71377 Land, Water, and Forests: Assets for ClimAte resilient Development in AfriCA Foreword A dirt road passes through the grasslands in Nigeria. Africa is a continent rich in natural resources. Its land, water, and forests underpin the sustained productivity of food crops and livestock on which millions of Africans depend directly for their livelihood and survival. These resources are major assets on which most countries depend for economic growth and sustainable development. In the face of growing climate change threats, such as temperature rise and frequent drought and flooding, African leaders recognize the crucial need to address vulnerability as a development priority. Monique Barbut But the threat of climate change in Africa is not just a concern for its CEO and Chairperson people. It is also a matter of immense importance to the global community. Global Environment Facility Undoubtedly, the risk of expanding land degradation and desertification, increased deforestation, and water scarcity threatens to hasten a major global environmental crisis. African leaders are therefore counting on commitment of the global community to help tackle these environmental challenges as part of a broader agenda to enhance climate-resilient devel- opment on the continent. In this context, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) is well aware that helping African countries tackle these environmental challenges will deliver global benefits while enabling them to pursue climate-resilient pathways to sustainable development. This publication outlines three programs that the GEF has catalyzed in response to demand from African leaders for a robust and integrated approach to tackling environmental challenges in Africa. The three initiatives are located in the Sahel, Lake Chad Basin, and Congo Basin and are designed to introduce measures that will not only address emerging environmental challenges, but radically change the trajectory of the conti- nent’s key natural resources — land, water, and forests. Toward this end, the GEF has provided grants totaling US$168 million and generated co-financing of US$2.18 billion from various sources, including national governments, bilateral, and multilateral agencies. The funds will assist countries of the three regions in strengthening management of the natural resources and the institutional framework so as to build resilience in the face of climate change. The Sahel program supports countries in that region to pursue their collective vision of a Great Green Wall to signify integrated management of land, water, and vegetation for improved livelihoods, ecosystem resilience, and environ- mental sustainability. The Lake Chad Basin program will enable five affected nations to preserve and protect the Africa’s second largest wetland — Lake Chad. Due to declining rainfall, Lake Chad has been reduced to just one 20th of its original area in less than 45 years. GEF financing of projects that focus on sustainable land management and integrated water resource manage- ment give us the best chance of preserving and protecting the vital wetlands and groundwater of the Lake Chad Basin. The Congo Basin program focuses on improved governance continent. Among the broader benefits to be gained are the and sustainability of the world’s second largest tropical rain integrated management of lake and river basin systems for forest, covering an area the size of India and home to 60 environment and development benefits, the safeguarding of million people who depend on forest resources for their liveli- ecosystem services (e.g. biodiversity, carbon stocks) in all types hood. The Basin also contains an enormous variety of of forests, and climate-smart agriculture. biodiversity and vast quantities of carbon below and above- ground. The program will enable the affected nations in A fundamental concept underlies everything that the GEF is implementing programs that engage local populations, doing in these unprecedented efforts in Africa: The idea that regional entities and international organizations in a coordi- economic growth and environmental health are, in fact, nated approach to safeguarding the forest resources. inseparable. Some argue that the fiscal and economic chal- lenges facing so many nations make environmental initiatives The nature and scale of these three programs are evidence a luxury we cannot afford. At GEF, our view is that these chal- that Africa is poised to embrace climate-resilient development lenging economic times – and the linkage between economic for a sustainable and prosperous future. However, additional and environmental health — make these initiatives all the investment and technical assistance are still needed to ensure more important. The three programs highlighted in this that appropriate policies and institutional frameworks are in publication will serve to open new opportunities for deliv- place for long-term sustainability. The time is therefore right ering resilient development in Africa that cut across multiple for all development partners to join forces in further strength- sectors, including agriculture and energy. It is our hope there- ening these initiatives as models for the entire continent. fore that the global community will embrace this approach as Success of these programs not only means the protection of a response to the call by African leaders for commitment and natural resources but the fostering of climate-resilient develop- partnership to help build a resilient and prosperous future for ment in a manner that will be relevant for other regions on the the continent and its people. Making a fishing net with branches in Lagos, Nigeria. 2 The Global environmenT FaciliTy Climate Change and the Analyses of drought risks show that across vast areas of the continent, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), popula- Development imperative of tions are extremely vulnerable to drought-related mortality Africa (Figure 1a, areas in red). Similarly, flood hazard risk distribu- tion reveals parts of the Sahel, Eastern Africa and Southern Africa that are also highly vulnerable (Figure 1b, areas in red). One third of all African people live today in drought-prone It is within these areas that targeted attention is needed. areas, and 250 million are exposed to drought every year.1 This means that the already existing livelihood challenges of Figure 1: a) top—Drought Mortality risks anD Distribution in aFrica, 2000; Africa are being compounded by the current climate vari- b) bottoM—extreMe FlooD events in aFrica, 1985-2003 ability of the continent, undermining development options. The environmental decline of Africa’s natural systems such as the Sahel, the Lake Chad Basin, and the Congo Basin has tremendous repercussions for future generations. Worryingly, the depletion of natural resources — land, water, and forests — further exacerbates the declining trends in crop and live- stock productivity, and these trends are intimately associated Drought mortAlity risk Deciles with increasing food insecurity and health risks. 1st–4th 5th–7th The impacts of climate change and variability in Africa are 8th–10th profound. Experts project these impacts will pose increasing threats to human survival across many parts of the continent. Widespread disruption from floods and droughts can impact the same area repeatedly and over short time spans, reducing the adaptive response capacities of human and ecological systems.2 On the other hand, these trends are highly heteroge- neous and do not affect every region in the same way. flooD hAZArD Pinpointing the areas for greater risk is essential to effectively Deciles deploy targeted action. 1st–4th 5th–7th 8th–10th Source: Top: (Data from CHRR, 2005); Bottom: (Data from CIESIN and World Bank, 2003) 1 UNFCCC, 2007 2 UNFCCC, 2007 land, WaTer, and ForesTs: asseTs For climaTe resilienT developmenT in aFrica 3 In addition to the elemental risk to survival, these climate- Tackling these challenges will deliver global environmental related risk factors significantly impede the development benefits while enabling African countries to pursue climate aspirations of the African people, especially in the Sahel, resilient pathways to sustainable development. This publica- Lake Chad Basin, and the Congo Basin. In these regions, tion lays out a roadmap for pursuing this course of action, national economies are tightly linked to natural resources. leveraging and strengthening programs already under way, Overexploitation of land, water, and forest resources, and laying the foundation for a global partnership to emerge coupled with increases in population, amplify climate-related in support of the aspirations of the African people for threats and undermine future development options. economic prosperity. In Burkina Faso, students take part in a national tree-planting day. 4 The Global environmenT FaciliTy Kenyan women load up precious water for the journey home. production, for example, crop science and modern irrigation land, Water and forests systems. Land users in Africa, by contrast, face the reality that a large fraction of the continent’s crop production depends on in the Context of Climate rainfall, which poses greater challenges for adaptation. vulnerability in Africa Land Climate change projections converge on one conclusion: 30% Land is the most important asset in agricultural production. of the land base in Africa is under threat of desertification, Sub-Saharan Africa has an estimated 2.4 billion hectares, of and the continent as a whole is on a path to be hit hard by which only 8% is arable and permanent cropland.6 The sustained deforestation and drought, together with reduced fresh water productivity of existing cropland is essential for meeting current availability and greater food insecurity. The agriculture and and future development needs while addressing climate change livestock sector face acute risk, with the livelihoods of millions risks. Land degradation and desertification, pervasive in rural areas at stake. Understanding these vulnerabilities in throughout the continent, are major factors affecting agricultural terms of both socio-economic and ecological realities is productivity and food security in sub-Saharan Africa. essential for climate-resilient development on the continent. Climate change is set to increase the area susceptible to deserti- Agricultural systems in Africa are vulnerable to variability in fication in SSA. Under a range of climate scenarios, it is climate, whether natural or man- made, and crop production projected that there will be an increase of 5-8% of arid and semi- is expected to become increasingly risky.3 Roughly 70 percent arid lands in Africa. Unless addressed in an integrated manner, of the population lives by farming, and 40 percent of all land degradation and desertification will undermine the devel- exports are agricultural products.4 This poses a major devel- opment aspirations of most of the countries on the continent. opment challenge for many countries that depend on the natural resources sector for economic growth. Land degradation is a widespread trend in SSA, and affects at least 65% of the African population.7 It is estimated that In the semi-arid regions of Africa, such as the Sahel, agriculture two-thirds of African land is already degraded to some is based on small-scale, climatically-vulnerable systems. It is esti- degree, and land degradation is especially severe in the mated that, by 2100, countries in these regions are likely to semi-humid and humid tropics where approximately 360 emerge as the most vulnerable, showing likely agricultural losses million hectares are subject to serious soil erosion risk.8 The of between 2 and 7% of GDP.5 In the developed world, agricul- primary mechanisms of land degradation are erosion by tural producers can employ a range of strategies in managing or water and wind, nutrient loss, chemical degradation, and adapting to the impacts of climate variability on food soil organic carbon depletion. 3 Challinor et al 2007 6 IAASTD 4 WRI 1996 7 Semazzi and Yi, 2001 5 Mendelsohn et al., 2000 8 Vagen et al 2005 paymenT For ecosysTem services aT GeF 5 6 The Global environmenT FaciliTy Aerial view of a village in Niokola-Koba National Park, Senegal. land, WaTer, and ForesTs: asseTs For climaTe resilienT developmenT in aFrica 7 Desertification is the extreme form of land degradation Forests pervasive in drylands, such as the Sahel. Roughly half of the nearly 100 countries in the world affected by deforestation Forests cover at least 19% of the total land area in SSA, and desertification are in Africa, or more than 80% of all although with much variation based on tree cover. The forests African countries. The region that has the highest propensity in Africa are renowned for their rich biodiversity, with those of is located along the desert margins and occupies about 5% West Africa (Guinean forests), Eastern Africa (Albertine Rift of the continental land mass. Desertification on margins of and Eastern Arc Mountains), and Southern Africa (Miombo the Sahara stands out as an alarming example of the global and Mopane woodlands) considered among the world’s most environment crisis. An estimated 22 million people (2.9% of threatened ecosystems. The Central Africa region, with the the total population of Africa) live in this region. vast Congo Basin, has the largest extent of forest on the continent. Water Covering nearly 300 million hectares, the Congo Basin forest Climate change severely impacts both the availability of and is second only to the Amazon in area and represents a major access to water resources, and many parts of Africa are asset for development in eight countries – Burundi, already experiencing highly variable precipitation, with signif- Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, icant year-to-year variations within regions. SSA represents Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, about 60% (14.3 million ha) of the total land area in Africa on and Rwanda. Despite the vast area covered, only 37.3 million which water is used for the purpose of agricultural production hectares of this forest is designated for protection. As a (i.e. water managed areas)9. National percentages for water result, a significant area is predisposed to unregulated exploi- managed land in agriculture range from less than 1% of culti- tation, often at the expense of nearly 60 million people who vated land (Democratic Republic of Congo Uganda, Ghana, depend on forest resources for their livelihood. Togo and Comoros) to 100% in the most arid countries, e.g. Djibouti, where agriculture is impossible without irrigation. Deforestation, especially to meet energy needs and expand Nigeria, Angola, Sudan, South Africa, and Madagascar hold agricultural land, is a major contributor to climate vulnera- most of the water managed areas in SSA.10 bility throughout SSA. More than 15 million hectares of tropical forests are depleted or burnt annually in order to Increased water stress will have a direct, adverse impact on provide for small-scale agriculture and for fuel wood. For agricultural production and food security across the conti- example, in Ghana, 70 percent of the firewood and charcoal nent. Smallholder farmers in Africa rely overwhelmingly on burned annually comes from the savanna zones, resulting in low-input rain-fed agriculture. Most of sub-Saharan Africa the loss of 20,000 hectares of woodland.15 In Uganda, where already suffers from economic water scarcity, a condition 90 percent of the population depends on land for agriculture, where people lack the means to access enough water to forest areas shrank from 45 to 21 percent of the country’s meet their basic needs.11 surface area, between 1890 and 2000.16 Projected reductions in crop yield in some countries could be Figure 2. observeD anD MoDeleD rainFall trenDs: linear trenD FroM 1950-2000. Blue areas correspond to a as much as 50% by 2020, and by 2080, sub-Saharan Africa is trend toward wetter conditions and Brown areas toward a expected to lose some 75 million ha of land that is currently drier climate suitable for rain-fed agriculture.12 It is through water, more than any other resource, that the effects of climate change on Africa’s extremely poor will be felt. By the 2020s, 75-250 million Africans will be at risk of increased water stress. By the 2050s, the number is expected to reach between 350 and 600 million.13 Even in the absence of climate change, present population trends and patterns of water use indicate that more African countries will exceed the limits of their “economically usable, land-based water resources before 2025.�14 Africa’s poor are ill-prepared to withstand the growing strain. 9 Ragab and Prudhomme, 2001 (Source: Held et al., 2005) 10 Ragab and Prudhomme, 2001 11 Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture 2007 12 IPCC UNFCCC 2007 13 Arnell 2004 15 Semazzi and Yi, 2001 14 Ashton, 2002 16 Semazzi and Yi, 2001 8 The Global environmenT FaciliTy In Kenya, Masai cows cross Lake Amboseli, which is dry 11 months of the year. vulnerability trends in Key moisture stress. Soils in the Sahel are inherently fragile, low in carbon, and poor in plant nutrients. Maintaining soil fertility, regions whether through organic or inorganic sources, is the key to sustainable agriculture in the region. Climate change trends and effects are not uniform across the African continent. Indeed, projections under different scenarios the Congo Basin have shown that some parts of the continent are among the most vulnerable to severe climate change. These include some The Congo Basin forests represent the most important forest of the mixed rain-fed systems, arid-semiarid systems in the block in Africa. The roughly 300 million ha of existing forests, in Sahel, rangeland, and arid-semiarid systems in parts of East the region, are a valuable resource for national governments, Africa.17 Coastal systems in eastern and southern Africa and live- private companies, and rural populations. A recent study stock and some mixed systems in southern Africa are also found that forest products can account for approximately 44% vulnerable. Forest-based systems in Central Africa (the Congo of the annual income of rural populations in the region.20 Basin) are projected to experience moderate climate change Timber export from the Congo Basin is a major contributor to impacts as are some mixed systems in southern Africa.18 the GDP of some of the countries. Although deforestation is taking place in the region, the land cover of Central Africa is the saheL region still very much dominated by forest and therefore represents a major opportunity for climate change mitigation. The Sahel, the transition zone between the Saharan desert and the rainforests of Central Africa, has experienced a severe Figure 3. Map oF MoDeleD Forest extent FroM 1990–2050 drying trend since the 1950s.19 Continuation of the drying trend would have far-ranging implications for the economy and ecology of the region. In the 20th century, the Sahel region experienced three major drought periods: 1910–1916, 1941– 1945, and the long period of sustained declining rainfall (the ‘desiccation’) that spanned the 1970s and most of the 1980s and continued with some interruptions into the 1990s. In the Sahel, agricultural drought is not always linked to low Deforestation (1990–2000) Deforestation (2000–2010) rainfall; 20-40 percent of annual rainfall is lost as runoff, Deforestation (2010–2020) resulting in agricultural drought and massive soil erosion. Deforestation (2020–2030) Deforestation (2030–2040) Furthermore, the loss of rain water through runoff, soil evapo- Deforestation (2040–2050) ration and drainage is often considered as the major cause of (Source: Justice et al. 2001) 17 Thornton, et al, 2008 18 Thornton, et al, 2008 19 Held et al., 2005 20 Tieguhong, 2008 paymenT For ecosysTem services aT GeF 9 With only a small proportion designated for protection, During the decade 1981–1990, the deforestation rate in coun- however, the Congo Basin forests are exposed to unregu- tries of the region was estimated to be within 0.2% and 0.6%. lated exploitation and the threat of deforestation from Recent estimates show that from 1990-2000, gross deforesta- various forces (see Figure 3). As a result, these forests are an tion, net deforestation and net degradation rates in the important source of greenhouse gas emissions from defores- Congo Basin were respectively 0.27, 0.19 and 0.10%. This rate tation and a potential contributing factor to climate change is very low compared to most other tropical regions, but the vulnerability for the region. Estimated carbon emissions from absolute figures are considerable, and deforestation intensity Central Africa range from 0.02 to 0.41 Pg per year for the time varies greatly within the region with hotspots of deforestation period 1980–199021. Estimates also show that deforestation in DRC and Cameroon. occurred at a rate of 0.43% per year, and carbon emission would be equivalent to 0.14 Pg per year22. table 1. extent oF Forest area (ha), average carbon (t c/ha), total co2e storage (t co2e) anD associateD losses/gains in co2e (t co2e) ANNUAL FOREST TOTAL C02E THOUSAND (HA) FOREST AREA IN MEAN CARBON CHANGE RATE COUNTRY (THOUSAND T THOUSAND T C02E 2000 (T C/HA) 2000–2005 CO2E) LOSS/GAIN PER (%/YEAR) Burundi 151 18.3 10,139 -5.2 -527 Cameroon 33,972 101.7 12,672,873 -1 -126,729 Central African Republic 55,004 70.9 14,294,695 -0.1 -14,295 Chad 2,152 21.5 169,491 -0.7 -1,186 Congo 25,313 161.4 14,984,447 -0.1 -14,984 Congo, DRC 190,912 97.6 68,302,189 -0.2 -136,604 Equatorial Guinea 2,046 116.1 871,040 -0.9 -7,839 Gabon 22,777 168.5 14,071,813 0 0 Total 332,327 — 125,376,687 — -302,164 (all the above countries) (Source: Sonwa et al. 2011) Gorillas are a major attraction for Ecotourism in some Congo Basin countries. 21 Justice et al. 2001 22 Justice et al. 2001 10 The Global environmenT FaciliTy Lake Chad responds rapidly to precipitation and runoff the Lake Chad Basin changes in part due to the shallowness of the lake (less than 7 m). As a result, Lake Chad has been reduced from an area of The Lake Chad drainage basin is a large closed drainage open water covering approximately 25,000 km2 in 1963 to a system in the northern part of SSA.23 Rainfall over the Chad small area covering 1,350 km2 today24 (see Figure 4). This drainage basin has decreased greatly since the early 1960s, desiccation has led to enormous changes in the lives and largely because of a decrease in the number of large rainfall livelihoods of the 750,000 people living in the area. For the events. Concurrently, in response to changing climate, the foreseeable future water demands in the Lake Chad drainage use of water for irrigation has increased dramatically. basin are expected to increase, as the population becomes Altogether, climate variability and increased human consump- more dependent on irrigated agriculture. tion have caused large changes to the water balance of the Chad drainage basin. Figure 4. a shrinking lake chaD A Chronology of ChAnge naTural and anThropoGenic FacTors aFFecTinG lake chad Water Former Shoreline Vegetation This collection of maps has been sourced from a series of satellite images. Source: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 2001(http://www.gcfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/earth/environ/lakechad.html) 23 Coe and Foley, 2001 24 Coe and Foley, 2001 land, WaTer, and ForesTs: asseTs For climaTe resilienT developmenT in aFrica 11 12 The Global environmenT FaciliTy Salt deposits on the bank of a lake in Etosha National Park, Namibia. land, WaTer, and ForesTs: asseTs For climaTe resilienT developmenT in aFrica 13 Land, Water and Forests the foundation for Climate resilient Development in Africa Lake Chad Basin RegionaL PRogRam FoR the Lake Chad Basin RegionaL PRogRam FoR the ConseRvation and sustainaBLe use oF natuRaL ConseRvation and sustainaBLe use oF natuRaL ResouRCes and eneRgy eFFiCienCy ResouRCes and eneRgy eFFiCienCy Countries: Cameroon, Chad, Central African Republic, Niger, and Nigeria geF agency: African Development Bank (AfDB) geF Program grant: US$20.5 million Co-financing: US$172.5 million Program goal: To maintain the ecosystem services in the Lake Chad Basin by conserving the water and agro- sylvo ecosystems and ensuring the sustainability of use of resources in a context of energy efficiency and food security. The program is designed to address key lessons from the Strategic Action Program developed in an earlier GEF project, notably 1) the need for demonstration activities and demonstration sites and 2) the involvement of communities in the implementation of activities on the ground through participation and capacity building at local level. geF Contribution to Climate Resilient development: The GEF program is built on the top of baseline investment projects related to poverty reduction, food security, rural infrastructures, and sustainable development in the Lake Chad Basin. Focusing on biodiversity, land, water, and forests, the program aims to improve the flow of agro-ecosystem services, including the climate resilience of ecosystems. In complement, the program promotes the demonstration, the deployment, and the transfer of innovative low carbon technologies in key sectors (agriculture, fisheries, water management, as well as the adoption of adaptation technology. The program will improve the capacity of resilience and adaptation of local communities in the Lake Chad basin. Program outcomes: • Increased efficiency of approaches and tools related to the consumption of natural resources and energy • Sustainability and resilience of productive landscapes • Strengthened capacity and knowledge for Integrated Water Resource Management and Water Use Efficiency, • Strengthened water and ecosystems management and improved riparian collaboration. 14 The Global environmenT FaciliTy geF/WoRLd Bank saheL and West aFRiCa geF/WoRLd Bank saheL and West aFRiCa geF stRategiC PRogRam FoR sustainaBLe FoRest geF stRategiC PRogRam FoR sustainaBLe FoRest PRogRam in suPPoRt oF the gReat gReen WaLL PRogRam in suPPoRt oF the gReat gReen WaLL management in the Congo Basin management in the Congo Basin initiative initiative Countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia, Ghana, Countries: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, and Togo Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon geF Program grant: $100.7 million, including US$ 81.3 million (GEF Trust Fund); US$ 14.8 million (Least Developed geF agency: The World Bank Countries Fund); and US$4.6 million (Special Climate geF Program grant: US$48 million Change Fund). Co-financing: US$218 million Co-financing: US$ 1.8 billion geF agency: The World Bank Program goal: To reverse the current rate of deforesta- tion and degradation of ecosystems, to maintain ecosystem Program goal: To expand Sustainable Land and Water functioning, and to conserve ecosystem values such as the Management in targeted landscapes and in climate vulner- biodiversity and carbon-based capital of the Congo Basin able areas in West African and Sahelian countries. This for the benefit of local communities and indigenous people, program supports the implementation of a country-driven whose livelihoods depend on the forest resources. vision for integrated natural resource management for sustainable and climate-resilient development in the Sahel geF Contribution to Climate Resilient development: and broader West Africa region. The investments cover The Program supports the development of financial incen- agriculture, biodiversity conservation, climate change miti- tives structures to protect forest for its carbon value. As a gation, adaptation to climate change, sustainable forest basis for accessing financing from the carbon market, the management, food security enhancement, disaster risk Program would support the development of a reliable moni- management, rural development, erosion control, and/or toring methodology of carbon fluxes from land use, land use watershed management. change, and forestry (LULUCF) and build country capacity to apply such methodology in a standardized manner across geF Contribution to Climate Resilient development: the Congo Basin. The Program will strengthen the overall The Program will increase the land area with sustainable terrestrial protected area network across the different land and water management practices on up to two million countries, and support the mainstreaming of biodiversity hectares. The GEF increment will also promote large-scale conservation in national forest policy and related sectoral watershed planning or smaller-scale community land use regulatory framework, including the harmonization of planning, improve the vegetation cover, the use of renew- such framework across the sub-region. It will contribute able energy alternatives, and increase the adaptive capacity to protect a vast carbon sink of an estimated 24-39 Gt of to reduce risks and response to climate variability. The whole carbon, impacting the regional and local weather patterns, approach will help communities adapt production systems and ensuring the cycling of water critical for a large area of to climate variability and change and generate income and Africa. livelihoods. The improvement of information base will also improve climate and water monitoring networks to fuel Program outcomes: further policy development. • Central African Governments and civil society effectively implementing the Plan de Convergence, with Program outcomes: COMIFAC serving as a regional coordination mechanism for • Policies, institutions, and financing for scaling up sustainable forest management across the region. sustainable land and water management and other adaptive • Long-term sustainability of a representative and well- responses improved at national and regional level managed system of protected areas in the Congo Basin. • Knowledge generated and disseminated in countries • Availability of financial resources to conserve biodi- on Sustainable Land and Water Management and other versity in the Congo Basin through sustainable financing adaptive responses mechanisms such as payments for environmental services, • More secure provision of services from the trust funds, private-public partnerships, etc. landscape mosaic in targeted areas, including livelihoods, • Improved capacity of Central African Governments genetic resources, soil health and water resources to catalyze investment in sustainable management of forests • Biodiversity conservation integrated into landscape and freshwater ecosystems by the private sector, financial management institutions and donor community. • Payment for Ecosystem Services adopted as an • Capacity of all stakeholders strengthened, particu- incentive mechanism to implement Sustainable Land and larly in protected areas and buffer zones, to effectively Water Management manage forest and freshwater ecosystems and conserve • Increase in community based ecotourism activities. biodiversity assets. • Strengthened adaptive capacity to actual or • Adoption of best practices for trade in the commod- potential climate change risks ities driving land use practices to ensure reduced impact on forest ecosystems. • National capacities strengthened for evaluating carbon stocks in forests and monitoring of GHG fluxes from land use and land use change. • Reliable models for REDD implemented and shared with the international community. • Adoption of adaptation measures to better manage the impacts of climate change. • Rights of local people and communities recog- nized and empowered through community-based natural resources management systems. land, WaTer, and ForesTs: asseTs For climaTe resilienT developmenT in aFrica 15 A village in Benin with access to safe, clean water toward Climate resilient transformative impacts through integrated management of land, water, and forests as assets for climate resilience and Development in Africa — the sustainable development. Catalytic role of the global investing in naturaL resourCe environment facility ManageMent and resiLienCe Africa’s combined challenge of environmental degradation Throughout the Sahel, there are excellent examples of how and climate change calls for urgent, integrated action. Robust grassroots innovations and government-driven actions for measures to enhance the resilience of human and natural improved agricultural production, livestock management, systems are fundamental to securing Africa’s development in biodiversity conservation, and sustainable forest manage- the face of a changing climate. The Global Environment ment can be achieved with global environmental and Facility (GEF) is now responding to the call and to the development benefits. Moving these impacts to scale is commitment by African leaders to introduce measures that possible because all Sahelian countries have expressed an will not only address these emerging challenges, but radically explicit desire to implement integrated environmental and change the trajectory of the continent’s key natural resources development initiatives. This interest is inherent in the Great — land, water, and forests. Green Wall Initiative of the Sahel and Sahara (GGWISS), a bold vision of African leaders to address desertification and In support of this goal, the GEF has launched three landmark development in the Sahel and the southern margins of the initiatives focusing on priority regions in Africa. These initia- Sahara Desert.25 tives are The Great Green Wall, the Forests for Climate in the Congo Basin, and the Lake Chad Basin Regional Program. Working together under this unified vision positions partici- These well-funded, multi-institutional programs will assist pating countries to pursue development pathways that will African countries in strengthening their natural systems and increase the resilience of the Sahel — both its ecosystem institutional framework so as to build resilience in the face of the impacts of climate change. 25 The GGWISS was originally conceived by the former President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, who proposed it to the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN- Through strategic partnerships involving the national govern- SAD) Conference of Leaders and Heads of State (June 2005) and to the Fifth Ordinary Summit of the African Union (July 2005). ments, development agencies, and multilateral donors, all Following the presentation and discussion of a concept paper at affected countries in these regions can build on achievements the Food Security Summit in Abuja, Nigeria (December 2006), countries adopted a Declaration and Decision urging the African over recent decades while leveraging new opportunities for Union Commission to proceed with facilitating the implementa- climate-resilient development. Since 2006, the GEF has been tion of the initiative. A Plan of Action was subsequently devel- oped and adopted by African Union Summit in January 2009, catalyzing such strategic partnerships with countries of the which paved the way for countries to engage in activities to Sahel, Lake Chad Basin, and Congo Basin to pursue pursue the vision. 16 The Global environmenT FaciliTy and human communities — to climate change and vari- forestry.26 LULUCF aims at reducing forest emissions and ability. This is consistent with the principle of integrated promoting forest conservation, afforestation, deforestation, ecosystem management, which enables countries to harness and sustainable forest management. By supporting low synergies in environmental programs by aligning invest- carbon technologies, GEF resources will enable countries to ments in land, forests, water resources, and climate change follow a low-carbon development path, for example, through for long-term sustainability. increased use of renewable household energy sources as alternatives to traditional approaches. Investing in natural resource management will enhance solu- tions to threats posed by land and soil degradation, sustainable forest management: The GEF advocates a desertification, deforestation, water scarcity, and loss of biodi- landscape approach, embracing ecosystem principles as versity. Addressing these biophysical challenges will ensure well as the connectivity between ecosystems. Hence, GEF sustainability of the resource base as a foundation for climate- investments under the Sahel and Congo Basin programs resilient development. build on the widely accepted forest landscape restoration approach. A key element of this includes ensuring that improving land productivity: The GEF invests in sustainable local livelihood objectives are part of the management land management (SLM) as a means of arresting and planning for forest ecosystems. In supporting an inte- reversing land degradation, specifically desertification and grated approach to managing forest ecosystems, the GEF deforestation. SLM affords the Sahel and Lake Chad Basin strives to achieve global as well as regional environmental countries an invaluable opportunity to improve ecosystem benefits. These include the protection and sustainable use services in production systems. Because more than 70% of of biodiversity, climate change mitigation and adaptation, the people in these countries depend on agriculture, live- and combating land degradation. The GEF funding will stock, and agroforestry; GEF’s investment will translate into enable countries to invest in practices that reduce pres- direct benefits for food security and livelihoods. The fragile sures on forest resources and generate sustainable flows of nature of production landscapes and the complex social- forest ecosystem services. ecological systems of the Sahelian ecosystems means that the SLM provides a crucial anchor for GEF support to the saFeguarding Water resourCes GGWISS and Lake Chad Basin. Experience with management of Lake Chad Basin underpins Biodiversity Conservation: GEF financing for biodiversity the desire by countries to implement the Great Green Wall conservation offers an opportunity for countries to improve initiative, encompassing several important trans-boundary ecosystem function and diversify livelihoods at multiple basins and aquifers. Given projected rainfall reductions, a scales. The Sahel, Lake Chad Basin and Congo Basin coun- future with less shared water rather than more water is tries will harness GEF resources for strengthening protected looming. The GEF has been a strategic partner for the Lake area systems, mainstreaming biodiversity in production Chad Basin countries and is prepared to support joint landscapes and sustainable use. These investments will actions related to integrated water resources management enable countries to improve biodiversity conservation within and groundwater utilization and protection. production sectors, especially in relation to reducing pres- sure on the fragile ecologies. GEF resources will enhance The GEF approach to water resource management explicitly sustainability of protected area systems through expansion includes climatic variability. Drought management and water or rehabilitation of existing protected areas, development of use efficiency will be crucial to fostering sustainable develop- biological corridors, support to protected area manage- ment in this region, and to ensuring access to water for ment, and fostering strong links between economic sectors communities and plant and animal life. Especially for Lake and protected areas. Chad, wetlands, and the groundwater sources that sustain them, are critical. GEF investment will make a difference in Climate Change mitigation: Climate change mitigation the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands within the financing by the GEF focuses on supporting developing framework of national policies and the Lake Chad Strategic countries and economies in transition toward a low-carbon Action Plan. development path. Emissions from deforestation and forest degradation represent a significant negative impact of poor land use practices. In the Sahel, where this impact is particu- larly severe, GEF resources will support activities grouped 26 land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) is defined by under the banner LULUCF, or land use, land-use change and the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as “A greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use, land-use change and forestry activities.� land, WaTer, and ForesTs: asseTs For climaTe resilienT developmenT in aFrica 17 enhanCing adaptation to CLiMate Change The GEF climate change adaptation strategy has three over- arching objectives: (i) reduce vulnerability to climate change (ii) improve adaptive capacity to address the impacts of climate change, including variability, and (iii) promote the transfer and adoption of adaptation technology. The GEF is managing two independent funds established under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) with a priority on adaptation: the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) and the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF). The LDCF addresses the special needs of Least Developed Countries (LDCs) under the UNFCCC. Adaptation has been identified as the most relevant issue, and the fund is specifi- cally designed to support projects addressing urgent and immediate adaptation needs of LDCs. As identified and prior- itized in their National Adaptation Programs of Action (NAPAs), the focus is on reducing the vulnerability to climate change of sectors and resources central to human and national development. Among these are water, agriculture and food security, health, disaster prevention and response, and infrastructure. The SCCF is designed to finance activities, programs and measures related to climate change that are complementary to those funded by GEF under the climate change focal area in the areas of: (a) Adaptation to climate change; (b) Technology transfer; (c) selected sectors including Energy, Transport, Industry, Agriculture, Forestry and Waste Management; and (d) Economic diversification. Clearly, the Sahel and Lake Chad Basin countries are well- positioned to harness the LDCF and SCCF resources to address urgent and immediate needs for adaptation as iden- tified in NAPAs and in accordance with the guidance from the UNFCCC Conference of Parties. GEF financing under these two funds will enable participating countries to reduce vulner- ability and increase capacity to adapt to actual or potential impacts of climate variability. LDCF/SCCF resources can also help countries become climate resilient by promoting both immediate and longer term adaptation measures as part of their development. Examples of actions to address vulner- ability include: a) knowledge activities related to improvement of information for planning and identification of impacts on agriculture and forests; b) policy decisions to incorporate adaptation issues in agricultural and forestry poli- cies; and c) technical investments to reduce vulnerabilities in the relevant sectors. 18 The Global environmenT FaciliTy A “green dam,� Hassi Bahbah, Algeria. Water retrieved from a borehole near Juba, South Sudan. Delivering Climate resilient rangelands, and forest landscapes; protection of threatened biodiversity; prevention and control of erosion and desertifi- Development in Africa cation; and the potential for sequestering millions of tons of carbon per year. In the long-term, these benefits will deliver So what would a climate resilient development pathway look increased resilience of the region’s ecosystems and human like for Africa? Because of the crucial importance of land, livelihoods to climate change and variability. water, and forests as assets for development; a strategic approach to investing in these resources in the context of poverty-reduCtion and LiveLihood climate change adaptation is key to the livelihood of millions diversiFiCation on the continent. Investing in this approach requires a focus on securing ecosystem services by promoting sustainable All three programs outlined in this publication represent practices that lead to local and regional resilience and global opportunities for improving livelihoods and providing environmental benefits. concrete benefits to poor land users, including smallholder farmers and pastoralists, indigenous forest communities, and From a land and water perspective, these include soil and fishing communities. Direct engagement of these grassroots water conservation practices such as shelterbelts, multi- communities is a key factor for achieving resilience and purpose trees on production land, small-scale irrigation, and generating global environmental benefits from such ambi- water harvesting. Complementary approaches could include tious programs. large-scale watershed planning or smaller-scale community, land-use planning to address open access of wood fuel and For example, implementation of sustainable land and water livestock, biological corridor development and management, management practices in the Sahel and Lake Chad Basin has and ecotourism development. the potential to enhance yields, soil fertility, and fodder avail- ability for livestock, and to shorten wood collection time for sustainaBiLity oF naturaL resourCes women. Local communities will benefit from increased production and access to forest products especially firewood, As noted previously, the GGWISS offers an integrated envi- lumber and ligneous and non-ligneous products such as ronment and development pathway for the Sahel, to which gum, resins, roots, leaves, barks, fruits and pharmacopeia. In the leaders of all countries involved have expressed committ- addition, the implementation of sustainable land and water- ment. As a result, GEF partnership with the countries of the management practices will enable farmers and communities region will generate global environmental benefits while real- to adapt, and become more resilient to climate change by izing sustainable development aspirations for the entire increasing food production, enhancing food security and Sahelian region. The benefits include: sustainable manage- restoring productive natural resources. ment of land, water and vegetation resources in croplands, land, WaTer, and ForesTs: asseTs For climaTe resilienT developmenT in aFrica 19 environMentaL seCurity enterprise deveLopMent Beyond the smallholder farmers, sustainable management of Other development opportunities for the regions, such as natural resources could create new sources of employment community-based ecotourism, alternative livelihood options, and stable incomes for local communities, including the thou- and payment for ecosystem services can offer new and sands of young people increasingly driven to migrate. In the sustainable sources of income for local communities. long-term, such an investment will also help to reduce the risk Harnessing these options will require certain conditions to of environmental conflict contribute to improving the overall ensure empowerment, equity (including gender), and rights security in the Sahel. Engaging local communities in on-the- of the communities. For this to be achieved, the programs ground activities can build social capital in the region and will consider tools and mechanisms to empower communities demonstrate that sustainable management of natural hobbled by high illiteracy rates (which are often higher for resources represents a long-term strategy for increasing women). Success depends on the design of incentive mecha- options for improving livelihoods. Social capital can be nisms towards the implementation of sustainable land, water, strengthened through the involvement of local, grassroot and and forest management practices. The different needs and traditional organizations as well as non-governmental organi- interests of women and men are taken into account, as well zations with expertise in the areas of intervention. as the need to secure both short and long-term economic and social benefits for all participant groups. eCosysteM ConneCtivity CLiMate Change adaptation BeneFits For all three programs, the regional approach will enable countries to address ecosystem processes that extend The entire geographical area of the GGWISS and Lake Chad beyond borders. For example, the entire Sahel region is Basin, consisting primarily of dryland ecosystems, faces many connected across borders through migration, transhumance, challenges related to climate change and variablity. Essential and land use change. At the same time, the ecosystem for any major investment in the area is a focus on increasing includes important tracts of natural habitat such as parklands, adaptive capacity, enhancing resilience to climate change, wetlands, and gallery forests. Some of these have been and reducing vulnerability. Major climate vulnerabilities formally designated as protected areas for safeguarding include those with the largest negative potential for the coun- native biodiversity or for community-based natural resource tries’ economies and the stability of critical agroecosystems. management. Through the Sahel and Lake Chad Basin Potential adaptation benefits in the Sahel include protection programs, there are opportunities for strengthening the of livelihoods from the effects of climate change on water, management of these areas in landscape context to accom- land resources, and improved adaptive response to water modate the livelihood needs of communities. Similarly, scarcity through irrigation and water-saving techniques. These management of the Congo Basin forests will improve the benefits can be enhanced by mainstreaming climate change sustainability of ecosystem services through increased considerations into sectoral investment plans and policies connectivity across national boundaries. The programs bring regarding water and land use management, enhanced under- with them the potential to protect vast areas of forest, which standing of climate change implications for different sectors, will translate into protection of carbon stocks. In addition, the and increased knowledge dissemination and awareness potential for landscape connectivity will help countries regarding the causes and impacts of climate change as well increase the resilience and sustainability of the ecosystem. As as suggested mitigation/adaptation measures. As a result, a result, the conservation of flagship and threatened species countries in the Sahel will have increased technical capacity will be greatly enhanced. to implement adaptation-oriented measures, and capacity for disaster risk management in a changing climate. 20 The Global environmenT FaciliTy Namibia promotes the conservation of indigenous plants and trees. the Way forward integrated deveLopMent oF Lake and river Basins The three major programs outlined in this publication are Investment approaches in the Lake Chad Basin will inform, on evidence that Africa is poised to embrace climate resilient a broader scale, how appropriate policies should be devel- development for a sustainable and prosperous future. The time oped for integrated management of transboundary water is right for all development partners to join forces in further systems in the face of the impacts of climate change. Lessons strengthening these initiatives as models for the entire conti- could be shared on deployment of the most efficient low- nent. The total GEF grant of US$168 million and co-financing of carbon technologies to support the fisheries industry and US$2.18 billion invested in the programs highlighted in this agricultural production. This includes improved access to publication sends a strong signal that the donor community renewable energy technologies such as solar power, small- stands ready to do its part. Investment and technical assistance scale hydropower, and biomass for efficient pumping of are still needed to ensure that appropriate policies and institu- water, power processing, and storage facilities. These will in tional frameworks are in place for long-term sustainability. turn create incentives for the countries to trigger effort in technology transfer with the aim of building resilience to Collaboration across national boundaries can play an impor- climate change. tant role in disseminating best practices and experiential learning. Existing regional institutions can serve as platforms Sustainable land-management in lake and river basins also to share knowledge and lessons-learned from formulation to plays a crucial role in safeguarding water resources by implementation of specific interventions. This will improve combating the degradation of natural resources in produc- impact at the regional scale and increase possibilities for tion systems—agricultural, rangelands, and forest replication among and within countries. At the same time, it landscapes. From the Lake Chad region, with its shrinking will improve monitoring and benchmarking of key indicators water resource, to the Sahel region, with its susceptibility to and systems through an adaptive management system, which severe drought, to the Congo Basin, with its vast carbon can support evidence-based decision-making on long-term stocks; sustainable management of land, water, and forest investments by the countries. enables countries to harness ecosystem services for improved livelihoods while at the same time generating global benefits. In addition to specific deliverables, the programs highlighted in The global benefits of this approach, such as reduced pres- this publication will serve to open new opportunities for deliv- sure on natural habitats, maintenance of agrobiodiversity, ering resilient development in Africa that cut across multiple diversification of production landscapes, protection of carbon sectors, including agriculture and energy. This is particularly rele- stocks, and sustained flow of ecosystem services are ulti- vant for addressing integrated development of lake and river mately the hall marks of climate-resilient development. basin systems for multiple benefits, and safeguarding ecosystem services in all types of forests, and climate-smart agriculture. land, WaTer, and ForesTs: asseTs For climaTe resilienT developmenT in aFrica 21 saFeguarding eCosysteM serviCes oF CLiMate-sMart agriCuLture aFriCan Forests Finally, African countries are ready to embrace the call for The GEF support to the Congo Basin forests is aimed at climate-smart agriculture, which will also help them engage encouraging greater synergies with other activities being more effectively in a global “green economy�.27 Clearly, the undertaken by the countries to help deliver global environ- programs in the Sahel, Lake Chad Basin, and the Congo mental benefits in terms of biodiversity conservation, Basin examplify the partnerships and the level of investment reducing risks related to climate change, prevention of land needed to deliver the triple-win of increased productivity, degradation, and protection of international waters. At the enhanced climate resilience, and greenhouse mitigation. local level, the program will contribute to secure livelihoods Through these programs, African countries have demon- for several millions of people depending on the use of timber strated that they are capable of coalescing around a common and non-timber products, including action to address adapta- agenda that unifies their vision of environmental sustainability tion to climate change. and economic prosperity. The focus on land, water, and forests is particularly crucial given the vital importance of Harnessing the experience of countries collaborating to these natural resources on the continent. sustainably manage such a vast natural resource for economic, social and environmental values is crucial for All across sub-Saharan Africa, land is where the struggle to climate-resilient development. This will be invaluable for all adapt to climate change will be won or lost by the poorest of other forests on the continent for which such a collabora- the poor. This reality reinforces the importance of sustainable tive approach is essential. Countries would be supported land management on the continent, which underpins agricul- to access payments for ecosystem services including tural development and food security for nearly all of the carbon markets to secure long-term financing support for countries. At the same time, practices that integrate land, sustainable forest management. With an inventory of the water, biodiversity, and environmental management into agri- forest ecosystem and its status, countries could be better cultural landscapes ultimately generate “adaptation� and positioned to manage the resources more effectively, “mitigation� benefits for society, including emission reduc- including monitoring and managing export more pro- tions and sequestration of greenhouse gases. As a result, actively. Areas traditionally occupied by indigenous people investing in climate-smart agriculture will also position African would be acknowledged and secured for their societal and countries to more effectively implement to global environ- cultural benefits. mental conventions. Ultimately, the interventions will generate interest and open Embracing sustainable land management as a practical up real opportunities to focus on increasing adaptive option for climate-smart agriculture, therefore, offers African capacity, resilience to climate change, and reducing vulner- countries a unique opportunity to mainstream a wide range ability which is essential for any major investment in Africa. It of successful interventions that can maximize impact at scale. is hoped that benefits can be enhanced by mainstreaming This is particularly crucial in light of growing demands for effi- climate change considerations into sector investment plans ciency and intensification of agricultural production as a and policies regarding water and land use management, response to the recent global food crisis.28 disaster risk management. 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Bakarr Saliha Dobardzic Gustavo A.B. da Fonseca Jean-Marc Sinnassamy Sekou Toure aBout the geF CONSULTANT RESEARCHER The Global Environment Facility unites 182 member governments—in partnership with international institutions, nongovernmental organizations, Ijeoma Emenanjo and the private sector—to address global environmental issues. As an independent financial organization, the GEF provides grants to EDITOR developing countries and countries with economies in transition for projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land John Diamond degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants. These projects benefit the global environment, linking local, national, and global environmental challenges and promoting sustainable livelihoods. Established in 1991, the GEF is currently the largest funder of projects to improve the global environment. The GEF has allocated $9 billion, supplemented by more than $40 billion in co-financing, for more than 2,600 projects in more than 165 developing countries and countries with economies in transition. Through its Small Grants Programme, the GEF has also made more than 12,000 small grants directly to nongovernmental and community organizations. The GEF partnership includes 10 Agencies: the UN Development Programme, the UN Environment Programme, the World Bank, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, the UN Industrial Development Organization, the African Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the European Bank of Reconstruction and Development, the Production Date: november 2011 Inter-American Development Bank, and the International Fund for Design: patricia hord.Graphik design Agricultural Development. The Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel Printed in South Africa provides technical and scientific advice on the GEF’s policies and project. www.theGEF.org printed on environmentally Friendly paper