EAP DRM KnowledgeNotes Working Paper Series No. 24 63407 Disaster risk Management in east asia and the Pacific Making WoMen’s Voices count in natural Disaster PrograMs in east asia anD the Pacific By Zoe Elena Trohanis, Zuzana Svetlosakova, and Helene Carlsson-Rex introDuction The East Asia region is highly prone to the impacts of natural disasters. Situated in the Ring of Fire, coun- tries in the region are regularly hit by typhoons, earth- quakes, floods, and other events. Natural disasters can have major impacts on the social and economic wel- fare of a population, and often pose serious obstacles in the achievement of sustainable social and economic development. Moreover, impacts from disasters are not uniformly distributed within a population and tend to disproportionately affect the poorest and most marginalized groups. Women are at a particular risk. Women often experience higher rates of mortality, morbidity and post-disaster diminishment in their livelihoods. Several underlying factors exacerbate women’s vulnerability to the impacts of disasters, such as lack of means to recoup lost assets, limited livelihood options, restricted access to education and basic services, and in many cases, also socio-cultural norms. There are costs in ignoring gender aspects in disaster recovery and risk management strategies.1 Failure to consider gender in Disaster Risk Management (DRM) programs is likely to lead to overlooking the full range of damages and needs, which can hinder reconstruction, recovery and long-term development of countries that repeatedly suffer from disaster impacts. Research indicates that a gender-blind response to natural disasters can reinforce, perpetuate and increase existing gender inequality, making bad situations worse for women. This note explores some of the underlying issues that are linked to gender and vulnerability to natural disasters and offers examples of how to address some of these issues in disaster risk management programs. This working paper series is produced by the East Asia and Pacific Disaster Risk Management Team of the World Bank, with support from the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR). The series is meant to provide just-in-time good practice examples and lessons learned from projects and programs related to aspects of disaster risk management. 2 Disaster risk Management in east asia and the Pacific Disasters in East Asia and the Pacific its population represents 85 percent of all people af- fected by disasters since 1997 (IFRC, 2007). The fre- The countries of East Asia and the Pacific (EAP) are quency of natural disasters has quadrupled in the past among the most vulnerable in the world to the physi- two decades from approximately 120 events annually in cal, social, and economic effects of natural disasters. The the 1980s to about 500 per year today (Oxfam, 2007). Asian continent and the Pacific islands represent only Table 1 represents the economic impacts of natural di- 30 percent of global landmass, but have sustained over sasters and the number of disasters events in the region 50 percent of all recorded disaster events.2 The region since the 1950s. has sustained 82 percent of total disaster fatalities and table 1: economic damage (in $usD billion) and number of disaster events for select asian countries* 386.014 1200 355.87 1000 Number of Disaster Events 800 34.675 0.725 2.422 15.768 600 9 9 79 9 9 0 400 01 95 96 98 99 19 -2 -1 -1 -1 -1 - 70 00 50 60 80 90 19 20 19 19 19 19 200 0 1950-1959 1960-1969 1970-1979 1980-1989 1990-1999 2000-2010 Left side: Source: EM-DAT/CRED, Accessed June 3 2011. *Select Right side: Source: EM-DAT/CRED, Accessed June 3 2011. *Se- countries: Cambodia, China (incl. Hong Kong), Indonesia, Japan, lect countries: Cambodia, China (incl. Hong Kong), Indonesia, Ja- Korea DPR, Korea Rep, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, pan, Korea DPR, Korea Rep, Lao PDR, Macau, Malaysia, Mongo- Philippines, Taiwan (China), Thailand, Viet Nam. lia, Myanmar, Philippines, Taiwan (China), Thailand, Timor-Leste, Vietnam. Why are genDer issues iMPortant region or country. Gender issues refer to culturally based in Disaster risk ManageMent? expectations of roles and behaviors of both males and females. By taking into account the different impact of Disasters result from a combination of natural hazards disasters on men and women, policies and interventions and human vulnerability. In other words, the level of for sustainable recovery and reconstruction as well as for risk is determined by the level of perceived hazard and risk reduction, preparedness and mitigation programs vulnerability. While the calculation of hazards takes can become more effective and targeted. into account estimations and projections of natural phe- nomena (wind speed, rainfall levels, etc), the assessment Disasters often reveal the weaknesses and strengths of of vulnerability is a dynamic and often complex process a social system as they tend to magnify existing patters. which considers a range of economic, social, cultural The pre-existing vulnerabilities in a society frequently and other factors.3 have gender dimensions. Disasters can reinforce, per- petuate and increase gender inequality, often making The different needs, opportunities and risks facing bad situations worse for women and vulnerable groups. women and men, are important elements when defin- ing vulnerability and has implications for emergency re- The gender differences are the most telling in the after- sponse, recovery and long-term development of a given math of a disaster, as in most cases, the mortality rates Making Women’s Voices count in natural Disaster Programs in east asia and the Pacific 3 for women are higher than those of men. For example, likely reasons for the higher mortality rates for women women died in significantly larger numbers in the 1991 following disasters, such as: (a) the physical capacities Bangladesh cyclone, the 1993 Maharashtra earthquake4, of women, including the ability to climb trees and/or the 1995 Kobe earthquake5, as well as the 2004 Indian the inability to swim, (b) the need to protect other vul- Ocean tsunami in Indonesia, India and Sri Lanka6. nerable family members such as children and elderly, Specifically, women accounted for 90% of the 140,000 and (c) the livelihood patters and timing of when di- people killed in Bangladesh in the 1991 cyclone disas- sasters have occurred. However, in some cases, such as ter, 61% of the deaths in Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar, typhoons and flash floods, men tend to suffer greater 55–70% of Banda Aceh tsunami deaths, including in fatalities given their roles as rescuers. Table 2 highlights Kuala Cangkoy, which was one of the worst affected some factors related to disasters and how they impact districts in the North Aceh, Indonesia, with an 80% men and women differently. female fatality rate (WEDO, 2008)7. There are many table 2: factors affecting the resilience of men and women ■■ Division of labor (activity/place) ■■ Survival skills ■■ Visibility of labor (formal/informal sector) ■■ Access to information ■■ Poverty levels ■■ Supply of information ■■ Human development factors including nutrition ■■ Access to resources (emergency aid/ loans/insurance) pattern, literacy levels and health ■■ Recourse to legal protection (inheritance/land ■■ Influence over decision-making processes rights) Source: Adapted from WBI Distance Learning: Gender Aspects of Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction Women in the EAP region are exposed to a number society. In many Asian countries, women hold the tra- of socio-economic risks, linked to the region’s eco- ditional position as caretakers in charge of protecting nomic development as well as to wider social and cul- children and elderly, and securing the household’s assets. tural changes. This note focuses on four factors that put They tend to spend more time in their homes, which women at a particular risk from natural disasters and are often poorly constructed and highly vulnerable to have implications for how natural disaster risk man- natural hazards. Losses of family members, community agement programs are designed and carried out. These support systems, shelter, assets, and infrastructure due factors include: i) vulnerability; ii) livelihoods; iii) edu- to natural disasters all have differential impacts on men cation and participation; and iv) land titling and inheri- and women. tance rights. Women may also experience specific health vulnerabili- ties. Malaria, cholera, impaired psycho-social health Vulnerability Factors and other health-related impacts in the aftermath of a Socially constructed vulnerability refers not only to the disaster not only affect women’s health but also increase economic position of women, but also has to do with burdens on their care responsibility. Increased conflicts wider cultural and legal position of women in a given driven by disasters can also increase women’s vulnera- 4 Disaster risk Management in east asia and the Pacific bility to violence. These and other vulnerabilities should nomic disadvantages. In Cambodia, China and Indo- be assessed and taken into consideration into disaster nesia, women tend to lose their rights over land in case risk management strategies, since men and women have of widowhood or divorce. Evidence from Lao PDR also different needs and priorities. For example, women tend indicates that divorced women and widows can be ex- to prioritize their health, safety and resource needs at posed to social exclusion, which in turn reinforces their the household and community levels. vulnerability to poverty.11 Livelihood Factors Education and Participation Factors Men’s livelihoods are often more visible as women tend The institutions making decisions related to disaster to engage in the informal sector and in lower-skilled risk management policy and legislation are invariably occupations, earning on average less than men. In Viet- male dominated. Often, women are seen as vulnerable nam, almost half of working women are self-employed ‘victims’ rather than as active change agents. While they in agriculture, compared to a third of working men, carry a disproportionate burden of a disaster, women’s and around 26% of working women are self-employed voices are often excluded from decision making process- outside of agriculture compared to 19% of men.8 In es about how to manage disaster risks and the recovery Cambodia around 53% of economically active women, process, and their particular needs are often overlooked. compared to 32% of men, work in the unpaid labor cat- egory, such as housework or self-employment.9 While Unequal educational outcomes, such as the ability to women’s paid and unpaid labor account for a large part read, heighten the vulnerability of women and girls of countries’ economies, women’s assets such as jewelry, and limit their ability to benefit from information cam- tools, and supplies, are less likely to be accounted in paigns and early warning systems. Information, coor- damage and loss assessments. dination and allocation of responsibility are vital in ef- fective emergency response and recovery. In addition, As a result, after disasters, compensation schemes and school dropout rates for women and girls are higher lost asset and livelihood restoration tend to focus solely than for boys, in Lao PDR the rates are estimated at on men’s needs, leaving women in a more vulnerable po- 42% and 36%, respectively.12 sition. For instance in the aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, assistance was available in the form of replacing fishing boats but there was scarce support to Land Titling and Inheritance Rights help replace women’s fish processing tools and market- Targeted education can help increase implementa- ing vehicles.10 Lacking resources consequently impedes tion of equality provisions in legal framework. This is or slows down the ability to recover. important particularly in land titling and inheritance Women’s roles during physical reconstruction are often rights. Among most Lao PDR ethnic minority groups, considered marginal, while their contributions to the the pattern of agricultural land ownership is patrilin- social side of reconstruction are often unappreciated - eal, and land documents tend to be registered in men’s including childcare, household maintenance and care of names. Data suggests that in 1998 only, 16 % of land the elderly. There is evidence that gender blind relief ef- was registered in the wife’s name, although 40% of the forts leave women marginalized in their efforts to access land came from the wife’s parents.13 support if they rely on existing structures of resource In Indonesia, in areas where land titling has been car- distribution that reflects the patriarchal structure of so- ried out, registration data from 1998 shows that only ciety (Neumayer and Pluemper, 2007:555). 30% of titles are in women’s names. The Indian Ocean Female-headed households are regarded as one of the Tsunami that struck Indonesia in 2004 affected over most vulnerable groups throughout all countries in the 800km of coastline and destroyed up to 53,795 land region. In Cambodia, some 725,000 households are parcels. A World Bank study (2010), based upon expe- headed by women, who tend to suffer particular eco- rience from the Reconstruction of Aceh Land Admin- Making Women’s Voices count in natural Disaster Programs in east asia and the Pacific 5 istration System (RALAS) project to support recon- What can be Done to increase struction of housing and communities in post-tsunami genDer sensitiVity in Post- Aceh and North Sumatra, finds that the tsunami disas- Disaster recoVery PrograMs? ter put women on the verge of losing livelihoods and assets, as women’s land and property rights were not ac- The Independent Evaluation Group (IEG) review of knowledged uniformly, and that affected women found the World Bank’s disaster risk management portfolio it difficult to register and secure a title certificate for from 1984-2005 found that 10 out of 71 post-disaster inherited claims. recovery projects were designed to consider women’s needs and vulnerabilities as part of recovery efforts. Countries in EAP need to ensure the implementation Forty-one of these projects have been completed and of inheritance rights to help women in recovering from further found that, “the Bank has done better at recon- losses and contribute to resilience to disasters. Prior structing infrastructure than at reducing vulnerabilities registration of houses and land ownership taking into and addressing their root causes. It has yet to discover consideration both the male and female owners is also the best ways to respond when gender or the locations an indispensable step further in helping with relocation and “informality” of neighborhoods within settlements or asset compensation processes. Experience from post- make vulnerability irregular” (WB/IEG 2006:69). tsunami Aceh suggests that the participation of women While much work remains to fully address gender is- in determining land and property rights is crucial to sues in disaster risk programs, a number of good prac- successful recovery and reconstruction programs (WB, tice case studies are emerging. 2010). More details are given in the case studies below. Case Studies good Practices: land titling and inheritance rights indonesia: Gender Impacts of Land Titling in Post-Tsunami Aceh The objectives of the Reconstruction of Aceh Land Administration System (RALAS) project, which was supported by the Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Aceh and North Sumatra, were to: (a) recover and protect land ownership rights of the people in Tsunami-affected areas; and (b) to rebuild the land administration system. The project included a Community- Driven Adjudication (CDA) process to land titling, utilized community land mapping (CLM) and community consensus on land parcel boundaries and inventory of land ownership. These elements were then used by the government in its land titling process. After four years of implementation, the project supported the issuance of 222,628 land title certifi- cates to tsunami disaster survivors, their heirs or adjoining land owners. A total of 63,181 titles, about 28% of all titles distributed, were distributed to female owners, individually or as joint owners with their spouses. Source: World Bank (2010) Study on Gender Impacts of Land Titling in Post-Tsunami Aceh. india: Gender Impacts of Titling in Men’s and Women’s Names in Post-Tsunami Tamil Nadu The recovery program designed in Tamil Nadu state following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami presented an opportu- nity in the affected states to further improve women’s property ownership. The general absence of land titles in some areas before the tsunami, both for men and for women, made it easier to incorporate gender considerations in assigning land and house ownership. In Tamil Nadu state, new property titles have been jointly registered in the name of the fe- male and male heads of the family in projects that were financed with World Bank credit, while resale was not permitted to avoid the forcing of spousal signatures. The same practice was encouraged in the Pondicherry state. Source: World Bank Institute, Distance Learning Series: Gender Aspects of Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction – Case studies. http://vle.world- bank.org/moodle/course/view.php?id=349& page=1140 6 Disaster risk Management in east asia and the Pacific Women’s recollection of the 2005 floods: ban sopbor, laos More than 80% of flooding in Nongbok occurs in the floodplain of the Xaibangfai River. Seven villages in the district are particularly flood prone: Ban Pongkiew, Ban Namphou, Ban SopBor, Ban Sayphong, Ban Xamnady, Ban Sa- duea and Ban Phonesao Ear. The 2005 floods events in Nongbok had impacts across the district, affecting 71 out of 72 villages, 4,841 households, and a total of 27,961 people. Impacts on agriculture were particularly severe in Nong- bok, in comparison to other districts in Khammouane Province. The floods inundated an estimated 10,500 hectares of paddy fields and 6500 hectares of crop areas. Almost 70% of the rice fields in Nongbok were severely damaged. Women in Ban SopBor reported that immediately before the 2005 flood event, the village experienced strong winds and heavy rain for up to three days. Before the onset of the floods, the Village Head issued an early flood warning to the villagers. Women were actively involved in the early warning process and helped in disseminating the flood warning and other disaster related information to the members of the household by doing a door-to-door information campaign in the village (World Bank, 2011). good Practice: female headed households indonesia: Indonesia’s Empowerment of Female Heads of Households Following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, the Female Heads of Households Empowerment Program (PEKKA), with support from the Japan Social Development Fund through the World Bank, was expanded to look at post-disaster re- covery. The program evolved from the idea to document the lives of widows in conflict areas, and give them access to resources in order to help them overcome their economic problems and trauma. A US$1.7 million grant was provided to fund a program on “Support for Female Headed Household during Aceh Reconstruction.” The number of direct ben- eficiaries was 5,000 persons from both women headed household groups and other social groups. Efforts included capacity building and training, scholarships for more than 2,000 poor children, and the reconstruction of houses and social facilities. By the end of 2008, 239 houses in Aceh and two social facilities had been rehabilitated or rebuilt. Sources: World Bank http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:22 202412~menuPK:224605~pagePK:2865066~piPK:2865079~theSitePK:226309,00.html PEKKA Website http://www.pekka.or.id/8/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=71&Itemid=110&lang=en the Way forWarD der appropriate considerations in order to create an en- abling environment for sustainable development and to The United Nations Hyogo Framework for Action to facilitate recovery efforts in the event of a disaster. 2015 calls for signatory countries to integrate gender perspectives into all DRM policies, plans and decision To address these types of issues, there are a number of making processes. While countries and regional bodies key issues that World Bank staff and/or Government in the East Asia Pacific region are starting to address policy-makers may consider when integrating gender aspects into disaster risk management programs. They gender in broader development policy, most (with the should address the following questions: exception of the Philippines) are making slow progress in the area of DRM (UNISDR, 2009). ■■ How are women, men, girls and boys included in the design and planning process? Utilizing both men’s and women’s capabilities has great ■■ How are women, men, girls and boys affected by potential for strengthening reconstruction efforts as disaster in the project area? well as supporting broader social change and economic ■■ What are the key community and social norms development. Post-disaster situations offer a window concerning the roles of men and women in govern- of opportunity for positive changes in social justice, ment, wider public and the local community? legal inequalities and reducing vulnerabilities. Build- ■■ What are the implications of the questions listed back-better approaches are based on the principle that above for disaster risk management in terms of recovery and reconstruction policies will improve disas- needs, access to assistance and contribution to com- ter preparedness and reduce disaster risk. Community munity efforts? based approaches should be designed to include gen- ■■ How does the project address these gender issues Making Women’s Voices count in natural Disaster Programs in east asia and the Pacific 7 in project design with respect to: a) aims, objectives World Bank (2001) World Development Report. and indicators; b) project components; c) institu- World Bank/IEG (2006) Hazards of Nature, Risks to Development, tional and implementation arrangements; d) M&E Independent Evaluation Group (IEG). framework; and e) proposed strategy and guidance World Bank (2006) Gender analysis of Viet Nam Household Living Standard Survey 2004. Unpublished report. Washington. documents. World Bank (2008) Analysis of impact of land tenure certificate ti- tling husband and wife in Viet Nam. Ha Noi. The World Bank is also developing a set of tools for World Bank (2008) Gender Analysis of the 2006 Viet Nam House- task teams and clients that include case studies, indi- hold Living Standard Survey. cators for success, and methods for integrating gender World Bank (2008) Gender Aspects of Vulnerability, by Carmen de into DRM projects and programs. The tools will be Paz and Valerie Kozel. available online via the East Asia and Pacific website World Bank Institute Distance Learning Series: Gender Aspects of at: http://www.worldbank.org/eap/eapdrm. Other re- Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction. sources include: http://vle.worldbank.org/moodle/course/view. php?id=349&page=1140 ■■ The Gender and Disaster Network (http://www. World Bank (2011) Gender and Disaster Risk Management Assess- gdnonline.org) ment for East Asia and Pacific Region. Summary of Findings and ■■ The World Bank’s Gender and Development web- Recommendations for the Development of Tools to Support Gender site (http://www.worldbank.org/gender) Mainstreaming in DRM. ■■ The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Re- covery (http://www.gfdrr.org) ■■ Preventionweb (http://www.preventionweb.org) enDnotes 1. World Bank (2000:47). 2. UNISDR (2009) Global Assessment Report. references 3. According to UNISDR (2009), “two elements in combination Enarson, Elaine; Forthergill, Alice; Peek Lori (2007) Gender and Di- increase or decrease disaster risk: a potentially damaging event or saster: Foundations and Directions in Havidán, Rodríguez et al. (2007) phenomenon (hazard), and the degree of susceptibility of the ele- Handbook of Disaster Research. ments exposed (vulnerability). A natural hazard like a hurricane IFCR (2007) World Disaster Report. Focus on Discrimination. or earthquake will pose a greater or lesser risk, depending on its http://www.ifrc.org/Global/Publications/disasters/WDR/WDR2007- own physical intensity, and the vulnerability and capacities of the English.pdf people exposed to the hazard. Gender-based differences and in- equalities have a strong negative or positive effect on the vulner- Neumayer, Eric and Pluemper, Thomas, (2007) The Gendered Na- ability and capacities of people exposed to hazards.” ture of Natural Disasters: The Impact of Catastrophic Events on the Gender Gap in Life Expectancy 1981-2002, Annals of the American 4. World Bank/IEG (2009:50) citing Center of Studies in Social Association of Geographers 97:3, p. 551-566. http://www2.lse.ac.uk/ Science (1999) Survey of Rehabilitated Households Affected by geographyAndEnvironment/whosWho/profiles/neumayer/pdf/Di- Killari Earthquake (Latur and Osmanabad Districts). sastersarticle.pdf 5. Neumayer and Pluemper (2007:555). Oxfam International (2005) The Tsunami’s Impact on Women. Ox- 6. Oxfam International (2005:7). fam Briefing Note. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/what_we_do/issues/ 7. Women’s Environment and Development Organization conflict_disasters/downloads/bn_tsunami_women.pdf (WEDO) http://www.gdnonline.org/resources/WEDO_Gen- Oxfam International (2007) Climate Alarm - Disasters increase as der_CC_Human_Security.pdf. climate change bites. Briefing Paper. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/re- 8. World Bank (2008) Gender Analysis of the 2006 Viet Nam sources/policy/climate_change/downloads/bp108_weather_alert.pdf Household Living Standard Survey. UN ISDR (2009) Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction 9. World Bank (2008) Gender Aspects of Vulnerability. UN ISDR (2009) Making Disaster Risk Reduction Gender-Sensi- 10. WBI Distance Learning: Gender Aspects of Disaster Recovery tive Policy and Practical Guidelines. http://www.unisdr.org/europe/ and Reconstruction. publications/v.php?id=9922 UNDP (2010) Human Development Report 2010. http://hdr.undp. 11. WBI Distance Learning: Gender Aspects of Disaster Recovery org/en/media/PR6-HDR10-RegRBAP-E-rev5-sm.pdf; http://hdr. and Reconstruction. undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Chapter5_reprint.pdf 12. World Bank (2008) Gender Aspects of Vulnerability. UNISDR (2009) Global Assessment Report. 13. World Bank (2008:15) Gender Aspects of Vulnerability. east asia and the Pacific region The World Bank 1818 H St. NW, Washington, D.C., 20433 http://www.worldbank.org/eap GFDRR is able to help developing countries reduce their vulnerability to natural disasters and adapt to climate change, thanks to the continued support of its partners: ACP Secretariat, Arab Academy, Australia, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, China, Denmark, Egypt, European Union, Finland, France, Germany, Haiti, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Malawi, Mexico, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Spain, South Africa, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States, Vietnam, Yemen, IFRC, UNDP, UN/International Strategy for Disaster Reduction and The World Bank.