertaining to water and institutions or universities. sanitation. Gender-based social norms about Disaggregation by gender is critical in data col- cleanliness, purity, privacy, or modesty often de- lection. In collecting new data, field workers, espe- termine specific patterns of water use and health cially women, and local residents can be good and hygiene behavior. Taboos sometimes affect sources of information. Interviewing residents in women's use of latrines during specific times. groups helps planners understand gender roles and Privacy may be an issue for women in using pub- preferences and the reasons why women and men lic taps for bathing or washing. For example, in can or cannot become involved or change their ex- one East African country, households were di- isting practices. During primary data collection, use- rected to build latrines along the road, so that they ful informants include local health workers, teach- would be easier for project staff to inspect: how- ers, leaders and members of local women's groups, ever, women did not use them because they did community leaders, and traditional informal not like to be seen entering or leaving. women's leaders. Interviews with local men and Gender also determines the acceptability of ar- women can help establish their attitudes to gender- rangements for sharing waterand sanitation facili- related issues in the project. ties. Often, cultural constraints may exist to shar- Table I summarizes the methodologies and ben- ing between family members of different ages, sexes, efits of a range of survey instruments and tools for or marital relationships-such as those between fa- gender analysis, most of which are suitable for vil- thers and daughters or fathers and son's wives. For 13 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Table 1: Suggested methods of data collection for gender analysis Tool Methodology Output/benefits Time required At nationallevel Policy List major policies affecting sector Gives overview of recent sectoral perfor- inventory mance; helps assess gender impact of policy Household Structured questionnaire for a representa- Although time consuming and expensive, I year sample tive sample produces good quality data if well conducted survey and analyzed Household From representative households Useful to determine family labor contribu- I year record tions. In nonliterate societies, pictures of ac- keeping tivities can be substituted At district/village level (some or all induded in participatory approaches) Community On a monthly basis, identify by sex, family Qualitative picture of activities for all enter- calendars position. and wage status the person(s) re- prises and operations sponsible, among others, for water col- lection, upkeep of facilities, sanitation, fam- ily health and hygiene, and hiring out as labor. Seasonal wa- Estimate person/days or months for water Useful for showing quantitative changes in ter supply and collection and management and sanitation water and sanitation facility use and man- sanitation pro- tasks during average dry and rainy seasons agement and labor allocation when new fa- files by sex cilities are introduced Walking tours Conducted by interdisciplinary team of Yields map locating main hydrological zones, Team and com- community members and staff, with com- water and sanitation systems, social groups, munity for half munity taking the lead and pointing out and infrastructure: identifies main problems a day to 1 day major features and problems of local water of community and key informants for vari- and sanitation facilities. Separate walks ous issues. with men and women can be informative. Spatial maps Indicate by sex on maps of neighborhoods Yields a clear visual picture of existing fa- Half a day to I existing water and sanitation infrastructure cilities, constraints, participants. and ben- day and who is responsible, provides labor, and eficiaries. controls water resources and benefits Semistructured interviews, usually taped. Preplanned but informal, in-depth investi- 1-2 hours/group Focus group and conducted with women separately gation of processes, social networks, values, (of up to twenty interviews and beliefs people) Open-ended questioning of group. repre- Quick, inexpensive overview of conditions 1-2 hours/village Group and senting more than one household and practices across villages community interviews Profiles written jointly by community and Compares and contrasts beliefs and practices 1-2 hours/village Community staff of a variety of project villages with across villages portraits women and men 14 Lessons from Project Experience example, in Bangladesh, Malawi, Swaziland, South ahead of time about preferences in such matters, Korea, and Tanzania the necessity of sharing of project design responds better to community de- household latrines by males and females has con- mand and needs, Women may be the best sources strained latrine use. In Bangladesh, such sharing of information on constraints to sharing. constraints were reported to result in parallel use Analysis can also throw light on women 's and of old unsanitary facilities alongside the new, more men s roles in determining the acceptance rate of hygienic ones. Women from minority groups or project interventions. Although men's decisions are castes frequently lack access to public taps or hand likely to prevail, they can be influenced by the opin- pumps because they live in unserved areas or are ions of women. Women's likely acceptance is par- not permitted to use communal facilities. influen- ticularly important where there are a large number tial groups may determine the location of public taps of female-headed households. Female-headed house- or hand pumps. Other sharing problems, such as holds without working-age males often have greater those between householders and their tenants, may financial and time constraints and are unable to existh Women may object to cleaning latrines if such make the cash or labor contributions requiredjc-t sharing occurs. When the community is consulted der the project. - 15 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Project Preparation and Appraisal ties, projects need to build in longer prepa- ration periods, This time can be used for Lesson 6: A learning approach gaining access to women, building trust, and organizing them for taking up various re- is more gender-responsive than sponsibilities. a blueprint approach. More integrated project design. The learn- ing approach allows more integratedproject The blueprintapproach evolved from large-scale designs with cross-sectoral inputs that meet construction and engineering projects. It assumes designeeds ossthecommuts In meet that the engineering environment is known, predict- multiple needs of the community. In such able, and controllable before construction begins. may be an entry point for other project ac- This approach is not suitable for projects whose tivities, rather than the sole component. success depends on getting local people involved in Conversely, activities such as nonformal decisionmaking-a condition that implies education or income-generating opportuni- unpredictability, loss of centralized control, and lack ties can be useful entry points for initiating of preprogrammed structure. The learningapproach community dialogue on water and sanita- conceptualizes development as a learning process tonis . These strateg ave beniuse for all involved. It gives a central place to people successfully as entry points in the Bank-as- and emphasizes flexibility and partnership in plan- sisted JAKPAS'8 project in Nepal and the In- ning, implementing, managing, and evaluating a dia Rural Water Supply and Sanitation project. It assumes that everything cannot be known Project and planned in advance and that long-term project Project. objectives can be better served through "learning- Although project experience points to the useful- by-doing" in partnership with the community.'7 ness of small pilot projects that can gradually be ex- The learning approach is particularly well-suited to panded, making the actual transition from demonstra- promoting attention to gender and, through it, to im- tion projects to regional or national programs can be proving overall project performance and sustainability. difficult. It is helpful to distill experiences into prin- Key characteristics of this approach are: ciples within a logical and simple framework, identify an overriding criterion of success, and define tasks *Flexibility. It can be effective to start small, eesr oaheei as e esn1) perhaps through a pilot project, and later necessary to achieve it (also see lesson 10). expand incrementally, using flexible project design. The learning approach makes such flexibility possible. Through careful moni- toring of ongoing activities, timely correc- tive action can be taken when it appears that women are not benefiting along with men or not using facilities optimally. Building trust For many demand-driven in- vestment operations, the project start-up time has been longer than for standard projects, reflecting the quality of preparation and the difficulty of putting the appropri- ate institutional format in place. The oppor- tunity costs of poor women and men are high because of their time constraints. Women also need adequate time and a rea- sonable degree of certainty with respect to the sustainability of the initiative before they choose and commit to a new activity. Because the learning approach emphasizes project processes as much as project activi- 16 Lessons from Project Experience Lesson 7: Projects are more ef- It is also crucial to determine differences between men 's and women 's willingness and ability to con- fective when both women 's and tributelabor or materials. Women may have a strong men 's preferences about "hard- demand for domestic facilities, whereas men may ware" are addressed. not be interested in expenditures for this purpose ware" are addressecl. or may be interested only because they expect to benefit economically. If consulted, women may in- Seeking both women's and men's views about fluence men's level of interest and willingness to technology options and design features helps when contribute. Experience shows that women have of- considering project design issues. Women's views ten assumed the responsibility for initiating and about siting, safety, and reliability; convenience; and sustaining capital cost contributions from the com- time and energy demands of various hardware op- munity. Their initiative and participation in financ- tions are crucial. For example, in one African coun- ing arrangements has taken various forms, such as: try. latrines were not used regularly because women found them difficult to keep clean. They did not like * Actual resource mobilization even to be seen carrying water there because of the * Collection of community capital cost contri- lack of their traditional privacy. Elsewhere in Africa. butions women discouraged their children from using la- * Contributions for O&M through: trines because they were afraid about their children's Savings mobilization safety. Women's and men's preferences, therefore, Small income-generation schemes affect not only their response to the project but also Community projects, such as theater or subsequent acceptance, use, and maintenance of musical performances facilities (see Box 2). House-to-house solicitation of funds. Box 2: Women have preferences about hardware The following examples from diverse country settings show that women often have distinct preferences about hardware choices. They suggest that when projects incorporate women's concerns and preferences about design, siting, or technology, community acceptance and use of facilities can increase: * In Malawi, the Philippines, and Tanzania, community consultation allowed women to help select reli- able, gravity-based water-supply sources. * In Burkina Faso, women were found to have information on the year-round reliability of traditional water sources, whereas village chiefs and elders lacked such knowledge. * In Sri Lanka, children did not use latrines because they were far away and dark and because the chil- dren were afraid of falling in. Special child-sized latrines were built without walls under the eaves of houses, just outside the kitchen door. Mothers can now more easily train children to use them; the area is also used for bathing, and bath water is used for flushing. On the other hand, many cases of incomplete adoption or even rejection of improved water and sanitation facilities have been recorded. Many of these can be attributed to failure to take into account the preferences of the community at large and women in particular. Such failures have significant implications for program success and sustainability. Some examples follow: * Projects seeking to introduce improved systems need to ensure that these systems are perceived by the community as offering better quality, greater quantity, or more convenient water. Failure to pay atten- tion to such user views was considered to be the main reason for the lack of village maintenance of hand pump wells in Thailand. * Women from project areas in Bangladesh, Guinea-Bissau, Malawi, and Tanzania have rejected some types of facilities, such as foot and hand pumps, because of the difficulties that certain users, such as children, pregnant women, and the old, had in operating them or using them for such activities as bathing. As a result users have resorted to unsafe but easier-to-use water sources. * In Tanzania, failure to consult local women resulted in the construction of hand pumps on shallow wells that dry up, whereas traditional wells in another part of the village never dried up. 17 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation In Kenya, for example, members of a Masai problems in implementation. Conversely, unless women's group collected funds toward the local con- planners consult women in the community, plan- tribution to a project by selling traditional beadwork ners may be unaware of labor or material contribu- and obtained financial and technical support from tions that women could and would make. urban women's organizations. Their husbands then When women accept the daily tasks required by became willing to donate money to the project. a project, the project is more likely to achieve its Planners should be aware that women may have health objectives. Women's willingness and ability too many other responsibilities or be socially re- to carry out such tasks as cleaning and maintenance strained from contributing labor to project activi- should be ascertained. For example, women usually ties. For example, in a rural sanitation program in have to ensure that water is available for flushing Lesotho, the community was expected to contrib- out pour-flush latrines when no house water con- ute labor toward the school sanitation project; how- nections exist. This water must often be collected ever, able-bodied men were often absent, and at some distance by women or children. women in many villages lacked the time and skill to Evidence exists that eliciting both men 's and dig large pits in the rocky soil, leading to unexpected women's views early in the project cycle can ensure Box 3: Finding out women's priorities promotes project acceptance As the following examples suggest, consulting women early about aspects of design. feasibility, and specific components facilitates demand-driven project design and promotes project acceptability. * When women in a low-income settlement in Cuzco, Peru, were consulted about project feasibility, they were outspoken in saying they did not want latrines because they were not traditionally used. More- over, a previous course on latrines had been "condescending, preachy. and critical of the women's tradi- tions. " They did, however, want sewerage, nutrition centers, and more water taps. * In a periurban community in Latin America, water and latrines were women's first priorities, and they were willing to contribute to these facilities. * In the Orangi pilot sewerage project in Karachi, Pakistan, women's priorities differed from the men's. When consulted, women were often more concerned about disease and sanitation than their husbands, because they usually carried the burden of caring for the sick. The women were also able to persuade their reluctant husbands to pay their share of the low-cost sanitation component. * In Tanzania, users, more than leaders, perceived maintenance of facilities as a village responsibility. Where women are not involved as planners and users, programs run the risk that improved facilities will not be used, making the programs unsustainable. Experience suggests that low project acceptance by rural people is not due to lack of community interest or conservatism but is based on a rational cost-benefit calculus comparing old and new options. For example: * In Malawi, Togo, and Tanzania, inadequate access resulted from one-sided decisions by project staff, contractors, and higher-level authorities in favor of promoting piped water schemes and reducing the number of hand pumps per village, resulting in substandard service for users. * In highly stratified communities, women from poorer households living at village outskirts are often denied real access to new facilities, because water points may be installed at central points on the basis of practical considerations such as ease of access for technical teams or expectations of better commu- nity maintenance. * Sanitation facilities may not be regularly used when insufficient attention has been paid to upkeep in designing the facility. This has led to problems, for example, in design, overuse, lack of maintenance, or difficulty in cleaning because of the construction material used (for example. rough concrete). Women and children are usually most affected by these deficiencies. * Involvement of women in design and management is probably more important than self-help alone. In Malawi, laundry facilities were built with community labor but were not used, because the height of the laundry block was found to be inappropriate and the surroundings remained dirty. 18 Lessons from Project Experience that projects are designed in accordance with commu- nity demand and willingness to pay. In one project, discussions with the community revealed that 80 per- cent of those who could not afford the planned flat fee were female heads of households. Box 3 (page 18) gives examples in which consultations with women in particular contributed to better project design and thereby to project sustainability. Projects have benefited from women's knowledge of local circumstances in matters such as: * Identifying reliable and accessible water sources Reducing construction costs by reviewing I design _ * Adapting designs to improve O&M * Devising socially acceptable arrangements for sharing facilities. 19 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Implementation Health and Hygiene Lesson 8: Women and men pro- Water and sanitation projects aim to improve Lesson 8: IA/omen and health by providing safe drinking water not merely mote project goals both through at the source but also up to the point of consump- their traditional and nontradi- tion. To promote behavior that ensures safe and hygienic transport, storage, and use of water, many tional roles. projects incorporate health and hygiene education activities. Projects typically focus exclusively on Potentially, men and women can participate in women and children for these types of education, any of the project activities in which the commu- overlooking the need for men to support and adopt nity is to take part. In practice, local conditions de- improved hygiene practices as well. Project design termined by existing gender norms, class, age, caste, should, therefore, shift some of the responsibility and other criteria influence the activities they actu- for health and hygiene to men. ally perform. In addition, where women's participa- Traditionally. health and hygiene education ac- tion is concerned, their skills, the time available to tivities have been the only aspect of projects in them, and existing organizational arrangements can which women's participation was envisaged; how- pose some operational constraints. An integrated ever, projects did not always address constraints approach will offer opportunities for both men and women faced in participating in such activities. More women to take active part in the entire range of recent project experience suggests that projects can potential activities for the community within the address such constraints if they do one or more of specific local context. the following: Experience shows that, through their participa- tion, men and women can not only improve project S state as a health education theme the chang- performance but, in taking on nontraditional activi- ing of health behaviors specific to women- ties, also serve as change agents to alter existing in- such as washing hands, filtering drinking equities and inefficiencies. For example, projects can water, and using a water dipper. consider targeting health education toward men as * Build on local knrowledge in developing well as women, so that both men and women are health education messages and techniques given a wide range of project responsibilities. * Select women trainers or health promoters Local conditions will determine the specific forms * Organize women's health clubs that men's and women's participation takes in a * Use two-way interpersonal communication given setting; however, somegeneraiprinciplesare: techniques for reaching women X Utilize sites where women gather-wells, * Care should be taken that men's and washing platforms, markets, grain-grinding women's involvement does not place too sites, and clinics-as contact points for health heavy a financial or work burden on them education without compensatory benefits. This is im- * Choose suitable times and meeting places for portant, particularly in the case of women, women, especially where they are seduded because they are frequently already overbur- * Provide child care facilities dened on both counts. A participatory, de- * Involve husbands and male leaders (see Box 4). mand-based project that gives beneficiaries a strong role in decisionmaking will decrease Box 4: Dealing with men's opposition chances of this occurring. * Women's involvement too often remains Men's opposition to women's health education confined to manual labor. Going beyond clubs can be overcome by involving husbands and such tasks to increase women's authority in male leaders. For example, to deflect potential management decisions enhances benefits to men's opposition, mother's clubs in Korea and the the project, women, and other users. Philippines appoint the most negative elders as • Where men and women participate in project official advisors, host ceremonial dinners for their activities, especially nontraditional ones, they proud husbands to accompany wives to gradua- often need special training in new skills. tion ceremonies on completing their five-day course. 20 Lessons from Project Experience These strategies can facilitate women's partici- Operation and Maintenance pation along with that of men, raise their aware- ness of health issues, and make health education Site management, caretaking, local administra- programs more effective. tion, and operating and managing self-sufficient systems constitute opportunities for community Construction participation in local management and mainte- nance-particularly for women. Projects have fre- Community participation in construction activi- quently improved their efficiency by utilizing these ties under water and sanitation projects consists of opportunities. voluntary contributions of money or labor, or paid Women, more than men, typically play an impor- work. Several gender-related considerations exist in tant role in site management, They have sometimes construction activities of water and sanitation spontaneously organized to manage communal sites projects. or supervise their upkeep (see Box 5). Government For one, whereas men engage in paid activity, programs in several countries now train individual women frequently contribute most of the voluntary women, couples, or teams of women as caretakers. labor to such projects. Even when confined to the Women have performed as successfully as men in the house, they participate in construction if the need for capacity of diesel pump operators in Botswana, care- facilities is acute and if they can work in private sur- takers in Bolivia, source monitors in Angola, and well roundings. For example, in Baldia, a low-income ur- disinfectors in Colombia, Anecdotal evidence suggests ban area in Karachi, Pakistan, women undertook or that they maintain better hygiene than men. oversaw almost half the work of constructing soakpits, Women have also taken part in preventive mainte- including the digging. In Lesotho women do most of nance andrepairs, either jointly with men or in women- the digging in water projects. includingwomen in con- only teams. Projects in Guinea Bissau and Togo, for struction skill training offers them a potential source example, have trained teams of one man and one or of income. For example, projects have trained poor two women as voluntary caretakers of hand pumps, women in India in latrine construction, whereas in based on existing divisions of labor. The men are re- Thailand and Botswana both men and women were sponsible for technical tasks, such as lubrication and trained to construct latrine slabs. tightening of nuts and bolts, and the women are re- Conversely, where food-for-work activities are sponsible for site hygiene and user education. undertaken for constructing water and sanitation infrastructure and payments are given in kind, Box 5: Women's strategies for maintaining women rather than men constitute large proportions public facilities (as much as 80 to 85 percent in Lesotho and Ethio- pia, and 34 percent in Bangladesh) of those em- Women the world over have shown ingenuity ployed. Evaluations show that most of these women and initiative in taking charge of the maintenance are from landless families and a significant propor- of communal water facilities. Some examples in- tion are heads of households. clude: The large role that women play means that . . ~~~~~~~~~~* In Malawi, water tap committees comn- projects need to incorporate measures to cater to posed mainly of women have been orga- the requirements of both men and women construc- nized. They use the pipeline routes as tion workers. Where women's participation in paid paths and report leakages to the village construction is significant, arrangements for their caretaker. needs at the construction site, such as child care * In Samoa, while women weave mats in facilities, flexible scheduling, and private spaces, open-walled watch houses, they keep may be required. Project managers also need to en- watch over village bathing and drinking sure that women are not underpaid, compared to sources and ensure their proper use. men. Evidence suggests that such problems are more * In Tanzania, women have chosen a site likely to arise in contractor-managed construction attendant from a nearby household and activities than in those directly managed by govern- maintained rosters for site upkeep and ment departments. Special vigilance is, therefore, preventive maintenance. called for in projects that work through contractors. Projects can creatively use such local strategies to develop sustainable community-based systems to maintain project facilities. 21 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Box 6: Working with women hand-pump mechanics The hand-pump maintenance system in Rajasthan, India, used village-based mechanics, each responsible for about forty hand pumps: however, women, the primary users of water, often hesitated to report breakdowns to mechanics, who were invariably men. Mechanics did not respond promptly to complaints about breakdowns, because-not being responsible for collecting water-they did not consider breakdowns urgent. Hand pumps, thus, broke down frequently and remained so for long periods, forcing the government to conduct annual repair drives before the dry summer season to ensure adequate supply. In 1988, as part of a pilotprojectto improve maintenance, the Integrated Sanitation, Water, and Community Health (SWACH) project decided to train twenty-four rural women as hand-pump caretakers. The project had already begun promoting women's participation by consulting local women, in addition to village headmen, in deciding about the sitingof hand pumps. This successful innovation significantly increased community owner- ship and use of hand pumps. Practical difficulties, however, existed in hiring women as mechanics. First, hand pump repair entails travel- ing long distances. Some women's fears for their safety may deter them from agreeing to the work. Second, hand pumps are heavy. Some women mechanics may be unable to handle their weight and size. Third, the existing mechanics training program, designed for educated trainees, was unsuitable for women-usually uneducated-in the predominantly tribal project area. Fourth, the training required six months' residence at the training site, which few women would be able to complete. The project responded by adopting a flexible approach and modifying existing systems. First, women were chosen to work in threes, instead of singly, as in the case of male mechanics. They could, thus, jointly handle the heavy hand pump and toolkits with ease. Second, the training was reduced to one week, followed by six months of on-the-job training and then a week-long residential refresher course. Trainers tailored their methodology to suit the illiterate trainees. The women learned about hand pump parts and assembly through songs, games, and stories. Instead of studying cross-sectional diagrams, which were too technical, they acted out the order in which the parts were assembled. The repair routes were designed so as not to exceed a few kilometers. Married women were preferred, being more likely to stay in the village than get married and move away. Village women, the main users of the pumps, found the new women mechanics much more accessible and responsive than the men mechanics. The experiment was evaluated, using a social and economic cost-benefit analysis, taking into account the women's enhanced skills and access to new technology. One male mechanic or three women mechanics could maintain about thirty hand pumps. Training costs per pump were, thus, three times higher under the women-based system. The project bore the full cost of the toolkits given to women mechanics. Men had to buy their own with an average subsidy of 40 percent. When women's domestic, commu- nity management, and agricultural work was valued, the opportunity costs for the women mechanics were, therefore, high. The women carried out much more preventive maintenance and had much lower hand pump breakdown rates than male mechanics. This resulted in repair costs during Public Health and Engineering Department (PHED) repair campaigns that were four times lower per pump in the women-based system. Under the men- based system, hand pumps remained broken down for longer durations. This meant higher costs to village women, because they had to spend extra time fetching water from distant sources. It also implied higher costs to the government, because public investments in infrastructure remained unproductive during breakdown peri- ods. In the women-based system, health messages were more effectivelyspread. In terms of increased awareness among villagers, training women was, thus, more beneficial than training men. Among the social benefits was the likelihood, if the women performed well in hand pump maintenance, of improved attitudes on educating girls. Women also gained confidence, once they saw that they could do "men's" work. (Adapted from, Christine van Wijk-Sijbesma and Eveline Bolt, May 1991, Women, Water, and Sanitation, Annual Abstract journals No. 2. a joint publication of the IRC and UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program: personal communication, Indu Bhushan, SWACH Project Director, 1988.) Where male out-migration is high or a women's though some costs are higher, their effectiveness in project or organization already exists, training regular and preventive maintenance is better, in- women to do preventive maintenance becomes an creasing overall economic efficiency (see Box 6). especially desirable option. Project experience shows that women make good hand pump mechanics: al- 22 Lessons from Project Experience such opportunities can help them meet their cash Box 7: Women make successful office hold- contribution obligations. ers of water committees Some projectactivities offer avenues for earning income. These include paid construction activities, Qualitative evidence on women's involvement working as trained caretakers and technical mainte- in management suggests that women will make nance workers, and specific income generation com- special efforts to solve local problems such as col- ponents of projects, such as vegetable growing. Typi- lecting user fees and raising funds for repairs. For cally, men are trained or hired to perform these ac- example, in Niger, a village water supply program started a campaign for financial contributions to cover the maintenance costs of hand pumps. in balanced approach to training and hiring commu- most villages, water committees appointed men nity members for such work. Women have also suc- as treasurers. In general, the initiative created com- cessfullyprovidedlow-costservicesin underserved munity responsibility for O&M of hand pumps; areas. For example, women's organizations in both however, some villagers were unwilling to pay and Kenya and Honduras run water kiosks, purchasing encouraged others to discontinue payments. In water in bulk from the water agency and selling it other villages, the contributions raised were man- at low cost in squatter and slum areas. In a low-in- aged improperly, Where women worked as trea- come urban neighborhood in Mexico, women's co- surers, they managed their duties satisfactorily. operatives run urban waste recycling plants that Based on this experience, in several cases, villag- produce and sell compost to local vegetable garden- ers suggested that women should be treasurers. ers. In Mozambique and Tonga, women's coopera- tives make and sell latrine slabs. Projects should also Management consider appropriate alternatives to improve women's access to credit This increases women's Community participation in local management of- ability to earn income and, hence, to contribute ten improves utilization rates and satisfactory func- money to water and sanitation improvements. tioning of project facilities. In recent years, projects have successfully involved both men and women as Staffing membersandoffice holders in local watermanagement organizations. Although men have usually functioned Ensuring a gender-balanced approach at the lo- as the chairpersons, many communities have found cal level requires support from men and women at women especially successful as treasurers in handling higher levels, from field staff to project managers financial matters (see Box 7). Some projects stipulate a and policymakers. Where women live in seclusion, mandatory minimum number of women members or women field workers can facilitate women's involve- officers in water user associations to ensure their par- ment in planning and training. When male staff are ticipation. aware of gender roles and have been trained in com- Projects must be careful not to unwittingly raise munication skills and in working with women, they barriers to women's election to local management are also better able to involve women. committees, such as by stipulating that only heads At the project management level, some projects of households are eligible for election. When intro- appoint gender specialists to systematically incor- ducing such conditions, managers must first ascer- porate gender analysis in project planning and imple- tain that women have a reasonable chance of being mentation and monitoring. Evaluations suggest the elected. In settings where gender segregation is the inclusion of gender specialists is effective if they norm, projects can consider setting up separate are integrated in the team. Training in gender is- women's committees for management. sues is another strategy adopted to increase aware- ness and sensitivity among staff. Income-generating Activities Where communities need to raise money to be able to participate in project activities, building in opportunities for income generation can be useful. In particular, providing women with opportunities for income generation has been found to increase the likelihood of their participation. Because women usually have less income of their own than men, 23 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Lesson 9: Nongovernmental or- caste or socioeconomic status, or affirmative provi- sions, can help to include poorer or otherwise ganizations and especially marginalized women in project activities. These women's groups can facilitate a mechanisms may be required where more conven- tional women's organizations are dominated by rela- gender-balanced approach. tively wealthier or higher status women, At the national level, some countries have begun NGOs19 can act as partners or intermediaries to to involve national women's organizations system- mobilize local communities. Projects can often take atically in water and sanitation sector policy plan- advantage of the presence of existing NGOs that ning. For example, in Kenya, both the national have expertise and experience in working with lo- women's organization and the Women's Bureau are cal women in the project area to help project staff associated with national action committees on wa- in reaching local women. Sometimes, women spon- ter and sanitation. taneously organize to discuss project issues and take an active role. Women's groups are an important mechanism for ensuring the involvement of women. As several ex- amples in the previous sections show, women's groups can be useful in promoting women's involve- ment in project activities, from hygiene education to operations, maintenance, and income-generating activities. These may be existing groups or specifi- cally created ones. Examples of groups that can fa- cilitate women's participation are: savings and loan groups, family planning or mother's health clubs, local school parent committees, handicrafts and other income generation groups, and kinship, reli- gious, or tribal groups. Finally, it is not safe to assume that an NGO is, by definition, gender-sensitive. Care will be required in determining which NGOs can facilitate greater gender balance in programs and projects, taking into account such information as their overall track record on gender. Special mechanisms, such as tar- geting, separate committees for separate groups by 24 Lessons from Project Experience Supervision, Monitoringand Evaluation functioning or effectiveness is no better than num- ber counts of installations constructed without at- Lesson I0: Gender-related indji tention to how well they function. Some general points to keep in mind during su- cators should be includled when pervision include the following: assessing project performance. * Establish clear, explicit and manageable ob- jectives for gender actions within the con- Experience from projects around the world clearly text of a project. indicates that community management that gives * Assess progress on gender-related actions central roles for both women and men can facilitate during mid-term reviews. the achievement of project goals in water and sani- * Prevent "fade-out" by emphasizing gender tation. Project experience has also shown appropri- issues in the Terms of Reference of supervi- ate strategies to foster a more gender-balanced ap- sion, completion and evaluation missions, proach. But how can project managers assess and including gender specialists on mis- whether attention to gender is adequate and pro- sions, particularly if (a) information on gen- ceeding satisfactorily? What criteria and measures der roles is lacking, (b) the project design can they use? Here again, experience points to some contains many problems related to gender approaches that can be used to monitor and evalu- roles, or (c) a special impact on women is ate project performance with reference to gender. required. The interest and ability of a per- son to work on gender issues is important, Supervision whereas their sex is not. A woman on the team cannot automatically be expected to Even when projects are well-designed with re- take responsibility for gender: she may be spect to gender, it is not safe to assume that they untrained, uninterested or unwilling. eill necessarily have a positive gender impact. Ex- * Build in flexibility during the project cycle, perience shows that gender perspectives may "fade so that it is possible to modify existing away" if project staff do not actively keep track of projects or components and make mid- them. The task manager has a crucial role in keep- course corrections in response to a better ing alive the issue of the gender-responsiveness of understanding of gender issues than was a program or project. Attention to gender during available at preparation. Flexibility also en- supervision not only ensures that gender objectives ables projects to test promising approaches are on track but can also identify deficiencies in the and expand successful strategies. original design. * Where it is difficult to identify gender-re- one approach20 suggests that having a clearly de- lated project actions during project prepara- fined, overriding goal or criterion of success and spe- tion because of inadequate information, in- cific strategies is useful to achieving that goal. Al- clude an unallocated fund earmarked for though projects have different and even multiple such initiatives. The fund should constitute goals, an overriding goal can serve as the yardstick resources over and above the components against which to assess progress and outcomes and identified with detailed costing. Such a fund under which to subsume secondary goals. The can give a project flexibility, enhance insti- PEGESUS approach suggests the three criteria of tution building and ensure that gender is- sustainability. effective use, and replicabilityas the sues remain visible. overriding goals to meet the dual objectives of pro- S Specifically identify gender-differentiated duction of facilities and capacity building among the results and draw out lessons learned in community, both women and men. implementation completion reports (ICRs), When defining goals, especially those related to impact studies, and evaluation reports. De- gender, it is important to go beyond number counts. scribe special efforts used to increase Sole preoccupation with number counts can lead to women's participation. water and sanitation systems that are considered successful but that may not be particularly respon- Monitoring and Evaluation sive to gender considerations. Moreover, merely a number count of committees created or women The inclusion of gender makes the evaluation of trained, without attention to the quality of their project outcomes more meaningful. It ensures that 25 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation project success is evaluated in the context of the * Male/female representation on water user project's responsiveness to the needs of the com- committees munity as a whole. To centralize gender concerns in * Male/female decisionmaking in water user a project, it is important to rely on separate indica- committees tors for men's and women's involvement as well as * The emergence of women community to integrate gender within the overall evaluation leaders framework. * Organized sharing of knowledge and skills For example, to evaluate effective utilization of among men and women in the community systems, managers need information on access to * Women's access to training courses services and user behavior. They can assess: * Women's influence in management deci- sions. * Whether significant gender differentials exist in access, use, and acceptability of facilities To evaluate the gender dimensions of replicabiity, * Whether women use safe water sources, managers can consider: even when traditional sources are closer * Whether coverage of unserved areas and * Degree of local involvement and their skills groups increases and knowledge * Whether awareness about hygienic behav- * The access of women, especially heads of ior improved among the community overall households, to financial management sys- and among men, women, and children sepa- tems, including revolving credit facilities rately * Changes in the views of men and women in • Whether drinking water is stored and the community about future priorities handled hygienically in the home * Documentation of project experience • Whether health-promoting behavior is * Career prospects for trained village workers, adopted especially women, within the agency, or in i Whether the distance and time taken by income-generating activities outside the women in fetching water decreases. project. Similarly, the incorporation of gender consider- Finally, participatory evaluation21 broadens the ations in developing indicators for project scope of evaluation. It is collaborative and, thus, sustainability-or, the ability to maintain efforts and more compatible with the learning approach in benefits even after the project assistance is phased project management. With participatory evaluation, out-improves the quality of such evaluation. In try- community members become sources, analysts, and ing to assess sustainability, managers require infor- users of information on progress and problems in mation on whether facilities are functioning prop- implementation. They serve as key actors in prob- erly, whether the community is equipped and em- lem solving and in applying lessons learned from powered to manage facilities, whether training is experience. Such evaluation is more effective than provided, and whether financial arrangements are conventional techniques for the management of sustainable. To address the gender dimensions of change. Participatory evaluation methods are use- these issues, managers need to evaluate: ful in reaching those who are excluded. To ensure that women are included, participatory methods * Breakdown rates and durations for hand must often go hand in hand with special steps22 such pumps, standposts, or latrines as the following: * The attitudes of users, particularly women. to breakdowns * Insure adequate representation in meetings * The availability of spare parts and repair * Hold separate meetings skills among local men and women * Arrange seating appropriately * Attitudes to cost sharing and willingness to * Link women's participation with income- pay-as reflected in the ability of men and earning opportunities women users to influence technology choice * Raise the awareness of project staff. and service levels; gender differences in us- ers' perceptions about benefits; and the transparency and effectiveness of collection and use of funds 26 Lessons from Project Experience Table 2: Strategy options for incorporating gender This chapter has discussed some of the lessons learned from programs and projects around the world. The following table broadly summarizes the choice of options discussed in the chapter for addressing gender in designing and implementing water and sanitation sector interventions. Levels/Objectives/Options Key Stakeholders2" Level: Country Policy Government min- Objective: Develop and implement more efficient, cost-effective, and demand-responsive water and sani- istries, donor agen- tation policies by incorporating gender issues, cies. women's and Options: other NGOs, and * Introduce gender issues in sector reviews, policy workshops, and other activities that are part of policy sometimes user development. groups * Put gender issues on the agenda of annual sector meetings and policy implementation reviews. * Include gender expertise on policy development and implementation teams. Level: National Water and Sanitation Programs Government min- Objective: Improve country-level program design and implementation by incorporating gender concerns. istries, donor agen- Options: cies, women's and * Include gender issues in country program framework. other NGOs, and * Include gender-related guidelines and principles in country program. user groups * Employ gender analysis in designing projects. v Include government staff with gender expertise in monitoring the national program. * Monitor gender issues regularly. Level: Water and Sanitation Projects Project staff, local Objective: Design and implement projects that are driven by the demands of both men and women. government, and Options: user groups Project Design: * Structure project rules and procedures to facilitate participation by both men and women. * Determine gender roles in the sector in the proposed project area. * Determine barriers to gender-appropriate project implementation. * Determine steps to reducing or removing the barriers, * Make projects flexible so they may adapt appropriately as more is learned about gender issues. * Include a gender expert on the team during project design/preparation. Implementation and Supervision: * Amend project rules and procedures as needed to facilitate participation by both men and women in implementation. * Ensure that project management is aware of the importance of gender issues through training, work- shops, and study tours. * Include gender experts on project implementation staff, * Prevent "fade-out" on attention to gender through specific tracking during supervision Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E): * Collect, tabulate, and analyze indicators by gender as appropriate. * Include specific indicators addressing gender issues in project M&E systems, * Examine gender-related M&E indicators during supervision. Level: Community Project staff, com- Objective: Increase project sustainability by improving implementation at community level. munity members, Options: and women's and Project Design: other NGOs * Base men's and women's involvement on the local cultural context: for example, separate meetings of men and women or female staff meeting with community women, where necessary. * Use participatory techniques to ensure both women's and men's participation in project decisionmaking concerning: Technology choice Cost recovery O&M arrangements. * Obtain men's and women's preferences about Technology design Siting of facilities. Operations and Maintenance: * Suggest that a certain percentage of water and sanitation committee members be women. * Suggest that women should hold at least one water and sanitation officer post, such as treasurer. * Provide training for both men and women in the roles they are to fill in the project. * Include additional training for women in leadership and organization, as appropriate. * Train both women and men in basic O&M techniques. 27 E m E i aS le _pC SM5j2D+I;X- !, @|Se A ,e,t ;u,02 _ _ ; A _E Good Practice on Gender in Water and Sanitation This section contains detailed examples of good The Government and Bank Respond: Initi- practice, all from World Bank-supported water and ating a Social Assessment sanitation projects that promote attention to gen- der issues. In 1994 the government of Azerbaijan requested World Bank assistance in financing a project to im- A. Listening to Women in Project prove the quantity, quality, and reliability of Baku's public water supply and support reform of the local Design: the Baku Water Supply water agency. A US$61 million IDA credit was ap- Project proved for the project in June 1995. A participatory The city of Baku in Azerbaijan faces a water sup- Box 8: Key strategies of Baku project ply crisis.24 Water quality is poor, system losses are high, and cost recovery is grossly inadequate. Al- . Participatory social assessment to iden- though nearly all of the city's 2.5 million people are tify stakeholders. evaluate social impact, officially connected to the public water system, and design mitigation measures for many households receive water only 6 hours a day, groups experiencing negative impact 14 days a month. Of Baku's households, 87 percent * Involvementofthe Women's Committee, believe that piped water is unsafe to drink. a large women's NGO, in the social as- sessment, evaluation of social and envi- Coping Strateggies and their Gender Impli- ronmental project costs, project design, and implementation cations * Contribution of social assessment to policy dialogue on issues such as im- Although the public water service is inadequate proved governance and privatization, throughout Baku, the poor suffer most. Households pricing policies, environmental monitor- have developed strategies to cope with the ing, and community specificity unreliability and poor quality of the water, from Demand-responsiveprojectdesignbased boiling tap water and bringing water from distant on findings of social assessment sources to buying water from private vendors. In- * Increased community ownership come, gender, age structure, and housing character- istics influence the type of coping strategy adopted, socalassessmentwas conducted among local groups but most strategies require considerable time, ef- and households to help identify and involve key fort, and resources. Households spend an average stakeholders in designing the project and to prepare of 40 minutes a day securing water, a task that usu- measures to mitigate any negative impacts the ally falls to women. project might have. 29 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation The social assessment included a series of rapid Implications forPolicyand ProjectDesign user surveys, consultations, and case studies. A stakeholder workshop brought together community At the stakeholder workshop, the Women's Com- members, user groups, government officials, local mittee proposed ways to alleviate the burden on NGOs, academics, local experts, the media, and do- women and identified environmentalinterventions nors. The Women 's Committee, a major NGO con- to make the project more sustainable. The women cerned with issues related to women and the fam- also asked to be involved in designing and imple- ily, played a large part in the assessment. menting a consumer outreach program to raise awareness about the need to conserve water, repair Costs of Unreliable Water Supply leaks, and ensure effective metering for improved cost recovery. The consultations led to the design The Women's Committee provided insights into of a comm unity-basedprogram to reduce water leak- the high social and environmental costs-including ages in households. During implementation of the financial, social, and opportunity costs-associated Greater Baku Water Supply Rehabilitation Project, with the unreliability and poor quality of water sup- the Women's Committee is helping mobilize local ply. One opportunity cost-often borne by women- communities to participate in water conservation, is the added time spent fetching water. Women may meter repair, and leak prevention. spend hours a day trying to locate a source of run- The participatory social assessment created op- ningwaterandcarryingthewaterhome. Households portunities to involve 800 households, neighbor- headed by women, which are often poor, suffer the hood groups, the academic community, and NGOs most in trying to cope, because they generally can- in shaping the project. The insights gained from the not afford to pay for alternative sources of water. assessment allowed project designers to make ad- Such households tend to expend more labor than justments to meet local needs. Most important, it capital in finding alternative water sources. They allowed multiple groups of water users in Baku to also are more likely to cope by reducing the amount voice their specific requirements and participate in of water they consume, so they bear a dispropor- planning and implementing the project. tionate share of the welfare losses associated with the unreliable water supply. 30 Good Practice on Gender in Water and Sanitation B. Involving Local Communities * Methods of "revealing" specific, price-sen- sitive demand, rather than assuming de- in Low-income Sanitation In mand existed Brazil * Effect of community involvement on speed, cost, and effectiveness of project design ln February 1992 a World Bank mission went to * Financial responsibility for O&M-users, Brazil to oversee a problem project.25 The project cross subsidies, or capital subsidies was to bring water and sewerage to the urban areas, The nature, kind, and ease of collective including the congested and difficult slums (favelas) decisionmaking of Rio de Janeiro; however, the implementing agency, Caixa Economica Federale, faced problems in one of the two basic approaches that evolved, dealing with the slum dwellers. They did not pay oje of th e froachesnty evolve- thi bil, illga conetin blsomd and care project design emerged from community involve- ment. This approach was piloted in a favela near and maintenance were the exception rather than the Rio called Morro do Estado. rule. For lenders and water companies alike, serv- ing the slums was a losing proposition. Building communityTrust The Favela Challenge For Morro, the project team identified an engi- neering firm that was willing to work with favela Developing an effective and efficient water and deersnd f had e iesing small- sewerage system for the Rio favelaswas a challenge: snitatio pouato denit wa hih the grun wa ofe scale, affordable, and effective water and sanitation population density was high; the ground was often steep; virtually every bit of space was in use. The systems. The firm first had to learn about the com- stee; vrtully ver bi of pac wa in se.The munity, how it was organized, and how it operated. number of users and volume of water to be deliv- ered determined the size of the pipe, regardless of They identified stakeholders and also community cred~~~~~~~~ leaders,e most ofz who were assoiate withdes reli whether a convenient place existed to lay it. At the leaders, most of whom were associated with reli- same time, laying pipes, even underground. fre- gious, sports, or other kinds of clubs that exist in quently generated disputes over ownership, which communities everywhere. were difficult to adjudicate from outside. Engineers Women Representing the Community often disliked to negotiate their designs with nonengineers. Working closely with the people was necessary, but water companies could not negoti- The women's clubs proved the most effective in- ate directly with the 30,000 or more families that struments for working with the community. The might inhabit the favela. women themselves became a critical factor in getting the subproject underway. More often than not, women Toward Stakeholder Participation were the actual heads of households. The men tended Bank staff felt that involving slum dwellers in the design, operation, and maintenance of water and Box 9: Key strategies of Brazil project sewerage systems was the only way to design and implement this innovative project. They adopted an * Learnmgaroach . . . . ....................* Stakeho/der participation through part- action-research technique in community participa- nership between the community and en- tion called "structured learning' "The project team gineers required the engineering companies bidding under * Recognition of women as effective rep- the project to team up with community participa- resentatives of the local community tion NGOs or individual specialists. Stakeholder * Communitynegotiationofprojectdesign participation was added as a criterion for bid evalu- and management, accommodating local ation to more standard items such as neighborhood demand with affordability and technical size, income, and investment limits. The water com- feasibility panies defined participation on their own, and the * Community-especially women's-owner- project team used structured learning to keep abreast ship and empowerment of what was happening. They structured the learn- * Pilotapproach ing to track: * Use of structured learning 31 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation to come and go. The designers met the women first Cost Implications when they came into the community and worked with them on a daily basis to organize local involvement. In Is this approach cost-effective? The Morro do a real sense, women were the local community. De- Estado pilot subproject took six months to design signing a functioning water and sanitation system run at a cost of about US$100,000. It was primarily a by a modern state water company became a social, it- learning exercise, whose lessons flowed into work erative process involving trust and mutual learning in larger favelas. The design cost of the pilot worked between experts and users. out to US$15 per capita. More important, it led to final total costs that were not only within the in- Early Procurement and the Condominium vestment parameters set by the original Bank-fi- Approach nanced project but were also almost 50 percent be- low the state water company estimates. The procurement process was started early and made the project real for the community. It motivated Community Ownership and Empowerment them to organize and work effectively with the water company. The subproject developed the condominium The project is doing more than providing water approach in which groups of families negotiated and and sewerage to a favela. It has become a starting committed to operate and maintain service to a group point for individual and community development. of twenty to fifty dwellings. Designers were flexible in Women in the community now look forward to re- accommodating the women's wishes in matters such ceiving water bills at "their" condominiums. They as condominium formation and water tank siting. This say, without being asked, that they intend to pay made it possible to work out affordable solutions that their bills. Project sustainability will also require took care of both individual and communal needs. The other measures governance, economic manage- people could decide what they could afford, and the ment, and job opportunities. But the empowerment water company would recover its capital and operat- of the community and its women generates confi- ing costs. dence that these systems will endure. 32 Good Practice on Gender in Water and Sanitation C. Gender as a Critical Variable but long-term sustainability as well. in Lesotho's Rural Sanitation Pro- Women Latrine Builders gram An important aspect of the program is training Lesotho's National Rural Sanitation Program local latrine builders. One in four of all latrine build- (NRSP)26 began in 1983 as a single-district pilot and ers trained is a woman (see Box 11). Interesting con- has been expanded gradually into a nationwide pro- trasts exist between men's and women's orienta- gram, with the assistance of various donors, includ- tion and attitude toward the work. Men are gener- ing the UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Pro- ally better versed in construction techniques and gram and the UNDP/PROWWESS (Promotion of the have more of a market orientation then women. Role of Women in Water and Environmental Sanita- Women are more aggressive in creating a demand tion Services) program.27 The sociocultural and edu- for their latrine-building skills, having no qualms cational aspects of the program have been critical to about house-to-house promotion. Unlike the men, its overall success. they almost always work with a partner. Although women latrine builders have built fewer Innovative Features of NRSP latrines than the men, they often seem to be more strongly motivated by cooperation than profit. Even The NRSP is particularly interesting because it where the less well-off cannot ensure payment, the has successfully integrated the private sector into women builders are willing to take the risk of build- its implementation strategy, with government play- ing latrines for them. Women are also more inclined its mpleenttionstraegy wit govrnmnt pay- to try to keep prices down, despite dissatisfaction ing a largely organizational and facilitating role. The th pay t o beeniknown, to putieffor NRSP has achieved a significant degree of user cost with payv They have also been known to put effort recovery, in which beneficiaries pay for construc- builders, thus, creating greater local capacity for tion costs of improved pit latrines, including mate- of systems. rials and builders' wages. This level of user cost re- O&M of systems. covery has been made possible by high user demand, Women as Village Health Workers raised through village-level health and hygiene edu- cation campaigns. User interest and understanding of improved sanitation has been heightened through The program has also trained volunteer village attention to comm unity in vol veinent and organiza- health workers, who are generally women and are tiont which has improved not only coverage rates, elected by their communities to act as liaisons with the formal health system. The village health work- Box 10: Key strategies in Lesotho's NRSP ers are the final link between the NRSP'sparticipa- tory health education activitiesand the community. * Training of latrine builders, of whom 25 They are indispensable in translating health poli- percent are women cies into reality. They assist in protecting water * Training of village health workers, usu- sources from contamination and help masons build ally women latrines. They also render first aid, weigh babies, * Focus on women as a target group for perform immunizations, give health counseling and health and hygiene education referrals to members of the community, and assist * Focus on community involvement and in health emergencies. In this way, they serve as organization, resulting in improved cov- change agents. Through their efforts, they help to erage and long-term sustainability promote both awareness about health and hygiene . Responsibility of women's groups for over- and health-seeking behavior within the community. all community improvement all Ecitingto uero eman t Many of the women latrine builders have also be- • Eliciting Of user demand through vilage cm ilg elhwres education campaigns. resulting in signifi- come village health workers. cant user cost- recovery levels * Creation of a women's liaison adviser po- Expanding Role of Support Organizations sition to promote women's involvement in decisionmaking Lesotho has 4,225 village health workers, often * Upscaling from pilot project to national referred to as "village nurses" by rural residents. Rec- program ognizing their key placement and their generally 33 Too/kit on Gender in Water and Sanitation high status in their communities, the rural sanita- tion program has gradually increased the role of vil- Box 11: Profile of a latrine builder in lage health workers in health and hygiene educa- Lesotho tion and latrine construction training courses. Three- day participatory workshops are held to include vil- Two latrine builders live in the Monnanyane lage health workers in the team approach to health household in Tsime, Butha-Buthe district: Mr. lagehealh wrker in he eam pproch o helthMonnanyane, who works as a house builder and campaigns in villages during pre- and post-construc- occasional latrine builder, and his wife Mrs. tion phases. Mateboho Monnanyane. who pursues latrine The village health workers are motivated prima- building full time and has completed forty of rily by the desire to help their fellow villagers. As- them, perhaps more than any other woman in the sessments show that the members of the commu- country. nity are satisfied with the services of the village Mrs. Monnanyane actively markets her skills, health workers. Eighty-seven percent of the village going to neighboring towns to offer her services. people felt that health in their communities im- She goes house to house, telling of the importance proved as a result of the work of these volunteers. of having a latrine: sometimes, she visits the lo- cal chief to get his support. She has trained five Targeting Women forHealth Education other builders, one man and four women, who gig cen oea ucaion are now constructing latrines on their own. Al- though the number of builders has increased, she Women have also been identified as a specific says plenty of demand still exists for her work. mu segment of the rural community to whom hygiene Because Mrs. Monnanyane belongs to the com- education needs to be targeted. At any given time munity. some people do not pay her as much as half of the able-bodied men in Lesotho are estimated they would pay someone from the outside. Regard- to be away as migrant workers, leaving women with less of the labor involved in digging in each area, the major responsibility for managing rural eco- she is paid the same amount for each job-around nomic and social life. Despite the fact that women 70 maloti (US$35) per latrine, which is also about hold senior positions within the government, head 30 maloti less than many men earn. What keeps a majority of households, are more often physically her going? "I want to make an impression on the apmorinty of thouehlldes, are more often physial village," she says. "There is competition when I go to other villages, but people request me because education than men, they have proved a difficult I have a good reputation. This is my work." Mrs. group to reach in the health and hygiene education Monnanyane's success has led to thoughts of ex- effort. pansion. Herbackground as a village health worker has convinced her of the need for improved la- Institutionalizing Gender in NRSP Manage- trines. She is now considering buying materials ment and constructing latrine superstructures at her house to increase production. To identify strategies to involve women actively in decisionmaking and to ensure that the benefits Role of Women's Groups of extension services reach women, a women 'sliai- son adviser position was created within the NRSP Participatoryapproacheshave been successful in with UNDP/PROWWESS assistance. The adviser's raising the level of involvement of women's groups mandate was to work closely with health education in the NRSP, because the groups have begun to take as well as monitoring and evaluation officers at the on more responsibility for overall community im- national level. At the district level, the adviser provement One women's group has created an in- worked closely with district sanitation teams to iden- formal revolving credit system to build household tify existing women's groups and their modes of latrines, whereas others have recently sought advice functioning, as well as their needs and problems. on how to set up and manage credit systems for constructing latrines and communal water systems. 34 Good Practice on Gender in Water and Sanitation D. Learning About Integrating Box 12: Key strategies of JAKPAS GendHer Through a Pilot Project CenXer Through a Pilot Project.* Field testing through the pilot Ire epal * Learningapproach * Mandatory membership on water user In 1992 preparations began for the proposed committees for both men and women US$21.2 million national Rural Water Supply and * Tapstand maintenance through women- Sanitation (RWSS) Program in Nepal. In March 1993. only committees as part of project preparation, the innovative forty- * Experimentation with all-men's, all- month field-testing program JAKPAS,28 was initiated women s. and mixed committees * Gender trainingto support organizations to test and refine proposed strategies.29 The US$3.2 * Recognition of differentialincentives for million pilot program is funded by a World Bank- participation among men and women executed Japanese grant and managed by the UNDP/ * Women involved in traditional and non- World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. The pro- traditional activities, including income gram includes an autonomous RWSS-fund to sup- generation and skill training port demand-led, community-based water and sani- * Women's mobilization included as a tation initiatives. project impact evaluation indicator Twenty-nine implementing agencies or support or- ganizations, from the private sector, mostly NGOs, are In addition, women-only tap stand committeeshave participating, and 138 communities representing about been formed. These are responsible for maintaining 60,000 beneficiaries are participating in the pilot. The the tap stands on a daily basis. Most villagers inter- subproject cycle has three main phases: viewed-both men and women-felt this was good: be- cause women use the tapstand every day, they should aredevelopment phase. Support organiza- be the ones to keep it clean. They are also the ones tions and subprojects are selected in the pre- who will know when something has gone wrong and development phase, based on a set of trans- can report it to the water user committee, parent eligibility criteria, including felt need Support organizations have been given gender and demand, sustainability, and technical, analysis trainingand are encouraged to be more eq- economic, and environmental soundness. uitable in community-organizing activities. Some The support organization completes a support organizations have experimented with all- prefeasibility study. women 'swater user committees, assisted by all-male m Dtevelopment phase. The water user com- construction committees. In general, the project has rittee with supportorganization assistance found mixed committees to be more effective for prepares a feasibility study of its own water some purposes than single gender committees. For supply and sanitation system, which forms example, both men and women need to be involved the basis for a contractual agreement with in construction activities and to obtain full consen- the project. sus on tap siting and similar decisions. * Implementationphase. The support organi- zation provides hygiene and sanitation edu- Recognition of Gender Differences cation, trains the water user committee and village maintenance workers, and supports The project has also learned that it can make use the beneficiaries in constructing the sub- of the differential incentives for men and women, project. For instance, women often benefit more directly than men from improved water facilities and so may Gender Focus and Experim entation in Con- have a greater incentive to work for project success. stituting Committees Rural communities in the project area recognized this. The water user committee in one area decided The JAKPAS pilot project has a strong focus on that each household should contribute an equal gender. For instance, it requires the participation of amount of cash for the new water system; yet. they both men and women in decisionmaking through had problems collecting the full amount required. membership on water user committees. Their in- Because they could not raise enough money, they volvement guarantees that decisions are practical returned what they had collected to the concerned and meet the needs and demands of the users. households. Rather than give up, however, the wa- 35 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation ter user committee asked some village women to go Initial Results house to house to convince others and collect the money. These women, selected from those who Preliminary findings indicate that the project's would benefit directly from the project, were able demand-driven approach and participatory process to convince other women, who in turn convinced has resulted in a higher beneficiary willingness to their husbands to contribute their share. Families contribute to capital costs: on average, they are will- who could not contribute their share of the money ing to contribute 40 percent of scheme costs. This contributed labor instead. is also resulting in greater willingness to contribute 100 percent to O&M costs. This willingness to pay Women in Traditional and Nontraditional contrasts with typical client participation in govern- Activities ment schemes, in which both capital and O&M costs are fully subsidized. In addition, the performance During field visits, staff of the support organizations ofsupportorganizationshas been encouraging. With identify the potential for engaging women in tradi- the help of support organizations, most communi- tional and nontraditional activities in the project. The ties have successfully formed water user commit- pilot has identified several income-generatingactivi- tees, which have made advances in planning and ties and skill training needs for women. One of the construction. Membership in the majority of the indicators for evaluating project impact is whether committees is representative in terms of gender and more women have been mobilized as active partners. ethnicity. Lastly, the participatory process adopted This is measured by women's increased representa- by the projects has taken more time than originally tion on water user committees and in activities such expected The scheme cycle that has emerged has a as healthy home studies and participatory planning duration of 36 months, as compared to the cycle of exercises. For successful scaling up of the pilot activi- 18 months originally foreseen. Although the devel- ties during the RWSS project, JAKPAS recommends that opment phase is sometimes considered time con- each district with an ongoing water supply and sanita- suming, it generally results in much stronger water tion program should have enough staff to undertake user committees and fewer post-construction prob- hygiene and sanitation activities. In particular, a suffi- lems. cient number of women should be appointed as dis- trict-levelstaffand be given adequate authority. 36 Good Practice on Gender in Water and Sanitation E. Integrating Cender into a ImportanceofEnsuringWomens PartciaPa- Community-Based Project in Sri tion Lanka The CWSSP gives considerable attention to the role of women, both as users and as participants in The Community Water Supply and Sanitation project management. The following table, generated Project (CWSSP) is a joint initiative of the govern- by the project team, shows how the project promotes ment of Sri Lanka and the World Bank for providing women's participation through a series of incremen- water supply and sanitation facilities and hygiene tal steps, education to about 650.000 people in selected rural districts of Sri Lanka.30 The project was approved in Involving Both Men and Women 1992 and is currently operational. Despite the importance attached to the role of A Demand-Based Approach women, the CWSSP does not put women in a spe- cial position. Rather, it recognizes that the involve- The CWSSP strategy is based on recognition of ment of both men and women is required to plan the need to overcome past problems of community and manage schemes and generate full community dependence on government assistance. It uses part- ownership. The project, therefore, seeks to improve ner organizations as facilitators to create a sense of women's influence and representation in the plan- self-reliance in participating communities and to ning, execution, and management of activities. Tools provide demand-based facilities to them. During the such as village self-assessment and participatory preparation phase, the project carefully developed planning exercises help ensure the participation of a process for testing strategies, which were repli- both sexes. cated on a larger scale if they were found sustain- able. The community is involved in a step-by-step Genderand NGO Participation process of decisionmaking to generate ownership of the improved facilities. The technologies used are NGOs participate in all phases of the project. low-cost and suited to the varying natural condi- Their participation has especially facilitated the in- tions. tegration of gender, because NGOs have frequently challenged the validity of existing gender roles, the Table 3: Incremental steps in promoting women's participation in the CWSSP Step Activity I Data collection and analysis to assess gender issues and needs, II Small group formation, emphasizing participation of women at group discussions (often with representation of more than 50 percent women). III Selecting sufficient numbers of women representatives to form core groups. Awareness raising on resource mobilization, hygiene education, team work, and organization building. IV Facilitating representative decisionmaking at community-based organization level by ensuring women office holders (at least 30 percent) on executive committees. v Women's involvement in participatory survey, self-analysis, and project-planning activities. Responsibilities for hygiene education. VI Self-help group formation with women representatives to ensure proper construction management. Vli Involvement of women in planning and execution of facilities, maintenance, and hygiene education. Vlll Involvement in other village development activities savings and credit. home gardening and nutrition, tree planting for water source protection, and training and skills development for income generation. IX Emergence of a sense of ownership for village development, shared by men and women. 37 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation opportunities received training and have joined the Box 13: Key strategies of CWSSP project as community facilitators. Some have been elevated to the position of community project man- * Use of partner organizations agers. These women are now skilled in community * Stratepiesare first testedfor sustainabilit, development, mobilization, and demand-based t women as users and participants in project management. They have also functioned as project management trainers under the project. Women community fa- * Women's participation promoted through cilitators have proved more efficient than men com- incremental steps munity facilitators in conducting village-level group * Involvement of both men and women for discussions and training. full community participation In several villages, women have come together * NGOs facilitate integration of gender in groups to take up saving and income-generating activities. The CWSSP-led initiative to offer young engineers the opportunity to learn rural infrastruc- dividual perceptions about gender hierarchies, and ture development has been of particular benefit to changing gender roles in water and sanitation ac- women engineers. Of a total of twenty-two engineers tivities. The gender sensitivity of individual NGOs m the project, eight are women. One of the three varies somewhat, and some have been found to be regional directors is also a woman. Among partner less gender-sensitive than others. Nevertheless, in organizations, the gender ratio is 65:35, with women general, their involvement has been catalytic in pro- comprising 44 percent of community facilitators. moting attention to gender in the project. Impact on Women's Roles So far, the project has had a recognizable impact on women's role in society. Many young educated women in project villages who lacked employment 38 - - - - - A v 7 w w^t r /KJrNt ' e - :+ X [- ffi a-*;:--flLq ' - 4 F - ..,_ l_.... s ' '" KS X . R _ _ .a. . g. ,2 W- g [;.- . ,r.l- x - I ff; {. ..Y,in3 1 l iAi i - [t * .__ . l N l ' Te a f l Et - si L L. ^ .. . z ,... F ,. F. . ^,*.,, , _. .,. _;S ' +.+; $_ t .. ..,..F.. . . ., .............. ... . . - Appendix 1: Where to Turn to for Advice Several sources of expertise and information ex- ist on gender issues in general and their incorpora- Table 4: World Bank staff with experience in tion in the water and sanitation sector in particular. water and sanitation and gender These constitute a resource for task managers to tap SafebzUi when working on gender issues in water and sani- SafmmbrUi tation. This chapter briefly lists some of the human TECHNICAL GENDER SPECIALISTS resources both within and outside the Bank to which UNDP- World Bank Water and Sanitation task mnager can urn fr advce an to spple-Program taskmanaers an trn fr adice nd t suple- Wendy Wakeman (Headquarters) TWUWS ment existing resources. Gladys Aristizibal (Ecuador/Bolivia) Rekha Dayal (India) EU Workinri ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Karen Jacob (Philippines) A. Bank Staff W rigon Water Rose Lidonde (Kenya) 0 ~~~~~~~Charles Pendley (India) and Sanitation and Gender Annie Savina (Cte dIlvoire) Others Table 4 lists some Bank technical staff in water Ayse Kudat EMTEN and sanitation with experience in gender issues as Julie Viloria ASTHR of June 1996. In addition, a network of gender coor- Tauno Skytta OEDD3 dinators has been established within each region of Task Managers of Innovative Projects the Bank to ensure that gender is incorporated into Lea Donaldson SA3EI ailending3 activitiesrand analytical work. Dierento fXavier Legrain SAeEI all endng ativtiesandanalticl wok. iffeent K. Minatullah Pakistan approaches have been used in different regions. Robert Roche AF4IN Table 5 lists the gender contact persons in the World Bank as of March 1996. 40 Appendix 1: Where to Turn forAdvice Table 5: Gender focal points in the World Bank3" Staff Member Unit Staff Member Unit ASIA Regional Gender Coordinator LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN Lynn Bennett ASTHR Regional Gender Coordinator: LATSO Departmental Gender Coordinators: Aysegul Akin-Karasapan LASLG Regina Bendokat SAI PH Maria Correia LAMXC Magda Khouzam SAICO Ana Maria SantAnna LASHC Rashid Faruqee SA2AN Constance Corbett LAIER Richard Skolnik SA2PH Daniel Gross LASHC Gallus Mukami SA2AN Elizabeth Waters LASHC Jennie Litvak EAICO Eleanor Schreiber Ruth Kagia EAIHR Haneen Sayed EA3PH EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA Nisha Agarwal EA3CO Regional Gender Coordinator: Kathie Krumm ECAVP Tamar Manuelyan EA2CO Alternate: Dominique Lallement EC41N Julia Li EA2CO WID Advisory Board, Honorary Gender Coordinators: Marcelo Selowsky ECAVP Barbara Herz SAIPH Kathie Krumm ECAVP Maria Clark SA2PH Dominique Lallement EC41N Resident Mission Gender Specialists: Kyle Peters EAI CO Meera Chatterjee New Delhi Jean-Jacques Dethier EC2CO Wahida Huq (agriculture) Bangladesh Helen Sutch EC4C2 Milia Ali (education) Bangladesh Michal Rutkowski EC3C2 Shirin Jahangeer (population and health) Bangladesh Ayse Kudat EMTEN Carla Bianpoen Indonesia HUMAN CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT Gender Analysis and Poverty Team: Gender Analysis and Policy Group! GAP/PSP Lynn Bennett (team leader) ASTHR Poverty and Social Policy Department: Benu Bidani (labor and poverty) ASTHR Minh Chau Nguyen (manager) I Carlos Cuevas (rural finance) ASTHR Michael Bamberger (senior sociologist) Pam Hunte ASTHR Ann Elwan (senior economist) Nandini Gunewardena (agriculture and NRM) ASTHR Monica Fong (human resources specialist) Maniza Naqvi (participation and microenterprise) ASTHR Shahidur Khandker (economist) Cecile Fruman (microenterprise) ASTHR Andrew Mason (human resources economist) Parita Suebsaeng AFRICA (manager. poverty/gender monitoring unit) Regional Gender Coordinator: Mark Blackden AFTHR Jacqueline Baptist (economist) Departmental Gender Coordinators: Anjana Bhushan (sociologist) Ann Duncan. Vandana Chandra AFIPH Jo Bischoff (editor) Nathalie Johnsoni Jacqueline Coolidge AF2PE Hussain Samad (research analyst) Eileen Murray, Elaine Hubert AF3CO Tara Vishwanath (economist) Elizabeth Morris-Hughes. Shiyan Chao AF4PH Angelika Pradel, Mark Woodward AF5PH OED Josette Murphy OEDDI MIDDLE EAST EAST AND NORTH AFRICA Regional Gender Coordinator: Roslyn Hees MNIHR EDI Vice President's Office: Marisa Fernandez-Palacios MNAVP Jerri Dell EDIHR North Africa and lran: Meskerem Mulatu MNIHR Pietronella van den Oever EDIHR Middle Last: Arun Joshi MN2HR 41 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation B. Selected Agencies Working on Gender Issues in Water and Sanitation Several agencies have special expertise in gender issues in water and sanitation. Some are listed below in alphabetical order, with brief descriptions of the resources they provide. For further information about local or regional NGOs with experience in gender and water and sanitation, Bank staff may also contact TWUWS field-based staff mentioned in Table 4 above. This agency has "Libraries-to-Go," which includes CD Resources, Inc. a full-text CD-ROM data base on "Women, Water, and Sanitation: Impacts on Health, Agriculture, and New York, NY 10023 USA Environment." It contains about sixty documents published from 1979 to 1989. It costs approximately Tel. 212-580-2263 US$350, and the data base can be revised annually for a nominal charge. CIDA has several excellent resources: a reference Canadian InternationalDevelopmentAgency (CIDA) collection on gender issues and community partici- pation in the sector, a consultants roster containing 200, Promenade du Portage about forty CVs; and several guidelines for project Hul, Quebec, Canada K1A OG4wok work. Contact: Marnie Girvan, Director, Women in Development and Gender Equity Tel. 819-994-3256 Fax 819-953-6356 DANIDA has developed guidelines for water Danish InternationalDevelopmentAgency (DAATIDA) sector policy supporting women's involvement at all levels, including design, construction, O&M, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and management of facilities for water and sani- DK-1448 Copenhagen K, Denmark tation. It bas also developed a WID policy paper with a perspective up to the year 2000 and a strat- Contact: Birgit Madsen, Women in Development egy paper for enabling women to influence devel- (WID) Adviser opment and share its outcomes. According to its WID policy paper, DANIDA is to prepare a manual Tel. 45-33-92-00-00 on why, when, and how. to incorporate gender in Fax 45-31-54-05-33 projects, programs, and procedures. The manual is to include background materials, the gender policy paper, procedures, gender analysis train- ing guidelines, case studies, operational checklists for incorporating gender in the respective sector policy guidelines and the project cycle, and guide- lines on recruiting personnel. 42 Appendix 1: Where to Turn for Advice The Environmental Health Project is a follow-up Environmental Health Project. US. Agency for project that has replaced the erstwhile Water and International Development (USAID) Sanitation for Health (WASH) project. The WASH project was established in 1980 by USAID to pro- Arlington, VA 22209-211S1. USA vide technical assistance, guidance, materials, and methods for host governments, USAID missions and Tel. 703-247-8730 bureaus, and other agencies. The project's literature Fax 703-243-9004 collection contains nearly 7,000 articles and reports on water and sanitation issues in developing coun- tries, including a series of reports published during the WASH project on gender issues in the sector. Some of these are listed in the reference section of the tool kit. The strategy paper for Finland's development Finnish International Development Agency cooperation emphasizes the goal of gender equity (FINNIDA) and the systematic analysis and incorporation of gender. They have developed guidelines for rapid Dart tation a gender analysis (RGA) and several sectoral guidelines Cooperation Ministry for Foreign Affairs incorporating gender issues. Katajanokanlaituri 3 SF-00160 Helsinki, Finland Contact: Irma-Liisa Pertunnen, Counselor, Coordinator in Cultural and Gender Issues Tel. 358-0-1341-51/358-0-13-41-64-27 Fax 358-0-13-41-64-28 The IRC, set up in 1968 under an agreement be- The InternationalReference Centre for tween the World Health Organization (WHO) and Community Water Supply and Sanitation (IRC) the Netherlands government, provides information and technology support for improving water and PO. Box 93190, 2509 AD sanitation. it has published several documents on women, water, and sanitation, some of which are Contact: Christine van wijk listed in the reference section of this toolkit. The IRC also holds workshops on water, sanitation, and Tel. 31-70-30-689-30 gender issues. Fax 31-70-35-899-64 43 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation The ISW is a support and counseling bureau for The International Secretariat for Water (15W) the mobilization of local communities involved in 48, Rue Le Royer Ouest freshwater resource management. Its main objective Montreal, Quebec, Canada H2Y IW7 is to promote interaction among actors on the local, national, and international scenes to facilitate co- Tel. 514-849-4262 operation, exchange of know-how, and adaptation Fax. 514-849-2822 of partnerships to a variety of circumstances. It of- fers support services for the organization and ani- mation of training seminars and international con- ferences, as well as the design and presentation of projects to funding organizations. Services are also available for the elaboration of communication strat- egies, translation and access to data banks. Bank staff can also contact the ISW for information about local NGOs with experience in water and sanitation and gender issues. IWTC has published a collection of its newslet- The International Women 's Tribune Center (IWTC) ters on issues, activities, and resources on women, water, and sanitation needs. It contains background 777 United Nations Plaza information, tools, brief case studies, and references. New York, NY 10017, USA Contact: Anne Walker Tel. 212-687-8633 Fax. 212-661-2704 KWAHO's main objective is to assist local com- Kenya Water for Health Organization (KWAHO) munities in improving their health by providing safe drinking water and adequate sanitation through PRO. Box 61470 their own efforts and at their own pace. It has been Nairobi, Kenya at the forefront of involving women in water and Contact, Mrs. Margaret Mwangola. sanitation sector activities. In its projects, women Executive Director help decide on the siting of wells and receive train- ing in the construction, installation, maintenance, Tel: 254-2-557550/552405 and repair of hand pumps. The organization has Fax: 254-2 543265 amassed useful experience in addressing gender is- sues in project design and implementation. KWAHO facilitates several types of gender activities in com- munity-based projects. These include training of both women and men caretakers for O&M using the village-level O&M (VLOM) concept. KWAHO also fa- cilitates income-generating activities that target mainly women's groups, with the aim of uplifting their standards of living. 44 Appendix 1: Where to Turn for Advice The Netherlands' government policy on women Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs and development emphasizes the need for women's active involvement in development to increase eco- Directorate-General for International Cooperation nomic independence and self-reliance. A specific P.O. Box 20061 objective is improving women's access to and con- 2500 EB trol over production factors, services, and infrastruc- The Hague, The Netherlands ture facilities. Their water policy document empha- sizes an integrated approach, the active participa- Contact: Antoinette Gosses, Acting Director, tion of users, and economic and social sustainability. Special Program for Women and Development Tel, 31-70-348-66-04/64-70 Fax 31-70-348-48-83 NORAD has been giving more importance to the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation role of women in water supplies. It emphasizes the (NORAD) involvement of women in planning, implementa- Nedre Vollgt. 5 P.O. Box 8034 tion, and follow-up and educating both men and 0030 Oslo 1, Norway women in water and health issues. Several of NORAD's operational strategies, sectoral guidelines, Contact. Unni Poulsson Kramer, Special Adviser economic analyses, and program manuals contain a on WID gender perspective. It is currently developing a hand- book for assessing sociocultural and gender-related Tel. 47-22-31-43-22 aspects in NORAD-funded projects. NORAD's infor- Fax 47-22-31-44-01 mation division contains a collection of in-house and ._______________________________.______I outside publications on gender, including a docu- ment surveying the gender literature available in NORAD's library. PROWWESS has published a number of docu- PROWWESS/UNDP World Bank WaterandSani- ments on gender issues and community participa- tation Program tion in the sector, some of which are mentioned in The world Bank S4-133 the list of references. Many of these publications 1818 H Street, NW are available free of charge. Washington, DC 20433 USA Contact Wendy Wakeman Tel. 202-473-3994 45 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Through its 1984 water strategy, SIDA has em- Swedish International Development Cooperation phasized people's, particularly women's, participa- tion as essential to the sustainability of water and Birger Jarlsgatan 61 environmental health projects. Its strategy includes S-10525 Stockholm, Sweden emphasis on simple technologies, social mobiliza- tion, women's membership in and election to offic- Contact: Carolyn Hannan-Andersson, Gender Adviser ers' posts in water users committees, and training. SIDA has prepared several country gender analyses Tel. 46-8-698-51-65/50-00 since the 1980s for partner countries and is now Fax 46-8-698-56-42 working on developing country strategies. UNICEF works with governments in about 100 United Nations Children 's Fund (UNICEF) developing countries to help build community-based sector services. Recognizing that water supply alone 3 United Nations Plaza does not suffice in achieving health improvements, New York, NY 10017. USA in its programs UNICEF combines water supply, sani- Contact- Margaret Karp tation, and hygiene education as an integrated pack- age. The agency's activities in the water and sanita- Tel. 212-702-7270 tion sector include provision of safe water for do- Fax 212-702-7150 mestic use in rural and periurban areas. It provides _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~support to projects around the world for installing water supply systems. including hand pumps. and sanitary waste disposal systems. It also supports studies on cost reduction and cost-effectiveness, time and energy devoted to water collection. and hygiene practices. UNIFEM, which works in association with UNDP, United Nations Development Fund for Women provides direct financial and technical support in de- (UNIFEM) veloping countries to low-income women who are striv- 304 East 45th Street ing to raise their living standards, induding support New York, NY 10017, USA for small-scale water projects for rural and urban poor women. It also funds activities that bring women into Contact. Ilse Marks, Technical Officer mainstream development decisionmaking. Tel. 212-906-6400 Fax 212-906-6705 46 Appendix 1: Where to Turn for Advice UNDP chairs the United Nations Steering Com- United Nations Development Programme (UNDPJ mittee for Cooperative Action, which leads the glo- bal initiative for accelerating the provision of water New York NY 10017P USA supply and sanitation services after the Interna- New York, NY 10017, USA tional Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade Contact: Rosina Wiltshire, Manager, Gender in (1981-90), Before and during the decade, UNDP in- Development Program, Bureau for Policy and cluded articles on water and sanitation issues in its Programme Support quarterly publication SOURCE. It continues to treat the subject in its new quarterly magazine CHOICES. Tel. 212-906-5082 UNDP's Division of Information has several publi- Fax. 212-906-5857 cations and audiovisual materials on water and sani- tation for dissemination, INSTRAW, in collaboration with the International United Nations International Research and Training Labour Office/Turin Centre and United Nations De- InstitutefortheAdvancementof Women (INSTRAAW partment of Technical Cooperation ;and Develop- P.O. Box 21747 ment, has prepared a multimedia training package, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic costing approximately US$700, on women, water and sanitation. It contains five modules with trans- Tel. (809) 685-2111 parencies and slides, covering the International Fax (809) 685-2117 Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade and beyond; women's participation in planning, choice Contact: Martha Duenas Loza, Director of technology, and implementation of sustainable water and sanitation projects; women's role in hy- (or) giene education and training activities for water and sanitation projects; women's involvement in man- DCI-1106, United Nations agement of water resources, water supply, and waste disposal; and evaluation and monitoring of water Tel. 212-963-5684 and sanitation programs, projects, and the role of Fax 212-963-2978 women. Each module contains a user's guide, trainer's guide, text, additional reading, bibliogra- phy, key issue checklists for group work, and two evaluation forms. A version of this training package is targeted at audiences lacking literacy. Using a participatory ap- proach, the package consists of a trainer's manual, a set of ten modules for trainers, and eighty large drawings with simple captions. INSTRAW has also issued a series of reports on training seminars, held in Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia, Thailand, Nigeria, and the Gambia, which explore the application of this and an earlier train- ing package. 47 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation The WorldWIDE Network is focused on establish- World WIDE Network ing a network of women concerned about environ- mental management and protection. It publishes an Washington, DC 20005 USA annual directory listing the names, addresses, in- terests, and expertise of women who participate in Tel. 202-347-1514 WorldWIDE's international network. It has also com- Fax 202-496-0552 piled over 200 success stories that formed the sub- ject of a global assembly on women and the envi- ronment convened by WorldWiDE on behalf of UNEP in 1991. 48 vf !, a_. '' t§tt}di' 0 - 4 f 2, 'fw f Mi"' SL LlL- S ii r [1 . ir _,, [ 'w, JrE 1, ,, , W V . W. I ¢ _' Mbe ' . k 5 ' ' i F X s _ .! t _l e L is r;) t X \ r w,i,- q 1t \, ' l4_ _- v/M.< i _ | l [ _ ,' '_- a' 1s l [s,, ^ | | Bil_-,,, # | Ll | ! .X_,,s'1 i s i_'s"" . S i _fF r 61 I I i E >'1L,+ s l l | |>,.,sE Ch F l | l 'X'4 '9 i l _S'§ . X S - '_52. 4 Appendix 2: Terms of Reference for Consultants This chapter gives general terms of reference for 9Description of the situation of both men and a gender specialist in the water sector and specific women with respect to the geographic, eco- terms of references for gender analysis during: nomic development, and demographic fea- tures of the area * Preparation and design phases * Summary of the gender-disaggregated health * Implementation phase statistics for the project area * Monitoring and evaluation. 0Description of women's and men's roles in the current status of water supply, covering The chapter presents samples of general terms both physical provision. O&M, and institu- of reference for gender experts hired at various tional development. stages of the project or business cycle. Task manag- ers can adapt these to suit the particular country Implem entatlion context in which they work. The specialist will conduct on-the-job site inspec- - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tions and furnish periodic progress reports about ~~U ~A. TORs for a Gender Specialist implementation. She or he will report on the par- - L IA! and ~~~~~,** C. ~ticipation of men and women and recommend op- in thIe vWater an anitation Sec- portunities for them to participate in the following tor activities under the project: Overall Responsibilities . Planning * Implementation The gender specialist will ensure that gender is- *Opeatinagmndt aneac sues are considered in project activities for urban!/ MOneaitorngadmineac rural water supply and sanitation. * Tranitrng Tasks 0 Community development. She or he will recommend mid-course corrections Preparation of sector plans in the design and implementation plan of the The sector plans prepared for this assignment project, as required. to ensure the above. will form the basis for implementing the World Bank-assisted water supply and sanitation project. Report The specialist shall ensure that adequate attention Within one month, the consultant will prepare a is paid to gender in conducting all surveys and col- descriptive and analytical report presenting the main lection and analysis of demographic, physical, eco- findings and suggesting appropriate options and nomic, and financial data to attain this objective, recommendations. The specialist will ensure that gender-~ isaggre- gated analysis is conducted on all of the f1ollowing aspects in preparing the sector plans. Each sector plan will include: 50 Appendix 2: Terms of Reference for Consultants B. TORs for Gender Analysis pation and developing strategies to mini- mize or eliminate them, During the Preparation and De- * Making adequate staff and budget provi- sign Phases sions for women's as well as men's involve- ment, including plans for hiring women Overall Responsibilities staff, especially if village women do not meet with men staff * Developing a strategy for staff training in The gender specialist will ensure that gender is- gender analysis (if staff have not yet been sues are appropriately considered during the project trained) and identifying community train- preparation and design phases. Areas of emphasis ing needs related to women's involvement include data collection, determination of overall * Where the project utilizes village commit- project objectives and activities, and gender-sensi- tees, ensuring that project design provides tive project design. for their constitution in a gender-sensitive manner, including creation of separate com- Tasks mittees for women, if men and women will not meet together Data collection Ensuring that both women and men are The specialist will ensure that collected data are involved in key project decisions, such as gender disaggregated. Sufficient data on gender is- the choice of technology, service levels, ar- sues should be gathered for appropriate project de- rangements for O&M, and cost recovery sign. Data will be collected on such topics as: mechanisms. * Government and agency policies on gender Report issues in general and water and sanitation The consultant will prepare within one month a in particular descriptive and analytical report presenting the main * Summary of men's and women's status and findings and suggesting appropriate options and roles in the project area, especially in activi- recommendations. ties relating to water and sanitation * Inventory of existing community and NGO groups in the project area and men's and C. TORs for Gender Analysis women's roles in each, including any During the Implementation women's organizations - Previous experience with designing and Phase implementing gender-sensitive water and sanitation projects in the project area or in Overall Responsibilities similar areas in the country * Women's and men's views on existing water The gender specialist on the project implemen- and sanitation systems in the community. tation team is responsible for ensuring that gender- sensitive project design is well implemented. If gen- Project planningand design der was not addressed in the design, the specialist iased on the information collected, the special- will propose a modification of the design during ist will work with community members and other implementation. In particular, the specialist is re- project team members to determine priorities and sponsible for: project activities. A special effort should be made to incorporate the findings of gender analysis into the * Developing a gender strategy for the project project design. In particular, the specialist is respon- or refining the strategy developed during sible for: project preparation as needed * Ensuring that project activities that involve * Ensuring that project goals, objectives, pro- women are carried out at times and locations cesses, and activities are gender-sensitive convenient for women and meet the needs and priorities of both * Hiring and supervising staff focusing on gen- village women and men. der issues * Identifying constraints to women's partici- * Conducting gender training sessions for the 51 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation sensitization of all staff decisionmaking, financial, participation on * Organizing community-level training as committees, management, maintenance, needed concerning participation and gender and so on. For example, how many women issues and specific training for women in and how many men are on the committees skills needed for the project and what roles do they play? * Working with other project staff and the Examining staff attitudes toward gender is- community to develop and maintain an sues and how this affects project outcomes. M&E system that includes gender-disaggre- Are staff supportive of gender issues? Have gated data and data that provide indica- they received gender training? if so, what tors concerning women's and men's in- impact did this have? Should they receive volvement additional or follow-up training? * Reformulating the project and making mid- Assessing the training of men and women course corrections as needed during imple- in maintenance, hygiene education, and mentation for better attention to gender, other skill areas. What percentage of women based on the results of monitoring as opposed to men were trained in each * Developing adequate information channels area? What were the benefits of the train- between village women and men and project ing? What could have been done differently? and government staff Is there any difference between the perfor- mance of women and men? Report * Examining women's and men's roles in de- Within one month, the consultant will prepare a termining the type of technology chosen, the report presenting the main findings and suggesting siting of facilities, and whether or not addi- appropriate options and recommendations. tional facilities such as washing and bath- ing facilities will be built. a Involving community women and men in D. TORs for Gender Analysis data collection and interpretation and in the design of the system(s). During Monitoring and Evalua- * Organizing meetings, workshops, or both to tion inform project staff and communities of M&E findings. E.~U Overall Responsibilities * identifying areas for further research. _ Analyzing additional benefits, such as gains _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~in time that women and men derived from The gender specialist will be responsible for de- the project. veloping and implementing gender-sensitive M&E * How were these gains in time used-for eco- systems.32 Gender issues will form an integral part noi or socia se-n why? Did e of an overall M&E framework. In particular, the spe- project anticipate or plan for these uses? cialist is responsible for: prjc aniipt orpa o hsss c Analyzing additional costs in time or labor for men or women created by the project *Ensuring that the project's M&E system can activities. provide gender-disaggregated data and indi- * Drawing lessons and providing recommen- cators that can be used to measure the gen- Datinsfor ftr projects. der appropriateness of project activities. The system should be designed to provide staff Report and the community with timely information Within one month, the consultant will prepare a that can be used to adjust and reformulate descriptive and analytical report presenting the main the project in the course of implementation, findings and suggesting appropriate options and if needed. recommendations. * Measuring the effects and impact of the project separately for women and men. * Analyzing men's and women's participation in the project and their access to and con- trol over management and resources. This includes assessing types of involvement: 52 g * S y jw~~~- _r- - AR,'.v ',4 l l | t- ' - A,-St ' . §'}.-' . r\-~~~f'~ t l| $gt ,8 _. , - w i- Appendix 3: Sources of Funding 'Ihis section gives a brief idea of some of the grant funds, generally tied, available to complement supplementary sources of funding available to Bank the Bank's own resources for technical assistance managers in working on gender issues in the water activities, preinvestment studies, and activities sup- and sanitation sector, porting the lending program. The CTFP now encom- passes forty-seven consultant trust funds (CTFs) es- tablished by twenty-six different donors. The fol- A. Trust Funds lowing briefly summarized the CTFs that managers can tap for gender-related work in the water and Through the World Bank's Consultant Trust Fund sanitation sector.33 Program (CTFP), participating donor countries make 1. AUSTRIA: General Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant Austrian nationals only One assignment in a 12-month period (exceptions granted only with prior Govern- ment approval, in cases of follow-up activities) Maximum amount each assignment No restrictions Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority Up to 40 working days: World Bank Over 40 working days and special studies: Government (Ministry of Finance) Eligible countries Borrowing member countries, excluding Central and Eastern Europe & the CIS countries Eligible sectors No restrictions. Primary sectors: agriculture, education (technical), energy. industry (rehabilitation of steel plants. etc.), health, transport, water & sanitation, project analy- sis (technical, economic, financial, social, institutional, environmental and procure- ment), and mining Eligible assignments Short-term operational assignments for development projects, programs and studies CFSOC contact person Mr. Andrew Riordan (Q-5030) Ms. Parul Paka (Q-5053) Tel: 473-1228 Tel: 473-1220 Govt. contact person Mag. Harald Sitta Mr. Walter Rill Ministry of Finance, Vienna, Austria Executive Director Tel: (43-1) 51433-2282 Rm. D-12-041 Fax: (43-1) 513-0816 Tel: (202) 458-4661 Fax: (202) 522-3453 Mr. Gunter Kleedorfer, Austrian Trade Commission Austrian Embassy Commercial Office 1350 Connecticut Avenue. NW, Suite 501 Washington DC 20036 Tel: (202) 835-8962 Fax: (202) 835-8960 Special notes Under negotiation to remove restriction on frequency of assignment 54 Appendix 3: Sources of Funding 2. CANADA: Consultant Trust Fund (country specific) Eligibility of consultant Canadian nationals or landed immigrants Resident nationals of Canadian ODA-eligible countries (in conjunction with Canadian consultants) Maximum amount each assignment No restrictions Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority World Bank Eligible countries Funds currently earmarked for: China, Philippines, Egypt, Caribbean countries and South American countries (Bolivia, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela) Eligible sectors No restrictions Eligible assignments Short-term missions relating to the identification, preparation, appraisal, supervision and evaluation of Bank loans and credits including economic and sector work and other Bank operational activities CFSOC contact person Mr. Andrew Riordan (Q-5030) Ms. Parul Paka (Q-5053) Tel: 473-1228 Tel: 473-1220 Govt. contact person Ms. Vivien Escott, Senior Program Manager International Financial Institutions, Multilateral Programs Branch Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) 200 Promenade du Portage, Hull, Quebec, Canada KlA OG4 Tel: (819) 994-3881 Fax: (819) 953-5348 Mr. David Brown, Commercial Counsellor Office of Liaison with International Financial Institutions Embassy of Canada, 501 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20001 Tel: (202) 682-7719 Fax: (202) 682-7789 Special notes The earmarked funds are managed by the Country Departments concerned. For use of the funds contact: China, Mr. D. Rix; Philippines, Ms. E. Jorgensen; Egypt, Mr. A. Bjorgung; Caribbean and South America, Mr. Robert Crown I 55 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation 3. DENMARK: General Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant Danish nationals, local consultants Maximum amount each assignment No restrictions Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority (1) Short-term: Up to US $100,000. World Bank Over US $100,000, Government (2) Large studies: Government in principle Eligible countries OECD's DAC list countries (GNP per capita of up to $2,695) and Kyrgyz Republic, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan Eligible sectors No restrictions. Particular attention given to environment, poverty alleviation, private sector development, WID, and technical training Eligible assignments (1) Short-term operational assignments in connection with economic and sector work, identification, appraisal and supervision of Bank-financed projects and programs, or other activities as may be agreed on (2) Large studies relating to economic and sector work and project planning CFSOC contact person Mr. Andrew Riordan (Q-5030) Ms. Parul Paka (Q-5053) Tel: 473-1228 Tel: 473-1220 Govt. contact person Mr. Ole Blicher Olsen, Head of Procurement Division Mr. Sigurd Schmidt/ Mr. Peter B. Jensen Ministry of Foreign Affairs, DANIDA, 2 Asiatisk Plads DK-1448 Copenhagen K, Denmark Tel: (45-33) 92-00-00 Fax: (45-31) 54-05-33 I 56 Appendix 3: Sources of Funding 4. NETHERLANDS: General Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant Dutch nationals Consultants of low- and middle-income member countries Maximum amount each assignment NLG 400,000 Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority World Bank (priority given to short-term assignments not exceeding $50,000) Eligible countries See Attachment I Eligible sectors See Attachment II Eligible assignments Feasibility or pre-feasibility studies, sector or sub-sector investment studies and sector or sub-sector assessment studies, etc. CFSOC contact person Mr. Andrew Riordan (Q-5030) Ms. Parul Paka (Q-5053) Tel: 473-1228 Tel: 473-1220 Govt. contact person Mr. Marinus van Wier, First Secretary (Economic) Royal Netherlands Embassy 4200 Wisconsin Avenue, NW Washington DC 20016 Tel: (202) 244-5300 Fax: (202) 966-0737 Special notes (1) Special allocation for WID-specialized consultants to be engaged in the prepara- tion of projects which promote more active participation of women in the develop- ment (WID) process, or for sector studies related to the participation of WID process. (2) Allocations made in Netherlands Guilders (NLG) List ofEligible Countries (Attacbment I) ASIA: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Kyrgyz Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Occupied Territories, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the Philip- pines, Vietnam and Yemen AFRICA: Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Somalia, South Africa. Sudan. Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe LATIN & CENTRAL AMERICA: Bolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Netherlands' Antilles & Aruba, Nicaragua, Peru and Suriname EUROPE: Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria. FYR Macedonia,, Georgia, Moldova and Romania List of Eligible Sectors (Attachment II) 1. No restrictions, but preference to activities closely corresponding with major Dutch development policy goals. Environment-re- lated activities excluded. 2. For most eligible countries, this means that the assignments preferable support the major goal of Dutch development assistance, i.e., poverty alleviation (e.g., activities that promote sustainable economic growth. equitable income distribution, the satisfaction of basic needs, participation). I 3. For the following two categories of countries. the proviso about close correspondence to Dutch development policy goals will somewhat limit the use of funds. * Dutch development policy in the following countries concentrates on emergency and humanitarian or reconstruction aid: Angola. Cambodia, Eritrea, the Occupied Territories, Somalia and Sudan. * Dutch development policy in the following countries concentrates on institutional aid and macroeconomic support to stabilize and transform the economy: Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, FYR Macedonia, Georgia, Kyrgyz, Moldova, Mongolia, Namibia, Romania, South Africa and Vietnam 57 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation 5. NETHERLANDS: Eastern & Central Europe Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant Dutch nationals Local consultants (in conjunction with Dutch consultants; residency required) Maximum amount each assignment Up to NLG 1,000,000 Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority Up to NLG 250,000: World Bank Over NLG 250,000; Government - requests channeled through CFSOC Belarus, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Montenegro, Po- land, Russia, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Ukraine Eligible countries See Attachment Eligible sectors Preparation, appraisal, supervision of Bank-financed projects and programs for special studies Eligible assignments Mr. Myung-Kyu Lee (Q-5035) Ms. Jennifer Thomas (Q-5044) Tel: 473-1212 Tel; 473-1221 CFSOC contact person Mr. Marinus van Wier, First Secretary (Economic) Royal Netherlands Embassy, 4200 Wisconsin Avenue, NW Washington DC 20016 Tel: (202) 244-5300 Fax: (202) 966-0737 Govt. contact person Mr. Loes de Maat, Senior Policy Advisor Directorate General, Foreign Economic Relations Ministry of Economic Affairs, P.O. Box 20101, 2500EC, The Hague, The Netherlands Tel: (31-70) 379-6437 Fax; (31-70) 379-7361 Special notes Allocations made in Netherlands Guilders (NLG) List of Eligible Sectors (Attachment) 1. Land and Water Development: rainfed and irrigated agriculture; land reclamation, drainage, dredging, land reclamation; "polder" development, dams and dukes, coast protection: erosion control: coastal management systems; planning, design and construction of hydraulic works; flood control; tunnels and aqueducts. 2. Agriculture and Rural Development: agriculture sector and policy analysis; integrated rural development policy approach; food security and food production strategies; institutional and physical infrastructure: animal husbandry (dairy, poultry. pigs); distribution and marketing of agricultural products; rural extension services. 3. Harbor, Road and Transport Development: Harbor organization, management and construction; inland water transport; road engi- neering and maintenance; shipbuilding, airport planning. 4. Industrial Development; logistics and distribution systems; urban traffic systems and technology; telecommunications; shipbuild- ing and trucks; aerospace industry: chemical plants and equipment; food processing; packing. 5. Management Development; government, private sector, and semipublic management development 6. Water Utilization and Environmental Development: water management systems: water quality control: aquatic eco-systems; energy efficiency; waste management; environmental impact assessment; environmental management (government and indus- try); drinking water supply; ground water identification; water purification, sanitation; solid and liquid waste disposal, waste recycling. 7. Energy Development; renewable and rural energy, including wind and solar energy; exploration and exploitation of gas; power generation design and engineering; energy saving in industry. 8. Agro-Industrial Development; marine and inland fishing; processing. 9. Financial Services: banking services; insurance service; government regulations according to monetary policy id.; financial engi- neering; agricultural financing and credit; export financing; government debt trading. 58 Appendix 3: Sources of Funding 6. NETHERLANDS: Environment Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant | No nationality restrictions Maximum amount each assignment No restrictions Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority World Bank Eligible countries See Attachment Eligible sectors Environment-related activities Eligible assignments Studies and technical assistance, activities related to the environment CFSOC contact person Mr. Myung-Kyu Lee (Q-5035) Ms. Jennifer Thomas (Q-5-44) Tel: 473-1212 Tel: 473-1221 Govt. contact person Marinus van Wier, First Secretary (Economic) Royal Netherlands Embassy, 4200 Wisconsin Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20016 Tel: (202) 244-5300 Fax: (202) 966-0737 Special notes j Allocations made in Netherlands Guilders (NLG) List of EIigible Countries (Attachment) ASIA: Aral Sea area, Bangladesh, Bhutan. India, Kyrgyz Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. the Philippines and Vietnam. AFRICA: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau. Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Occu- pied Territories, Rwanda, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. LATIN & CENTRAL AMERICA: Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Nether- lands' Antilles & Aruba, Nicaragua, Peru and Suriname. I9 59~~~~~~~~~~~~~, Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation 7. NETHERLANDS: Consultant Trust Fund for Poverty Assessments Eligibility of consultant No nationality restrictions Maximum amount each assignment No restrictions Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority World Bank Eligible countries See attachment Eligible sectors No restrictions Eligible assignments Poverty assessment, including analytical and field work, policy analysis, preparation of broad-based poverty reduction strategies, local workshops and other dissemination ac- tivities (the assignment should involve activities that are additional to regular World Bank poverty assessment work) CFSOC contact person Mr. Andrew Riordan (Q-5030) Ms. Parul Paka (Q-5053) Tel: 473-1228 Tel: 473-1220 Govt. contact person Marinus van Wier, First Secretary (Economic) Royal Netherlands Embassy. 4200 Wisconsin Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20016 Tel: (202) 244-5300 Fax: (202) 966-0737 Mr. Leen Boer, Poverty Coordinator Technical Advice Section (DST/TA), Directorate General International Cooperation Ministry of Foreign Affairs P.O. Box 20061, 2500 EB The Hague, The Netherlands Tel: (3-70) 348-5300 Fax: (31-70) 348-5956 Special notes Funds under this CTF have been earmarked for Africa. Asia, ECA and LAC regions. For access to funds, contact the regional poverty coordinators. List of Eligible Countries (Attachment) Geographic distribution as follows: v Africa 60 percent * Asia including Yemen, focusing on South Asia 20 percent D Latin America and the Caribbean, focusing on Central America 10 percent * Europe 10 percent ASIA: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Kyrgyz Republic. Mongolia, Nepal, Occupied Territories, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. the Philip- pines, Vietnam and Yemen. AFRICA: Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso. Cape Verde, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda. Zambia and Zimbabwe. LATIN & CENTRAL AMERICA: Bolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Netherlands' Antilles & Aruba, Nicaragua, Peru and Suriname. EUROPE: Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan. Bulgaria. FYR Macedonia, Georgia, Moldova and Romania. 60 Appendix 3: Sources of Funding 8. NORWAY: Special Studies Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant Norwegian nationals Nationals of borrowing member countries Other nationals (provided that the Bank will endeavor to select consultants from Nor- way and borrowing member countries) Maximum amount each assignment No restrictions Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority Up to $100,000: World Bank Over $100,000: Government - requests channeled through CFSOC Eligible countries IDA-eligible countries, priority given to Sub-Saharan Africa Eligible sectors Priority sectors: agriculture, natural resources management, education, health, and cross- sectoral issues (e.g., environment, poverty reduction, issues related to structural adjust- ment processes and gender) Eligible assignments Innovative and catalytic studies, workshops and pilot activities in connection with the Bank's work program CFSOC contact person Mr. Andrew Riordan (Q-5030) Ms. Parul Paka (Q-5053) Tel: 473-1228 Tel; 473-1220 Govt. contact person j Mr. Helge Semb, Chief Ms. Kari Hirth, Executive Officer I Development Bank Division, Department of Multilateral Development Cooperation Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Oslo, Norway Tel: (47-22) 343-991 Fax: (47-22) 838-234 Mr. Asbioern Lovbraek Office of the Executive Director, Rm. D-13-031 Tel (202) 458-1083 Fax: (202) 477-6818 Special notes Allocations made in Norwegian Kroner (NOK) 9. SPAIN: General Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant T Spanish nationals only Maximum amount each assignment $25,000, maximum daily fee rate: US $600 I Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority Up to US $25,000: World Bank (on the basis of Government's no-objection) Over US $25,000 & studies: the Government (deemed approved after 10 days) - requests channeled through CFSOC Eligible countries No restrictions Eligible sectors Energy generation, transport and distribution: industry, including agro- and forest in- dustries: telecommunications: mining: water supply & sewerage; water treatment plants; urban solid waste: irrigation: urban transport: and health industry Eligible assignments Short-term operational assignments and studies CFSOC contact person Mr. Andrew Riordan (Q-5030) Ms. Parul Paka (Q-5053) Tel: 473-1228 Tel: 473-1220 Govt. contact person Mr. Eduardo Melchior Embassy of Spain, 2558 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20008 Tel: (202) 265-6704 Fax: (202) 265-9478 Special notes THIS TRUST FUND IS CURRENTLY INACTIVE AND BEING RENEGOTIATED 61 Too/kit on Gender in Water and Sanitation 10. SWEDEN (BITS): General Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant Swedish nationals Local consultants (applicable to short-term assignments only, not to special studies) on a case-by-case basis Priority given to women consultants Maximum amount each assignment (1) Short-term assignments: up to 40 working days (2) Special studies: up to US $350,000 in principle Maximum daily fee rate: US $750 Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority Short-term assignments Up to US $50,000: World Bank Over US $50,000: Government - requests channeled through CFSOC Special studies Up to US $80,000: World Bank in principle Over US $80,000: Government - requests channeled through CFSOC Eligible countries Borrowing member countries in the low- or lower middle-income categories Eligible sectors No restrictions (highest priority given to democracy, human rights and Women in De- velopment) Eligible assignments Economic and sector work, studies, preparation, appraisal, supervision and evaluation of Bank-financed projects: Special studies (pre-investment and other studies, advisory services) CFSOC contact person Mr. Andrew Riordan (Q-5030) Ms. Parul Paka (Q-5053) Tel: 473-1228 Tel: 473-1220 Govt. contact person Ms. Stina Mossberg. Head of Division Mr. Bo Stenberg, Senior Trade Officer Mr. Johnny Andersson, Program Officer Embassy of Sweden Economic Cooperation, Sida 1501 M Street, NW. Washington, DC 20005 S-105 25 Stockholm. Sweden Tel: (202) 467-2600 Tel: (46-8) 728-5100 Fax: (202) 467-2699 Fax: (46-8) 249-290 Special notes Under negotiation to increase approval authority for the Bank I 62 Appendix 3: Sources of Funding 11. SWEDEN (BITS): Environment Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant T Swedish nationals Maximum amount each assignment Maximum daily fee rate: US $750 Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority Up to US $100,000: World Bank Over US $100,000: Government - requests channeled through CFSOC Eligible countries Borrowing member countries with a GNP per capita not exceeding $2,000 Eligible sectors (1) Strengthening of environmental policies, institutions, information systems via in- vestment or adjustment operations (2) Land use & management including land/resource surveys (3) Forestry projects having afforestation or prevention of deforestation as a major objec- tive (4) Urban or industrial pollution control or waste disposal (5) Industrial pollution control w/ emphasis on improvement in production process Eligible assignments Technical assistance activities specifically addressing environmental aspects of projects initiated for financing by the Bank, and other activities to be agreed upon such as envi- ronmental health impact analysis CFSOC contact person Mr. Myung-Kyu Lee (Q-5003) Ms. Jennifer Thomas (Q-5045) Tel.: 473-1221 Tel.: 473-1212 Govt. contact person Mr. Gunnar Pihlgren Director Ms, Ann Kampe/ Ms. Ingrid Sandstrom, Desk Officer Department of Technical Cooperation Swedish Board for Investment and Technical Support (BITS) Hamngatan 6, S-l l 1 47 Stockholm, Sweden Tel: (46-8) 678-5000 Fax: (46-8) 678-5050 Mr. Bo Stenberg, Senior Trade Officer Embassy of Sweden, 1501 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20005 Tel: (202) 467-2600 Fax: (202) 467-2699 63 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation 12. SWEDEN (BITS): Eastern Europe Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant Swedish nationals Local consultants (in conjunction with Swedish consultants) Maximum amount each assignment Maximum daily fee rate: US $750 40 working days Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority Up to US $50,000: World Bank Over US $50,000: Government, requests channeled through CFSOC Eligible countries Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Ukraine Eligible sectors No restrictions (emphasis on environmental protection and infrastructure development) Eligible assignments Short-term operational assignments and technical assistance activities CFSOC contact person Mr. Myung-Kyu Lee (Q-5035) Ms. Jennifer Thomas (Q-5044) Tel: 473-1212 Tel: 473-1221 Govt. contact person Mr. Peeter Horm, Deputy Director Central & Eastern Europe Department for Central and Eastern Europe, Sida, S-105 25 Stockholmn Sweden Tel: (46-8) 728-5100 Fax: (46-8) 673-2141 Mr. Bo Stenberg, Senior Trade Officer Embassy of Sweden, 1501 M Street NW, Washington. DC 20005 Tel: (202) 467-2600 Fax: (202) 467-2699 13. SWEDEN (SIDA): Environment Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant No nationality restrictions Maximum amount each assignment No restrictions Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority World Bank Eligible countries IDA-only countries Eligible sectors Environmental works Eligible assignments Preparation of environmental action plans and environmental assessments and other work related to the environment in IDA-only countries CFSOC contact person Mr. Myung-Kyu Lee (Q-5003) Ms. Jennifer Thomas (Q-5045) Tel.: 473-1212 Tel.: 473-1221 Govt. contact person Mr. Christer Holtsberg, Director Natural Resource Management Division Sida, S-105 25 Stockholm, Sweden Tel: (46-8) 728-5100 Fax: (46-8) 612-0976 Special notes The major portion of the funds under this CTF have been earmarked and allocated to Bank departments/divisions dealing with environmental work. 64 Appendix 3: Sources of Funding 14. SWITZERLAND: Special Studies Consultant Trust Fund Eligibility of consultant No nationality restrictions Maximum amount each assignment No restrictions Expenses covered by CTF Fees, Travel and Subsistence Approval authority Government - requests channeled through CFSOC Eligible countries IDA-eligible countries (priority countries: see attachment) Eligible sectors No restrictions (priority sectors: see attachment) Eligible assignments Special studies, training and workshops related to IDA activities CFSOC contact person Mr. Andrew Riordan (Q-5030) Ms. Parul Paka (Q-5053) Tel: 473-1228 Tel: 473-1220 Govt. contact person Ms. Kathryn Imboden. Chief Mr. Caude Barras Mr. Jean-Pierre Nyffeler. Economist Assistant to the Executive Director Section for Economic Issues Rm. E-1106 Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, Tel: (202) 458-7050 3003 Berne, Switzerland Fax: (202) 477-9110 Tel: (41-31) 322-3574 Fax: (41-31) 324-1691 Special notes | This CTF is intended, in principle, for studies of a duration of 6 months to 2 years. List of Eligible sectors fosr te Priority Countries (Attachment) WEST AFRICA: BENIN: Structural adjustment issues, health sector adjustment. literacy, restructuring of public enterprises BURKINA FASO: Agriculture, forestry, environment, education-literacy, cottage industry, livestock development, rural development CHAD: Health, agriculture (rural development, vocational training), environment MALI: Public health, forestry and environment, water, vocational training, informal sector, land use management, decentralization NIGER: Hydraulic, national resources, forestry, environment, micro-realizations EAST AFRICA: BURUNDI: Cottage industry MADAGASCAR: Health issues MOZAMBIQUE: Public expenditure review, revenue mobilization, decentralization, financial sector adjustment, health (especially financial issues/cost recovery) RWANDA: Water (involvement with groups and local organizations [NGOs]) TANZANIA: Health sector, rural roads and transport/travel, community development, sociocultural issues related to poverty allevia- tion LATIN AMERICA: BOLIVIA: Agriculture, national resources, adjustment issues, small-scale industry, issues related to social investment fund NICARAGUA: Agriculture, drinking water and sanitation issues, vocational training, environment and natural resources, issues re- lated to social investment fund_; SOUTH & CENTRAL ASIA: BANGLADESH: Small industry promotion and credit, rural infrastructure (private sector integration), health sector INDIA: Financial sector issues, savings and rural credit issues, sericulture (for example, research assessment), national livestock policy, small industry promotion PAKISTAN: Small industry promotion, agriculture and forestry and sustainable land use in NWFP FSU IDA-ELIGIBLE COUNTRIES: All activities EAST ASIA & HIMALAYAS: BHUTAN: Forestry, primary education LAOS: Formal education NEPAL: Small-scale industry promotion and credit, labor market analysis, health sector, rural infrastructure, road sector, vocational/ technical education VIETNAM: Forestry and environment, formal education MEDITERRANEAN REGION: EGYPT: Activities related to the social fund 65 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Eligible Sectors for Other IDA Countries Human Resources: basic health services, cost recovery, AIDS prevention, basic education Environment: biodiversity protection, waste management, renewable energy-efficient use of energy Transport and Infrastructure: SSATP road maintenance initiative, UNDP-World Bank Water & Sanitation Program, rural transport Macroeconomics and Structural Adjustment. public expenditure review work in concentration countries, civil service reform, fiscal policy (resource mobilization), support for east African cross-border trade and investment initiative, exchange rates issues, market access for commodity producers, training, regional integration Poverty and Social Policy: poverty impact of structural adjustment programs, poverty-conscious restructuring of public expenditures, poverty assessments, monitoring/data collection issues and activities Financial Sector: financial sector adjustment issues, savings mobilization, rural credit issues, including issue of long-term credit, training, private credit systems for micro-enterprise financing Industry: privatization, promotion of private sector support institutions (e.g., small industry promotion), promotion of privatization mechanisms/instruments Agriculture: sustainable land use, particularly in rainfed hillside and mountain agriculture, Sub-Saharan Africa (desertification), crop protection-integrated pest management and biological control in food crops, commodity programs-food crops, national program level and regional collaborative programs (networks), biodiversity/ biotechnology (policy issues, capacity building), in-situ and ex-situ conservation strategies for food crops, plant genetic resources policy (including farmers' rights, intellectual property rights issues), livestock production in mixed agriculture, livestock production systems Cross-sectoral Priorities: gender-balanced agriculture development, institution-building in agri-research (national programs, regional networks), extension (extension-research linkages, extension concepts, strategies, institutional aspects), farmer participation, em- powerment I 66 Appendix 3: Sources of Funding B. Other Funding Sources 15. Fund for Innovative Approaches in Human and Social Development (FIAHS) Nature and purpose To improve the quality of Bank operations in areas that are yet to be mainstreamed through: 1. Operational support for participation and social assessments 2. In-house capacity building. Amount Total US$750,000, average request for support about US$20,000-30,000. Expenses covered Expenses such as: 1. Travel, fees, workshop costs 2. Matching resources up to two years for incremental positions for staff and long-term consultants who are social scientists or have appropriate technical skills. Managed by j PSP. in consultation with Environment Department. How to apply I Requests from division chief or higher, or resident representative, to Mr. Ishrat Husain, director, PSP, copied to Mr. Aubrey Williams, PSP. and Ms. Gloria Davis, Social Policy and Resettlement Division, Envi- ronment Department. Requests should be limited to three pages and include information on proposed activities, name MOC of requesting unit, task manager's name, expected outputs and timing, and pro- jected costs and financing plan. Special notes 1. Matching funds required from participating departments. Trust funds are not acceptable as matching funds. 2. Successful applicants are required to document use of funds and report to PSP with a summary of outputs within sixty days of completing the proposed activity. 3. Proposals should not be for work covered under existing budgets. 4. It is expected that, as they become mainstreamed-ideally over a two-year period-initiatives funded by the fund will become fully financed from regular regional budgets. 16. Institutional Development Fund (IDF) Nature and purpose | Provides grants to strengthen institutional capacity to formulate national policy in the Bank's areas of special operational emphasis. Provides a quick response instrument for funding small, action-oriented schemes identified during, and closely linked to, the Bank's economic and sector work (ESW) and policy I dialogue. Amount 1. For IDF Committee, ceiling of US$500,000 2. For regions, ceiling of US$200,000. Expenses covered Institutional development activities in the Bank's areas of special operational emphasis: poverty reduc- tion and human resource development, environmentally sustainable development, private sector de- velopment. Managed by 1. IDF Committee, which allocates a portion of the IDF funds to individual grants, each limited to US$500,000. 2. Regions receive their allocations from the president and have their own procedures for approving grants. subject to a ceiling of US$200,000. Special notes 1. Recipients are expected to demonstrate commitment by contributing to costs of activities funded by IDF grants other than staff salaries or office space costs. 2. Eligible activities financed must be completed within two years and executed by the recipient govern- ment with the help of local or international consultants or executing agencies. 3. The fund supports gender-related institutional development in Iran, Tunisia, and Chile. 67 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation 18. Policy and Human Resources Development Fund Nature and purpose To support technical assistance for project preparation expected to be financed by the Bank and IDA. Amount The fund averages about US$150 million a year. Approved grant sizes range from US$150,000-$l million, averaging US$700,000. Expenses covered 1. Consultants-both foreign and local-individuals, and firms 2. Equipment, if required to carry out the technical assistance and the recipient government is not in a position to supply it. Priority sectors Infrastructure, environment, private sector development, primary education. women in development, population and public resource management. Priority also to proposed projects likely to receive cofinancing from Japanese and other sources. M:naged by The fund is financed by Japan. In the Bank, it is administered by: Albert Howlett, x31214, Fund Administrator Cofinancing and Financial Advisory Services (CFS) Department How to apply Proposals for funding are processed biannually, in mid-September and mid-March. Task managers should submit proposals in the given format to the regional cofinancing coordinator. Final proposals are submitted to the Japanese authorities through the CFS Department. Special notes The Policy and Human Resources Development Fund, financed by Japan, is the largest single-donor fund, providing grants in semiannual installments. 19. Country Operations Support Facilities (COSFs), Asia and Africa Regions Nature and purpose To support the efforts of country departments in Asia and Africa regions to integrate gender in up- stream policy and analysis work (participatory assessments [PAs]. CASs, and ESW), and project prepara- tion. To improve gender sensitivity in Bank work and involve women stakeholders in project design and implementation. Expenses covered * Full-time local gender staff members at resident missions * Local capacity building * Strengthening linkages between government institutions and successful NGO programs * Gender-awareness building, training, and workshops * Consultation workshops * Seed funds for innovative pilot projects * Social assessments Regionwide thematic or country-level gender issue papers, information sheets, and statistical analysis * IEPS-final executive project summary (FEPS) reviews. 20. Project Preparation Facility (PPF) Nature and purpose To support activities required to complete project preparation. Expenses covered Feasibility studies, design work, technical assistance, provision of goods and works (office space, equip- ment, and transportation) required to complete project preparation. Managed by Country department directors How to apply Task managers should send requests, through division chiefs, to the country department director, indi- cating the purpose, items to be financed, and expected refinancing date of the PPF (when the project loan becomes effective). Special notes The PPF advance becomes effective on the date of countersignature by the borrower. Before requesting a follow-up PPF, the task manager should ensure that earlier advances have been disbursed or committed. 68 Appendix 4: Selected References The last decade and a half has produced a wealth of articles and publications on gender issues in the water and sanitation sector. These constitute a valuable resource for task managers in planning and implementing projects with a gender focus in this sector. A list of selected references is given below. Briscoe, J. and M. Garn, 1994. FinancingAgenda 2]: Freshwater. Paper prepared for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992. World Bank, Washington, D.C. Elmendorf, Mary L. and Raymond B. Isely. 1981. The Role of Women as Participants and Beneficiaries in Water Supply and Sanitation Programs. Water and Sanitation for Health Technical Report No. 17. U.S. Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. Goodheart, Lucy. 1988. Twenty Lessons Learned from Social Feasibility Studies. PROWWESS/United Na- tions Development Programme, New York. International Women's Tribune Center (IWTC). 1990. Women and Water: A Collection of IWTCNewslet- ters on Issues, Activities, and Resources in the Area of Women, Water, and Sanitation Needs. New York. Melchior, Siri. 1989. Women, Water, and Sanitation, orCountingTomatoeslnstead of Pumps. PROWWESS, United Nations Development Programme, New York. Narayan, Deepa. 1993. ParticipatoryEvaluation: Tools forManaging Change in Waterand Sanitation. Tech- nical Paper No. 207, World Bank, Washington, D.C. -. 1995. The Contribution of People's Participation: Evidence from 121 Rural Water Supply Projects. Environmentally Sustainable Development Occasional Paper Series No. 1. World Bank, Washington, D.C. Narayan-Parker, Deepa. 1989a. Goals and Indicators for Integrated Water Supply and Sanitation Projects. PROWWESS/United Nations Development Programme, New York. -. i989b. Indonesia: Evaluating Community Management PROWWESS/United Nations Development Programme: New York. 1989c. PEGESUS. PROWWESS/United Nations Development Programme, New York. Narayan-Parker, Deepa and Mary McNeill. 1989. People, Pumps, and Agencies. PROWWESS/United Na- tions Development Programme, New York. Narayan, Deepa and Lyra Srinivasan. 1993. Participatory Materials ToolKit: Materials for Training Trainers andforCommunityEmpowerment World Bank, Washington, D.C. 69 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Perrett, Heli E. 1984. Involving Women in Sanitation Projects. TAG Discussion Paper Number 3, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. PROWWESS, United Nations Development Programme. 1989. Training in Community Participation: Re- port of an African Regional Workshop for Programme Staff New York. Shallon, Elsie. 1988. VolunteersAgainstDiarrhoea. PROWWESS/United Nations Development Programme, New York. Smith, Alice J. 1984. Women's Roles in Water Supplyand Sanitation in Developing Countries: A Four-Part Bibliography by Author, Subject, Phase of Development, and Country. Water and Sanitation for Health Technical Report No. 21. U.S. Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. Srinivasan, Lyra. 1990. Tools for CommunityParticipation: A Manual for Training Trainers in Participatory Techniques. Involving Women in Water and Sanitation, Lessons, Strategies, and Tools Technical Series. PROWWESS/United Nations Development Programme, New York. United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW). 1991. Women, Water, and Sanitation. A multimedia training package produced in cooperation with the U.N. Department of Technical Cooperation (DTCD) and the International Labour Office-Turin Centre. -. 1992. Report of the Interregional Workshop on Women, Water Supply, and Sanitation. Report of a workshop held in Bangkok, Thailand, September 21-25, 1992. Santo Domingo. van Wijk-Sijbesma, Christine. 1985. Participation of Women in Water Supply and Sanitation: Roles and Realities. Technical Paper 22. International Center for Community Water Supply and Sanitation, The Neth- erlands. van Wijk-Sijbesma, Christine and Eveline Bolt. 1991-94. Woman, Water, and Sanitation, AnnualAbstract Journals. Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. International Water and Sanitation Center (IRC) and PROWWESS/UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, The Netherlands. Wakeman, Wendy. 1995. Gender Issues Sourcebook for Water and Sanitation Projects. United Nations Development Programme-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, Washington, D.C. Wakeman, Wendy, Susan Davis, Christine van Wijk, and Alka Nathani. Forthcoming. Sourcebook for Gen- der issues at the PolicyLevelin the Waterand Sanitation Sector. United Nations Development Programme/ World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. U World Bank. 1996. World Bank Participation Sourcebook. Environmentally Sustainable Development Vice Presidency, Washington, D.C. World Health Organization and PROWWESS/United Nations Development Programme. 1984. Involvement of Women in Water Supply, Sanitation, and Health Education Projects: A Guideline for Case Studies. New York. World Bank Water Demand Research Team. 1993. "The Demand for Water in Rural Areas: Determinants and Policy Implications." The World Bank Research Observer 8 (1). United Nations Development Programme-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. 1996. Demand-Based Approach: Making Large-Scale Rural Water Supply Projects Work, Annual Report July 1994-June 1995, pp. 8-13. World Bank. Washington D.C. 70 j ,ifX tA s 4s - Cz - i z W i g t s s 0Zv ¢ S , f hy4*f |l s-g- ro- er s r r If_eV v W i . f * - il 6- ,- ! 4-. e ' s '. r, o . 3 t t %'ri-' *'ef i'.t' - t;s t^'' ' ,' ' ,>,,^f i' i W. w V , ' is 1-@ . , * 0;e ,. t *,, , . 4s 5,',,4t 1 t lt -wi9SiE N*iM .:n' 1w .! w Appendix 5: Learning Tools Gender analysis is a powerful tool for planning, into women and men, especially in the early stages. design, and evaluation. It is also a tool for raising At the agency level, it is important to create small people's awareness about gender differences in groups that mix individuals across gender, status, roles, access and control over resources, and distri- and discipline. bution of benefits. Although much work has been done on gender analysis at the international, na- B. Participatory Tools and Exer- tional, and program levels, participatory tools that actively engage people in ways that raise their aware- cises ness of gender issues have been relatively lacking. This section gives brief descriptions of some par- Visual materials that reflect local reality help over- ticipatory gender analysis tools for use at the com- come class and literacy barriers at the community munity and agency levels. level. At the agency level, the use of visual materi- It is important that gender issues be analyzed by als helps staff break away from writing and other local people themselves with tools that they can familiar ways of doing things, stimulating greater themselves use. At the same time, agency staff creativity. It helps lower interpersonal and status should also become aware of gender issues and barriers and creates openness to working together meaningfully incorporate them in policies and pro- across disciplinary specializations. grams. Participatory tools such as those described Almost all materials can be used in a participa- here have been used by communities to enhance tory or nonparticipatory way. It is important to use their capacity to initiate and manage change and by innovative, visual materials to empower local people agency staff to undertake gender analysis and apply rather than merely to extract information from com- findings to planning, implementation, and evalua- munities for external planning purposes. In partici- tion. patory activities, the facilitator keeps a low profile after introducing the task or activity. Tasks are open- A. Principles of Participatory ended to allow local perspectives, beliefs, values, and reality to emerge, rather than being focused on try- Gender Analysis ing to elicit the "one correct" answer. The following is a selected list of participatory The underlying premise of these participatory exercises and tools for gender analysis that can be gender analysis tools, based on the SARAR method- used at the community level with groups of men, ology,34 is that people are their own most valuable women, and children after being pictorially and sub- resource and that development aims to fulfill hu- stantively adapted to the local context. More detailed man potential and draws strength from working in descriptions of the materials and how to use them groups. At the community level, it is important to can be found in a series of PROWWESS/World Bank create and sustain a positive learning environment, publications.35 in which people feel free to express themselves, make mistakes, and speak up without fear of being A. Genderarnalysis: access to resources. This ex- wrong-especially when working with poor and mar- ercise uses three large drawings of a man, a ginal groups and, in most societies, with women. It woman, and a couple with fifteen to twenty is usually effective to begin with groups separated 72 Appendix 5: Learning Tools cards depicting resources and possessions man, woman, village leader, official, water owned by local community members to elicit committee, and extension worker-made what discussion and in the process collect informa- decision. Giving men and women different tion, raise awareness, and learn how access to colored chips with which to vote brings out and control of household and community re- differences between men's and women's per- sources varies according to gender. ceptions of who makes decisions. B. Taskanalysisand role flexibilitybygender. As in the previous exercise, this one uses three large drawings of a man, a woman, and a couple with twelve to fifteen cards depicting daily household and community tasks. The purpose is to elicit discussion and in the pro- cess collect information, raise awareness, and learn how household and community tasks are distributed according to gender and how much role flexibility exists by gender. When used together with the previous activity, it can dra- matically show that, whereas men control most of the resources, women do many of the burdensome tasks. C. Women 's lives: needsassessments. This exer- cise uses several cards depicting women per- forming various daily tasks that participants categorize by degree of difficulty. Its purpose is to elicit discussion and in the process col- lect information, raise awareness, and learn about the priority needs of women, based on their different tasks, concerns, and responsi- bilities. The same activity can be repeated with cards depicting men performing various activi- ties to analyze men's needs, D. Gender analysis of poverty. In this exercise, participants use cards depicting different pos- sessions and categorize the likelihood of own- ing them by economic status (using the three labels "rich, " "average, " and "poor") and by sex of household head. The exercise helps partici- pants determine what poverty means in a par- ticular community and enables them to decide which community members should be tar- geted for assistance. E. Evaluation of gender differences in decisionmaking This exercise encourages and stimulates people to understand and evaluate the decisionmaking process and their partici- pation in it. Participants discuss cards depict- ing key decision points or factors within a water supply project-site selection, construc- tion, design, fee collection, maintenance, and technology choices. They then vote on who-a 73 Appendix 6: World Bank Projects in Water and Sanitation with Gender-Related Actions Project Explicit Gender Objectives Women as Beneficiaries FY 1995 Azerbaijan: Greater Baku Water Supply Re- * Reduces women's burden and saves them habilitation Project (CR 2751 US$61.0 mil- time through improved service delivery lion) TM: Donaldson (EC31V) Malawi: National Water Development * Improves the lot of women through Project better access to safe water (CR 2753 US$79.2 million) TM: Shepherd (AFIC3) Senegal: Water Sector Project (CR 2759 * Time and energy savings for women US$100.0 million) TM: Janssens (AF51N) Turkey. Antalya Water Supply & Sanitation * Positive gender impact from better water Project availability (LN 3893 US$100.0 million) TM: Gomez (ECIIN) Zambia: Urban Restructuring & Water Sup- Time savings for women and children ply Project (CR 2725 US$33.0 million) TM: Beardmore (AFIC2) FY 1994 Algeia: Water Supply & Sewerage Rehabili- * Improves welfare of women and children tation Project through better availability of cleaner water (LN 3743 US$110.0 million) TM: Rodriguez (MNIPI) Benin: Rural Water Supply & Sanitation * Time savings for women and girls Project * Develops women's skills in decisionmaking (CR 2622 US$9.8 million) and management TM: Verspyck (AF4IN) Note: The information presented here has been taken from the Staff Appraisal Reports of the concerned projects. Equally crucial as gender-responsive project design is ensuring that gender-related strategies that are included in the design of projects are actually implemented on the ground with the active participation of community men and women. 74 Appendix IV: Selected References Women as Participants Targeted Actions M&E Indicators Others During social assessment, * Social assessment conducted discussions with two major before project formulation NGOs representing vulner- able groups and women strongly indicated full ben- eficiary support for the project SAR contains section on pov- erty and gender impact * Includes qualitative indicator on structure and composition of active community organiza- tions, including women's groups, under demonstration component * NGOs will ensure women's * Women are the primary tar- * Women's involvement in key participation in village-level get of mobilization process. positions mobilization and planning since their contributions will * Several committee members, determine the sustainability usually women, will be of cost recovery mechanisms trained to perform all routine maintenance and repair I 75 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Project Explicit Gender Objectives Women as Beneficiaries FY 1994 Ghana: Community Water & Sanitation * Addresses social and equity issues and * Time savings, improved health, and re- Project poverty duced work burden for women and girls (CR 2604 US$22.0 million) * Develops women's skills in decisionmaking TM: Roche (AF41N) and management Guyana: Water Supply Technical Assis- * Time and energy savings and reduction tance & Rehabilitation Project of injuries and fatalities during water col- (CR 2559 US$17.5 million) lection for women and children TM: Njomo (LA3EU) Morocco Fifth Water Supply Project * Time savings to women (LN 3665 US$160.0 million) * Indirect effect on girls' schooling TM: Ben-Slimane (MNIPI) Uganda: Small Towns Water & Sanitation * Alleviate poverty and improve the lot of * Lessens women's traditional health and Project women child care burden and saves time for in- (CR 2583 US$42.3 million) come generating activities TM: Tschannerl (AF2EI) FY 1993 India: Karnataka Rural Water Supply & * Time savings for women Environmental Sanitation Project (CR 2483 US$92.0 million) TM: Oblitas (SA2AW) 76 Appendix 6: World Bank Projects in Water and Sanitation with Gender-Related Actions Women as Participants Targeted Actions M&E Indicators Others * SAR identifies women and * Villagewomenaretheprimary Community management: women's groups among target for hygiene education community members, in- stakeholders at community cluding women and minori- level ties, decide the type of sys- o Women have assumed re- tem they want and how to sponsibility for payment of manage it water tariffs and mainte- nance of pumps o Women and minority group involvement will be ensured in planning o Two women trained and working on team of 3 resi- dent community volunteers for hygiene education * Percentofpumpoperatorsare * Training programs under * SAR has section on impact on women; project will train and HRD component specifically women and children employ them at all levels aim to recruit women for * Public information cam- O&M and technical scholar- paigns about economic inde- ships pendence for women and training and employment opportunities, especially for women o Particular attention to involv- o Extension staff will initiate ing women during mobiliza- women's mobilization through tion phase in town imple- specificallytargetedgroupactivi- mentation process ties * Adequate representation of Strongly recommends that at women during community least half the members of problem identification ex- WSCs/WUAs should be ercise women o Preferably a woman care- taker will be appointed by committee for repairs, main- tenance, sanitation, and hy- giene extension o Extension staff should in- clude men and women o TORs for data collection for project design include WID o Lesson learned from other * Special studies during pilots * Beneficiary assessments on projects: the benefits derived on how to promote women's community participation and from involving women as role women's activities primary participants * Tests approaches during pi- * Impacts on low income groups, • Women as members of vil- lot scheme for women's tribes, and women lage committees group formation, and * Numberofwomeninvolvedin o Useswomen'sgroupstopro- women's involvement in village committees and O&M mote latrines and health O&Mandhealthcommunica- communication tions * Women involved in deciding Trains women as handpump on siting of standposts and caretakers water supply hours * State-level training advisory committee includes director for Women and Child Devel- opment 77 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Project Explicit Gender Objectives Women as Beneficiaries FY 1993 Indones.1a: Water Supply & Sanitation for * WID objectives main-streamed through- - Especially beneficial for women's produc- Low Income Communities Project out the project tivity, health, privacy, time savings, en- (LN 3629 US$80.0 million) hanced role and capability, and participa- TM: Barnum (EA3PH) tion Paraguay.ThirdRuralWaterSupply&Sani- * Improves rural productivity and health. * Positive and direct impact on rural tation Project particularly of women and children, by women's quality of life and productivity (LN 3519 US$23.0 million) expandingaccess to potable water and en- through time and energy savings, im- TM: Moreno-Pineda (LA1IU) vironmental sanitation facilities proved health, and cleaner environment * Enhances self-esteem and status of women Sri Lanka: Community Water Supply & * Enhanceswomen'sproductivityandwell- * Women are the main beneficiaries Sanitation Project being through accrual of time savings (CR 2442 US$24.3 million) * Improves women's involvement in plan- TM: Minnatullah (SAI IN) ning and O&M 78 Appendix 6: World Bank Projects in Water and Sanitation with Gender-Related Actions Women as Participants Targeted Actions M&E Indicators Others Women's role promoted Community self survey and * SARincludessectiononroleof through pilot schemes in analysis includes gender women five key areas: training in * Project's national expert * Assurances obtained from gov- planning and implementa- group includes gender spe- ernment to provide training tion, hygiene education, cialist and pilot schemes to enhance O&M, gender study for * Training in participatory women's role project staff and community techniques focusing on vil- leaders, skill and manage- lage women and community- ment training for income based organizations generation in operation of Meetings with women for facilities preparation Women's representation in e Technical assistance indudes all subcommittees women in development and * Where PKK groups are ac- women's KAP studies tive, women to take lead in * Women's decisionmaking village committee formation role in health education com- and implementation ponent * Trains women in both mixed * Health education by trained and separate groups village women and men, fo- * Trains and assists WUAs, es- cused on women pecially women, in manag- * Technical support service for ing O&M and other resource women mobilization activities * Links with other gender- based aspects of Bank-sup- ported projects in the coun- try * Time savings for women * Gender issues in baseline * Institutional reform aims for * M&E indicators include: * SAR peer review specifically in- surveys and project propos- women's full participation at Number of women leaders cluded gender als all levels in sector institu- identified in community * Recruitment of women to tions Decrease of time and num- CWSPU ber of trips for water col- * Includes gender issues in all lection training Percentage of women par- * Special efforts to involve ticipating women in community dis- - Percentage of women, cussions men, and children (age- * Income-generating activities wise) using the facilities for women * Potential partner organiza- tions identified include women's NGOs * Community surveys during planning * Organizes small women's groups * Home visits with women * Reduces child care and health service-related barri- ers to women's participation * Village-based women's orga- nizations for credit, training, extension, and project moni- toring 79 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Project Explicit Gender Objectives Women as Beneficiaries FY 1992 Burundi: Water Supply Sector Project * Time savings to women (CR 2288 US$32.7 million) TM: Ghzala (AF31N) China: Rural Water Supply & Sanitation * Women are seen as the leading benefi- Project ciaries (CR 2336 US$110.0 million) * Increases women's awareness of hygiene, TM: Travers (EA2EM) sanitation, and safe water practices Kenya: Second Mombassa & Coastal Wa- ter Supply Engineering & Rehabilitation Project (CR 2333 US$43.2 million) TM: Talai (AF2EI) Lesotho: Highlands Water Project (LN 3393 US$110.0 million) TM: Roome (AFICI) FY 1991 India: Maharashtra Rural Water Supply & * Benefits women from improved access Environmental Sanitation Project and time savings (CR 2234 US$109.9 million) TM: Oblitas (SA2AW) Mexico Water Supply & Sanitation Sector * Improves welfare of women through time Project savings (LN 3271 US$300.0 million) TM: Bengoechea (LA2EU) Nepal. Urban Water Supply & Sanitation Rehabilitation Project (CR 2239 US$60.0 million) TM: Legrain (SA2AW) 80 Appendix 6: World Bank Projects in Water and Sanitation with Gender-Related Actions Women as Participants Targeted Actions M&E Indicators Others * Intends women to: * Participate in commune- wide user committees and communal water boards Be responsible for collect- ing water charges Promotes community partici- Health and hygiene educa- Collects gender-disaggre- Lesson learned: community pation, including women, at tion and training targeted to gated data on staffing and participation, including that of every stage selected community women training women, is essential for o Women's organizations and who will be key trainers for sustainability, but has previ- other community support the general population ously been deficient groups receive special atten- * SAR includes section on impact tion on women Community women will * Small-scale study focuses on serve as key trainers for reliability and women in devel- health education opment aspects of willingness o Training and income-earn- to pay ing opportunities for men and women during construc- tion and operation Small-scale study will focus on reliability and women in development aspects of will- ingness to pay Encourages the formation of women's associations as re- tailer owners of water sell- ing kiosks, located at strate- gic points . Rural training for literacy and income generation for house- holders, mainly women, who work at home or in the village State-level project task force * Communications program PPMU periodic impact evalu- * SAR recognizes that without includes NGOs and a targeted mainly toward ation includes: women'sinvolvement.thefull women's group women, adolescents and Time savings for women benefits of investments in wa- o Likely women's representa- children I impacts low income ben- ter and sanitation cannot be tion on district project steer- * Training to TBAs, women's eficiaries and women realized and the necessity of ing committees clubs, and NGOs Women's health social scientific analysis in o Men and women multipur- - Pilot schemes for NGOs will Hand washing such projects; includes section pose workers primarily re- focus on women's involve- Awareness of health edu- on role of women sponsible for promoting la- ment cation messages trines through community Uses new water sources interaction Emphasizes women's role in - Expansion of staff of cus- community participation tomer relations unit of * Encourages women's partici- NWSC, including women ap- pation in consumer health pointees and gender special- and education ist o Mandates at least two women on WUAs 1 81 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Project Explicit Gender Objectives Women as Beneficiaries FY 1991 Pakistan Rural Water Supply & Sanitation * Improves rural productivity and health, * Rural women's time and energy savings Project particularly of rural women and children in water collection (CR 2228 US$136.7 million) * Economic development benefits TM: Minnatullah (SAIIN) * Improved health * Enable more girls' schooling FY 1990 Cdte d'fvoire& Water Supply & Sanitation * More than 4 million people, particularly * Expected to reduce water collection time Sector Adjustment Program women and children, would benefit by women and girls to 10 percent (LN 3240 US$80.0 million) TM: Verspyck (AF4IN) Philippines: First Water Supply. Sewerage * Expected outcomes include opportunities * Women's time and energy savings & Sanitation Sector Project for women's participation in planning. * Women's health benefits (LN 3242 US$85.0 million) implementation. O&M, monitoring, train- TM: Pancaroglu (EAlAE) ing and community development activi- ties Uganda: Second Water Supply Project * To improve family well-being. including (CR 2124 US$60.0 million) alleviating women's traditional burden of TM: Talai (AF2EI) providing water FY 1989 Mexico& Water. Women & Development * Improves the living standard of low-in- * Main beneficiaries: low-income women Project come populations, especially women * More productive use of women's time (LN 3101 US$20.0 million) TM: Donaldson (LA2IN) 82 Appendix 6: World Bank Projects in Water and Sanitation with Gender-Related Actions Women as Participants Targeted Actions M&E Indicators Others * MOU with community to * Women as primary target * Includes M&E indicator for * Includes section on project ensure women's participa- group for hygiene education women involved in commu- impact on women tion in WUA membership * Flexible pilot support to nity organizations and decisionmaking women's income-generating activities * In planning, O&M of ser- e Training by community- * SAR includes section on vices, through agreement based program personnel, Women in Development with government to ensure such as rural sanitarians, women's: Barangay health workers. * Role in forming and organiz- and midwives ing WUAs * Equal access to membership and leadership roles in WUAs D Participation in technical training D Gender-disaggregated record keeping in WUAs * The newly-formed Ministry SAR contains section on role of of Women Development will women promote women's role in the sector * Emphasizes strong involve- ment of women in urban water and sanitation com- mittees as a prerequisite for success * Link between water and * Targetof7Opercentwomen's P Pilot nature of the project women's income-generating participation in productive activities crucially increases activities possibility of success * Preproject household survey included women's roles, headship, decisionmaking authority, time allocation, and community participa- tion rate 83 t w 76 ' r 7 _ __:_ __ 2 ^ , . . l *:w....y __ _s /{ s__ 1 . _ _ _ _L | f __-_ - .4_ _ 4 _ - - | N | _ | l a | _ 86:8; 6 t (; W44 6X.6* W?65§ _ b'1 :R k xi bS N t 7vX tt tl | v .tX hI'i u i s u 4 ly Appendix 7: Selected Articles A. Financing Agenda 2 1: Fresh- lion who do not have adequate sanitation facilities, and, second, improving the reliability and quality wate of service to those who do currently have access. A major constraint in providing more people with bet- Executive Summary ter services has been the inefficiency and inequity with which existing public financing has been used. This paper takes the point of view that "financ- Accordingly, an indispensable ingredient in rising ing the freshwater activities of Agenda 21 " is princi- to this challenge is ensuring that water and sanita- pally a challenge of developing appropriate institu- tion supply organizations pay much greater atten- tional and financial arrangements. The essence of tion to consumers' demands, and are structured in such arrangements is that they ensure that societ- such a way that they are self-financed, efficient and ies mobilize appropriate levels of resources for pro- accountable to users. viding water-related environmental services and that As a consequence, in part, of the progress made these resources are used in the most efficient and in delivering water, sanitation and sewerage ser- effective way possible. Accordingly, the paper makes vices, the quantities of wastewater generated in no attempt to produce a "bill for implementing developing countries have increased rapidly, and the Agenda 21." Indeed, the paper provides evidence quality of the aquatic environment has become se- that the top-down approach (which sets targets and verely degraded, especially in urban areas and espe- standards and then computes the bills for imple- cially in low-income countries. This degradation menting such targets) itself has played a counter- poses a major threat to the health and well-being of productive role. urban residents in developing countries. Accord- The paper, therefore, attempts to describe, in ingly, the "emerging new agenda" involves going some detail, the characteristics of a "sound" water beyond the household service level, and improving sector. Because the elements of sound policies are the quality of the aquatic environment. similar in different subsectors, the paper does not The good news is that a remarkable consensus deal with all water subsectors (agricultural develop- has emerged in recent years on the water resources ment, most importantly, is not addressed), but il- management principles which have proved to be lustrates the general case by focusing heavily on the effective in industrialized and developing countries. provision of water supply and sanitation services, These principles have been most clearly stated in sustainable urban development and water resources the pre-UNCED International Conference on Envi- management. ronment and Development, with the "Dublin State- The water supply and sanitation sector in devel- ment" laying particular stress on "treating water as oping countries faces two great challenges. The first an economic good" and "managing at the lowest is to complete the "old agenda," which is (appropri- appropriate level, with involvement of stakehold- ately) heavily focused on the provision of water sup- ers in all levels of management". ply and household sanitation services. Although con- The bad news is that improving the quality of siderable progress has been made, major challenges freshwater resources is a complex and exceedingly remain in, first, serving the 1 billion who do not expensive business. The experience of many indus- have an adequate supply of water and the 1.7 bil- trialized countries reveals massive and costly mis- 85 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation takes in the mobilization and allocation of resources for improving the quality of the aquatic environ- ment. The experience from those (in developed and developing countries) who have met this challenge more efficiently shows that the key is the develop- ment of sound, integrated institutional and finan- cial arrangements at different levels (ranging from the neighborhood to the river basin to the nation). The essence of the effective arrangements at all lev- els is that stakeholders decide on how much they wish to spend on improving environmental quality at that level, and that available resources be allo- cated to those investments which bring the greatest environmental benefit. 86 Appendix 7: Selected Articles B. Overview Of Gender Issues ample, which fundamentally question existing de- velopment strategies and societal structures, One In The Water And Sanitation of these has been elaborated by Peggy Antrobus and Sec tofr37 others of Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN). They question the structural adjustment model, on the grounds that it assumes Introduction that women's time can be exploited.4" They argue that when social services programs are curtailed Gender issues in the water and sanitation sector during the structural adjustment process, it is often are a subset of gender issues in development. The women who are expected to fill the gap. Women are main concepts and tools used in the latter form the usually the ones who must cope with fewer child overall basis and context for the former. Accordingly and health care services at a time when dire eco- this overview will begin with a brief synopsis of nomic circumstances necessitate an increased focus some general conceptual frameworks and proceed on their income-earning capabilities. Antrobus to highlight several gender analysis models. This will stresses that what is needed is not to integrate provide a background for a review of gender issues women into this sort of development, but to arrive in the water and sanitation sector. at another vision, another paradigm.42 The characteristics of a sector determine the spe- One such paradigm or framework was developed cific role gender issues will have. Since the begin- by Riane Eisler.43 Looking back at the millennia of ning of the International Drinking Water and Sup- human history, she classifies societies as either ply Decade, this role in the water and sanitation 'dominator' types or 'partnership' types. A funda- sector has been delineated and its implications for mental determinant of a society's classification is projects elaborated. Gender issues have been placed the relationship between the sexes. When this is a within the overall context of community participa- hierarchical one, which usually means patriarchal, tion. Much has been learned about the importance then the society is a dominator one. Other hierar- of participation and gender issues. There has been chical sorts of relationships are often found in these a wealth of experience with applying this to the societies as well, for example slavery, class or caste project process. Yet there remain further issues to systems, racial discrimination, and so on. By con- be explored. trast, in partnership societies, women and men act Strategies used to address women in as partners. In these there is no matriarchy and no development(WID)/gender issues have evolved over patriarchy. There is also no other form of rigid hier- the years to reflect changing development contexts. archy. Eisler believes the last true partnership soci- Gita Sen spoke of the "glow" around socialism in ety was that of Minoan Crete, which ended about the 1970s, when socialist revolutions around the 1500 B.C: however, she also feels that the world is third world seemed to be succeeding. This resulted currently at a crossroads, where it has the opportu- in a focus on class/gender research and on basic nity to once again choose a partnership mode of needs.38 Goals for the development field pertained existence. to welfare, equity and anti-poverty goals, and so did those of the WID movement.39 In the 1980s atten- Gender Analysis Models. Roles and Rela- tion turned to efficiency.40 Structural adjustment tionships was emphasized, and the WID field considered re- lated policy issues. This period also marked the be- ginning of a shift from WID to gender issues. Focus- From these conceptual frameworks, one can move ginning of a shiftfromWIDtogenderissues. Focu to models that relate more directly to the project ing on gender issues, as opposed to WID, is seen as an important way of avoiding the marginalization process. Moser has focused on three categories of of women. This change in approach also recognizes roles for women market or productive roles, repro- of~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~utv oren houshol maintnanc ons andoac corn-cgnze that the roles of both women and men must be con- mucty managementenance oneaks of sidered if equitable and effective development is to munity management roles.44 She also speaks of take place. women's practical gender needs (needs women iden- tify from within their socially accepted roles in so- Conceptual Frameworks ciety, reflecting the existing divisions of labor and authority) and strategic gender needs (which empha- size requirements for reaching a more equitable so- Theresis ge of conceparewos for ciety), Project objectives and activities can be exam- ined in the light of these categories. Paula Roark has 87 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation written of investigating local learning systems (LLS) ries (labor, time, resources, and sociocultural fac- and of an LLS Operational Framework .4 This frame- tors). When the GAM is repeated throughout the work includes four components: technology analy- project process, communities can compare results sis, participation, information, and knowledge out- against expectations. come. She speaks of hardware (technology) aspects Instead of focusing on the separate roles and ac- of a project as well as software (community partici- tivities of each gender, another set of models con- pation and health education) aspects. She argues that siders the public interactions between women and the integration of hardware and software elements men which have an impact on project design and of projects can be designed through the LLS Opera- implementation.47 This type of analysis is called In- tional Framework, and at the same time community teraction Analysis. The first model is the Interac- men and women can have voice and make decisions tion Index. This assesses the degree of public inter- during the project process. action between men and women. For example, do There are several specific gender analysis mod- women and men meet together in village meetings els used in program and project design and imple- or do they prefer to meet separately; do women pre- mentation.46 One developed in the early 1980s is fer to meet with female or male project staff or ei- called the Harvard Institute for International Devel- ther; do women go outside the village for training; opment (HIID) approach. It has four parts: an activi- and do men or women go to the market. The Vari- ties profile, a profile of access to and control over ability Index indicates the range of interaction situ- resources and benefits, a profile of factors influenc- ations existing in the project area and, thus, the ing the first two profiles, and project cycle analysis. range of project strategies needed. The Access Chan- Each profile gives information for each gender. The nels model helps project designers provide women last activity, project cycle analysis, inputs the data with access to mainstream project activities. For from the profiles into the project process. example, an access channel might be having female The Canadian International Development Agency project staff who can meet with rural women about (CIDA) has utilized a method called social/gender an agricultural development project. Such access analysis. It uses a participatory process to pinpoint channels are especially crucial in areas of 'low in- groups affected by a problem, identify who is rela- teraction', that is, where women will not attend tively advantaged and disadvantaged by the prob- meetings with men and will not meet with male lem, determine which factors help maintain the dis- staff. advantage and how this is experienced by the vari- ous groups, and ascertain what resources, institu- Women'sRolesin the WaterandSanitation tional changes and strategies are necessary and avail- Sector able to resolve the problem. The United States Agency for International De- Women's involvement in sector activities springs velopment uses a Gender Information Framework logically from their traditional roles.48 Women are (GIF). It has two parts: Gender Analysis Map and a most often the users, providers and managers of Gender Considerations Guide. The Map is used to water in the household. Women are usually the pinpoint where gender is a salient variable in social guardians of household hygiene. Women, and to a and economic systems which will be affected by de- lesser degree children, are generally the ones who velopment activities. Data are collected concerning obtain water for the home, transport it, store it, and four "exploratory factors'- the allocation of labor, then use it for various household purposes. Because sources of income, financial responsibilities, and of this they may have a great deal of knowledge about access to and control of resources. After the Map, is water sources, their quality and reliability, restric- completed the Guide is used to analyze the implica- tions and advantages of their use, acceptable stor- tions of gender differences for a specific project or age methods, and so on.49 program. It includes assessing constraints to men Women and children will most likely be the prime and women's participation. users of any new or improved water systems, and The Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM) was devel- women may be the main disseminators of new hy- oped by A. Rani Parker. The analysis is repeated giene messages (or, if not involved in a hygiene throughout the project process by community project, the ones hindering the spread of safe hy- groups, with a development worker acting as a fa- giene practices). As Siri Melchior states, ",..women cilitator in the beginning. The GAM consists of four are not a special interest group in water and sanita- levels of analysis (women, men, household and com- tion, they are a mainstream interest group .... without munity) which are assessed in terms of four catego- their involvement, projects risk being inappropri- 88 Appendix 7: Selected Articles ate, and failing."50 Within a demand orientation to improved hygiene practices. Project contributions the sector, one may say that if women are not in- of time, labor and money should be shared fairly volved, a significant portion of demand is not being and not expected of women alone. Training should measured. This could have a crucial impact on also be equitably divided. In this way both men and project sustainability. For example, if women's de- women can benefit and human resources will not mand and willingness to pay for a particular type of be wasted. water system is not assessed, a system may be in- Women's and men's involvement should begin stalled that women will not pay for and will not use. during the first stage of the project process. If not This system may then fall into disuse and be included at this point, it is more likely that they unsustainable. will be excluded at later stages as well. It is also more Benefits women may receive with improved or effective to involve them in decisionmaking about new water and sanitation facilities can be classified technology and other choices rather than attempt- into health and socioeconomic categories.5" Water ing later to have them utilize systems not suited to sources that are closer to homes and that provide their needs. Where projects did not involve women, an adequate supply can decrease collection time, the result has sometimes been a lack of access of This leads to gains in both time and energy. It also poor women to improved facilities. It has also been can reduce physical strain due to walking and haul- found that hygiene education makes little or no dif- ing water long distances. Water of a better quality ference in situations where inappropriate technolo- and which remains uncontaminated helps to de- gies have been installed. crease water-related diseases. For women in some Quality as well as quantity is important when contexts, access to adequate sanitation ends their planning for and assessing participation. Women's need to suppress urination or defecation until night- inclusion on management committees may not fall. Time and energy gains may be applied to a vari- alone provide for their effective participation: the ety of activities, including leisure and income-gen- way committee members are chosen, whether they eration. An increase in the water supply can result receive needed training, and what their actual com- in increased agricultural activities (such as home mittee roles consist of are also important. It has been gardens) and in food and drink production for sale. found that training does not guarantee employment If community women and men are involved in and fair pay. Strategies for developing approaches project planning and implementation, they may for women's participation include field development learn new skills and develop more self-confidence. and testing of procedures combined with action re- There can be a variety of constraints to gender search and on-going M&E. Culturally appropriate sensitive programming. There is often a lack of methods are also needed. knowledge about women's and men's roles in the Many projects are designed assuming that men sector. Projects may be designed in an inflexible are responsible for the 'public sphere' and women manner, usinga 'blueprint' approach.52 Gender plan- for the 'private sphere'. Yet experience shows that ning may be marginalized, separated from main- often such a strict distinction should not be made stream planning. Hardware and software aspects of between the two. Women may have major say over projects may be poorly integrated. There may be an management of water in the home, but they may inadequate number of female staff, thus, limiting also manage communal facilities and press commu- village women's involvement in areas where they nity leaders for improvements. Men's support may will not meet with male staff. The time, duration, be needed for improved household latrine systems. and location of training may not take women's needs Men's and women's roles in these areas may change into account. as well. Women may become more involved in com- munity management of systems, for example. If Sector Experience with Gender Issues women's public roles are not recognized by a project, it can result in women being left out of traditional There has been a rich collection of experience areas of responsibility. with women, water and sanitation over the last de- Experience with women in maintenance roles cade and many lessons have been learned.53 At this indicates that while some costs may be higher (due point in time we tend to speak more of gender is- to their need for more training and their restricted sues in the sector rather than WID issues. It has been mobility which reduces the number of pumps they recognized that water and sanitation are issues for maintain), their effectiveness in regular and preven- men, women and children. To have effective sanita- tive maintenance is better than men's, and costs of tion programs, men also must support and adopt repair campaigns are lower. Negative impacts result- 89 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation ing from women's involvement must also be con- women work together in sector activities such as sidered. Women's participation may have benefits construction and maintenance, in project and house- but it also may have costs. Women's and men's ex- hold decisionmaking, in financial arrangements, and isting workload and scheduling needs must be taken so on. The interrelationships between the men and into account. Improved water systems may reduce women of a community and other organizational women's time in water collection but create new levels should also be explicitly examined (for ex- demands for work related to maintenance, manage- ample, how are gender issues affected by the types ment, and financing. of relationships and interactions between commu- A recent study of over 100 rural water supply nity organizations and local and national NGOs or projects indicated that women's participation, along government agencies?). with other variables, is highly associated with project Finally, there is the need to activate what has effectiveness.54 It also revealed that in spite of the been learned during the first two steps. This occurs rhetoric about women's involvement prevalent in at micro, mezo and macro levels. At the micro, or many project documents, only 17% of the projects project level, project mechanisms need to be in place surveyed scored high on women's participation; to ensure that what has been learned from gender thus, although much has been written and many analysis is operationalized and institutionalized as models have been formulated, the 'burning issue' a fundamental part of project design and implemen- now is how to operationalize and institutionalize tation. This may involve project design features what has been learned. As Christine van Wijk- whichensurewomen'saccesstotrainingandcredit, Sijbesma says, "There is a need to integrate the in- or that plan for men and women to share the bur- volvement of women in a systems approach to wa- den of project construction work. ter supply and sanitation, including regular moni- At the macro, or national and international lev- toring and feedback on both the process and the els, governments and international development effect of their involvement in relation to the type of agencies need to provide strong, supportive policies technology and the socioeconomic and cultural cir- that mandate the institutionalization of gender-sen- cumstances.,"" Through this appropriate project sitive programming. To date this has been one of implementation mechanisms can be developed, the weakest areas. Yet without this, attempts to pro- tested and refined. In addition, strong support is mote gender issues will not have more than a mini- needed at the policy level to ensure the mal impact. The meso level, covering state or dis- mainstreaming of gender-sensitive programming. trict activities and agencies, encompasses both mi- Otherwise, conceptual frameworks, models, tools, cro and macro issues and is the place where the two and so on will remain marginalized; and no matter interact most closely. District governments, for ex- how useful they are there will not be significant ample, may follow national policies while also moni- change in the sector. toring village-level projects. The tools in the Sourcebook are meant to help development practi- Gender Project Framework and Future tioners disaggregate, interrelate, and activate so that Concerns women and men in poor communities are involved in projects which more accurately reflect their com- The tools and resources contained in the munitycontext,needsandpriorities.Theseprojects SQurcebook were created to assist project staff with are more likely to be effective and sustainable. gender-sensitive programming. The following Gen- There are also more specific tasks required in the der Project Framework facilitates the use of the tools near future. More quantitative data are needed con- by focusing on three key actions or tasks. These sum- cerning the issue of women's time gains from im- marize the key objectives of the tools. The first is to proved water and sanitation facilities.56 What are disaggregate. Staff should gather data for men and the contexts in which time gains can be expected, women, analyze men's roles and women's roles, and and how can project designers use this information investigate a project s impact on women and on when planning projects? More systematic data could men. Whatever analysis is done, it should be done be collected on what time gains are used for, (eco- separately for men and women. Staff can then see nomic, social, family or other purposes) and why.57 whether results are the same or different for women It cannot be assumed that time gains will be used and men. for income-generating activities. Sometimes women The second task is to interrelate. Analyzing do not have the skills or market access for these ac- women and men separately is only a first step. It is tivities. More training materials are needed for also important to know the ways in which men and managerial tasks and for techniques for overcom- 90 Appendix 7: Selected Articles ing constraints to women's participation. Many needed to assess other socioeconomic variables such training materials focus on working in participatory as class, caste and religion. It must be remembered ways with communities in general, omitting the that focusing on gender is not meant to be a focus ways in which women might be involved and how on women, but on both women and men and the constraints to their involvement might be over- ways they interact to make decisions, share tasks come.58 More emphasis can be put on measuring and complement each other in a variety of roles. As the health and social impacts of inadequate water women have been forgotten so often in the past (and and sanitation facilities through measuring calorie many times continue to be in the present), they fre- wastage and skeletal damage in women who haul quently need to have their concerns specifically water long distances, and counting the number of stated and highlighted to be recognized; however, children who miss school to collect water.59 this should not translate into new, undue burdens on women, especially ones that men might share Conclusion with them. And unless men are aware of and sup- port women's involvement in projects, in many cul- Gender issues, as opposed to women in develop- tural contexts women's participation will be cur- ment, is an emerging field. Methods of designing tailed. Water and sanitation is a sector which fun- and implementing gender-sensitive projects, as op- damentally affects the lives of community women, posed to WID components, still need to be further men and children. Therefore, all need to be appro- elaborated, tested, and refined. In most cases the priately involved in determining sector activities. frameworks and models mentioned earlier and the In this process. sector experiences can have much tools presented later in the Sourcebook have not to offer to the field of gender issues. been adequately evaluated and, if necessary, refor- mulated. Gender analysis models and tools, focus, as they should, on gender variables. Other tools are 91 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation C. Gender Issues within the Wa- more willing to contribute toward building and _ . . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~maintaining new systems. Recognizing and incor- ter and Sanitation Sector60 porating these gender distinctions can, therefore, Overview help to determine preferences more precisely, to take -i Overview maximum advantage of local incentives, and to ar- range for facilities and O&M which more closely Gender issues were included in the UNCED mirror the community context. This can help en- Agenda 21 document.61 They also were among the sure that facilities will be the ones users want and guiding principles set forth at the 1992 Dublin In- will maintain. ternational Conference on Water and the Environ- A report on the Orangi Pilot Project in Pakistan ment.62 The topic of gender in fact informs and en- mentions how it was discovered that wives were riches the other three principles, which cover: wa- often more concerned than husbands about disease ter as an economic good, management at the lowest and sanitation, as the burden of caring for the sick appropriate level, and water as a finite and vulner- often fell to them. Project staff saw many examples able resource. Following the principles includes de- of women forcing their reluctant husbands to pay termining what people (consumers) want and are their contribution to the project's low cost sanita- willing to contribute toward, and involves facilitat- tion component.65 ing their participation in project decisionmaking Gender issues at the policy level in the water and concerning types and levels of service and O&M. sanitation sector need to flow from these principles Men and women often have different roles and enunciated at Dublin. Actions taken should be part motivations concerning sector activities, and recog- of a sensible, overall sector policy. Gender variables, nizing these distinctions when determining what along with other social issues such as ethnicity, reli- communities want and when designing O&M can gion, and class, can provide the sociological under- increase chances for project sustainability. pinnings which help fit a demand-based, participa- As is well known, women and men often have tory approach to a particular geographical setting. It different sector roles. Women are in many cases the is the task of sector agencies to find efficient and collectors of water and manage it at the household effective ways to do this, to have aspects of sector level. Thus they may have stronger incentives (more policies which address this, and to find simple ways intense preferences) then men concerning new, to operationalize it. more convenient systems. They may benefit the most, as the time they spend collecting water may Basic Principles be substantially reduced. As a result they may be As noted above, one of the Dublin principles Differential incentives states that water should be managed as an economic as well as a social good. Within this concept, it is Women may be willing to work harder to ob- important to note gender differentials. When ana- tain and maintain new, improved services, because lyzing water as a social good, it can be instructive to they will be the ones to benefit most. They will, assess benefits separately for women and men. thus, have more of an incentive to work toward Women and girls often suffer the most when water increased service provision. In Kenya, for example, supply is poor, and conversely benefit the most a local NGO, KWAHO, assisted 14 women's groups when supply is improved. When water is of better in Kiberia, an informal settlement in Nairobi. The quality, and is available in greater quantity and closer women had organized themselves to build new to homes, there are many advantages for females. public water kiosks. KWAHO facilitated the inter- Instead of long trips carrying heavy containers, girls action between the women and the local govern- and women have shorter trips. This can have a posi- ment, persuading the Nairobi City Council to con- tive impact on their health and on their time, nect the kiosks to the city water mains.63 In Women may have more time for leisure, and girls Rajapurva, an old slum in Kanpur, India, residents 6c (mostly women) formed a welfare committee with a beabe to spen d m imeain s omen ifh the help of a local NGO (Shramik Bharati). They is a decrease in water-related diseases, women will mobilized their share of funds, 10 % of the capital spend less time caring for sick family members. costs, to take advantage of a government scheme Women may also use their increase in time for in- for the construction of community toilets. They come-generating activities. Recognizing these differ- now are maintaining the toilets.P4 ences in benefits can help ensure that benefits are fully measured, and that projects are designed to 92 Appendix 7: Selected Articles take full advantage of them (through, for example, Women, as primary users and beneficiaries of linkages with school enrollment programs and with improved water systems, may be more likely to con- credit programs for women). tribute to facilities which have been designed based When analyzing water as an economic good, a on their preferences. If projects are designed to re- gender analysis can once again be informative,.View- spond to women's preferences and to provide ing water as an economic good means using a de- women access to project activities, women may help mand-based, participatory approach which assesses ensure project sustainability by contributing their what users want and are willing to contribute to- money and labor for construction and for O&M. If a ward. As women and girls are often primary users system breaks down, women, not men, will most of water facilities, determining what kind of services likely be the ones who have to travel farther to get they prefer can be crucial. Their preferences regard- water. They, thus, have more incentive to keep a ing sanitation facilities need to be known as well. system functioning, and so involving women in For example, in parts of India where female seclu- O&M activities can be instrumental. In parts of sion is practiced, women preferred water taps which Ghana, water is seen as a women's responsibility, were nearby. When taps were located far away, and, therefore, in some families women were ex- women continued to use nearby, polluted water pected to pay for pump tariffs. In this instance, sources rather than walk farther away from their knowing women's willingness-to-pay was crucial.,' homes. Again in India, compost pits located outside Another principle involves management and villages remained unused and women continued to decisionmaking at the lowest appropriate level. Here deposit refuse near their homes, because it was not again, incorporating both men and women into acceptable for women to be seen carrying loads of projects can be beneficial. Involving users in man- refuse to the outskirts of the village. This occurred agement and decisionmaking helps ensure that sys- even though villagers were fined for depositing tems are those which meet consumer demand and, refuse around their homes.67 Using a demand-based, thus, will more likely be used and maintained. As participatory approach would have avoided these women are often the most direct users of water fa- problems. By determining women's preferences re- cilities, involving them in management and lating to water and sanitation, facilities could have decisionmaking helps ensure that systems are ones been installed that would be more likely to be used that meet their needs and that they will, thus, help and maintained. sustain. As women use systems on a frequent basis, they are in a good position to provide accurate, up- Managing hygiene at the lowest appropri- to-date reporting on the functioning of a given sys- ate level tem. They will also most likely be involved in carry- ing out decisions on the use of a particular facility. In the Orangi Pilot Project in Pakistan69 it was A third principle states that fresh water is a fi- noticed that mothers saw most clearly the con- nite and vulnerable resource, essential for sustain- nection between filth and disease, although they ing life, development and the environment. Both did not always know specific causes and methods men and women have responsibilities relating to of prevention. They. however, were the ones re- water use. Women are usually in charge of water sponsible for caring for sick family members and for ensuring household cleanliness. They are the used within the household, whereas men (and of- ones who manage hygiene at the household level. ten women as well) may use water for irrigation The project, thus, wanted to reach them with purposes.These varying roles need to be recognized, messages on proper hygiene and sanitation. Be- and both women and men need to be involved in cause it is customary for women to stay inside discussions for protecting water resources. The in- their homes, sessions could not be held at clinics. teractions between various uses should be recog- So the project introduced mobile training teams, nized as well. Overuse of mechanized pumps for composed of a lady health visitor and a social or- irrigation and industrial uses are draining aquifers ganizer. An activist family or 'contact lady' was in many areas, and the effect this may have on open chosen for each 10 - 20 lanes in the area. Meet- wells and hand pumps that supply water for house- ings were held at these homes. The contact lady hold use is not adequately investigated.70 activists became trusted advisors and conveners for their neighbors, providing a means for the health extension teams to hold discussions with Project Cycle neighborhood women to spread learning about good sanitation practices. These policy messages help determine the design of the various stages of the project cycle. Within 93 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation Making strategic use of community sub- Making full use of differential incentives groups As noted above, women often benefit more PROSANEAR is a pilot project testing institu- directly than men from improved water facilities, tional and technical methods of providing water and so may have more of an incentive to work for and sanitation services to low income, urban com- project success. This was recognized by villagers munities in Brazil. All operations must involve in rural NMpal.73 The water user committee (WUC) communities in the design and construction of had decided that each household should contrib- facilities, based on user demand. To transmit in- ute an equal amount of cash for the new water formation about the project and to monitor project system. Yet they had problems collecting the full activities, preexisting community groups are used. amount required. Not enough money was raised, These consist of natural subgroups in the com- and so they returned what they had collected to munity, such as neighborhood women's groups, the concerned households. Rather than give up, church groups. youth groups, and parents' asso- however, the water user committee requested ciations from the local school system. These some of the village women to go house to house, groups, thus, form a communication and discus- to convince villagers about the project and collect sion channel which can help elicit preferences and the money. The WUC thought the women, the involvement from various sections of the commu- ones who would benefit directly from the project, nity during the entire project cycle.71 would be able to convince other women, and they .____________________________________________ in turn could convince their husbands. This pro- cedure was successful. and a sufficient amount these messages and cycles, aspects of gender issues of money was raised. Families who could not con- are relevant. During the planning stage, demand for tribute their share of money contributed labor services is being determined. It is important to as- instead. sess demand among both male and female commu- nity members. When planning type of facility and its location, women's preferences need to be in- tical, that will meet the needs/the demand of users. cluded. In fact, with water facilities their preferences As new, improved systems may bring women more may be key. as they will be the potential users of a immediate benefits, they may have more incentive system. There are various ways their preferences can to provide laborifor construction and to spend time be determined (aggregated): including incorporating on monitoring and on O&M chores. Facilitating them into willingness-to-pay surveys, rapid apprais- women's Involvement in these tasks can, thus, con- als, community meetings (which may need separate tribute to their satisfactory completion and, there- meetings for women in some areas), and so on. With fore, to project sustainability. sanitation facilities, locations and superstructure Some water and sanitation projects have success- designs need to be chosen that will be acceptable fully incorporate aspects of gender issues into their for both women and men, activities, in ways that flow from established sector Men and women can both play important roles principles and policies. More projects need to do during project implementation and M&E. Both can this, n a systematic way. that takes into consider- be involved in decisionmaking. through member- ation the existing burdens on women's and men's ship on water user committees. In some areas, in time. More needs to be learned about doing this ef- addition to water user committees, women-only tap ficiently and effectively, throughout the project stand committees have been formed. These are re- cycle, in projects both large and small, so as to en- sponsible for maintaining the tap stand on a daily hance prospects for project sustainability. basis. This is the case, for example, in a pilot activ- ity in Nepal.72 Most villagers interviewed (men and women) felt that this was good: as women use the tapstand every day, they should be the ones to keep it clean. They also are the ones who will know when something has gone wrong, and they can then re- port it to the water user committee. Having women on the water user committee helps ensure that when decisions are made, those who use the systems most directly and most often will be involved. This helps guarantee that decisions will be ones that are prac- 94 Appendix 7: Selected Articles D. Demand Based Approach service allocations and the level and intensity of local ; Demand Based Approach: demands have not produced either efficient or sus- Making Large Rural Water Sup- tainable services. Many large investments were ply and Sanitation Projects based exclusively on technical merits and did not fully respond to what the targeted communities Work74 wanted. Examples of such traditional rules that have not worked well include: Despite the growing level of investment in water and sanitation over the past decade, an increasing * The selection of communities to be served number of people lack access to adequate water and by planners on the basis of external deter- sanitation services in rural and peri-urban areas. mination of "need" for service, rather than Although experience demonstrates that no fixed economic "demand" for service formula works, the direction that should be taken * The selection of levels of service to be pro- to improve service delivery has become more clear. vided (and by implication, technologies to A set of principles has emerged that provides the be employed) based on "affordability," framework for delivering improved services on a rather than on "willingness to pay" sustainable basis. * The provision of the prescribed service level Based on these principles, the UNDP-World Bank on a grant basis without procedures to negoti- Water and Sanitation Program has adopted an ap- ate with these selected communities on cost- proach to project design and implementation that sharing arrangements, which may differ from encourages governments and implementing agen- a uniform allocation of such responsibilities cies to apply more consistent rules and policies than * The extensive involvement of government in the past. In the field, the Program assists with personnel, rather than local decisionmakers, the design and implementation of projects that in- in decisions regarding the location, construc- corporate these rules, and is starting to build a sys- tion, O&M of community facilities tematic learning component into the projects, This learning component aims to continually improve the There are now numerous examples of projects delivery of rural water and sanitation services within which have successfully modified some of these tra- projects. It also provi3es a basis for systematic learn- ditional institutional rules with positive effects. ing across projects. Although the Program has consistently main- The CurrentApproach tained its mission to improve services for the poor, its approach has evolved substantially because its The Program's approach to RWSS is based prima- first became involved with rural water supply and rily on two of the principles that were developed by sanitation (RWSS) projects more than 15 years ago. the Nordic donor community and endorsed at the In the early years, it focused on low-cost technology 1992 International Conference on Water and Envi- development, with an emphasis on hand pumps and ronment in Dublin. These principles emerged at the latrines. It subsequently addressed the role of the end of the International Drinking Water Supply and beneficiaries, and promoted participatory method- Sanitation Decade when the sector began to agree ologies, including specific tools to incorporate gen- that projects must focus to a greater extent on de- der issues, In many ways, this early work concen- mand and sustainability. They are: trated on increasing user-responsiveness and re- sponsibility for basically supply-driven services, con- * Water is an economic as well as a social good sistent with general practice at the time. The pro- and should be managed as such. gram provided support to governments and supply * Water should be managed at the lowest ap- organizations that were acting as service providers propriate level, with users involved in the instead of service promoters. The current Program planning and implementation of projects. approach increasingly emphasizes demand-respon- siveness. These principles have broad implications for water resources management and development in The Traditional Approach general. Managing water as an economic good re- quires careful attention to issues related to the allo- Experience has clearly demonstrated that rules cation of water among users and to the principles which favor highly centralized decisionmaking about that should guide allocation, for example, between 95 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation urban and rural areas or between the water supply mit valid inferences about the level and intensity of and irrigation sectors. It is essential that the prin- local demands, and reduce transaction costs. An in- ciples are considered in decisions about the use of creasing number of projects financed by the World public and private funds as well when investing in Bank and other external support agencies(ESAs) are rural development. applying these principles as a means to create in- Managing water as an economic good also implies centives that encourage demand-responsive services. that projects must be designed to provide incentives Four broad and interrelated rules have been identi- for the efficient and effective user of facilities. There fied. must be a balance between the economic value of water to users, the cost of providing services to us- * Eligibility criteria: Eligibility rules for par- ers, and the prices charged for these services. Typi- ticipation should be broad enough so that cally, in RWSS projects these elements are not in eligibility does not, by itself, guarantee that balance. The government usually determines the every eligible community will receive ser- cost of providing services through the technical op- vice during a particular time period. Services tions it offers and it also sets the prices charged to should follow, not precede, community ini- users. But this price does not necessarily correspond tiative in seeking the improvement. to value that users attach to the service or to the * Technical options and service levels: Com- cost of providing services. munities should be actively involved in se- In practice, policymakers must establish project lecting service levels. A range of technical rules that create incentives for stakeholders to options and service levels should be offered achieve more efficient allocations and use of facili- to communities, and their related cost im- ties. These rules must help to create more consis- plications made clear. tent relationships between the value, price, and cost Cost-sharing arrangements: The basic prin- of services The overall aim is: ciples of cost-sharing should be specified and community responsibility for costs To achieve water uses; andinvestments in which (capital and O&M costs) made clear from the the value thatpeople (the users)attach toagiven outset. These principles should aim at ne- service is greater than the cost, and conse- gotiated cost-sharing arrangements in which quently is a service for which they are willing the local community chooses the levels of to pay. service for which it is willing to pay. Responsibility forinvestmentsupport: Par- in order to manage water at the lowest appropri- ticular emphasis should be placed on re- ate level, criteria must be developed to determine sponsibility for the sustainability of invest- what that level is for different activities. The most ments. Rules should be set regarding asset robust criterion appears to be that major manage- ownership, O&M, and the recovery of sys- ment decisions should be made at a level that en- tem costs. compasses, but does not go beyond, the range of demands being addressed. In other words, a deci- Projects must design operational procedures that sion should not be made at a higher level, if it can offer alternatives for community support. The local be made effectively at a lower level. community should be able to choose who assists them In RWSS projects, demands for community wa- with proposal preparation, construction of facilities, ter supply and sanitation services are localized de- and O&M. The role of intermediation is recognized to mands. Therefore, managerial decisions about lev- disseminate rules and information to guide commu- els of service, locations of facilities, and cost-shar- nity decisionmaking. Administrative procedures must ing should be made locally as well. The main role of encourage efficiency in service delivery. The cost-shar- higher-level government agencies should be estab- ing arrangements should also be made clear prior to lish institutional rules, regulations, and processes the decision by the community. that encourage such local decisions. A project's long-tern success depends on adher- ence to a clear set of rules and procedures that cre- Translating Principles into Action ate proper incentives. For example, rules about lev- els of service and financial policies should be such Translating these principles into action requires that communities contribute enough to the project that project planners establish rules and procedures to have a stake in getting the service they want, that encourage efficient and effective choices, per- knowing full well the cost implications of sustain- 96 Appendix 7: Selected Articles ing this service. Although the rules provide a frame- rules are being applied in recent projects with Pro- work for all activities, the project should be designed gram involvement, so that lessons from earlier project phases can be I fed back into subsequent phases of the project. This Eligibility Criteria for Participation adaptive project design requires continuous review and modification throughout planning and imple- Demand-driven projects must ensure that corn- mentation and is critical to the improved perfor- munities are not being selected based only on need, mance of the project and investment sustainability. but that communities take the initiative to improve Moreover, project rules must provide incentives there services. The idea is that project planners for appropriate behavior. The main project stake- should not prepare lists of communities that should holders must be actively involved in developing the be served, but rather set eligibility rules on how rules and be committed to their enforcement. The communities can become eligible for services. The best set of rules is the simplest: transparent and eligibility rules should allow more communities to not subject to interpretation. The fewer the rules, be eligible than can be served, and then prioritize the better as long as they are internally coherent communities based on expressed demand. and promote desired behavior. Rules must be widely All of the surveyed projects have eligibility crite- disseminated, understood by all, and consistently ria requiring communities that request services to applied by stakeholders, It is essential that sector contribute to the cost and assume responsibility for policy supports the rules on a national level, long-term O&M; however, there is still substantial between eligibility criteria based on need and crite- Applying the Rules ria based on demand. Need-based criteria include health and poverty indicators, infant mortality, wa- In the late 1980s the Program assisted with the ter scarcity, water quality, and distance to source, implementation of a series of RWSS pilot projects, other examples of eligibility criteria are back-stop- in countries such as Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, and ping by local government, development potential of Pakistan. These projects were designed to test finan- the community, and participation in other project cial, institutional, social, and technical interventions components. These criteria can be used by at the community level. In recent years, the program government's to choose the geographical region that has worked with governments, beneficiaries, NGOs, will be served first, as long as communities that are the World Bank, and other ESAs to incorporate les- selected have shown evidence of their demand. sons into the design of large investments. The Pro- Once eligibility has been established, gram currently supports RWSS initiatives in 20 coun- prioritization criteria will determine which commu- tries and large World Bank-funded projects in 15 of nities get served first among those that have clearly these countries (see table, page 140). expressed a demand. For example, a large RWSS The program also promotes the analysis and project in Bolivia established the following exchange of experiences among countries as part of prioritization criteria: first come, first served; com- its efforts to learn what works in RWSS projects. In munities who agree to pay a higher percentage of 1994, a workshop was held in Sri Lanka with par- costs; and areas where the municipal government ticipants from ten World Bank-supported projects cosponsors investments and there is a critical mass in seven Asian countries. The workshop was the first of communities. This critical mass will help achieve time such a group had convened to review the re- economies of scale and lower costs. sults of a range of RWSS projects. It was also one of the first international meetings to analyze the op- Technical Options and Service Levels erational implications of designing and implement- ing large demand-responsive projects. Workshop Technology options and levels of service are in- participants from India organized a follow-up con- tegral elements of the new approach. They directly ference in Cochin to continue the exchange of ex- relate to the choices communities make about the periences and approaches within India. The results services they want and for which they are willing to of these workshops contribute significantly to the pay. Although most project designs now offer a range design of the Program's learning agenda. of technical options to communities for water sup- The Program's experience with RWSS has shown ply provision, many projects still do not fully allow that project planners are applying the rules as a communities to choose their preferred technical means to encourage demand-driven investments. option or have promotional campaigns favoring cer- Below describes the result of a survey on how the tain options. Examples of this situation can be found 97 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation in projects in Mali JIndia, and the Philippines. This communities to make a percent contribution to underscores the importance of training intermedi- project cost, but have no established investment aries and project staff in demand-based approaches ceiling. This is the case in projects in Mali, Eritrea, and developing methodologies for negotiating ser- Ethiopia, Philippines, and Sri Lanka. Contributions vice levels with communities. Service levels are are typically quite low, ranging from 8 percent to 20 closely linked to the project's financial policy and percent of investment costs, and often provided in are usually defined by the amount of water that will kind. Because the contribution is relatively small, be provided and the proximity to the house. A de- this policy provides little incentive for the user to mand-based approach requires that communities push for lower investment costs. choose their preferred service level based on there The question remains whether such a relatively willingness to pay: however, many projects influ- small contribution does in fact demonstrate an eco- ence this decision by offering higher levels of sub- nomic demand for the services. Communities have sidy for the technical options that they want to pro- found it difficult to fully understand this policy, as mote. This situation most frequently occurs for percentages mean little unless converted to real piped water systems (pumped or gravity), and rarely terms. It is not clear if the community financial con- for boreholes fitted with hand pumps. In piped sys- tribution is sufficiently high to influence decisions. tems, projects often provide high subsidies for pub- This policy also raises equity issues, as communi- lic standpipes, but require beneficiaries to fund ties may receive a different level of subsidy depend- house connections, as is the case in Ecuador. In sani- ing on the cost of the technologies chosen. tation, less than one third of the projects offer higher Ceiling imposed on subsidized amount: All levels of service than latrines, although most projects projects that apply a ceiling to the amount of gov- allow beneficiaries to chose between a VIP and pour- ernment subsidy require communities to contrib- flush latrine. Preliminary indications are that com- ute a percentage of the investment cost up to the munities often want, and are willing to pay for ceiling, and cover full costs above the ceiling. Ceil- higher levels of service. ings are determined in two ways: as a defined mini- Many projects have adopted technical standards mum level of service or in real terms as a cash value. into their design. In projects in Ghana, Philippines, and Ecuador, technical standards coincide with those Defined as level of service: Governments will established by government, but in Bolivia they have subsidize a percentage of the investment cost been adopted as national standards as a result of up to a "minimum" level of service. Above this the project. Other projects have developed standards level, communities must pay full costs. Projects independently as in Indonesia and Nepal. In projects in Ecuador, India, and Nepal have established where new standards have been prepared they have financial policies based on this concept. Al- replaced the "over-designed, urban-biased" stan- though this policy forces communities to make dards of the past, and closely approximate rural re- a choice, it allows a high degree of subjectivity ality (for example, water consumption rates of 20- in defining the basic level of service and does 50 liters per capita per day). They also promote the not always produce the most efficient solutions. use of low-cost technology. When adequately de- signed, standards have a positive impact on quality, In real terms: Government defines its contribu- design, and investment costs; however, standards tion as a fixed amount of money, regardless of can also have a negative impact by limiting techno- the level of service chosen, This is the policy in logical innovation and, therefore, cost reductions. projects in Bolivia and Indonesia. If the subsidy ceiling is sufficiently low, communities must Cost SharingArrangements make financial choices about service levels. This policy, therefore, provides the best incentive for Most surveyed projects require beneficiary con- the communities to make choices and influence tributions to capital costs, even for a minimal level costs; however, setting the initial ceiling can be of service. Contributions may be in cash, kind, or arduous and requires commitment to its en- both. Two alternative approaches have been used in forcement by all project stakeholders. defining cost sharing arrangements: (1) a subsidy defined as a percent of the investment cost, and (2) A standard subsidy ceiling adopted at the coun- an established subsidy ceiling, try level as national policy has two benefits. First, Subsidy as percentage of investment cost: Ap- without a ceiling on the subsidy provided by gov- proximately half of the surveyed projects require ernment, there is a risk of financing very costly 98 Appendix 7: Selected Articles projects with high investment costs per capita while belief that management should occur at the lowest U the same resources could finance projects with lower appropriate level. investment costs and benefit a much larger number Given the distortions created by high levels of of people. Second, governments only subsidize a subsidy in the sector, it is important to determine if basic level of service, and communities must bear the demand expressed by communities through the the additional costs of the project above this level. selection of the desired level of service and a contri- bution to the capital costs is an indication of a long- Responsibility forInvestmentSustainability term demand to sustain the facilities. For example, a project in Nepal requires the community, in addi- Although most projects require communities to tion to contributing to capital costs, to deposit one assume responsibility for O&M, the majority of year of O&M costs in a bank account prior to initia- projects still do not transfer system ownership to tion of the project; however, it remains to be seen the communities as a matter of government policy, whether communities do in fact assume their re- Even when state governments retain legal owner- sponsibilities for O&M. Communities should be ship of the water system, communities remain re- given the choice to undertake management directly sponsible for system management. It is not clear if or obtain services from others. Skills training and projects are moving toward community management technical backstopping should be provided. because governments no longer want to assume re- Long-term sustainability requires that rules be set sponsibility for these services, or because of the to address cost recovery and the financing of deprecia- Program involvement in World Bank-funded water supply and sanitation projects Program staff based Project cost Estimated number Country in country Project name (US$millions) of beneficiaries Benin Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project 15 200.000 Bolivia X Basic Rural Sanitation Project (PROSABAR) 47 450,000 China Second Rural Water Supply and Sanitation 189 9,000,000 Ecuador X Integrated Health Project (FASBASE) 12 150,000 Eritrea Eritrea Community Development Fund 4 126,000 Ethiopia Ethiopia Water Supply Development and Rehabili- 49 tation Project Social Rehabilitation and Development Fund 75 3,800,000 Ghana Community Water & Sanitation Project 27 350,000 India X Karnataka Rural Water Supply and Environmental 118 4,800,000 Sanitation Project Uttar Pradesh Rural Water Supply and Sanitation 70 3,500,000 Project Indonesia X Water Supply and Sanitation Project 123 2,000.000 Malawi First Infrastructure Project 6 Mali Mali Agricultural Sector Project (PASA) 7 150,000 Nepal X Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project (JAKPAS) 3 44,000 Pakistan Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project 48 1,560.000 Philippines X First Water Supply, Sewerage, and Sanitation 133 3,000.000 Project Sri Lanka x Community Water Supply and Sanitation Project 32 2,500,000 99 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation tion and replacement. Despite that, this is a critical * What project rules would create the right in- element of the financial policy, no surveyed project centives? What level of payments and defined responsibilities for full cost recovery, includ- thresholds of financial contribution reflect ing the costs of system replacement; however, the economic demand? What technical options project in Bolivia moves in that direction with rules and what mix of services are the most ap- requiring the government to determine the financial propriate? Are the rules conducive to pro- policy for full cost recovery within a year. viding sustainable services based on what consumers want and are willing to pay for? The LearningAgenda * What information do communities need to make an appropriate decision on the levels There are major gains to be made in the quantity of service and organizational arrangements and quality of service provided to low income com- for implementation and O&M? munities by moving toward demand -responsive * What types of incentives would reduce costs delivery of service. Much remains to be learned and lead to efficiency in service delivery, in- about the rules and process which work best in dif- cluding the costs of intermediation? ferent settings. For this reason, the learning agenda has become the focus of much of the Program's re- The Program is continuously increasing its knowl- cent efforts. This agenda focuses on how to create edge of what does and does not work in RWSS. It is demand-responsive projects, and it measures results reaching out to other partners in the sector to gain in terms of implementation costs and the effective from their experiences and applying its knowledge use and sustainability of services. to projects in urban and peri-urban areas as well. The Program is continuing to address specific is- The ultimate test of the approach will be measur- sues about the demand-based approach to RWSS able improvements in water and sanitation services projects. In the field, it aims to systematically moni- for the poor. tor the project rules and procedures and modify them as required. At the global level, it is facilitat- ing exchanges between countries and is synthesiz- ing results. Some questions it is now addressing include: 100 * Appendix 8: A Slide Presentation on Gender Issues in Water and Sanitation This collection of PowerPoint slides has been cre- * Bank staff who may be members of the Task ated to summarize the key messages and ideas in Manager's own team the toolkit. It is meant for use by Task Managers to * Borrower country officials in relevant Min- initiate and stimulate discussions on gender issues istries, such as Finance, Planning, Health within the context of country sectoral policies, pro- and Women's Affairs grams and projects. By selecting slides suited to a * Project level staff in the borrower country particular audience, the Task Manager can initiate * Field level staff in-country discussions and raise awareness of the importance of gender issues within the sector. The set is com- For best results, the slides should be used right prehensive by design, in order to allow Task Manag- from the early stages of work in the sector, during ers to choose from a wide range of slides those suited policy dialogue, planning meetings and workshops. to each particular audience and intended message. The slides, however, do not stand alone. Rather, The slide set addresses both the why and the how they complement other material contained in this of gender analysis, as well as providing examples of toolkit. Task Managers will need to select the most good practice from different regions. Slides explain- appropriate set of slides from among the whole ing the rationale for gender analysis - the why of range. keeping in mind the given audience and mes- gender - include those with diagrams on gender is- sages sought to be conveyed. The basic messages in sues, policy issues and on how to move from prin- each slide will need to be fleshed out with the Task ciples to action. Slides explaining techniques - the Manager's own personal commentary, drawing upon how of gender analysis and action - cover the prin- good practice examples from the toolkit and his or cipal lessons learned from successful water and sani- her own field experience. tation projects, illustrated with examples of good The slides are reproduced on the diskette in the practice. A list of slides is given at the end of this back flap of the toolkit. They can be used on any section. portable computer with PowerPoint, either by link- Potential audiences to whom Task Managers may ing the computer directly to a projector, or by print- want to make a presentation on gender using the ing them out and photocopying them on transpar- slides will vary widely. They may include, for ex- encies. ample: 101 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation LIST OF SLIDES Introduction 1-3 Why Gender Issues 4-5 What is Gender 4 What is Gender Analysis 5 Principles 6-12 Principles of Sound Water and Sanitation Management 6 Water as an Economic Good 7-9 Water as a Social Good 10-12 From Principles to Action 13 How Lessons Learned 14-60 Lessons from Project Experience 14 1. Gender is a Central Concern 15-17 2. Women's Participation 18-21 3. Specific Mechanisms 22-26 4. Start Early 27-28 5. Project Identification and Data Collection 29-32 6. Learning Approach 33-38 7. Hardware Preferences 39-43 8. Traditional and Non-Traditional Roles 44-51 9. Women's Groups and NGOs 52-55 10. Gender Related Indicators 56-60 102 Endnotes 1. W Wakeman, 1995, Gender Issues Sourcebook for Waterand Sanitation Projects, UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, Washington, D.C.; World Bank, 1996, WorldBankParticipation Sourcebook. Environmentally Sustainable Development Vice Presidency, Washington, D.C. 2. For a brief distinction between the conventional "blueprint" approach and the newer "learning" ap- proach, see lesson 6. Also see D. Narayan-Parker, 1989, PEGESUS: A Planning and Evaluation Frame- work in Partnership with People, Technical Series, PROWWESS/United Nations Development Programme, New York. 3. See Briscoe and Garn (1994), appendix 2, for a succinct analysis. 4. Hilary Syme. 1992. Women, Water. and Sanitation: A Guide to the Main Issuesand Existing Resources. Canadian International Development Agency, Water and Sanitation Sector, Ottawa. 5. The economic benefits of increasing girls' access to education have been well-documented. See, for example, Elizabeth King, 1993. Women's Education in Developing Countries. The World Bank, Wash- ington, D.C.; and Lawrence H. Summers, 1992, In vesting in All the People, Policy Research Paper 905 The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 6. A participatory approach potentially entails some costs or risks. It may, for example, require more time than that taken in conventional projects. In politically sensitive settings, participatory approaches may require the balancing of conflicts of political interest. 7. The World Bank's policy on gender is defined in World Bank, 1994, Enhancing Women 's Participation in Economic Development A World Bank Policy Paper, Washington, D.C., and in OD 4.20, The Gender Dimension of Development (April 1994). 8. A. Kudat and C. Jean Weidemann, 1991, "Gender in Urban Water and Sanitation Sector in South Asia," unpublished paper, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 9. D. Narayan, 1995, The Contribution of People's Participation: Evidence from 121 Rural Water Supply Projects. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 10. This distinction is from C. Moser, 1993, Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice, and Training Routledge, London and New York, 11. See Wendy Wakeman, Susan Davis, Christine van Wijk, and Alka Nathani's Sourcebook for Gender Issues at the Policy Level in the Water and Sanitation Sector, forthcoming, The World Bank, Washing- ton, D.C. 12. "Gender-neutral," as used here, implies an approach that offers participatory opportunities equally to 103 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation men and women without necessarily and specifically taking proactive steps to ensure women's in- volvement. 13. D. Narayan, 1995, The Contribution of People's Participation: Evidence from 121 Rural Water Supply Projects, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 14. A. Kudat and C. Jean Weidemann, 1991, "Gender in Urban Water and Sanitation Sector in South Asia," unpublished paper, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 15. For more details, see W. Wakeman, 1995, Gender Issues Sourcebook for Water and Sanitation, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 16. From D. Narayan-Parker, 1989, PEGESUS: A Planning and Evaluation Framework in Partnership with People, Technical Series, PROWWESS/United Nations Development Programme, New York. 17. JAKPAS stands for Janta Ko Khane Pani Ra Safai Karyakram. 18. The term "NGOs", as used here, includes formal and informal groups. 19. This is the PEGESUS framework developed by PROWWESS/UNDP. See D. Narayan-Parker, 1989, PEGESUS: A Planning and Evaluation Framework in Partnership with People, Technical Series, PROWWESS/United Nations Development Programme, New York). 20. For details about participatory evaluation, see D. Narayan, 1993, Participatory Evaluation: Tools for Managing Change in Waterand Sanitation, The World Bank, Washington D.C. 21. For details about some strategies for involving women, see lesson 3. 22. This column includes the broad categories of possible stakeholders at each stage of the program cycle. The stakeholders will vary by location and program and can be more accurately identified through a stakeholder analysis. 23. Adapted from World Bank, 1995, Advancing Gender Equality. From Concept to Action, Washington, D.C. 24. Adapted from World Bank, 1996, World Bank Participation Sourcebook, Environmentally Sustainable Development Vice Presidency, Washington, D.C. 25. Adapted from World Bank, 1990, Rural Sanitation in Lesotho: From Pilot Project to National Program, Water and Sanitation Discussion Paper Series No. 3, Washington, D.C. 26. In the early 1990s, PROWWESS merged into the UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, now known as the Water and Sanitation Program (WSP). 27. JAKPAS stands for Janta Ko Khane Pani Ra Safai Karyakram. 28. Adapted from Wendy Wakeman, 1995, Gender Issues Sourcebook for Water and Sanitation Projects, UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, Washington, D.C.: various quarterly progress reports of the World Bank's JAKPAS project, 1994-95. 29. Adapted from Julie Viloria and others, "The Community Water Supply and Sanitation Project [CWSSP]," unpublished project note, World Bank, ASTHR, Washington, D.C. 104 Endnotes 30. From World Bank, 1996, Implementing the World Bank's Gender Policies: Progress Report No. 1, Wash- ington, D.C. 31. The information on consultant trust funds provided here is up-to-date as of April 1996. Those inter- ested in later updates should refer to the consultant trust fund data base on the Bank's All-in-One system. 32. Ideally, the specialist will be part of an M&E team. 33. This methodology was developed by Lyra Srinivasan. SARAR stands for Self-esteem, Associative strengths, Resourcefulness, Action planning, and Responsibility. 34. See, for example, Srinivasan (1990); Narayan (1993); and Narayan and L. Srinivasan (1993) in the se- lected references in Appendix 4. E 35. From J. Briscoe and M. Garn, 1994, FinancingAgenda 21; Freshwater. Paper prepared for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992. The World Bank, Washington D.C. 36. From Wendy Wakeman, 1995, Gender Issues Sourcebook for Water and Sanitation Projects, pp 4-11 UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 37. Gita Sen, remarks given during Panel #18 of 1989 Association of Women in Development (AWID) Con- ference. 38. Caroline O.N. Moser spoke of these and other WID approaches of the 1970s and 1980s during her presentation at Panel #18 of the 1989 AWID Conference. 39. Moser, Panel #18, 1989 AWID Conference. 40. Antrobus and Sen, 1989 AWID Conference. For an elaboration of the DAWN philosophy, see Gita Sen and Caren Grown, 1987, Development. Crises, and Alternative Visions, Monthly Review Press, New York. 41. Antrobus, 1989 AWID Conference. 42. Riane Eisler, 1987, The Chalice and the Blade, Our History, Our Future, Harper Collins Publishers. 43. Caroline 0. N. Moser, 1989, "Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Gen- der Needs," WorldDevelopmentVol. 17, No. 11: 1799-1825. 44. See, for example, Paula Roark, 1980, SuccessfulRural WaterSupplyProjects and the Concerns of Women, USAID, Washington, D.C. 45. The descriptions of the first four tools are summarized from Rekha Dayal and A. Rani Parker, Gender Analysis and Planning in the Bank Project Cycle (draft, The World Bank, Asia Technical and Human Resources Division, 1993). This document also gives an excellent summary of additional tools and of multilateral and bilateral agency experience with gender analysis. 46. These tools are taken from Wendy Wakeman, 1992, A Case Studyof Women, Islam and Development: Strategies and Models for Conducting Projects with Women in the Islamic Context of Um Ruwaba, Sudan, Ph.D. thesis. 47. See van Wijk-Sijbesma, 1. 105 Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation 48. For a further discussion of women's roles in the sector, see, for example, Mary L. Elmendorf and Raymond B. Isely, 1981, The Role of Women as Participants and Beneficiaries in Water Supply and Sanitation Programs, USA: USAID, WASH Technical Report No. 11: Siri Melchior, 1989, Women, Water and Sanita- tion, or Counting Tomatoes as Wellas Pumps, USA: PROWWESS/UNDP Technical Series: Mary Elmendorf, 1990, The IDWSSDand Women 's Involvement, WHO, on behalf of the Steering Committee for Coopera- tive Action for the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade; and van Wijk-Sijbesma, 1985, Participation of Women in Water Supply and Sanitation, Roles and Realities, The Hague, The Netherlands, International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply and Sanitation, Technical Paper 22. 49. Siri Melchior, 3. 50. For a further discussion of benefits and constraints to women's involvement, see Hilary Syme, 1992, I Women, Water and Sanitation: A Guide to the Main Issues and Existing Resources, Canada: Canadian International Development Agency. 11-14. 51. For more information about this approach as well as a more flexible alternative, see Deepa Narayan- Parker, 1989, PEGESUS, USA: PROWWESS/UNDP. 52. For a more detailed discussion of lessons learned, see Christine van Wijk-Sijbesma and Eveline Bolt, 1991 and 1992, Women, WaterandSanitation: AnnualAbstractJournal, Issues one and two, The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC and PROWWESS/UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. Much of the following four paragraphs has been extracted from these documents. 53. Deepa Narayan, 1993, Popular Participation in Rural Water Supply Projects, USA: UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. 54. van Wijk-Sijbesma, 1985, 4. 55. See van Wijk-Sijbesma and Bolt, 1991, 5. 56. One example of this type of data collection is discussed in Geoffrey Read and Ayse Kudat, "Why a Women in Development Component Should be Part of a Rural Water Project and What Such a Compo- nent Should Comprise: The Case of Sindh, Pakistan," Infrastructure Notes, The World Bank, W & S No. WS-8 (February 1992). 57. Ibid. 58. Conversation with Mayling Simpson-Hebert, WHO, April 1993. 59. From, Introduction, from Wakeman, Wendy, Susan Davis, Christine van Wijk, and Alka Nathani forth- coming, Sourcebook for Gender Issues at the Policy Level in the Water and Sanitation Sector UNDP- World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, The World Bank,Washington D.C. 60. For particular references, see Agenda 21, An Easy Reference to the Specific Recommendations on Women, UNIFEM, 1994. 61. These principles are also discussed in: WaterResources Management: A WorldBankPolicyPaper. 1993. (Washington D.C.: The World Bank). 62. Example cited in "Water and Sanitation Associations: Review and Best Practice," draft paper, the World Bank, Transport, Water and Urban Department, 1995, p. 62. The example was taken from a report by Kunguru, J. and M. Mwiraria. 1991. "NGO Support to Informal Settlements: A Case Study of Kiberia, Nairobi." Case Study Series Report. UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. 106 Endnotes 63. From draft (unpublished) India "Caselet" entitled: "Social Mobilization in Kanpur slums - a case of Shramik Bharati", principal author K.S. Ramasubban, UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, 1995. 64. Khan, Akhter Hameed. Orangi Pilot Projects Programs. Orangi Pilot Project - Research & Training Insti- tute. 1992. p. 22. 65. The economic benefits of increasing girls' access to education have been well documented. See for example, Elizabeth King, 1993, Women 's Education in Developing Countries. (Washington D.C.: The World Bank); and Lawrence H. Summers, 1992, Investingin All the People, Policy Research Paper 905, (Washington D.C.: The World Bank). 66. Both of these examples were taken from Kudat, Ayse and Jean C. Weidemann. 1991. "Gender in Urban Water and Sanitation Sector in Asia." Unpublished paper. 67. CIDA, 1992, "Women, Water and Sanitation, A Guide to the Main Issues and Existing Resources," Cana- dian International Development Agency, Water and Sanitation Sector, prepared by Hilary Syme. 68. Khan, op. cit., pg. 9-23. 69. Unpublished note by the International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C., as discussed in Serageldin, Ismail: Toward Sustainable Management of Water Resources. 1995. (Washington D.C.: The World Bank) p. 27. 70, For more information on PROSANEAR, see "PROSANEAR: One Route to Agenda 21," based on the First International PROSANEAR Seminar held in Rio de Janeiro in December 1994, produced by the PROSANEAR Monitoring and Technical Assistance Group. 71. The JAKPAS project is funded by a Japanese Grant facility, managed by the UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, and executed by the World Bank. 72. From field notes from visiting the JAKPAS project, mentioned above. 73. From, UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, 1996, Demand-based Approach: MakingLarge- Scale Rural WaterSupplyProjects Work, Annual Report July 1994-June 1995, pp. 8-13, The World Bank, Washington D.C. 107 Gender Issues in Water and Sanitation * ,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . . .. .. .!Az.' - - r :. G v ... y3 , . .. : , e f : 1 ' .... a F.l . ss ,, :,w, j ............ . ...... The World U- Bank Gender Issues in Water and Sanitation a:Genider Issues: 04-5 i 0000 1S} P~~~~rinckiples ,o 6;-1i2 :t02: F rom PolicytoAction: 1 A Lessons Learned: 14 - 60 2 Gender Issues in VVater and Sanitation Lessons Learned - rr X X n ~~2. Women's participation: 18-21l .~~~~~~~4 Star ealy 2-2 - | ~6. Learning approach: 33-38l - | ~~~~7. Hardware preferences: 39-43l _8_.Traditional and nontraditional roles: 44-51 | - | ~~~9. Women's groups and NGOs: 52-55 l - - | ~~~10. Gender-related indicators: 56-60l What is Gender? * Gender roles are socially constructed * They divide responsibilities between men and women, in * social and economic activities, * access to resources * decision making authority * Gender roles differ from biological roles, but may overlap * Biological roles are fixed but gender roles can and do change with social, economic and technological changes. 4 What is Gender Analysis? * Seeing what our eyes have been trained not to see * Asking questions about the differences between men's and women's activities, roles, and resources to identify their developmental needs * Analyzing qualitative and quantitative information about men's and women's activities, resources and constraints, benefits and incentives 5 Principles of Sound Water and Sanitation Management * Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water. * Water should be managed as an economic as well as a social good * Water and sanitation management and decision making should be done with user involvement in planning and implementation. 6 Water as an Economic Good * A finite resource with competing uses and economic value * Environmentally sustainable water use * Efficient, sustainable and equita * Services based on * user preferences ' . * user willingness to pay - 4 7 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~.. Water as an Economic Good Because they benefit the most, as primary users, women may * be willing to work harder to obtain and maintain new facilities * have greater incentives and willingness to * keep facilities functioning * report breakdowns * contribute labor and money 8 Water as an Economic Good: Example from Niger Problem * Water user committee unable to collect contributions from village households * Contributions being returned to households * Village likely to withdraw from project Solution * Village women went house to house to convince and collect funds Lesson * Women have greater incentives to * pay * encourage others to pay Results * Households convinced to pay their share * Enough funds collected to participate in the project 9 Water as a Social Good v E .~~~~~E fn i C Sg:C i ?|D * There are gender differentials in benefits from improved water and sanitation * Good quality water and sanitation that is closer to homes benefits women more than men 10 Water as a Social Good Women benefit more than men through * time savings from * shorter trips to collect water * less time spent caring for the sick * more time for leisure and/or productive activities * better health for all because of reduced incidence of water-borne diseases 11 Water as a Social Good Because of differential benefits, including women's preferences can improve project outcomes on * siting . design * operations and maintenance 12 From Principles to Action Translating these principles into action implies that * Services will result from community initiative in water and sanitation, not precede them. * Both men and women will be actively involved in selecting the type and level of service. * The cost of services and maintenance will be shared by the community. * Men and women in the community will also share in the investment and ownership of facilities. 13 Lessons from Project Experience 1. Gender is a central concern in water and sanitation. 2. Women's participation improves project performance. 3. Specific, simple mechanisms must be created to ensure women's involvement. 4. Attention to gender needs to start as early as possible. 5. Gender analysis is integral to project identification and data collection. 6. A learning approach is more gender-responsive than a blueprint approach. 7. Projects are more effective when both women's and men's preferences about "hardware" are addressed. 8. Women and men promote project goals through both their traditional and nontraditional roles. 9. Women's groups and NGOs can be effective in involving women. 10. Gender-related indicators must be included when assessing project performance and impact. 14 Gender is a Central Concern in Water and Sanitation . .... . .. .... .... .. . ... ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~. . . .. . . . . . . . . Women and men have different roles and responsibilities in water and sanitation, e. g.: * men may use water for economic activities, such as crop irrigation and cattle * at the household level, women are the main collectors and users of water and manage water and sanitation, e. g., by * collecting water * conserving water * recycling water * teaching hygiene 15 Lesson I (a) Women's Roles in Water Women select and manage water sources on the basis of * access * quality * quantity * reliability Sanitation Women's responsibilities include * disposal of household waste * maintenance of sanitation facilities * children's hygiene, education and training 16 Lesson 1 (b) Men's Roles in Water and Sanitation Traditionally, men have played a greater role in * community level decisionmaking * finance * construction of facilities 17 Lesson 1 (c) Women's Participation Improves Performance * World Bank study: Gender is an issue of equity and of efficiency * enhances project results * increases cost recovery * Participation does not equal attention to gender * World Bank 121 project review: Women's participation strongly associated with higher project performance * A demand-based approach including men's and women's preferences improves likelihood of use and maintenance 18 Lesson 2 (a) India: Integrated Sanitation, Water and Community Health (SWACH) Project Problems * Pumps broke down frequently and were not repaired quickly * Women hesitated to report breakdowns * Male mechanics did not respond to hand pump breakdown complaints because they did not consider them urgent Solution A pilot experiment trained 24 rural women as hand pump caretakers. 19 Lesson 2 (b) India: Integrated Sanitation, Water and Community Health (SWACH) Project Flexible approach * Women worked in 3 person teams * Training only 1 week, with on-the-job and refresher follow-up * Training methodology modified for illiterates * Repair routes reduced to a few kilometers * Married women preferred-less likely to move away 20 Lesson 2 (c) India: Integrated Sanitation, Water and Community Health (SWACH) Project Results * Women mechanics much more accessible and responsive to village women * More preventive maintenance * Lower breakdown rates * Repair costs 4 times lower per pump * Health messages more effectively spread * Social benefits: greater willingness to educate girls 21 Lesson 2 (d) Special Steps are Needed to Ensure Women's Participation * World Bank 121 project study: only half of 20 highly participatory projects successfully reached women. * A participatory but a gender-neutral approach may not be enough. * Women's participation must be a specific goal. * Simple mechanisms should be built-in. 22 Lesson 3 (a) Mechanisms for Ensuring Women's Participation Women's project participation facilitated through traditional and new work roles * women's traditional roles * managing water * wastelsoil use * providing labor * women's new roles * maintaining and repairing water points * imparting health and hygiene education * managing funds * constructing latrines * generating income 23 * planning and decisionmaking Lesson 3(b) How to Ensure Women's Participation * Identify barriers and constraints * convince village elders and male leaders * use * personal contacts * meetings with women's groups * non-print media if women's literacy is low 24 Lesson 3 (c) How to Ensure Women's Participation * Interview both men and women * separate meetings, if culturally appropriate * women interviewing women * appropriate seating arrangements * suitable time and place * child care arrangements 25 Lesson 3 (d) How to Ensure Women's Participation * Include women in local planning and management concerning * women's roles, knowledge and interests * committee membership and leadership * Link women's project activities with traditional tasks * Expand tasks to newer roles, e. g., income generating opportunities * Increase staff awareness * training * performance evaluations 26 * personal example Lesson 3 (e) Start Early: Gender in Country and Sector Work Research to determine * men's and women's roles in water and sanitation * men's and women's access to resources * constraints to women's participation * how national policies and programs in the sector affect men and women * the appropriate institutional framework for promoting gender-balanced policies and sector projects 27 Lesson 4 (a) Gender at Different Levels A gender-balanced approach requires * at the national level: involvement of * women's organizations in policy planning * water and sanitation action committees * at the project management level * gender analysis in project planning, implementation, and monitoring * integration of gender specialists * training in gender issues * at the local level * management support, from field staff to project managers and policy- makers * where required, women field workers to facilitate women's involvement in planning and training * communication skills and gender training 28 Lesson 4 (b) Gender Information in Project Identification * Men's and women's traditional roles in the sector and similar projects * Factors to promote women's and men's participation * Constraints to participation and ways to remove them * Women's organizations in the project area * Percentage of women heads of household in the project area 29 Lesson 5 (a) Methods of Data Collection for Gender Analysis At national level OutpiuBet Policy inventory * Overview of recent sectoral performance L Assessment of gender impact Household Time consuming and expensive sample survey but good quality data Household Record of family labor record keeping contributions 30 Lesson 5 (b) Methods of Data Collection for Gender Analysis L_ .1;X sa 5rifi ; rf.5 J -.z 4 fls 1' IU W : .B P =WI t At district/village level Of Community Qualitative record of activities for calendars all enterprises and operations Seasonal water Quantitative changes in supply and * use and management of facilities sanitation profiles * labor allocations when new facilities are introduced Walking tours Maps main hydrological zones, water and sanitation systems, social groups, and infrastructure 31 Lesson 5 (c) Methods of Data Collection for Gender Analysis At district/village level/uptleei Spatial maps Visual picture of existing facilities, constraints, participants, and beneficiaries Focus group Informal, in-depth investigation of interviews processes, social networks, values, and beliefs Group and Quick, inexpensive overview of community conditions and practices across interviews villages Community Comparison of beliefs and practices portraits across villages 32 Lesson 5 (d) A Gender- Responsive Learning Approach * Start small with * pilot project * flexible project design * Build in longer preparation periods to * gain access to women * build women's trust * help women organize to take on responsibilities * Design integrated project with cross-sectoral inputs to meet multiple community needs 33 Lesson 6 (a) Using a Learning Approach in Project Design: The Baku Water Project Problems * water quality poor, system losses high, cost recovery low * water supply has reached a crisis: many hoUseholds receive only 6 hours of water a day Solution * An IDA credit which used a learning approach in project design * A participatory social assessment * Stakeholders identified ways to alleviate the burden on women and identified environmental interventions to make the project more sustainable * Women asked to be involved in designing and implementing a consumer outreach program * Community -based program to reduce household water leakages 34 Lesson 6 (b) Using a Learning Approach in Project Design: The Baku Water Project Results * Design: * input by multiple groups of users * Women's Committee pointed out high social, environmental costs of poor water supply * Implementation: Women's Committee mobilized local community for * water conservation * meter repair * leak prevention 35 Lesson 6 (c) Comunity Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Sri Lanka 1 Data collection and analysis on gender issues and needs 2 Small group formation, including women 3 * Sufficient women representatives to form core groups * Awareness raising 4 Executive committees: 30%+ female 5 Participatory survey, self-analysis, and project-planning 6 Self-help group formation in construction management 7 Other.village development activities 8 Sense of ownership between men and women 36 Lesson 6 (d) Community Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Sri Lanka Awareness raising on * resource mobilization * hygiene education * team work * organization building 37 Lesson 6 (e) Community Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Sri Lanka Other village development activities: * savings and credit * home gardening and nutrition * tree planting for water source protection * training and skills development for income generation 38 Lesson 6(f Men's and Women's Hardware Preferences Taking into account ethnic, class and caste dimensions * determine difference in men's and women's views * specifically ascertain women's views * determine men's and women's willingness to contribute * draw upon women's knowledge of local circumstances 39 Lesson 7 (a) Men's and Women's_, 'Hardware Preferences i ! Determine difference in men's and women's views regarding * technology options * design features 40 Lesson 7 (b) Me : ma trur,a-e ;ZrTHgegG Specifically ascertain women's views on * -s t * siting * safety * reliability * demands on time and energy * convenience 41 Lesson 7(c) * abo 42 Less~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~on7 0 X n S A St X ," t t 4 9 0 W; t ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ R (0) UOSS87 uo0leanpf 4L1eI4 u! UOW uwAIOAUI leUo!i!peiUOU U! 6U!u!JeI LIBnoJ4L sl!nS SuuoWOM eouequ_ suo!spoop iuewlaeuew U! A/i}Joq}ne SUOWOM oSeBJnUi : ssel lenuew puoAeq og pG)>JOiUGAO ApeiJIe eje UewOM J! 'slleueq A.olesuadwoo InoLIIim uepjnq )tiM JO iElPUeDU!e AAe9Lj P!OAV 6UpIeWUO!SI:ap U! 91o0 e UOWOM eA!9 6u!1!s *B- 'sweisAs MGU U!Se 0p Oi a3piMOUI IeUO!R!peJI S,U;awoM OSn f .~~~ ~ ~~~~ ~ . . S i EO P t. 9,R XBGpXu nLm -vug 0gUUUAgCg ,~~~~~~~ u ,~ - C: ''.W De O n w e hl cluab in* ach Wroughnwowy eresoa * Inolv husbnds and mal1'eaer * Provide~~~ chlear ailte 4AA L; ssn 8 (b) Utilize sites where women gather, e.g. * wells * washing platforms * markets * grain-grinding sites gi S&tu> ii * clinics 45 Lesson 8 (c) .,women, emg. >~*wsin ad I . n a Community contributions to construction include * money * labor * paid work Women's participation in paid construction work requires • flexible scheduling * private spaces * equal pay by contractors * child care arrangements 47 Lesson 8 (e) Ir;zit Womencn cntribute0M0 moreL whe prjcs-fe incomeerigatvte X:~ pAid const :ruction actviie l 0liiSl02t* vegetable growing *runwtrkos (B) 8 UOSSG-7 6b :3U!I3eueW pue uo!lejedo Uo!e.4S!U!WPe ie°lo sjoleiodo dwnd seo6euew a is SJQooeJU!S!P IjjM sjo!uow aoinos * sueuelu!ewl pue luew3au euew 18°OI U! eledpo!pedlueo uew pue UOWOM LflOl Sao. . * t2uCui}u02gS~~~ | jcosts.Villagie wate comitte appo00$ ,E4ine me treaurrs | . . * Villaer wer unilin to pay:yj |~ Some villaer encoraedU otersticntiFnue pamnt i Cotriuton wre: maae imroerly f 1X,So lution Woenwlloftnmk pca fot oslelcl problems0 liuc a C) _, L.M~~~(I ._~~~~~ Non I so~~~oI 0~~~~ - 0 ~~E 0 E 0 4.' CD 0 Q ; ; =~~~~~~~~~L :' r ' - - X~U . X -' -0 '' .. : @ Om~ ..~ ~~~* 2 "-5 E OO ,, 0 -@ . U:j . X ~ , -.00- - ? -- 0= : = U: X( " a@so 0 h. .0 0 L S.A_ ^0 ^ . i - 0) . 0 @ Zo, ~_ _ _ ~ . . J., >~~~ - U 0 0 n £ Q X ; S S Q@ w @ 0- Wi o = > - , = E .@ = ,, = t~~~~~~~~~~~Lf :Xye fwmnsgrusta a ev wj:S,<U;0 ff fff Cf :~~ saig an lon rop g~ aiypanigo ohr' helh lb . * incm geeato grup -~~ Problems * Difficulties dealing with slum dwellers * unpaid bills * illegal connections * poor maintenance * No mechanism for working with the 30.,000+ slum families Solution. * Slum dwellers involved in systems design, operation and maintenance * Women's clubs: one of the main mechanisms for working with the community * Women's wishes accommodated in * condominium formation * water:tank siting L 53 - --:Lesson 9 (c) >11 0 U) U) 0 E E 0 0 U) 04) 0  E.0 U) 0 I- 0 _ U   4ui 0 1 cm, 0 >jj<7 54)  -a 0 U) _ mE 000 I 4mm 0'I.D 0> U) 0 '-'0 4) IOm @6 6 6 Lfl Gender perspectives may "fade away". Therefore: * Establish clear, explicit and manageable objectives for gender actions * Prevent "fade-out" by emphasizing gender issues in TORs of supervision (e.g. Form 590), completion and evaluation missions * Build in flexibility so mid-course corrections can be made * Assess progress on gender in mid-term reviews * If information on gender is unavailable during preparation, iclude an unallocated fund for gender- related actions.-- * Specifically identify gender-differentiated results in * impact studies * evaluation reports 55 Lesson 10 (a) (q) OI0 UOSSe: ;:IB... V 02 tV ' 'Zy'0 0 0 fz ' < '>4SS3 e X : 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ a ' (3) O0 UOSSO7 LS ; 9azeM I3u!Lp U! ow!l pue eoueIsip Jo!AeaJ4q 6u iowo d-ulleaq o uo!idope Iui1pueq pue G3eJOIS J;e 6UPI!uJP peAoJdW SSOUeJeMAe GU!6AL (suOwOM Aieo9dse) AI!unwuo sdnoM3 pue seeie pOAJSsun lo eOeJ9A0o poseiWoul elesn aoinos J}eeM ajes AjI!qejdeooe pue asn 'ssoo9e U! SlefluOjOlJ!p jopueI 7"nkI'c~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P 1 4,*f attiue of users,Xi specia!I to breakdowns I~ att'itud:es to cos sharing, :: aefml eiiomkn nwtrue Pwi tfi d ' tae ptw"St>9't+r ' LAXi 3 a b , I ggt * involvement of local people, skills and knowledge: access of women (especially heads of households) to financial management systems * views of community men and women about future priorities documentation of project experience * income, earning and-ca'reer prospects, for trained village workers, including women, 59 Lesson 10(e) Toolkit on Gender in Water and Sanitation: Gender Toolkit Series No. 2 of Powerpoint slides (see Appendix 40 :0 - w S ^ l s v v r r- *_ S } ws wo- tz ; fi rik ''''''-' ''''''' , '' ' 't : \' S ''", :"l .,,@' <' _t K 4 -, _E 1s Pi_ '''q't"f x '' ' - ___ __ ____,_,_ :