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Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste 3 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Sylvia Michele Diez Pawan Patil John Morton Diego J. Rodriguez Alessandra Vanzella David Robin Thomas Maes Christopher Corbin A C O L L A B O R AT I V E PA R T N E R S H I P Caroline Power Photography 6 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Acronyms and Abbreviations ACS Association of Caribbean States ALDFG Abandoned, Lost, or Otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear ARD Acute Respiratory Distress CARICOM Caribbean Community CARIFORUM Caribbean Forum of ACP States CARPHA Caribbean Public Health Agency CCCCC Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre CDEM Construction, Design, Equipment, and Manning CDEMA Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency CLME Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem and Adjacent Regions CLME+ Caribbean and North Brazil Shelf Large Marine Ecosystems CReW Caribbean Regional Fund for Wastewater Management CRFM Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism CSC Caribbean Sea Commission EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EPA Environmental Protection Agency EU European Union GCFI Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute GDP Gross Domestic Product GPA Global Programme of Action GPML Global Partnership on Marine Litter ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management IDB Inter-American Development Bank IMO International Maritime Organization IWEco Integrating Water, Land, and Ecosystems Management in Caribbean Small Island Developing States LAC Latin America and the Caribbean LBS Land-Based Sources LME Large Marine Ecosystem LMR Living Marine Resource OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECS Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States RAPMaLi Regional Action Plan on Marine Litter SAP Strategic Action Programme SCP Sustainable Consumption and Production SDG Sustainable Development Goal SIDS Small Island Developing States SPAW Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNEP-CEP United Nations Environment Programme—Caribbean Environment Programme USA United States of America WCR Wider Caribbean Region ZVD Zika Virus Disease Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste 7 Table of contents Acronyms and Abbreviations 6 Overview 11 Foreword 12 Acknowledgments 13 Executive Summary 14 CHAP TER 1 Introduction 18 1.1 Marine Pollution and the Blue Economy: A Primer 19 1.2 Marine Pollution is a Human Issue 21 CHAP TER 2 Marine Pollution: Impacts and Threats to the Blue Economy 24 2.1 The Marine Environment of the WCR 25 2.2 Economic Contribution of the Caribbean Sea 26 2.3 Critical Challenges Facing the WCR 27 2.4 Impact of Pollution on the Natural Valuable Capital of the WCR 28 CHAP TER 3 Assessing Marine Pollution in the WCR 32 3.1 Marine and Coastal Litter 34 3.2 Wastewater, Sewage, and Run-off 44 3.3 Pollution from Ships 49 3.4 Industrial Pollution – Oil, Heavy Metals, Toxic Chemicals 52 3.5 Marine Pollution and Climate Change 54 8 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste CHAP TER 4 Marine Pollution Policy Frameworks 56 4.1 International Frameworks and Initiatives of Relevance to Marine Pollution Management in the WCR 58 4.2 Regional and Sub-Regional Frameworks and Initiatives 59 4.3 Implementation Challenges 61 CHAP TER 5 The Way Forward 62 5.1 Recommendations 63 References 71 ANNE XES Annex 1: Summary Table on Marine Pollution Conventions 79 Annex 2: Distribution of Coral Reefs in the Region, Threats from Human Activities, and Economic Losses 85 Annex 3: Mangrove Coverage in the Caribbean Region 87 Annex 4: Targeted Intervention Options 89 Annex 5: Blue Economy Principles and Approaches for the WCR 93 Annex 6: Methodology for Household Collection Services Data 96 Annex 7: Status of Ratification of Relevant International Conventions 98 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste 9 L IS T OF F IGURES Figure 1.1.1 A Blue Economy Framework 20 Figure 1.1.2 Two Parallel Trends in the Global Ocean 21 Figure 1.1.3 Blue Economy Linkages: Tourism, Waste Disposal, and Ecosystems 21 Figure 2.1.1 The Wider Caribbean Region 25 Figure 2.1.2 The Currents of the Wider Caribbean Region 26 Figure 2.4.1 Reefs at Risk in the Wider Caribbean Region 29 Figure 2.4.2 Linking Pollution with Drivers and Impacts in the WCR 30 Figure 3.1.1 A Shocking Sea of Plastic Floating Near the Caribbean Island of Roatan 33 Figure 3.1.2 Crabs Caught in an abandoned, lost or otherwise discardes fishing gear (ALDFG), in this Case a Gill Net 35 Figure 3.1.3 Type and Relative Contribution of Fishing Gear Reported as ALDFG in the Caribbean 36 Figure 3.1.4 Average Proportion of Waste Composition Generated in Selected WCR Countries 36 Figure 3.1.5 Percentage of Households with Waste Collection Service in the Insular Caribbean 37 Figure 3.1.6 Waste Management Practices of Households without Collection Service 38 Figure 3.1.7 Interactions of Marine Biota and Microplastics and Possible Trophic Pathways 41 Figure 3.1.8 Anti-Littering Campaigns in the Caribbean 43 Figure 3.1.9 Cleanup Days in the Dominican Republic and St. Lucia 43 Figure 3.2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment Rates in the WCR 46 Figure 3.2.2 River Discharges into Mona Dam Reservoir in Kingston, Jamaica 48 Figure 3.2.3 A River on the Meso-American Coast Discharges Sediment and Nutrient-Laden Water into the Caribbean Sea 48 Figure 3.3.1 Shipping Routes in the WCR 49 Figure 3.3.2 Distribution in 2013 of Invasive Lionfish in the WCR 51 Figure 3.4.1 Tanker Terminals: Refineries, Offshore Installations, Navigational Hazards, Oil Terminal and Chemical Plants in the WCR 53 Figure 3.5.1 Beach Covered with Large Amounts of Seaweed in Cancun, Mexico 54 Figure 4.1.1 Marine and Coastal Pollution within the Context of the 17 SDGs 57 Figure 5.1.1 Framework for Action to Address Marine Pollution 64 Figure A4.2 Solving the Problem—Integrated Litter Management Strategy 92 10 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste L IS T OF TABLES Table 3.1.1 Litter found in coastal cleanups in selected Caribbean countries 34 Table 3.1.2 Plastic Collected across the Caribbean Sea 35 Table 3.1.3 Total Uncollected Household Waste and Plastics in Selected Countries of the WCR 39 Table 3.1.4 WCR Countries that Have Banned Plastic Bags and Styrofoam 42 Table 3.1.5 Street Sweeping Coverage in Greater Santo Domingo 43 Table 3.2.1 Composition of Domestic Sewage in the Wider Caribbean Region 46 Table 3.2.2 Composition of Septage from Septic Tanks in the Wider Caribbean Region 47 Table A2.1 Threats to Reefs 85 Table A2.2 Threatened Economic Value of Coral Reefs in the Caribbean Region 86 Table A3.1 Mangrove Area in the Caribbean Region 87 Table A4.1 Assessment of factors in anti-pollution technology 90 L IS T OF BOXES Box 1.1.1 The Blue Economy Defined 19 Box 1.1.2 The need for collective action at the global level 21 Box 2.4.1 The Decline of Coral Cover in the Caribbean 28 Box 2.4.2 Economic Value of Caribbean Coral Reefs 28 Box 2.4.3 Socioeconomic and Environmental Functions of Mangroves 30 Box 3.1.1 Why Plastic Litter is So Harmful to the Coastal and Marine Environment 37 Box 3.1.2 A Ban on Plastic Bags—the Experience of Antigua and Barbuda 41 Box 3.2.1 Wastewater Covers Multiple Economic Sectors 44 Box 3.2.2 Eutrophication 44 Box 3.2.3 Wastewater Impact on Health 45 Box 3.2.4 The Tourism Industry and Wastewater 47 Box 3.3.1 Maritime traffic in the WCR is on the rise. 50 Box 3.4.1 Releases Associated with Petroleum Consumption 52 Box 3.4.2 Oil Spills in the Region 52 Box A5.1 Principles and Description for Protecting the Marine Environment 93 Box A5.2 Governance for a Blue Economy 94 Box A5.3 Approach for the Transition to a Caribbean Blue Economy 95 Box A6.1 Key Variables in Estimation of Uncollected Waste 97 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste 11 Overview T he words “the Caribbean” inevitably evoke in people’s minds white sandy beaches, blue seas, and bright sunshine. The region is one of the most frequented tourist hotspots in the world, each year attract- ing more than 27 million visitors who are eager to play and spend on its shores. The rich flora and fauna found below the crystal-clear surface of the Caribbean’s blue waters are what makes this all possible. They help to sustain the scenery, are infused into the culture, and drive economic development within the countries of the region. Around the world, the enormous value of oceans is slowly being recognized. Oceans and their processes are responsible for the planet’s rainwater, weather, climate, coastlines, oxygen, and food resources on land and sea. They have been the platform for trade, transportation, human culture, and history. The great expanses of salt water, therefore, are critical for humankind and its well-being, and not least through their role driving the world’s economies. Recent estimates place the oceans’ direct annual contribution to global GDP at between US$1.5 and $3 trillion—and this figure does not include indirect contributions from functions such as coastal protection, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity. In the wider Caribbean Region (WCR)1, especially in the Small Island Developing States (SIDS)2, marine ecosystems provide food, livelihoods, and income to over a hundred million people through fisheries, tourism, coastal protection, and transportation. In 2017, the insular Caribbean’s gross revenues from marine and coastal tourism alone totaled an estimated US$57 billion. The ocean brings in billions of dollars more through fisheries and ocean-going transportation. This lucrative resource, however, is threatened by changes in an underwater environment that for too many of us remains “out of sight, out of mind.” In the last 50 years, rises in ocean temperatures, overexploitation of fisheries, damage to habitats by out-of-control coastal development and unprecedented pollution have caused a dramatic decline in the Caribbean’s natural environment. Pollution generated inland, particularly in SIDS or small coastal countries, also impact the marine environment through run-off and improper solid waste management, further affecting critical ecosystems. Without improved management of the Caribbean’s natural capital, the region stands to lose its econom- ic backbone—a vibrant, healthy ocean that provides food and income to its population year after year. Declines in the fisheries and tourism sectors, for example, may have deleterious effects on Caribbean economies, where tourism accounts for 15 percent of the region’s GDP (WTTC 2018) and fisheries within the Caribbean Region- al Fisheries Mechanism region employ over 340,000 people (4.3 percent of the workforce in the region). The inevitable question is, how can we safeguard the economies and livelihoods of the region’s popu- lation while protecting the natural capital and restoring the damaged ecosystems? This report aims to provide answers to this and other critical questions. 1 For the purposes of this report, the WCR is the region encompassing all the coastal states and territories bordering the Caribbean Sea, plus the Bahamas. Infor- mation and data from the Gulf of Mexico and the United States are limited to region-wide assessments and are specifically referenced in the report. See Chapter 2 for a complete list of countries. 2 The WBG defines Small Island Developing States as countries that: (a) have a population of 1.5 million or less, or (b) are members of the Small States Forum. Ca- ribbean small states include Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. 12 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Foreword L  t’s start with the wins. There are currently 14 Caribbean countries, from Aruba to Haiti to the U.S. Virgin Islands e that have banned plastic bags and/or Styrofoam as part of their efforts to tackle marine pollution. Other coun- tries in the Caribbean and Latin America are following suit and banning single-use plastics as well as adopting a combination of policy and infrastructure measures to deal with this issue in an integrated manner. As the Carib- bean is moving toward a blue economy - with the aim of increasing growth while ensuring that ocean and marine resources are sustainably managed and used - marine pollution needs to be urgently addressed. Marine pollution poses a direct and immediate threat to the USD $57 billion of revenue that the region’s coastal tourism brings in annually. The World Bank report, “Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste,” identifies the key sources of marine pollution in the region and highlights the major socio-economic, health, and ecological impacts of these pollutants. The Caribbean Sea is the lifeline of these Caribbean nations, supporting 37 distinct economies that are the most tourism dependent in the world. Tourists flock to the region for the beauty, biodiversity and rich marine ecosystems that are now imperiled. Coral reefs, beaches, and mangroves are critical for the sustainability of many economic ac- tivities, jobs and inclusive growth. Yet the data is unmistakable: the sea and marine ecosystems are being degraded by wastewater, urban and solid waste, agricultural runoff, and hazardous pollutants from oil and mining. Coral reef degradation is probably the single most serious threat to the natural capital of the Caribbean, with an estimated annual revenue loss of between $350 million and $870 million. Caribbean Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are particularly exposed and vulnerable to increased damage from marine pollution, and the cost of inaction will be significant reduction in revenues from the tourism and fishing industries that these countries depend on. This report proposes a 12-point action agenda for responding to this pollution threat. These recommendations are aligned with regional and international mandates and, if adopted, can significantly contribute to the Caribbean’s transition toward a blue economy. Marine pollution prevention and control should be considered a top priority for all SIDS in the Caribbean and aligned with broader planning in tourism, agriculture, coastal development, among other sectors. Addressing this issue, requires collaborative approaches in areas such as legislation, policies and en- forcement; infrastructure investments; capacity building; monitoring programs; education and public awareness, among others – tackled both at the national and regional levels. Reducing marine pollution will lead to economic growth, improved quality of life and health for island residents, significant conservation of natural capital, and con- tinued exploring for the tourists they host. The time is now to tackle marine pollution as an imminent threat to our ocean and to our SIDS countries. The solutions are in our hands. We must take responsibility to create a prosperous blue legacy for future generations. Tahseen Sayed Karin Kemper Director for the Caribbean Senior Director Latin America and the Caribbean Region Environment and Natural Resources Global Practice The World Bank The World Bank Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste 13 Acknowledgments T  is report, Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste, was produced by a core team of The h World Bank Group and external partners led by Sylvia Michele Diez, Senior Environmental Specialist. Co- authors are Pawan G. Patil, Senior Economist; John Morton, Senior Urban Environment Specialist; Diego Juan Rodriguez, Senior Water Resources Management, all of The World Bank Group; Alessandra Vanzella, Marine Specialist Consultant, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO); David Robin, Program Coordinator of Ocean Governance and Fisheries, Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS); Thomas Maes, Principal Marine Litter Scientist, Centre for Environment, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS) of the United Kingdom, and Christopher Corbin, Programme Officer, LBS Protocol-Cartagena Convention Secretariat (UNEP-CEP). The team is grateful for the valuable insights and technical contributions of Sabine Hader, Juan Diego Alonso, Christelle Chapoy, Xavier Vincent, Jostein Nygard, Marco Alcaraz, Jorge Guillermo Barbosa, Juliana Castano Isaza, Shafick Hoossein, Delphine Arri, Nora Patricia FitzGerald, Ana Luisa Lima, Caroline van den Berg, Veronica Jarrin, Doreen Kibuka-Musoke and peer reviewers Ernesto Sanchez-Triana, Ruma Tavorath, and Rachel Allen, all of The World Bank Group; Crispin d’Auvergne and Norma Cherry-Fevrier of the OECS Commission; Julian Roberts of Blue Resources Ltd.; Patrick Debels, Laverne Walker, and Andrea Salinas of the Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem Project; and Silvana Birchenough, Steve Addison, and Koen Vanstaen of CEFAS. The team acknowledges valuable inputs of research, data, and editing from Christinne O’Sullivan, Therese Ferguson-Murray, Alana Godoy, Bob Glazer, Martha Prada, Nelson Rangel Buitrago, Allan Williams, Lauretta Burke, Francisco Arias, George Maul, Maartje Folbert, Keith Donohue, Ruben Torres, Ryan Josephs, Georgina Bustamante, Caroline Power, Alberto Pacheco, Isabel Martinez, Christopher Gonzales Baca, Kanako Hasegawa, Fabiola Maria Lucia Mercado Jaldin, Miguel Diez, John Burgess, and the graphic design services provided by Sonideas. The team gratefully acknowledges co-funding support from the Bank-FAO Cooperative Program. The work was carried out with The World Bank Group support of Tahseen Sayed Khan, Country Director for the Caribbean Region; Karin Kemper, Senior Director of the Environment and Natural Resources Global Practice, and Valerie Hickey, Practice Manager, Environment and Natural Resources Global Practice. The finding, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the Executive Director of the World Bank, the governments they represent, or the counterparts consulted during the study process. Any factual errors are the responsibility of the team. 14 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Executive Summary Objective of the Report The economic prosperity and sustainable development of the Wider Caribbean Region (WCR), and in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), greatly depend on the wealth of resources provided by the oceans. The marine ecosystems of the Caribbean provide food, livelihoods, and income to millions of people through fisheries, tourism, coastal protection, transportation, and resilience to climate change. In 2017, gross rev- enues from marine and coastal tourism alone were estimated to total US$57 billion. Building a sustainable ocean economy — the Blue Economy — through better and more effective use of marine resources holds enormous potential for income growth, community development, environmental protection, and poverty reduction. Marine pollution is now ubiquitous in Caribbean waters, and a serious threat to the Blue Economy. Pol- lution, including marine litter, plastics, sewage, oil and chemicals, impacts the value of the goods and services provided by the oceans, including quality of fisheries and the pristine marine environment highly valued by the tourism sector. The region is extremely vulnerable to the impacts of marine pollution due to the dependence of its people on natural resources in combination with its vast exposed coastlines. Understanding and addressing marine pollution in the region is an economic and social priority in addition to the environmental threat. Countries now recognize the potential of the ocean and are weighing policy shifts to protect their valuable coastal and marine natural capital to reap the full benefits of the Blue Economy. This report provides an assessment of the status and impacts of marine pollution in the Caribbean and provides recommendations to enhance the region’s resilience as it steers toward the Blue Economy. The re- port compiles data and findings on marine pollution from a variety of sources and publications to provide meaningful guidance to policy and decision makers in the WCR, especially Caribbean SIDS and donor partners supporting the post-2015 Sustainable Development Agenda. It highlights the major socio-economic, health, and ecological impacts of marine pollution, and provides an assessment of the main marine pollutants in the region including marine and coastal litter, untreated wastewater, and agricultural run-off. Industrial pollution and waste from shipping are not widely documented in the region but potentially important, and thus are included in the report. The main regional policy frameworks, initiatives and programs relevant to marine pollution management are also described, followed by a 12-point agenda for addressing the challenges in support of a strong and productive Caribbean Blue Economy. Marine Pollution Assessment in the Caribbean Solid waste and wastewater are the most pervasive sources of marine pollution in the region. These sources are projected to increase as populations, coastal cities, and tourism continue to grow. Eighty percent of marine pollution results from direct or indirect discharge of solids and liquids from land-based sources such as rivers, outfalls, waterways, agricultural runoff, and infrastructure. The rest enters the oceans through petroleum exploration and production, shipping, discarded fishing gear, and the atmosphere. Cities along the coast are par- ticularly problematic sources of untreated wastewater and litter due to inadequate waste collection, disposal, and treatment facilities. Improving waste management systems remains a major challenge in the Caribbean region. Wastewater poses a significant threat to the region’s development and the quality of life of its people. On average, about 85 percent of wastewater in the WCR goes untreated into the ocean. In the insular Caribbean, about 52 percent of households lack sewer connections and only 17 percent have acceptable collection and treatment systems. Small islands often have insufficient or no waste water treatment facilities at all. Domestic wastewater Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste 15 treatment rates are low for the entire region—on average, only 37 percent of the wastewater which flows into WCR waters from larger countries (excluding the United States) is treated. For island nations, these percentages are even lower, only 8 percent (mostly with primary treatment). While some countries have succeeded in increasing the number of private wastewater treatments plants, supervision by state agencies is often poor and many of the plants are dysfunctional. The high concentration of nutrients, primarily from inadequately treated sewage, has far-reaching impacts beyond coral reefs and could pose the largest single threat to the US$57 billion of revenue that the region’s coastal tourism brings in annually. Contamination of the coastal marine environment by sewage can lead to the transmission of infectious diseases (diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis A) to people swimming in marine waters or eating seafood. Marine litter is accumulating in the Caribbean Sea, originating both in the region as well as distant coun- tries overseas through the ocean currents. Studies have measured the concentration of plastic litter across the Caribbean and found as many as 200,000 pieces of plastic per square kilometer in the northeastern Caribbean. Marine litter in this hotspot has been found to originate from the Caribbean as well as from northern waters. These plastics settle throughout the water column, fragmenting into smaller pieces called microplastics, now considered an emerging marine pollutant. As marine litter accumulates in the ocean, SIDS are often exposed to concentrations of litter that are disproportionate to their own consumption and population. A snapshot of the level of litter in coastal areas, for selected countries featured in this report, shows that an average of 2,014 litter items per kilome- ter were found on beaches and coastal areas as compared to a global average of 573. The most common marine litter found was plastic bottles, in addition to other single-use plastic items, and foam containers. Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) is another critical type of marine debris and is considered the main source of plastic waste in the marine environment coming from the fisheries and aquaculture sector. Plastic has been found to be a key component of marine litter in the Caribbean. While plastic represents only 12 percent of the solid waste that is generated in the Caribbean, it is a crucial component of marine and coast- al litter. Plastic is resistant to degradation relative to other forms of solid waste, remaining in the environment for years. Up to 80 percent of the litter found in our oceans is made of plastic. Caribbean data from beach and coastal clean-ups in 2017 indicate that plastic beverage bottles alone amount to 21 percent of the items recorded. When other common plastic items are counted, 35 percent of all items are single-use plastic. Poor household collection service is among the significant reasons why plastics enter the marine environment. An estimated 322,745 tons of plastic go uncollected each year across selected Caribbean countries. Of these, 22 percent of the households dispose of waste in waterways or on land where it can be washed into the waterways. As part of the efforts to reduce marine litter, Caribbean countries have joined the global movement to adopt education campaigns, public awareness, and introduction of new legislation to reduce persistent marine litter items. A total of 14 Caribbean SIDS has banned the use of litter such as single-use plastic bags and Styrofoam. Countries that manage and plan for pre- vention and abatement of waste will benefit from a cleaner environment which can in turn improve international investment, tourism, and economic growth. Run-off from agricultural non-point sources, including fertilizers and pesticides, is a significant con- cern in the region. Countries in the WCR with large agriculture practices use significantly higher levels of fertilizer per hectare of cultivated land than most countries, and much of this ends up in the Caribbean Sea rivers and watersheds. Most rivers in the WCR discharge significant sediment loads, straining biodiversity and shallow coastal waters. Sediment loads from the Meso-American region (Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and part of Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula) contribute significant amounts of sediment to the WCR—374 million tons per year. Land-based activities including agriculture, forestry, urbanization, and mining contribute further to sedimentation and erosion. Oil spills due to shipping are also contributing to marine pollution in the region. Shipping is a major seg- ment of the ocean economy in the WCR, but it comes with a high environmental cost. In 2012, 8.2 percent of global container shipping volume passed through the region due to the presence of the Panama Canal. With an average of five million barrels of crude oil moving daily through the WCR and 70 million tons passing annually through the Panama Canal, estimates show that about 250 major and minor oil spills will occur each year in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. A study concluded that approximately 83 percent of the Caribbean Sea was at risk from 16 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste oil spills due to shipping. The WCR is one of the world’s busiest destinations for the cruise ship industry, with a 34 percent share of the global market in 2013. On a one-week voyage, a middle-sized cruise ship (about 3,500 pas- sengers) generates 795,000 liters of sewage, 3.8 million liters of grey water, 500 liters of hazardous waste, 95,000 liters of oily bilge water, and eight tons of garbage. Unfortunately, most of the region’s small ports have limited infrastructure facilities for handling waste and sewage from these guests. Countries that do not maintain clear and clean waterways suffer from loss of business. Industrial activities in the WCR such as oil refining, food processing, chemical manufacturing, and mining are potential threats both to marine resources and human health. Ninety percent of hydrocarbon pollution in the region’s marine environment originates from land-based industrial sources and activities, including oil refin- eries, which number over 100, with 75 percent of them located along the Gulf of Mexico. While many Caribbean countries have no major industries, industrial hotspots around the Gulf of Mexico discharging substantial pollutant loads into the marine environment find their way to the waters of other countries. The smallest industrial pollutant loads come from the western Caribbean (the Central American countries), while in the eastern Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago contribute the largest industrial pollutant loads to the marine environment, due to the increased in- dustrial development, notably oil facilities. The impacts of marine pollution go far beyond harming the natural environment, undermining eco- nomic growth and livelihoods while adversely affecting human health. Since marine pollution and the associated ecological and socioeconomic impacts are a result of human activity, there is increasing cognizance that the cost of inaction will increase significantly. These costs will be further amplified by the added exter- nality of climate change, and the extreme weather events. Tourism, fisheries, health and coastal development are sectors directly impacted by the various sources of marine pollution. It harms natural aesthetics, marine life, contributes to the risk of mosquito-borne illnesses, and exacerbates flooding in coastal areas. The costs of inaction will likely be greater than those associated with pollution prevention and management, given the economic impact on these sectors. Linking Pollution with Drivers and Impacts in the WCR Pollution Institutional Ecological Sectors with Socio Sources Deficiencies Impacts Economic Impacts Wastewater Limited Access to Bacterial Tourism Sanitation Contamination Urban Solid Waste Fisheries Poor Wastewater Eutrophication Agriculture Run-off Treatment Health Provision Biological Oil and Mining Inadequate Waste Magnification Coastal Development Industries Collection and Disposal Habitat Degradation Lack of/ inadequate Regulation and Enforcement The global and regional policy frameworks addressing marine pollution are comprehensive and cover the major sources of marine pollution. These frameworks offer a blueprint for an integrated, multi-sectoral re- sponse to marine pollution. Though the region’s governments have made commendable progress since the mid- 1970s in enacting environmental policies, the wholescale degradation of waters has increased with population and development. Given the magnitude of the problem and the political, financial, and institutional costs, actions within countries are often fragmented and short-lived, failing to bring results with the urgency and intensity required. To heighten effectiveness, national policies on marine pollution should be guided by, and aligned with, regional and global frameworks. This would help countries to meet international commitments (e.g. SDGs) and fully benefit from international cooperation, resources, and funding from donors and partners. There is tremendous potential for governments to build on programs already in place. What is now required is a shift in thinking and the political will to focus on critical policy entry points. The well-being of the growing population of the region requires that these issues and trends be addressed urgently. There is no time to waste! Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste 17 Recommendations This report presents a 12-point action agenda for combating marine pollution in the region, targeting Ca- ribbean SIDS. These nations are particularly exposed and vulnerable to the present and future damage from marine pollution, which leads to reduced revenues from the tourism and fishing industries that these countries depend on. The World Bank proposes an actionable agenda for responding to pollution problems facing Caribbean SIDS that takes for- ward-looking and concrete steps in support of a healthy, productive, and resilient Caribbean Sea. A proposed way forward incorporates preventative and responsive approaches through a combination of analytical activities, policy reforms for enhancing the enabling environment, strategic investments, public awareness, partnerships and innovation. The frame- work for action involves four broad groups of activities that are needed to effectively find solutions for marine pollution. The scale of these activities ranges from the local to national to regional. These are aligned with relevant international and regional mandates, and if adopted would significantly contribute to the region’s pathway toward the Blue Economy. ANALYTICS Research, Economic Assessments, Monitoring Systems, etc. Partnerships/Innovation/ Healthy and Resilient Public Awareness Marine Environment for Prosperous POLICY REFORMS BLUE ECONOMY Governance, Polices, Regulations (ban on single-use plastics), Institutions, Capacity, etc. INVESTMENTS Waste Management Infrastructure/tech for Collection, Recycling, Treatment/Disposal, Beach Cleanup, etc. 1 Improve the knowledge base on marine pollution and water quality throughout the region using common monitoring approaches and guidelines. 2 Step up assessment of the economic impacts of marine pollution, and quantify the costs associated with pollution prevention and management, as well as the costs associated with doing nothing. 3 Strengthen and harmonize existing national institutional structures, policies, and legislation to effectively reinforce regional governance and align with international mandates and commitments. 4 Integrate marine pollution prevention and control policies into the broader context of national policy and planning frameworks. 5 Heighten management. local expertise and technical capacity concerning pollution and water quality 6 Raise public awareness about the importance of water quality and marine ecosystems to induce behavioural change. 7 Strengthen multi-sectoral mechanisms and establish partnerships to address marine pollution. 8 Prioritize, dedicate, and increase funding within national budgets for marine pollution prevention and control. 9 Make a strategic investment commitment to litter control. 10 Make a decisive commitment to reduce consumption of common and persistent litter items including plastics. 11 Implement integrated, high-priority interventions to reduce discharge of untreated sewage and nutrients, and promote resource recovery of waste water. 12 Improve chemical and industrial pollution control through targeted and cost-effective measures in priority issues. Renata Romeo/ coralreefimagebank CHAPTER 1 Introduction Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 1 19 M aking the case for keeping our oceans These countries believe that a more sustainable blue healthy should not be necessary. After growth-based strategy could help the broader policy all, our planet is 70 percent ocean. Oceans objectives of the Sustainable Development Goals, in- contain 97 percent of all water on Earth. Their tem- cluding poverty reduction, food security, energy secu- perature, chemistry, currents, and living resources rity, disaster risk reduction, climate change mitigation, make life possible for human beings. Oceans regulate and ocean conservation. Pollution of the marine envi- the world’s climate, and climate regulates life. Rain- ronment, however, poses a significant risk to the eco- water, drinking water, weather, much of the planet’s nomic benefits to be generated by the region’s ocean food, and even the oxygen we breathe are all pro- economy. vided or regulated by oceans. Thus, all of the planet’s 7.5 billion people depend on oceans in fundamental ways. The three billion who live in coastal communi- Box 1.1.1 The Blue Economy Defined ties have an even closer link, depending directly on “Sustainable and integrated development of econom- the oceans for their livelihoods and diets. Globally, ic activities in healthy oceans”. the market value of marine and coastal resources and The Blue Economy concept provides social and eco- industries is conservatively estimated at US$3 trillion nomic benefits for current and future generations, and per year, or about 5 percent of global Gross Domestic restore, protect, and maintain the diversity, produc- Product (GDP), (OECD 2016). tivity, resilience, core functions, and intrinsic value of marine ecosystems. The ocean sustains the economy of the Wider Ca- World Bank, Blue Economy Action Plan (in draft) ribbean Region and especially Caribbean SIDS, providing food and livelihoods to its people, and is intricately weaved into its history and social The Blue Economy concept considers the eco- and cultural landscape. Understanding and address- logical systems that provide so many of the ser- ing marine pollution issues in the region is therefore vices linked to the ocean economy as underlying not only an environmental concern but an economic and social priority. The unprecedented and intensified and sometimes invisible natural capital assets. climatic events that have battered the region over the Natural capital includes living resources (renewable last 20 years make the job all the more urgent. stocks) harvested for use, such as fish; non-living re- sources (non-renewable stocks) harvested for use, Since the early 1970s, governments of the re- such as seabed minerals; and ecosystems and eco- gion have recognized the environmental and system processes by which the living and non-living socio-economic linkages and begun considering environments interact as a functional unit (such as the sustainability of ocean resources in order to coral reef ecosystems and mangrove ecosystems). achieve long-term economic prosperity. These Many of these natural capital assets are renewable efforts have evolved into international environmental and, if properly managed, can yield benefits sustain- and maritime policies and efforts under the framework ably over time. As such, the ocean economy and eco- of sustainable development. However, national action logical systems should be considered as one unit in to address environmental issues, in particular marine policy design. pollution, has been for the most part limited and frag- mented, insufficient to keep pace with development Oceans provide three main types of services. First patterns that are driving the environmental degrada- is economic activities such as fisheries, shipping, com- tion. Therefore, if left uncontrolled, marine pollution munications, tourism, and recreation. Second is tangi- will continue as a serious threat to the region’s path- ble ecosystem services vital to human life, such as the way toward the Blue Economy. 50 percent of atmospheric oxygen that microscopic marine plants produce, the natural carbon sinks in mangroves and seagrasses, and the coastal protection 1.1 Marine Pollution and the from storm surges and waves that coral reefs and man- groves provide to human communities. Third is intan- Blue Economy: A Primer gible ecosystem services related to human perception A growing number of Caribbean countries are that have aesthetic, cultural, or religious value. All of moving toward national development strategies these marine ecosystem services have substantial eco- that are strongly underpinned by ocean resources. nomic value estimated in the trillions of US dollars an- 20 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 1 Figure 1.1.1 A Blue Economy Framework The Ocean Economy Seafood Marine Energy Transport Tourism and Carbon Coastal Waste Biodiversity’s biotechnology and trade recreation sequestration protection disposal existence value Inputs Outputs Policy Flow of Material Flow of Reforms & Services over Natural capital assets Materials & time Impacts over time = Change Ecosystems Living Resources Non living &Ecosystem Resources Processes Source: Patil et al. 2016. nually, with three-quarters of this provided by coastal The four negative human-induced or anthropo- ecosystems (Costanza et al. 1997 and UN 2016). genic drivers of change in the WCR’s marine nat- ural capital are (1) overfishing, (2) coastal devel- A conceptual framework for the Blue Economy opment and habitat degradation, (3) pollution, in the WCR shows the complex relationship be- and (4) climate change and ocean acidification. tween marine natural assets and economic ac- These are mutually reinforcing drivers, which togeth- tivity in the region. Figure 1.1.1 illustrates the entry er with a range of other specific developments (such points for policy reforms in order to change the flow as introduction of invasive species like the lionfish of inputs from natural assets to the ocean economy from the Indo-Pacific) accelerate environmental deg- over time, or to reduce its negative outputs, such as radation and threaten the region’s economic stability pollution. and growth. With the expected growth of the ocean economy There is a “circular interaction” between eco- in the coming decades, the potential harm to its nomic sectors and the marine environment. The natural capital asset base is significant—and the approximately US$57 billion generated annually from baseline is already low. In 2016, the United Nations coastal tourism in the insular Caribbean depends Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon wrote that the findings heavily on these ecosystems and processes. Therefore, of the first world ocean assessment “indicate that the their degradation poses a serious threat to the sector oceans’ carrying capacity is near or at its limit,” and that (Figure 1.1.3). For example, use of the ocean for waste “urgent action on a global scale is needed to protect the disposal and the resulting impacts on reefs, beaches, world’s oceans from the many pressures they face” (UN and mangroves and their services generate negative 2016). In this context, two parallel trends currently occur inputs to sectors such as tourism and recreation (Patil globally and within the WCR with regard to the use of et al. 2016). ocean resources (Figure 1.1.2). On the one hand is grow- ing ocean-based economic activity (such as shipping, Overall, there is increasing global recognition of how fisheries, and tourism), while on the other is the result- badly the oceans are degraded and the need for col- ing damage to marine resources and a reduction of the lective and decisive action (Box 1.2.2) to reverse this marine environment’s natural capital (Patil et al. 2016). trend. The WCR is no exception. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 1 21 Figure 1.1.2 Two Parallel Trends in the Global Ocean Growth in Ocean Economy Declining Health of Ocean Environment Source: Patil et al. 2016. Figure 1.1.3 Blue Economy Linkages: Tourism, Waste Disposal, and Ecosystems The Ocean Economy Tourism and Waste recreation disposal Inputs Natural capital Outputs Ha of ecosystems assets Flow of Pollutants (e.g. coral reefs), over time water quality Ecosystems & Ecosystem Processes Source: Patil et al. 2016 Box 1.1.2 The need for collective rectly, of substances or energy into the marine envi- action at the global level ronment, including estuaries, which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects as harm to living The essential first step is ending the artificial dichot- resources and marine life, hazards to human health, omy between economic demands and the health of hindrance to marine activities, including fishing and our seas. We must put aside short-term national gain, to prevent long-term global catastrophe.” This was the other legitimate uses of the sea, impairment of quality message of UN Secretary-General António Guterres at for use of sea water and reduction of amenities” (Article the 2017 Ocean Conference. He noted that numerous 1(4), UN Convention on the Law of the Sea). reports and studies have already documented the damage caused to our oceans and that “the situation Pollution is the largest environmental cause of is getting worse.” Humankind has created these prob- disease and premature death in the world today. lems, he observed, and as such, it is our collective re- In 2015, one in six deaths was linked to some form of sponsibility to solve them together with “decisive and pollution, with 1.8 million deaths arising from water coordinated action.” pollution alone (Landrigan 2017). Marine pollution may affect human health when people have direct contact with pollutants or eat marine life and products 1.2 Marine Pollution is a contaminated by heavy metals, long-lived and harmful chemicals and materials, persistent organic pollutants, Human Issue and other toxins that accumulate in the food chain (UN Pollution is an externality that reduces the value 2016 and MEA 2005). Beaches and seafood polluted of the goods and services provided by the oceans, with microbes can make visitors sick. The illnesses in- both to specific countries and globally to the en- clude stomach flu and gastroenteritis, skin rashes, pink tire economy. Pollution of the marine environment is eye, respiratory infections, meningitis, and hepatitis defined as the introduction “by man, directly or indi- (NRDC 2014). 22 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 1 Unfortunately, pollution is now ubiquitous Although countries have made considerable throughout the world’s oceans, whether in the progress in limiting some forms of pollution, oth- depths, the surface, or within marine life that in- ers such as marine litter persist, and in ever-grow- habits the water. Most of this pollution is caused by ing volumes. Massive patches of floating debris, made direct or indirect dumping or discharges of solids and up of small plastic particles or “microplastics,” have been liquids from land-based sources such as rivers, marine observed in the oceans since 1997. A huge one bigger outfalls,3 waterways, runoffs, and infrastructure (GESA- than Mexico (more than 2.5 million square kilometers) MP 2010). The rest enters the oceans from vessels and was recently discovered in the Pacific off the coasts of the atmosphere (UN 2016). Chile and Peru (Montanari 2017). The accumulation of marine litter on beaches and coastal areas has a pro- Excess nutrients and waste from agriculture and found impact on ecosystems—and aesthetics, with untreated sewage are common in all oceans. concomitant damage to tourism and a region’s “brand.” These have increased roughly threefold from pre-in- dustrial levels, creating about 500 separate low-ox- Because 80 percent of all marine pollution in ygen “dead zones”4 that, by 2010, covered 245,000 the Caribbean region comes from land-based square kilometers of ocean (Doney 2010). Some of sources, mostly untreated wastewater, litter, and these zones are within the WCR (Altieri et al. 2017). agricultural run-off (UNEP-CEP 2010, 2014 and Solid waste, sedimentation, and toxic by-products UNEP-GPA 2016), this report will focus on these from industries, including mining and oil exploration, three major sources of marine pollution. To a less- are also contributing to the deterioration of marine er extent, it will examine other forms of pollution, such ecosystems, in synergy with warming waters and acid- as those arising from shipping, and industrial pollution ification of oceans due to climate change. such as oil, heavy metals, and toxic chemicals. 3 A marine outfall is a pipeline or tunnel that discharges municipal or industrial wastewater, stormwater, or combined sewer overflows into the sea. 4 Dead zones are areas with oxygen levels too low to sustain marine life, including commercial species, and cause the collapse of the local ecosystem. The Ocean Agency CHAPTER 2 Marine Pollution: Impacts and Threats to the Blue Economy Caroline Power Photography Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 2 25 T he Caribbean region is a unique collec- an Current transports significant amounts of water tion of continental and island nations, northwestward through the Caribbean Sea and into encircling the Caribbean Sea and lying the Gulf of Mexico, via the Yucatan Current. In addition, adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico. It covers a marine two major gyres flow counter-clockwise off Colombia area of approximately 2.75 million square kilometers and Panama and south of western Cuba. The Caribbe- (Figure 2.1.1). Though its ocean is only one percent an Current enters the gulf via the Yucatan Channel and of the world’s total, it supports the economies of exits to the east through the Straits of Florida as the 37 distinct geopolitical entities. These include large Gulf Stream (Gyory et al. 2013). The currents assure that countries such as Mexico, Colombia, and Venezuela; marine pollution doesn’t stay in one place but gets the Central American countries of the Caribbean ba- propelled all over the region. sin; the world’s largest grouping of Small Island De- veloping States; and territories of the United States, Watersheds of rivers and canals send large vol- the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and French umes of freshwater flowing into the WCR basin overseas departments. and hence are very important engines of land- based marine pollution (UNEP 2016). The largest contribution of fresh water into the WCR comes from 2.1 The Marine Environment the Amazon River (on average 250,000 cubic meters per second), creating an enormous plume that extends of the WCR northwest hundreds of kilometers. Drifters deployed The hydrography of the Caribbean region is key near the river’s mouth throughout the year move to- to causing the transboundary effects of marine ward the Caribbean in one to six months, depending pollutants in the region. The Caribbean Sea is domi- on the season (Gyory et al. 2013). The Orinoco River is nated by the flows of the North Equatorial Current and, the second-largest source in the south. To the north in to a lesser extent, the South Equatorial Current, which the Gulf of Mexico, meanwhile, the largest freshwater together with the North Brazil and Guiana Currents contribution comes from the Mississippi River (approx- form the “Caribbean Current” (Fig.2.1.2). The Caribbe- imately 16,800 cubic meters per second). Figure 2.1.1 The Wider Caribbean Region Source: Adapted from UNEP-CEP 2010. 26 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 2 Figure 2.1.2 The Currents of the Wider Caribbean Region Source: Maul 2008. The Caribbean encompasses an important global of these ecosystems, however, are over-exploited and hot spot of marine biodiversity and is the most under-protected. geographically and oceanographically isolat- ed tropical ocean on the planet (Jackson et al. 2014).  This isolation makes its marine biodiversity 2.2 Economic Contribution of unique. The Wider Caribbean Region is a large marine the Caribbean Sea ecosystem (LME) that nurtures a high diversity of flora and fauna. With 12,000 reported species, the Caribbe- The marine environment makes a huge contribu- an is among the top twelve world hotspots in terms of tion to the overall economy of Caribbean coun- biodiversity (BirdLife 2010). tries. Tourism and fishing play a dominant role, along with maritime transport (Patil et al. 2016). There are The region’s coastal zones host rich and unique hab- also strong cultural attachments to coastal resources itats that include coral reefs, seagrass beds, man- and their uses. groves, and salt ponds. Other life forms making their homes there are reef and pelagic fish, lobsters, conch, Fisheries turtles, algae, and resident and migratory birds. Offshore waters are home to numerous species of marine mam- The fisheries sector in Caribbean countries is a mals and sea turtles as well as deep water pelagic fish. large source of nutrition, employment, and foreign These coastal resources provide the basis for a range of exchange, as well as contributing to social and eco- economic and social activities, including the tourism and nomic stability. During the 2013-2014 period, total fishing industries. This rich biodiversity, which is partly due capture fish production averaged 162,220 mt across Ca- to isolation within the Caribbean Sea, has resulted in the ribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) member greatest concentration of rare and endemic marine spe- states. The value of marine capture fisheries production cies in the Western Hemisphere. and aquaculture fisheries was US$ 460 million annually over the period. The total number of persons employed Within the WCR, the Eastern Caribbean ranks in the fisheries sector was estimated at 341,668, rep- among the world’s top five biodiversity hot spots resenting 4.3% of the workforce of the region (CRFM due to its marine and coastal ecosystems. Many 2015). In view of heavy fishing in recent years, few large Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 2 27 surplus stocks remain in the Caribbean region, with the ing decades, from food insecurity to the search for new exception of the waters of Guyana, Suriname and, to sources of energy and jobs (OECD 2016). The key task in a lesser extent, Belize (ITLOS 2013). Coastal fisheries in the WCR will be to manage the shift in such a way as to particular have declined sharply in some countries in foster more sustainable “blue growth” without bringing recent years. In some places, the tourist market for fish additional pressure (such as pollution) to the existing nat- products is particularly important, with foreign visitors ural capital assets of the region. consuming a large portion of the domestic market’s fish. Tourism 2.3 Critical Challenges Facing the WCR Caribbean economies are known to be the most tourism-dependent in the world (CLME 2011). The small island countries in the WCR face unique Tourism is a significant economic activity, accounting challenges to their growth and development. for 15 percent (WTTC 2018) of the region’s GDP. While These include small land mass, continued reliance on less than 1 percent of the world’s population lives in the a small number of major export products with asso- region (excluding the United States and Mexico), the re- ciated vulnerability to economic shocks; poorly devel- gion receives 6 percent of the world’s tourists. Tourism oped waste management infrastructure; the location is the dominant source of employment and foreign ex- of most of their people along coastlines; and greater change and has, since the 1990s, helped to offset a de- vulnerability to natural events. cline in agriculture and agricultural exports. Countries such as Dominican Republic, Grenada, and Jamaica are The economies of these countries are being bat- particularly dependent on tourism, which accounts for tered by some of the worst storms on record. Over more than 70 percent of their total services exports, 90 percent of natural disasters in the insular Caribbe- and this figure reaches 80 percent for countries such an between 1970 and 2011 were extreme weather Bahamas and Saint Lucia (UNEP 2016). The expected events, primarily storms and hurricanes, followed by growth in tourism, which mostly takes place in coastal flooding (UNEP 2016). The hurricanes which struck the and marine areas, will put increasing pressures on the insular Caribbean during 2017 were among the worst Caribbean Sea ecosystem and natural assets. on record (John 2017). Hurricane Irma was the most powerful Atlantic hurricane in history and had the second-longest duration as a Category 5 hurricane. Maritime Transport It had catastrophic impact on the island of Barbuda, More than 90 percent of global trade travels by damaging or destroying 90 percent of its infrastruc- sea. Caribbean island nations, in particular, are almost ture (Horsford 2017). Hurricane Maria was devastating entirely reliant on shipping to support their econo- for Dominica and Puerto Rico. The IMF has estimated mies. By 2050, maritime freight transport is projected that based on current trends, climate change could to quadruple from 2010’s levels (OECD and ITF 2015). increase storm costs to the Caribbean by as much as The Caribbean Sea is also a major global shipping route 77 percent by 2100. Moreover, these events worsen due to the large number of vessels converging on and marine pollution by increasing the vulnerability of departing from the recently expanded Panama Canal. ecosystems and the amounts and dispersal of waste and pollutants. Emerging Industries Rapid rates of urbanization in the Caribbean are In the transition to a Blue Economy, more and more placing new pressure on water and sanitation countries are looking to the ocean for new types services. At the onset of the millennium, 62 percent of of industries. Marine economic activity is set to shift the region’s people lived in urban areas. This increased dramatically in the coming decades, according to the to 70 percent in 2015 and is projected to reach 74 per- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop- cent in 2025 (UNEP 2016). Consequently, the delivery ment (OECD). Emerging industries will include offshore of important services such as water and sanitation wind, tidal, and wave energy; oil and gas exploration and will continue to challenge governments in the region. production from previously inaccessible waters; offshore With 45 million people living within 30 kilometers of a aquaculture; seabed mining; and marine biotechnol- coastline (Burke et al. 2011) and 90 million within 100 ogy. The new activities could help address many of the kilometers (UNEP 2016), there is high anthropogenic challenges that will face the world population in com- pressure on coastal and marine resources. 28 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 2 This represents US$525 million per year of lost envi- 2.4 Impact of Pollution on the ronmental services in areas under medium threat of Natural Valuable Capital of pollution and US$700 million per year for places fac- the WCR ing high threat, for a total of US$1.2 billion (Annex 2). These costs are concentrated in Belize, Colombia, Coral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves are in- Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Panama, terlinked marine ecosystems that are critical for and Puerto Rico (Burke and Maidens 2004). the sustainability of major economic activities such as tourism, fisheries, and transportation. Pollution can harm coral reefs in ways that are However, these same ecosystems are being severely only now being documented and understood. degraded by overuse and anthropogenic impacts, re- For example, recent studies have indicated that plas- sulting in loss of revenue, livelihoods, and biodiversity. tic debris may increase the incidence of coral disease (Lamb et al. 2018), while eutrophication caused by agricultural run-off and sewage outflows has been Box 2.4.1 The Decline of Coral linked to hypoxic zones in deeper water, resulting in Cover in the Caribbean coral bleaching at non-stressful temperatures (Altieri Coral cover in the Caribbean has declined dramatically et al. 2017). In addition to nutrients, sewage outflows since the early 1980s, with 1999 to 2011 described as the may contain freshwater, pathogens, endocrine dis- “modern era of massively degraded coral reefs” in the rupters, heavy metals, and suspended particles (Wear Caribbean (Jackson et al. 2014). Average coral cover in and Vega Thurber 2015). These have all been associ- the Caribbean in 2011 was estimated at 14.3 percent—a ated with coral mortality rises, disease, suppressed decline of almost half since 1970. In some areas, coral growth and reproduction, and coral bleaching (Wear cover is down by 80 percent (Jackson et al. 2014). and Vega Thurber 2015). Coral reef degradation from overfishing and pollution, meanwhile, increases un- Reef degradation is probably the single most seri- der the impacts of climate change, such as bleaching, ous threat to the natural capital of the Caribbean. disease, acidification, and damage by stronger storms It is already costing an estimated annual revenue loss of and hurricanes. between US$350 million and US$870 million. If this trend continues, the reefs’ value to the economy will have de- Another major threat to coral reefs is coastal creased by the year 2050 by between 11 and 19 percent development. This represents costs of US$596 mil- (Burke and Maidens 2004, Burke et al. 2011). Land-based lion per year in medium-threat locations and US$561 sources of pollution account for about 20 percent of these million per year in high-threat places. These costs are impacts. That means that by 2050, land-based pollution concentrated in countries including Haiti, Cuba, the impacts on coral reefs in the region could have economic Dominican Republic, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico (Burke costs of up to US$172 million, and potentially even more. and Maidens 2004). Beaches directly suffer due to coral reef deg- radation, because corals are a source of much Box 2.4.2 Economic Value of of the calcareous sand and provide protection Caribbean Coral Reefs from waves. The cost of artificially replacing sand, a The economic value of Caribbean coral reefs was es- process known as beach nourishment, can run into timated over a decade ago at between US$3.1 billion millions of US dollars for a single island. The cost of and US$4.6 billion. These figures were based on the not replacing the sand, however, can be even higher goods and services these ecosystems provided for the in terms of lost tourism revenue. Conversely, protect- year 2000 for fisheries, dive tourism, and shoreline pro- tection. Dive tourism alone generated US$2 billion in ing the reef is much more cost-effective. Beaches are also severely harmed by litter. Studies have sug- revenue (Burke and Maidens 2004). gested the greatest economic loss caused by reef degradation comes from reduction of amenities and After overfishing5, sediments and pollution from tourism revenue (Rangel-Buitrago et. al. 2018 and inland sources are the biggest threat to reefs. Williams et. al. 2016). 5 Overfishing harms reef by removing fish that eat bacteria that otherwise would smother coral Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 2 29 Figure 2.4.1 Reefs at Risk in the Wider Caribbean Region Source: Burke et al. 2011 Seagrass beds and mangroves are also critical Mangroves shelter almost all coastlines in the re- for the Caribbean’s environmental sustainabili- gion, providing important socioeconomic and en- ty. Seagrass beds get little recognition for the contri- vironmental functions (Box 2.4.3). Studies of pollu- bution they make to key services, including fisheries tion impacts on mangroves in the Caribbean indicate (directly) and tourism (indirectly). The beds produce that oil spills are the main threat to these ecosystems, sand, protect beaches from wave action, and nurture causing large die-offs of trees and benthic organisms. wildlife, an important part of eco-tourism and fish- Other pollutants damaging mangroves include mercu- eries (CARSEA 2007). Threats to seagrass beds in the ry and other chemicals released from bauxite mining, Caribbean include pollution from nutrients, such as pesticides, sewage, and heavy metals from industrial nitrogen, which causes excessive growth of epiphytes activities. The nature of the impacts varies: pesticides (other plants that grow on the grass blades). Nutrient have toxic effects on mangroves, stunting their growth pollution can also overstimulate the growth of the or killing them, while sewage discharges result in fun- seagrass itself, leading to difficult decisions to clear gal infections that kill or impair the trees. Solid waste beds that expand into previously clear sandy areas. also shows severe effects on mangrove forest health High sediment loads have also harmed seagrass eco- and natural regeneration. A study in Jamaica, for ex- systems, including in Cartagena Bay, where seagrass ample, has shown that mangrove seedling exposed to has practically disappeared (Restrepo et al. 2006). higher solid waste cover were shorter and less produc- tive, with plastic bags causing harm to seedling surviv- al (UWI Mona Campus Research Days 2018). 30 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 2 Box 2.4.3 Socioeconomic and Environmental Functions of Mangroves Mangrove forests and seagrass beds are nursery grounds for fisheries and protect shorelines against wave and wind ac- tion. They act as natural filters to remove harmful pollutants, absorb nutrients from runoff, and trap sediments, helping to increase the clarity and quality of marine waters. Mangroves can generate income as eco-tourist attractions for the view- ing of birds, manatees, crocodiles, and other fauna and flora. But the building of ports, harbors, marinas, and tourism in- frastructure, and cutting them for production of charcoal has degraded or destroyed many of these systems (UNEP 2016) and compromised the services they provide. Local communities and artisanal fishers can feel the effects particularly hard. For instance, loss of mangroves has decreased the availability of shrimp larvae and consequently shrimp production has fallen (UNEP 2016). Six countries of the WCR are among the top 20 worldwide with highest mangrove coverage, with Cuba being the only island nation among them. Collectively, these six countries represent 14% of the mangroves in the world (Hamilton and Casey 2016). These three habitats—mangroves, seagrass beds, takes into account the current or potential value of and coral reefs—must be considered as one large the socioeconomic sector affected and the degree interdependent ecosystem with shared biodi- to which pollution can degrade that value. Where versity. Degradation of one type of habitat can have quantification is not available, the extent of reports on far-reaching impacts on the services that human com- impacts is used as a qualifying factor for prioritization munities receive from another. For example, overfishing (that is, many reports spread across the region would has been the single most damaging activity for reefs constitute a higher priority than highly localized im- (Jackson et al. 2014) because it removes fish that eat pacts). These linkages have also been recognized by algae that smother corals. This not only hurts the reef WCR governments under the CLME+ concept to sup- but tourism and beach nourishment as well. Likewise, port stress-reduction measures under an ecosystem the clearing of seagrass beds for aesthetic reasons in management approach. bathing waters could affect income from fisheries and, in the long run, speed up erosion of nearby beaches, The ecological impacts from pollution and the as- which would reduce the appeal to tourists and damage sociated socioeconomic costs are caused in part local livelihoods. Other ecosystem impacts of pollut- by local or regional institutional factors that are ants include harm to fish and communities of species common in the region. Among the most important that live on the ocean floor. For example, toxins from institutional deficiencies are: industrial discharges can cause die-offs of seabed spe- cies, while bacteria from sewage discharges can con- •• Low percentage of treated water taminate seafood (Elison and Farnsworth 1996). •• Lack of access to safe sources of drinking water and The ecological impacts on the natural capital are inadequate discharge of black and gray water, par- significant, and so are the socio-economic im- ticularly among low-income households pacts. Climate change and climate variability ampli- •• Inadequate or non-existent systems for collection, fies many of these impacts. Figure 2.4.2 summarizes recycling, and disposal of urban and industrial the pollution impact chain and identifies the priority waste concerns in the Caribbean region. The prioritization Figure 2.4.2 Linking Pollution with Drivers and Impacts in the WCR Pollution Institutional Ecological Sectors with Socio Sources Deficiencies Impacts Economic Impacts Wastewater Limited Access to Bacterial Tourism Sanitation Contamination Urban Solid Waste Fisheries Poor Wastewater Eutrophication Agriculture Run-off Treatment Health Provision Biological Oil and Mining Inadequate Waste Magnification Coastal Development Industries Collection and Disposal Habitat Degradation Lack of/ inadequate Regulation and Enforcement Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 2 31 •• Lack of/inadequate regulation and monitoring of health concerns that reduce the commercial value agricultural and industrial production and disposal of catches. Indirect impacts relate to reduced pro- of hazardous pollutants, in particular from the oil ductivity in nurseries, such as mangroves, sea grass and the mining industries beds, and coral reefs, and, in general, to reduced quality of the pelagic marine habitat. These ecological impacts result in economic im- pacts in the following four sectors: •• Tourism. Marine pollution causes aesthetic deg- radation of such natural assets as beaches, sand •• Human health. Countries in the WCR still face im- dunes, coral reefs, and mangroves. Reduced visi- portant challenges in terms of treatment of curable tation rates not only affect tourism-oriented eco- diseases that are linked both to exposure to unsafe nomic units, but have a negative widespread in- drinking water and to inadequate systems of water direct effect on the rest of the regional economy, disposal, particularly in rural areas. Discarded litter because the supply chain for tourism includes sec- can provide a reservoir for stagnant water provid- tors throughout the economy, from food produc- ing breeding ground for mosquitos and flies that tion and manufactures to specialized services. spread diseases to humans such as Malaria, Dengue Fever, and Chikungunya virus. In addition, there are •• Coastal protection. Pollution and habitat deg- health risks associated with the consumption of radation can also harm coastal infrastructure, in marine species that contain high concentrations particular through the value of coastal real estate. of chemicals, heavy metals, or pesticides due to Coastal property can acquire high economic val- biological magnification processes in marine food ue due to its hedonic valuation. However, beach chains. Further research is needed on the impacts pollution and degradation of coastal habitat can of microplastics (ingestion) to humans. reduce the hedonic component of property val- ue. Higher environmental risk and higher costs of •• Fisheries. Impacts to fisheries can be both direct property insurance due to higher exposure to the and indirect. Direct impacts relate to reduced rates wind and wave action associated with degrada- of survival of commercial species in polluted ma- tion of sand dunes, mangroves, and coral reefs can rine habitat. Also, species that are contaminated further drive down the economic value of coastal with chemicals and heavy metals result in several infrastructure. CHAPTER 3 Assessing Marine Pollution in the WCR istock.com Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 33 T he main sources of marine pollution are in- eas. Once it enters the waterways and marine environ- fluenced by coastal population sizes. There ment, it conveniently escapes the direct responsibility of is a direct relationship between the volume of the local authorities and individual citizens but becomes pollution entering the region’s oceans and how many an important concern to the coastal and marine environ- people live along the coasts and the watersheds drain- ment. The quantity and timing of this waste load is influ- ing into the oceans. In the WCR, the largest populations enced by the interrelationship between hydrologic and live in the watersheds and coastlines of Mexico and Co- climatic conditions; the quality and coverage of waste lombia, along the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. It collection services, street sweeping and other cleaning is recognized that marine pollution is expected to grow services; and the level of maintenance and design of with increasing population and rising per capita con- drainage systems. In addition, direct littering of coastal sumption (Kaza et. al, 2018). areas which have recreational and other activities and direct dumping into coastal and marine environment A second factor affecting pollution is the level of are other common sources of solid waste pollution. In waste management systems in the region. Cities sum, improving waste management systems remains along the coast are particularly problematic sources of a major challenge in the WCR6, especially for Caribbean untreated wastewater and litter due to inadequate waste SIDS, which are also vulnerable to the waste generated collection, disposal, and treatment facilities. Solid waste by international shipping. Countries that manage and that ends up in the marine environment often gets there plan for safe waste disposal will benefit from a cleaner through water drainage systems that have acquired an environment which can in turn improve international unintended function of removing waste from urban ar- investment, tourism, and economic growth. Figure 3.1.1 A Shocking Sea of Plastic Floating Near the Caribbean Island of Roatan Photo by Caroline Power Photography. Source: The Telegraph News, 26 October 2017. 6 The OECS Solid and Ship Generated Waste Management Project which established landfills ended in 2003. It was intended to protect public health and maintain the integrity of the terrestrial and marine environments including compliance with the “Special Area” designation of the Caribbean Sea. Given the period since initial implementation, it may be necessary to assess whether the project goals were achieved; and, if the technologies and approaches employed are still rele- vant, functional, efficient, and appropriate to reduce current waste generation, and address new and emerging challenges. 34 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 In terms of magnitude, the main pollutants in the aggregation of voluntary cleanups of large numbers WCR include marine and coastal litter, untreated of local coastal areas. As participation is global, the or partially treated wastewater; and agricultur- data of what they found provide a useful snapshot al run-off collected by river systems and sent to of the level of litter in coastal areas.7. For selected the ocean. Industrial pollutants, heavy metals and countries featured in this report and areas subject to discharges, and waste from shipping are not as widely coastal cleanup, an average of 2,014 litter items per documented in the region but are potentially as im- kilometer were found on beaches and coastal areas portant, given the magnitude of those sectors. as compared to a global average of 573 (Table 3.1.1). The top marine litter found was plastic bottles (21%), in addition to other single use plastic items, and foam 3.1 Marine and Coastal Litter containers. Litter and debris are a common sight in the re- Litter is accumulating in the Caribbean Sea. Stud- gion’s marine and coastal areas, sometimes cov- ies have measured the concentration of plastic across ering vast expanses of water. In 2017, a mass of floating trash at least eight kilometers wide and several the Caribbean Sea and found as many as 200,000 piec- kilometers long was found off the coast of Honduras es of plastic8 per square kilometer in the northeastern (Figure 3.1.1), apparently caused by heavy rains and Caribbean (Table 3.1.2). Marine litter in this hotspot has discharge from rivers (BBC 2017). been found to originate from the Caribbean as well as from northern waters (Law et al. 2010) and is believed Volunteer cleanups have found the Caribbe- to be brought to the area by the prevailing currents. an contains several times more litter than the SIDS are often exposed to concentrations of plastic global average. The 2017 International Coastal litter that are disproportionate to their own consump- Cleanup organized by the Ocean Conservancy is an tion and population (Lachmann et al 2017). Table 3.1.1 Litter found in coastal cleanups in selected Caribbean countries Common litter items (Items per KM) Km of Litter Country Coast Concentration Plastic Plastic Plastic Straws- Foam food surveyed (items/km) beverage bottle grocery Plastic lids stirrers containers bottles caps bags Belize 48 1914 157 101 85 30 86 26 Jamaica 151 4684 1497 509 115 70 63 125 Cuba 2 601 4 38 30 8 15 13 Dominican Republic 117 3966 394 30 116 74 173 3 St Kitts and Nevis 6 1050 394 135 5 47 20 30 Barbados 44 1260 97 126 22 14 45 15 St Vincent and the 4 2435 623 76 102 24 24 84 Grenadines Grenada 1 543 110 9 23 0 10 0 Trinidad and Tobago 13 1636 351 151 25 25 31 44 Guyana 4 3904 1086 448 50 79 200 84 Suriname 1 160 31 11 25 0 0 1 Average (Caribbean) 2014 431 148 54 34 61 39 Average (Global) 573 65 34 22 17 17 15 Source: Ocean Conservancy 2017. 7 Ocean Conservancy, 2017. The litter concentrations along the beaches is an indicative number that provides useful relative information, but not an absolute final concentration and does not represent all beaches in a given country. This is because the calculated concentration is a function of the number of people involved in the efforts, and of the choice of the site itself. 8 Plastic pieces reported along the Caribbean Sea, and in other regions, vary in size and density depending on how long (time and distance) they have been free-floating. The measures reported are for plastic pieces visible to the naked eye and counted by hand. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 35 Table 3.1.2 Plastic Collected across the Caribbean Sea Source: Law et al. 2010, Reisser et al. 2013, Collignon et al. 2012, and Cozar et al. 2015. Figure 3.1.2 Crabs Caught in an abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG), in this Case a Gill Net .Photo by Frank Barnsah. 36 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 Figure 3.1.3 Type and Relative Contribution of Fishing Gear Reported as ALDFG in the Caribbean Dredges 0.2% Bottom Longline 0.2% Traps Lift Nets 0.8% 41.0% Surround Nets 0.9% Trawl Nets 1.0% Seines 1.4% Surface Longline 3.2% Unidentified Other Gear 3.8% Nets 14.9% Casitas 5.5% Gill Nets 6.3% Recreational Hook and Line Commercial Hook and Line 7.0% 14.0% Source: Matthews 2009 Figure 3.1.4 Average Proportion of Waste Composition Generated in Selected WCR Countries Rubber/Leather 2% Food Organic Waste 44% Wood 2% Metal 3% Glass 5% Paper & Cardboard Yard/Garden/Green waste 8% 14% Other 10% Plastic 12% Sources: Belize waste characterization study 2016 (BSWMA); St. Lucia waste characterization study 2008 (SLSWMA); GIZ 2016 (Reducing the input of plastic litter into the ocean around Grenada); Jamaica waste characterization study 2013 (JNSWMA); Richards 2002 (St. Vincent and the Grenadines waste characterization study); Trinidad and Tobago Environmental Management Authority 2011. Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing time to trap non-target organisms, a process known gear (ALDFG) is another important type of ma- as ghost-fishing (Lusher et al. 2017 and NOAA 2015). rine debris. Fishing gear (lines, traps, nets, etc.) and aquaculture structures are discarded or otherwise lost Solid Waste Management and due to wear and tear, cut by anchor ropes, storms, or Marine Litter in the Caribbean boating accidents (Figure 3.1.2). ALDFG is considered While plastic represents only a fraction of the sol- the main source of plastic waste in the marine envi- id waste that is generated, it is a major constitu- ronment coming from the fisheries and aquaculture ent of marine and coastal litter. Waste generated in sectors (FAO 2016). A Caribbean study reported that the Caribbean on average contain 12 percent plastic the majority of ALDFG was found underwater (60 per- (Figure 3.1.4). However, plastic is resistant to degrada- cent), and traps were the most common type of gear tion relative to other forms of solid waste. Data from (41 percent), followed by various types of nets (25 beach and coastal clean-ups in 2017 indicate that percent) (Matthews, 2009; Figure 3.1.3). This is wors- plastic beverage bottles alone amount to 21 percent ened by severe weather common in the WCR. Derelict of the items recorded, and when combined with oth- fishing gear floating on the ocean surface or resting er common plastic items, 35 percent of the items are on the ocean floor can continue for a long period of single source plastic. Global studies have also shown Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 37 Figure 3.1.5 Percentage of Households with Waste Collection Service in the Insular Caribbean 99 97 96 96 95 100 94 94 90 90 85 77 75 80 70 64 63 60 50 % 40 40 30 20 12 10 0 Antigua and Dominican Barbuda Republic Dominica Barbados Suriname St. Lucia Jamaica Grenada Guyana Belize the Grenadines and Nevis St. Vincent & St. Kitts Trinidad & Tobago Haiti Cuba Sources: Dominican Republic 2010 National Census (Dominican Republic National Statistics Office, 2011); Jamaica 2011 National Census (Statistical Institute of Jamaica, 2011); Trinidad and Tobago 2011 National Census; St. Lucia 2010 National Census (Saint Lucia Central Statistics Office, 2011); Grenada 2011 National Census (Grenada Central Statistics Office, 2011); St. Vincent and the Grenadines 2012 National Census (SVG Ministry Of Finance And Economic Planning, 2012). that plastic dominates litter in marine systems (up to diminishes for the larger countries in the Caribbe- 80 percent) (Kaza et. al, 2018) and is commonly found an. Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Jamaica all ingested by animals (Boucher and Friot 2017). have collection coverages between 60 and 80 per- cent while Haiti the figure is only 12 percent (Figure The Caribbean countries that produce more 3.1.5). In that country alone, more than 1.6 million waste have larger gaps in household waste tons of solid waste goes uncollected each year (Ta- collection services. Between 90 and 95 percent of ble 3.1.3). Of the uncollected waste in the 15 coun- households in Eastern Caribbean countries are cov- tries shown in Table 3.1.3, plastic waste makes up an ered by collection services.9 However, the coverage estimated 322,745 tons each year.10 Box 3.1.1 Why Plastic Litter is So Harmful to the Coastal and Marine Environment Plastics are persistent. Plastics take years to breakdown chemically even in the conditions in the marine environment. For most plastic items, even if they disintegrate due to weathering, the polymer itself may not fully degrade into natural chemical compounds or chemical elements under marine conditions (UNEP 2015). Plastics break down into smaller fragments in the marine environment. Small plastic particles or “microplastics” are commonly found in cosmetics and cleansers. These are also formed in the marine environment when large pieces of plastic break down structurally, forming small fragments. Pesticides and organic pollutants such as PCBs can accumulate on plastics. Due to the chemical properties of plas- tic, persistent organic pollutants—chemicals that accumulate through the food chain—adsorb to plastics in the marine environment. Many of these pollutants have toxic and carcinogenic properties. Additives to plastics may also be contrib- uting to the potential pollutants associated with plastics in the environment. Plastics interact with marine life. This happens directly through entanglement, ingestion, and in some cases integra- tion into the organism. For the latter two issues, microplastics are of particular concern due to their ease of ingestion. 9 Countries include Antigua and Barbuda, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia, St. Kitts and Nevis, and Dominica. 10 These numbers are estimated based on the reported waste composition for each country. Reported plastic proportions range from 5 to 20 percent. 38 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 Figure 3.1.6 Waste Management Practices of Households without Collection Service Dominican Republic Jamaica Other 5% Burying 2% Dumping Other 2% in waterways (river/sea/ Dumping pond) in waterways 10% (river/sea/ pond) 2% Dumping on land Dumping Burying 0% 15% Burning on land 3% 70% Compost 0% Burning 91% Trinidad and Tobago St. Lucia Burying 2% Burying 2% Dumping Compost 3% in waterways (river/sea/ Other 7% pond) 0% Compost Burning Dumping 20% 39% in waterways (river/sea/ pond) 14% Burning 52% Other Dumping on land Dumping 25% on land 14% 21% Grenada St. Vincent and the Grenadines Burying 6% Burying 4% Compost 12% Compost 1% Other 6% Other 1% Burning Dumping 41% Dumping in waterways in waterways Burning (river/sea/ (river/sea/ 76% pond) 12% pond) 3% Dumping on land 15% Dumping on land 23% Sources: Dominican Republic 2010 National Census (Dominican Republic National Statistics Office, 2011); Jamaica 2011 National Census Statistical Institute of Ja- maica, 2011); Trinidad and Tobago 2011 National Census; St. Lucia 2010 National Census (Saint Lucia Central Statistics Office, 2011); Grenada 2011 National Census (Grenada Central Statistics Office, 2011); St. Vincent and the Grenadines 2012 National Census (SVG Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 2012). A significant proportion of uncollected house- (Figure 3.1.6), an average of 22 percent (with a range of hold waste ends up in coastal and marine sys- 5-35 percent) of households without collection service tems. Households that do not have collection service dispose of waste in these two ways, with 7 percent (0- often resort to dumping it directly in waterways or on 14 percent) placing waste directly in waterways. The land where it can be washed into drainage systems or most common disposal method (62 percent average, waterways. Based on data from six Caribbean countries 39-91 percent) for households without collection ser- Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 39 Table 3.1.3 Total Uncollected Household Waste and Plastics in Selected Countries of the Insular Caribbean Country Uncollected household waste (tons/year) Uncollected household plastic (tons/year) Haiti 1,673,750 93,730 Dominican Republic 1,020,042 102,004 Cuba 619,534 55,758 Jamaica 358,605 43,750 Guyana 72,660 14,387 Suriname 29,599 3,848 Trinidad and Tobago 27,923 5,353 Belize 8,935 1,698 Barbados 8,174 1,398 St. Lucia 1,408 310 St. Kitts and Nevis 1,026 238 Grenada 622 102 St. Vincent and the Grenadines 580 49 Dominica 530 85 Antigua and Barbuda 295 35 TOTAL 3,823,683 322,745 Sources: Dominican Republic 2010 National Census (Dominican Republic National Statistics Office, 2011); Jamaica 2011 National Census Statistical Institute of Jamaica, 2011); Trinidad and Tobago 2011 National Census; St. Lucia 2010 National Census (Saint Lucia Central Statistics Office, 2011); Grenada 2011 National Census (Grenada Central Statistics Office, 2011); St. Vincent and the Grenadines 2012 National Census (SVG Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, 2012). The waste characterization studies were also used (see annex 6). vice is burning. Because this method is inefficient in in Jamaica’s South Gully, part of Montego Bay, includ- eliminating waste, ash and other remnants can be ed plastic bottles, plastic bags, fabric, motor oil, tree washed to coastal and marine areas. branches, appliances, tires, dead animals, and used condoms (JET 2016). Impacts of Coastal and Marine Litter Litter is a habitat for mosquitoes and pests. Litter The path to the ocean is littered with impacts. can serve as a receptacle for rainwater which serves as Litter that ends up in the marine environment has im- a breeding habitat for pests including those that car- pacts before it even reaches the ocean. After a house- ry disease. Litter that ends up on beaches, in drainage hold, company, or individual dumps or otherwise canals, and waterways, can carry some of the most litters the environment, it is moved by the power of harmful human viruses. Studies have shown that com- wind, rain, water flow among other means, polluting mon litter items such as plastic bottles, tin cans, and urban areas, roads, waterways, and beaches along the Styrofoam containers account for between 7 and 15 way. The litter impacts aesthetics, tourism, marine life, percent of the breeding habitats for the mosquitoes contributes to the risk of mosquito-born illnesses, and that carry Dengue, Chikungunya and Zika (Aedes ae- exacerbates flooding. These are described below. gypti and Aedes albopictus). Due to their limited range of movement, these mosquitoes spread these diseas- Litter contributes to flooding, worsening the im- es most effectively in densely populated areas, areas pact of heavy rainfall. Flooding in Kingston, Jamaica which also produce large amounts of waste. that caused millions of dollars’ worth of damage was attributed to drains clogged with plastic bottles, bags, While not the only or predominant factor, re- and Styrofoam (McLean 2016). In addition to this type duction of litter can reduce the risk of contract- of waste, paper, cardboard, tree and garden cuttings, ing these diseases, which are estimated to afflict medical and market waste, appliances, tires, and entire more than 15 million people annually in the cars are illegally dumped (JET 2016). In 2015 garbage Caribbean during years of outbreaks and over 40 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 500,000 per year in other years.11 Dengue fever is remaining fractions further break down. In the case estimated to cost the region US$317 million per year of plastic, the result is small pieces (less than 5 milli- (Shepard et al. 2011) and Zika US$716 million (UNDP meters) called micro-plastics. These have been shown 2017). Chikungunya, a debilitating illness that causes to interact with marine wildlife and its impact is under long-term symptoms including fever and joint pain, active scientific investigation. had a major outbreak in 2014 and is estimated to have cost the region as high as US$30 billion yearly (Bloch Over 600 species of wildlife have been document- 2016). Since 2010, outbreaks of one or more of these ed entangled in or having ingested marine litter. diseases have occurred, on average, every other year, Of these species, 15 percent are considered threat- directly hurting the tourism industry as visitors avoid ened or endangered (Lusher et al. 2017). Ingestion of countries with the outbreaks. This is estimated to cost microplastics has been documented in multiple spe- the region US$700 million per year in outbreak years, cies within the food chain (Boucher and Friot 2017), or 0.21 percent of GDP (UNDP 2017). including in the Caribbean (UNEP-CEP 2017) (Figure 3.1.7). Documented impacts for species that are in Litter found along beaches can harm a country’s contact with plastic include death, injury, stranding, tourism product. Studies have shown that tourists and increased prevalence of disease. A study assess- are unwilling to return to areas with poor water qual- ing quantities of microplastics and zooplankton in ity and degraded beaches. Schumann et al. (2017) Jamaican waters found that the most abundant type reported that tourists in Barbados indicated strong of microplastics were fragments (87 percent), followed preferences for clear water, healthy coral reefs, and by foam (9 percent) and fibers (4 percent). Comparing high-quality beaches—all of which may suffer due abundance of microplastics to zooplankton indicated to pollution—and were unwilling to return to the a 0.25 probability that fish would encounter a micro- country if these conditions worsened. The tourists in- plastic particle during feeding (UWI Mona Campus Re- terviewed were also willing to pay considerably more search Days 2018). Microplastics can spend prolonged for improved marine and coastal resources including periods of time in animals, becoming embedded in the wider beaches, better water quality, and greater coral stomachs and gills (Akpan 2014). The impacts remain and fish diversity. Another study, conducted in South- an active subject of scientific investigation, including ern California, showed that Orange County residents possible false satiation and changes in buoyancy. were losing millions of dollars each year because beachgoers were avoiding littered beaches in favor of Litter can transport species beyond their natural cleaner beaches even though they were farther away ranges. Floating litter gives eggs and organisms such and more costly to reach (Leggett et al. 2014). This has as algae, crabs, clams, and mussels the ability to trav- generated a loss in tourism revenues and additional el from their native environments to new parts of the cost for beach cleaning besides being hazardous to world. The potential impact on the introduction of new beachgoers and coastal waters. Another study, in Swe- species to a region or expansion of the range of com- den, showed that marine debris on beaches reduced mon species is a subject of scientific study because tourism by between one and five percent (OSPAR it can threaten ecosystems. One study conducted in Commission 2009). These studies suggest that even 2003 found that plastic litter served as a vector for the limited amounts of marine debris can significantly transport of a marine species that caused harmful algal lower revenues, especially for a region like the Carib- blooms in the northwest Mediterranean (Maso et al. bean that is so dependent on tourism. 2003). Litter in the marine environment breaks down Plastics may concentrate pollutants in marine and interacts with wildlife. Once litter is in the ma- environments. Plastics absorb pesticides and per- rine environment, the biodegradable components sistent organic pollutants such as PCBs at high levels, degrade while the persistent materials such as plastic with some studies indicating concentrations of more and Styrofoam predominate. The structure of these than 100 times those found in sediments and 1 million 11 Average annual cases of Chikungunya, non-outbreak years (2013, 2015, 2016) 6,386 reported, 138,264 total; outbreak year (2014), 820,392 reported 17,761,487 total; Dengue, non-outbreak years (2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2017), 23,881 reported, 358,212 total; outbreak years (2010, 2013, 2016), 103,509 reported, 1,552,630 total; and Zika non-outbreak year (2017), 7,935 reported, 45,343 total; outbreak years (late 2015-2016), 87,369 reported, 499,252 total. Statistics cover the (Span- ish-, English-, and French-speaking islands of the Caribbean. Reported incidence is from www.paho.org. Estimates of totals are based on expansion factors for these diseases in the literature, Chikungunya, EF=21.65; Dengue, EF=15, and Zika, EF=5.7. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 41 Figure 3.1.7 Interactions of Marine Biota and Microplastics and Possible Trophic Pathways Sea birds Pelagic fish Marine Cephalopods Zooplankton Mesopelagic Fish Zooplankton mammals Algae Bivalve Demersal fish Annelids Crustaceans Holothurians Source: Lusher et al. 2017. Note: Black stars represent microplastic particles and black dotted arrows observed interactions between an organism and particle (direct ingestion or uptake). The black arrows indicate indirect ingestion of microplastic particles (potential trophic transfer). The red lines indicate potential routes of microplastics to humans following ingestion of seafood. Finally, arrow thickness represents potential bio-accumulation of particles through the food web. times those occurring in seawater (Teuten et al. 2009). the ground, the initiative in Antigua and Barbuda has One analysis (Rochman and Browne 2013), found that shown progress. at least 78 percent of “priority pollutants” listed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and 61 percent listed by the European Union (EU) are associ- Box 3.1.2 A Ban on Plastic ated with plastic debris. This, combined with marine Bags—the Experience of organisms’ documented ingestion of microplastics, has Antigua and Barbuda raised speculation that plastics may facilitate transport In Antigua and Barbuda, 90 percent of all plastic waste and bioaccumulation of these pollutants in marine was bags distributed by supermarkets. By banning environments. In addition, additives to plastics such as Styrofoam, plastic bags, and other single-use food Bis-phenol-a (BPAs) are being investigated as to their service items, the proportion of plastic at the land- potential impacts in the context of marine debris. fill dropped from 19.5 percent in 2006 to 4.4 percent in 2017. The ban on plastic bags occurred in two phases—the first banned the importation of plastic Efforts for Litter Prevention in the shopping bags, the second banned use of the bags. An Caribbean eight-step implementation process was undertaken: Caribbean countries are part of a global move- (1) the announcement of the ban and its two phases, (2) consultations with external and internal stakehold- ment to ban or tax some of the main items of ma- ers, (3) additional consultations with supermarkets to rine debris. As of January 2019, 14 countries in the resolve identified challenges, (4) Cabinet approval, (5) Caribbean Region had banned Styrofoam, plastic bags, drafting of regulations, (6) gazetting of regulations, (7) or both (Table 3.1.4). These efforts are designed to re- notifications to all stakeholders that the regulations duce the use of common litter items. Implemented in had been gazetted, and (8) final consultations with many places in the world, they have reduced litter, im- external agencies and additional awareness initiatives. proved aesthetics, and cut costs of cleanup.12. Among This eight-step plan was critical to the success of the ban. The two phases gave stakeholders time to pre- the countries in the Caribbean with laws in effect are pare for the eventual banning of all plastic bags while Haiti and Antigua and Barbuda, which banned Styro- continuous dialogue improved participation and com- foam and plastic bags in 2013 and 2016 respectively. pliance (UNEP-CEP in press). While the program in Haiti has had limited results on 12 For example, in October 2015 England introduced a five-pence charge on single-use plastic bags. An estimated 7 billion of these bags were distributed the year before the introduction of the fee. It caused distribution to plunge to only 500 million bags in the first six months. Overall, the fee is projected to reduce distribu- tion of single-use plastic bags by about 80 percent in supermarkets and save £60 million in clean-up costs (Smithers 2016). 42 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 Table 3.1.4 WCR Countries that Have Banned Plastic Bags and Styrofoam Country Materials targeted Description Date of implementation Antigua and Plastic bags Ban on importation and commercial use other January 2016: Ban on Barbuda than garbage collection importation Alternative products are tax- free. July 2016: Ban on use Antigua and Styrofoam for food service (1st Ban on importation and use January 2017: 1st phase Barbuda phase) Plastic utensils, Styrofoam trays, Applies to all businesses in the food service January 2018: 2nd phase and egg cartons (2nd phase) industry. Styrofoam coolers (3rd phase) January 2019: 3rd phase. Alternative products are tax free. Aruba Plastic bags Bans the use of plastic bag with handles intended January 2017 for single use. Barbados Plastic bags Charge (Bd$0.20 per bag) by participating retailers June 2017 that sign voluntary agreement BVI Plastic bags 15-cent charge on plastic bags at grocery stores March 2013 that sign a voluntary agreement Dominica plastic straws, plastic plates, Ban announced: Restrictions on imports of January 2019 plastic forks, plastic knives, non-biodegradable containers for stores and Styrofoam cups, Styrofoam restaurants that distribute them. containers Grenada Styrofoam food containers Ban on importation of Styrofoam food containers; August 2018: Ban on Plastic bags and plastic shopping bags (single use bags), importation for Styrofoam disposable plastic plates, spoons and forks. February 2019: Ban on importation for single-use plastic bags, disposable plates, forks and spoons Guyana Styrofoam food containers Ban on importation and use by food April 2016 establishments of Styrofoam food containers Haiti Plastic bags Ban on production, importation, 2013 commercialization and use of single use plastic Styrofoam for food purposes bags and Styrofoam for food purposes Jamaica Single use bags, plastic straws The ban covers the importation, manufacture and January 2019 and Styrofoam distribution of the materials. Puerto Rico Plastic bags Applies to commercial establishments (food December 2016 service industry exempted) St. Lucia Styrofoam and single use Ban on importation and subsequent total ban on December 1, 2018: Ban on plastic including plates and use. importation. cups. St. Vincent Styrofoam food service Ban on importation, manufacture, sale, and use of May 2017: Ban on and the products Styrofoam food service products importation Grenadines January 2018: Ban on use Turks and Plastic bags Ban on the importation of plastic bags followed by January 2017: Ban on Caicos a ban on its distribution. importation April 2017: Ban on use USVI Plastic bags Requires businesses and organizations to use April 2017 reusable bags or recyclable paper bags. Plastic bags are allowed where no acceptable substitute exists, such as wrapping of prepared foods or meats. Source: Review by authors. Littering is being tackled by raising public aware- into waterways, coastal areas, and the marine environ- ness. Beyond the marine litter that is due to poor col- ment. In the Caribbean, governments and NGOs are lection, litter in streets, tourist areas, and public spaces making common efforts to adjust people’s behavior due to bad habits and a lack of public awareness is a through campaigns of education and public aware- common concern. Much of it eventually makes its way ness (Figure 3.1.8). Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 43 Table 3.1.5 Street Sweeping Coverage in Greater Santo Domingo Municipality-District Population (2011) Street sweeping coverage (%) East Santo Domingo 969,253 35 Pedro Brand 53,717 30 Nigua 34,066 50 Alcarrizos 250,333 95 National district (Ayuntamiento Distrito Nacional) 1,128,771 40 Guerra 42,572 90 North Santo Domingo 454,386 60 Bajo Haina 144,129 35 Boca Chica 122,577 30 West Santo Domingo 350,209 10 Total 3,550,013 42 Source: JICA-BID-NIPPON KOE 2011 Figure 3.1.8 Anti-Littering Campaigns in the Caribbean Sources: Jamaica Environment Trust, Dominica Solid Waste Management Corporation, and SWMCOL-Trinidad and Tobago. Figure 3.1.9 Cleanup Days in the Dominican Republic and St. Lucia Street sweeping is a common means in the re- ulation. Quality and coverage of this service are not gion of preventing litter from entering water- well regulated or monitored. National regulations ways but the service has limited coverage. For and service standards do not exist in most Caribbean example, in the Dominican Republic 70 percent13 of countries and private sector contracts for the service municipalities indicate they provide street sweeping often have no provisions for supervision of quality. services and within municipalities in greater Santo Domingo between 10 percent and 95 percent (a 42 Volunteer cleanup efforts have helped keep the percent average) of the population has this service environment clean. Once the litter gets into the (Table 3.1.5). In Grenada, contractors provide street environment, community groups often take on the sweeping in six towns with a total population of challenge of clearing it away. Most activities in the 19,251, representing 18 percent of the country’s pop- Caribbean have focused on volunteer cleanup activ- 13 Regional evaluation of Urban Solid Waste Management in Latin America and the Caribbean, 2010, Inter-American Development Bank. 44 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 ities (Figure 3.1.9). However, beach cleaning services environment through sewage can also cause human are also run by private resorts or, in the case of St. exposure to toxins associated with the resulting algae Lucia, directly by the national solid management au- blooms. Moreover, sewage pollution poses serious thority (SLSWMA). threats to marine biodiversity, in particular coral reef ecosystems. After overfishing, high concentrations of nutrients, primarily from inadequately treated sewage, 3.2 Wastewater, Sewage, and are the main cause of the widespread death of coral Run-off cover across the region (Jackson et al. 2014). Wastewater remains a major source of marine Between 1990 and 2010, the region achieved an pollution in the WCR. On average, about 85 per- overall reduction in the discharge of domestic cent of the region’s wastewater goes untreated into pollutant loadings, despite gradual population the ocean (GEF-CReW 2015). It comes from such growth. However, further analysis shows that while sources as oil refineries, sugar factories, sewage overall pollutant loadings in domestic wastewater systems, and food and beverage processing plants. have declined, notably in the southern Caribbean, in These land-based sources of pollution cover multiple many parts of the WCR they have increased. While economic sectors—municipal, industrial, and agri- the overall reduction in pollutant loading is welcome, cultural (Box 3.2.1). much work remains to be done to move discharge lev- els down in all parts of the region. Box 3.2.1 Wastewater Covers Multiple Economic Sectors Box 3.2.2 Eutrophication Wastewater is used water coming from domestic, Eutrophication—the presence of excess levels of manufacturing, industrial, agricultural, and commer- nutrients in water—creates “dead zones” and could cial sources. Domestic wastewater (often referred to pose the biggest single threat to the US$57 billion of as sewage) is wastewater from houses, public facilities, revenue that the region’s coastal tourism brings in an- and businesses such as hotels and shops. Domestic nually. In order to survive, all living organisms require wastewater can be divided into blackwater, the out- nutrients such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, flow from toilets that contains fecal materials and urine, phosphorus, and calcium. When these are in balance, and greywater that drains from sinks, showers, laundry healthy ecosystems are sustained. However, excess machines, and dishwashers (UNEP 2000). Untreat- nutrients discharged into the marine environment ed wastewater may contain nutrients (nitrogen and through sewage and fertilizers from agriculture may phosphorus); solids (including organic matter); patho- lead to excessive growth of marine plants, known as gens (bacteria, viruses, and other microbes); intestinal an algal bloom. This limits the sunlight available and worms and worm-like parasites; and oils and greases. It reduces the amount of oxygen in the water. Their may also contain runoff from streets, parking lots, and hypoxic conditions may lead to coral bleaching and roofs; heavy metals (including mercury, cadmium, lead, mortality, as well as shifts in coral abundance and dis- chromium, and copper); and toxic chemicals including tribution because some coral species are better able PCBs, PAHs, dioxins, furans, pesticides, phenols, and to tolerate these conditions (Altieri et al. 2017). This in chlorinated organics (UNEP-CEP 2010). turn affects fisheries and may be toxic to other marine life and humans. Local economies can feel pain not only from reduced fisheries but a fall-off in tourism Wastewater poses a significant threat to the re- caused by degraded reefs, contaminated beaches, and gion’s development and the quality of life of its disease (UNEP-CEP 2010). people. Wastewater’s main pollution impacts occur in coastal areas and bays close to urban centers that have low levels of wastewater treatment. Pathogens The domestic sewage contribution to marine in the water pose significant hazards to the health of pollution in the Wider Caribbean Region is signif- local people and visitors. Contamination of the coastal icant. About 52 percent of households in the insular marine environment by sewage can lead to a number Caribbean lack sewer connections and only 17 percent of infectious diseases (diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, ty- have acceptable collection and treatment systems phoid, and hepatitis A) being transmitted to people (GEF-CReW 2015). Sewage originates mostly from bathing and swimming in marine waters or eating households, businesses, public sanitation facilities, and seafood. Excess nutrients discharged into the marine urban runoff. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 45 Box 3.2.3 Wastewater than 2 percent of urban sewage is treated before dis- posal (Peters 2015). Impact on Health Polluted coastal waters annually generate an extra In Trinidad and Tobago, which hosts one of the 120 million cases of gastroenteritis worldwide and 50 largest treatment plants in the insular Caribbe- million cases of Acute Respiratory Distress (ARD), esti- an, only about 30 percent of domestic sewage mates show. This raises global public health expenses goes to treatment plants, while the rest is direct- by about US$12 billion per year (Shuval 2003). Pre- liminary results from a tourism study in Barbados in- ly or indirectly discharged into surface waters. dicate that two thirds of visitors consulted would not Approximately 50 percent of households use septic return if seawater quality would cause an increase in tanks and soak-away systems to dispose of their do- stomach infections (Gray et al. 2015). The unregulat- mestic sewage, while 27 percent have pit latrines, ed disposal of human waste and insufficient drainage and only 22 percent enjoy disposal to a sewer system. in island countries have resulted in standing pools of Other island nations have similar shortcomings. In contaminated water which during severe weather Barbados, only two municipal sewage treatment sys- overflow and spread sewage-related disease (GIWA tems serve the country, discharging directly into the 2004). marine environment (Peters 2015). In Haiti, human waste disposal is the most urgent problem. There are Wastewater Treatment in the WCR no sewage collection services and only 40 percent of the population, mostly urban residents, use latrines Wastewater treatment facilities are absent or and septic tanks. Eighty to 90 percent of the solids insufficient in many countries of the region, in from these are dumped illegally into rivers and the sea particular small islands (GIWA 2004 and Peters (UNEP-CEP 2010). 2015). The types and levels of wastewater treatment used throughout the region are not well documented. A few countries have established submarine out- But primary treatment is known to be the predom- falls as alternative municipal treatment options inant method, with secondary or tertiary treatment for coastal cities, including Havana, Cuba, and less common. Primary treatment removes suspended Cartagena, Colombia (UNEP-CEP 2010 and World solids and a certain amount of organic material. This Bank 2014). Outfalls technology is often coupled at the least decreases waterway blockage and reduces with preliminary wastewater treatment that removes health impacts while providing some environmental organic matter and suspended solids, using the as- co-benefits such as mitigating problems of decreased similative capacity of the sea for further treatment. As oxygen availability for ecosystems. However, water such, siting and design of a submarine outfall through that is treated at only the primary level retains the sophisticated modeling and oceanographic studies ability to do harm when large amounts of this treat- are critical to ensure that the receiving seawater has ed wastewater are discharged into waterways leading sufficient dilution capacity. However, nutrients such to the ocean or directly into the marine environment. as nitrogen or phosphorous have not been removed Tertiary treatment, required to maintain healthy coral from the discharged water, which is a concern in some reef ecosystems, is rarely used in the region. The most marine environments, in particular for coral reefs. widely used treatment method in the region is on-site High-quality construction is required to avoid leakage treatment, including septic tanks, soakaways, and pit in the outfall and continuous monitoring to ensure latrines. In areas where soil conditions do not permit the outfall performs as planned. Under the appropri- sewerage, wastewater effluent is disposed of in street ate conditions, outfalls may constitute a cost-effective drains (Gray et al. 2015). wastewater treatment option. The outfall system in Cartagena generated environmental improvements Domestic wastewater treatment rates are low for within a relatively short time (World Bank 2014). the entire region. On average, only 37 percent of the wastewater which flows into the sea in the WCR from In most countries where wastewater infrastruc- larger countries (excluding the United States) is treat- ture exists, it is outdated or below required capac- ed. Countries such as Colombia and Costa Rica treat ity. Proper operation and maintenance of treatment approximately 35 percent of their wastewater (UN- plants is often lacking. For example, the Dominican EP-CEP 2010). In island nations, these percentages are Republic has 56 municipal waste treatment plants even lower. In the Eastern Caribbean, only 8 percent of but about two thirds are not operational (Grullon it is treated (mostly with primary treatment) and less 2013). While some countries have succeeded in raising 46 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 Figure 3.2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment Rates in the WCR UNITED Treated sewage effluent STATES Gran Bahama Great Abaco 0 - 20% THE BAHAMAS 21 - 40% Bimini Islands Nueva Providencia 41 - 60% Cat Island Isla Andros Cayo Banco de Sal Rum Key Great 61 - 80% (LAS BAHAMAS) Exuma Cayo Samana Cayo Guinchos (LAS BAHAMAS) Crooked Island Cayo Lobos 81 - 100% (LAS BAHAMAS) CUBA Acklins Island Turks and Isle of Youth Caicos Islands Great Inagua (G.B) MEXICO Cozumel Island US Naval Base Guantanamo British Virgin Bay HAITI Islands DOMINICAN Islas (G.B) REPUBLIC Anguila (R.U.) TNavassa (U.S) British Virgin Islands San Martin (U.S.) (FRANCE) Swan Islands JAMAICA Santa Cruz Saba y Sint ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA (HONDURAS) Eustatius (NETH) BELIZE Bay islands Guadalupe Monserrat (G.B.) (FRANCE) GUATEMALA HONDURAS Martinica Miskito Cays (FRANCE) ST. LUCIA EL SALVADOR Miskito Cays NICARAGUA ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES Island of San Andrés (Colombia) Corn Island TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO COSTA RICA PANAMA VENEZUELA GUYANA FRENCH GUIANA COLOMBIA SURINAME BRAZIL Source: UNEP-CEP 2010. Map elaborated by World Bank GIS Lab. the number of private wastewater treatments plants, must be removed and properly disposed of every supervision by state agencies is often poor and many few years to ensure effective operation of the sys- of the plants are dysfunctional (UNEP-CEP 2015).  tem. Typical pollutant composition of septage taken to wastewater treatment facilities is shown in Table Do we actually know the amounts 3.3.2. The lesson from these estimates is that waste- of nutrients that reach the region’s water is a relatively high contributor of nitrogen and marine environment? proportionally smaller contributor of phosphorous, in comparison with agricultural sources. For agricul- The region’s countries do not systematically col- ture, studies have shown that nitrogen is the limiting lect data on the amount of nitrogen and phos- nutrient for eutrophication in marine systems. For phorus that enters the marine environment from effective management, both nutrients need to be wastewater. Actual amounts will depend on the local controlled. level of treatment, quality of septic systems, environ- mental and climatic conditions, and other factors such as how common phosphate-reduced detergents are in local homes and businesses. Given that very few Table 3.2.1 Composition of Domestic nutrient-reducing treatment systems are operating in Sewage in the Wider Caribbean Region the WCR, it is fair to expect that a high percentage of Parameter Value the nutrient content in wastewater will end up in the marine environment. Total suspended solids (TSS) 200-300 mg/ L 5-Day biochemical oxidation demand 200-250 mg/ L Both wastewater and agriculture generate high (BOD) levels of nutrients. For wastes from communities Chemical oxidation demand (COD) 350-450 mg/ L where most homes and businesses have piped wa- Total nitrogen as N 25-60 mg/ L ter, typical pollutant composition of domestic sew- age are indicated in Table 3.2.1. In unsewered areas, Total phosphorus as P 5-10 mg/ L septic tanks are common. Septage from these tanks Source: GEF-CReW 2015. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 47 Box 3.2.4 The Tourism Industry and Wastewater The tourism industry is a major contributor to wastewater problems, particularly concerning waste treatment and disposal. Tourists at Caribbean resorts consume at least three times as much water as local residents. On average, a hotel guest uses approximately 825 liters of water a day (EarthCheck Research Institute 2013). Hotels alone account for 10 to 15 percent of the total water supplied by municipal distribution systems. For example, in Barbados, the tourism sector consumes over 16 percent of the total water and in Jamaica more than 14 percent (Tapper et al. 2011). The high consumption at tourist facili- ties is linked to extensive landscaping and amenities such as swimming pools, golf courses, and water parks (Peters 2015). This increases the stress on water resources and raises the level of nutrients reaching the marine environment, affecting the quality of coastal waters and beaches. It may undermine the health of local people and tourists alike. However, in some countries such as Barbados, hotels are required to install their own wastewater treatment plants (primary or secondary) and treated water is sometimes reused, mostly for irrigation or landscaping (Peters 2015). In at least one resort, 100 percent of wastewater is reused. Rainwater and treated wastewater are often combined for the watering of plants. Table 3.2.2 Composition of Septage notably the Amazon, put it into currents that flow into from Septic Tanks in the Wider the Caribbean. According to the World’s Water Quality Caribbean Region Assessment, approximately one quarter of all stretches of river in Latin America and the Caribbean can be clas- Parameter Value sified as severely polluted. An estimated 25 million rural Total suspended solids (TSS) 10,000-25,000 mg/ L people in the region come into contact with polluted 5-Day biochemical oxidation 3,000-5,000 mg/ L waters, creating serious implications for environmental demand (BOD) health (UNEP 2016). Chemical oxidation demand (COD) 25,000-40,000 mg/ L Total nitrogen as N 200-700 mg/ L Run-off from agricultural non-point sources, in- Total phosphorus as P 100-300 mg/ L cluding fertilizers and pesticides, is a significant Source: GEF-CReW 2015. concern in the region. Colombia and Costa Rica use significantly higher levels of fertilizer per hectare of cultivated land than most countries in the world, at Wastewater is More than Domestic 578.6 and 490.6 kilograms per hectare respectively Sewage: The Non-Point Sources of (World Bank 2014). These rates are due in great part Pollution to the two countries’ extensive monocultures of com- In addition to sewage, other important sources mercial crops for export. Monoculture fields typically of wastewater pollution are watershed and wa- attract high volumes of pests, which in turn causes terway runoff through “non-point sources,” that farmers to apply high amounts of pesticides. Agricul- is, contaminated water that enters the environ- tural best practices allow for alternative techniques ment over a wide geographical area rather than that can decrease the volumes of fertilizer (PNU- at a discrete point. As such, integrated coastal zone MA-UCR/CAR-REPCAR 2011). Other countries in the management (ICZM) is critical for the region, in partic- region, meanwhile, make only moderate use of fertil- ular in the insular Caribbean where the “coastal zone” izers, such as Jamaica (79.9 kilograms per hectare) and often constitutes the entire island. Coastal zones in Mexico (61.7 kilograms). larger countries cannot be managed as isolated enti- Increased sedimentation has adversely impacted ties either. They are the end point of a number of river the biodiversity in the WCR region. Most of the riv- basins, so Integrated River Basin Management is also ers in the region discharge sediment loads ranging be- an important tool. South American rivers such as the tween 100 and 1,000 milligrams per liter (UNEP 2001), Magdalena and Orinoco discharge large quantities of resulting in more than 1,000 million tons deposited in freshwater directly into the Caribbean Sea while others, coastal waters annually14 (UNEP-CEP 2010). The preva- 14 For comparative purposes, average global estimate of annual sediment load to the world’s oceans varies from 15 to 30 x 103 tons/year, of which rivers in Asia and the large Pacific Islands (such as Papua, Borneo, and Sumatra.) contribute about 70 percent (Milliman and Meade 1983). In comparison, the Wider Caribbean Region’s annual sediment loads are estimated at approximately 12 percent of global sediment input from rivers (UNEP 2006). 48 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 Figure 3.2.2 River Discharges into Mona Dam Reservoir in Kingston, Jamaica Photo by Matthew Khoury. Figure 3.2.3 A River on the Meso-American Coast Discharges Sediment and Nutrient-Laden Water into the Caribbean Sea Photo by Malik Naumann, Marine Photoban. Source: GEF-CReW 2015. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 49 lence of suspended sediments has decreased biodiver- west into the Caribbean Sea. Another major river, the sity, severely degrading shallow coastal waters (UNEP Orinoco River, is the second-largest source of suspend- 2000) (Figure 3.2.2). Increased sedimentation and tur- ed solids in the region, with more than 100 million tons bidity has damaged coral reefs by reducing penetration annually and 248 million tons of nitrogen as a result of of light that is needed for photosynthesis. Other harm- the intensive use of fertilizers and agrochemicals by ful effects include sand and other sediments scouring farmers in its watershed (UNEP-CEP 2010). coral, increased mortality of juvenile coral due to loss of suitable area to grow, and the direct smothering of coral (UNEP 2001 and Jackson et al. 2012). 3.3 Pollution from Ships Shipping is the most energy-efficient and com- Sediment loads to the WCR from the Meso-Amer- mon way to move large volumes of cargo. Ships ican region (Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and carry two-thirds of all traded goods, amounting to 9.35 part of Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula) amount to billion tons of cargo crossing the world’s seas in 2013 about 374 million tons per year (Figure 3.2.3). (Werschkun et al. 2014). In 2012, 8.2 percent of global More than 80 percent of these loads and more than 50 container shipping volume passed through the region percent of nitrogen loads originate from watersheds due to the presence of the Panama Canal. Shipping is in northern Honduras, notably the Ulua River basin. a major segment of the ocean economy in the Carib- A relatively lower percentage of sediment loading bean, representing 76.4 percent of it15 (Patil et al. 2016). comes from Belizean watersheds (UNEP-CEP 2010). Land-based activities contributing to sedimentation With an average of five million barrels of crude and erosion include agriculture, forestry, urbanization, oil moving daily through the WCR and 70 million and mining. tons passing annually through the Panama Ca- nal, estimates show that about 250 major and At an average 250,000 cubic meters per second, minor oil spills will occur each year in the Ca- the Amazon River is the largest contributor of ribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico16. Modeling freshwater to the WCR. The plume of the Amazon by Singh et al. (2015) concluded that approximately is enormous, extending hundreds of kilometers north- 83 percent of the Caribbean Sea was at risk from oil Figure 3.3.1 Shipping Routes in the WCR Source: Singh et al. 2015. 15 Note: this percentage should not be compared with the GDP of the Caribbean Basin countries, since not all of this economic value accrues to those economies. 16 http://www.acs-aec.org/index.php?q=es/node/5972 50 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 spills due to shipping. Findings like these underline (www.gefcrew.org). Ships often rely on clean harbours the need for a management framework for mini- free of debris in order to navigate safely. Ports that do mizing ship-generated oil pollution in the Caribbe- not maintain clear and clean waterways suffer from an Sea. Among the recommended components of loss of business (UNEP-CEP 2014). such a framework are a common policy, surveillance and monitoring controls, standards, monitoring pro- The shipping industry is another important grams, data collection, and greater rates of conven- source of marine litter. This is more than small waste tion ratification. items that crew members may throw overboard. Due to accidents and other unforeseen circumstances, car- go ships sometimes lose all or part of their cargo at Box 3.3.1 Maritime traffic in sea. Estimates based on a survey carried out between the WCR is on the rise. 2008 and 2013 indicated that on average about 1,700 containers are lost at sea globally each year due to The Panama Canal was recently expanded to receive accidents. That translates into 14 out of every million ships carrying 13,000 containers instead of the 5,000 standard container vessels previously accepted (www. containers transported going overboard, on average micanaldepanama.com/expansion). There are also (UNEP 2016). plans to build a 280-kilometer canal through Nicara- gua to accommodate even larger megaships and help Antifouling paints used on vessels are also a reduce heavy traffic and delays at the Panama Canal. concern, considering the growing number of However, this project could destroy almost 400,000 recreational boats in the region (UNEP 2006). hectares of tropical forests and wetlands, home to Antifouling paints, containing heavy metals and toxic threatened and endangered wildlife and indigenous chemicals such copper or tributyltin (TBT), discourage communities (Wan et al. 2016). the growth of life on submersed hulls. The Internation- al Convention on the Control of Harmful Antifouling The WCR is one of the world’s busiest destinations Systems on Ships (the AFS Convention), prohibiting for the cruise ship industry, with a 34 percent the use of organotins on ships and offshore platforms, share of the global market in 2013. In 2016, the entered into force internationally in 2008. Although the Caribbean received approximately 26.4 million people convention does not explicitly ban TBT-based paints, through cruise ship visits, an increase of almost 30 per- relevant industries are urged to refrain from selling cent from 2010. Some countries recorded much larger them and, in many member states, laws prohibit their increases (CTO 2016). For instance, in St. Kitts and Nev- retail sale. However, despite the well-documented is, tourist arrivals from cruise ships increased almost harmful effects of TBT on marine life, TBT-based paints 300 percent. In the Dominican Republic the rise was are still being manufactured in the United States and almost 130 percent, and in Jamaica, about 80 percent. apparently offered for sale through outlets in the Ca- ribbean and Central America (Turner and Glegg 2014). Expanding cruise ship tourism in the Wider Carib- bean comes with a high environmental cost. On Primarily through their ballast water, ships are a one-week voyage, a middle-sized cruise ship (about today the leading vector by which larvae and 3,500 passengers) generates 795,000 liters of sewage, marine organisms such as juvenile shellfish, mi- 3.8 million liters of grey water, 500 liters of hazardous cro-organisms, bacteria, and viruses spread over waste, 95,000 liters of oily bilge water, and eight tons long distances, becoming invasive species if they of garbage (Wan et al. 2016). find a suitable receiving environment. According to the IMO, it is estimated that, globally, between 7,000 The region’s small ports have limited facilities for and 10,000 different species (including microbes) are handling waste and sewage from cruise ships and transferred each day in ballast waters (Globallast Part- holiday-makers who disembark. Most countries in nerships). In 2013, an estimated 3.1 billion tons of the region, in particular, island nations, lack adequate ballast water was discharged in oceans worldwide port reception facilities, according to IMO/UNEP-CEP (Werschkun et al. 2014). Species arriving in this water (IMO 2016). Belize is a dramatic example. Visitors in- can do major damage if they compete with local spe- creased from 58,131 in 2000 to 800,000 in 2004 and cies for space or nutrients. They can be toxic both to more than a million in 2016 (CTO 2016), yet it does humans and marine life and harm local fisheries. For not have in place the infrastructure to accommodate example, cholera epidemics have been traced to bal- the liquid and solid wastes generated by these guests last water discharges. While Vibrio cholerae and other Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 51 Figure 3.3.2 Distribution in 2013 of Invasive Lionfish in the WCR 2013 Source: Gomez Lozano et al. 2013. pathogens do occur naturally in coastal waters, they omies in the WCR. A voracious and indiscriminate are normally not in high enough concentrations to feeder native to the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the cause human health problems. The introduction of in- lionfish has no major predators in Caribbean waters. vasive aquatic species is virtually irreversible and has These attributes allowed it to proliferate rapidly in re- been identified as one of the four greatest threats to cent years and colonize the entirety of coastal waters the world’s oceans (GESAMP 2001). in the WCR (Figure 3.3.2) . The newcomer caused an alarming reduction of reef fish populations and dis- Ballast water can also carry toxic microalgae that rupted the balance of Caribbean reef ecosystems. The result in harmful algal blooms, known as “red decline of several commercially important fish species, tides.” These algae accumulate in shellfish such as including some that are a major source of protein for oysters, mussels, and scallops, making them toxic to humans. The result can be outbreaks of seafood poi- coastal communities, has been attributed to the lion- soning, including paralytic shellfish poisoning, which fish invasion (Gomez Lozano et al. 2013). Though no can cause severe illness and even death in humans. one is certain how the lionfish arrived, many experts believe that the brightly colored fish were brought to The lionfish is an important example of how a the region as aquarium curiosities and somehow en- marine invader can disrupt ecosystems and econ- tered its waters. 52 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 Box 3.4.1 Releases Associated 3.4 Industrial Pollution – with Petroleum Consumption Oil, Heavy Metals, Toxic Releases associated with petroleum consumption make up 70 percent of the petroleum introduced to Chemicals the world’s oceans from man-made sources. In North Industrial activities in the WCR such as oil refin- America this proportion rises to 85 percent. Major ing, food processing, chemical manufacturing, sources include urban runoff, petroleum refinery and mining are potential threats both to marine wastewater, municipal wastewater, and non-refining resources and human health. Sources of discharge industrial wastes. As the population of coastal regions of industrial waste are hard to quantify because, with increase, urban runoff has become more polluted due to rise in the numbers of cars, asphalt-covered high- a few exceptions, industries in the region are not re- ways and parking lots, municipal wastewater, and the quired to report them. But the general level of industri- use and improper disposal of petroleum products. al activity can be used to determine areas of concern. These releases occur almost exclusively as slow chronic releases (NRC 2003). •• Oil refineries are high in BOD5 and COD, dissolved salts, odor, phenol, and sulfur compounds. The WCR is a major source of crude oil, produc- •• Food processing industries, distilleries, and soft ing an average of 12.7 million barrels per day drink plants are very high in BOD5 and COD, sus- in 2011, about 18.1 percent of the world total pended solids, dissolved solids, variable pH, and (UNDP 2012). Major oil producers in the WCR are organic matter. the United States, Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia, and Trinidad and Tobago. The WCR has 51 tanker termi- •• Chemical industries account for 1 percent of the nals (Figure 3.4.1). A significant amount of the pro- WCR’s BOD load, which is frequently toxic to aquat- duced oil goes by ship to the United States through ic organisms at very low concentrations. Pesticides an intricate network of routes (UNEP-CEP 2010). As and insecticides used for agriculture are the prima- such, the region faces a serious threat of oil spills in ry chemical wastes in the Caribbean, high in organ- accidents and technological failures as crude oil is ic matter and toxic to bacteria and fish. produced and tankers move it. Ninety percent of hydrocarbon pollution in the WCR’s marine environment originates from land- Box 3.4.2 Oil Spills in the Region based industrial sources and activities, according to estimates by UNEP-CEP. These sources include oil The region has endured three of the 10 largest oil spills in history, a reminder of the scope of this industrial refineries, which number over 100, with 75 percent threat to the region. The most recent was the Deep- of them located along the Gulf of Mexico (UNEP-CEP water Horizon disaster of 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico, in 2010). Also contributing is oil in storm water runoff which 210 million gallons of oil spewed out over three from other types of industrial sites, fuel storage facil- months. It became the largest accidental marine oil ities, and roads (Jones 2011). spill in the history of the petroleum industry. The other two spills both occurred in 1979—the Ixtoc 1 Oil Well Satellites have helped the Wider Caribbean (140 million gallons), also in the Gulf of Mexico, and achieve near-real-time monitoring of oil dis- the collision of two supertankers off the coast of To- charge into the sea. In 2010, the MODIS sensor bago (88.3 million gallons), the largest ship-based oil spill in history. By comparison, the Exxon Valdez spill on NASA’s Terra/Aqua satellites provided a unique ten years later released only 9.77 million gallons (Tele- twice-daily perspective of the extent and movement graph 2011). of the oil slick originating from the Deepwater Horizon oil platform. Satellites have also been useful for mon- itoring smaller day-to-day leaks and discharges of oil from ships and production facilities (Onoda and Young 2017). Globally, releases of oil from offshore production make up only three percent of total petroleum discharges into the marine environment (NRC 2003). In that three percent, major spills are relatively Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 53 Figure 3.4.1 Tanker Terminals: Refineries, Offshore Installations, Navigational Hazards, Oil Terminal and Chemical Plants in the WCR Source: UNEP/CEP. unimportant. The most common sources of produc- ants that commonly show up in sewage. There is now tion discharges are routine exploration and production considerable evidence in the scientific literature that activities. These include the release of drilling fluids contaminates such as trace metals, phosphorous, pes- during exploration and well development, spills of fuel ticides, PCBs, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on platforms and support vessels, and spills occurring can be taken up and concentrated by sediments and during the transfer of crude to shuttle tankers. suspended matter in aquatic systems. “Produced water”—water separated from crude Marine sediments are the ultimate reservoir for oil extracted from sub-sea formations—is anoth- heavy metals in the coastal environments. Con- er form of pollution that is routinely discharged. tamination of estuarine sediments by trace elements Once treated to remove visible hydrocarbons, the pro- is a worldwide problem. According to UNEP (2006), duced water is either re-injected back into the oil-bear- coastal areas near oil installations have significant ing formation or discharged into the sea. In addition to heavy metal concentrations in sediments. Along the dissolved hydrocarbons, produced water may contain coasts of Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, and residues of chemicals used to stimulate production Havana Bay, Cuba, which both have petrochemical in the formation, such as dispersants, anti-corrosives, complexes near the water, lead values have risen to and biocides. The concentration of petroleum within 113 mg/kg and 340 mg/kg, respectively (GEF/UNDP/ produced water depends largely on the type and ef- UNEP 1998). ficiency of the water treatment technology employed on the platform. When the water is discharged into the Studies examining heavy metal pollution in reefs sea, “plumes” form, which can drift long distances with have received minimal attention worldwide, par- tides and winds. These may cause concentrations of ticularly in the Caribbean region. Concerted atten- hydrocarbons in filtering organisms such as oysters up tion is needed, because coastal regions across Central to 20 kilometers from the offshore platform. America are exposed to a wide range of metal pollu- tion. While many Caribbean countries have no major Toxic substances that are generated as by-prod- industries, around the Gulf of Mexico there are indus- ucts of industrial processes and discharged into trial hotspots discharging substantial pollutant loads the environment are of major concern. Heavy met- into the marine environment and these find their way als are major parts of agrochemicals, industrial pollut- to the waters of other countries. The smallest industri- 54 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 al pollutant loads come from the western Caribbean in damage, with increased force and frequency, as well (the Central American countries), while in the eastern as a lengthened hurricane season. Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago provides the largest contribution of organic matter of industrial origin to Extreme weather events will compound the im- the marine environment, a result of increased industri- pacts of marine pollution and will weaken the al development there, notably oil facilities (UNEP-CEP resilience of some marine species. Increased pol- 2010). lution, for example, may make coral reefs more vul- nerable to climate change effects (Veron et al. 2009) such as sea temperature increase and ocean acidifi- 3.5 Marine Pollution and cation, which are both slow onset events that com- Climate Change promise the health of reefs. They can also harm biodi- versity by reducing vulnerable fish species’ spawning The economies of the Caribbean have suffered aggregation and the carbonate that shellfish such as severely due to the increase in intensity and fre- crabs and lobsters need to build their shells. As corals quency of extreme weather events. Wind damage and other marine species struggle to live in warmer alone adds about US$1.4 billion to average annual loss. and acidified waters around natural carbon dioxide Climate change exacerbates many other driving forc- seeps, they also face the compounded problem of es and therefore amplifies environmental and related pollution. The pollution increases their susceptibility socio-economic impacts (UNEP 2016). The 2017 hur- to diseases and morbidity. When coral reef die-off oc- ricane season included four major storms in Catego- curs, it in turn hampers carbon fixation in the oceans, ries 4 and 5, the most destructive, land-falling climatic reducing their ability to effectively capture carbon events of the past few years combined. Countries along dioxide—i.e. carbon sequestration. These stresses their path from the Eastern Caribbean to the Gulf of on the marine ecosystem can ultimately threaten Mexico sustained damage and loss of life. The islands livelihood security for people who depend on it (Al- of Barbuda, Dominica, Saint Martin, and Puerto Rico len and Webber 2013). But urgent actions to diminish were devastated, with recovery taking months if not pollution’s impacts on marine ecosystems will result years. According to an IMF study in 2016, more than in environmental co-benefits, including better cli- 200 major storms have struck the Caribbean in the last mate resilience for ecosystems and increased carbon 40 years, costing more than 12,000 lives and $20 billion sequestration (IEG 2017). Figure 3.5.1 Beach Covered with Large Amounts of Seaweed in Cancun, Mexico Photo Credit: Israel Leal/AP Photo. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 3 55 Pollution can also turn non-harmful naturally oc- cancellations, hurting the livelihoods of people in the curring species into potent threats to local econ- tourism industry (Hinds et al. 2016). omies. In recent years, especially in 2018, beaches in countries from Mexico to the Eastern Caribbean islands Coastal ecosystems are an effective line of de- were hit by a massive wash-up of Sargassum seaweed fence against climate events, slowing down (CAST 2015, and UNEA 2016) (Figure 3.5.1). Warm storm surges and reducing flooding. According to water temperatures and low wind anomalies helped UNEP (2010), the degradation of coastal ecosystems cause this event, but it was also linked to increased ni- has increased storm surge risk in Negril, Jamaica. A trogen loading from sewage pollution, oils, and fertil- one-in-50-year hurricane has the potential to pro- izers (CAST 2015). Although the appearance of Sargas- duce storm waves of almost seven meters, affecting sum is a recurrent phenomenon that is generally not about 2,500 Negril residents, more than 60 hotels and harmful to humans, in this case it damaged fisheries their guests, and water and sanitation infrastructure. by causing mass fish deaths. In St. Kitts and Nevis, one Poor water quality hinders coastal ecosystems’ capac- human death was indirectly attributed to Sargassum ity to grow and recover following storms or severe when a fishing boat crew was washed overboard after temperature events (Nellemann and Corcoran 2006). a seaweed entanglement disabled their engine (UNEA For instance, sediment deposited onto reefs smoth- 2016). The seaweed harmed tourism by limiting access ers corals or blocks out sunlight they need to grow to beaches where masses of dead seaweed piled up, and hampers their ability to reproduce. Similarly, pes- emitting foul odours and sometimes trapping litter ticides interfere with coral reproduction and growth such as plastics and hazardous waste. There was also a (NOAA 2017). Therefore, by impeding natural recov- potential rise in vector-borne diseases. The economic ery of marine ecosystems, water pollution can affect cost mounted as swimming, boating, and watersports the overall resilience of coastal communities in the were disrupted and local hotels received numerous Caribbean. CHAPTER 4 Yen-Yi Lee/ coralreefimagebank Marine Pollution Policy Frameworks Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 4 57 G lobal and regional policy frameworks Agenda for Sustainable Development and its that address marine pollution are com- 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The prehensive in scope and target its major SDGs are far-reaching, all-encompassing targets for sources. These instruments outline obligations and 2030, creating a blueprint on how to mobilize efforts commitments by governments, and, in some instanc- towards ending all forms of poverty, fighting inequal- es, offer a blueprint for an integrated, multisectoral ities, and tackling climate change, while ensuring that response to marine pollution. National policies should no one is left behind. be aligned with these global and regional frameworks to effectively meet international commitments and The SDGs build on the work of the earlier Millen- fully benefit from international cooperation and fund- nium Development Goals and are unique in their ing from donors and partners. broader scope to eradicate all forms of poverty. They call for action by all countries, rich and poor, to The first UN Conference on the Human Environ- promote prosperity while protecting the planet. SDG 14 ment in 1972 set the world on a path toward a on oceans specifically addresses marine pollution but, great number of initiatives and agreements rec- given the integrated nature of the SDGs, several other ognizing the interdependency of humankind goals are also relevant to control of marine pollution and the natural environment, including the (Figure 4.1.1). marine environment. As the concept of sustain- able development and its three pillars—economic, The SDGs provide countries of the Caribbean with social, and environmental—were adopted by the an opportunity to realign and strengthen their international community, so were key environmental national efforts to achieve economic prosperity agreements reflecting those principles. These include in a more inclusive manner while respecting the Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration, and the Conventions capacity of the natural environment. This process on Climate Change, Biological Diversity, and Desert- will facilitate mainstreaming of environmental consid- ification. erations into the economic and social dimensions of development. The last twenty years have seen a tremendous upsurge in environmental awareness, which cul- Caribbean nations’ ability to realize the benefits minated with the adoption in 2015 of the 2030 of the Blue Economy will depend on managing Figure 4.1.1 Marine and Coastal Pollution within the Context of the 17 SDGs NO POV ERTY ZE RO HU NG ER ND GO A L-BE 1 LA OD ND IN WE ON HE 2 L AL E LIF TH L AGREEMEN G ENTA TS 15 M WAT LOW 3 ER ON BE AN ADDRESSING LIFE ATERAL ENVIR DO 14 THER INITIATIV CLIMATE ACTION 13 MARINE AND COASTAL TIL POLLUTION UL ES 12 6 M CO PROD RES UMPTCTION WA EAN NS SA AND R ION TE PO ION CL AT NS 11 U NIT AB AND LE 8 9 SU AN ST D A CO CIT INA M IES BL M E UN IT IE RK S WO ENT DEC AND MIC O N O H INDUSTRY, EC ROW T INNOVATION G AND INFRASTRUCTURE 58 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 4 marine resources and activities sustainably with- International Maritime Organization in the framework of international law. This frame- and Ship-Sourced Pollution work comprises a complex network of international and regional agreements, intergovernmental and civil Shipping is one of the most heavily regulated society organisations, and economic market-based of all marine activities. Over the years, the Inter- drivers. The most relevant are briefly discussed below. national Maritime Organization (IMO) has adopted These and others are detailed in Annex 1. The status and revised a broad range of instruments that re- of ratification of relevant international conventions can spond directly or indirectly to the range of threats be found in Annex 7. posed by international shipping. IMO environmental treaties almost exclusively regulate pollution by ap- plying standards for discharge and construction, de- 4.1 International Frameworks sign, equipment, and manning (CDEM), irrespective of whether a discharge occurs due to an accident and Initiatives of Relevance or the normal operation of the ship (IMO 2016). The to Marine Pollution main treaties that govern the prevention of pollu- Management in the WCR tion are MARPOL 73/78, the International Conven- tion on the Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems UN Law of the Sea Convention on Ships, and the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and The basic international framework governing use Sediment. and development of the oceans is provided by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law MARPOL 73/78 contains six annexes concerned of the Sea (UNCLOS). The convention defines the with preventing marine pollution from ships. extent of various jurisdictional zones, delineated ac- cording to distance from the coastlines on the basis of •• Annex I/II: Oil/noxious liquid substances carried in set baselines, and sets out the rights and obligations of bulk (entered into force in April 1987) countries on the basis of those zones. Countries have •• Annex III: Harmful substances carried in packaged sovereignty over their internal waters, territorial seas, form (July 1992) and archipelagic waters, and sovereign rights over the •• Annex IV: Sewage (September 2003) resources in their Exclusive Economic Zones and the •• Annex V: Garbage (December 1988) seafloor of their continental shelves. •• Annex VI: Air pollution (May 2005) Parties have agreed to take, individually or jointly A state that becomes party to MARPOL must ac- as appropriate, all measures consistent with UN- cept Annexes I and II (hence they are listed to- CLOS that are necessary to prevent, reduce, and gether), while Annexes III-VI are voluntary. Annex control pollution of the marine environment from V is particularly important, because it prohibits ocean any source. As this concerns the marine environment dumping of all plastics from ships and regulates the in its entirety, parties have the obligation to protect dumping of other garbage. This annex also requires and preserve the marine environment in their terri- that ports must provide reception facilities. torial seas, their exclusive economic zones, and areas beyond their national jurisdiction. “Special Areas” are designated by MARPOL Annex V as locations where, due to the site’s Parties are to adopt laws, regulations, and mea- unique oceanographic, ecological, or traffic sures that are no less effective than international conditions, all overboard discharges of garbage rules, standards, and recommended practices and (except ground-up food wastes) are prohibited. procedures. The most significant of these rules, stan- The Wider Caribbean Region (including the Gulf of dards, practices, and procedures include those agreed Mexico) was designated a Special Area under Annex on through the Cartagena Convention, the UN Environ- V in 2011. However, the lack of port reception facili- ment Global Programme of Action (GPA) for the Protec- ties has been a significant barrier to implementation tion of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activ- of the Special Area and remains an issue throughout ities, and the International Maritime Organization (IMO). the WCR. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 4 59 The UN Global Programme of Action 4.2 Regional and Sub- (GPA) for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land- Regional Frameworks and Based Activities Initiatives Adopted in 1995 by more than 100 countries and In parallel with the adoption of global envi- administered by UN Environment (UNEP), the ronmental agreements, the WCR has seen a GPA addresses the impacts of land-based activi- rise in the last three decades in the number of ties on coastal and marine environments. It is de- regional initiatives. Today more than 30 regional signed to assist states in taking actions individually or and sub-regional organizations with some level of jointly within their respective policies, priorities, and engagement in governance of the ocean and its re- resources which will lead to the prevention, reduction, sources operate in the region and support these ar- control, and/or elimination of the degradation of the rangements (Mahon et al. 2013). Numerous national marine environment. Litter is one of the nine source plans aiming to respond to these commitments and categories identified by the GPA. This has helped spur to emerging marine environmental issues have also many regional and global actions against this pollu- resulted. tion source. Caribbean Environment Programme In 2015, the GPA and the Secretariat to the Cart- and the Cartagena Convention agena Convention based in Kingston, Jamaica partnered with the Gulf and Caribbean Fisher- The Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP) is ies Institute (GCFI) to implement the Caribbean one of 18 UN Environment-administered Region- Node of the Global Partnership on Marine Litter al Seas Programmes. The CEP and its Caribbean Ac- (GPML). The goal of the node is to achieve the ob- tion Plan (1981) were established by governments of jectives of the GPML and the Regional Action Plan on the WCR to develop regional cooperation and national Marine Litter (RAPMaLi 2014), which was endorsed action for the sustainable management and use of the by the Contracting Parties to the Cartagena Conven- coastal and marine environment. The Action Plan led tion. The Action Plan17 updates the 2008 regional to the 1983 adoption of the Convention for the Pro- plan and describes the road ahead for reducing ma- tection and Development of the Marine Environment rine plastic debris and microplastics and other solid of the Wider Caribbean Region (the Cartagena Con- waste pollution. vention). This is the most comprehensive umbrella environmental agreement for the region and provides the operative legal framework for much of the ocean SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (S.A.M.O.A) Pathway governance activity in the wider Caribbean. All na- tions within the WCR are members of the CEP and all The SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (except two) are Contracting Parties to the Cartagena (S.A.M.O.A) Pathway is an international frame- Convention. work that was developed as the outcome of the Third International Conference on Small Island The Cartagena Convention covers the combined Developing States (SIDS Conference) held on 1-4 EEZs of its Parties and remains the only regional September 2014 in Apia, Samoa. This partnership environmental treaty covering the entire WCR. framework calls for measures to manage waste, and It requires Parties to adopt measures aimed at pre- promote sustainable development of SIDS ocean- venting and controlling marine pollution, as well as based economies for fisheries and aquaculture, coast- to take appropriate measures to protect and preserve al tourism, seabed resources, and renewable energy. fragile ecosystems. To this end, the convention is Article 58 focuses on addressing marine pollution by supplemented by three protocols which are critical developing effective partnerships, including through to address land-based and oil-spill pollution, as well the development and implementation of relevant as to conserve and manage critical habitats and spe- arrangements, instruments, and through the sharing cies that constitute the basis for the region’s natural and implementation of best practices. capital: 17 The full text can be found at http://www.cep.unep.org/cep-documents/rapmali_web.pdf 60 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 4 •• The Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combat- Large Marine Ecosystems(http://www.clmeproject. ing Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region (Oil org/). The CLME+ project builds on and complements Spill Protocol) existing projects and initiatives that emphasize techni- cal and institutional aspects of sustainable use of living •• The Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas marine resources (LMR) by focusing on governance, and Wildlife in the Wider Caribbean Region (SPAW knowledge, and institutional issues in a transbound- Protocol) ary marine context. The Strategic Action Program en- dorsed by 25 governments participating in the CLME+ •• The Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land- provides a roadmap towards improved governance of Based Sources and Activities (LBS Protocol) the region’s main marine ecosystems and guides the The convention provides support for the imple- long-term agenda. mentation of sub-regional, regional, and global initiatives involving the countries of the Wider Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas and Caribbean. These include the Saint Georges Declara- Caribbean Community Common tion for the OECS, the Caribbean Sea Commission, the Fisheries Policy Sustainable Development Goals, and several multilat- The 2001 Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas estab- eral environmental agreements. lished the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), in- cluding the Common Market and Single Economy Caribbean Sea Commission Organisation. CARICOM promotes development of policies for the protection of the environment, efficient The Association of Caribbean States (ACS) and its management, and sustainable use of natural resourc- partners have been pursuing the Caribbean Sea es, and sustainable development. Subsidiary bodies Initiative since 1998 mainly through promotion relevant to the control of marine pollution include of the UN General Assembly Resolution “Towards the Caribbean Public Health Agency (CARPHA), the the Sustainable Development of the Caribbean Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency Sea for Present and Future Generations.” It was first (CDEMA), the Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mecha- adopted in 1999 and subsequently reported upon, re- nism (CRFM), and the Caribbean Community Climate vised, and readopted (Resolution 65.155).18 In the pro- Change Centre (CCCCC). In ensuring “the prudent and cess, the Caribbean Sea Commission (CSC) was estab- rational management of the resources of Member lished in 2008 to promote and oversee the sustainable States,” the treaty recognizes both the “precautionary” use of the Caribbean Sea and potentially provide a re- and the “polluter pays” principles. It also recognizes gional harmonization of ocean governance policy and principles related to preventative action, rectification a coordination function for the wider Caribbean region. of environmental damage at source, and the need The CSC has adopted the Large Marine Ecosystem to protect the region from harmful effects of hazard- (LME) governance framework as its working model for ous materials transported, generated, disposed of, or regional ocean governance arrangements. shipped through or within the Caribbean community. The Strategic Action Program CARICOM’s Draft Environment and Natural Re- and the Caribbean Large Marine sources Policy Framework articulates a regional Ecosystem Project approach to the sustainable management of the The Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem and Adja- environmental and natural resources of member cent Regions (CLME+) is a large-scale Global En- states. It reflects an awareness that unsustainable use vironment Facility project running from 2015 to of resources could undermine regional sustainable de- 2020. Its objective is to improve the management and velopment options within the context of the 2030 SDGs. governance of shared living marine resources through It proposes a structure for balancing the need to exploit an ecosystem-based management approach in plac- land, air, water, and oceans for economic development es in the region: the Caribbean and North Brazil Shelf  with the maintenance of healthy environments. As an 18 In the resolution, the UN General Assembly “Recognises that the Caribbean Sea is an area of unique biodiversity and a highly fragile ecosystem that requires rel- evant regional and international development partners to work together to develop and implement regional initiatives to promote the sustainable conservation and management of coastal and marine resources, including, inter alia, the consideration of the concept of the Caribbean Sea as a special area in the context of sustainable development, including its designation as such without prejudice to relevant international law.” Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 4 61 umbrella policy framework, it provides the guiding implementation of appropriate technologies to principles for planning the protection, conservation, accelerate access to safe water and improved san- and sustainable use of the environmental and natural itation, while contributing to improved ecosystem resources of the CARICOM member states. functioning in the Caribbean (http://www.cep. unep.org/gef-iweco-1/gef-iweco). In addition to these policy agreements, there are important regional and sub-regional programs •• Caribbean Biodiversity Fund Ecosystem-based that provide environmental policy guidance and Adaptation (EbA) Facility. The EbA Facility is a sink- promote better practices for the marine environ- ing fund, initially financed through the German De- ment. A number of these have resulted in concrete, velopment Bank (KfW) to €25 Million. The Facility will region-wide multi-partner projects that respond to award grants for the period 2018 to 2022 for actions in specific marine pollution issues in the WCR. Overseas Development Assistance (ODA) qualified in- sular Caribbean countries to support climate change •• GEF Caribbean Regional Oceanscape Project adaptation and poverty alleviation through biodiver- (CROP). Approved by the World Bank in 2017, CROP sity conservation and ecosystems management with- will support five eastern Caribbean countries in in their marine and coastal zones. The grants will assist strengthening capacity for ocean governance through efforts to maintain and increase resilience of ecosys- the development of coastal and marine spatial plans tems (including through the impacts of land-based (including identification of pollution hotspot sites); en- sources of marine pollution) and people in the face of hancement and/or creation of national ocean policies; the adverse effects of climate change. and development of capacity-building tools for en- hanced ocean governance, including a learning plat- form on the blue economy. This project aims to assist 4.3 Implementation the eastern Caribbean countries in their transition to- wards a Blue Economy and implement Blue Economy Challenges policies to leverage public and private investment in While initiatives, agreements, and regulations the waters of the OECS region. applicable to marine pollution in the WCR are ex- tensive, their implementation is often hampered. •• GEF Caribbean Regional Fund for Wastewa- A lack of political will is a major factor which can have ter Management (CReW). It began in 2011 as far-reaching repercussions. They can include inaction, an initiative to provide sustainable financing for fragmented or poorly designed legal and institutional wastewater management, support policy and leg- frameworks, structures that do not meet the guide- islative reforms, and facilitate regional dialogue and lines of international and regional agreements, and knowledge exchange. It is implemented by the compliance and enforcement at the national level. Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and UN- Without strong political will, effective implementation EP-CEP (www.gefcrew.org). and enforcement of strategies, legislation, and inter- national agreements will not be possible. This will also •• The 2014 Regional Action Plan for Marine Lit- lead to poor governance of the marine environment ter (RAPMaLi) for the Wider Caribbean Region. and coordination among the Caribbean states. Originally established in 2007, RAPMaLi promotes collaboration and engagement of a wide range of Limited financial resources and technical capacity actors in actions to improve the management of can impede success in marine pollution programs marine litter on local and regional scales (UNEP-CEP that are costly and highly technical. These limita- 2014). The network includes health, environmental, tions may result in insufficient institutional capacity conservation, education, tourism, and waste man- and human resources for construction and manage- agement bodies (www.cep.unep.org). ment of essential infrastructure for sewage treatment, and waste reduction, collection, and disposal. They •• The GEF project Integrating Water, Land, and may also contribute to weak or lack of country-level Ecosystems Management in Caribbean Small pollution-monitoring systems. Limited institutional Island Developing States (IWEco). This sup- capacity among service providers and difficulties in re- ports an integrated approach to water, land, and covering costs also hamper implementation. For these ecosystems services management through policy, reasons, the identification of critical resources, and the institutional, and legislative reforms. It also helps funds to provide them, is crucial. CHAPTER 5 The Way Forward istock.com Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 5 63 T he environmental, social, and economic im- countries should not wait to act. In such cases the pacts of marine pollution in the Caribbean “Precautionary Approach” is justified and uncertain- have been well documented over the last ties must be factored into the risk assessment and three decades and expose a very serious threat cost-benefit analysis. to the sustainable development of the region. The ability of governments to effectively and sustainably •• The costs of inaction will likely be greater than manage the region’s natural resource base will deter- those of pollution prevention and management, mine the future of the countries’ economies and their given the economic impact on sectors such as tour- success in combating poverty and reversing socio-eco- ism and fisheries. nomic inequalities. The well-being of the growing population of the region requires that these issues and •• Considerable progress has been made at the glob- trends be addressed urgently. There is no time to waste! al and regional levels to establish policy frameworks and commitments to tackle marine pollution. But This study establishes some important conclu- cross-border cooperation, resources, and a compre- sions about marine pollution in the Caribbean. hensive and integrated approach—all needed to deci- sively take on the challenge—remain in short supply. •• Marine pollution has been growing at alarming rates in the WCR. Caribbean SIDS are especially •• Blue Economy policy priorities should be incorpo- vulnerable to the impacts of pollution as it leads rated into national and regional development plan- to reduced revenues from the tourism and fishing ning to ensure that the marine natural capital is industries that these countries depend on. sustained and enhanced while the ocean economy continues to grow. •• Marine pollution pays no respect to national borders— pollutants generated in one country can find their way to the waters of another. Caribbean SIDS are exposed 5.1 Recommendations to concentrations of marine litter that are dispropor- While marine pollution is an urgent problem to tack- tionate to their own consumption and population. le in the Wider Caribbean Region, the recommenda- tions of this report target Caribbean SIDS. Caribbean •• Marine pollution damage goes beyond marine SIDS are particularly exposed and vulnerable to the present ecosystems and biodiversity. It is already affecting and future damage from marine pollution, which leads to human health and major economic activities in the reduced revenues from the tourism and fishing industries region such as tourism, fisheries, and shipping. that these countries depend on. Additional unique chal- •• The destruction of marine ecosystems such as coral lenges for these countries include small land mass, vul- reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds pose particu- nerability to extreme weather events, poorly developed lar threats to the livelihoods of people working in waste management infrastructure, and majority of their tourism and fisheries and to protection from storms populations living within 10 kilometres of the ocean. and hurricanes. The World Bank proposes a 12-point action agenda •• Solid waste and wastewater pollution, among the for responding to pollution problems facing Carib- most pervasive types of land-based marine pollu- bean SIDS, and taking specific forward looking and tion in the region, are projected to grow as popula- concrete steps in support of a healthy, productive, tions, coastal cities, and tourism do the same. and resilient Caribbean Sea. A proposed way forward incorporates preventative and responsive approaches •• Solid waste and wastewater cause serious environ- through a combination of analytical activities, policy re- mental harm in the ocean ranging from litter to eu- forms for enhancing the enabling environment, strategic trophication and algal blooms. These in turn drive investments, public awareness, partnerships and innova- tourism revenues down and increase exposure to tion. The framework for action involves four broad groups infectious diseases. of activities that are needed to effectively find solutions for marine pollution (Figure 5.1.1). The scale of these ac- •• While knowledge of marine pollution issues has tivities ranges from the local to national to regional. These expanded, the region still lacks rigorous assess- are aligned with relevant international and regional man- ment and understanding of sources and impacts dates, and if adopted would significantly contribute to the but in the absence of knowledge and certainty region’s pathway toward the Blue Economy. 64 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 5 Figure 5.1.1 Framework for Action to Address Marine Pollution ANALYTICS Research, Economic Assessments, Monitoring Systems, etc. Partnerships/Innovation/ Healthy and Resilient Public Awareness Marine Environment for Prosperous POLICY REFORMS BLUE ECONOMY Governance, Polices, Regulations (ban on single-use plastics), Institutions, Capacity, etc. INVESTMENTS Waste Management Infrastructure/tech for Collection, Recycling, Treatment/Disposal, Beach Cleanup, etc. 1 Improve the analytics and knowledge base on marine pollution and water quality throughout the region using common monitoring approaches and guidelines. The Caribbean has a paucity of quality-assured environmental data about its waters, because only a few countries have the necessary systems in place to collect them. Policy decisions need to be based on solid scientific informa- tion. Otherwise, the Precautionary Approach principle must apply. Therefore, regular collection of strategic data on pollutants and how pollution affects marine habitats, local economies, and populations needs to be improved at the regional and national levels. Monitoring approaches should now include microplastics, as plastics are the most common items found littering the beaches. Monitoring efforts should be integrated into relevant regional assessments and reporting efforts, particularly those established under the Cartagena Convention and its Protocols (SOCAR report) and the report on the State of the Marine Ecosystems and Associated Economies (SOMEE) of the CLME+ SAP, which calls for information on habitat degradation, fisheries status, and marine pollution. Monitoring should include earth observation through partner- ships with satellite operators. Pollution control metrics should be integrated into SDG matrices and other monitor- ing platforms to promote sectoral integration. Systematic and strategic monitoring should be strengthened or established to quantify the sources, flows, fate and extent of industrial, agricultural and municipal wastes and effluents. It is particularly important to under- stand key pollutants that enter water bodies, identify pollution hotspots, and their impacts on marine biodiver- sity, fisheries, and human health. Information should be integrated into regional reporting processes to enhance regional cooperation. Indicators to measure progress in achieving outcomes and outputs should be established and incorporated with- in monitoring strategies. Results from monitoring should be used as appropriate to mitigate risk constraints to achieving improved waste management and pollution control. 2 Step up assessment of the economic impacts of marine pollution, and quantify the costs associated with pollution prevention and management, as well as the costs associated with doing nothing. The economic impacts of marine pollution (particularly solid waste and waste water) need to be better under- stood to help prioritize and plan regional and national programs, as well as to determine the costs associated with improper waste management and marine pollution. Costs of waste management activities, special clean-ups, and maintenance of beach and coastal areas should be assessed and integrated within pollution prevention and con- trol measures. It should also examine revenues lost by the tourism (e.g. costs associated with the loss of recreational uses of coastal areas) and fisheries (e.g. costs for lost or abandoned fishing gear) sectors when pollution causes visitors to stay away and harms fisheries. Health impacts should also be assessed to inform the policy-makers and the public about the needs for effective management. Analytical work to support strategic and cost-effective multi-country solutions at identified hotspots will also be useful. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 5 65 The impacts of marine pollution on a country’s economy should provide the impetus needed to ensure that region- al and national waste management programs and policy reforms are prioritized. These could include best practices and reforms to improve waste management and operations at disposal sites, the implementation of disincentives for the use of polluting substances, and incentives for the use of reusable, recyclable, or compostable packaging and development of industry standards on what materials are put into the marketplace. Economic impacts of marine pollution should be included in, or complement, national and regional assessments and reports on marine pollution or on the status of marine ecosystems. Establishing common standards for mea- suring existing or potential economic losses would facilitate data collection and provide solid data sets on which to base decisions. This information should lead the necessary policy reforms to cover a wide range of measures, including potential for incentive and fiscal mechanisms (taxes, bans on single-use plastics, etc), minimization of waste generation, improvement of final waste disposal, extended producer responsibilities, among others. 3 Strengthen and harmonize existing national institutional structures, policies, and legislation to effectively reinforce regional governance and align with international mandates and commitments. Policies and legislation should be aligned with international commitments for sustainable development such as the SDGs and relevant MEAs, including those specific to marine pollution such as elements of the regional LBS Protocol. Gov- ernance of the marine environment and coordination between SIDS in the region remain fragmented, with poor integra- tion of environmental considerations into regional development planning and a lack of integrated management of the marine environment. Many regional and international policy frameworks related to pollution already exist but often legal and institutional frameworks to address pollution are weak, fragmented, and ineffective, and do not meet the minimum guidelines of international agreements which the country has signed. For example, specific marine litter regulation is very limited, and even when it exists, there is often poor implementation, compliance, and enforcement at the national level. What is needed is forthright implementation of them to yield harmonized governance that addresses transboundary pollution in an integrated way. Active participation and support of all relevant governments and organizations in these regional programs and initiatives will help the Caribbean meet its commitments to address marine pollution. The Cartagena Convention’s LBS Protocol is a key instrument for addressing land-based pollution in the WCR and should be ratified by governments which have not yet done so. Other relevant MEAs and initiatives such as Cartagena’s Oil Spill and Biodiversity Protocols, the MARPOL 73/78 Convention, and the CLME+ SAP are also key mechanisms towards improved marine pollution control and environmental management. Governments should increase efforts to actively implement their mandates. In addition, existing national institutional structures, policies, and legislation for marine pollution management should be strategically reviewed, harmonized, and/or updated to accommodate international obligations, includ- ing the above agreements, and new challenges. Increased and concerted efforts can help ensure implementation, compliance, and enforcement. 4 Integrate marine pollution prevention and control policies into the broader context of national policy and planning frameworks. Marine pollution is not an isolated environmental issue. It affects the economy, health, and general wellbeing of the population. Cost-effective tools such as Marine Spatial Planning and Integrated Coastal Zone Management to help manage multi-use coastal areas, and River Basin Management designed to protect natural water systems, need wide implementation. The value of critical coastal ecosystems (such as mangroves and wetlands) in the natural treatment of pollution and coastal protection should be recognised in coastal planning decisions. Marine pollution prevention and control must receive high priority and be integrated within national and local broader planning processes. Pollution control is relevant not just to coastal and marine resources but also to the development of tourism, agriculture, shipping, and industry. As such it should be part of economic and land-use planning, as well as integrated water/catchment management. 66 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 5 5 Heighten local expertise and technical capacity concerning pollution and water quality management. A key challenge facing SIDS in the region is insufficient human capacity required for effective governance, man- agement, and production structures. Many of the solutions to pollution problems are highly technical, requiring sophisticated technology, laboratory analysis, and operation of advanced equipment. Solving this problem will take time, capital, and changes in the region’s educational system to offer the necessary training. But it will be well worth the investment, allowing the region to take on pollution with its own world-class expertise. The capacities and knowledge to tackle marine pollution need to be built evenly across the public and the private sector as well as amongst consumers. From the private production perspective, for example, the right knowledge and capacity to find economically viable alternatives to polluting packaging and materials will be of relevance. Capacities amongst the public sector, government, and consumers to incentivize such practices will be equally important. Enhancing consumers’ knowledge and capacity to make better decisions regarding their day to day waste production will greatly contribute towards the solution. While building technical capacity takes time, in the meantime, SIDS governments need to devise ways to leverage greater output from current capacity to foster positive change. Increased regional cooperation, sharing of costs and knowledge, and public/private partnerships will help narrow this gap. Along the value chain of locally avail- able products, actors and stakeholders, both public and private, can greatly benefit from specified guidelines and training on minimizing their waste footprint. 6 Raise public awareness about the importance of water quality and marine ecosystems to induce behavioural change. There is limited awareness of the relationship between development and environmental protection among cit- izens of Caribbean countries, as well as between ecosystem health and the production of ecosystem services. Changes in perception about the importance of coastal ecosystems is imperative to change how individuals relate to the environment and cause, at all levels, and induce positive behavioural changes with respect to littering, improper solid waste disposal, and reduction and recycling of waste. Public education and awareness campaigns targeting school and communities play an important role in minimizing the impact of marine pollution, as well as targeting specific user groups (e.g. fishermen). Higher public awareness would help prioritize the issue in national and local political agendas, facilitating larger budgets, commitment, stricter legislation, and enforcement at large. This will also require improved communication techniques between technical specialists, stakeholders, and the public at large. The broad participation of stakeholders will give them a sense of empowerment against the threat of marine pollution. Public education on local television, radio, social media, and websites can raise awareness on the value of ecosys- tems services. These tools should also be used to promote and facilitate enforcement of waste management prac- tices and regulations. But the environment’s importance to the region’s welfare needs to be taught in the class- rooms as well. This would entail involving ministries of education to introduce new material into school curricula so that children in upcoming generations will grow up with a grasp of the issue. 7 Strengthen multi-sectoral mechanisms and establish partnerships to address marine pollution. However comprehensive regulatory frameworks are, they are likely to fail without the participation and cooper- ation of the many parties that have an interest in the effective management of the marine environment. These include civil society, the tourism and fisheries industries, coastal developers, technology companies, institutions and coastal communities. The design and implementation of an integrated pollution prevention and management framework should therefore include mechanisms to consider the views and interests of users of the marine space Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 5 67 and resources, both in national policy making and deliberations at the regional level. Multi-sectoral and inter-agen- cy mechanisms already established under regional and international agreements and initiatives (e.g. the Cartagena Convention) should be utilized to enhance coordination, maximize resources, and assist with transboundary pol- lution control at the source. Public-private partnerships should also be established to provide financing, improve public awareness, reduce the improper disposal of waste and develop innovative approaches to reduce marine pollution. The private sector is in a unique position to provide leadership in the design, development, and implementation of clean, non-polluting, sustainable practices and technologies for pollution control. Active participation of key stakeholders in pollution management should be encouraged, and the mechanisms established to facilitate their involvement should be utilized and strengthened. SIDS should capitalise on national, regional and international platforms to develop strategic and cooperative marine pollution assessment and con- trol measures. Partnerships with the private sector can facilitate enforcement, create incentives for cleaner consumption and production, and incentivize transition to a more sustainable, circular economy. Promotion of EPR (extended pro- ducer responsibility) should also be explored, including legislation reforms to address the recovery and recycling obligations of individual producers.  8 Prioritize, dedicate, and increase funding within national budgets for marine pollution prevention and control. Many SIDS countries in the region lack funds to build essential infrastructure for management of pollution, such as sewage treatment plants and disposal facilities. Issues of money also hamper monitoring and pollution abate- ment activities. Moreover, pollution programs are often funded out of general budgets, rather than dedicated sources. These essential programs need higher budgets, from sources that will not be at risk of running out year-to-year. Options for funding pollution programs range from charging fees for ecosystem services, applying the “polluter pays” principle, and introducing market-based incentives, tax incentives and reforms. These might include subsi- dies for pollution control, permit systems for “green” businesses with pollution, deposit-refund systems, and pric- ing approaches. 9 Make a strategic investment commitment to litter control. Litter is one of the main marine pollution problems in the region. To tackle the multiple sources, causes, and actors involved, regional bodies and local and national governments need to take the lead and attack the problem in a strategic way. Policy makers need to better identify hotspots and understand the volumes of, and reasons for, litter and to develop action plans to control it. These should include: -Planning Controls: Introduction of urban and tourism planning that would prevent litter-generating activities from having easy access to coastal waterways and drainage systems. These can include the use of natural drainage sys- tems and urban design to prevent direct littering into drainage systems and waterways. -Source Controls: Measures to avoid the generation of litter through better education and enforcement; improved collection; greater coverage and efficiency of sweeping and cleaning services; better enforcement of waste man- agement in tourism and key commercial and industrial sectors; and enacting bans on common litter items such as single-use plastic bags, Styrofoam containers, and plastic straws. -Downstream Controls: Programs and infrastructure to intercept or clean up litter once it is produced and enters drainage or natural water systems. These include designing drainage systems to facilitate interception of waste; 68 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 5 better maintenance of drainage systems; beach and harbor cleanup services; and community-led programs for clean-ups. Island or city-level integrated litter management strategies and action plans should be developed to provide understanding and commitment, and to implement practical and cost-effective litter control. Action plans should include a suite of controls that balance priority and cost-effectiveness measures with measurable short and long-term impacts. Better data and information sharing on marine litter should be championed at the regional level. 10 Make a decisive commitment to reduce consumption of common and persistent litter items including plastics. Plastics constitute a main component of litter in the region and this is impacting key economic activities such as tourism and fisheries. Countries of the region and world have adopted a number of strategies to address this issue cost-effectively within a multi-phase approach. Controlling these litter sources should be considered a national priority or as part of island-wide or local litter management strategies, and implemented in a well thought-out and deliberate manner to avoid further environmental degradation. Interventions to consider in- clude: •• Fees, voluntary programs, and bans on import and use of common litter items that are persistent in the environ- ment such as single-use plastics (bottles, straws, plastic bags, cups, and cutlery) and single-use Styrofoam food containers. Such programs should include: -- A phased approach -- Incentives for alternatives (tax incentives and other) -- Targeted awareness and outreach program to sensitize stakeholders about the issue, build consensus and facilitate enforcement -- Adequate enforcement and monitoring •• Work to limit the production and use of plastic in non-recoverable items, such as microbeads in personal care products and cosmetics. •• Partner with the manufacturers and retailers to reduce other types of packaging that are common and per- sistent litter items. Encourage reduction of use of non-biodegradable products or packaging as well as reuse of items. Priority action on common and persistent litter items including single-use plastics and Styrofoam is necessary and a realistic goal for countries in the region. It can be accomplished with a well-planned, phased approach without major financial investment, but with substantial gains. The economic and environmental benefits will be far-reaching in terms of tourism product enhancement, prevention of diseases, protection of biodiversity and fisheries, and savings on coastal clean-ups and waste collection and management. 11 Implement integrated, high-priority interventions to reduce discharge of untreated sewage and nutrients, and promote resource recovery of waste water. Though most countries in the region have enacted legislation, policies, and action plans on wastewater manage- ment, implementation is often weak and piecemeal. The situation merits strong national and regional interven- tions, with a thorough assessment of institutional responsibilities, cost recovery, and policies to map the scale of the problem and define remedial actions. It is key to transition from ad-hoc and isolated waste water solutions (“one treatment plant per municipality”) to an integrated river basin planning approach that incorporates the climate variable. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 5 69 Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) is a flexible, participatory, and iterative process that integrates the water cycle with urban development and river basin management to maximize economic, social, and environ- mental benefits. It allows for phased approaches to meeting water quality standards, basin-level (rather than na- tional) water quality standards, and incentives for resource recovery. For large and growing cities, IUWM strategies that move from linear approaches to a circular economy are recommended. Wastewater interventions to consider include: •• Increase treatment, recycling, and reuse of wastewater by at least 50 percent by 2030. Connect all households to the sewerage system, eliminate sewer overflows, and reduce stormwater-related pollution. Treated wastewater should be seen as a resource which, if used wisely and safely to avoid health problems, can be very beneficial in particular in small islands where fresh water resources are scarce. •• Explore partnerships to tap into practical and innovative technological solutions. Submarine outfalls, combined with preliminary treatment, may be an appropriate solution. But they must be accompanied by extensive envi- ronmental, engineering, and social studies for protecting the marine environment. •• Enhance coordination on wastewater management within national plans. Update legislation to reflect modern realities. Address weaknesses in enforcement caused by insufficient human capacity, surveillance, and compli- ance with standards. •• Plan and design infrastructure commensurate with proper technical capacities, financial mechanisms (including public and private resources), and institutional frameworks. Make long-term sustainability the guiding principle. The region needs an intergovernmental task force to coordinate sustainable wastewater management (including a focus on nutrients) and to protect the region’s coastal and marine environment. The task force should include governmental and civil society representatives from national bodies. It should work within or coordinate with the existing intergovernmental processes, including the UNEP-CEP/LBS Protocol, the CLME+, CARICOM and could uti- lise the Caribbean Platform for Nutrient Management. The region should conduct a detailed assessment of current and future treatment levels and gaps; financial flows; prioritization of investments (including technology and financially sustainable options); and the existing insti- tutional, regulatory, legal, and policy frameworks (barriers and opportunities). This would map the scale of the problem and define remedial actions that are holistic and integrate the water cycle with urban development and river basin management. 12 Improve chemical and industrial pollution control through targeted and cost-effective measures in priority issues. The continued growth of the region will place added pressure on the region’s existing wastewater and stormwater networks. In densely populated urban areas, these problems are exacerbated by the additional pressures of further increases in impervious area and greater contaminant loads. There are no simple solutions to reducing the quantity of discharges, or improving the quality of discharges on a regional basis. However, while comprehensive data on industrial pollution sources and impacts in the region are lacking, key issues common to several countries have been identified which could benefit from targeted interventions: •• Identify and characterize pollution/chemicals-related hotspots (such as highly industrialised areas and “high risk” industrial sites) in order to develop strategies to minimise pollutant loads entering the marine environment. •• Compile available information on pollution prevention and waste minimization methods for regional indus- tries. •• Reduce and mitigate risks associated with natural resources extractive industries, including controlling the use and release of chemicals in industrial, small-scale, and artisanal mining. 70 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Chapter 5 •• Promote recycling of used oil in urban areas through technical assistance and feasibility studies. •• Incentivize transition to a circular economy in industries to minimize generation of pollution by recycling and reuse, with a view to achieve more efficient and cost-effective systems where all non-renewable materials used are recycled. 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WTTC (World Travel & Tourism Council). 2018. “Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2018: Caribbean”. https://www.wttc.org/-/ media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/regions-2018/caribbean2018.pdf Renata Romeo/coralreefimagebank Annexes Photo credit: NOAA Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes 79 Annex 1: Summary Table on Marine Pollution Conventions Agreement Protocol(s) Adopted (A) / Entered Summary Into Force (E) The Convention 24 March 1983 (A) / The Convention and its three Protocols constitute a legal for the Protection 11 October 1986 (E) commitment by the participating governments to protect, develop, and Development and manage their common waters individually and jointly. The of the Marine Convention is a framework agreement setting out the political Environment of the and legal foundations for actions to be developed nationally and Wider Caribbean regionally and in response to the specific protocols of the Convention. Region (Cartagena Protocol 18 January 1990 (A) / The SPAW Protocol to the Cartagena Convention has been Convention) Concerning 18 June 2000 (E) internationally recognized as the most comprehensive treaty of Specially its kind. The objective of the Protocol is to support biodiversity Protected Areas conservation through protection of fragile ecosystems and and Wildlife habitats; threatened and endangered species; and those species requiring management, to prevent them from becoming threatened or endangered. Protocol 6 October 1999 (A) / The LBS Protocol of the Cartagena Convention aims to prevent, Concerning 13 August 2010 (E) reduce, and control pollution and to ensure sound environmental Pollution from management. It provides clear measures, effluent limits, and Land-Based timetables for the reduction and control of domestic wastewater. Sources and Other important land-based pollutants are listed under different Activities (LBS) categories. Requirements for assessment and monitoring are an important component, as well as public participation in the review of possible benefits and risks of any major project likely to have an important impact on the marine environment. Protocol 24 March 1983 (A) / This Protocol of the Cartagena Convention establishes a Concerning 11 October 1986 (E) mechanism to respond to oil spill or threats of discharges that Cooperation in could endanger the marine environment and coastal interests Combating Oil of the countries. It requires Parties to establish and maintain the Spills means of responding to oil spill incidents by the preparation of contingency plans and the identification and development of the capability to respond to spills. It also outlines an oil reporting procedure and calls for cooperation and mutual assistance. The Parties to the Convention extended the Oil Spill Protocol to include hazardous or toxic substances by means of an Annex. United Nations 10 December 1982 UNCLOS is the most comprehensive global agreement governing Convention on (A) / 16 November the management of the oceans. It also creates an obligation the Law of the Sea 1994 (E) among Parties to protect and preserve the marine environment, (UNCLOS) including to prevent, reduce, and control pollution of the marine environment from any source, in their territorial seas, their exclusive economic zones, and in areas beyond national jurisdiction. Parties are to adopt laws, regulations, and measures that are no less effective than international rules, standards, and recommended practices and procedures. The most significant of these rules, standards, practices, and procedures relevant to land-based sources of pollution in the WCR include those agreed through the Cartagena Convention, UNEP’s Global Programme of Action (GPA) for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities, and the International Maritime Organization. 80 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes Agreement Protocol(s) Adopted (A) / Entered Summary Into Force (E) The United Nations 3 November 1995 (A) The GPA is an international non-legally binding agreement that Global Programme addresses the impacts of land-based sources and activities on of Action (GPA) for coastal and marine environments and human well-being. Its the Protection of the goal is to prevent the degradation of the marine environment Marine Environment from land-based activities. It is designed to assist States in taking actions individually, or jointly, within their respective policies, priorities, and resources, which will lead to the prevention, reduction, control, and/or elimination of the degradation of the marine environment, as well as to its recovery from the impacts of land-based activities. International 2 November 1973 (A) MARPOL is the main international convention governing the Convention for / 2 October 1983 (E) prevention of marine pollution from ships by operational the Prevention of or accidental causes. The Convention contains six annexes, Pollution from Ships, concerned with preventing different forms of marine pollution 1973 as modified by from ships: the Protocol of 1978 Annex I/II - Oil/noxious liquid substances carried in bulk (entered (MARPOL 73/78) into force in April 1987) Annex III - Harmful substances carried in packaged form (July 1992) Annex IV - Sewage (September 2003) Annex V - Garbage (December 1988) Annex VI - Air pollution (May 2005) International 30 November 1990 Its aim is to provide a global framework for international Convention on (A) / 13 May 1995 (E) cooperation and mutual assistance in combating major oil spills. Oil Pollution Parties are required to take all appropriate measures to prepare Preparedness, for and respond to oil pollution incidents, including reporting and Response, and arrangements for requesting assistance, national contingency Cooperation planning, and training for relevant personnel. As required under the Convention, the IMO has developed a comprehensive training program in the field of oil pollution preparedness and response. The Convention also concerns ships, offshore units, ports, and oil terminals that are under the jurisdiction of the Party or flying its flag. They are required to have an oil pollution emergency plan. The Protocol on 15 March 2000 (A) / The Protocol ensures that ships carrying hazardous and noxious Preparedness 14 June 2007 (E) substances are also covered by preparedness response regimes. Response and Co-operation to Pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances (OPRC-HNS Protocol) Convention on 29 December 1972 Its objective is to promote the effective control of all sources the Prevention of (A) / 30 August 1975 of marine pollution and to take all practicable steps to prevent Marine Pollution by (E) marine pollution by the dumping of waste and other matter. Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention) Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes 81 Agreement Protocol(s) Adopted (A) / Entered Summary Into Force (E) London 17 November 1996 This Protocol was introduced to modernize and eventually Protocol (A) / 24 March 2006 replace the London Convention. Under the Protocol, all dumping (E) is prohibited except for those waste products listed under the “reverse list” which includes dredged material, sewage sludge, fish wastes, vessels and platforms, inert inorganic geological material, organic material of natural origin, bulky items primarily comprising iron, steel, and concrete, and carbon dioxide streams from carbon dioxide capture processes for sequestration. Convention on 22 March 1989 (A) / 5 Its objective is to protect human health and the environment the Control of May 1992 (E) by minimizing hazardous waste production whenever possible. Transboundary This means addressing the issue through an “integrated life-cycle Movements of approach,” which involves strong controls, from the generation Hazardous Wastes of a hazardous waste to its storage, transport, treatment, reuse, and their Disposal recycling, recovery, and final disposal. Some non-hazardous, land- (Basel Convention) based marine litter also falls under the scope of the Convention under the categories of wastes requiring special consideration. Protocol on 10 December 1999 The Protocol was developed in response to developing countries’ Liability and (A) concerns regarding their inability to cope with illegal dumping Compensation or accidental spills. The objective of the Protocol is to provide for Damage for a comprehensive regime for liability and adequate and Resulting from prompt compensation for damage caused by the transboundary Transboundary movement of hazardous waste. Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal Bali Declaration June 2008 (A) This Declaration reaffirms the commitment of Parties to the Basel on Waste Convention and other States to the principles and purposes of the Management Basel Convention, including the fundamental objective to protect, for Human by strict control, human health and the environment against Health and adverse effects resulting from the generation, transboundary Livelihood movement, and management of hazardous wastes and other wastes. Convention on 2 February 1971 (A) / The Convention provides measures for the conservation and Wetlands of 21 December 1975 (E) wise use of wetlands and their international listing for protection. International Parties shall take measures to preserve the ecological character Importance (Ramsar of any wetland in its territory and included in the list and report Convention) if it is changed or is likely to change as the result of technological developments, pollution, or other human interference. Vienna Convention 22 March 1985 (A) / This Convention seeks to protect human health and the for the Protection of 22 September 1988 environment against adverse effects resulting or likely to result the Ozone Layer (E) from human activities which modify or are likely to modify the ozone layer. Montreal 16 September 1987 The Montreal Protocol was designed to reduce the production, Protocol (A) / 1 January 1989 consumption, and abundance of ozone-depleting substances in (E) the atmosphere. The protection of the ozone layer would result in reduced production, import, and export of ozone-depleting substances. 82 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes Agreement Protocol(s) Adopted (A) / Entered Summary Into Force (E) Kigali 15 October 2016 (A) This agreement commits Parties to cut the production and Amendment to consumption of hydrofluorocarbons by more than 80 percent the Montreal from 2019-2047 and thereafter. If implemented, the Kigali Protocol (not Amendment will help reduce pollutants, prevent millions of yet in force) premature deaths from air pollution, and improve environmental quality. The agreement will further enhance processes for control of greenhouse gases under the Paris Agreement, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, and its Kyoto Protocol The International Adopted in 2013 This is the framework on pesticide management for all public Code of Conduct and private entities engaged in, or associated with, production, on Pesticide regulation, and management of pesticides. The new Code of Management Conduct on Pesticide Management (2013) provides standards of conduct in relation to sound pesticide life cycle management practices, in particular for government authorities and the pesticide industry. The Code of Conduct is supported by technical guidelines developed by the Panel of Experts on Pesticide Management. The Convention on 5 June 1992 (A) / 29 The CBD provides that conservation and sustainable use of Biological Diversity December 1993 (E) biological diversity is of critical importance for meeting the food, (CBD) health, and other needs of the world population. The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, including the Aichi Biodiversity Targets adopted by Parties, calls for a decrease in pollution as one of the direct pressures on biodiversity. Cartagena 29 January 2000 (A) This Protocol aims to protect biological diversity and human Protocol on / 11 September 2003 health from potential risks arising from the import and export of Biosafety (E) living modified organisms and the possible adverse effects of the products of modern biotechnology. Nagoya-Kuala 15 October 2010 (A) / This Protocol contributes to the conservation and sustainable Lumpur 5 March 2018 (E) use of biological diversity by providing international rules and Supplementary procedures for liability and redress relating to living modified Protocol on organisms. Liability and Redress to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety The United Nations 9 May 1992 (A) / 21 The UNFCCC presents the framework on how to tackle climate Framework March 1994 (E) change, including pollution challenges that contribute to climate Convention on change. Article 4(1)(f ) surmises that Parties, taking into account Climate Change their common but differentiated responsibilities and their specific (UNFCCC) national and regional development priorities, objectives, and circumstances, shall take climate change considerations into account, to the extent feasible, with a view to minimizing adverse effects on such things as public health and the environment. The goal of the Marrakech Declaration for Health, Environment and Climate Change is to reduce pollution-related deaths by promoting better management of environmental and climate risks to health. Kyoto Protocol 11 December 1997 This Protocol objectively aims to stabilize the levels of greenhouse for Climate (A) / 16 February gases in the earth’s atmosphere with the aim of stalling global Change 2005 (E) warming. It is argued that stabilizing greenhouse gases, which are major pollutants, could contribute to the abatement of environment and health risks. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes 83 Agreement Protocol(s) Adopted (A) / Entered Summary Into Force (E) Paris 12 December 2015 Its objective is to hold the increase in the global average Agreement on (A) / 4 November temperature to well below 2°C, increase the ability to adapt to the Climate Change 2016 (E) adverse impacts of climate change, and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development. This can only be achieved if Parties undertake to control the emissions of climate/ air pollutants and rapidly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The International 29 November 1969 The CLC was adopted to ensure that adequate compensation is Convention on Civil (A) / 19 June 1975 (E) available to persons who suffer oil pollution damage resulting Liability for Oil from maritime casualties involving oil-carrying ships. It places Pollution Damage liability for such damage on the owner of the ship from which (CLC) the polluting oil escaped or was discharged. It covers pollution damage resulting from spills of persistent oils suffered in the territory, including the territorial sea, of a State Party to the Convention. The United Nations 17 June 1994 (A) / 26 The UNCCD requires Parties to combat desertification and Convention December 1996 (E) mitigate the effects of drought. Through Annexes it may address to Combat the unsustainable exploitation of water resources leading to Desertification serious environmental damage, including chemical pollution, (UNCCD) salinization, and exhaustion of aquifers. The Convention 21 May 1997 (A) / 17 This Convention commits Watercourse States to, individually on the Law of the August 2014 (E) and, where appropriate, jointly, prevent, reduce, and control Non-Navigational the pollution of an international watercourse that may cause Uses of International significant harm to other watercourse States or to their Watercourses environment, including harm to human health, to the use of the waters for any beneficial purpose, or to the living resources of the watercourse. The Joint Convention 5 September 1997 (A) This Convention applies to spent fuel and radioactive waste on the Safety / 18 June 2001 (E) resulting from civilian nuclear reactors and applications and of Spent Fuel from military or defense programs if and when such materials Management and are transferred permanently to and managed within exclusively on the Safety of civilian programs, or when declared as spent fuel or radioactive Radioactive Waste waste for the purpose of the Convention by the Contracting Party. Management The Convention also applies to planned and controlled releases into the environment of liquid or gaseous radioactive materials from regulated nuclear facilities. The Rotterdam 10 September 1998 The Convention aims to control substances likely to cause Convention on Prior (A) / 24 February pollution and harm human health and the environment. It seeks Informed Consent 2004 (E) to promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Procedure for Certain Parties in the international trade of hazardous chemicals, as well Hazardous Chemicals as contribute to the environmentally sound management of these and Pesticides in chemicals when their use is permitted by facilitating safe handling International Trade and use and providing for a national decision-making process on their import and export. The Stockholm 22 May 2001 (A) / 17 This Convention reaffirms Principle 16 of the Rio Declaration Convention on May2004 and seeks to protect human health and the environment from Persistent Organic persistent organic pollutants. The Convention calls upon Member Pollutants States to restrict and ultimately eliminate the production, use, trade, release, and storage of persistent organic pollutants. International Health 2005 These regulations are meant to help the international community Regulations (IHR) prevent and respond to public health risks and emergencies that can have devastating impacts on human health and economies. 84 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes Agreement Protocol(s) Adopted (A) / Entered Summary Into Force (E) The Strategic 6 February 2006 (A) SAICM is a policy framework designed to promote chemical safety Approach to around the world. Its objective is to achieve sound management International of chemicals throughout their life cycle so that by 2020 chemicals Chemicals are produced and used in ways that minimizes adverse impacts Management on human health and the environment. SAICM is, however, not (SAICM) legally-binding like other Conventions. Minamata 10 October 2013 (A) / The Convention’s objective is to protect the human health Convention on 16 August 2017 (E) and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury and Mercury mercury compounds. Its preamble recognizes the substantial lessons of Minamata Disease, in particular the serious health and environmental effects resulting from the mercury pollution, and the need to ensure proper management of mercury and prevent such events in the future. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes 85 Annex 2: Distribution of Coral Reefs in the Region, Threats from Human Activities, and Economic Losses Table A2.1 Threats to Reefs Individual threats (b) Reefs at risk threat Sediment and Coastal Marine-based index (a) pollution from Fishing Reef development source of Reef inland sources pressure % area % pollution % Country area % % of km2 region Very high Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium High High High High High Bahamas 3,580 14 24 2 - 5 - - - 1 - 21 1 Belize 1,420 5 29 32 2 11 - 20 29 8 - 30 7 Colombia 2,060 8 24 19 1 7 7 16 8 3 - 25 14 Cuba 3,290 13 32 33 3 14 7 20 8 7 1 35 33 Dominican Republic 1,350 5 8 63 10 22 37 24 21 6 4 11 68 Haiti 1,260 5 - 45 55 33 59 8 91 7 - - 100 Honduras 1,120 4 13 21 - 11 14 7 3 5 1 24 5 Jamaica 1,010 4 2 34 32 24 32 19 42 24 7 2 67 Mexico 1,220 5 20 20 10 15 15 2 12 10 7 29 20 Nicaragua 870 3 11 2 - 2 2 1 - 1 - 14 - Panama 1,600 6 16 75 10 12 8 18 82 28 8 98 2 Source: Burke and Maidens 2004. 86 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes Individual threats (b) Reefs at risk threat Sediment and Coastal Marine-based index (a) pollution from Fishing Reef development source of Reef inland sources pressure % area % pollution % Country area % % of km2 region Very high Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium High High High High High Puerto Rico 1,610 6 8 59 25 30 24 32 31 20 8 8 84 Turks and Caicos 1,190 5 46 4 - 9 4 - - 2 - 49 - United States 840 3 48 14 - 31 11 - - 3 - 56 3 Virgin Islands (U.S.) 590 2 9 73 18 39 18 34 - 22 22 13 87 Regional Total 25,960 100 21 33 10 17 16 15 20 10 4 29 32 Source: Burke and Maidens 2004. Table A2.2 Threatened Economic Value of Coral Reefs in the Caribbean Region Reefs at risk index % Threatened economic value US$ million/year Country Reef area km2 High Very high High Very high Bahamas 3,580 2 - 9.7 Belize 1,420 32 2 61.7 3.8 Colombia 2,060 19 1 53.2 2.8 Cuba 3,290 33 3 147.5 13.3 Dominican Republic 1,350 63 10 115.5 18.3 Haiti 1,260 45 55 77.0 93.5 Honduras 1,120 21 - 31.9 Jamaica 1,010 34 32 46.6 43.6 Mexico 1,220 20 10 33.1 16.5 Nicaragua 870 2 - 2.4 Panama 1,600 75 10 163.0 21.6 Puerto Rico 1,610 59 25 129.0 54.4 Turks and Caicos 1,190 4 - 6.5 United States 840 14 - 16.0 Virgin Islands (U.S.) 590 73 18 58.5 14.4 Regional Total 25,960 33 10 1,163.6 350.5 Source: Burke and Maidens 2004. Note: Threatened economic value uses the mean economic contribution of US $0.135 million/km2/yr and applies it to the extension percentages of high and very high reef risk. Numbers may not add to totals due to rounding and because not all countries are included in the table. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes 87 Annex 3: Mangrove Coverage in the Caribbean Region Table A3.1 Mangrove Area in the Caribbean Region Area (km2) from FAO, 2010 Area (km2) from Spalding Country/Territory et al. 2010 2000 2010 2010/2000 Anguilla 0.9 0.9 100 Antigua and Barbuda 8.5 6.69 79 8.43 Aruba 4.2 4.2 100 Bahamas 1,420 1,420 100 875.05 Barbados 0.07 0.07 100 0.04 Belize 983 1,041 106 957.3 Bermuda 0.16 0.15 94 0.18 British Virgin Islands 5.91 5.54 94 Cayman Islands 70 70 100 Colombia 2,886 2,889 100 4,079 Costa Rica 420.8 411.8 98 418.4 Cuba 5,390 6,360 118 4,944 Dominica Dominican Republic 212.15 French Guyana 692.7 Grenada 1.8 1.8 100 Guadeloupe 75 75 100 Guatemala 177 144 81 Haiti 143 131 92 Honduras 540 420 78 628 Jamaica 97 96 99 97.55 Martinique 20 20 100 Mexico 8,960 8,960 100 7,700.5 Mexico (Q. Roo) 647.6 88 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes Area (km2) from FAO, 2010 Area (km2) from Spalding Country/Territory et al. 2010 2000 2010 2010/2000 Montserrat 0 0 Netherlands Antilles 11 11 100 Nicaragua 289 670.7 Panama 1,740 1,740 100 1,744 Puerto Rico 79.2 79.2 100 74 St. Kitts and Nevis 0.14 0.14 100 St. Lucia 1.6 1.6 100 1.91 St. Vincent and the 0.34 0.34 100 Grenadines Suriname 509.78 Trinidad and Tobago 53.72 53.72 100 65.7 Turks and Caicos Islands 236 236 100 236 United States 1,980 1,900 96 3,029.6 Venezuela 2,310 2,160 94 3569 Regional Total 27,616.34 28,529.15 103 30,516.59 Virgin Islands (U.S.) 1 1 100 2.6 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes 89 Annex 4: Targeted Intervention Options The following section identifies a number of tar- •• Existing systems that do not operate at maximum geted options for the abatement of major land- capacity should be optimized. based sources of pollution of the marine environ- ment in the Caribbean region. The different options •• In urban areas, centralized systems may be more are in line with existing initiatives and cost-effective cost-effective, due to restricted land availability and technologies. This section also discusses environ- high costs of land. mental and other factors which should be considered when selecting the best possible interventions within •• In urban areas where there is a sewage collection the context of SIDS countries. infrastructure but no treatment of collected sew- age, the cost of having an operating sewage sys- Although cost-effectiveness criteria are import- tem with treatment is relatively low. ant, several other factors may play an important role in selecting an intervention.19 •• Industrial waste and wastewater that run into do- mestic sewage systems should receive extra care, as •• Financing they can ruin operations and restrict reuse options. •• Level of skills and effort/resources needed for oper- ation and management •• In less densely populated areas with more low-cost •• Level of environmental friendliness (related to as- land available (that is, land that does not have a sessment of effects) high alternative value in use in agriculture, forest, •• Cultural acceptability development, and so on), decentralized systems •• Regional applicability/use may be more cost-effective. Different systems exist •• Potential barriers to implementation and should be adapted to local conditions, using previous studies’ evaluation of different systems with respect to cost and effects. 4.1 Wastewater treatment •• Solutions that are technically not advanced and The targeted interventions aim at integrating wa- easily and cheaply operated have proved beneficial ter and wastewater supply and treatment, follow- because they are often properly managed, keep up ing the principles of Integrated River Basin Plan- the treatment effects in the long run, and do not ning and Integrated Urban Water Management impose large costs on the water utility. (IUWM). IUWM is a flexible, participatory, and iterative process. It integrates the water cycle with urban de- •• Treated wastewater and wastes from treatment velopment and river basin management to maximize processes should be seen as a re-usable resource— economic, social, and environmental benefits. This but one that needs to be used wisely and safely to strategic approach moves away from ad hoc and iso- avoid health problems. lated waste water management. A major weakness for Caribbean countries is the Long-term sustainability is also key to guiding inadequate legal framework for wastewater. In wastewater management solutions. Infrastructure general, all countries have similar issues with respect should be planned and designed commensurate with to their policy, legislative, and institutional frame- the proper technical capacities, financial mechanisms work for wastewater management, with 38 percent and capacities (including public and private resourc- of countries having a weak policy and legislative es), and institutional designs. framework. About 23 percent have made consider- able progress and are using a comprehensive frame- Some guidelines for considering wastewater manage- work for wastewater management. Less than 10 ment include the following. percent have legislation that focuses on wastewater 19 GEF CReW project. 90 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes Table A4.1 Assessment of factors in anti-pollution technology Relative cost Environ- Appropriate (high, Cultural Use in the Caribbean Potential barriers to Level of O&M mentally- technology medium, acceptability region implementation friendly low) Rotating Not widely used. Used High energy requirement. Skilled labor biological High High Yes successfully in St. Kitts Energy required on a 24/7 required contractors and St. Lucia basis for bacterial activity Limited use. Growing Requires electricity. Sequential High O&M, use in Antigua, St. Kitts, Only receives liquid waste. batch High Requires skilled High Yes Trinidad and Tobago, Requires reliable water reactors installation Barbados and St. Lucia supply Increasing use within Requires electricity. Membrane Moderate High Yes the Requires reliable water reactor region supply. Requires removal of scum and Limited use in the Effluent requires tertiary Imhoff tanks Low Moderate Yes sludge at regular Caribbean treatment intervals Activated Skilled labor High energy requirement sludge High High Yes Widely used required for bacterial activity process Low. Plants require Moderate use (St. Constructed Yes. Large land area Low maintenance/ High Lucia,Grenada, wetland Growing Pest/ insect control manual Jamaica) harvesting Anaerobic Increasing use in the Land space. Low Low High Yes ponds region Pest and odor control Land space Facultative Increasing use in the High energy use if Low High Moderate Yes ponds region mechanical aerators are used Maturation Increasing use in the Low Low High Yes Land space Ponds region In Jamaica for agro- Upflow industrial anaerobic Low Low High Limited wastewater and Startup time not immediate sludge blanket centralized sewerage (USAB) reactor systems. Technology requires skilled Conventional Widely used in major High High Moderate Yes engineers. sewerage cities High, reliable water supply Small bore High-skilled Increasing use, e.g., Technology requires (settled) Low Moderate Yes personnel Grenada engineering skills. sewerage Source: GEF CReW Project report. management. Belize is one of the exceptions, having sources. To address this weakness, wastewater policy modified its effluent regulations to include domestic should put forward guidance on the following issues sewage. (GEF CReW 2015): Across the region there is also fragmentation of •• A definition of “wastewater” legislative instruments for wastewater manage- ment, from protection of public health to con- •• Institutional arrangements for the administration of servation of ground and surface freshwater re- relevant legislation and coordination with relevant Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes 91 authorities (such as planning, environment, tour- •• Planning controls: Urban and tourism planning to ism, and health) avoid littering activities in key areas for drainage and aesthetics •• Identification of the ownership of wastewater •• Source controls: Avoiding the generation of litter •• Specifications for a system of licensing that intro- (solid waste collection, sweeping, bag bans, public duces taxation that makes the wastewater utility awareness), including financing and contracting of self-financing solid waste systems •• Mechanisms for reduction of pollution loads •• Downstream controls: Intercepting or cleaning up lit- ter once it is produced (trash traps, cleaning and clean- •• Any restrictions that provide for the protection of up in watershed, coastal or marine environments) public and environmental health with respect to: Planning controls will entail integrated planning of -- Intended use of the wastewater urban development and water services, including: -- Treatment conditions and final quality of waste- water •• Protection of water quality and water resources -- Conditions for the location of wastewater treat- ment facilities •• Controls that restrict litter-generating activities to -- The control of wastewater discharges areas where they can be effectively controlled and -- Disposal of sludge that results from wastewater potential impacts can be reduced treatment •• Preserving elements of natural stormwater system such •• Water standards and compliance guidelines and as natural channels, wetlands, and riparian vegetation mechanisms for their use Source controls will include measures that reduce •• Enforcement and compliance mechanisms includ- litter loads entering draining systems. There are ing fees and penalties four main categories of source controls: •• Cost allocation and pricing through an econom- •• Educational campaigns ic-technical model •• Waste reduction efforts •• Cleansing operations Table A4.1 provides a summary of several waste wa- •• Law enforcement mechanisms ter treatment systems for the Caribbean, their costs, effects, and other relevant factors for their selection. Downstream controls are important as source con- While costs and effects for the different systems are trols cannot prevent all litter from entering a drain- not quantified, the table provides a qualitative assess- age system. Downstream action can include physical ment of the factors involved in the selection of a par- barriers and removal mechanisms to prevent litter from ticular technology.20 clogging the drainage system and harming the environ- ment. In addition, effective controls as part of an IUWM approach enable use or reuse for various purposes 4.2 Integrated Litter downstream (e.g. restoring wetlands and land conserva- Management tion). Options for downstream control may include: For integrated litter management, a targeted •• Installation of grills over catchpit entrances strategy should include a balance of priority and mutually reinforcing measures with short-term •• For combined sewer systems (those that convey impact, as well as cost-effective measures with both wastewater and stormwater), removal can be long-term impact (see Figure A4.2). These include: achieved at the wastewater treatment plant 20 This information was adapted from a GEF CReW Project report. 92 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes Figure A4.2 Solving the Problem—Integrated Litter Management Strategy Land-use planning Planning controls Urban design Education Waste reduction Source controls Integrated Litter Management Cleansing operations Enforcements Litter traps Stormwagter treatment Downstream controls Cleanup programs Source: Adapted from Marais and Armitage 2004. •• For separated sewer systems, litter must be trapped the environment, minimize exposure, and take measures and removed along the sewer system prior to dis- to decontaminate them and prevent new ones. charging to waterways. •• Reduce and mitigate risks associated with ex- tractive activities, including controlling the use and 4.3 Industrial and chemical release of chemicals in mining, and mercury in arti- sanal and small-scale gold mining. pollutants control The following are targeted interventions for in- •• Effectively provide and apply reliable information along dustrial and chemical pollutants control in the the product life cycle, including at the consumer stage, Caribbean. These are aligned with UNEP’s “Towards a in particular on the presence of harmful chemicals in Pollution-Free Planet” report (UNEP 2017). manufactured products, and raise consumer aware- ness of hazards and risks throughout the value chain. •• Optimize fertilizer use in agriculture and enhance nu- trient management and plant uptake efficiency to re- •• Develop eco-labelling schemes to inform custom- duce excess nutrient run-off and water contamination. ers on the potential environmental and health im- pact of their consumer choices. •• Increase the use of non-chemical alternatives to fertilizers and pesticides and the adoption of •• Reduce exposure to lead through actions on bat- agro-ecological practices. tery recycling, pottery, and paint. •• Control the use of antimicrobials in the livestock •• Phase out mercury use in a number of specific sector to avoid releases into the environment. products by 2020 and manufacturing processes by 2025, and phase down use of mercury in dental •• Support improvements in pollutant inventory sys- amalgam and in mining. tems, especially for mining, and make sustainability reporting mandatory. •• Provide funding for long-term environmental mon- itoring after a mining site is closed, to ensure that rehabilitation is effective. •• Identify and characterize pollution- and chemical-related hotspots (such as obsolete stockpiles of chemicals and contaminated sites) to protect vulnerable groups and Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes 93 Annex 5: Blue Economy Principles and Approaches for the WCR Box A5.1 Principles and Description for Protecting the Marine Environment No. Principle Description This principle recognizes the importance of marine ecosystems in delivering essential goods and services that underpin the livelihoods of millions of people by Sustainable Development/ contributing to food security, poverty eradication, livelihoods, income, employment, 1 Sustainable Livelihoods health, safety, equity, and political stability. Central to this principle is the need to align the use of resources to optimize the well-being of people today and in perpetuity. The diversity, health, and productivity of marine ecosystems are fundamental to the management of both the oceans and the land. The diversity, productivity, and core 2 Marine Ecosystem Health functions of marine ecosystems must be maintained, restored, and protected with a goal of maintaining or recovering natural levels of the natural capital upon which prosperity depends. Integrated governance is a commitment to planning and managing human activities in a comprehensive manner while considering all factors necessary for the conservation and sustainable use of marine resources and the shared use of ocean spaces. Inherent to this principle are initiatives that produce change in management 3 Integrated Ocean Governance practices to enable a rapid shift toward the sustainable use of marine and coastal resources. The goal is to support or design effective innovative governance systems that provide incentives to private and public sector leaders at all levels to engage and support a healthy ocean and community well-being. Ocean planning and management decisions should be based as far as possible on the best available information on the natural, social, and economic processes that affect ocean and coastal environments. When adequate information and knowledge Science-Based, Precautionary and are not available, decision makers should take a precautionary approach, actively 4 Adaptive Decision Making seek to develop the relevant knowledge, and refrain from undertaking activities that could potentially lead to harmful effects. Adaptive management allows decision-making to respond to the availability of new information concerning risks and sustainable opportunities. All users of the marine environment take responsibility for the impacts of their 5 Duty of Care and Accountability activities, by taking appropriate action, as well as by being transparent about their impacts so that stakeholders are well informed and can exert their influence. Full stakeholder awareness and participation contributes to credible, accepted rules that identify and assign the corresponding responsibilities appropriately. A sustainable Blue Economy should therefore be based on active and effective stakeholder engagement and participation. It is also critical that decision-making Inclusive and Transparent Decision 6 processes are conducted in a manner that is transparent and accountable to Making minimize the likelihood of disputes and to promote international cooperation. For the Blue Economy to be a success, partnerships between government, the private sector, and civil society must be built to ensure co-responsibility for ocean management and to empower stakeholders to participate effectively. Source: Patil et al. 2016. 94 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes No. Principle Description There is a need to move away from the sectoral and species-based approaches that characterize our current approach to managing the marine environment. Ecosystem approaches need to be further refined and made operational. Large-scale MSP and networks of MPAs and other area-based management measures for biodiversity conservation purposes should be integral parts of the Blue Economy. Such processes 7 Ecosystem-Based Management must be participatory, accountable, transparent, equitable, and inclusive, so as to be responsive to present and future human uses and needs, including the needs of minorities and the most vulnerable groups in society. To make informed trade-offs, such processes should also use appropriate tools and methods to capture the range of benefits that ecosystem goods and services can bring to different stakeholders. Ocean Solutions that Reduce Sustainable energy provision is fundamental to the transition to a low-carbon Climate Change Risks and economy, and the basis for progressing toward sustainable development globally. It 8 Allow Climate Change-Related is critical in ensuring progress in areas such as food, water, health, gender equality, Opportunities and poverty alleviation. The benefits from the use of common ocean resources, and the responsibilities for their continued health and productivity, should be shared by all citizens. Sharing of Benefits Derived from Governments should govern marine resource use based on the interests of 9 the Blue Economy the whole community and the interests of intergenerational equity. Economic instruments such as taxes, subsidies, and fees can help by internalizing environmental and social benefits, costs, and risks to society of ocean use Human development in harmony with the environment is fundamental to the achievement of sustainable development, so that individuals and societies are empowered to achieve positive social and environmental outcomes. The value of 10 The Right to Development the resources provided by the oceans must be recognized and opportunities for their economic development optimized to meet society’s needs and promote the well-being of coastal communities. Source: Patil et al. 2016. Box A5.2 Governance for a Blue Economy Governancefor Governance aBlue fora Economy BlueEconomy OceanPrinciples Ocean for Principles for Investment Investment in a Caribbean in a Caribbean Blue Blue Economy Policy Policy Instrument Policy Policy Instrument Economy Design Instrument Delivery Instrument Principle 1: Sustainable Development/Sustainable Livelihoods Design Delivery Principle Policies for Education and Principle 2:1: Sustainable Marine Development/Sustainable Ecosystem Health Integrated Awareness Livelihoods Policies for Education Principle 3: Integrated Ocean Governance Ocean Integrated and Principle 2: Marine Ecosystem Health Maritime Governance Ocean Awareness Principle 4: Science-based, Precautionary, and Adaptive Decision Surveillance, Principle Making 3: Integrated Ocean Governance Gover- Policy Monitoring and Maritime Principle nance objectives for a Enforcement Principle 5:4: Science-based, Duty Precautionary, and of Care and Accountability healthy, Surveil- Adaptive Decision Making Policy lance, Infrastructure Principle 6: Inclusive and Transparent Decision Making resilient, and objectives Monitoring Principle 5: Duty of Care and Accountability productive for a Research and and Principle 7: Ecosystem-based Management marine Development Principle 6: Inclusive and Transparent Decision healthy, Enforce- Making Principle 8: Develop Ocean Solutions that will Reduce Climate environment resilient, ment Business Change Risks and Allow the Development of Climate Change-Relat- Development Principle 7: Ecosystem-based Management ed Opportunities Infrastruc- and Sustainable ture Principle 9:8: Principle Develop Sharing Ocean of Benefits Solutions Derived that from the will Blue Reduce Economy Finance Research Principle 10: The Right to Development and Direction of time from design to delivery Direction of time from design to delivery Source: Patil et al. 2016. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes 95 Box A5.3 Approach for the Transition to a Caribbean Blue Economy Measure. ■■ Improve the statistical and methodological base for measuring the scale and performance of the ocean economy. ■■ Establish natural capital accounts for the Caribbean Sea at the national and regional levels. Manage. ■■ Create and expand integrated approaches to ocean governance. ■■ Apply marine spatial planning at the scale of exclusive economic zones. ■■ Invest in restoration and maintenance of the function and integrity of critical marine ecosystems. ■■ Build and strengthen the institutional and human capacity to act. Invest. ■■ Promote ocean principles to guide investment in the blue economy. ■■ Advance key infrastructure investments. Monitor. ■■ Continue to enhance knowledge of the Caribbean Sea. ■■ Expand maritime domain awareness of the Caribbean Sea. ■■ Track key indicators of the transition to a blue economy. Repeat. ■■ Keep close track of actions and progress and adjust as needed. 96 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes Annex 6: Methodology for Household Collection Services Data Sources used Reporting values The household waste volumes presented in Chapter A spreadsheet database was prepared to organize the 3 (in tons per year) were derived from country- specif- key information useful for deriving the estimates of un- ic reports containing discussions of solid waste man- collected waste in this report, including plastic waste agement in different capacities. Recent waste char- presented (see table below). acterization studies conducted by a country’s solid waste management authority were given primary A summary of key variables used in the estimation of priority. Likewise, annual reports from these institu- uncollected waste, including plastic, follows in Box A6.1. tions served as primary sources of information. Coun- try-specific official population surveys and censuses Calculation of estimates that included statistics related to waste management •• Household collection coverage: Number of house- were also considered as primary sources. Where nei- holds (or people) reported with collection service ther of these documents was available or compre- divided by total households (or people) hensive enough, secondary sources of information such as waste management reports conducted by •• Proportion of uncollected waste: 100% minus international organizations, NGOs, or other entities, household collection coverage. were used. Quality control and data corroboration of secondary sources was carried out by cross referenc- •• Total household waste generated***: Reported ing different sources and often reviewing their cited waste volumes at the household level divided by references as well. household collection coverage Why household data ***Adding the estimated proportion of waste that does not make it to the landfill since it is here where The greater availability of data on public collection waste is weighted and values reported. services, which often included household and insti- tutional waste collection, served as a point of com- •• Total uncollected household waste: Total house- monality among countries. The wide availability of hold waste generated times proportion of uncol- official population surveys also served to cross ref- lected waste erence reported estimates of waste generation at the household level. Sources of information report, •• Uncollected household plastic: Total uncollected by contrast, businesses and industries using private household waste times reported fraction of plastic collection services, for which less reliable information waste was available. •• Average waste composition: Using the waste char- acterization information for the countries, the aver- age of each category was calculated and reported as proportions of the total. Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes 97 Box A6.1 Key Variables in Estimation of Uncollected Waste Information collected Unit Source Reference source information Country’s total population and household population Number of people National census Total number of households with collection services Number of households or/people* National census Waste characterization studies; Reported waste volumes at the household level Tons per year annual reports; or others when appropriate Waste characterization studies; annual reports; or others Household waste collection coverage % when appropriate. Sometimes calculated when not available. Reported fraction of plastic waste % Waste Characterization studies Calculated values Calculated when not available in Household collection coverage % the literature. Proportion of uncollected waste % Calculated. Total household waste Tons per year Calculated. Total uncollected household waste Tons per year Calculated. Uncollected household plastic Tons per year Calculated. Average waste composition % Calculated. *The census often reported the total household population and the average number of people per household, facilitating, therefore, their use interchangeably. 98 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes Annex 7: Status of Ratification of Relevant International Conventions Cartagena Convention and its Protocols Cartagena Specially Protected Areas and Land Based Sources of Country Oil Spill Protocol Convention Wildlife (SPAW) Pollution (LBS) Ratified / Date of Ratified / Date of Ratified / Date of Ratified / Acceded Signature Acceded Signature Acceded Signature Acceded Antigua and Barbuda 1986 1986 1990 2010 Bahamas 2010 2010 2010 2010 Barbados 1985 1984 1985 2002 Belize 1999 1999 2008 2008 Colombia 1988 1983 1988 1990 1998 2000 Costa Rica 1991 1991 1999 2016 Cuba 1988 1988 1990 1998 Dominica 1990 1990 Dominican Republic 1998 1998 1998 2000 2012 France* 1985 1983 1985 1990 2002 1999 2007 Grenada 1987 1983 1987 2012 2012 Guatemala 1989 1983 1989 1990 Guyana 2010 2010 2010 2010 Haiti Honduras 1983 Jamaica 1987 1983 1987 1990 2015 Mexico 1985 1983 1985 1990 Netherlands* 1984 1983 1984 1990 1992 1999 Nicaragua 2005 1983 2005 Panama 1987 1983 1987 1991 1996 2003 St. Kitts and Nevis 1999 1999 Saint Lucia 1984 1983 1984 1990 2000 2008 St. Vincent and the 1990 1990 1991 1991 Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago 1986 1986 1990 1999 2003 * These countries have dependent overseas territories/administrative departments in the Caribbean: France – Martinique, Guadeloupe, Sint Maartin, and French Guiana; Netherlands – Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten; United Kingdom – Anguilla, Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands, Montserrat and the British Virgin Islands; United States of America – Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands. Sources: http://www.cep.unep.org/pubs/legislation/cartstatus.html; http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes 99 Cartagena Convention and its Protocols Cartagena Specially Protected Areas and Land Based Sources of Country Oil Spill Protocol Convention Wildlife (SPAW) Pollution (LBS) United Kingdom* 1986 1983 1986 1990 United States of 1984 1983 1984 1990 2003 1999 2009 America* Venezuela 1986 1983 1986 1990 1997 European Economic Commission * These countries have dependent overseas territories/administrative departments in the Caribbean: France – Martinique, Guadeloupe, Sint Maartin, and French Guiana; Netherlands – Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Sint Maarten; United Kingdom – Anguilla, Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands, Montserrat and the British Virgin Islands; United States of America – Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands. Sources: http://www.cep.unep.org/pubs/legislation/cartstatus.html; http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention Other Relevant Convention Country MARPOL CBD UNCCD UNFCCC UNCLOS CNWH RAMSAR CITES Basel Antigua and X X X X X X X X Barbuda Bahamas X X X X X X X X Barbados X X X X X X X X Belize X X X X X X X X X X (signatory Colombia X X X X (signatory X X X only) only) Costa Rica X X X X X X X X Cuba X X X X X X X X X Dominica X X X X X X Dominican Republic X X X X X X X X X France X X X X X X X X Grenada X X X X X X Guatemala X X X X X X X X X Guyana X X X X X X X X (signatory Haiti X X X X X only) Honduras X X X X X X X X Jamaica X X X X X X X X Mexico X X X X X X X X Netherlands X X X X X X X X Nicaragua X X X X X X X X X Panama X X X X X X X X X St. Kitts and Nevis X X X X X X X Saint Lucia X X X X X X X X Unless otherwise stated, X =treaty ratification, accession, approval, and/or acceptance. Sources: https://www.ukpandi.com/knowledge-publications/article/imo-conventions-and-signatory-countries-207/ (MARPOL) https://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml (CBD); https://knowledge.unccd.int/home/unccd-terminology/overview-countries-unccd-annex (UNCCD); https://unfccc.int/process/parties-non-party-stakeholders/parties-convention-and-observer-states (UNFCCC); http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agree- ments/convention_overview_convention.htm (UNCLOS); http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/sigs/c-8.html (CNWH); http://www.cep.unep.org/pubs/Techre- ports/tr36en/index.html#profiles (CNWH); https://www.ramsar.org/country-profiles (RAMSAR); https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/parties/chronolo.php (CITES); http://www.basel.int/Countries/StatusofRatifications/PartiesSignatories/tabid/4499/Default.aspx (Basel) 100 Marine Pollution in the Caribbean: Not a Minute to Waste Annexes Other Relevant Convention Country MARPOL CBD UNCCD UNFCCC UNCLOS CNWH RAMSAR CITES Basel St. Vincent and the X X X X X X X Grenadines Suriname X X X X X X X X X Trinidad and Tobago X X X X X X X X X United Kingdom X X X X X X X X X (Only X certain United States of X (signatory X (signatory X X sections X X America only) only) of the convention) Venezuela X X X X X X X X Unless otherwise stated, X =treaty ratification, accession, approval, and/or acceptance. Sources: https://www.ukpandi.com/knowledge-publications/article/imo-conventions-and-signatory-countries-207/ (MARPOL) https://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml (CBD); https://knowledge.unccd.int/home/unccd-terminology/overview-countries-unccd-annex (UNCCD); https://unfccc.int/process/parties-non-party-stakeholders/parties-convention-and-observer-states (UNFCCC); http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agree- ments/convention_overview_convention.htm (UNCLOS); http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/sigs/c-8.html (CNWH); http://www.cep.unep.org/pubs/Techre- ports/tr36en/index.html#profiles (CNWH); https://www.ramsar.org/country-profiles (RAMSAR); https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/parties/chronolo.php (CITES); http://www.basel.int/Countries/StatusofRatifications/PartiesSignatories/tabid/4499/Default.aspx (Basel) Definitions: Convention Definition MARPOL Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships CBD Convention on Biological Diversity UNCCD UN Convention to Combat Desertification and Land Degradation UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change UNCLOS UN Convention of the Law of the Sea CNWH Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere RAMSAR RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Basel Basel Convention istock.com