REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY September 2020 MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND TERTIARY EDUCATION, SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND THE WORLD BANK © 2020 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street NW Washington, DC 20433 USA All rights reserved Photos: The World Bank. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY September 2020 iv FOREWORD FOREWORD His Excellency, President ED Mnangagwa has The National Critical Skills Audit of 2018 reflects set a vision for Zimbabwe to achieve an upper huge gaps and demands in the areas of science, middle-income economy by 2030. The attainment engineering and technology in the country. This has of this vision requires our Ministry to enhance necessitated the need to strengthen the teaching of its role in human capital development through STEM courses in our higher and tertiary education skills development, innovation, science and institutions. Among other STEM strengthening entrepreneurship promotion. The Ministry has strategies, the Ministry has also established Industrial embarked on a wholesale of reforms that are pivoted & Technology Parks and Innovation hubs in select on the Education 5.0 Doctrine which seeks to refocus universities which are anticipated to promote the higher and tertiary education in Zimbabwe through development and commercialization of innovative the 5 pillars of Teaching, Research, Community initiatives and emerging technology that is relevant Service, Innovation and Industrialization. The to the socio-economic development of Zimbabwe Doctrine also seeks to locate Higher and Tertiary while rooted in the country’s heritage philosophy. education as the fulcrum upon which his excellency’s vision of attaining an upper middle-income economy In contributing to His Excellency’s Vision 2030, by 2030 will be rooted. the Ministry is establishing strategic partnerships with business, industry, academic and international As we implement the Education 5.0 Doctrine, we development actors in fostering Education 5.0 and are fully cognizant of the ever-changing world in position the higher and tertiary education sector as a which we operate hence the need for our higher key cog in the attainment of an upper middle-income & tertiary education sector to be up to speed economy. It is within this vein that the Ministry with the constantly changing world. Zimbabwe’s partnered with the World Bank Group to carry out transformation and the development of the this sector analysis. It is our hope that as we continue country’s knowledge economy will largely depend on our journey of reforming the higher & tertiary on the country’s workforce and their skills. Higher education sector in Zimbabwe, the findings and Education in Zimbabwe will thus seek to transform recommendations of this document will contribute to the country’s economy through products that have our ongoing efforts of producing innovative, techno- the requisite 21st century skills that will allow them savvy , entrepreneurial and skilled graduates who will to adjust to the changing nature of work but most drive the country’s socio-economic transformation as importantly to create employment through acquired we move towards an upper middle income economy entrepreneurship and innovation skills. by 2030. Prof. dr. A. Murwira Minister of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY v PREFACE The Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, that through the visionary leadership of the Hon. Science & Technology Development, partnered with Minister Professor Murwira, the Ministry is already the World Bank to develop this Higher & Tertiary making significant steps in addressing some of Education Sector Analysis which was developed the key aspects identified in this analysis hence its through input from our institutions and through recommendations are largely in sync with ongoing coordination of the Ministry. The Analysis sought reforms within our Ministry. Several initiatives that to carry out a SWOT analysis of the sector with focus we are currently implementing within the Ministry on identifying how the Ministry can significantly such as the National Qualifications Framework, contribute to national development goals as spelt The Minimum Bodies of Knowledge, Innovation out in the Transitional stabilization plan (TSP) and Hubs and realignment of several legislation among specifically the President’s 2030 vision. others all point out to the Ministry’s commitment to enhancing Higher and Tertiary education in the The Sector Analysis identifies six key areas in country and making the education relevant to the which there are greater areas for opportunity as 21st century. the country strengthens its education strategy in line with 5.0 Doctrine. These areas are: Defining We are fully convinced that this partnership with the a Long-Term Vision for the Sector; Expanding World Bank will add significant value to our ongoing Access & Improving Equity; Improving Quality efforts through exposure to best practice from other and Relevance; Building Research Capacity & parts of the world, and also the exposure of our own Expanding Technology Transfer; and Developing a best practices to other countries and systems in which Sustainable Financing Strategy. I am glad to note the World Bank operate. Prof. F. Tagwira Secretary for Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development vi CONTENTS CONTENTS Foreword iv Preface v Contents vi Acknowledgements x 01 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 02 INTRODUCTION 14 Background 14 The Analytical Objectives, Methodology and Scope of This Report 16 03 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS 17 Country Context 17 Labor Markets and Employment Dynamics in Zimbabwe 18 The Government’s Transitional Stabilization Program 22 Education Sector Context 23 Educational Attainment among the Working-Age Population 24 The Organization of Zimbabwe’s Education Sector 26 Early Childhood, Primary, and Secondary Education 26 Tertiary Education 27 Tertiary Education and Workforce Skills Development in Zimbabwe 29 Strategic Planning in the Tertiary Education Sector 30 Summary 30 04 THE PERFORMANCE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR 31 Tertiary Enrollment Rates and Equity Indicators 31 Repetition and Dropout Rates 33 Quality and Relevance of Tertiary Education 35 Curricular and Pedagogical Practices 36 Staffing 37 Facilities and Equipment 39 Availability of STEM Programs 44 Research and Innovation 45 University Research Output 45 Innovation and Technology Transfer 49 International Collaboration 50 Sectoral Governance 52 REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY vii Sectoral Financing 52 Resource Mobilization 52 Resource Allocation 54 Unit Costs and Revenues at the Institutional Level 56 Own-Source Revenue Generation by Universities 57 Budget Allocation at the Institutional Level 60 Summary 60 05 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR 62 A. Defining a Vision for the Future 62 B. Expanding Access and Improving Equity 64 C. Improving the Quality and Relevance of Tertiary Education 67 D. Building Research Capacity and Accelerating Technology Transfer 70 The National Science and Technology Policy 70 Research funding 70 Talent Development at the Institutional Level 72 Strengthening Research Collaboration 72 E. Appropriate Institutional Governance and Management Arrangements 74 F. Developing a Sustainable Financing Strategy 77 Guiding Principles for a Sound Financing System 79 Strengthening Zimbabwe’s Tertiary Education Funding System 80 Funding Formulas 80 Performance-Based Contracts 80 Competitive Funds 81 Adopting a Three-Pillar Funding Model 82 Matrix of Policy Options 83 Summary 86 06 CONCLUSION 88 NOTES 90 REFERENCES 91 ANNEXES 92 Annex 1 93 Annex 2 95 viii CONTENTS FIGURES 26. Shares of Academic Staff by Rank and 1. Gross Enrollment Rates in Tertiary Institution, 2018 38 Education, Zimbabwe and Comparators, 27. Number of Students per Laboratory or Latest Available Year (%) 2 Workshop by Institution, 2018 39 2. Zimbabwe’s Share of the Citable 28. Condition of STEM Laboratories/ Publications Produced in Africa, Workshops by Institution, 2018 39 2000-2017 4 29. Number of Computers and Total 3. The Number of People Living in Extreme Enrollment by Institution, 2018 41 Poverty, 2012-16 (millions) 18 30. Reported Internet Connectivity Quality of 4. The Poverty Rate and GDP per Capita, Computer Laboratories, 2018 41 2012-17 (% and US$) 18 31. Internet Bandwidth of On-Campus Wi-Fi 5. Labor-Force Participation Rates by Age and Total Enrollment by Institution, 2018 42 Group, 2014 19 32. Student Satisfaction with Internet 6. Unemployment Rates in Rural and Urban Connectivity by Type of Institution, 2018 42 Areas, 2004, 2011, and 2014 19 33. Online Education, Management, and 7. Unemployment Rates by Age Group, 2014 20 Support Systems by Type of 8. Share of Employed Workers by Industry Institution, 2018 43 or Sector, 2014 21 34. Library Access to Online Journals and 9. Employed Workers by Skill Level, 2014 22 Book Databases by Type of 10. Human Capital Index Scores and GDP per Institution, 2018 43 Capita, Zimbabwe and Comparators 23 35. Total Capacity of Student Hostels as a 11. Learning Gap, Zimbabwe and Share of Total Enrollment, 2018 44 Comparators 24 36. The Condition of Student Hostels by 12. Educational Attainment in Zimbabwe, Institution, 2018 44 1999-2014 24 37. University Enrollment by Discipline, 2017 45 13. Educational Attainment by Gender and 38. Citable Publications Produced in Rural/Urban Location, 2014 25 Zimbabwe by Discipline 46 14. Educational Attainment by Gender, 39. Number of Citable Publications by 1999-2014 25 Zimbabwean Researchers, 2000-2017 47 15. Diagram of Zimbabwe’s Education Sector 28 40. Number of Citable Publications 16. Overall Workforce Skill Level and the Produced Each Year, Zimbabwe and Share of Firms Reporting an Inadequate Comparators, 2017 47 Supply of Workforce Skills, 2016 29 41. Number of Scholarly Journal Articles 17. Gross Enrollment Rates in Tertiary per US$ Billion in GDP, Zimbabwe and Education, Zimbabwe and Comparators, Comparator Countries, 2018 48 Latest Available Year (%) 31 42. Zimbabwe’s Share of the Citable 18. Enrollment in Public and Private Publications Produced in Africa, Universities, TVET Institutions, and 2000-2017 49 Teacher Training Colleges, 2017 32 43. Number of Patents Relative to GDP, 19. Enrollment in Academic Disciplines by Zimbabwe and Comparator Gender, 2017 33 Countries, 2018 49 20. Examination Results by Institution, 2018 33 44. Number of Publications Produced by 21. Dropout Rates by Discipline and Four Public Universities by Academic Institution, 2017 34 Department, 2017 50 22. Reported Reasons for Dropping Out by 45. Share of Postgraduate Students in Public Institution, 2017 34 and Private Universities, 2013 23. Graduation Rates by Institution, 2017 35 and 2017 51 24. Student-to-Faculty Ratios by 46. Share of Publications Produced through Institution, 2017 37 International Collaboration, Zimbabwe 25. Shares of Academic Staff by Qualification and Comparator Countries (%) 51 Level and Institution, 2017 38 47. Public Spending on Education as a Share REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY ix of GDP and Total Public Spending, 6. Webometrics University Rankings, Zimbabwe and Comparator Countries (%) 53 Zimbabwean Universities and 48. Budget Allocations and Total Enrollment Comparators, 2019 36 among Public Universities, 2015 53 7. Webometrics Top 100 Universities in 49. Total MHTESTD Budget and Share Sub-Saharan Africa, 2019 36 Allocated to Capital Investment 54 8. Research Output, Zimbabwe and 50. Allocation of the Tertiary Education Comparator Countries, 2010 and 2018 46 Budget by Type of Institution, 2016 54 9. The Nature Index’s 25 “Rising Stars” in 51. Allocation of the Tertiary Education African Research, 2016 48 Investment Budget by Type of 10. Research Funding Mechanisms in Nine Institution, 2016 55 OECD Countries 72 52. Allocation of Capital Transfers to 11. Most Effective Knowledge- and Universities by Investment Purpose, Technology-Transfer Mechanisms 74 2018 (US$) 56 12. Institutional Accountability Instruments 77 53. Recurrent Budget Allocation Per Student 13. The Alignment of Zimbabwe’s Tertiary by University, 2016 56 Education Financing Framework with 54. Own-Source Revenue as a Share of Total International Good-Practice Principles 80 Revenue among Public Universities, 2018 57 14. Sequencing of Policy Options 83 55. Breakdown of Own-Source Revenue 15. Implementation Difficulty of Streams at Midlands State University, 2018 57 Policy Options 85 56. Non-Tuition Income as a Share of Total Income at Three Private Universities, 2018 58 BOXES 57. Annual Tuition Revenue per Student 1. The Human Capital Index (HCI) 23 among Public Universities, 2018 58 2. Education 5.0: Crafting a Vision for 58. Public Funding for Research, Zimbabwe’s Tertiary Education Sector 62 Development and Innovation, 2016-19 59 3. A Long-Term Vision for Tertiary 59. Annual Research Funding from Local Education in California 63 and External Sources among Four Public 4. South Africa’s Shape and Size Task Force 64 Universities, 2017 59 5. The Promise of Predictive Analytics 67 60. Expenditures Covered by Public 6. The Transformation of Teaching and Funding among TVET Institutions and Learning at Olin College 68 Teacher Training Colleges, 2016 (US$) 60 7. Lessons from Cooperative Education Programs 69 TABLES 8. A New Research Agenda for Australia 70 1. Webometrics University Rankings, 9. The Local Economic Impact of Zimbabwean Universities and Universities: the Cambridge Model 73 Comparators, 2019 3 10. Reforming University Councils 75 2. Webometrics Top 100 Universities in 11. Lessons Learned from University Sub-Saharan Africa, 2019 3 Fundraising Efforts in Europe 78 3. Sequencing of Policy Options 9 12. The International Experience with 4. Implementation Difficulty of Competitive Funds for Tertiary Education 82 Policy Options 11 5. Shares of Employed Workers by Industry or Sector (%) 21 x ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report was jointly prepared by teams from Programs). Both teams would like to express their the World Bank and the Zimbabwe Ministry of gratitude to the universities, teacher colleges, Higher & Tertiary Education, Science & Technology polytechnic colleges, and industrial training centers Development (MHTESTD). The Honorable Minister that provided the institution-level data underpinning Prof. A. Murwira and the Permanent Secretary Prof. this analysis. The teams would also like to gratefully F. Tagwira provided guidance on the overall report acknowledge the critical input received from the in line with the MHTESTD’s Education 5.0 Strategy. Zimbabwe University Vice Chancellors Association The World Bank team was led by Yoko Nagashima (ZUVCA), as represented by the Association’s Chair, and composed of Jamil Salmi, Tapfuma Ronald Prof. Eddie Mwenje. Additional input and data Jongwe, Shiro Nakata, Katsuki Sakaue, and Michael were also provided by the Zimbabwe Council for Mambo under the overall guidance of Halil Dundar Higher Education (ZIMCHE), headed by its Chief (Practice Manager), Mukami Kariuki (Country Executive Officer, Prof. Kuzvinetsa P. Dzvimbo. The Manager, Zimbabwe) and Paul Noumba Um report benefited from valuable comments provided (Country Director for South Africa). The MHTESTD by World Bank colleagues, including Aleksandra team was led by Mr. Charles Musari (Deputy Director Posarac (Program Leader); Roberta Malee Bassett Projects and Technology Transfer) and composed of (Sr. Education Specialist and Global Lead for Tertiary Mr. Christopher Mudzingwa, Mrs. Ernie Nago, Mrs. Education, Peer Reviewer), Jason Allen Weaver, Eukerious Marara and Ms. Beaula Chipoyera with (Senior Education Specialist, Peer Reviewer), and overall guidance from Mrs. R. Karimanzira (Director Francisco Marmolejo (Lead Education Specialist, Projects and Technology Transfer), Mrs. Martha Peer Reviewer). Elif Yukseker assisted the team Muguti (Director – Higher Education Programs) and throughout the process. The report was edited by Mrs. Dephine Zivanai (Director – Tertiary Education Sean Lothrop and designed by Cybil Maradza. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY xi ABBREVIATIONS ARWU Academic Ranking of World Universities BOT Build Operate and Transfer ECD Early Childhood Development ESSP Education Sector Strategy Plan GDP Gross Domestic Production HCI Human Capital Index ICT Information and Communication Technology GER Gross Enrolment Rate MHTESTD Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development MOPSE Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education NER Net Enrolment Rate OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PPP Public Private Partnerships SME Small and Medium Enterprise STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics TIMMS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study TSP Transitional Stabilisation Programme TVET Technical Vocational Education and Training UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization WEF World Economic Forum ZIMCHE Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education ZIMDEF Zimbabwe Manpower Development Fund ZIMREN Zimbabwe Education and Research Network ZIMSEC Zimbabwe Schools Examinations Council ZIMSTAT Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency ZUVCA Zimbabwe University Vice Chancellors Association Universities BUSE Bindura University of Science Education CUT Chinhoyi University of Technology CUZ Catholic University in Zimbabwe GZU Great Zimbabwe University HIT Harare Institute of Technology LSU Lupane State University MSU Midlands State University NUST National University of Science and Technology UZ University of Zimbabwe WUA Women’s University in Africa ZEGU Zimbabwe Ezekiel Guti University ZOU Zimbabwe Open University xii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 1 01 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1. This report assesses the performance of The TSP’s five pillars include: (i) governance; (ii) Zimbabwe’s tertiary education system in the context macroeconomic stability and financial reengagement; of the country’s development challenges. It provides (iii) inclusive growth; (iv) infrastructure and utilities; a comprehensive diagnosis of sectoral issues as the and (v) social development. The TSP represents the basis for detailed policy recommendations to support first stage of Vision 2030. the government’s efforts to accelerate Zimbabwe’s economic recovery and reduce socioeconomic 4. In spite of the political and macro-economic disparities. The report evaluates the system’s crisis of the last decade, Zimbabwe’s human-capital ability to utilize inputs efficiently and produce the indicators exceed the average for its region and outcomes targeted by policymakers. It also considers income group. Zimbabwe’s performance on the reform measures designed to improve the system’s HCI’s education dimension is strong by the standards performance. of peer countries, but relatively weak in global terms. A Zimbabwean child who starts school at age four can expect to complete 10 total school years, but State of Zimbabwe’s Tertiary only 6.3 learning-adjusted school years, by age 18, Education Sector in the Wake of indicating a learning gap of 3.7 years. the Economic Crisis 5. Zimbabwe’s workforce is well educated by regional standards. As of 2014, a large majority of 2. Zimbabwe’s unstable macro-fiscal environment Zimbabweans between the ages of 15 and 64 had has severely impeded its development. Formerly completed primary education, as well as some amount one of the most advanced economies in Sub- of secondary education, and roughly 10 percent had Saharan Africa, Zimbabwe is now among the most at least some tertiary education. However, gains in vulnerable. The economy’s structural problems educational attainment over the last 20 years have have negatively impacted employment and income been concentrated among the urban population, dynamics. The urban unemployment rate continues with little improvement observed among the rural to climb, and unemployment among urban youth has workforce. Gender parity in educational attainment reached alarming levels. The latest available labor- has steadily improved over the past decade, but a force survey, which dates from 2014, indicates that significant gender gap persists at the tertiary level the urban unemployment rate reached 30 percent, (12% for men and 9% for women). including both active and discouraged job seekers. 6. The Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, 3. The new administration, which took office in Science and Technology Development (MHTESTD) July 2018, is striving to rebuild the Zimbabwean manages the postsecondary education subsector. economy and achieve the goal of making Zimbabwe The MHTESTD formulates and implements skills a “prosperous and empowered upper-middle-income training and development policies and promotes society” by 2030. The Transitional Stabilization Plan science, technology and innovation. The ministry (TSP) focuses on macroeconomic and financial-sector oversees, regulates, and registers all public and stabilization, private-sector-oriented policy and private universities, polytechnics, and teacher institutional reforms, and infrastructure investment. training colleges. Established in 2006, the Zimbabwe 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Council for Higher Education (ZIMCHE) ensures and health sciences, and agriculture. the quality of tertiary education by registering and accrediting institutions. The Performance of Zimbabwe’s 7. At first glance, Zimbabwe’s human-capital Tertiary Education Sector endowment appears adequate relative to the demands of its economy, but a deeper analysis reveals critical gaps in workforce skills. A National 8. At 8.5%, Zimbabwe’s tertiary enrollment rate is yet Critical Skills Audit, conducted in 2018 to assess to match the level of regional leaders, such as Botswana Zimbabwe’s skills deficits and surpluses, confirmed (23.4%), South Africa (20.5%), and Kenya (11.7%). the existence of large gaps between the supply and Zimbabwe’s tertiary Gross Enrollment Rate continued demand for skills in several key sectors, with a to increase between 2010 and 2015 (from 6 percent to deficit in the production of qualified specialists and 8.5 percent) despite deteriorating public investment in technicians especially in the natural and applied education, underscoring the strong demand for tertiary sciences, engineering and technology, the medical education among Zimbabwean households. FIGURE 1 GROSS ENROLLMENT RATES IN TERTIARY EDUCATION, ZIMBABWE AND COMPARATORS, LATEST AVAILABLE YEAR (%) 25.0 23.4 20.5 20.0 15.0 11.7 10.0 8.5 7.6 3.9 4.0 4.6 5.0 0.0 Tanzania Zambia Uganda Rwanda Zimbabwe Kenya South Africa Botswana Source: World Bank Data Bank – Education Statistics 9. A large majority of tertiary students are enrolled in dropout rates in both public and private universities. public institutions. While Zimbabwe has six private The questionnaire found that nearly 70 percent of universities, public universities accounted for about dropouts cited tuition fees as the main reason for 90 percent of total university enrollment in 2017. dropping out. By contrast, the survey found that Public TVET institutions and public teacher training repetition rates are generally low among both public colleges also dominate their subsectors, accounting and private universities, with the notable exception for 98 and 64 percent of total enrollment, respectively. of the STEM-oriented public universities. 10. Infrastructure constraints and tuition fees 12. In the absence of a direct assessment of learning limit tertiary education access. Teaching space and outcomes, university rankings are often used as a affordable accommodations on and around tertiary proxy measure of tertiary education quality, despite institutions are very scarce. Tuition fees for public their methodological limitations. Neither the Shanghai institutions are also a significant deterrent for Academic Ranking of World Universities or the students from poorer households, and the country Times Higher Education World University Ranking lacks a viable and sustainable financial-support include any Zimbabwean university in their lists of system for tertiary students. the top 800 global institutions. Webometrics ranking is far more expansive and includes five Zimbabwean 11. High tuition fees contribute to significant universities.1 However, these institutions compare REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 3 poorly to other major universities in Sub-Saharan among the top 100 African universities in The Africa, and only the University of Zimbabwe appears Webometrics ranking. TABLE 1 WEBOMETRICS UNIVERSITY RANKINGS, ZIMBABWEAN UNIVERSITIES AND COMPARATORS, 2019 Name of University World Bank University of Cape Town 272 University of Nairobi 993 Makerere University 1036 University of Ibadan 1148 University of Zimbabwe 1977 Midlands State University 4699 National University of Science & Technology 5153 Chinhoyi University of Technology 5392 Bindura University of Science Education 5473 Source: Webometrics (2018) http://www.webometrics.info/en Note: Zimbabwean universities are in bold TABLE 2 WEBOMETRICS TOP 100 UNIVERSITIES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, 2019 Country Number of Universities Rank of the Top University in the Top 100 from Each Country South Africa 18 1 Kenya 5 9 Uganda 2 11 Nigeria 10 15 Ghana 3 19 Ethiopia 2 21 Tanzania 3 26 Zimbabwe 1 33 Sudan 1 38 Mozambique 1 39 Source: Webometrics (2019) http://www.webometrics.info/en/Sub-Saharan 13. Several factors undermine the quality of the Inadequate laboratories, workshops, and other teaching and learning environment. Field visits specialized facilities significantly weaken education to selected institutions and interviews with key quality, especially in STEM programs. university officials revealed that curricular and pedagogical practices remain largely traditional in 14. In the absence of detailed labor market and many institutions.2 An acute shortage of academic technology transfer data, little information is staff, especially in STEM programs in public available about the quality and relevance of existing universities, is negatively impacting education quality. STEM programs in Zimbabwe. However, the field 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY visits have shown that the main two bottlenecks in However, the volume of Zimbabwe’s research STEM universities and polytechnics are the lack of output belies the limited quality and impact of its qualified academics and the acute difficulties faced scholarly publications. Zimbabwe’s H-Index score in purchasing and maintaining state-of-the-art is lower than those of most comparator countries. scientific equipment. Zimbabwe also underperforms on measures of innovation and technology transfer compared to its 15. In spite of the economic crisis, Zimbabwe has peers. While a large share of Zimbabwean research managed to maintain a relatively high level of involves international collaboration, the frequency quantitative research output. Among Sub-Saharan of international research collaborations is lower in African countries, Zimbabwean researchers Zimbabwe than in other countries in the region, published the third-highest number of research mostly because of the economic upheavals and the papers per capita, after South Africa and Kenya. international sanctions imposed on Zimbabwe. FIGURE 2 ZIMBABWE’S SHARE OF THE CITABLE PUBLICATIONS PRODUCED IN AFRICA, 2000-2017 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Source: Scimago Journal and Country Rank 16. From a governance viewpoint, Zimbabwe’s tertiary Moreover, public universities are overseen by very education sector suffers from several organizational large councils, with 30 to 45 members, who receive and institutional weaknesses. First, the lack of clear financial allowances paid by the universities. This articulation between “higher education” and “tertiary system increases the cost and limits the quality and education”, a distinction which is not common in effectiveness of university governance. other countries; inhibits the movement of students between the two subsystems. Second, the country 18. From a resource mobilization viewpoint, lacks a comprehensive information-management Zimbabwe’s economic crisis over the past decade system, which constrains performance monitoring has deprived the tertiary education sector of much- and weakens the foundation for evidence-based needed funding. In addition, the MHTESTD budget policymaking. Third, the ZIMCHE’s funding model has fluctuated substantially from year to year. relies on a tax imposed on each university based on their enrollment, creating a strong disincentive to 19. In terms of resource allocation, history-based report enrollment figures accurately. budgeting drives the allocation of funding to Zimbabwe’s tertiary education sector. As a result, 17. At the institutional level, Zimbabwe’s public current spending per student varies considerably universities are not fully autonomous, especially in between public universities because budget terms of financial and human-resources management. allocations are not based on an objective and The MHTESTD controls the budgetary and tuition transparent funding formula that would reflect policies of public universities. Even when faced with enrollment numbers, actual cost of programs and severe financial limitations, these universities are not their scientific infrastructure, staff headcounts, or allowed to strictly enforce their tuition requirements. institutional performance. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 5 The Way Forward: Policy Options can provide an important complement to traditional to Revitalize Zimbabwe’s Tertiary tertiary institutions. Finally, many countries have Education Sector encouraged the growth of private universities to help meet a growing demand for tertiary education while further diversifying its institutional composition 20. After many years of crisis, a comprehensive and easing pressure on the government’s education approach is needed to revitalize Zimbabwe’s tertiary budget. education system. The Government could consider a range of policy options in the following areas: 23. Equity-promotion policies could complement (i) Defining a vision for the future; (ii) Expanding institutional differentiation by reducing disparities Access and Increasing Equity; (iii) Improving in access to and success in tertiary education. The the quality and relevance of tertiary education most effective equity-promotion policies address programs; (iv) Building research capacity and both the financial and non-financial elements of accelerating technology transfer; (v) Putting in tertiary education access. On the one hand, well- place appropriate institutional governance and targeted and efficiently managed financial aid management arrangements; and (vi) Developing a through well-targeted bursaries and student loans sustainable financing strategy. can be instrumental in reducing financial barriers to tertiary education. On the other hand, non- Elaboration of a National Vision monetary measures, such as outreach and bridging programs, reformed selection procedures and/or 21. Zimbabwe’s tertiary sector has suffered from a preferential admissions, special institutions and lack of strategic planning, which was exacerbated programs targeting underprivileged groups, and by the country’s economic crisis. The most urgent targeted retention programs, could further enhance priority for revitalizing the sector, therefore, is to the equity of tertiary education. elaborate a bold vision for its development. This strategy should set targets for the overall size of Improving Quality and Relevance the tertiary sector and its institutional configuration in line with the government’s overarching goal of 24. Improving the quality and relevance of tertiary producing highly qualified graduates and valuable education in Zimbabwe will require a combination research to support Zimbabwe’s economic recovery. of interventions. These interventions should target In this context, the Education 5.0 document four key determinants of education quality and prepared by the MHTESTD establishes a sound relevance: (i) the preparation of incoming students; framework for elaborating a comprehensive vision (ii) the qualifications of academics; (iii) curricular for the tertiary education sector. Once articulated, and pedagogical practices; and (iv) links to the Zimbabwe’s strategic vision must be operationalized productive sectors. through a comprehensive master plan. 25. Improvements in secondary education can better Expansion and Equity Strategy prepare incoming tertiary students. Expanding math and science education, promoting STEM-based 22. Considering Zimbabwe’s low level of tertiary career paths, and offering targeted STEM mentoring enrollment, the dominant position of public activities and scholarships to girls could boost the universities in the tertiary sector, and the government’s readiness of new tertiary students to succeed in limited resources, policymakers may wish to STEM programs. consider an expansion strategy based on institutional differentiation. Institutional differentiation leverages 26. Improving the qualifications of academics will the complementary advantages of various institution be critical to enhance tertiary education quality types and education modalities to create a flexible in Zimbabwe. To meet the growing demand and adaptive labor force. Transforming some of the for qualified academics and the shortfall in PhD TVET institutions into Community colleges designed holders, universities can strive to: (i) attract qualified after the North American or South Korean model can Zimbabwean academics from the diaspora, (ii) help absorb a large share of the student population expand their master’s and doctoral programs and at a reduced cost compared to universities. Distance hire their own graduates as teaching staff; (iii) education through the Zimbabwe Open University expand international training opportunities for 6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Zimbabwean academics; and (iv) allow academic all tertiary education institutions, which are essential staff to work on a contract basis at other universities for the development of a genuine and effective quality in addition to their primary employer. Increasing the assurance culture. share of qualified female academics could greatly enhance the quality of teaching, learning, and Building Research Capacity and Output research in Zimbabwean universities. 31. To build the research capacity of Zimbabwe’s 27. Curricular and pedagogical reforms should focus top universities, the government must: (i) articulate a on modernizing program content and enhancing clear science and technology strategy, and (ii) increase delivery. To create incentives for tertiary education public funding for research. Building Zimbabwe’s institutions to transform their approach to teaching research capacity will be critical to accelerate and learning, the Zimbabwean authorities should the country’s economic recovery and achieve its encourage universities to move away from traditional development objectives. Incentives that encourage the pedagogical methods and embrace a more interactive, return of Zimbabwean researchers working abroad collaborative, and experiential approach. and foreign exchange programs for PhD students will be instrumental to this effort. As they devise a 28. Adopting innovative pedagogical techniques strategy for building the country’s research capacity, can enhance the quality and relevance of teaching the authorities should take steps to maximize the and learning. Technological developments in online value of their limited resource envelope. One of the education, self-guided instruction, peer-to-peer most important goals of the national science and learning, team-based learning, the “flipped classroom” technology strategy should be to determine the model, and digital simulations utilize computers, optimal number of research-oriented universities to artificial intelligence, and machine learning can which the government can commit adequate long- support these innovative pedagogical practices. term funding. The authorities should also seek to Establishing well-resourced teaching and learning focus the country’s existing research capacity on centers in all tertiary education institutions could national priorities. support the adoption of new pedagogical methods. 32. An institution’s ability to attract and retain a 29. Strengthening linkages with industry can improve mix of young, promising researchers and older, the employment prospects of tertiary graduates. more experienced researchers is critical to its overall Universities can obtain internships for undergraduate research capacity. While several Zimbabwean students and in-company placements for research universities have strong research teams, institutions students and academics, and they can encourage with the potential to become more research-intensive private-sector professionals to offer their services must develop capacity-building programs and provide as visiting lecturers. Incorporating entrepreneurship adequate incentives to encourage and reward high- training into regular university programs can help impact research. Zimbabwean universities can also increase their relevance to the private sector, and enhance the quality and quantity of their research universities can establish cooperative learning output by collaborating with the private sector and programs that alternate on-campus learning periods participating in international research networks. with regular in-firm internships. Modernizing Governance 30. Finally, it is fundamental to strengthen the existing quality assurance functions carried out by ZIMCHE. 33. Modernizing the administration of the tertiary The registration, accreditation and institutional education sector will require reforms under three audits for which ZIMCHE is responsible must be strategic axes: (i) reforming the sector’s administrative undertaken with the appropriate level of professional framework; (ii) increasing the autonomy of tertiary independence and technical capacity to enforce high institutions; and (iii) ensuring that those institutions quality standards throughout the tertiary education are fully accountable for their academic performance system. In addition to strengthening the official and use of public resources. quality assurance mechanisms at the national level, the Zimbabwean Government should also consider 34. The government could begin its administrative offering incentives for the establishment and/or reform efforts by eliminating the distinction between consolidation of internal quality assurance units in “higher education” and “tertiary education” and REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 7 integrating the various tertiary sub-sectors into a 38. Establishing PPPs could enable the authorities well-articulated system. The MHTESTD should be to mobilize additional resources from the private solely responsible for coordinating the work of all the sector. The Zimbabwean government has already government agencies involved in administering tertiary begun to explore the possibility of using PPPs to education institutions in Zimbabwe. Consolidating the complement public investment in tertiary education. MHTESTD’s leadership role would help ensure that all PPPs have proven to be an especially effective policy and funding decisions are fully coordinated and mechanism for building university infrastructure, designed to support the complementary development such as dormitories, cafeterias, and solar energy of all tertiary education subsectors. An indispensable power plants. platform to facilitate the work of the MHTESTD will be to put in place a comprehensive Management 39. Improving the efficiency of publicly funded Information System on the most important dimensions education programs and institutions is another way of performance and operation of the higher and of maximizing the impact of a limited budgetary tertiary education system. envelope. While data limitations prevent a thorough analysis of the internal efficiency of public universities 35. Reforms at the institutional level should strive to and TVET institutions, creating effective retention increase the autonomy of Zimbabwean universities. programs that reduce the country’s high dropout This will require empowering smaller university rates would likely generate substantial fiscal savings. councils with majority representation from outside the universities. Furthermore, the Zimbabwe’s 40. Boosting own-source revenue mobilization tertiary education institutions require the ability to among tertiary education institutions could effectively exercise meaningful control over the factors that complement the government’s limited resources. determine the quality and costs of their programs. While tuition fees in Zimbabwe are already high by Institutional autonomy encompasses the authority the standards of comparable countries, Zimbabwean to establish admissions requirements, determine the universities have considerable scope to raise resources size of the student body, manage human resources, through donations, contract research, consultancies, and establish new programs and courses. continuing education, and similar income-generation activities. Many institutions began experimenting 36. Increased institutional autonomy should be with alternative revenue strategies during the accompanied by a well-defined accountability economic crisis, and further efforts in this area could framework. International good practices for both expand and diversify their revenue base. institutional accountability require at least two types of annual report: (i) a financial audit report 41. Based on the lessons from international prepared according to international accounting experience, an adequate model for allocating standards; and (ii) an annual performance report public funds for tertiary education in Zimbabwe showing progress against each of the university’s own would be well served to apply the following eight strategic objectives and yearly plan. principles: (i) closely aligning education funding levels with national priorities; (ii) explicitly linking Sustainable Financing Strategy funding to performance; (iii) improving equity across income levels and demographic groups; (iv) 37. A sustainable financing strategy for the ensuring transparency in the allocation criteria; (v) Zimbabwean tertiary education system should include achieving consistency and compatibility among the specific plans to increase resource mobilization and various financing instruments; (vi) maintaining stable enhance resource allocation in ways that reward funding levels over time; (vii) promoting institutional performance. Given the government’s tight fiscal autonomy and accountability; and (viii) allocating constraints, it is unlikely that the authorities will funding primarily through block grants. be able to significantly increase public spending on tertiary education. Consequently, the government will 42. To promote the efficient use of public resources, need to explore other financing options to achieve the government could introduce performance-based its goals for expanded enrollment and enhanced budget mechanisms designed to align the financial education quality in both the university and non- incentives of institutions with national policy goals. university subsectors. The government could leverage three mechanisms, 8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY either separately or together, to improve public translate the Education 5.0 vision into a concrete expenditure efficiency in the tertiary education set of reforms, programs, and projects backed by sector: (i) funding formulas; (ii) performance-based a sustainable financing strategy and appropriate grants; and (iii) competitive grants. implementation arrangements. 43. Allocating resources to educational institutions 47. Zimbabwe’s extensive developmental needs according to a transparent formula that reflects and difficult economic circumstances underscore performance indicators can sharpen efficiency the importance of coordination among its external incentives. The funding formula can be weighted development partners. Several of Zimbabwe’s external according to the relative priority of various partners are willing to support the revitalization of educational outputs and outcomes, such as the number the tertiary education sector, and some have already of graduates, the employment rate of graduates, or begun providing financial and technical assistance. the number of published research papers. Coordination will be vital to ensure that external support reflects the government’s priorities and that 44. Performance-based contracts are nonbinding the various donor-supported programs and projects regulatory agreements negotiated between are mutually consistent and complementary. governments and tertiary education institutions that define a set of mutual obligations. In return for the 48. Reforming Zimbabwe’s tertiary education sector is participating universities’ commitment to meeting the a challenging endeavor, and a clear action plan will be performance targets established in the agreement, the crucial to achieve the government’s policy objectives. government provides them with additional funding. International experience shows that success is most likely when policymakers thoroughly assess the 45. Competitive funds have proven to be an effective prevailing social and political circumstances, build and flexible means of financing transformative a consensus among key stakeholders, properly investment in tertiary education. Under this sequence the implementation of the reform agenda, mechanism, institutions are invited to formulate and mobilize additional resources to bolster support project proposals that are reviewed and selected and mollify opposition. Meeting these conditions by committees of peers according to transparent requires a detailed strategy and action plan, which procedures and criteria. must reflect the government’s self-defined priorities for the future of the tertiary education sector. Conclusion Matrix of Policy Options 46. To revitalize tertiary education and maximize its contribution to Zimbabwe’s economic recovery, 49. Tertiary education reform is a complex process the government will need to implement extensive that requires a carefully sequenced and prioritized reforms to the sector’s policy, administrative, and agenda. Table A and B summarize the policy options institutional frameworks. Though Zimbabwe faces presented throughout this section. The first one considerable challenges, its emergence from the categorizes each option as either short term, medium recent crisis presents a unique opportunity to craft term, or long term based on their urgency and a bold new strategic agenda for the tertiary education implementation duration. The second one assesses sector and to implement critical policy changes that the relative difficulty involved in implementing each might otherwise be thwarted by vested interests. policy option given its technical complexity, financial The MHTESTD should seize this opportunity to cost, and political sensitivity. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 9 TABLE 3 SEQUENCING OF POLICY OPTIONS Policy Measures Short-Term Medium-Term Long-Term A. Vision Setting Formulation of detailed vison and strategic plan a Implementation of strategic plan a a Mobilization of resources needed to implement plan a a B. Expansion through Institutional Diversification Analysis of TVET colleges a Development of strategy for upgrading TVET colleges a Upgrading of TVET colleges a Assessment of Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) performance a and challenges Formulation of strategic plan to expand ZOU a Implementation of ZOU strategic plan a Identification of barriers to development of private tertiary a education sector Simplification of regulatory requirements a Financial incentives for accredited private institutions a C. Improving Education Quality and Relevance Secondary Education Improvements in quality of secondary education a Secondary & Tertiary Education Training of academic counselors a Development of academic counselling in secondary schools and a a tertiary institutions Creation of secondary/tertiary outreach and bridge programs a a Tertiary Education Design of system to identify at-risk tertiary students a Design of foundation program a Operation of foundation program a Operation of retention programs encompassing academic, a a psychological and financial support Elaboration of training plan for academics a Implementation of training plan for academics a a Establishment of teaching and learning services unit a Implementation of curricular and pedagogical innovations a Improving Relevance Participation of industry professionals in institutional a a a curriculum committees Expansion of student internships a a Expansion of private-sector consultancy and research contracts a a 10 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Policy Measures Short-Term Medium-Term Long-Term Consolidating Quality-Assurance Mechanisms Alignment of quality-assurance mechanisms with international a a best practices Establishment or consolidation of institutions’ internal quality- a a assurance units D. Enhancing Research Capabilities Development of national science and technology policy a a Review of research funding organizations and methodology a Increased research funding under new methodology a a Provision of incentives for female researchers a a Provision of incentives for promising young researchers at research- a a intensive universities Creation of specialized research teams at research-intensive a a universities E. Improving Governance Design of unified tertiary education system a a Designation of MHTESTD as lead agency in the tertiary sector a a Design of information-management system for tertiary education a a by MHTESTD Implementation of information-management system for tertiary a education by MHTESTD Assessment of institutional autonomy a Implementation of reforms increasing autonomy and accountability a among tertiary education institutions F. Financial Sustainability Definition of terms of public-private partnerships by MHTESTD a Resource mobilization through public-private partnerships a a Definition of targeted free tuition policy by MHTESTD and a the Treasury Implementation of targeted free tuition policy a Design of student loan scheme a a Implementation of student loan scheme a a Design of performance-based financial allocation mechanism by a MHTESTD a Implementation of performance-based allocation mechanism a Income diversification by tertiary education institutions a a REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 11 TABLE 4 IMPLEMENTATION DIFFICULTY OF POLICY OPTIONS Policy Measure Technical Financial Political Complexity Cost Sensitivity A. Vision Setting Formulation of detailed vison and strategic plan ++ - ++ Implementation of strategic plan +++ +++ + Mobilization of resources needed to implement plan ++ +++ ++ B. Expansion through Institutional Diversification Analysis of TVET colleges ++ + - Development of strategy for upgrading TVET colleges ++ + - Upgrading of TVET colleges ++ ++ - Assessment of Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) performance + + - and challenges Formulation of strategic plan to expand ZOU ++ + - Implementation of ZOU strategic plan ++ + + Identification of barriers to development of private tertiary ++ + - education sector Simplification of regulatory requirements + - + Financial incentives for accredited private institutions + + + C. Improving Education Quality and Relevance Improvements in quality of secondary education ++ ++ - Training of academic counselors + + - Development of academic counselling in secondary schools and + + - tertiary institutions Creation of secondary/tertiary outreach and bridge programs + - - Design of system to identify at-risk tertiary students ++ + + Design of foundation program ++ + - Operation of foundation program + + - Operation of retention programs encompassing academic, ++ + + psychological and financial support - Elaboration of training plan for academics + + - Implementation of training plan for academics + +++ + Establishment of teaching and learning services unit ++ + ++ Implementation of curricular and pedagogical innovations ++ + - Participation of industry professionals in institutional + - curriculum committees Expansion of student internships + + - Expansion of private-sector consultancy and research contracts + - - 12 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Policy Measure Technical Financial Political Complexity Cost Sensitivity D. Enhancing Research Capabilities Development of national science and technology policy ++ - + Review of research funding organizations and methodology + - ++ Increased research funding under new methodology + +++ - Provision of incentives for female researchers + ++ - Provision of incentives for promising young researchers at research- + + + intensive universities Creation of specialized research teams at research-intensive ++ ++ + universities E. Improving Governance Design of unified tertiary education system ++ - ++ Designation of MHTESTD as lead agency in the tertiary sector + - + Design of information-management system for tertiary education + + - by MHTESTD Implementation of information-management system for tertiary + + + education by MHTESTD Assessment of institutional autonomy + - + Implementation of reforms increasing autonomy and accountability ++ - ++ among tertiary education institutions F. Financial Sustainability Definition of terms of public-private partnerships by MHTESTD ++ - - Resource mobilization through public-private partnerships + + + Definition of targeted free tuition policy by MHTESTD and ++ - + the Treasury Implementation of targeted free tuition policy ++ +++ + Design of student loan scheme +++ - - Implementation of student loan scheme ++ ++ + Design of performance-based financial allocation mechanism by ++ - + MHTESTD Implementation of performance-based allocation mechanism ++ + ++ Income diversification by tertiary education institutions + - - Note: (-)neutral; (+) low; (++) medium; (+++) high REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 13 14 INTRODUCTION 02 INTRODUCTION Background a process driven by the rise of digital firms that require trained ICT specialists and technicians. The increasingly technology-intensive nature of 1. Tertiary education is a key driver of economic work is altering the mix skills demanded by the growth and poverty reduction. Tertiary education private sector, even among traditional firms. While systems play a critical role in: (i) training a qualified the demand for basic cognitive skills is declining, and adaptable labor force that includes scientists, “the demand for advanced cognitive skills, socio- professionals, technical specialists, teachers, and highly behavioral skills, and skill combinations associated qualified leaders in the public and private sectors; (ii) with greater adaptability is rising.”4 Countries that generating new knowledge through basic and applied are experiencing rapid technological advancement research; and (iii) accessing existing international also tend to enjoy robust economic activity and job technologies and adapting them for local use. Tertiary creation, and human-capital formation is increasingly education is vital to a sustainable structural economic critical to economic growth: transformation and long-run productivity growth, especially in countries with weak institutional capacity Investing in human capital is the priority to and limited human capital. make the most of this evolving economic opportunity. Three types of skills are 2. Globally, the tertiary education ecosystem has increasingly important in labor markets: evolved in the past decade at an increasingly rapid pace, advanced cognitive skills such as complex influenced by elements of uncertainty, complexity problem-solving, socio-behavioral skills such and disruption, such as changing demographics, as teamwork, and skill combinations that are global competition, political volatility, diminished predictive of adaptability such as reasoning public funding, greater private involvement, growing and self-efficacy. Building these skills requires accountability demands, alternative delivery modes, strong human capital foundations and and game-changing technologies. These trends lifelong learning.5 represent both challenges and opportunities for tertiary education systems in developing countries, which face an exponentially rising demand as more 4. A recent World Economic Forum (WEF) assessment young people graduate from high school as a result found that many employers in Sub-Saharan Africa of countries’ success in implementing the Education cite an inadequately skilled labor force as a major for All agenda. constraint on doing business.6 The growing share of ICT-intensive jobs in the region appears to be 3. The 2018 World Development Report highlighted outstripping the supply of workers with the requisite the transformative impact of digitalization and skills. The WEF predicts that over the medium term, automation on global labor markets.3 The report automation will affect 52 percent, 44 percent, and 46 found that the boundaries of the traditional firm are percent of all work activities in Kenya, South Africa becoming blurred, as the rapid growth of platform and Nigeria, respectively. marketplaces connects customers, producers, and service providers in new ways. Meanwhile, 5. Another WEF analysis, conducted in partnership with technology is reshaping the demand for skills, LinkedIn, found that the most in-demand employment REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 15 categories in Africa include creative professionals, food tertiary education institutions, and field research technologists, 3D designers, datacenter workers, and conducted at a sample of public and private tertiary education and healthcare workers. The report estimated education institutions in Zimbabwe. The analysis that, in the long term, the sectors with the strongest also draws on a literature review, which included: growth potential are hard and soft infrastructure, the (i) official publications and policy documents of the green economy, and ICT: Zimbabwean government and strategic documents prepared by the tertiary education institutions; (ii) The greatest long-term benefits of ICT regional reports and studies by the OECD, the World intensive jobs in the region are likely to be Bank, the African Development Bank, and other not in the lower-skilled delivery of digital international institutions; (iii) recent academic work products or services but in digital design, on tertiary education reform in OECD countries creation and engineering. To build a pipeline and Sub-Saharan Africa; (iv) national, regional and of future skills, Africa’s educators should international statistics on various dimensions of design future-ready curricula that encourage tertiary education performance; and (v) government critical thinking, creativity and emotional budget reports and household survey data. intelligence as well as accelerate acquisition of digital and STEM skills to match the way 8. As a result of the political and economic crisis people will work and collaborate in the that affected Zimbabwe in the past decade, detailed Fourth Industrial Revolution.7 information about the performance and operation of the tertiary education system is incomplete and The Analytical Objectives, not up-to-date. To compensate for this limitation, Methodology and Scope of the World Bank team conducted a survey of tertiary This Report education institutions with the active support of the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology for Development. Annex 2 provides 6. The following analysis is designed to assesses the list of tertiary education institutions that the performance of Zimbabwe’s tertiary education participated in this survey. The team also relied on system in the context of the country’s development available international statistics (OECD, UNESCO, challenges. A comprehensive diagnosis of sectoral World Bank) for benchmarking the performance of issues provides the basis for detailed policy Zimbabwean universities. recommendations to support the government’s efforts to accelerate Zimbabwe’s economic recovery 9. The first section discusses the performance of and reduce socioeconomic disparities. The analysis Zimbabwe’s tertiary education sector in terms of evaluates the system’s ability to utilize inputs its efficiency and alignment with the government’s efficiently and produce the outcomes targeted by policy objectives. Section II presents an analysis of policymakers. It also considers reform measures the main determinants if the system’s performance designed to improve the system’s performance.8 and evaluates a range of potential reform options. Section III offers recommendations designed to 7. The preparation of this report was informed by enhance the tertiary education system’s contribution consultations with key stakeholders, surveys of to the government’s development objectives. 16 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 17 03 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS Country Context pressure from diminishing net capital inflows, and an expansionary fiscal stance has generated an acute cash shortage, prompting the government to impose 10. Zimbabwe is a resource-rich, landlocked country controls on capital- and current-account transactions. with a population of 14.8 million, 60 percent of Government debt to the banking sector has spiked whom are under the age of 24. Over the last four since 2015, contributing to a protracted financial decades, political changes and economic hardship crisis that has restricted credit to the economy, have altered the country’s demographic profile, and dampening private-sector activity. A drought in roughly half of all Zimbabwean professionals with 2015-16 reduced agricultural output, diminished a university degree have left the country to seek hydroelectricity generation, and exacerbated rural opportunities elsewhere. Estimates put the size of poverty.7 Despite robust growth in the mining sector the diaspora somewhere between two to five million, and a more modest expansion in manufacturing and with remittances exceeding US$1.8 billion in 2014. services, the GDP growth rate fell from 2.1 percent in 2014 to 0.6 percent in 2016. 11. Agriculture is the traditional mainstay of the Zimbabwean economy, and the country’s potential for 13. Zimbabwe’s structural problems have negatively structural economic transformation remains largely impacted employment and income dynamics. The unrealized. Almost 70 percent of Zimbabweans share of the labor force employed in the informal live in rural areas, where subsistence farming is the sector rose from 27 percent 1991 to a staggering 94 main source of livelihoods. Zimbabwe is also richly percent in 2014, and an economic structure dominated endowed with over 40 exploitable mineral deposits, by large firms has given way to a profusion of small including reserves of gold, platinum, diamonds, and medium enterprises (SMEs), which are estimated copper, chrome, nickel, palladium, cobalt, tin, iron to number over 3.2 million. Low productivity and ore, limestone, coal, and diamonds. underemployment characterize livelihoods in the informal sector, and weak employment and wage 12. Zimbabwe’s unstable macro-fiscal environment growth hinder poverty reduction. The number of has severely impeded its development. Formerly people living in extreme poverty has declined since one of the most advanced economies in Sub- 2012 (Figure 1), but since 2014 the overall poverty Saharan Africa, Zimbabwe is now among the most rate has risen, while per capita GDP has declined vulnerable. Its nominally dollarized economy is under (Figure 2). 18 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS FIGURE 3 THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE LIVING IN FIGURE 4 THE POVERTY RATE AND GDP PER EXTREME POVERTY, 2012-16 (MILLIONS) CAPITA, 2012-17 (% AND US$) 3.2 5 920 3.0 0 910 2.8 900 -5 Millions 890 US$ 2.6 % -10 2.4 880 -15 870 2.2 -20 860 2.0 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017* 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016e 2017e Number of additional people living in extreme poverty as Poverty rate changes over time (LHS) predicted in October 2016 GDP per capita (RHS) Number of people living in extreme poverty (updated estimate) Source: World Bank Source: World Bank Note: 2016e and 2017e are World Bank staff estimates Note: 2016e and 2017e are World Bank staff estimates Labor Markets and Employment appears between the rural labor-force participation Dynamics in Zimbabwe rate (95 percent) and the urban rate (83 percent). Among Zimbabweans who are not active in the labor force, 48 percent are students, which contributes to 14. Labor-force participation rates are high across all the lower participation rate in urban areas. Labor- demographic groups. The labor-force participation force participation rates have increased over time, rate is 91 percent among Zimbabweans ages 15 and rising from 73 percent in 1997 to 83 percent in 2004 above, and it peaks at over 95 percent among people and reaching 91 percent in 2014. Zimbabwe’s labor- of prime working age (Figure 3). Gender differences in force participation rates are high both by historical labor-force participation are very modest: 92 percent standards and in comparison to neighboring countries, of male adults and 89 percent of female adults are reflecting the population’s efforts to cope with a highly active in the labor force. A slightly larger disparity challenging economic environment. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 19 FIGURE 5 LABOR-FORCE PARTICIPATION RATES BY AGE GROUP, 2014 100 80 60 % 40 20 0 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65+ Age Group Rural Urban Total Source: Labour Force Survey, 2014 15. The urban unemployment rate continues to decade (Figure 4). Urban unemployment is especially climb, and unemployment among urban youth has high among young and female workers: about half reached alarming levels. The latest available labor- of all workers between the ages of 20 and 24 are force survey, which dates from 2014, indicates that unemployed, with deeply negative implications the urban unemployment rate reached 30 percent, for social stability, household income levels, and including both active and discouraged job seekers. human-capital development. Young female workers Urban areas are home to around one-third of in urban areas face an especially challenging job Zimbabwe’s working-age population and labor market. Unemployment rates for women are force, and in an adverse macroeconomic environment consistent higher than those for men at every age marked by limited industrial investment, the urban group (Figure 5), and half of urban women their employment rate has steadily worsened over the past 20s are unemployed. FIGURE 6 UNEMPLOYMENT RATES IN RURAL AND URBAN AREAS, 2004, 2011, AND 2014 35 29.5 30 26.1 25 22.9 20 % 15 10.7 11.3 9.3 10 3.4 2.6 5 2.0 0 2004 2011 2014 Rural Urban Total Source: Labour Force Surveys, 2004, 2011, and 2014 20 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS FIGURE 7 UNEMPLOYMENT RATES BY AGE GROUP, 2014 70 60 50 40 % 30 20 10 0 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65+ Age Group Rural Urban Urban Female Source: Labour Force Survey, 2014 16. Weak urban labor markets appear to be pushing in the industrial and service sectors. workers into the rural sector. A joint analysis by the World Bank and the Zimbabwe National Statistics 17. The concentration of Zimbabwe’s workforce Agency (ZimStat) found a net movement of 1.14 in the agricultural sector is inhibiting the country’s million people from urban to rural areas between structural economic transformation. The rural 1994 and 2014. While the agricultural sector has economy employs 67 percent of Zimbabwe’s successfully absorbed excess urban labor, marginal workforce. Zimbabwe was once a continental leader labor productivity in agriculture is well below that in agricultural production, but years of economic of the industrial or service sectors. Moreover, this turmoil have greatly diminished the marginal influx of additional labor has further diminished productivity of Zimbabwean agriculture. The marginal labor productivity in the agricultural sector: wholesale and retail subsectors are the country’s value added per agricultural worker fell from around second-largest employers, accounting for a combined US$800 in 1999 to US$400 by 2014, far below 10 percent of the employed workforce, followed by the US$7,000 added by workers in the industrial manufacturing (4 percent) and education (3 percent). sector. As the urban unemployment rate has risen, an Although the mining sector contributes 60 percent increasing share of urban workers has turned to self- to Zimbabwe’s exports, it accounts for just 1.5 employment. The weakness of urban labor markets percent of the employed workforce. Mining employs is likely reducing demand for various high-level skills 2.7 percent of male workers but just 0.3 percent of typically associated with growth and modernization female workers (Figure 6). REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 21 FIGURE 8 SHARE OF EMPLOYED WORKERS BY INDUSTRY OR SECTOR, 2014 80 60 40 % 20 0 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Wholesale Transportation ICT Publication Education & retail Male Female Total Source: Labour Force Survey, 2014 18. The agricultural sector continues to expand and weak international competitiveness. 9 and remains Zimbabwe’s largest and most stable These factors limit the job-creating potential employer, while mining and manufacturing have of the mining and manufacturing sectors, and stagnated for the past several years. Capacity employment in both sectors shrank as a share of utilization in the mining sector remains below total employment between 2004 and 2014 (Table 70 percent, and while the manufacturing sector 2). Restarting growth in the high-productivity suffers from outdated equipment, high capital mining and manufacturing sectors will be critical costs, low aggregate demand, high utility costs, to Zimbabwe’s structural transformation. TABLE 5 SHARES OF EMPLOYED WORKERS BY INDUSTRY OR SECTOR 2004 2014 Agriculture 64.8 67.2 Manufacturing 5.9 4.0 Construction 1.7 1.6 Transport & communication 2.1 2.1 Mining 1.8 1.5 Source: Labour Force Surveys 19. Most of Zimbabwe’s employed labor force is cases this apparent lack of sophisticated workforce classified as unskilled, and the supply of skilled skills would signal that employers were having labor likely exceeds demand. In the latest labor- difficulty finding adequately qualified workers, force survey, 83 percent of employed workers in the 2014 Enterprise Survey only 6 percent of were classified as unskilled, up from 79 percent in Zimbabwean firms reported challenges hiring the 2004 survey. By contrast, skilled workers and workers with the appropriate skills. Moreover, professionals together account for just 10 percent of skilled workers represent over 90 percent of formal the employed labor force (Figure 7). While in most wage employees, underscoring the vast size and 22 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS low-skilled nature of informal employment. This which may be pushing relatively well-qualified combination of factors strongly suggests that workers into unskilled positions in the informal Zimbabwe’s adverse business climate is driving sector or prompting them to emigrate. down demand for sophisticated workforce skills, FIGURE 9 EMPLOYED WORKERS BY SKILL LEVEL, 2014 100 89 83.3 77.5 80 60 % 40 20 8 8.3 5.7 4.1 2.9 3.6 4.9 5.4 6 0 Male Female Total Professional Skilled Semi-Skilled Un-skilled Source: Labour Force Survey, 2014 20. A significant share of Zimbabwe’s workforce and its institutional configuration in line with the is employed abroad, both in southern Africa and government’s overarching goal of producing highly overseas. South Africa is the primary destination qualified graduates and valuable research to support country for Zimbabwean migrants. ZIMSTAT’s Zimbabwe’s economic recovery. In this context, the 2016 Country Migration Report found that of Education 5.0 document prepared by the MHTESTD all migrants who had left the country since 2009, establishes a sound framework for elaborating a nearly 32.5 percent were skilled agricultural, comprehensive vision for the tertiary education forestry, or fishery workers, while 9.7 per cent sector. Once articulated, Zimbabwe’s strategic vision were skilled services and sales workers. Of those must be operationalized through a comprehensive migrants who were employed abroad, 2 percent master plan. were professionals, 1.2 percent were technicians and associate professionals and 0.7 percent were managers. Nearly 73 percent of migrants had some The Government’s Transitional secondary education, while 6.7 percent had post- Stabilization Program secondary qualifications. These figures illustrate the scale of the human capital lost to emigration between 2009 and 2014, as well as the potential 22. The new administration, which took office in boost that return migration could provide to an July 2018, is striving to rebuild the Zimbabwean economic recovery. economy and achieve the goal of making Zimbabwe a “prosperous and empowered upper-middle-income 21. Prior to the new administration, Zimbabwe’s society” by 2030.11 This initiative, articulated in the tertiary sector suffered from a lack of strategic government’s Vision 2030 strategy, is in line with planning, which was exacerbated by the country’s Zimbabwe’s commitments under the Sustainable economic crisis. The most urgent priority for Development Goals and the AU Agenda 2063. The revitalizing the sector, therefore, is to elaborate a overarching objective of Vision 2030 is to achieve bold vision for its development. This strategy should a broad-based improvement in the livelihoods of set targets for the overall size of the tertiary sector Zimbabweans by improving access to basic services REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 23 and facilitating robust and sustainable income Education Sector Context growth. The government is currently implementing the Transitional Stabilization Programme (TSP), which will run from October 2018 to December 24. Education and training drive human-capital 2020, to establish the groundwork for the country’s formation, and human capital is a key determinant of long-term development. economic, demographic, social, and health outcomes at the national, regional, and household levels. The 23. The TSP focuses on macroeconomic and financial- World Bank’s Human Capital Index (HCI) measures sector stabilization, private-sector-oriented policy and the extent to which a child born today is expected institutional reforms, and infrastructure investment. to achieve his or her lifetime productive potential The TSP’s five pillars include: (i) governance; (ii) (Box 1). Zimbabwe’s human-capital indicators macroeconomic stability and financial reengagement; exceed the average for its region and income group (iii) inclusive growth; (iv) infrastructure and utilities; (Figure 8). Zimbabwe’s performance on the HCI’s and (v) social development. The TSP represents the education dimension is strong by the standards of first stage of Vision 2030, and the second and third peer countries, but relatively weak in global terms. A stages will be implemented through two five-year Zimbabwean child who starts school at age four can national development plans covering the 2020-25 expect to complete 10 total school years, but only 6.3 and 2025-30 periods. learning-adjusted school years, by age 18, indicating a learning gap of 3.7 years (Figure 8). BOX 1 THE HUMAN CAPITAL INDEX (HCI) The HCI encompasses three dimensions of human capital: school years by age 18, no stunting, and a 100 percent adult (i) survival, as measured by the under-five mortality rate; (ii) survival rate. The HCI’s components are designed to reflect education, as measured by the expected number of learning- the contribution of survival, health, and education to worker adjusted school years; and (ii) the health environment, as productivity. For example, a score of 0.70 would suggest measured by the rate of stunting among children under age that a child born today will reach 70 percent of his or her 5 and the share 15-year-olds who are expected to reach the potential lifetime productivity. At the national level, a score age of 60. The index ranges from 0 to 1, where a score of of 0.70 would indicate that the GDP per worker of the next 1 indicates no under-five mortality, 14 learning-adjusted generation will reach 70 percent of its potential. FIGURE 10 HUMAN CAPITAL INDEX SCORES AND GDP PER CAPITA, ZIMBABWE AND COMPARATORS 1 Korea Rep. Singapore .8 Canada Poland United States Vietnam Ukraine Russian Federation .6 Peru Argentina Qatar HCI Morocco Brazil Bangladesh Arab Rep. Zimbabwe India Egypt .4 Ethiopia Senegal Pakistan Chad Nigeria .2 6 8 10 12 Log real GDP per capita at PPP Source: World Bank 24 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS FIGURE 11 LEARNING GAP, ZIMBABWE AND COMPARATORS 15 Learning adjusted expected years of school 10 Learning Gap Zimbabwe 5 0 0 5 10 15 Expected years of school Source: World Bank Educational Attainment among the Working- countries and in relation to the largely rural Age Population character of the Zimbabwean economy. As rural jobs continue to be the main source of employment in 25. Zimbabwe’s workforce is well educated by Zimbabwe, most workers are likely to be engaged in regional standards. As of 2014, a large majority occupations that require skills commensurate with, of Zimbabweans between the ages of 15 and 64 or below, their level of education. The aggregate had completed primary education, as well as some level of education attainment among Zimbabwe’s amount of secondary education, and roughly workforce has gradually improved over the past two 10 percent had at least some tertiary education. decades, with marginal increases in secondary and Zimbabwe’s educational profile is relatively tertiary educational attainment and a steady decline sophisticated, both by the standards of comparable in the share of non-educated workers (Figure 10). FIGURE 12 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT IN ZIMBABWE, 1999-2014 100% 7% 1% 8% 2% 11% 2% 10% 3% 80% 66% 71% 71% 72% 60% 40% 20% 20% 15% 13% 12% 0% 7% 5% 3% 3% 1999 2004 2011 2014 No education Primary incomplete Primary with incomplete secondary Secondary Tertiary/post-secondary Source: Jobs Diagnostic, 2017 REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 25 26. Gains in educational attainment over the last of women in 1999 to 16 percent of men and 11 20 years have been concentrated among the urban percent of women in 2014. Meanwhile, average population, with little improvement observed among levels of educational attainment among rural adults the rural workforce. The share of the urban adult have remained low and broadly stable, with roughly population with at least some amount of tertiary 5 percent of men and 3 percent of women having education rose from 6 percent of men and 4 percent some amount of tertiary education (Figure 11). FIGURE 13 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT BY GENDER AND RURAL/URBAN LOCATION, 2014 100% 4% 3% 1% 1% 16% 12% 4% 80% 5% 48% 46% 60% 58% 52% 40% 36% 20% 36% 19% 20% 12% 15% 7% 7% 0% Male Female Male Female Rural Urban No education Primary incomplete Primary with incomplete secondary Secondary Tertiary/post-secondary Source: Jobs Diagnostics, 2017 27. Gender parity in educational attainment has equal. The shares of female adults with no education steadily improved over the past decade, but a or only primary education continue to shrink, while significant gender gap persists at the tertiary level. the share with tertiary education is expanding. As of 2014, the shares of men and women with Nevertheless, the educational attainment gap some amount of secondary education were broadly remains widest at the tertiary level (Figure 12). FIGURE 14 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT BY GENDER, 1999-2014 100% 80% 12% 4% 9% 8% 2% 2% 5% 1% 60% 40% 71% 70% 72% 63% 20% 0% 1999 2014 1999 2014 Male Female Primary with incomplete secondary Secondary Tertiary/post-secondary Source: Jobs Diagnostics, 2017 26 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS The Organization of Zimbabwe’s recovering from the effects of the 2000-2008 Education Sector economic crisis. Since 2009, the government has made steady progress in restoring basic education services. Public funding for primary and secondary Early Childhood, Primary, and education increased from 2 percent of GDP in 2009 Secondary Education to about 5.4 percent of GDP in 2013, then eased to 4.6 percent in 2018. Over the past five years, 28. Since achieving independence in 1980, Zimbabwe education has received the largest share the national has implemented an Education for All policy that budget, averaging 20 percent of total spending. aims to ensure all school-age children have access to affordable education. Zimbabwe invests about 11 31. Driven by the robust investment in education percent of its GDP in education, among the largest made by the government, households, and donors, shares in Africa, and its emphasis on basic education the Grade 7 pass rate rose from 49.6 percent in 2012 helped push Zimbabwe’s literacy rate to 89 percent to 55.6 percent in 2014 and remains on an upward in 2014, one of the highest rates on the continent.12 trajectory. O-level pass rates have also improved Demand for education is strong in Zimbabwe, and but remain relatively low at 29.96 percent in 2017. households bear the largest share of the nonwage More than two-thirds of candidates fail to achieve education budget in the form of school fees and passing scores in five O-level subjects, including tuition.13 The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Math and English, suggesting that interventions at Education (MOPSE) oversees the basic education the lower-secondary level should focus on improving subsector, which extends from early childhood education quality. development (ECD) to upper-secondary school. 32. School attendance has steadily increased. In 2017, 29. Basic education in Zimbabwe is divided into the gross enrollment rate (GER) and net enrollment four levels. The first is the infant school module, rate (NER) at the primary level were 105.6 and 89.9 which comprises two years of ECD and Grades 1 percent, respectively, and the gender parity index and 2. The second is the junior education module, (GPI) for both was close to 1.00. The GER and NER which encompasses Grades 3-7. All students sit at the lower-secondary level were 76.9 percent and for the national Grade 7 examinations, but the 55.5 percent, respectively, with GPIs of 1.01 and transition from primary school to secondary school 1.12, respectively. ECD has been fully integrated into is not based on exam performance. The third level the primary school system, and 99 percent of primary is lower secondary, which spans Form 1 to Form 4 schools have ECD classes. However, participation (Grades 8-11), at the end of which students sit for the rates are relatively low: in 2017, the GER for ECD national “ordinary level” (O-level) examinations. The was 55.9 percent, and the NER was 32.0 percent, but fourth level of the education system comprises two both are steadily improving. Meanwhile, completion additional years of upper secondary education, which rates for ECD rose from 66 percent in 2012 to 93.7 is attended by a small share of students, who may percent in 2017. also sit for “advanced level” (A-level) examinations. The transition from the lower secondary to upper 33. The demand for basic education continues to secondary is based on students’ performance on increase. Between 2013 and 2017, the student-to- the O-level exams and passing scores in 5 O-level classroom ratio for ECD rose from 38.4:1 to 68:1, subjects are required to enter upper secondary. while the ratio for primary school increased from Upper-secondary schools are highly competitive 42.6:1 to 45:1. Public investment in educational and graduates often go on to attend universities or facilities has failed to keep pace with rising enrollment other higher-education institutions, while lower- rates, leading to the introduction of “hot sitting” or secondary graduates are more likely to either attend “double shifts”14 in 41 percent of primary schools polytechnics, technical colleges, teacher’s colleges, and 36 percent of secondary schools. A 2015 school- agricultural colleges, and other training institutions, mapping exercise by the Ministry of Primary and or to enter the job market directly. The Zimbabwe Secondary Education (MoPSE) revealed that 2,056 School Examinations Council (ZIMSEC) administers new schools will be required to decongest the current the Grade 7, O-level, and A-level examinations. school system, and an additional 33,636 classrooms are needed in existing schools. Moreover, the 30. Zimbabwe’s basic education subsector is still country’s educational infrastructure urgently needs REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 27 renovation, as well as accessibility improvements for 37. Universities: Fourteen state universities and seven students with disabilities. private universities currently operate in Zimbabwe. Each of the country’s 10 administrative provinces 34. The development of Zimbabwe’s primary and has at least one state university. University applicants secondary education subsectors is guided by the must pass at least 2 A-level subjects, and additional Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP), which was entry requirements vary by institution and area formulated in 2015 and covers the 2016-2020 of study. All but one of Zimbabwe’s universities period. The ESSP is designed around four strategic were founded after 1987, though several current pillars: (i) Education Access; (ii) Learning Quality universities were previously polytechnics or teacher and Relevance; (ii) Student-Focused Teacher training colleges. Development; and (iv) Leadership and Management. Most ESSP activities are being implemented with 38. Technical and Vocational Education and Training support from the Global Partnership for Education (TVET) Institutions: Zimbabwe has 7 polytechnic (GPE), with annual performance reviews based on colleges, which focus on providing technical and indicators covering lower-secondary gross enrolment, vocational education and training (TVET). Some retention rates for female students through Form 4 polytechnics also offer programs in non-TVET (Grade 11/O-level), overall Grade 7 pass rates, and subject areas such as commerce and applied sciences. Grade 7 Math pass rates in target districts. Applicants to polytechnics must pass five O-level subjects and meet additional requirements based 35. The MOPSE is in the process of aligning the on their areas of study. Several industrial TVET country’s education policy framework with the centers offer certifications in various trades and objectives of the ESSP. The MOPSE has finalized professional competencies. These facilities both amendments to the Education Act and developed the train students who have not yet entered the labor Information and Communications (ICT) in Education force and provide upskilling courses for employed Policy15 and the School Feeding Policy as part of the workers. Some training institutions have no academic policy framework provided under the ESSP. A School entry requirements, but instead focus on acquired Financing policy is also being finalized which will aim skills and experience, which are assessed through to simplify and clarify the uses of all funds at the specialized testing. school level and ensure that there is a transparent accountability for the use of the funds. 39. Teacher Training Colleges: Zimbabwe has 13 teacher training colleges: 10 focus on primary Tertiary Education education, and three specialize in secondary education and TVET. Applicants for the 10 primary- 36. The Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, focused teacher training colleges must pass five Science and Technology Development (MHTESTD) O-level subjects, including Math and English, while manages the postsecondary education subsector. applicants to the secondary-focused colleges must The MHTESTD formulates and implements skills pass two A-level subjects. All teacher training colleges training and development policies and promotes are regulated by the Department of Teacher Education science, technology and innovation. The ministry at the University of Zimbabwe (UZ), which awards oversees, regulates, and registers all public and education diplomas to graduates. Universities also private universities, polytechnics, and teacher offer bachelor’s degrees in education, though at a training colleges (Figure 13). much smaller scale than the teacher training colleges. 28 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS FIGURE 15 DIAGRAM OF ZIMBABWE’S EDUCATION SECTOR Tertiary Universities 2-year Upper Teachers’ Polytechnics Secondary Colleges FORMAL 4-year Lower secondary education with an LIFELONG EDUCATION academic/technical-vocational and practical subject focus EDUCATION Junior Education Grade 3 - 7 EDUCATION Infant Education (2-year Early Childhood Development and Grade 1 - 2) Source: The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education – Education Sector Strategy Plan pg. 4 shortened MOPSE – ESSP (2016 – 2020) pg. 4 40. The MHTESTD also oversees numerous statutory Central Library, the construction of the Kwekwe bodies and agencies. These organizations are tasked Polytechnic Engineering Workshop, the acquisition of with supporting the development of specific aspects modern automotive equipment for all polytechnics, of higher and tertiary education, scientific research, the commercialization of DNA testing services and technological development. National University of Science and Technology (NUST), and the establishment of the Chinhoyi 41. Established in 2006, the Zimbabwe Council for University of Technology (CUT) cattle-breeding and Higher Education (ZIMCHE) ensures the quality artificial-insemination project, inter alia.16 While of tertiary education by registering and accrediting there have been repeated reports of the misuse of institutions. ZIMCHE’s mandate is to promote ZIMDEF funding, the current administration has and coordinate the provision of tertiary education made significant efforts to enhance its integrity and regulate standards for teaching, examinations, and transparency through improved corporate academic qualifications, and research in tertiary governance and ongoing restructuring. education institutions. ZIMCHE also oversees the implementation of the National Skills Qualifications 43. The Zimbabwe Universities’ Vice Chancellors’ Framework, which establishes accreditation and Association (ZUVCA) and the Zimbabwe Research evaluation criteria for tertiary education programs. and Education Network (ZIMREN) are non- statutory bodies created by the country’s universities 42. The MHTESTD administers the Zimbabwe to support the development of tertiary education. Manpower Development Fund (ZIMDEF), which is ZUVCA commissioned ZIMREN to link Zimbabwe’s designed to support workforce skills development. public and private universities and enable them The Fund is primarily funded through a 1 percent to jointly access regional and global resources. training levy imposed on the gross wage bill ZIMREN’s specific goals include reducing the cost of of registered companies. ZIMDEF finances the university internet access and increasing the available training of apprentices by subsidizing wages, tuition, bandwidth to meet the rising demand from students, internships, and examination-related costs. Support faculty and researchers. for internships is currently limited to polytechnic students due to limited funding and weak economic 44. The new administration has increased the use of activity. ZIMDEF has played a pivotal role in public-private partnerships (PPPs) in the education infrastructure development at certain tertiary sector, especially for infrastructure projects. Major institutions, and key ZIMDEF-supported projects PPP-supported infrastructure investments include include the construction of Harare Polytechnic student accommodations developed on a build- REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 29 operate-and-transfer (BOT) basis. Some universities, in O level (average of 30% over the past decade) including UZ, are also creating innovation hubs and against a huge and growing youth population may industrial parks that will strengthen ties between also mean that the country will need to invest in other universities and the private sector while serving opportunities that are academically less demanding, as incubators for innovations created by students, but more skills focused, such as those offered by faculty, and researchers. community colleges and TVET centers. 46. At a glance, Zimbabwe’s human-capital Tertiary Education and Workforce endowment appears adequate relative to the demands Skills Development in Zimbabwe of its economy, but a deeper analysis reveals critical gaps in workforce skills. The aggregate skill level of Zimbabwe’s workforce is above the average for 45. Zimbabwe boasts of an extremely young Sub-Saharan Africa, and a relatively small share population with 62% of the population being below of firms cite inadequate workforce skills as an the age of 25 years.17 The overall tertiary education obstacle to doing business (Figure 14). However, population is thus expected to increase rapidly given data on employment rates, income levels, and the population growth rate of 1.1% between 2002 the characteristics of graduates are very limited and 2012. As such, there will be greater demand in Zimbabwe, and the impact of the country’s for higher and tertiary education opportunities due protracted economic downturn distorts the labor to the expected increase in the population of those market’s ability to accurately reflect the quality and eligible for post-secondary education. Low pass rates relevance of tertiary education. FIGURE 16 OVERALL WORKFORCE SKILL LEVEL AND THE SHARE OF FIRMS REPORTING AN INADEQUATE SUPPLY OF WORKFORCE SKILLS, 2016 100 89 76 80 60 % 40 18 20 6 0 Proportion of skilled workers Firms identifying an inadequately educated workforce as a major constraint Zimbabwe Sub-Saharan Source: World Bank, Enterprise Survey for Zimbabwe, 2016 Note: The share of skilled workers is computed using data from manufacturing firms only 47. A National Critical Skills Audit was conducted in and applied sciences, engineering and technology, 2018 to assess Zimbabwe’s skills deficits and surpluses the medical and health sciences, and agriculture. in the context of local, regional, and global economic In line with the audit’s findings, tertiary education trends. The audit confirmed the existence of large gaps institutions have been encouraged to promote the between the supply and demand for skills in several expansion of engineering and technology, the natural key sectors, with a deficit in the production of qualified and applied sciences, the agricultural sciences, and the specialists and technicians especially in the natural medical and health sciences. 30 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS 48. Zimbabwe’s tertiary education system can help 50. The government has created a National boost agricultural productivity and support a gradual Qualifications Framework designed to create a transition toward industry and services. The new harmonized system of educational qualifications. administration is committed to the development of The MHTESTD has begun to standardize academic tertiary education, and the MHTESTD has launched credentials and facilitate the movement of students several important new initiatives over the past 18 between institutions. It has also introduced months. In line with the TSP’s emphasis on human- standards for the recognition of prior learning at capital development, the government is investing in the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. the construction of new tertiary education institutions and the rehabilitation of existing facilities. The government has also prioritized the expansion of Summary the TVET subsector to address the gaps identified by the workforce skills audit. Zimbabwe’s unstable macro-fiscal environment, resulting from the country’s political and economic Strategic Planning in the Tertiary crisis of the last decade, has severely impeded its Education Sector development. The new administration, which took office in July 2018, is striving to rebuild the Zimbabwean economy. In spite of the political and 49. The MHTESTD has recently adopted a new macro-economic crisis of the last decade, Zimbabwe’s higher education development strategy called the human-capital indicators exceed the average for its Education 5.0 Doctrine. The doctrine seeks to region and income group. improve the market relevance of tertiary education and enhance its contribution to the country’s The Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science economic recovery by refocusing the tertiary and Technology Development (MHTESTD), which education subsector on five priorities: (i) teaching; manages the postsecondary education subsector, has (ii) research; (iii) community service; (iv) innovation; recently elaborated a key strategic document entitled and (v) industrialization. This doctrine’s emphasis on Education 5.0. This document establishes a sound innovation and industrialization is a new element of framework for elaborating a comprehensive vision Zimbabwe’s higher education strategy. for the tertiary education sector. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 31 04 THE PERFORMANCE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR Tertiary Enrollment Rates rate has continued to increase despite deteriorating and Equity Indicators public investment in education, underscoring the strong demand for tertiary education among Zimbabwean households. Zimbabwe’s secondary education rate 51. At 8.5%, Zimbabwe’s tertiary enrollment rate is yet is also high by regional standards, and in 2013, the to match the level of regional leaders, such as Botswana, country’s secondary GER and NER stood at 47 percent South Africa and Kenya. Zimbabwe’s tertiary GER and 44 percent, respectively. The substantial disparity rose from 6 percent in 2010 to 8.5 percent in 2015, between secondary and tertiary enrollment rates significantly above Zambia’s rate but still well below may indicate that the supply of tertiary education is Kenya’s (Figure 15). Zimbabwe’s tertiary enrollment insufficient to meet demand. FIGURE 17 GROSS ENROLLMENT RATES IN TERTIARY EDUCATION, ZIMBABWE AND COMPARATORS, LATEST AVAILABLE YEAR (%) 25.0 23.4 20.5 20.0 15.0 11.7 10.0 7.6 8.5 3.9 4.0 4.6 5.0 0.0 Tanzania Zambia Uganda Rwanda Zimbabwe Kenya South Africa Botswana Source: World Bank Data Bank – Education Statistics 32 THE PERFORMANCE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR 52. A large majority of tertiary students are enrolled training colleges also dominate their subsectors, in public institutions. While Zimbabwe has six private accounting for 98 and 64 percent of total enrollment, universities, public universities accounted for about 90 respectively. More than a third of the country’s teacher percent of total university enrollment in 2017 (Figure training colleges are private. Private TVET institutions 16). Public TVET institutions and public teacher tend to be much smaller than the public colleges. FIGURE 18 ENROLLMENT IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES, TVET INSTITUTIONS, AND TEACHER TRAINING COLLEGES, 2017 90,000 82009 80,000 70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 21603 23051 18437 20,000 10253 10173 10,000 1667 519 0 Public Private Public Private Public Private University TVET institution Teacher training college Enrollment Enrollment in STEM faculties Source: Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education (ZIMCHE) 53. Infrastructure constraints and tuition fees campus residential facilities. Such fees are by no limit tertiary education access. The first issue means insignificant for a country with per capita is physical infrastructure. Teaching space and GDP of around US$1,300. affordable accommodations on and around tertiary institutions are very scarce. Tuition fees for public 54. While the overall gender gap at the tertiary level institutions are also a significant deterrent for is very modest in 2017, male students continue to students from poorer households, and the country dominate certain fields of study. Critically, female lacks a viable and sustainable financial-support students account for around 40 percent of total system for tertiary students. For instance, Great enrollment in science, technology, education and Zimbabwe University charges $600 annually for mathematics (STEM) fields. More female students tuition and other fees for studying Bachelor of enrolled in the humanities and social sciences and Arts program. NUST charges $565 for Applied teacher training colleges, but female students make Sciences program. Dormitory fees will be added up just 37 percent of total enrollment in TVET on this for residential students who stay at on- institutions (Figure 17). REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 33 FIGURE 19 ENROLLMENT IN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES BY GENDER, 2017 100% 80% 41% 37% 53% 57% 68% 60% 40% 59% 63% 47% 43% 20% 32% 0% All faculties STEM Non-STEM TVET Teacher training institution college University Female Male Source: ZIMCHE Repetition and Dropout Rates of the STEM-oriented public universities. Harare Institute of Technology (HIT) has a relatively 55. A questionnaire submitted to Zimbabwe’s high repetition rate (Figure 18). This may reflect tertiary education institutions found that repetition the high academic standards of the institution, rates are generally low among both public and combined with the inadequate preparation of private universities, with the notable exception incoming students. FIGURE 20 EXAMINATION RESULTS BY INSTITUTION, 2018 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Public University Public University Public University Public University Private University Private University Midlands State Harare Institute of Lupane State Zimbabwe Open Zimbabwe Ezekiel Women’s University University Technology University University Guti University in Africa (MSU) (HIT) (LSU) (ZOU) (ZEGU) (WUA) Distinction Credit/Merit Pass Pass and proceed Compensatory pass Deferred Referral Repeat Results withheld Source: 2018 World Bank Survey 34 THE PERFORMANCE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR 56. High tuition fees contribute to significant dropout graduation rates of STEM students in some public rates in public universities. The questionnaire universities. High dropout rates are also observed in found that nearly 70 percent of dropouts in some non-university institutions. Dropout rates at private institutions cited tuition fees as the main reason universities are also especially high, and roughly 40 for drop out. Students enrolled in STEM fields are percent of private university dropouts cited tuition especially likely to drop out due to high tuition costs, fees as the reason for terminating their studies (Figure which may contribute to the lower-than-average 19, Figure 20, and Figure 21). FIGURE 21 DROPOUT RATES BY DISCIPLINE AND INSTITUTION, 2017 8.0% 7.0% 6.0% 5.0% 4.0% 3.0% 2.0% 1.0% 0.0% Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Private Private Private Private Public University University University University University University University University University University TVET Teacher Training University Chinhoyi Midlands Harare National Lupane Zimbabwe Catholic Zimbabwe Women’s St. Peter’s Hillside of University of State Institute of University of State Open University in Ezekiel Guti University in Kubatana Teachers Zimbabwe Technology University Technology Science & University University Zimbabwe University Africa ITC College (UZ) (CUT) (MSU) (HIT) Technology (LSU) (ZOU) (CUZ) (ZEGU) (WUA) (NUST) Arts, Commerce, Education, Law, and Social Sciences Agriculture Science and Technology Source: 2018 World Bank Survey Note: The dropout rate is the number of dropouts as a share of total enrollment in 2017 FIGURE 22 REPORTED REASONS FOR DROPPING OUT BY INSTITUTION, 2017 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Private Private Private Private Public University University University University University University University University University University TVET Teacher Training University Chinhoyi Midlands Harare National Lupane Zimbabwe Catholic Zimbabwe Women’s St. Peter’s Hillside of University State Institute University State Open University Ezekiel University Kubatana Teachers Zimbabwe of University of of Science & University University in Guti in Africa ITC College (UZ) Technology (MSU) Technology Technology (LSU) (ZOU) Zimbabwe University (WUA) (CUT) (HIT) (NUST) (CUZ) (ZEGU) Academic grounds Lack of tuition fees Works exigency Health reasons Voluntary withdrawal Disciplinary dismissal Death Other Source: 2018 World Bank Survey REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 35 FIGURE 23 GRADUATION RATES BY INSTITUTION, 2017 0.95 0.9 0.85 0.8 0.75 0.7 Public Public Public Public Public Public Private Private Private University University University University University University University University TVET University Chinhoyi Midlands Harare National Zimbabwe Catholic Women’s St. Peter’s of University State Institute of University of Open University in University in Kubatana Zimbabwe of University Technology Science & University Zimbabwe Africa ITC (UZ) Technology (MSU) (HIT) Technology (ZOU) (CUZ) (WUA) (CUT) (NUST) Arts, Commerce, Education, Law, and Social Sciences Agriculture, Science, Technology and Health Sciences Source: 2018 World Bank Survey Note: Graduation rate was calculated by calculated by dividing the number of students entered by the number of students graduated in 2017 58. In the absence of a direct assessment of learning Quality and Relevance outcomes, university rankings are often used as a of Tertiary Education proxy measure of tertiary education quality. Despite their methodological limitations, international rankings can help identify which universities tend 57. While educational attainment statistics only to offer a high-quality education, produce graduates describe the level of education reached, the quality who excel in the labor market, and support valuable and relevance of that education profoundly influence academic and scientific research. While two of the its impact on productivity. Whereas enrollment and major university-ranking systems, the Shanghai completion rates offer clear, easily observable metrics Academic Ranking of World Universities and the of educational attainment, education quality and Times Higher Education World University Ranking, relevance are can be difficult to measure, especially at do not include any Zimbabwean university in the tertiary level. At the primary and secondary levels, their lists of the top 800 global institutions, the standardized tests such as the Trends in International Webometrics ranking is far more expansive and Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS) and the includes five Zimbabwean universities.19 However, Program for International Student Assessment the Zimbabwean institutions compare poorly to (PISA) can reliably gauge student learning, but no other major universities in Sub-Saharan Africa (Table comparable instrument is widely used to assess the 3), and only UZ appears among the top 100 African quality and relevance of tertiary education.18 universities in the Webometrics ranking (Table 3). 36 THE PERFORMANCE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TABLE 6 WEBOMETRICS UNIVERSITY RANKINGS, ZIMBABWEAN UNIVERSITIES AND COMPARATORS, 2019 Name of University World Rank University of Cape Town 272 University of Nairobi 993 Makerere University 1036 University of Ibadan 1148 University of Zimbabwe 1977 Midlands State University 4699 National University of Science & Technology 5153 Chinhoyi University of Technology 5392 Bindura University of Science Education 5473 Source: Webometrics (2018) http://www.webometrics.info/en Note: Zimbabwean universities are in bold TABLE 7 WEBOMETRICS TOP 100 UNIVERSITIES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA, 2019 Country Number of Universities in the Top 100 Rank of the Top University from Each Country South Africa 18 1 Kenya 5 9 Uganda 2 11 Nigeria 10 15 Ghana 3 19 Ethiopia 2 21 Tanzania 3 26 Zimbabwe 1 33 Sudan 1 38 Mozambique 1 39 Source: Webometrics (2019) http://www.webometrics.info/en/Sub-Saharan 59. Several factors undermine the quality of the networks and limited access to digital libraries and teaching and learning environment. These include: international journals; and (vii) a lack of funding (i) insufficient academic preparation among incoming for external assessors and an ineffective quality students, especially in science; (ii) highly inadequate monitoring and evaluation system. university laboratories and other specialized educational facilities, which often contain obsolete Curricular and Pedagogical Practices equipment no longer used in the private sector; (iii) high teacher vacancy rates due to large-scale 60. Field visits to selected institutions and emigration and a recruitment freeze triggered by the interviews with key university officials conducted fiscal crisis; (iv) outdated curricular and pedagogical in November 2018 revealed that curricular and practices, (v) an inadequate number of qualified pedagogical practices remain largely traditional academic staff to support postgraduate programs, in many institutions, mostly because faculty lack supervise doctoral students, and carry out research; training in innovative methods.20 Many programs (vi) little participation in international research continue to emphasize rote learning over creative REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 37 engagement. However, some institutions, especially ratio exceeds 60:1 at MSU, a public university with the STEM-oriented universities, increasingly offer the largest number of students in the country (Figure extended internships to provide their students with 22). Severe staff shortages are also apparent in some hands-on experience and improve their job prospects public teacher training colleges. Student-to-faculty after graduation. These institutions also offer career ratios in university STEM programs are relatively low, services to their students. but still high by international standards—especially at large public institutions. Faculty recruitment has Staffing not kept pace with growing enrollment levels in both STEM and non-STEM programs. Universities 61. An acute shortage of academic staff, especially in in which only a small share of students are enrolled STEM programs in public universities, is negatively in STEM programs appear to more easily keep their impacting education quality. The student-to-faculty student-to-faculty ratios low. FIGURE 24 STUDENT-TO-FACULTY RATIOS BY INSTITUTION, 2017 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Private Private Private Private Private Public University University University University University University University University University University TVET TVET Teacher Teacher Training Training University Chinhoyi Midlands Great Harare National Lupane Zimbabwe Catholic Zimbabwe St. Peter’s JM JM Nkomo Hillside of University State Zimbabwe Institute University State Open University Ezekiel Kubatana Nkomo College Teachers Zimbabwe of University University of of University University in Guti ITC College College (UZ) Technology (MSU) (GZU) Technology Science & (LSU) (ZOU) Zimbabwe University (CUT) (HIT) Technology (CUZ) (ZEGU) (NUST) Arts, Commerce, Education, Law, and Social Sciences Agriculture, Science, Technology and Health Sciences Source: 2018 World Bank Survey 62. Most academic staff in both public and private engineering college with no postgraduate programs, universities hold master’s degrees. Staff qualifications are even lower, and many staff hold only diplomas or are similar in the humanities and STEM programs. In bachelor’s degrees (Figure 23). Most academic staff at public universities, the share of academic staff with Zimbabwean universities are classified as lecturers, and doctoral degrees increased between 2014 and 2017, while institutions with more-qualified staff also tend while the average qualification level of academic to have higher-ranking staff, few faculty members at staff in private universities declined. Zimbabwe any institution rank higher than senior lecturer (Figure appears to be gradually recovering from the exodus 24). The field visits confirmed that the low average of qualified academic staff that occurred during the academic qualifications of Zimbabwean faculty reflect economic crisis. Qualification levels at teacher training the emigration of many highly qualified academics to colleges and TVET institutions, as well as one small South Africa and other countries in the region. 38 THE PERFORMANCE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR FIGURE 25 SHARES OF ACADEMIC STAFF BY QUALIFICATION LEVEL AND INSTITUTION, 2017 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Private Private Private Private Public Public Public University University University University University University University University University University University TVET TVET Teacher Teacher Training Training University Chinhoyi Midlands Great Harare National Lupane Zimbabwe Catholic Zimbabwe Women’s St. Peter’s JM JM Hillside of University State Zimbabwe Institute of University State Open University Ezekiel University Kubatana Nkomo Nkomo Teachers Zimbabwe of University University Technology of University University in Guti in Africa ITC College College College (UZ) Technology (MSU) (GZU) (HIT) Science & (LSU) (ZOU) Zimbabwe University (WUA) (CUT) Technology (CUZ) (ZEGU) (NUST) National Certificate/Diploma Bachelor Master PhD Source: 2018 World Bank Survey FIGURE 26 SHARES OF ACADEMIC STAFF BY RANK AND INSTITUTION, 2018 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Private Private University University University University University University University University University University University Chinhoyi Midlands Great Harare National Lupane Zimbabwe Catholic Women’s of University State Zimbabwe Institute University State Open University University Zimbabwe of University University of of University University in in Africa (UZ) Technology (MSU) (GZU) Technology Science & (LSU) (ZOU) Zimbabwe (WUA) (CUT) (HIT) Technology (CUZ) (NUST) Professor Associate professor Senior lecturer Lecturer Staff associate Teaching assistant Laboratory technician Source: 2018 World Bank Survey REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 39 Facilities and Equipment and other educational facilities are outdated or in disrepair. Facilities in some TVET institutions appear 63. Inadequate laboratories, workshops, and other to be of somewhat better quality, as many have been specialized facilities significantly weaken education recently constructed or renovated to accommodate quality, especially in STEM programs. The major rising enrollment levels. However, their total capacity public universities that responded to the questionnaire remains limited (Figure 25 and Figure 26). reported that a large share of their laboratories FIGURE 27 NUMBER OF STUDENTS PER LABORATORY OR WORKSHOP BY INSTITUTION, 2018 300.0 250.0 200.0 150.0 100.0 50.0 0.0 Public Public Public Public Public Private Public Private University University University University University University TVET TVET University of Great Chinhoyi National Lupane State Women’s JM St. Peter’s Zimbabwe Zimbabwe University of University of University University in Nkomo Kubatana (UZ) University Technology Science & (LSU) Africa College ITC (GZU) (CUT) Technology (WUA) (NUST) Agriculture Science & Technology Health Sciences Source: 2018 World Bank Survey Notes: This figure shows the number of laboratories/workshops (including those under construction) divided by total enrollment in each discipline during the most recent year for which data are available. FIGURE 28 CONDITION OF STEM LABORATORIES/WORKSHOPS BY INSTITUTION, 2018 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Public Public Public Public Public Private Public Public Public Private University University University University University University TVET TVET TVET TVET University Great Chinhoyi National Lupane State Women’s Mutare Msasa ITC JM St. Peter’s of Zimbabwe University of University of University University in Polytechnical Nkomo Kubatana Zimbabwe University Technology Science & (LSU) Africa College College ITC (UZ) (GZU) (CUT) Technology (WUA) (NUST) Poor or critical Fair Very good or good Source: 2018 World Bank Survey Note: Disciplines shown include agriculture, science, technology, medicine, and health sciences 40 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 41 64. The overall state of computer laboratories at teacher questionnaire reported good internet connectivity, but training colleges and TVET institutions is relatively some computer laboratories at two non-university poor. By contrast, Zimbabwean universities typically institutions lacked an internet connection (Figure 28). have computer laboratories for students at both Both teacher training colleges and TVET institutions central and program/campus levels. The maximum reported difficulties hiring computer technicians, student-to-computer ratio among the institutions whereas universities reported hiring computer that responded to the questionnaire was 40 (Figure technicians for each laboratory to maintain the system 27). Almost all the universities that responded to the and support the students. FIGURE 29 NUMBER OF COMPUTERS AND TOTAL ENROLLMENT BY INSTITUTION, 2018 2,000 18,000 1,800 16,000 Number of computers 1,600 14,000 1,400 12,000 Enrollment 1,200 10,000 1,000 8,000 800 600 6,000 400 4,000 200 2,000 0 0 Public Public Public Public Private Private Public Public Public Private Public Public Public Public University University University University University University TVET TVET TVET TVET Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Training Training Training Training University Great Chinhoyi Lupane Women’s Zimbabwe Mutare Msasa School of St. Peter’s JM Morgan Hillside Bondolfi of Zimbabwe University of State University in Ezekiel Guti Poly- ITC Hotel & Kubatana Nkomo ZinTEc Teachers Teachers Zimbabwe University Technology University Africa University technical Tourism ITC College Teachers College College (UZ) (GZU) (CUT) (LSU) (WUA) (ZEGU) University College (MPU) Enrollment Number of computers for students Source: 2018 World Bank Survey and ZIMCHE Note: Enrollment data are the most recent available. Missing values are imputed based on 2017 ZIMCHE data. FIGURE 30 REPORTED INTERNET CONNECTIVITY QUALITY OF COMPUTER LABORATORIES, 2018 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Public Public Public Public Private Private Public Public Public Private Public Public Public University University University University University University TVET TVET TVET TVET Teacher Teacher Teacher Training Training Training University of Great Chinhoyi Lupane Women’s Zimbabwe Mutare Poly- Msasa School of St. Peter’s JM Morgan Hillside Zimbabwe Zimbabwe University of State University in Ezekiel Guti technical ITC Hotel & Kubatana Nkomo ZinTEc Teachers (UZ) University Technology University Africa University University Toursim ITC College Teachers College (GZU) (CUT) (LSU) (WUA) (ZEGU) (MPU) College No Internet Poor Fair Good Source: 2018 World Bank Survey 42 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS 65. Whereas the universities are benefiting from institutions reported being unsatisfied with the the recently-launched ZIMREN Internet network, quality of their campus internet connections (Figure weak internet connectivity at teacher training 30). Systems for ensuring network connectivity colleges and TVET institutions limits the use of are also relatively weak. For instance, while all online educational support, as well as access to universities have IT specialists, most teacher online journals, data, and research materials. All training colleges and TVET institutions do not. the institutions that responded to the questionnaire Weak ICT systems inhibit the introduction of online reported having an on-campus Wi-Fi system, and education, management, and support systems in each purchased internet bandwidth according to its teacher training colleges and TVET institutions number of enrolled students (Figure 29). However, (Figure 31) and limit access to online journals and students at teacher training colleges and TVET book databases (Figure 32). FIGURE 31 INTERNET BANDWIDTH OF ON-CAMPUS WI-FI AND TOTAL ENROLLMENT BY INSTITUTION, 2018 2,000 18,000 Internet bandwidth (Mbps) 1,800 16,000 1,600 14,000 1,400 12,000 Enrollment 1,200 10,000 1,000 8,000 800 600 6,000 400 4,000 200 2,000 0 0 Public Public Public Public Public Public Private Private Public Public Public Private Public Public Public Public University University University University University University University University TVET TVET TVET TVET TVET & Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Training Training Training Training Universi- Great Chinhoyi National Lupane Marondera Women’s Zimbabwe Mutare Msasa School of St. Peter’s Morgan Hillside Bondolfi ty of Zimbabwe University University State Universi- University Ezekiel Poly- ITC Hotel & Kubatana JM ZinTec Teachers Teachers Zimbabwe University of of Science University ty of in Africa Guti technical Tourism ITC Nkomo Teachers College College (UZ) (GZU) Technology & (LSU) Agricultural (WUA) University University College College (CUT) Technol- Science & (ZEGU) (MPU) ogy Technology (NUST) (MUAST) Enrollment Internet bandwidth (Mbps) Source: 2018 World Bank Survey Note: Enrollment data are the most recent available. Missing values are imputed based on 2017 ZIMCHE data. FIGURE 32 STUDENT SATISFACTION WITH INTERNET CONNECTIVITY BY TYPE OF INSTITUTION, 2018 4 Number of institutions 3 2 1 0 Satisfied Somewhat satisfied Not satisfied Satisfied Somewhat satisfied Not satisfied University Teacher training/TVET Source: 2018 World Bank Survey REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 43 FIGURE 33 ONLINE EDUCATION, MANAGEMENT, AND SUPPORT SYSTEMS BY TYPE OF INSTITUTION, 2018 9 8 Number of institutions 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No University Teacher University Teacher University Teacher University Teacher training/TVET training/TVET training/TVET training/TVET Management Learning Mobile phone app IT specialist information system management system Source: 2018 World Bank Survey FIGURE 34 LIBRARY ACCESS TO ONLINE JOURNALS AND BOOK DATABASES BY TYPE OF INSTITUTION, 2018 4 Number of institutions 3 2 1 0 No Access 1-29 30-99 Over 100 No Access 1-29 30-99 Over 100 University Teacher training/TVET Source: 2018 World Bank Survey 66. The capacity of student hostels is inadequate to hostels constructed before 2000 (Figure 34). Hostel meet the needs of the student population, especially fees at universities range between US$200 and US$450 among public universities. In the three public per semester, whereas hostel fees at TVET institutions universities that responded to the questionnaire, and teacher training colleges are far less expensive the total capacity of student hostels equaled just 10 at US$25 to US$40. Almost all the institutions that percent or less of total enrollment (Figure 33). The responded to the questionnaire are planning to build condition of student hotels is mixed, with the poorest new hostels in the next five years using the build- conditions observed in older public universities with operate-transfer (BOT) model. 44 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS FIGURE 35 TOTAL CAPACITY OF STUDENT HOSTELS AS A SHARE OF TOTAL ENROLLMENT, 2018 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Public Public Public Public Public Private Public Public Private Public TVET Public Public University University University University University University TVET TVET TVET & Teacher Teacher Teacher Training Training Training University of Chinhoyi National Great Lupane State Zimbabwe School of Msasa St. Peter’s JM Hillside Bondolfi Zimbabwe University of University of Zimbabwe University Ezekiel Guti Hotel & ITC Kubatana Nkomo Teachers Teachers (UZ) Technology Science & University (LSU) University Toursim ITC College College College (CUT) Technology (GZU) (ZEGU) (NUST) Source: 2018 World Bank Survey and ZIMCHE Notes: Student hostel data are the most recent available. Missing values are imputed based on 2017 ZIMCHE data. FIGURE 36 THE CONDITION OF STUDENT HOSTELS BY INSTITUTION, 2018 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Public Public Public Public Public Private Public Public TVET Public Public Public University University University University University University TVET & Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Training Training Training Training University of Chinhoyi National Great Lupane State Zimbabwe School of JM Morgan Hillside Bondolfi Zimbabwe University of University of Zimbabwe University Ezekiel Guti Hotel & Nkomo ZinTEc Teachers Teachers (UZ) Technology Science & University (LSU) University Toursim College Teachers College College (CUT) Technology (GZU) (ZEGU) College (NUST) Good Fair Poor Source: 2018 World Bank Survey Availability of STEM Programs 35). The two institutions offer not only engineering and technology programs but have also a wide range 67. Only a small number of Zimbabwean universities of information technology and computer science offer STEM programs. The Harare Institute of programs, including cyber-security. The University of Technology (HIT) and the National University Zimbabwe, also has STEM-related departments such of Science and Technology (NUST) are the main as the Faculty of Engineering and the Faculty of Basic institutions that focus on STEM subjects. Together, Sciences. It hosts the HCC super-computer developed HIT and NUST account for half of all university and managed by the Ministry on behalf of all tertiary students studying science and technology (Figure education institutions in the country. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 45 FIGURE 37 UNIVERSITY ENROLLMENT BY DISCIPLINE, 2017 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Private Private Private Private Private Private University University University University University University University University University University University University University University University Harare National Bindura Chinhoyi Midlands Great Zimbabwe Lupane Africa Solusi Catholic Women’s Zimbabwe Reformed of Institute University University University State Zimbabwe Open State University University University University Ezekiel Church Zimbabwe of of of Science of University University University University (AU) (SU) in in Africa Guti University (UZ) Technology Science & Education Technology (MSU) (GZU) (ZOU) (LSU) Zimbabwe (WUA) University (RCU) (HIT) Technology (BUSE) (CUT) (CUZ) (ZEGU) (NUST) Non-STEM Agriculture Science & Technology Health Source: ZIMCHE Note: Health includes Medicine and Health Science. Agriculture includes Veterinary Science. Categorization of the discipline was done based on the names of the faculties. 68. In the absence of detailed labor market and infrastructure, (2) digital entrepreneurship (3) digital technology transfer data, little information is available platforms, (4) digital financial services, and (5) digital about the quality and relevance of existing STEM skills. Digital economies are energized when there is programs in Zimbabwe. However, the field visits have a sizeable population of the population with basic shown that the main bottlenecks in STEM universities digital skills and a critical mass of tech-savvy skilled and polytechnics are the lack of qualified academics personnel and advanced specialists that help to adapt and the difficulties in purchasing and maintaining and diffuse digital technologies across different state-of-the-art scientific equipment. Many universities sectors. Therefore, the Zimbabwean economies have lost their most senior academics to institutions require both a digitally competent workforce and in neighboring countries, mainly Botswana, Namibia digitally literate citizens who could reap the benefits and South Africa. The polytechnics, in turn, see their that the digital transformation can bring. lecturers move to universities as soon as they get their PhD. Another challenge faced by the STEM institutions is to be flexible enough to update the Research and Innovation curriculum regularly and rapidly to keep up with global trends in the STEM areas. On the positive side, the top institutions have close linkages with industry University Research Output and help their students get internships. 70. The aggregate research output of a country’s 69. Studies on the digital transformation of the African universities provides another measure of the economy stress the importance for Zimbabwe of economic impact of its tertiary education sector. The further developing its STEM programs (World Bank, number of citable documents per capita reflects the 2019). Mobilizing digital innovations to transform quantitative dimension of research production, while economies, societies and governments in Africa will the country’s H-index21 measures the quality and require the following foundational pillars: (1) digital influence of its research output (Table 5). 46 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS TABLE 8 RESEARCH OUTPUT, ZIMBABWE AND COMPARATOR COUNTRIES, 2010 AND 2018 Country Citable Documents per Citable Documents per H-Index Million Inhabitants (2010) Million Inhabitants (2018) (2018) Ethiopia 9.2 181.6 125 Ghana 30.4 516.4 129 Kenya 36.3 565.1 216 Nigeria 31.6 366.2 166 Rwanda 12.8 173.9 70 Senegal 29.8 546.9 111 South Africa 229.2 4,233.5 391 Tanzania 17.8 248.3 145 Uganda 25.6 323.3 156 Zimbabwe 24.6 561.2 119 Source: SCImago. SJR — SCImago Journal & Country Rank. https://www.scimagojr.com 71. Zimbabwean publications are concentrated in sciences. Medical research is a frequent subject of scientific disciplines such as medicine, agricultural international collaboration in Zimbabwe. Social science, environmental science, and microbiology. sciences, including economics, are also a frequent Zimbabwe’s main research areas are similar to research subject, and the arts and humanities play those of other African countries, which tend to a smaller but still significant role in Zimbabwean focus on biology, agriculture, and environmental research (Figure 36). FIGURE 38 CITABLE PUBLICATIONS PRODUCED IN ZIMBABWE BY DISCIPLINE Medicine Agriculture Social Science Environmental Science Biochemistry, Molecular Biology Microbiology, Immunology Arts and Humanities Engineering Economics 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 # of citable publications Source: Scimago Journal and Country Rank 72. In spite of the economic crisis, Zimbabwe has after South Africa and Kenya, and Zimbabwe’s total managed to maintain a relatively high level of volume of academic publications has steadily increased. quantitative research output. Among Sub-Saharan The number of citable publications by Zimbabwean African countries, Zimbabwean researchers published researchers more than doubled from 329 in 2000 to the third-highest number of research papers per capita, 719 in 2017 (Figure 37). These publications include REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 47 articles, reviews, and conference papers. This increase considering the country’s deeply adverse socioeconomic in citable publications is a remarkable achievement environment during much of the period. FIGURE 39 NUMBER OF CITABLE PUBLICATIONS BY ZIMBABWEAN RESEARCHERS, 2000-2017 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Source: Scimago Journal and Country Rank 73. Zimbabwe outperforms most of its Southern African peers, but it produces a comparable number African peers in total publications, and it matches of citable publications on a per capita basis. In 2017, comparable East African countries in publications Zimbabwe produced 43 citable publications per per capita. Despite the country’s deteriorating million people, slightly below the level of Kenya research environment, Zimbabwe has continued (52) but significantly higher than that of Tanzania to produce more citable publications than other (25). Conversely, Botswana and Namibia produce Southern African countries, with the exception of fewer total citable publications than does Zimbabwe, South Africa, which produced more than 20,000 yet they both produce more on a per capita basis citable publications in 2017 alone. Zimbabwe (Figure 38). Zimbabwe also performs well in terms produces fewer total publications than do its East of research output relative to GDP (Figure 39). FIGURE 40 NUMBER OF CITABLE PUBLICATIONS PRODUCED EACH YEAR, ZIMBABWE AND COMPARATORS, 2017 3,000 250 2,500 Citable publication 200 Publication per million people 2,000 150 1,500 100 1,000 500 50 0 0 Namibia Rwanda Botswana Zambia Zimbabwe Tanzania Uganda Kenya Citable publication Publication per million people Source: Scimago Journal and Country Rank for citable publications; World Bank for population sizes 48 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS FIGURE 41 NUMBER OF SCHOLARLY JOURNAL ARTICLES PER US$ BILLION, IN GDP, ZIMBABWE AND COMPARATOR COUNTRIES, 2018 Uganda 9.6 Tanzania 6.2 South Africa 3.2 Senegal 10.9 Rwanda 6.6 Nigeria 4.8 Kenya 1.7 Ghana 6.8 Ethiopia 4.5 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Source: Global Innovation Index https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/gii-2018-report Note: GDP figures are expressed in purchasing-power-parity terms 74. The scientific journal Nature has developed a output of over 8,000 global institutions between 2012 new measure of progress in scholarly output, which and 2015. Of the 25 “rising stars” in Africa, 15 were underscores the challenges faced by Zimbabwe.22 in South Africa, four were in Morocco, two were in The Nature Index focuses on “rising stars,” which Tunisia, and Algeria, Burkina Faso, Kenya and Senegal are institutions that have rapidly increased their had one each. However, no Zimbabwean research contribution to a selection of top natural science institution had produced a sufficient volume of high- journals. The 2016 Nature Index tracked the research quality research to be included in the list (Table 6). TABLE 9 THE NATURE INDEX’S 25 “RISING STARS” IN AFRICAN RESEARCH, 2016 Country Number of “Rising Star” Institutions Rank of the Top Institution South Africa 15 1 Senegal 1 10 Morocco 4 11 Burkina Faso 1 15 Tunisia 2 16 Kenya 1 19 Algeria 1 23 Source: Nature (2016)23 75. The rapid growth of research output in other rose from 78 to 555 in Zambia, from 256 to 1,414 in African countries is diminishing Zimbabwe’s status as Tanzania, and from 609 to 2,609 in Kenya, eroding a regional leader. Although Zimbabwean researchers Zimbabwe’s competitive advantage in academic have increased their total number of citable publications, research. The share of Zimbabwe’s citable publications research output has grown faster in other African in all citable publications produced in Africa dropped countries. For example, between 2000 and 2017, the from 2.75 percent in 2000 to 0.88 percent in 2011, then total number of citable publications produced each year rose slightly to 1.25 in 2017 (Figure 40). REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 49 FIGURE 42 ZIMBABWE’S SHARE OF THE CITABLE PUBLICATIONS PRODUCED IN AFRICA, 2000-2017 3 2.5 2. 1.5 1. 0.5 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Source: Scimago Journal and Country Rank 76. Moreover, the volume of Zimbabwe’s research Innovation and Technology Transfer output belies the limited quality and impact of its scholarly publications. Zimbabwe’s H-Index 77. Zimbabwe also underperforms on measures of score is lower than those of most comparator innovation and technology transfer compared to its countries (Table 5, above). In Clarivate Analytics’ peers. The number of patents registered in a given list of highly cited scientists during the 2005- country each year is a proxy of its capacity to produce 2015 period, no Zimbabwean institution hosts a new innovations or adapt existing technologies for top-level researcher.24 By contrast, South African local use. Zimbabwe registers few patents relative to institutions host three of the list’s 3,500 highly its GDP (Figure 41), which may indicate that research cited scientists. Chinese institutions host 218, up institutions are making a limited contribution to the from just two in 2001. country’s economic recovery. FIGURE 43 NUMBER OF PATENTS RELATIVE TO GDP, ZIMBABWE AND COMPARATOR COUNTRIES, 2018 3 1.0 2.5 0.9 2. 0.6 1.5 1. 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0 Ghana Kenya Nigeria Rwanda Senegal South Africa Tanzania Uganda Zimbabwe Source: Global Innovation Index https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/gii-2018-report 50 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS International Collaboration from international research grants. By contrast, researchers in the humanities and social sciences 78. Across institutions, collaborative research with had significantly less access to international international partners is most common in STEM collaboration and grant support. Collaborative departments. In the four public universities that research with the private sector appears to be rare, provided data on research projects, most output was even in major public universities, and the three public published in international peer-reviewed journals. universities that responded to the questionnaire Academic staff in the science and technology reported undertaking no collaborative research departments produced a large share of all research with the private sector. Limited collaboration with publications (Figure 42), often in collaboration the private sector may negatively affect the market with international counterparts and with support relevance of university programs. FIGURE 44 NUMBER OF PUBLICATIONS PRODUCED BY FOUR PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES BY ACADEMIC DEPARTMENT, 2017 120 111 100 80 66 68 60 50 47 36 35 30 40 19 22 27 90 13 125 101 128 20 47 70 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70 3 00 6 00 6 00 0 Arts, Commerce, Education Law and Social Sciences Agriculture Science and Technology Arts, Commerce, Education Law and Social Sciences Agriculture Science and Technology Health Commerce and Education Science and Technology Health Arts, Commerce, Education Law and Social Sciences Agriculture Science and Technology Institute of Research/Higher Degrees Directorate CUT MSU NUST ZOU Number of publications in peer reviewed journals Collaboration with international partners Collaboration with private sector Source: 2018 World Bank Survey 79. In recent years, the share of postgraduate students has 43). The rising trend in public universities has been driven significantly increased at many public universities. The by an increasing number of postgraduate students in upward trend in the share of postgraduate students has the humanities and social sciences, which significantly been also observed among private universities (Figure exceeds the number of postgraduate STEM students. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 51 FIGURE 45 SHARE OF POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES, 2013 AND 2017 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Private Private Private Private Private Private Total University University University University University University University University University University University University University University University University Harare National Bindura Chinhoyi Midlands Great Zimbabwe Lupane Africa Solusi Catholic Women’s Zimbabwe of Institute of University University University State Zimbabwe Open State University University University University Ezekiel Reformed Zimbabwe Technology of of Science of University University University University (AU) (SU) in in Africa Guti Church (UZ) (HIT) Science & Education Technology (MSU) (GZU) (ZOU) (LSU) Zimbabwe (WUA) University University Technology (BUSE) (CUT) (CUZ) (ZEGU) (RCU) (NUST) 2013 2017 Source: ZIMCHE 80. While a large share of Zimbabwean research and international collaboration. For example, 83 involves international collaboration, the frequency percent of Zambia’s citable publications are the of international research collaborations is lower in product of international collaboration. The share Zimbabwe than in other countries in the region. of international collaboration in Zimbabwe’s total In 2017, more than 70 percent of Zimbabwe’s research output has not increased over the past decade, citable publications were published in collaboration likely due to the economic turmoil that characterized with international researchers and support from much of the period and the international sanctions external research funding (Figure 44). This reliance imposed on the country. International collaboration on international collaboration affords foreign can greatly increase research output, encourage the researchers significant influence over Zimbabwe’s adoption of new methodologies, and offer valuable research agenda, but this phenomenon is not unique insights. Zimbabwe’s relatively modest engagement to Zimbabwe. Indeed, many other countries in the in international research collaboration may diminish region rely more heavily on external research funding the country’s scholarly output. FIGURE 46 SHARE OF PUBLICATIONS PRODUCED THROUGH INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION, ZIMBABWE AND COMPARATOR COUNTRIES (%) 100 100 89 Zimbabwe 90 80 81 83 83 80 79 80 72 73 60 70 40 60 50 20 40 0 Zimbabwe Botswana Namibia Kenya Tanzania Zambia Uganda Rwanda 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 Source: Scimago Journal and Country Rank 52 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS Sectoral Governance 83. At the institutional level, Zimbabwe’s public universities are not fully autonomous, especially in terms of financial and human-resources management. 81. Zimbabwe’s tertiary education sector suffered The MHTESTD controls the budgetary and tuition from a lack of strategic direction during the economic policies of public universities. Even when faced crisis, and the authorities did not prepare a plan for with severe financial limitations, these universities the sector for over a decade. However, the MHTESTD are not allowed to strictly enforce their tuition has adopted a highly proactive approach to strategic requirements. Moreover, public universities are planning, and over the past year it has conducted a overseen by very large councils, usually between 30 skills audit, developed the New Higher Education and 45 members, who receive financial allowances Strategy, and updated the qualifications framework. paid by the universities. This system increases the The ZIMCHE supports the MHTESTD. Its primary cost and limits the quality and effectiveness of mandate is quality assurance and enhancement, and it university governance. is in charge of institutional registration, accreditation, audits, and the assessment of foreign qualifications. Sectoral Financing 82. Zimbabwe’s tertiary education sector suffers from multiple organizational and institutional weaknesses. First, the education authorities Resource Mobilization distinguish between “higher education”, which includes universities and polytechnics, and “tertiary 84. Zimbabwe maintains high levels of public education” consisting of post-secondary colleges, education spending, including spending on tertiary some of which do not offer degrees. This distinction education, relative to the size of its economy. The is not common in other countries; its purpose is Zimbabwean government consistently invests unclear; and Zimbabwe’s articulation policies (or over 7 percent of GDP in education, well above lack thereof) inhibit the movement of students the average for Sub-Saharan Africa and one of between the two subsystems. Second, the country the largest shares in the region. The government’s lacks a comprehensive information-management longstanding commitment to education spending system, which constrains performance monitoring reflects the importance of human-capital and weakens the foundation for evidence-based development as a national cultural value. Education policymaking. Third, the ZIMCHE’s funding model represented 30 percent of total public spending relies on a tax imposed on each university based on in 2014, among the highest levels in Africa and their enrollment, creating a strong disincentive to far above the Sub-Saharan Africa average of 19 report enrollment figures accurately. Fourth, salaries percent. Tertiary education accounted for 17 for staff at teacher training colleges and TVET percent of public education spending in 2014, institutions are significantly lower than salaries for below the Sub-Saharan Africa average of 20 university staff, which makes it totally unattractive percent, but a large share relative to total public to teach in non-university institutions. The result is spending (Figure 45). However, the extent to which that all qualified academics gravitate towards the Zimbabwe’s high levels of education spending are universities, which means that the colleges get their impacting economic productivity and workforce academics by default rather than by vocation. skills development remains unclear. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 53 FIGURE 47 PUBLIC SPENDING ON EDUCATION AS A SHARE OF GDP AND TOTAL PUBLIC SPENDING, ZIMBABWE AND COMPARATOR COUNTRIES (%) 12 35 10 30 % of Gov. Expenditure 25 8 % of GDP 20 6 15 4 10 2 5 0 0 Zambia Uganda Rwanda Tanzania Sub-Saharan Kenya South Africa Zimbabwe Botswana Education as % of GDP Education as % of Gov Expenditure Source: World Bank, Data Bank – Education Statistics, retrieved on March 25, 2019 Note: The latest available figures for each country 85. Over the past decade, Zimbabwe’s economic basis than the younger ones, in the absence of crisis has deprived the tertiary education sector an objective and transparent funding formula. of much-needed funding. In addition, budget Insufficient financial resources have limited allocations are not closely correlated with education access, reduced the equity of access to enrollment (Figure 46). Other criteria—such as the education services, eroded the quality of teaching age of the institution—influence the distribution and the learning environment, constrained budgets of resources, meaning that the oldest-established for research, scholarships, and training, and universities receive more resources on a per-student weakened strategic planning. FIGURE 48 BUDGET ALLOCATIONS AND TOTAL ENROLLMENT AMONG PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES, 2015 25,000 60.00 Budget allocation (Millions) 57.09 20,000 50.00 19,235 40.00 Enrollments 15,000 11,939 12,039 30.00 10,000 28.33 26.90 10,286 20.00 6,804 20.93 19.55 6,931 7,150 5,000 18.06 14.94 4,405 10.00 10.79 1,630 7.20 0 0.00 UZ MSU NUST GZU ZOU CUT BUSE HIT LSU Budget Tot. Enrol Source: MHTESTD 86. The MHTESTD budget has fluctuated does not appear to follow a consistent pattern, but substantially from year to year. The government instead reflects annual changes in the government’s typically allocates US$300-350 million to the overall fiscal position. The share of the MHTESTD MHTESTD.25 The size of the MHTESTD budget budget devoted to capital investment rose to 15 54 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS percent in 2018 and is expected to increase further investment will be vital to expand institutions and in 2019 (Figure 47). A continued increase in capital meet the surging demand for tertiary education. FIGURE 49 TOTAL MHTESTD BUDGET AND SHARE ALLOCATED TO CAPITAL INVESTMENT 400 20% 350 300 15% 250 $ million 200 10% 150 100 5% 50 - 0% 2016 2017 2018 2019 Total budget allocation (left) Share of capital expenditure (right) Source: Budget Blue Book, respective year, including both current and capital budgets Note: 2016 and 2017 figures are based on revised estimates, 2018 figures are based on appropriations, and 2019 figures are based on indicative appropriation estimates Resource Allocation receive the largest share of the tertiary education budget. Around 80 percent of the MHTESTD’s 87. History-based budgeting drives the allocation budget typically goes to universities, while teacher of funding to Zimbabwe’s tertiary education sector. training colleges, polytechnics, and other TVET History-based budgeting, in which allocations in institutions receive the remaining 20 percent previous years are used as benchmarks to determine (Figure 48). This allocation pattern has remained allocations in subsequent years, is the most common broadly stable over time. This budgetary allocation approach to recurrent budget allocation in Africa.26 in favor of universities contributes to the financing Year-to-year changes in sectoral budgets reflect constraints faced by the country’s non-university changes in the government’s overall fiscal stance. tertiary education institutions. As of 2017, there Consequently, Zimbabwe’s tertiary education budget were around 92,000 students in universities while a is unpredictable, and budget allocations do little to total of 52,000 students were enrolled in TVET and incentivize institutional performance. 88. Universities teacher training institutions. FIGURE 50 ALLOCATION OF THE TERTIARY EDUCATION BUDGET BY TYPE OF INSTITUTION, 2016 100% 19% 20% 21% 80% 30% 80% 79% 79% 60% 40% 68% 20% 0% 2016 2017 2018 2019 Share of universities Share of colleges, polytechnic, teacher college, vocational Source: Budget Blue Book, respective year, including both current and capital budgets Note: 2016 and 2017 data are based on revised estimate, 2018 data on appropriation, and 2019 data on indicative appropriation estimate. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 55 89. The distribution of public investments between of investment in the TVET subsector is driven by universities and other tertiary institutions is appropriations under so-called “retention funds” or marginally more equal. In 2016, universities “statutory funds,” which are own-source revenues accounted for 60 percent of the MHTESTD collected by public agencies outside of the regular investment budget. TVET institutions, which budget. Statutory funds or retention funds for received less than 20 percent of the total MHTESTD TVET institutions are captured in the budget, but budget, accounted for around 28 percent of the universities are treated as autonomous entities, and capital budget (Figure 49). their own-source revenues are not included in the budget. Moreover, donor-funded investment projects may also be excluded from the budget. Combined, FIGURE 51 ALLOCATION OF THE TERTIARY these factors lead to the significant underreporting EDUCATION INVESTMENT BUDGET BY TYPE of university investment. For example, the two OF INSTITUTION, 2016 most popular universities in Harare, the UZ and HIT, received just US$500,000 and US$200,000, respectively, in capital-budget transfers—allocations 28% 9% that are unlikely to reflect their actual levels of capital investment. 91. University investments funded via the capital budget focused on the construction of new universities and housing facilities at existing institutions. The list of investment projects funded through the 2018 capital budget include the construction of new universities, residential facilities for students and staffs, and engineering workshops and libraries, as well as the rehabilitation of buildings and infrastructure (Figure 50). In 2018, more than US$12.6 million (37 percent 63% of the capital budget for education) supported construction works for new universities, including Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Universities TVET institutions Teacher colleges Technology and Manicaland University of Applied Sciences. Over US$12.1 million (36 percent of the Source: Budget Blue Book 2016, revised estimates budget) financed the construction of new residential facilities for students and staff, yet interviews with university management suggest that there is 90. However, the government budget may not significant unmet demand for residential facilities. accurately reflect public capital investment in The MHTESTD has launched PPP initiatives to universities. For example, the relatively large share support the construction of new residential facilities. 56 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS FIGURE 52 ALLOCATION OF CAPITAL TRANSFERS TO UNIVERSITIES BY INVESTMENT PURPOSE, 2018 (US$) 14,000,000 12,000,000 10,000,000 8,000,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 - Rehabilitation Workshop, library Residential facilities New universities Allocation Source: Budget Blue Book, 2018 Unit Costs and Revenues at the universities that are currently in operation, HIT Institutional Level receives the largest amount of recurrent transfers per student at US$6,400, followed by UZ at US$5,000. 92. Current spending per student varies considerably NUST also receives a substantial amount in current between public universities. As noted above, budget transfers, and overall, STEM-oriented institutions allocations to tertiary education institutions are and Harare-based universities tend to receive the not based on an objective and transparent funding largest amounts per student (Figure 51). However formula that would reflect enrollment numbers, substantial disparities exist even among these actual cost of programs and their scientific institutions, as evidenced by the fact that the per- infrastructure, staff headcounts, or institutional student allocation of Harare Institute of Technology performance. As a result, per-student budget is twice as high as that of National University of allocations vary widely. Among the nine public Science and Technology. FIGURE 53 RECURRENT BUDGET ALLOCATION PER STUDENT BY UNIVERSITY, 2016 6,463 7,000 5,067 6,000 5,000 3,565 4,000 2,750 2,118 1,829 1,996 $ 3,000 1,717 1,576 2,000 1,000 - Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public University University University University University University University University University Bindura University Chinhoyi Great Zimbabwe Harare Institute of Lupane State Midlands State National University of Zimbabwe Open of Science University of University Technology University University University of Zimbabwe University Education Technology (GZU) (HIT) (LSU) (MSU) Science & (UZ) (ZOU) (BUSE) (CUT) Technology (NUST) Per student allocation of current budget (2016) Source: Budget-allocation information comes from the 2016 Budget Blue Book, revised estimates; student enrollment information comes from ZIMCHE’s consolidated enrollment figures for 2015 REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 57 Own-Source Revenue Generation of own-source revenue relative to total revenue by Universities (Figure 52). However, very few institutions provided a detailed breakdown of their revenue streams. According to the information received from the 93. The universities that responded to the country’s largest university, MSU, 60 percent of its questionnaire indicated that own-source revenues own-source revenue derived from sales in university account for between 4 and 15 percent of their total canteens and other income-generating activities income. HIT reported receiving the largest share (Figure 53). FIGURE 54 OWN-SOURCE REVENUE AS A SHARE OF TOTAL REVENUE AMONG PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES, 2018 16% 14% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public University University University University University University University University University of Chinhoyi Midlands State Great Zimbabwe Harare Institute National Lupane State Zimbabwe Zimbabwe University of University University of Technology University of University Open University (UZ) Technology (MSU) (GZU) (HIT) Science & (LSU) (ZOU) (CUT) Technology (NUST) Source: 2018 World Bank Survey FIGURE 55 BREAKDOWN OF OWN-SOURCE REVENUE STREAMS AT MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY, 2018 24% Others 4% Finance income 8% Hire of facilities/staff 59% 5% Canteen sales and other Donation income generating activities Source: 2018 World Bank Survey 58 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS 94. Private universities depend primarily on tuition fees vary from US$550 (arts program) to US$849 and endowment revenue. Three of the private (law program) per semester. By contrast, at Women’s universities that responded to the questionnaire University in Africa (WUA), one of Zimbabwe’s provided their detailed financial information. largest private universities, tuition fees account Zimbabwe Ezekiel Guti University (ZEGU), one of for 96 percent of total revenue (Figure 54). WUA’s Zimbabwe’s smallest private universities, receives tuition fees for undergraduate, masters, and doctoral 45 percent of its budget from its institutional programs are US$883, US$1,100, US$1,250 per endowment, which is quite remarkable. Its tuition semester, respectively. FIGURE 56 NON-TUITION INCOME AS A SHARE OF TOTAL INCOME AT THREE PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES, 2018 50% 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Private University Private University Private University Catholic University of Zimbabwe (CUZ) Zimbabwe Ezekiel Guti University (ZEGU) Women’s University in Africa (WUA) Source: 2018 World Bank Survey 95. Public universities also collect considerable universities. Public university tuition fees average income from tuition fees. Public transfers alone are US$1,000 to US$1,500 per student (Figure 55). insufficient to finance the operations of Zimbabwean FIGURE 57 ANNUAL TUITION REVENUE PER STUDENT AMONG PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES, 2018 1,500 1,000 US$ 500 0 Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public University University University University University University University University University of Chinhoyi Midlands State Great Zimbabwe Harare Institute National Lupane State Zimbabwe Open Zimbabwe University of University University of Technology University of University University (UZ) Technology (MSU) (GZU) (HIT) Science & (LSU) (ZOU) (CUT) Technology (NUST) Source: 2018 World Bank Survey Note: The amount of annual income from tuition fees in 2018 was divided by the total enrollment of each corresponding institution in the most recent year for which data is available. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 59 96. Zimbabwean universities raise substantial three public universities that provided information amounts of research funding from external sources, on research funding, UZ attracted both the greatest but domestic funding levels are low. Public funding for amount of total funding (US$1.2 million) and the academic research and development averages about largest share of domestic funding. MSU received US$3-4 million per year, or roughly 1 percent of the more funding from international sources, but its total MHTESTD budget (Figure 56), a very modest amount funding was lower (US$660,000). Meanwhile, NUST for a country with an annual GDP of US$17.8 billion. raised significantly less (US$380,000), and almost Science and technology departments typically receive all of its research funding came from international the largest amounts of research funding. Among the sources (Figure 57). FIGURE 58 PUBLIC FUNDING FOR RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATION, 2016-19 6,000,000 2.0% 5,000,000 1.5% 4,000,000 US$ 3,000,000 1.0% 2,000,000 0.5% 1,000,000 - 0.0% 2016 2017 2018 2019 Allocation for research, development and innovation (left) % of total MoHTESTD budget (right) Source: Budget Blue Book, respective year Note: 2016 and 2017 data are based on revised estimate, 2018 data on appropriation, and 2019 data on indicative appropriation estimate. FIGURE 59 ANNUAL RESEARCH FUNDING FROM LOCAL AND EXTERNAL SOURCES AMONG FOUR PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES, 2017 500,000 400,000 300,000 US$ 200,000 100,000 0 Humanities and Social Sciences Agriculture Science and Technology Health Sciences Arts, Commerce, Education Law and Social Sciences Agriculture Science and Technology Humanities and Social Sciences Agriculture Science and Technology Medicine Humanities and Social Sciences Agriculture Science and Technology Medicine Arts, Commerce, Education Law and Social Sciences Agriculture Science and Technology UZ CUT MSU NUST ZOU Local research grants International research grants Source: 2018 World Bank Survey 60 THE STATE OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR IN THE WAKE OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS Budget Allocation at (Figure 58). Beyond employment costs, public budget the Institutional Level allocations to these institutions are very low. For example, the 2016 budget allocated US$50,000 to each public TVET institution and teacher training 97. Public funding for TVET institutions and teacher college for non-personnel expenditures. Even if that training colleges is almost entirely used to cover staff allocation were fully disbursed, it would hardly cover salaries and benefits, leaving little room for operational basic operational expenditures and minor repairs, and spending. Teachers and staff at public TVET institutions financing investments in new equipment, supplies, and and teacher training colleges are public servants paid facilities would be beyond the reach of the institutions. directly by government, and their salaries and allowances However, a separate budget appropriation is devoted account for 83 percent and 96 percent of the budget to construction projects and equipment purchases by allocated to TVET and teacher education, respectively TVET institutions. FIGURE 60 EXPENDITURES COVERED BY PUBLIC FUNDING AMONG TVET INSTITUTIONS AND TEACHER TRAINING COLLEGES, 2016 (US$) 14,000,000 12,000,000 10,000,000 8,000,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 - TVET Teacher Education Employment cost Institutions’ budget Construction works Source: Budget Blue Book, 2016 Note: Employment cost include basic salaries, housing allowance and transport allowance 98. Faced with very modest public funding, TVET tuition fees limit tertiary education access. High institutions and teacher training colleges primarily tuition fees contribute to significant dropout rates in finance their operational and investment expenses both public and private universities. Several factors through own-source revenue. In 2017, public funding undermine the quality of the teaching and learning for non-personnel expenses at TVET institutions environment, including shortages of academic staff totaled just US$500,000, whereas their total own- and outdated curricular and pedagogical practices. In source revenue exceeded US$18 million. A similar spite of the economic crisis, Zimbabwe has managed pattern was observed among teacher training colleges. to maintain a relatively high level of quantitative However, no detailed information is available on how research output. From a governance viewpoint, these institutions spend their own-source revenue. Zimbabwe’s tertiary education sector suffers from several organizational and institutional weaknesses: lack of articulation between higher education Summary and tertiary education, incomplete MIS, and lack of institutional autonomy. In terms of resource mobilization, Zimbabwe’s economic crisis over the At 8.5%, Zimbabwe’s tertiary enrollment rate is yet to past decade has deprived the tertiary education sector match the level of regional leaders, such as Botswana of much-needed funding. Finally, as far as resource (23.4%), South Africa (20.5%), and Kenya (11.7%). allocation is concerned, history-based budgeting drives While Zimbabwe has six private universities, a large the allocation of funding to Zimbabwe’s tertiary majority of tertiary students (90%) are enrolled in education sector, resulting in large and unjustified public institutions. Infrastructure constraints and variations in per-student funding across institutions. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 61 62 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION 05 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION 99. After many years of crisis, a comprehensive approach is needed to revitalize Zimbabwe’s tertiary education system. This section presents a range of BOX 2 EDUCATION 5.0: CRAFTING A policy options that the Government could consider VISION FOR ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY in the following areas: (A) Defining a vision for the EDUCATION SECTOR future; (B) Expanding Access and Increasing Equity; (C) Improving the quality and relevance of tertiary education programs; (D) Building research capacity Education 5.0 establishes five strategic goals for and accelerating technology transfer; (E) Putting Zimbabwe’s tertiary education system: in place appropriate institutional governance and • The robust production of education-related goods management arrangements; and (F) Developing a and services; sustainable financing strategy. • A growing supply of high-quality education programs supported by modern physical and financial infrastructure; A. Defining a Vision for the Future • A heritage-based approach27 to science and technology; • Educational outputs that contribute to the 100. Prior to the new dispensation, Zimbabwe’s development of an industrialized economy; and tertiary sector suffered from a lack of comprehensive • Robust governance structures that enable the strategic planning, which was exacerbated by the tertiary education sector to support Zimbabwe’s country’s economic crisis, and the most urgent modernization and industrialization. priority for revitalizing the sector was to elaborate a bold but achievable vision for its development. A Source: Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and strategy should set targets for the overall size of the Technology Development, 2019 tertiary sector and its institutional configuration in line with the government’s overarching goal of producing highly qualified graduates and valuable research to support Zimbabwe’s economic recovery. are welcome steps, as these establish a sound In this context, the Education 5.0 document and a framework for elaborating a comprehensive vision Five-year Strategic Plan prepared by the MHTESTD for the tertiary education sector. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 63 101. Once articulated, Zimbabwe’s strategic vision with Zimbabwe’s human-capital requirements and must be operationalized through a long-term long-term development objectives? Does the system comprehensive master plan. This plan should include allow students to move easily between institutions? four essential components. First, it should set long-term • Would Zimbabwe benefit from developing “centers quantitative targets for the expansion of the various of excellence” designed to conduct advanced subsectors and the balanced and complementary research in priority areas? evolution of the sector’s institutional composition. • Are the tertiary education system’s current quality Second, it should establish overall goals for qualitative assurance mechanisms adequate? If not, how can improvements, including measures to enhance the they be improved? relevance of educational programs to the needs of the • Do the system’s governance arrangements create private sector. Third, it should outline priority reforms an appropriate regulatory framework to support designed to strengthen institutional governance and innovation and the adoption of international ensure sustainable financing. Fourth, the plan should best practices? include provisions for building the implementation • What level of public and private resource capacity necessary to achieve its objectives, including mobilization would be necessary to achieve the monitoring and oversight mechanisms. The strategic government’s objectives in a sustainable manner? vision and the implementation plan should address the following questions: 102. When designing a long-term strategic vision and plan for the tertiary education sector, Zimbabwean • How will tertiary education support Zimbabwe’s policymakers should draw on the experience of the economic recovery and slow down, or even reverse, world’s most successful tertiary systems. The U.S. State emigration among highly trained professionals? of California is home to 10 of the top 100 universities in • What quantitative targets will the government the Shanghai 2018 ARWU ranking, and its achievements pursue with respect to overall enrollment growth, are a direct result of the clear and wide-ranging vision equal opportunities for students from vulnerable elaborated in the 1960s and embodied in the state’s groups, educational attainment among the adult Higher Education Master Plan, which defined the roles of population, and research output? different institutions, from junior colleges to top research • Is the current balance between universities, teacher universities, and established mechanisms to allow students training colleges, and TVET institutions consistent to move between those institutions (Box 3). BOX 3 A LONG-TERM VISION FOR TERTIARY EDUCATION IN CALIFORNIA California pioneered the use of strategic policy frameworks state’s tertiary education sector. These include: for state-level tertiary education systems when it developed and implemented its first Higher Education Master Plan • The recognition that different types of institutions in 1959-60. The strategy focused on balancing the roles (the University of California system, the California of the public and private sectors and creating a robust State University system, community colleges and public-sector governance framework that would promote junior colleges, and private institutions) have different expenditure efficiency and ensure high service quality. The missions and roles in the tertiary education sector; California Master Plan for Higher Education is revised about • The establishment of a statutory coordinating body every 10 years. It is not a rigid blueprint for the centralized for the entire sector; control of tertiary education in California. Instead, it sets • The use of differential admissions pools for some general parameters for the sector’s development universities and state colleges; designed to balance the growth of different types of • The eligibility of students attending private institutions institution and the promote overall equity, quality, and to apply for the state scholarship program; and efficiency of tertiary education. The fundamental principles • The availability, since 1965, of grants from the federal that emerged from the initial master plan still shape the government for low-income students (Pell Grants). Source: Salmi, 2017 64 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION B. Expanding Access and institution types and education modalities to create Improving Equity a flexible and adaptive labor force. The experience of countries as diverse as China, South Africa, and Thailand shows that spreading enrollment growth 103. Given Zimbabwe’s relatively low level of across a variety of tertiary education institutions tertiary enrollment, the dominant position of public and delivery modalities can expand the supply of universities in the tertiary sector, and the government’s tertiary education in a way that is both more fiscally limited resources, policymakers may wish to consider sustainable and more appropriate to the needs of a an expansion strategy based on institutional growing economy. South Africa’s experience with differentiation. Institutional differentiation institutional differentiation yields especially relevant leverages the complementary advantages of various lessons for Zimbabwe (Box 4). BOX 4 SOUTH AFRICA’S SHAPE AND SIZE TASK FORCE To develop a broad strategy for modernizing and improving 1. Institutions dedicated to high-quality undergraduate tertiary education in South Africa, the country’s Council education that provide equitable access for urban and on Higher Education established the Shape and Size Task rural students across the country. Force, which was tasked with formulating a comprehensive 2. Sophisticated research universities that provide plan for diversifying the supply of tertiary education. The undergraduate and graduate degrees to boost the supply task force “made the case for higher education as a of “high-level knowledge producers of national and potentially powerful contributor to, and necessary condition international standing” across all academic disciplines. for, achieving the goals of social equity, economic and social 3. Institutions focused on master’s and doctoral development and democracy” and recognized that “[h]igher programs in three priority areas: humanities and social education’s primary role is to develop the intellectual and science, business studies, and science, engineering, skills capabilities of our society to address and resolve and technology. the range of economic (including labour market), social, 4. Distance-education programs, including those offered cultural, political and other challenges faced by society. at campus-based institutions and by dedicated It must do so at a national, regional and local level as distance-providers, which may provide undergraduate well as contribute to the development of the continent. and/or graduate training, depending upon their capacity Higher education must also play a central role in meeting to meet national accreditation standards. 5. Private the difficult realities of international competition under the tertiary education institutions, the establishment of new conditions of globalization.” The task force concluded which was authorized in 1997 to meet the growing that to maximize its potential, the tertiary education sector demand for tertiary education, and which are subject needed to become more differentiated and diversified. To to accreditation and regulation standards to assure accomplish this objective, the task force support to five quality and minimize any potential detrimental effects types of institution and educational modality: on the public tertiary education system. Source: Task Force, 2000, Chapter 3 104. Community colleges designed after the North of the undergraduate population was enrolled American or South Korean model can help absorb in community colleges in 2017. South Korea has a large share of the student population at a reduced almost as many junior colleges (152) as universities cost compared to universities. Community colleges (178). In the United States, the share of community occupy an important place in the tertiary education college enrollment in total post-secondary was 43 systems of developed countries, providing a flexible percent in 2017. Students who reach only O-level and responsive solution to the demands of both could access community colleges after taking students and employers. In Canada, 42.8 percent foundation courses and demonstrating that they REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 65 have acquired the basic academic level needed to development of private tertiary education institutions study in a community college. while ensuring that licensing and accreditation requirements remain rigorous enough to guarantee 105. Distance education can provide an important high quality standards. In line with international complement to traditional tertiary institutions. trends, requirements should focus less on inputs (e.g., Established in 1999, Zimbabwe Open University facilities and equipment) and more on measures of (ZOU) is the country’s only distance-education service quality (e.g., faculty credentials, pedagogical institution. ZOU has about 30,000 graduates in practices, and institutional governance) and outcome total, and it could absorb a significantly larger indicators (e.g., graduation rates and research share of students. The National University of South output). Second, the government could offer limited Africa (UNISA), which is the largest distance- subsidies to private tertiary education providers. education institution in Africa and one of the For example, accredited private institutions could world’s top 30 mega-institutions, provides a natural be allowed to compete for research grants in priority role model for ZOU. Another positive example is areas, such as engineering or applied sciences. The Thailand, where two open universities enroll close government could also lease public land to private to half of the total student population, including a tertiary education institutions at a low cost. Finally, large share of students from poor households and students who are enrolled in accredited private rural areas.28 Due largely to its open universities, institutions should be eligible for financial aid. Thailand’s tertiary enrollment rate exceeds that of neighboring Malaysia, even though the latter spends 108. Equity-promotion policies could complement a larger share of its GDP on tertiary education. institutional differentiation by reducing disparities in The open universities also contribute to Thailand’s access to and success in tertiary education. The most remarkable equity indicators: in Thailand, the share effective equity-promotion policies address both the of 25-29-year-olds from the poorest income quintile financial and non-financial elements of tertiary education who have completed at least two years of tertiary access.29 Well-targeted and efficiently managed financial education reached 26.7 percent in 2014, an order of aid can be instrumental in reducing financial barriers magnitude above the levels of regional peers such as to tertiary education, and Zimbabwean policymakers Indonesia (2 percent), Vietnam (3 percent), and the should consider three key financial issues: tuition fees, Philippines (4 percent). student loans, and scholarships. 106. Quality control is a critical challenge for distance 109. Tuition fees represent a very large share of education. Before taking steps to increase ZEO’s tertiary education income in Zimbabwe and create share in total tertiary enrollment, the authorities a substantial barrier to students from lower-income should strive to enhance the quality and relevance of households. In Zimbabwe, the most equitable its programs, increase completion rates, and promote and sustainable approach would be to gradually positive labor-market outcomes. Technology-driven implement a targeted free tuition scheme for the innovations and personalized learning experiences students from the most disadvantaged backgrounds. could significantly enhance the effectiveness of the distance education programs offered by ZEO and 110. Creating a national student loan scheme other institutions. could further ease financial constraints on tertiary education access. Such a system could build on the 107. Many countries have encouraged the growth of EduLoan program launched in September 2018, private universities to help meet a growing demand while incorporating lessons from the international for tertiary education while further diversifying its experience. Many factors determine the success or institutional composition and easing pressure on the failure of a student loan scheme, including design government’s education budget. Zimbabwe’s private considerations, interest rates, administrative costs, tertiary education subsector accounts for just 10 the strength of its leadership, the quality of its percent of total enrollment, and two sets of measures management, and its ability to rapidly address could accelerate its growth. First, the MHTESTD emerging challenges, but collection efficiency is the and ZIMCHE could amend the existing regulatory most critical element. No student loan program can framework to eliminate legal and administrative succeed unless its collection mechanisms are well hurdles that could constrain the establishment and designed and effectively administered.30 66 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION 111. Traditional, mortgage-type student loan students, especially students from poor households schemes such as the one managed by EduLoan and marginalized communities. Academic and career are intrinsically vulnerable. Without an income- counseling should incorporate the perspectives of contingent provision, repayment rates will inevitably multiple stakeholders the Ministry of Education, fall during economic downturn, as former students the MHTESTD, the Ministry of Labor, the Ministry face high unemployment rates and weak income of Economy, tertiary education institutions, and growth. The international experience shows that chambers of commerce. Outreach and bridge income-contingent loans modeled on those used in programs that link secondary and tertiary education the Australia and New Zealand tend to have higher institutions can further improve transition rates and repayment rates. Under an income-contingent increase the probability of student success at the system, former students repay a fixed share of their tertiary level, especially among at-risk students. These income rather than a nominal sum, and they are programs seek to reduce the academic, aspirational, exempt from repayment obligations during periods informational, and personal barriers that restrict of unemployment or if their income is below a access among students currently underrepresented predetermined threshold. in tertiary education institutions. Universities can also address deficiencies in student preparation by offering foundational courses that build knowledge C. Improving the Quality and and skills in specific areas. Relevance of Tertiary Education 115. Predictive analytics offers a promising avenue for identifying at-risk students and reducing dropout 113. Improving the quality and relevance of tertiary rates, especially among first-generation tertiary education in Zimbabwe will require a combination students. About 40 percent of US universities of interventions. These interventions should target have experimented with using data analysis and four key determinants of education quality and innovative tools, such as digital dashboards and relevance: (i) the preparation of incoming students; heat maps, to detect early behavioral changes (ii) the qualifications of academics; (iii) curricular associated with academic difficulties (Box 5).31 For and pedagogical practices; and (iv) links to the example, Ball State University in Indiana monitors productive sectors. both the academic engagement of students and their social activities to identify shifting behavioral 114. Improvements in secondary education can pattern that may indicate academic difficulty, better prepare incoming tertiary students. Expanding enabling retention specialists to intervene and offer math and science education, promoting STEM-based academic and psychological support as needed. career paths, and offering targeted STEM mentoring Arizona State University’s eAdvisor system, activities and scholarships to girls could boost the which flags at-risk students, has been credited readiness of new tertiary students to succeed in STEM with boosting completion rates for students from programs. Academic and career counseling programs vulnerable groups from 26 to 41 percent since its could further enhance the preparation of incoming establishment in 2007. BOX 5 THE PROMISE OF PREDICTIVE ANALYTICS The experience of Georgia State University (GSU) are most likely to succeed in based on their grades in prior illustrates how the use of predictive analytics is changing courses. An early-warning system based on a dataset of tertiary education in the United States. GSU’s students 2.5 million course grades issued over 10 years is used are 60 percent nonwhite, and many are the first in to identify critical factors that reduce the probability of their families to enroll in tertiary education. GSU uses graduation. For example, an academic adviser will get a predictive analytics to advise students on the majors they red flag if a student does not receive a satisfactory grade REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 67 in a course needed for his or her major, does not take a are graduating an average of one semester earlier than required course within the recommended time, or signs they did before, saving an estimated US$12 million in up for a course that is not relevant to his or her major. tuition; and low-income, first-generation, and minority This system has yielded impressive results: graduation students have closed the graduation-rate gap, including rates are up 6 percentage points since 2013; students in STEM majors. Source: Blumenstyk, 2014; Kamenetz, 2016; Salmi and Orjuela (forthcoming) 116. Improving the qualifications of academics will enhancing delivery. To create incentives for tertiary be critical to enhance tertiary education quality education institutions to transform their approach to in Zimbabwe. To meet the growing demand for teaching and learning, the Zimbabwean authorities qualified academics and the shortfall in PhD should encourage universities to move away from holders, universities can strive to: (i) attract qualified traditional pedagogical methods and embrace a more Zimbabwean academics from the diaspora, (ii) interactive, collaborative, and experiential approach. expand their master’s and doctoral programs and As automation and digitization continue to change hire their own graduates as teaching staff; (iii) expand the nature of work, traditional teaching methods international training opportunities for Zimbabwean are increasingly ill-suited to the development of the academics; and (iv) allow academic staff to work on sophisticated cognitive and socioemotional skills a contract basis at other universities in addition to demanded by employers. Meanwhile, mounting their primary employer. evidence from the educational and cognitive sciences indicates that interactive pedagogical approaches 117. Increasing the share of qualified female facilitate a more effective learning experience. academics could greatly enhance the quality of teaching, learning, and research in Zimbabwean 119. Adopting innovative pedagogical techniques universities. Gender balance among university staff can enhance the quality and relevance of has been shown to produce better academic results teaching and learning. For example, under the and improved management decisions.32 In the mid- problem-based learning methodology students 2000s, Harvard University attempted to address its learn about a topic and acquire competences by gender imbalance by: (i) appointing institutional working in groups to solve open-ended problems. leaders to focus on the issue; (ii) establishing a Cooperative education alternates academic studies high-profile office responsible for promoting gender with relevant work experience in a field directly balance; (iii) publicizing research showing the related to a student’s academic or career goals, importance of diversity and highlighting successful while multidisciplinary programs integrate content policy measures; (iv) continuously improving from multiple subject areas to foster creativity recruitment and promotion policies and practices; and innovation. Recognizing that motivation can (v) strengthening family-support programs for be as important to learning as academic ability, academics; evaluating the impact of the university’s a growing number of institutions have launched policies on gender balance; and participating in flexible competency-based programs that allow institutional networks to share lessons learned and students to build an individualized curriculum disseminate good-practice principles. Zimbabwean aligned with their specific interests and goals. universities could draw on the experience to create Technological developments in online education, offices responsible for promoting gender balance by self-guided instruction, peer-to-peer learning, facilitating the recruitment and retention of female team-based learning, the “flipped classroom” staff and by promoting respect for gender diversity model, and digital simulations utilize computers, within the student body and the elimination of all artificial intelligence, and machine learning can forms of direct and indirect discrimination against support these innovative pedagogical practices. female students. 120. Establishing well-resourced teaching and 118. Curricular and pedagogical reforms should learning centers in all tertiary education institutions focus on modernizing program content and could support the adoption of new pedagogical 68 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION methods. These centers would facilitate active learning independent learning, etc. They would also provide methods, including design-based or problem-based training to academic staff, including capacity- learning, gaming, simulations, role-playing, peer- building workshops and mentoring, to encourage the to-peer learning, artificial intelligence software for use of innovative pedagogical approaches (Box 6). BOX 6 THE TRANSFORMATION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING AT OLIN COLLEGE Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering, a small private cross-enroll at Babson College and Wellesley College for college in Wellesley, Massachusetts, has implemented entrepreneurships and humanities courses, respectively. a radically interactive, collaborative, and experiential To ensure that all Olin graduates can successfully learning model. Since 1999, Olin College has served communicate in a professional setting, every student is as an experimental laboratory designed to remake required to publicly present an aspect of their academic engineering education by attracting the right students, work at the end of every semester. To graduate, every teaching the right curriculum, embracing cutting-edge Olin student must start and run a business and complete teaching methods. To identify future innovators and a year-long senior design project sponsored by the private leaders, it recruits its students primarily through face- sector. The firms that sponsor these projects often recruit to-face interviews and team exercises, rather than relying the students involved after they graduate. In less than on test scores and grades. Learning is mainly organized 20 years, Olin College has achieved impressive results. around team-based projects and design activities. Olin Based on a survey of 130,000 students, Princeton Review College has no academic departments and does not placed Olin among the top 20 US colleges in 15 categories offer tenure to its faculty members, which fosters an of performance, ranking it third for students studying the academic culture emphasizing interdisciplinary learning most and nineteenth for happiest students. Olin has been and educational innovation. A typical program will involve particularly successful in attracting young women into its several teachers from different disciplines providing engineering programs. While female students account for integrated courses with interdisciplinary material. The just 20 percent of enrollment in US engineering programs, curriculum combines engineering, entrepreneurship, at Olin they account for 40 to 50 percent. According to and humanities in a unique way. Olin students are also a recent survey, 97 percent of Olin alumni were either expected to acquire leadership and ethical competencies employed—many in a firm they started themselves—or through social sciences and humanities courses, and they attending graduate school. Source: Buderi, 2014 121. Several countries have established specialized the United Kingdom, require all PhD candidates agencies dedicated to promoting pedagogical to obtain a teaching certificate before completing good practices. For example, Australia’s Office for their doctorate. Others offer incentives that reward Learning and Teaching, established in 2011 as part teaching excellence the same way that outstanding of the Ministry of Education, offers competitive research is rewarded. Others have introduced grants to academics interested in exploring and innovative teaching and learning practices that implementing innovative teaching practices. The promote interactive and collaborative learning, in office also contributes to designing education policy, some cases also remodeling the physical infrastructure disseminates the findings of relevant analytical and environment of universities. From the “flipped work, and presents awards for teaching excellence classroom” model, in which the professor does not throughout the Australian tertiary education system. teach per se, but rather guides and facilitates self- learning and peer learning, to studios and open- 122. International experience yields several space classrooms designed to support design-based important lessons for promoting innovative teaching learning in teams, these new learning facilities offer and learning practices. Some countries, including a flexible environment that differs substantially REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 69 from the traditional classroom and lecture hall. as visiting lecturers. Incorporating entrepreneurship However, curricular and pedagogical innovations training into regular university programs can help can transform learning only if the assessment criteria increase their relevance to the private sector, and and processes are fully aligned with the educational universities can establish cooperative learning experience of the students. programs that alternate on-campus learning periods with regular in-firm internships (Box 7). Efforts to 123. Strengthening linkages with industry can improve bring universities closer to industry are not restricted to the employment prospects of tertiary graduates. applied sciences and other business-related disciplines. Universities can obtain internships for undergraduate Cooperative education programs can also target the students and in-company placements for research social sciences and humanities, so long as appropriate students and academics, and they can encourage employers (e.g., museums, libraries, or other cultural private-sector professionals to offer their services institutions) can be identified and engaged as partners. BOX 7 LESSONS FROM COOPERATIVE EDUCATION PROGRAMS Under the cooperative education model, students combine involves 15,800 undergraduate students representing over academic studies with work experience in a field related 56 percent of the university’s full-time undergraduate, to their academic or career goals. Cooperative education as well as 3,500 partner employers around the world.34 allows students to gain relevant work experience, apply Students in the cooperative education program graduate theoretical knowledge to real-world situations, clarify with the same number of academic terms as other students, their career plans, and build their professional networks plus up to two years of work experience. Cooperative by establishing connections with prospective employers education students are employed for four to six periods and colleagues. Working can help students finance of four months each, and most work in a variety of career their education while learning on valuable job skills fields. Cooperative education students typically earn and professional competencies. Cooperative education between $25,000 and $74,000 prior to graduation, enabling also offers advantages for employers by giving them them to repay student loans much more quickly than other “access to well-prepared short-term workers, flexibility to students. Graduates of the cooperative education program address human resource needs, cost-effective long-term earn an average of about 15 percent more upon graduation recruitment and retention, partnerships with schools, and than other graduates. The University of Waterloo also cost-effective productivity.”33 offers a cooperative education program focusing on entrepreneurship, in which students receive support from The University of Waterloo in Ontario, Canada operates experienced professionals, and in some cases economic the world’s largest cooperative education program, which resources, to develop their own businesses.35 Source: The World Association for Cooperative Education (WACE); The National Commission for Cooperative Education; StudyinCanada.com; University of Waterloo, Canada; and The National Center for Tertiary Teaching Excellence, New Zealand. 124. It is fundamental to strengthen the existing 125. In addition to strengthening the official quality quality assurance functions carried out by ZIMCHE. assurance mechanisms at the national level, the The registration, accreditation and institutional Zimbabwean Government should also consider audits for which ZIMCHE is responsible must offering incentives for the establishment and/or be undertaken with the appropriate level of consolidation of internal quality assurance units in professional independence and technical capacity all tertiary education institutions, which are essential to enforce high quality standards throughout the for the development of a genuine and effective quality tertiary education system. assurance culture. 70 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION D. Building Research Capacity and also consider emulating government-sponsored Accelerating Technology Transfer postdoctoral programs in countries such as Pakistan, which offers accredited universities the opportunity to hire promising young researchers for up to two The National Science and Technology Policy years at little or no cost. 126. To build the research capacity of Zimbabwe’s 127. As they devise a strategy for building the country’s top universities, the government must: (i) articulate research capacity, the authorities should take steps to a clear science and technology strategy, and (ii) maximize the value of their limited resource envelope. increase public funding for research. Building One of the most important goals of the national science Zimbabwe’s research capacity will be critical to and technology strategy should be to determine the accelerate the country’s economic recovery and optimal number of research-oriented universities to achieve its development objectives. Incentives that which the government can commit adequate long- encourage the return of Zimbabwean researchers term funding. The authorities should also seek to focus working abroad and foreign exchange programs the country’s existing research capacity on national for PhD students will be instrumental to this effort. priorities. The Australian government’s experience To facilitate the integration of doctoral graduates with developing a new research agenda could yield into dynamic research teams, the authorities should important lessons for Zimbabwe (Box 8). BOX 8 A NEW RESEARCH AGENDA FOR AUSTRALIA The Australian government recently announced its National to commercialize innovations and solve problems; Innovation and Science Agenda, which will be financed by • Talent and skills, to train Australian students for an initial allocation of US$790 million over four years. The the jobs of the future and attract the world’s most agenda’s goal is to encourage “smart ideas that create innovative talent to Australia; and business growth, local jobs and global success.” The • Government as an exemplar, to use cutting-edge strategy’s multiyear scope signals a new era of systematic, public investment processes and e-government ongoing science funding, and it establishes a central services as a model for the private sector. oversight agency for publicly funded scientific research. The agenda will include a flexible funding stream to A government statement on the agenda identified support university research and a training program for the innovation as the heart of a strong economy but noted next generation of researchers and innovators. Under the that it is “not just about new ideas, products and business National Innovation and Science Agenda, the government models; innovation is also about creating a culture where will invest in four priority areas: we embrace risk, move quickly to back good ideas and learn from mistakes.” According to the Department of Education • Culture and capital, to help businesses manage risk and Training, the agenda will ensure that high-quality and incentivize early investment in startups; research drives innovation “that saves lives, answers • Collaboration, to strengthen engagement between firms, social and environmental imperatives, improves economic universities, and the research sector, enhancing their ability productivity and growth, and creates the jobs of the future.” Source: O’Malley, 2015 Research funding instruction and research; (ii) competitive research grants; (iii) performance-based research block grants; 128. Worldwide, at least six discrete funding (iv) direct funding for “centers of excellence”; (v) mechanisms are used to support university-based “excellence initiatives”; and (vi) demand-side research. These include: (i) combined funding for funding.36 The sources of research funding also vary REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 71 and may include national and state governments, assessments of research quality conducted every national and state research councils, private firms, five to seven years. and nongovernmental institutions. • Funding “centers of excellence” allows Combined funding for teaching and research is a policymakers to provide block grants to traditional and widely used approach for financing institutions that specialize in certain fields university-based research. Under this mechanism, of study. The U.S. federal government and universities rely on budgets or financing formulas several state governments use this approach to that fund research and instruction together, and supplement their core research funding, while they use a share of the resources they receive to New Zealand and the Netherlands fund much finance research in addition to their core teaching or all of their academic research through centers activities. The main advantage of this system is that it of excellence, and France and Germany fund encourages integrated teaching and research efforts, a network of research institutions that operate and its primary downside is that it gives policymakers independently from universities. Funding centers little scope to influence the direction of research or of excellence can enable the government to promote the efficient use of resource funding. From prioritize funding by academic area while still the university’s perspective, the key risk is that any offering institutions considerable latitude to decrease in core funding could reduce the resources determine their own specific research agendas. available for research. • “Excellence initiatives” are hybrid financing • Competitive research grants are a common means of mechanisms that combine elements of allocating public resources for research under which competitive research funding and the “centers faculty members apply for funding for specific of excellence” approach to provide additional research project, and their proposals are either resources to universities or research institutions approved or rejected based on a peer-review on a competitive basis. China has implemented process. Multiple public agencies are usually a series of excellence initiatives over the past 20 responsible for funding competitive grant, and years, which has inspired similar programs in in some jurisdictions, such as Singapore and Denmark, France, Germany, and Russia. New York state, public funding is complemented by matching grants from nongovernmental • Demand-side funding for university-based institutions or private sources. The use of peer research is provided indirectly through review to assess the quality and potential of scholarships, fellowships, and other forms of research proposals partially insulates the process support for graduate students and postdoctoral from political pressure. However, the biased researchers. Canada, the United Kingdom, and selection of peers to favor institutional insiders the United States exemplify the demand-side over dissenters may stifle innovation, narrow approach, as the various agencies that fund the scope of research agendas, and undermine research offer a range of programs to support the quality and relevance of the funded projects. graduate student. • Performance-based block grants are a relatively 129. An analysis of the distribution of research rare mechanism under which universities receive funding in nine high-performing OECD countries non-earmarked research funding based on the reveals that most rely on a variety of complementary past performance of university institutions or funding instruments. Separate funding streams can academic units. The amount of public research be used to advance national research priorities funding for each university is based on a regular while allowing institutions the scope to develop peer-reviewed assessment of the faculty’s their own research initiatives. The diversification of collective capacity to conduct innovative and funding sources also helps protect universities from valuable research. In Australia and the United budgetary volatility. Across the sample countries, Kingdom, for example, the “blue skies” approach the two most important financing mechanisms are to allocating research funding allows researchers combined funding for teaching and research and to choose their areas of study, whereas the competitive grants (Table 7). An analysis of funding competitive funding provided by national mechanisms in South Africa, the regional leader in research councils is determined by qualitative research, reveals that about half of the country’s 72 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION research budget comes from combined funding for is split between demand-side funding and competitive teaching and research, while just over one quarter is research grants, with a marginal contribution from provided to centers of excellence, and the remainder performance-based block grants. TABLE 10 RESEARCH FUNDING MECHANISMS IN NINE OECD COUNTRIES Mechanism AUS CAN DEN GER NET NOR SWI UK US Combined funding for a a a a a teaching and research Competitive research grants a a a a a Performance-based a a a a block grants Centers of excellence a a Excellence initiatives a a a a a Demand-side funding a a a a Source: Salmi (2015) 130. The Zimbabwean government should carefully Specific efforts to encourage experienced researchers review all the mechanisms described above and working abroad to return to Zimbabwe, or to design a strategy that reflects its circumstances and collaborate with Zimbabwean universities remotely, ambitions. Building research capacity to support could rapidly enhance university research capacity. increased national and regional innovation is a To improve gender equity and maximize the value complex and expensive process, and the government’s of Zimbabwe’s human capital, universities should strategy should embrace a long-term perspective that use monetary and nonmonetary incentives to attract accounts for its limited public resource envelope and qualified female academics to research programs. maximizes private-sector engagement. Strengthening Research Collaboration Talent Development at the Institutional Level 132. Zimbabwean universities can enhance the 131. An institution’s ability to attract and retain quality and quantity of their research output by a mix of young, promising researchers and older, collaborating with the private sector and participating more experienced researchers is critical to its overall in international research networks. Strong universities research capacity. While several Zimbabwean can make a powerful contribution to local and national universities have strong research teams, institutions development, both directly and through spillover with the potential to become more research- effects. The successful growth of technology clusters intensive must develop capacity-building programs in California’s Silicon Valley, Bangalore in India’s and provide adequate incentives to encourage and Karnataka State, Shanghai in China, and Campinas reward high-impact research. These incentives in Brazil’s São Paulo State attest to the powerful could include financial rewards for performance, complementarities between research universities and flexible schedule arrangements that would reduce technology-oriented firms. Even individual institutions the teaching responsibilities of highly productive can have a major local impact, though university researchers, and opportunities for academic mobility policies play a key role in determining the institution’s and participation in international research networks. relationship to the local economy (Box 9). REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 73 BOX 9 THE LOCAL ECONOMIC IMPACT OF UNIVERSITIES: THE CAMBRIDGE MODEL The top two British universities, Oxford and Cambridge, rate is extremely low. Cambridge’s success reflects its share a similar history and stem from the same academic enlightened policies, investments in key infrastructure, culture, and both are considered among the best and welcoming economic environment. The university has universities in the world. Yet they differ significantly in worked closely with the city council and the neighboring terms of their impact on their respective cities. Oxford authorities to create a favorable innovation ecosystem remains a traditional university city, whereas Cambridge by setting up science parks and incubators, encouraging has become one the most successful technology clusters business and housing developments, attracting investors, in Europe. Beginning in the 1970s with the creation of and lobbying the government for more open immigration business parks to welcome entrepreneurial academics policies while refraining from imposing strategic priorities and their doctoral students, Cambridge has evolved into or micromanaging the city’s economic development. a hub of 4,000 knowledge-intensive firms in fields such The municipal authorities do not pick winners, and the as electronics, pharmaceutics, and biotechnology. With university offers incentives to entrepreneurial scholars— a productivity level 30 percent higher than London’s, tightening the links between academia and the private Cambridge generates more patents that the next six sector. This approach has enabled Cambridge University British cities together; it hosts more billion-dollar firms to transform its local economy while maximizing its impact than cities ten times its size, and its unemployment on national productivity. Source: The Economist (2015) 133. In addition to their direct contribution to adapting innovations to meet local demands. Table their local economies, universities can accelerate 8 provides a summary description of the principal national economic growth by conducting applied modalities of collaboration on knowledge transfer research and enhancing the skills of the labor and technology commercialization that Zimbabwean force. Universities in advanced economies often universities could consider developing. To be focus on basic research and the development of sustainable, the transfer of physical technology must new innovations, but universities in developing be complemented by the transfer of knowledge, countries can play an equally critical economic role skills, and organizational competencies. Academic by facilitating technology transfer. By establishing institutions can play a critical role in transferring technology incubators or forming partnerships with the technical capacity necessary to utilize new industrial parks, Zimbabwe’s leading universities technologies. Involving firms in curriculum design could help adapt foreign technologies to suit the local can help ensure that education programs focus on context. Enhancing the contribution of Zimbabwean employer-relevant content. Regular collaboration universities to technology transfer would require with teaching staff and the creation of student systematic efforts to pursue industry-oriented internships can also facilitate the spread of cutting- research and identify opportunities to commercialize edge ideas from academia to the private sector. Finally, imported technologies. organizing events that showcase new technologies can enable universities can act as knowledge-exchange 134. Technology transfer involves more than merely platforms for the private sector. 74 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION TABLE 11 MOST EFFECTIVE KNOWLEDGE- AND TECHNOLOGY-TRANSFER MECHANISMS University-Industry Linkages Role of National and/or Comments Local Authorities Public space function for networking Develop and fund programs to create With education and training, this and dissemination and support clusters function is seen by firms as the most important contribution of universities Human capital formation Priority setting and incentives for Primary role of universities in support (students and firm employees) establishment of new programs of innovation Targeted scholarships Funding and tax incentives to facilitate insertion of Ph.D graduates Research Matching grants and tax incentives Increased returns at the intersection of Criteria for evaluating the performance traditional disciplines of researchers Problem-solving and consulting Support for cluster formation Targeted assistance to SMEs Sharing of technical infrastructure Funding Need for clear revenue sharing arrangements within universities Knowledge commercialization Appropriate IPR legal framework More likely to happen in biotechnology, Technical assistance nanotechnology, new materials and IT Financial autonomy of public universities Source: Elaborated by Jamil Salmi 135. Strategic partnerships between Zimbabwean and joint benchmarking exercises designed to universities and foreign universities can accelerate strengthen performance monitoring and guide technological capacity-building and enhance strategic planning. the ability of the tertiary education sector to serve as conduits for technology transfer. Some Zimbabwean universities have already formed E. Appropriate Institutional international partnerships to support academic Governance and Management and student mobility. To strengthen the impact Arrangements of international collaboration on research output and technology transfer, Zimbabwean universities could expand their strategic partnerships in line 136. Modernizing the administration of the tertiary with the country’s top development priorities. education sector will require reforms under three These partnerships would provide a framework strategic axes. The government’s strategy should: for mutually beneficial collaborative research (i) reform the sector’s administrative framework; and knowledge transfer. They should include (ii) increase the autonomy of tertiary institutions; activities designed to strengthen Zimbabwean and (iii) ensure that those institutions are fully educational institutions, including joint academic accountable for their academic performance and for programs, joint supervision of graduate students, their use of public resources. Specific reforms under joint research projects, joint community services, each of these axes are described below. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 75 137. The government could begin its administrative the ZIMCHE would be responsible for implementing. reform efforts by eliminating the distinction between “higher education” and “tertiary education.” The 139. The MHTESTD would also be responsible presence of this rhetorical barrier is at odds with for overseeing the design and implementation of a international best practices, and it needlessly comprehensive MIS for the entire tertiary education complicates the administration of tertiary education system. The MIS should encompass all key dimensions by creating illogical bureaucratic rules and constraints. of performance (access, equity, quality of learning, For example, non-university institutions are not relevance of programs, research output and impact, classified as part of the “tertiary education” system governance, financing). Carrying out this important and are therefore ineligible to access ZIMREN, the task could be delegated to ZIMCHE. country’s high-speed internet network. The artificial distinction between “higher education” and “tertiary 140. Effective institutional governance will require education” is a major administrative barrier to empowering and restructuring of university councils institutional differentiation, as it systematically in Zimbabwe. University councils should have fewer disadvantages the non-university subsector. members and a stronger administrative mandate. International experience shows that to function 138. The MHTESTD should be solely responsible effectively university councils should have no more for coordinating the work of all the agencies involved than 20 members, including external members.37 in administering tertiary education institutions The role of Councils in the appointing of the in Zimbabwe, while the ZIMCHE should play a university leader, endorsing the strategic plan, and supportive role as implementing agency. Consolidating budget approvals should be strengthened. Council the MHTESTD’s leadership role would help members should be appointed based on professional ensure that all policy and funding decisions are qualifications through a transparent selection fully coordinated and designed to support the process. Clear accountability requirements should complementary development of all tertiary education underpin the increased autonomy of Zimbabwean subsectors. The MHTESTD would be responsible for universities. Over the past two decades, universities realizing the national vision for tertiary education, in many OECD countries have reformed their harmonizing resource allocation across tertiary governance structures to give a stronger role to education subsectors, and ensuring the institutional the vice-chancellors and the leadership team, while autonomy of all public tertiary education institutions. increasing their autonomy and strengthening their The MHTESTD would design a comprehensive plan accountability.38 These efforts have inspired similar for developing the tertiary education system, which reforms in several Sub-Saharan African countries. BOX 10 REFORMING UNIVERSITY COUNCILS University councils should regularly monitor their own and the outcome of the review should be published both effectiveness and assess the performance of their internally and externally. Reviews may be performed by institution against its strategic plans and operational university staff, but outside specialists should be engaged targets. Councils should perform a formal and rigorous whenever possible. evaluation of their own effectiveness at least once every five years, while other internal leadership bodies should Based on the results of their performance reviews, be subjected to a parallel review process. These reviews universities in Kenya and Senegal have implemented should encompass the performance of the institution reforms designed to enhance the effectiveness of their vis-à-vis its long-term strategic objectives, short-term councils by reforming their selection processes and performance indicators, and the benchmarks set by the increasing their autonomy. institution’s domestic and international peers. The academic leadership should provide input into the review process, In Kenya, the passage of the 2012 Universities Act 76 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION substantially altered the process for appointing members to approve university business plans, budgets, and audits, and university councils. Whereas appointments were previously their mandate includes ensuring the pedagogic integrity controlled by the government, the current system includes of universities. Most council members are external to the both a set of members appointed because of their positions university, including the chairperson. University rectors in government agencies (e.g., the ministries if education are no longer designated by the government but instead and finance) and a set of members drawn from the private selected by the council after a professional search based sector, who are appointed through a competitive and on objective criteria. transparent process. A Selection Panel appointed by the Cabinet Secretary manages the process by advertising Like Senegal, many countries have transferred the vacancies and publishing the names of applicants and responsibility to select university leaders to the university shortlisted candidates in at least two national newspapers. council. The council typically conducts a competitive search The Selection Panel then forwards to the Cabinet Secretary that encompasses candidates from within and outside the three candidates for council chairperson and another nine institution. Denmark introduced this process in 2002-03, candidates for council membership. which has helped raise the international profile of Danish universities, and Finland has followed suit. Some countries As part of a comprehensive reform effort launched in 2013, have even allowed university leadership positions to be Senegal’s government has taken measures to strengthen held by distinguished academics from other countries, the management and accountability of tertiary institutions though in most cases candidates are still required to be by introducing university councils. These councils, which domestic citizens, and university leaders are often former called boards of directors in Senegal, have the authority to academics of the recruiting university. Source: World Bank, 2012;39 World Bank, 2016; Niane, 2016. 141. International experience underscores the elements of financial autonomy enable institutions importance of institutional autonomy. Effective to strengthen weak academic units, cross-subsidize administration requires that tertiary education programs, and fund new initiatives quickly and institutions have control over their own academic flexibly in response to evolving needs. and financial resources, as well as sufficient latitude to make key internal decisions. Institutional 143. Zimbabwean Universities need to introduce autonomy is critical to the successful development of performance incentives for the academic staff as these the public tertiary education sector, as autonomous greatly enhance the quality of teaching and research institutions have been shown to be more responsive in universities. Universities should be allowed to performance incentives.40 to establish reward systems for recognizing the performance and contributions of individual staff. 142. Zimbabwe’s tertiary education institutions’ ability to exercise meaningful control over the factors 144. Increased institutional autonomy should be that determine the quality and costs of their programs accompanied by a well-defined accountability needs to be strengthened. While the institutions have framework. International good practices for institutional certain levels of autonomy and authority to establish accountability require at least two types of annual admissions requirements, to determine the size of the report: (i) a financial audit report prepared according student body, to manage human resources, and to to international accounting standards; and (ii) an establish new programs and courses, they do not have annual performance report showing progress against full control over their tuition fees as Government each of the university’s own strategic objectives and guides tuition fees to guarantee equity and access to yearly plan. Both reports should be submitted to tertiary education. Tertiary education institutions the legislature, and the annual performance report should also have control over the eligibility criteria should be published. These reports are part of a for students’ financial assistance, and they should broad array of accountability instruments (Table 12) be able to reallocate resources internally according and are currently submitted annually to Government to self-determined and transparent criteria. These by each university in Zimbabwe. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 77 TABLE 12 INSTITUTIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY INSTRUMENTS Academic Fiscal Effective Quality Innovation Equity Dimensions integrity integrity use of and Instruments resource relevance University instruments Strategic plans x x x Key performance indicators x x x x Budgets x Financial audits x x Student satisfaction surveys x x x Graduate employment surveys x Employers and alumni surveys x x Assessments of learning outcomes/ added value Annual report (submitted to the x x x x legislature and the public) Governmental instruments Licensing x x Accreditation/academic audits/ x x x x evaluations Funding formulas x x x x Performance contracts x x x x Scholarships/student loans/vouchers x x x Student engagement surveys x Labor market observatories x Assessments of learning outcomes x Rankings/benchmarking x Source: Elaborated by Jamil Salmi F. Developing a Sustainable its goals for expanded enrollment and enhanced Financing Strategy education quality in both the university and non- university subsectors. 145. A sustainable financing strategy for the 146. Establishing PPPs could enable the authorities to Zimbabwean tertiary education system should include mobilize additional resources from the private sector. specific plans to increase resource mobilization and The Zimbabwean government has already begun to enhance resource allocation. A strong resource- explore the possibility of using PPPs to complement mobilization plan will maximize the amount of public investment in tertiary education. PPPs have public and private funding that can be derived from proven to be an especially effective mechanism for various sources, while sound resource-allocation building university infrastructure, such as dormitories plan will define mechanisms to distribute those and cafeterias. resources in a manner that encourages and rewards performance. Given the government’s tight fiscal 147. Improving the efficiency of publicly funded constraints, it is unlikely that the authorities will education programs and institutions is another be able to significantly increase public spending on way to maximize the impact of a limited budgetary tertiary education. Consequently, the government will envelope. While data limitations prevent a thorough need to explore other financing options to achieve analysis of the internal efficiency of public universities 78 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION and TVET institutions, creating effective retention innovations for commercial use. However, even in programs that reduce the country’s high dropout countries that have favorable policy frameworks for rates would likely generate substantial fiscal savings. innovation, patenting, and commercialization, very few institutions create path-breaking technologies 148. Boosting own-source revenue mobilization that can be successfully licensed. Even at Harvard among tertiary education institutions could augment University, income from licensed technologies the government’s limited resources. While tuition US$10 million per year), represents just 1 percent fees in Zimbabwe are already high by the standards of Harvard’s annual fundraising receipts. of comparable countries, Zimbabwean universities have considerable scope to raise resources through 150. While Zimbabwe does not have a well- donations, contract research, consultancies, established culture of educational philanthropy, continuing education, and similar activities. Many the international experience shows that even institutions began experimenting with alternative universities in middle-income countries can find revenue strategies during the economic crisis, and donors, both locally and among the diaspora, who further efforts in this area could both expand and will make sizeable financial contributions if they are diversify their revenue base. Annex 1 describes the presented with a compelling rationale. Moreover, international experience with own-source revenue the experience of European universities reveals that generation among tertiary education institutions. overcoming cultural obstacles may be easier than it initially appears. European universities’ experience 149. The international experience suggests that with cultivating donations yields three key lessons: providing continuing education, undertaking (i) the prestige and reputation of universities are productive activities, and raising funds from regarded proxies of their quality, (ii) an effective alumni and corporations are universities’ three fundraising strategy requires maintaining continuous most important non-tuition revenue streams. relationships with different types of donors, and Globally, some research universities have generated (iii) the institution’s political context influences its significant revenue from licensing technological fundraising capabilities (Box 11). BOX 11 LESSONS LEARNED FROM UNIVERSITY FUNDRAISING EFFORTS IN EUROPE A 2011 European Commission survey on fundraising • The quality of fundraising materials and online efforts among European universities found that success platforms; hinged on three factors: (i) the university’s endowment, • The use of a database to maintain updated records academic reputation, and preexisting relationships with on donor interactions; and potential donors; (ii) the commitment of its staff and • The inclusion of donations in universities’ annual leadership to successful fundraising; and (iii) its political financial reports. context and physical location. The survey also revealed that European universities raise money primarily from The United Kingdom implemented one of Europe’s most private corporations rather than alumni contributions. successful fundraising strategies. The government created The experience of European universities indicates that a fund-matching scheme based on similar programs in the successful fundraising requires: Canadian province of Alberta, the U.S. state of Florida, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Between 2008 and 2011, the • The commitment of the university’s management and British government matched any eligible gift made to a governing body; participating tertiary education institution. While South • The full participation of academic staff; Africa may lack the resources to establish a similar • The investment of financial and human resources in matching program, the government should not penalize fundraising activities; fundraising by reducing public transfers to universities that • Rewards for staff who successfully solicit donations; successfully generate their own revenue. Sources: European Commission, 2011; Universities UK, 2008 REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 79 151. The government should not penalize public objectives, while a tertiary education strategy institutions that prove successful at raising own- that lacks appropriate financial resources and source revenue by reducing their budget allocations incentives is unlikely to reach fruition. or by requiring them to transfer to the public treasury any surplus funds raised from private sources. These • Performance Orientation. The international policies undermine incentives for universities to experience reveals that tying the distribution generate non-tuition revenue. By contrast, positive of funding to measures of institutional and/or incentives such as matching grants can encourage student performance can significantly improve universities to proactively seek donations. In the the ability of education systems to achieve policy Canadian province of Alberta, the government objectives. Key dimensions of performance introduced a matching-grant program in 2006 that include indicators of access and equity, quality was so successful that philanthropic donations to and relevance, research production and universities exceeded the public funds set aside for knowledge transfer, and efficiency in the use of co-financing.41 public resources. 152. Tax deductions can also encourage firms • Equity in Resource Allocation. The distribution and individuals to donate to tertiary education of public resources should be broadly equitable institutions. The United States, Canada, Hong Kong, across income levels and demographic groups. the United Kingdom, and many European countries All South African citizens should have equal offer generous tax incentives to encourage university access to the benefits of public education funding. donations. In Latin America, Brazil, Colombia, and Chile offer income-tax deductions for university • Transparency in Resource Allocation. The rules donations. Among developing countries, India has and criteria for allocating public funds to the one of the most generous tax-incentive schemes, tertiary education sector should be clearly which fully exempts all individual and corporate defined and fully transparent. The results of donations to universities from taxation.42 each round of funding allocation should be made publicly available in a timely manner. Guiding Principles for a Sound Financing System • Consistent Financing Instruments. No single funding mechanism can satisfy all the government’s 153. Based on the lessons arising from analyzing the policy objectives. The multiple instruments used to evolution of funding mechanisms in OECD countries advance these objectives must be complementary, in the past decade, an adequate model for allocating consistent, and mutually reinforcing. public funds for higher education in Zimbabwe would be well served by applying the following eight • Stable Funding Levels. Multiyear budget principles. These are: (i) closely aligning education mechanisms allow tertiary education institutions funding levels with national priorities; (ii) explicitly to implement medium- and long-term linking funding to performance; (iii) improving equity development initiatives by reducing the risk of across income levels and demographic groups; (iv) funding shortfalls. A long-term perspective is ensuring transparency in the allocation criteria; (v) essential to infrastructure investment and staff achieving consistency and compatibility among the recruitment, both of which entail continuing various financing instruments; (vi) maintaining stable financial obligations. funding levels over time; (vii) promoting institutional autonomy and accountability; and (viii) allocating • Institutional Autonomy and Accountability. The funding primarily through block grants. Each of international experience shows that autonomous these principles is discussed in detail below: universities are more able to innovate and respond to rapidly changing external conditions • Alignment with National Priorities. Tertiary and evolving labor-market needs. However, all education funding mechanisms should be fully institutions and students that receive government consistent with the government’s policy goals and subsidies should be fully accountable for the long-term vision for the tertiary education sector. appropriate use of public resources through Public funds provided without a clear strategic independent audit mechanisms and clear orientation will not efficiently advance national performance indicators. 80 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION • Block-Grant Allocation. Rather than organizing 154. Zimbabwe’s current funding framework is only the budget into rigidly defined line items, partially aligned with these principles. Reorienting the government should continue to tertiary funding to incentivize performance, increasing budgetary education funding via non-earmarked block stability and predictability, utilizing a range of financing grants. Greater flexibility in planning and instruments that reflect the primary mission of each type deploying their resources enhances the of institution, and allocating resources in the form of autonomy and responsiveness of tertiary block grants could bring the system closer to conformity education institutions. with international best practices (Table 10). TABLE 13 THE ALIGNMENT OF ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION FINANCING FRAMEWORK WITH INTERNATIONAL GOOD-PRACTICE PRINCIPLES Guiding Principles Alignment with Comments Zimbabwe’s Financing Model Alignment with national priorities + No direct relationship Performance orientation + No performance criteria Equity considerations + Limited student loans provided through EduLoan Multiple financing instruments + Only direct budgetary contributions Objectivity and transparency + Limited transparency Stability over time + No guarantee of stability and no multiyear budget Block grant allocation + Already in place Institutional autonomy and accountability ++ Incomplete Note: “+” indicates weak alignment; “++” indicates average/reasonable alignment; “+++” indicates full alignment Strengthening Zimbabwe’s of graduates, the employment rate of graduates, or the Tertiary Education Funding System number of published research papers. 155. To promote the efficient use of public resources, 157. Several OECD countries have incorporated the government could introduce performance-based performance indicators into their funding formulas budget mechanisms designed to align the financial for tertiary education. Denmark has adopted a incentives of institutions with national policy goals.43 “taxi meter model” under which 30 to 50 percent The government could leverage three mechanisms, 91 of recurrent funding is determined by the number of either separately or together, to improve public students who successfully pass exams every academic expenditure efficiency in the tertiary education year. Similarly, in the Netherlands, half of recurrent sector: (i) funding formulas; (ii) performance-based funding is based on the number of degrees awarded grants; and (iii) competitive grants. each year. In Australia, funding for doctoral student places is based on a formula comprising graduates Funding Formulas (40 percent), research output (10 percent), and research income, including competitive grant awards 156. Allocating resources to educational institutions (50 percent). according to a transparent formula that reflects performance indicators can sharpen efficiency Performance-Based Contracts incentives. Moreover, these funding formulas can be weighted according to the relative priority of various 158. Performance-based contracts are nonbinding educational outputs and outcomes, such as the number regulatory agreements negotiated between REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 81 governments and tertiary education institutions that perspective, a key advantage of performance- define a set of mutual obligations. In return for the based contracts is that they align the behavior of participating universities’ commitment to meeting the tertiary education institutions with national policy performance targets established in the agreement, the objectives. From the perspective of the institutions, government provides them with additional funding. performance-based contracts offer additional Performance agreements may be signed with one, resources to implement strategic plans that reflect several, or all institutions in the tertiary education each institution’s self-defined priorities. system; some or all of each institution’s funding may be tied to the requirements in the contracts; 161. The success of performance-based contracts and funding can be provided when the contract is depends on two factors. First, the negotiation of the signed or after performance has been verified. performance agreement must involve a neutral party tasked with facilitating open dialogue between the 159. Numerous countries and subnational government and the university leadership. In Chile, jurisdictions have implemented performance-based former university vice-chancellors often serve in that contracts in their tertiary education sectors. As part role. Second, the relevant government agency—in this of a pilot program in Chile in the late 2000s, four case the DHET—must devote sufficient financial and public universities volunteered to receive additional human resources to monitor the implementation of resources in exchange for implementing a carefully the performance-based contracts. negotiated institutional improvement plan with clear progress and outcome indicators. Following a Competitive Funds positive evaluation, the program was expanded to a large number of public and private universities. With 162. Competitive funds have proven to be support from the World Bank, Costa Rica has used an effective and flexible means of financing performance contracts to promote the transformation transformative investment in tertiary education. of four of its five public universities. This represents Under this mechanism, institutions are invited the first time that the government has attempted to to formulate project proposals that are reviewed use performance incentives to influence the behavior and selected by committees of peers according to of public universities, which traditionally received transparent procedures and criteria. The features their budget directly from the Ministry of Finance of competitive funds vary from country to country as a set percentage of the national budget. Denmark based on the specific policy changes targeted. In uses performance-based contracts with long-term Argentina and Indonesia, for instance, proposals institutional goals, while Finland’s contracts set both may be submitted by entire universities, by specific goals for each institution and general goals departments, or by individual faculty members. for the entire tertiary education system. France has In Chile, both public and private institutions allocated about one-third of its recurrent tertiary may compete for funds. In Egypt, a competitive education budget through four-year performance fund was established in the 1990s specifically to contracts since 1989. Payments are made when stimulate reforms in engineering education. Positive the contracts are signed, and ex post evaluations experiences in countries as diverse as Chile, China, assess their implementation. Finally, the U.S. states Egypt, Indonesia, and Tunisia (Box 12) have of Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, North Dakota, demonstrated the ability of competitive funds South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia use various to improve the quality and relevance of tertiary performance-based contracts for their tertiary education, promote pedagogical innovations, and education institutions. improve management—objectives that can be difficult to achieve through funding formulas or 160. Performance-based contracts encourage performance-based contracts alone. In Zimbabwe, institutions to improve their results on a voluntary piloting a competitive fund could complement basis, removing the need for central directives that the government’s broader effort to improve the may or may not be followed. From the government’s performance of tertiary education institutions. 82 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION BOX 12 THE INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE WITH COMPETITIVE FUNDS FOR TERTIARY EDUCATION Well-designed competitive funds can be powerful vehicles Countries that have a diversified tertiary education for institutional innovation and transformation. The World system marked by unequally developed types of Bank supported one of the first competitive funds, Argentina’s institutions may consider offering multiple financing Quality Improvement Fund (FOMEC), which was instrumental mechanisms based on different criteria or establishing in promoting strategic planning among tertiary education compensatory funds to create a level playing field institutions. Within universities, academic departments that between stronger and weaker institutions. A World had never previously worked together began collaborating Bank-supported project in Indonesia in the 1990s created on the design and implementation of joint projects. In Egypt, three different funding mechanisms designed to serve the Engineering Education Fund helped introduce the notion universities according to their institutional capacity. In of competitive bidding and peer evaluation in the allocation the last tertiary education project financed by the World of public investment resources. The fund effectively Bank in China in the early 2000s, each the country’s promoted the transformation of traditional engineering top universities was required to form a partnership degrees into applied programs with close ties to industry. with a university in a poorer province as a condition for In Chile, a competitive fund for diversification supported the competing. In Egypt, the competitive fund used by the development of technical institution in the non-university Engineering Education Reform project in the late 1980s subsector, as well as qualitative improvements in all public included a special mechanism that provided technical universities. Competitive funding mechanisms in Brazil, assistance to help less-experienced engineering schools Mexico, and Uganda have encouraged investment in science prepare strong funding proposals. In Chile, a special and technology programs. The participation of international mechanism was created for universities that required peer-review experts has figured prominently in all cases. assistance in strategic planning and project design. Source: World Bank, 2002 163. Competitive funds can promote budgetary on the purpose of the funding. transparency by establishing clear criteria and procedures for allocating funds, verified by an 165. The three-pillar funding model ties different independent monitoring committee. An additional institutional priorities to dedicated financing benefit of competitive funding mechanisms is that streams. Under the first pillar, core funding is they encourage universities to undertake strategic provided though a block grant, the size of which planning based on a sound assessment of their needs is determined by an input-based formula. This and priorities. pillar provides near-term financial stability. Under the second pillar, performance-based funding is Adopting a Three-Pillar Funding Model provided through an output-based formula or performance agreement. This pillar links current 164. Tertiary education institutions require multiple funding directly to past performance. Under financing mechanisms that reflect their diverse the third pillar, innovation-oriented funding is missions and development strategies. Relying on a provided though competitive grants or performance single financing mechanism prevents policymakers agreements. This pillar encourages the use of from adjusting individual funding streams to strategic planning to improve future performance.44 reflect performance on different priorities, such as Countries that have adopted a three-pillar model, graduation rates or scholarly output. An increasing such as Finland, generally allocate 70 to 80 percent number of OECD countries, especially in Europe, of the total tertiary education budget through pillar have begun adopting a three-pillar funding model one, 10 to 20 percent through pillar two, and up to that allocates resources in different ways depending 10 percent through pillar three. REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 83 Matrix of Policy Options 8 categorizes each option as either short term, medium term, or long term based on their urgency and implementation duration. Table 9 assesses 166. Tertiary education reform is a complex process the relative difficulty involved in implementing that requires a carefully sequenced and prioritized each policy option given its technical complexity, agenda. Table 8 and Table 9 summarize the policy financial cost, and political sensitivity. options presented throughout this section. Table TABLE 14 SEQUENCING OF POLICY OPTIONS Policy Measures Short-Term Medium-Term Long-Term G. Vision Setting Formulation of detailed vison and strategic plan a Implementation of strategic plan a a Mobilization of resources needed to implement plan a a H. Expansion through Institutional Diversification Analysis of TVET colleges a Development of strategy for upgrading TVET colleges a Upgrading of TVET colleges a Assessment of Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) performance a and challenges Formulation of strategic plan to expand ZOU a Implementation of ZOU strategic plan a Identification of barriers to development of private tertiary a education sector Simplification of regulatory requirements a Financial incentives for accredited private institutions a I. Improving Education Quality and Relevance Secondary Education Improvements in quality of secondary education a Secondary & Tertiary Education Training of academic counselors a Development of academic counselling in secondary schools and a a tertiary institutions Creation of secondary/tertiary outreach and bridge programs a a Tertiary Education Design of system to identify at-risk tertiary students a Design of foundation program a Operation of foundation program a Operation of retention programs encompassing academic, a a psychological and financial support Elaboration of training plan for academics a Implementation of training plan for academics a a Establishment of teaching and learning services unit a 84 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION Policy Measures Short-Term Medium-Term Long-Term Implementation of curricular and pedagogical innovations a Improving Relevance Participation of industry professionals in institutional a a a curriculum committees Expansion of student internships a a Expansion of private-sector consultancy and research contracts a a Consolidating Quality-Assurance Mechanisms Alignment of quality-assurance mechanisms with international a a best practices Establishment or consolidation of institutions’ internal a a quality-assurance units J. Enhancing Research Capabilities Development of national science and technology policy a a Review of research funding organizations and methodology a Increased research funding under new methodology a a Provision of incentives for female researchers a a Provision of incentives for promising young researchers at research- a a intensive universities Creation of specialized research teams at a a research-intensive universities K. Improving Governance Design of unified tertiary education system a a Designation of MHTESTD as lead agency in the tertiary sector a a Design of information-management system for tertiary education a a by MHTESTD Implementation of information-management system for tertiary a education by MHTESTD Assessment of institutional autonomy a Implementation of reforms increasing autonomy and accountability a among tertiary education institutions L. Financial Sustainability Definition of terms of public-private partnerships by MHTESTD a Resource mobilization through public-private partnerships a a Definition of targeted free tuition policy by MHTESTD and a the Treasury Implementation of targeted free tuition policy a Design of student loan scheme a a Implementation of student loan scheme a a Design of performance-based financial allocation mechanism by a MHTESTD a Implementation of performance-based allocation mechanism a Income diversification by tertiary education institutions a a REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 85 TABLE 15 IMPLEMENTATION DIFFICULTY OF POLICY OPTIONS Policy Measure Technical Financial Political Complexity Cost Sensitivity G. Vision Setting Formulation of detailed vison and strategic plan ++ - ++ Implementation of strategic plan +++ +++ + Mobilization of resources needed to implement plan ++ +++ ++ H. Expansion through Institutional Diversification Analysis of TVET colleges ++ + - Development of strategy for upgrading TVET colleges ++ + - Upgrading of TVET colleges ++ ++ - Assessment of Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) performance + + - and challenges Formulation of strategic plan to expand ZOU ++ + - Implementation of ZOU strategic plan ++ + + Identification of barriers to development of private tertiary ++ + - education sector Simplification of regulatory requirements + - + Financial incentives for accredited private institutions + + + I. Improving Education Quality and Relevance Improvements in quality of secondary education ++ ++ - Training of academic counselors + + - Development of academic counselling in secondary schools and + + - tertiary institutions Creation of secondary/tertiary outreach and bridge programs + - - Design of system to identify at-risk tertiary students ++ + + Design of foundation program ++ + - Operation of foundation program + + - Operation of retention programs encompassing academic, ++ + + psychological and financial support - Elaboration of training plan for academics + + - Implementation of training plan for academics + +++ + Establishment of teaching and learning services unit ++ + ++ Implementation of curricular and pedagogical innovations ++ + - Participation of industry professionals in institutional + - curriculum committees Expansion of student internships + + - Expansion of private-sector consultancy and research contracts + - - 86 THE WAY FORWARD: POLICY OPTIONS TO REVITALIZE ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION Policy Measure Technical Financial Political Complexity Cost Sensitivity J. Enhancing Research Capabilities Development of national science and technology policy ++ - + Review of research funding organizations and methodology + - ++ Increased research funding under new methodology + +++ - Provision of incentives for female researchers + ++ - Provision of incentives for promising young researchers at research- + + + intensive universities Creation of specialized research teams at r ++ ++ + esearch-intensive universities K. Improving Governance Design of unified tertiary education system ++ - ++ Designation of MHTESTD as lead agency in the tertiary sector + - + Design of information-management system for tertiary education + + - by MHTESTD Implementation of information-management system for tertiary + + + education by MHTESTD Assessment of institutional autonomy + - + Implementation of reforms increasing autonomy and accountability ++ - ++ among tertiary education institutions L. Financial Sustainability Definition of terms of public-private partnerships by MHTESTD ++ - - Resource mobilization through public-private partnerships + + + Definition of targeted free tuition policy by MHTESTD and ++ - + the Treasury Implementation of targeted free tuition policy ++ +++ + Design of student loan scheme +++ - - Implementation of student loan scheme ++ ++ + Design of performance-based financial allocation mechanism by ++ - + MHTESTD Implementation of performance-based allocation mechanism ++ + ++ Income diversification by tertiary education institutions + - - Note: (-)neutral; (+) low; (++) medium; (+++) high Summary The most urgent priority for revitalizing the sector, therefore, is to elaborate a bold vision for its development. Considering Zimbabwe’s low level After many years of crisis during which Zimbabwe’s of tertiary enrollment, the dominant position of tertiary sector has suffered from a lack of strategic public universities in the tertiary sector, and the planning, a comprehensive approach is needed to government’s limited resources, policymakers may revitalize the post-secondary education system. wish to consider an expansion strategy based on REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 87 institutional differentiation (growth of the non- university sub-sector, expansion of online education, Modernizing the administration of the tertiary and development of the private sector). Equity- education sector will require reforms under three promotion policies—with both financial and non- strategic axes: (i) reforming the sector’s administrative monetary measures—could complement institutional framework; (ii) increasing the autonomy of tertiary differentiation by reducing disparities in access to institutions; and (iii) ensuring that those institutions and success in tertiary education. are fully accountable for their academic performance and use of public resources. Improving the quality and relevance of tertiary education in Zimbabwe will require a combination of A sustainable financing strategy for the Zimbabwean interventions. These interventions should target four tertiary education system should include specific key determinants of education quality and relevance: plans to increase resource mobilization and enhance (i) better preparation of incoming students; (ii) higher resource allocation in ways that reward performance. qualifications of academics; (iii) innovative curricular Improving the efficiency of publicly funded and pedagogical practices; and (iv) closer links to the education programs and institutions is another way productive sectors. of maximizing the impact of a limited budgetary envelope. Boosting own-source revenue mobilization To build the research capacity of Zimbabwe’s top among tertiary education institutions could effectively universities, the government must: (i) articulate a complement the government’s limited resources. To clear science and technology strategy, and (ii) increase promote the efficient use of public resources, the public funding for research. At the institutional level, government could introduce performance-based each university interested in raising its research budget mechanisms designed to align the financial capacity must be able to attract and retain a mix incentives of institutions with national policy goals, of young, promising researchers and older, more such an output-based funding formula, performance experienced researchers. contracts, and/or a competitive fund. 88 CONCLUSION 06 CONCLUSION 167. To revitalize tertiary education and maximize against unpopular but necessary reforms. The its contribution to Zimbabwe’s economic recovery, authorities must carefully consider these tradeoffs the government will need to implement extensive when determining the sequence of the reform agenda. reforms to the sector’s policy, administrative, and institutional frameworks. Though Zimbabwe faces 170. While the recent crisis has created an opportunity considerable challenges, its emergence from the to implement deep reforms in the tertiary sector, recent crisis presents a unique opportunity to craft some measures will inevitably encounter opposition a bold new strategic agenda for the tertiary education from vested interests. The success of the government’s sector and to implement critical policy changes that tertiary education strategy will hinge on its ability might otherwise be thwarted by vested interests. to effectively address the political sensitivity of The MHTESTD should seize this opportunity to the reform agenda and manage potential conflicts translate the Education 5.0 vision into a concrete between stakeholders. Policymakers will need to set of reforms, programs, and projects backed by engage with a diverse array of interests, both within a sustainable financing strategy and appropriate and outside the tertiary education sector, and build implementation arrangements. consensus around a shared strategic vision. An ex ante assessment of key stakeholders could enable the 168. Zimbabwe’s extensive developmental needs authorities to identify potential sources of opposition, and difficult economic circumstances underscore as well as prospective champions for the reform the importance of coordination among its external agenda, and an inclusive consultation process could development partners. Several of Zimbabwe’s external help the authorities proactively address stakeholder partners are willing to support the revitalization of concerns. Channeling additional resources to the tertiary education sector, and some have already the sector could further bolster support for the begun providing financial and technical assistance. government’s plan and facilitate the reallocation of Coordination will be vital to ensure that external funds across interest groups. support reflects the government’s priorities and that the various donor-supported programs and projects 171. Reforming Zimbabwe’s tertiary education sector are mutually consistent and complementary. In this is a challenging endeavor, and a clear action plan context, the MHTESTD has a critical role to play will be crucial to achieve the government’s policy in aligning donor initiatives around a clear strategic objectives. International experience shows that success vision and credible action plan. is most likely when policymakers thoroughly assess the prevailing social and political circumstances, 169. Along with effective coordination, the proper build a consensus among key stakeholders, properly sequencing of the reform agenda can play a major sequence the implementation of the reform agenda, role in its success. Incremental changes may and mobilize additional resources to bolster support encounter only modest opposition compared to an and mollify opposition. Meeting these conditions abrupt transformation of the status quo. Delaying requires a detailed strategy and action plan, which controversial actions can afford policymakers time must reflect the government’s self-defined priorities to lay the necessary institutional groundwork and for the future of the tertiary education sector. build consensus. However, an excessive delay can also give interest groups an opportunity to mobilize 172. Looking ahead, the Government of Zimbabwe REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 89 may want to consider additional work to address 173. Integration of the higher education and tertiary the following key issues, which will facilitate education sub-sectors into a single, differentiated implementation of the vision and reform agenda: (i) system would have the advantage of increasing construction of a labor market information system; (ii) opportunities for further education and lifelong integration of higher education and tertiary education learning. Rather than perpetuating the segmentation into a unified but differentiated system with clear between first-tier institutions with more prestige and articulation mechanisms and pathways; and (iii) second-tier institutions that are not well regarded, sustainable financing strategy. In the first instance, this reform would allow all providers could seek to establishing a comprehensive labor market observatory be excellent at offering the types of programs that would provide all stakeholders (government, correspond to their specific institutional mission in employers, tertiary education institutions, students, a differentiated system. parents) with reliable and up-to-date information on the labor market results of graduates. This information 174. Finally, implementing financial reforms is indispensable for academic and career guidance towards the construction of a sustainable funding purposes; it is also useful as feedback on the quality system will require long-term efforts to carefully and relevance of tertiary education programs from design, test and evaluate the various measures under the viewpoint of employers to guide curriculum consideration. Proper sequencing of the reforms will development activities. also be important. 90 NOTES 20. Various members of the World Bank team visited a small sample of NOTES public and private universities, including the University of Zimbabwe. In each case, the team met with the vice chancellor and members of the leadership teams, as well as with deans and professors in a wide range of disciplines. 1. The Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, also known 21. The H-index is a bibliometric index developed in 2005 by Professor as Ranking Web of Universities, is a ranking system for the world’s Jorge Hirsch, a University of California physicist. A researcher’s H-index universities based on a composite indicator that takes into account score is the maximum number of publications for which each publication both the volume of the Web contents (number of web pages and files) is cited at least that many times. The index is based on the researcher’s and the visibility and impact of these web publications according most-cited papers and the number of citations that they have received in to the number of external links (site citations) they received. http:// other publications. The H-index is superior to many other bibliometric www.webometrics.info/en measures in that it considers both productivity and impact, is not biased 2. Various members of the World Bank team visited a small by a small number of very successful articles, discounts the value of papers sample of public and private universities, including the University that are not influential, and uses only publicly available data (Usher, 2012). of Zimbabwe. In each case, the team met with the vice chancellor 22. https://www.natureindex.com/supplements/nature-index-2016- and members of the leadership teams, as well as with deans and rising-stars/index#ni-articles professors in a wide range of disciplines. 23. https://www.natureindex.com/supplements/nature-index-2016- 3. World Bank, 2019. rising-stars/tables/africa 4. Ibid. p.6. 24. 24 The 2017 Clarivate Analytics list of highly cited researchers 5. Ibid. p.13. encompasses 21 academic disciplines and evaluates journals indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection during the 2005-2015 period. “Highly 6. WEF, 2017. cited papers” are those that rank in the top 1 percent of citations for their 7. Ibid. p. iii. discipline and publication year. 8. The conceptual framework behind these questions was 25. These figures are from the government’s official budget document, developed by the World Bank in the context of a wider policy the “Blue Book.” research project focused on measuring educational outcomes 26. World Bank, 2010. (SABER). A summary of the framework for tertiary education can be found in Salmi (2013). 27. heritage-based approach means building on indigenous knowledge systems in the promotion of science and technology and leveraging on 9. Government of Zimbabwe, 2017. “Labour Market Outlook.” the country’s natural resources to strengthen science and technology 10. IOM and ZIMSTAT, 2016. “Migration in Zimbabwe: A Country through advanced technologies in mining etc. Profile 2010–2016.” 28. Salmi, 2017 11. Government of Zimbabwe, 2018. “Vision 2030.” 29. Malee Bassett and Salmi, 2014. 12. World Bank, 2014. “World Development Indicators.” 30. 30 Salmi, 2017. 13. Adopted from the Joint Needs Assessment for Zimbabwe – 31. Ekowo and Palmer, 2016. Synthesis Report 2019 32. Woolley and Malone, 2011; Page, 2008. 14. The terms “hot seating” or “double sessions” refers to a situation in which a single school holds sessions for two different sets of students each 33. This definition is provided by the National Commission for day, one in the morning and one in the afternoon. While these sessions Cooperative Education (NCCE), which is dedicated to advancing use the same classrooms, they typically have different teachers. cooperative education throughout the United States. See: http://www. co-op.edu/aboutcoop2.html 15. The ICT in Education policy was developed with support from the World Bank. 34. StudyinCanada.com. “University of Waterloo”. See: http : / / w w w. s tu dy i n c an a d a . c om / e ng l i s h / s ch o ol s / prof i l e. 16. Source: Zimdef website asp?SchoolCode=uwatl08&ProfileType=University&URL=index 17. UNFPA County Profile – Young People 35. University of Waterloo, Canada. “Co-op at Waterloo” (http:// 18. The OECD elaborated tests to measure the acquisition of generic findoutmore.uwaterloo.ca/coop/) competencies and professional skills in the areas of economics and 36. Salmi and Hauptmann, 2006; Salmi, 2015. engineering, which were piloted in 2012 in the context of the AHELO project (Assessment of Higher Education Learning Outcomes). In 37. Salmi, 2013b. In Ireland and the United Kingdom, university the United States, a growing number of institutions have been using councils choose their own external members to avoid political one of three assessment instruments to measure added value at the interference. undergraduate level: the ACT Collegiate Assessment of Academic 38. Fielden, 2008; Salmi, 2013b. Proficiency (CAAP), the ETS Proficiency Profile (EPP) and the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA). Similar instruments have been applied in 39. http://teqipgoodgovernance.in/TEQIP%20GOOD%20 other OECD countries, such as Australia’s Graduate Skills Assessment. A PRACTICE%20GUIDE%20FOR%20GOVERNING%20BODIES_ few Latin American countries—Brazil, Colombia and Mexico—have also DEC%202012.pdf been pioneers in that respect, as Jordan has been in the Middle East. 40. OECD, 2007; Salmi, 2013. 19. The Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, also known as 41. Tetley, 2006. Ranking Web of Universities, is a ranking system for the world’s universities based on a composite indicator that takes into account both the volume of 42. World Bank, 2002. the Web contents (number of web pages and files) and the visibility and 43. OECD (2007); Salmi and Hauptman (2006). impact of these web publications according to the number of external links (site citations) they received. http://www.webometrics.info/en 44. See Kivistö (2015). REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 91 REFERENCES Education Financing: A Comparative Evaluation of Alloca- Buderi, R., 2014. “Olin College President Rick Miller on Reengi- tion Mechanisms.” Washington D.C., The World Bank. Ed- neering Engineering.” Xeconomy. ucation Working Paper Series Number 4. September 2006. http://www.xconomy.com/boston/2014/09/24/olin-college-pres- Tetley, D., 2006. “Alberta can’t match donors Government vows ident-rick-miller-on-reengineering-engineering/?single_ to fix problem”. Calgary Herald. 14 December 2006. www. page=tru calgaryherald.com/opinion/topic.html?t=Person&q=Debo- Ekowo, M. and I. Palmer, 2016. The Promise and Peril of Pre- rah+Tetley dictive Analytics in Higher Education: a Landscape Analysis. The Economist, 2015. “Getting to Cambridge”. The Economist. Washington DC: New America. 22 August 2015, p. 49. European Commission, 2011. 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Hauptman (2006). “Innovations in Tertiary 92 ANNEXES REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 93 ANNEX 1 ANNEX 1 RESOURCE DIVERSIFICATION MATRIX Source of income Category of income Government Students & Industry & Alumni / International families services philanthropists cooperation Budgetary contribution General budget x Dedicated taxes (lottery, tax on liquor sales, tax on x contracts, tax on export duties) Payroll tax x Fees for instructional activities Tuition fees Degree / non-degree programs x x On-campus / distance education programs x x Advance payments x Chargeback x Other fees (registration, labs, remote labs) x Affiliation fees (colleges) x Productive activities Sale of services Consulting x x x Research x x x x Laboratory tests x x Patent royalties, share of spin-off profits, monetized x x patent royalties deal Operation of service enterprises (television, hotel, x retirement homes, malls, parking, driving school, Internet provider, gym) x Financial products (endowment funds, shares) x Production of goods (agricultural and industrial) x x x Themed merchandises and services (smart card) x x x x x Rental of facilities (land, classrooms, dormitories, x x laboratories, ballrooms, drive-through, concert halls, mortuary space, movie shooting) Sale of assets (land, residential housing, art treasures) Fund raising Direct donations Monetary grants (immediate, deferred) x x x Equipment x x Land and buildings x x 94 ANNEX 1 Source of income Category of income Government Students & Industry & Alumni / International families services philanthropists cooperation Scholarships and student loans x x x x Endowed chairs, libraries, mascot x x Challenging / matching grants x x x Religious donations (“Zakat”) x x Indirect donations (credit card, percentage of gas x sales, percentage of stock exchange trade, lectures by alumni) Tied donations (access to patents, share of x spin-off profits) Concessions, franchising, licensing, sponsorships, x x partnerships (products sold on campus, names, concerts, museum showings, athletic events) Lotteries and auctions (scholarships) Loans Regular bank loans x x x Bond issues (regular and social impact) x x x Source: Compiled by Jamil Salmi REVITALIZING ZIMBABWE’S TERTIARY EDUCATION SECTOR TO SUPPORT A ROBUST ECONOMIC RECOVERY 95 ANNEX 2 ANNEX 2 RESOURCE DIVERSIFICATION MATRIX University Enrollment Graduation Staffing Financing Dropout Examination Facility R&D University of Zimbabwe (UZ) Public +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ + Bindura University of Science Education (BUSE) Public Chinhoyi University of Technology (CUT) Public +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Midlands State University (MSU) Public +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Great Zimbabwe University (GZU) Public +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Harare Institute of Technology (HIT) Public +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Marondera University of Agricultura Science Public +++ + & Technology (MUAST) Manicaland State University (MASU) Public Arupe Jesuit University (APJ) Private Reformed Church University (RCU) Private National University of Science & Technology Public +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ (NUST) Lupane State University (LSU) Public +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Africa University (AU) Private Solusi University (SU) Private Women’s University in Africa (WUA) Public Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) Public +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Gwanda State University (GSU) Public National Defense University (NDU) Military Catholic University in Zimbabwe (CUZ) Private +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Zimbabwe Ezekiel Guti University (ZEGU) Private +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Arupe Jesuit University (APJ) Private Reformed Church University (RCU) Private Africa University (AU) Private Solusi University (SU) Private Women’s University in Africa (WUA) Private +++ +++ + +++ +++ +++ +++ TVET institutions Enrollment Graduation Staffing Financing Dropout Examination Facility R&D Gweru Polytechnical College Public Mutare Polytechnical College Public +++ Bulawayo Polytechnic Public Kwekwe Polytechnical College Public JM Nkomo Polytechnic Public +++ +++ +++ +++ Harare Polytechnical College Public Mutare Polytechnic Public +++ School of Hotel & Tourism (SCHOTO) Msasa ITC Public +++ St. Peter’s Kubatana ITC Private +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ 96 ANNEX 2 Teachers colleges Enrollment Graduation Staffing Financing Dropout Facility R&D Mkoba Teachers College Public Masvingo Teachers College Public Marymount Teachers College Public Hillside Teachers College Public +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Belvedere Teachers College Public JM Nkomo College Public + +++ +++ +++ Morgan ZinTEc Teachers College Public +++ Seke Teachers College Public Morgenster Teachers College Private Bondolfi Teachers College Private +++ United College of Education Private Madziwa Teachers College Private Nyadire Teachers College Private Note: (+) partly responded; (+++) fully responded 98 WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433 U.S.A. Contact Yoko Nagashima ynagashima@worldbank.org worldbank.org