24117 Content 1. Preface 2. Methodology 3. Abbreviations and Acronyms 4. Water Quality : Surfacing Concerns 5. Hot Spot Map 6. Surface Water Quality Scorecard 8. Thailand Water Quality Overview 11. Costs of Polluted Water 13. Regional Water Quality 13. Central Region 15. Eastern Region 17. Northern Region 19. Northeastern Region 21. Southern Region 23 Water Policies and Laws 26. Physical Investments in Water 29. Spending on Water Pollution Control 31. Glossary of Environmental Terms 32. Thailand's Water Quality Classification and Definitions Thailand at a Glance BANGKOK,JUNE2001 Thailand This document was prepared by a World Bank Team led by Patchamuthu Illangovan and Manida Environment Unkulvasapaul, and comprised of Anjali Acharya, Giovanna Dore, Benoit Laplante, Watcharee Monitor 2000 Limanon, Priya Mathur, Craig Meisner, John Morton and Sitiporn Kajornatiyudh. Dr. Siripen Supakankunti and Dr. Pirus Pradithavanij of Chulalongkorn University undertook a background study presented on estimating economic and health costs of water pollution. Kanchalika Klad-Angkul coordinated a snapshot preparation and production. Jeffrey Lecksell was responsible for map design. Inputs and comments of general from Carter Brandon, Elisabetta Capannelli, Ejaz Ghani, David Hanrahan, Vijay Jagannathan and environmental David Wheeler of the World Bank, are acknowledged. Supported provided by Chittrakarn trends in the Bunchandranon, Nat Pinnoi and Sutthana Vichitrananda are appreciated. Data, information and country support provided by the Water Quality Division of the Pollution Control Department is appreciated. Cover and layout design by Paritat Tiphayakul. The views expressed in the Thailand Environment Monitor are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited without prior permission. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. The material contained herein has been obtained from sources believed reliable but it is not necessarily complete and cannot be guaranteed. World Bank Office Bangkok 93/1 Wireless Road Diethelm Tower 14th Floor Tower A Bangkok 10330 Thailand Tel.(662) 256-7792 Fax.(662) 256-7794-5 The World Bank Group 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington,D.C. 20433 U.S.A. Tel. (202)477-1234 Fax.(202)477-6391 http://www.worldbank.org prefacE The Thailand Environment Monitor series -initiated The assessment of water quality is based on in 2000 -presents a snapshot of key environmental the evaluation of three main parameters: Biochemi- trends in the country. Its purpose is to engage and cal Oxygen Demand; Dissolved Oxygen; and Total inform stakeholders of key environmental changes Coliform Bacteria. These parameters were chosen as they occur. Using charts and graphs, the 2000 based on the availability of data at both the regional Monitor benchmarked trends in various environmental and national level. In the Water Quality Scorecard, indicators associated with water and air quality, and these indicators have been benchmarked to form the natural resources conservation. Environmental basis against which future changes in water quality changes, however, occur over a period of time, and will be measured. therefore, unlike economic indicators, annual vari- The information contained in the Monitor has ations are not easy to measure or assess. Thus, the been obtained from a variety of sources including series is designed to track changes in general envi- published reports of government agencies, universities ronmental trends every 5 years. In the intervening and nongovernmental organizations, unpublished years, the Monitor will focus on specific themes each data from individuals, and documents of the World year, to highlight critical and emerging problems. Bank. Water quality is the focus of the 2001 Monitor. The Environment Monitor 2001 is broadly divided Why water? With thirty percent of all available into the following six sections (i) Thailand Water water not suitable for most human activities, water Quality Overview; (ii) Costs of Water Pollution; (iii) availability is one of Thailand’s most critical envi- Regional Water Quality; (iv) Water Policies and ronmental issues. In terms of annual per capita avail- Laws; (v) Physical Investments in Water; and (vi) ability of renewable water resources, Thailand ranks Spending on Water Pollution Control. Water quality the lowest in Asia, and lower than the world average. reporting is based around the five administrative Domestic sewage, industrial effluents, and agri- regions of Thailand -Central, Eastern, Northern, cultural run-off all contribute to increasing pollution Northeastern and Southern. of surface, coastal, and ground water. Despite 90 To address water pollution, Thailand needs to percent access to public water supplies, contamina- develop an integrated approach for the management tion is particularly severe in the Bangkok Metro- of surface and groundwater resources. This will involve politan Region. According to preliminary estimates, fostering local community participation in water water pollution is estimated to cost between 0.6 and resources management; harmonizing functions and 1% of the GDP, annually. laws by addressing overlaps in institutions and ju- The lack of an integrated approach combined risdiction, and gradually decentralizing functions to with poorly enforced laws, weak capacity and in- local governments; strengthening compliance with sufficient investments, have exacerbated the pollution environmental standards, by providing incentives for of Thailand’s waters. Limited community partici- pollution control; improving the efficiency of pation, and the low involvement of the private sector budget allocation and rationalize investments for the has pushed the onus onto the government in address- wastewater sector, promoting opportunities for private ing this issue. sector participation, and; increasing public awareness about the state of water quality. Jayasankar Shivakumar Zafer Ecevit Country Director - Thailand Sector Director, Environment and Social Development, The World Bank The World Bank 1 Methodology Several methodologies were used to capture Agricultural BOD generation estimates. the extent of water pollution, estimate health costs Agricultural generation was calculated as the associated with disease and forecast capital costs BOD loading per area3 multiplied by the agricul- for wastewater treatment. A number of assumptions tural area reported in 1996, and extrapolated to later were made, with some caveats, are listed below: years using agricultural GDP as an indicator.4 1 Industrial sector BOD and TSS. Domestic BOD generation estimates. Estimates were calculated using the Industrial Domestic wastewater generation was calcu- Pollution Projection System (IPPS) developed by lated by multiplying the population base with the the Research Group2 of the World Bank. IPPS ex- BOD factor per person5 developed by the Environ- ploits the fact that industrial pollution is heavily af- mental Policy and Planning Division.6 fected by the scale of industrial activity, its sectoral composition (industrial sector), and the process tech- Health costs of water pollution. nologies which are employed in production. IPPS The data presented in the health costs section combines data from industrial activity (such as em- are based on the recently completed background ployment) with data on actual pollution emissions study Valuing Health and Economic Costs of Water to calculate pollution intensities, i.e. the level of pollu- Pollution in Thailand. tion emissions per unit of industrial activity. Pollu- 1. These estimates are based on costs associated tion intensities for each sector were calculated by with reported cases of three water pollution related combining data from the United States Manufac- diseases -diarrhea, typhoid, and dysentery. In valu- turing Census (employment data) and the US Na- ing the economic costs of these diseases, two types tional Pollution Discharge Elimination System (pol- of costs are considered: (i) direct costs; and (ii) in- lution data). direct costs. Direct costs include medical expenses. The applicability of using US-based estimates Indirect costs include the income forgone due to in other economies is a function of country-specific health impacts for the three diseases Impacts on information, however, the pattern of sectoral intensity public health are measured in terms of income for- (one sector relative to another) may be similar and gone due to premature death mortality) and loss of thus it is the relative ranking of sectors that is important, productivity due to sicknesses (morbidity). Data even if exact estimates are not possible. To the degree from the Thai Annual Epidemiology Surveillance that the intensities are based on US technology, and Report (1998) is used in this analysis. that developing countries possess at least the same, 2. The baseline data used to calculate the income if not older, pollution control technology, then these foregone comes from the Centre for Health Eco- estimates should be understood as lower bound nomics, Chulalongkorn University. The value of a estimates. Thai life in this study is estimated at $45,000. There In applying IPPS to Thailand, the pollution in- are, however, other estimates for a Thai life. tensity of each type of factory (kg/employee) was multiplied by the number of Thai employees in the factory as reported by the industrial registration sta- 3 As reported in the Basin Development and Practical Planning Project, Water tistics in the Department of Industrial Works, 1999. Quality Management Division, Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, 1996. 4 GDP values were obtained from the Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board, 2000. 5 For the Central region the factor is 35 g/person/day and for the other regions it is 1 See Assessing Conventional Industrial Water Pollution in Thailand, 30 g/person/day. 6 mimeo, Pollution Control Department and World Bank, 2000. Domestic Wastewater Management Project, Environmental Policy and 2 See The Industrial Pollution Projection System, World Bank Policy Planning Division, Office of Environmental Policy and Planning, Research Working Paper Series, No. 1431, 1995. Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, 1995. 2 Abbreviations and Acronyms BMA Bangkok Metropolitan Administration BMR Bangkok Metropolitan Region 3. The costs of implementing urban sanitation BOB Bureau of Budget BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand and water pollution control measures are from other DANCED The Danish Cooperation for Environment and World Bank publications including Can the Envi- Development ronment Wait ? Priorities for East Asia, Nov. ’97; DEQP Department of Environmental Quality and Thailand: Building Partnerships for Environ- Promotion mental and Natural Resources Management, Sept. ’99. DIW Department of Industrial Works DMR Department of Mineral Resources DO Dissolved Oxygen Investments for Municipal Wastewater Treatment. DoF Department of Fisheries Estimates were made for new investments nec- DoH Department of Health essary to provide adequate treatment and collection DOLA Department of Local Administration for the municipal population in each region of Thai- EF Environment Fund EIA Environmental Impact Assessment land. The required capacity and municipal cover- EEPSEA Economic and Environment Program for age of existing facilities and those under construc- South East Asia tion7 is estimated using the municipal wastewater GDP Gross Domestic Product production data calculated from municipal popula- ISO International Organization for Standardization tion statistics8 and typical values for per capita LAO Local Administrative Organization LGA Local Government Authority wastewater production. The regional estimates do LTD Land Transport Department not include excess capacity in provinces such as MoAC Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Chonburi, Phuket or Prachuap Khiri Khan that have MoF Ministry of Finance treatment capacity to accommodate tourist hotels. MoInd Ministry of Industry The amount of wastewater collected from systems MoInt Ministry of Interior MoPH Ministry of Public Health currently covered by treatment was estimated to be MoSTE Ministry of Science, Technology, and 55% of the treatment plant design capacity based Environment on performance data from 19 WWTS in Thailand. MoTC Ministry of Transport and Communications Costs of increasing capacity of treatment plants and MoUA Ministry of University Affairs collection systems were based on previous invest- MPN Most Probable Number NEB National Environment Board ments in Thailand and typical industry values. It NEQA Enhancement and Conservation of National should be noted that, as many municipalities may Environmental Quality Act have urban areas that extend outside the municipal NGO Non Governmental Organization area, have large unregistered or growing OAG Office of the Attorney General populations, larger investments are likely needed to O&M Operations and Maintenance OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and cover the entire urban area. Development OEPP Office of Environmental Policy and Planning Investments for Industrial Waste Treatment PEAP Provincial Environmental Action Plan Information on total abatement costs for con- PCD Pollution Control Department trolling industrial pollution are not easily forthcom- PSR Pressure-State-Response PWD Public Works Department ing. Using information from a recent case study of RFD Royal Forest Department in-plant treatment costs, estimation of pollution re- RTG Royal Thai Government duction costs for food and textile sectors have been TCB Total Coliform Bacteria made. TDRI Thailand Development Research Institute TSS Total Suspended Solids UNFDAC United Nations Fund for Drug Control WWTS Wastewater Treatment Systems 7 Plant data from PCD, August 2000. 8 National Statistical Office, 2000. Exchange Rate : 1 US $ = 42 Baht 3 Water Quality:Surfacing Concerns Water pollution is one of the most serious en- water pollution. Five-year plans -which emphasize vironmental problems facing Thailand today. Thai- the Government’s commitment to the rehabilitation land’s main source of water is rainfall, which varies of natural resources -have included improving water widely between the various regions. Rainfall provides quality as an important goal. The Office of Environment the Southern region the richest source of water, compared Policy and Planning’s 20 year policy and perspective with the other regions in the country. plan for enhancement and conservation of envi- Water quality monitoring of major river basins ronmental quality, also recognizes the role of local and lakes in Thailand has shown a steady rise in government authorities and civil society in improv- pollution levels over the last decade. ing and protecting water quality. Surface water quality varies widely in the dif- The Thai regulatory system for water resources ferent regions of Thailand. The Central, Eastern and management and pollution control is both centralized Southern regions were found to have poor water and fragmented. While MoSTE develops national quality; while water in the Northern region was fair. policies, plans, standards, and regulations for water The Central region has the poorest water quality, pollution control, implementation authority often due to dense populations, and intense economic ac- rests with other ministries. Furthermore, the enforcement tivity. The Southern region, where tourism, mining, of existing environmental laws is weak due to the and aquaculture industries have been growing, is lack of political will, inadequate coordination among facing coastal water pollution. These differences in various agencies, low technical capability for proving type and extent of water pollution indicate the need violations, and limited access to information. for different strategies to address water quality in Over the past 15 years, Thailand has embarked the regions. Lower reaches of Chao Phraya and middle on an ambitious program for the management of and lower reaches of Tha Chin are almost biologi- water pollution generated from municipal sources. cally dead, and is a major cause of public health To date, 57 wastewater treatment plants, have been concern. constructed in 50 municipalities at a total cost of In addition to surface waters, coastal and almost 19 billion baht. However, budgetary shortfalls, groundwater quality is also being adversely affected especially at the local level, are affecting the operations by increasing pollution and external pressures. and maintenance of these plants and resulting in Groundwater quality was found to be contaminated equipment malfunctions and failures. from agricultural run-off, pesticide residues as well Collection efficiency is constrained by the reliance as saltwater intrusion from over-extraction. The on old drainage systems comprised of canals or open coastal and marine waters in the Gulf of Thailand sewers and poorly maintained drainage pipe networks are under threat from both land-based and maritime with limited connections. Additional investment pollutants. needs for new municipal wastewater collection and Water pollution causes damage to human treatment systems is estimated to be around US$ 2 health, fisheries, and agriculture, and results in as- billion. sociated health and economic costs. Diseases relating Moving ahead, Thailand needs to aggressively to contaminated water range from diarrhea to birth implement its articulated position of area-based inte- defects. Preliminary health cost estimates from reported grated water resources management that recognizes cases of diarrhea, dysentery, and typhoid amounted both: quantity and quality; and demand and supply to US$23 million in 1999. In addition, costs of providing balance, with the participation of all stakeholders. access to clean water and sanitation was estimated to be US$ 686 million, annually. The Thai Government has put into place policies, plans and water quality standards in an effort to reduce 4 hotspot maP 5 Thailand’s Surface Wa Sources Overall State Water Basins Population and Land Area of Pollution Quality Indicators of Water Quality I. Chao Phraya Basin Area (Km2): 20,125 Industry: M Upper Population: 11,651,995 Agriculture: H Class: GOOD m3 per-person: 1,905 Domestic H BOD: 0.9 mg/l DO: 5.7 mg/l TCB: 1,300 MPN/100 ml Industry: L Middle MODERATE Agriculture: M Class: Domestic: M BOD: 0.8 mg/l DO: 4.5 mg/l TCB: 2,700 MPN/100 ml Industry: H Lower VERY POOR Agriculture: L Class: Domestic: H BOD: 2.8 mg/l DO: 1 mg/l TCB: 14,500 MPN/100 ml II. Tha Chin Basin Area (Km2): 13,682 Industry: M Upper GOOD Population: 2,796,221 Agriculture: H Class: m3 per-person: 1,482 Domestic: H BOD: 1.1 mg/l DO: 4.8 mg/l TCB: 1,450 MPN/100 ml Industry: M Middle VERY POOR Agriculture: H Class: Domestic: H BOD: 1.6 mg/l DO: 1.5 mg/l TCB: 10,000 MPN/100 ml Industry: M Lower VERY POOR Agriculture: H Class: Domestic: H BOD: 2 mg/l DO: 1.3 mg/l TCB: 2,400 MPN/100 ml III. Mae Klong Basin Area (Km2): 30,840 Industry: M Class: GOOD Population: 2,387,843 Agriculture: M BOD: 1 mg/l m3 per-person: 5,109 Domestic H DO: 6 mg/l TCB: 790 MPN/100 ml IV. Bang Pakong Basin Area (Km2): 7,978 Industry: M Class: MODERATE Population: 956,975 Agriculture: M BOD: 0.9 mg/l m3 per-person: 3,879 Domestic H DO: 4.7 mg/l TCB: 195 MPN/100 ml V. Moon Basin Area (Km2): 69,701 Industry: L Class: GOOD Population: 9,533,006 Agriculture: M BOD: 1.1 mg/l m3 per-person: 2,796 Domestic H DO: 6.3 mg/l TCB: 70 MPN/100 m 6 er Quality Scorecard Sources Overall State Water Basins Population and Land Area of Pollution Quality Indicators of Water Quality VI. Pasak Basin Area (Km2): 16,292 Industry: L Class: GOOD Population: 1,822,137 Agriculture: L BOD: 1.4 mg/l m3 per-person: 1,548 Domestic H DO: 6.0 mg/l TCB: 1,100 MPN/100 ml VII. Ping Basin Area (Km2): 33,898 Industry: L Class: GOOD Population: 2,451,503 Agriculture: L BOD: 1.1 mg/l m3 per-person: 3,249 Domestic H DO: 5.6 mg/l TCB: 800 MPN/100 ml VIII. Chi Basin Area (Km2): 49,477 Industry: L Class GOOD Population: 6,170,556 Agriculture: M BOD: 1.4 mg/l m3 per-person: 1,418 Domestic H DO: 6.6 mg/l TCB: 130 MPN/100 ml IX. Nan Basin Area (Km2): 34,330 Industry: L Class: GOOD Population: 2,275,273 Agriculture: L BOD: 1.5 mg/l m3 per-person: 4,025 Domestic H DO: 6.7 mg/l TCB: 215 MPN/100 ml X. Yom Basin Area (Km2): 23,616 Industry: L Class: GOOD Population: 2,355,024 Agriculture: L BOD: 1.5 mg/l m3 per-person: 1,256 Domestic H DO: 5.8 mg/l TCB: 270 MPN/100 ml XI. Songkhla Lake Basin Area (Km2): 8,945 Industry: L Class: MODERATE Population: 841,387 Agriculture: H BOD: 1.8 mg/l m3 per-person: 5,819 Domestic H DO: 5.9 mg/l TCB: 110 MPN/100 ml PCD Standard Values for Surface Water Classification The determination of the overall state of water quality is based on evaluation of the currently available water quality parameters, with the worst parameter dictating the state. Water Quality Parameter Units Standard Value for Class Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 (Very good) (Good) (Moderate) (Poor) (Very poor) Dissolved Oxygen (DO) mg/l Natural 6 4 2 - Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) mg/l Natural 1.5 2 4 - Total Coliform Bacteria (TCB) MPN/100 ml Natural 5,000 20,000 - - 7 Thailand Water Quality Overview In terms of per capita water availability per Annual Renewable Water Resources year, Thailand ranks the lowest in Asia, with only 1,854 cubic meters. This is also lower than the world Country Total Resources 1995 average. Furthermore, compared to other Asian (Km3 ) (m3/person) countries, Thailand also has the lowest volume of World 30,712 22,544 surface water per person.9 Asia 13,207 3,680 This water shortage problem is further com- Thailand 110 1,854 pounded by the fact that Thailand ranks 14th in the Cambodia 88 8,195 world in terms of industrial organic water pollution, Indonesia 2,530 12,251 discharging nearly 0.4 million kilograms of effluent Malaysia 456 21,259 per day.10 Almost a third of the country’s total avail- Myanmar 1,082 22,719 able water is unsuitable for human consumption11, Philippines 323 4,476 which puts Thailand among countries whose water Vietnam 376 4,827 availability is projected as “under stress� for 2000- Source: The State of the Environment in Thailand in Decade of Change, 12 2025. TDRI, 2000. The total inland water area of Thailand is Water Basins in Thailand 45,450 square kilometers, comprising of man-made reservoirs, natural lakes, rivers, and other types of Region/Water Provinces freshwater bodies, including groundwater. Distinct Basins hydrological characteristics vary from region to re- Central (4) Ang Thong, Bangkok, Chainat, Kampaeng Phet, Kanchanaburi, Lopburi, Nakorn Pathom, Nakon gion depending on the geographical and climatic Chao Phraya Sawan, Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Phetchabun, Tha Chin conditions of each region. Recognizing these dif- Mae Klong Phetchaburi, Phra Nakhon Si Ayudhya, Prachuapkhirikhan, Ratburi, Samut Prakran, ferences, the country can be divided into 25 water Lower Pasak Samut Sakhon, Samut Songkham, Saraburi, Sakae Krung Singburi, Suphanburi, Uthaithani basins and grouped into the following five regions: Central, Eastern, Northern, Northeastern, and Southern East (4) Chachoengsao, Chanthaburi, Chunburi, Nakorn regions. Prachinburi, Nayok, Prachinburi, Rayong, Sakaew, Trad East Coast-Gulf, Tonale Sap, Water Profile Bang Pakong Despite a worldwide trend of declining organic North (10) Chiang Mai, Chiang Rai, Kampaeng Phet, Lampang, Lumphun, Mae Hong Son, Nakhon water pollution between 1980 and 1997, Thailand Ping, Wang, Yom Sawan, Nan, Phayao, Phichit, Phitsanulok, Nan, Upper Pasak witnessed an increase of more than 60 percent over Kok, Ing, Kuang Li Phrae, Sukhothai, Tak, Uttaradit the same period of time. Furthermore, it has also Northeast (3) Amnat Charoen, Buri Ram, Chaiyaphum, been estimated that Thailand ranks ninth in the world Chi Kalasin, Khon Kaen, Loei, Maha Sarakham, Mukdahan, Nakhon Phanom, Nakhon in terms of BOD effluent per square kilometer of Mun Ratchasima, Nong Bua Lam Phu, Nong Khai, the country’s surface area. However, in terms of Mekong Roi Et, Sakon Nakhon, Si Sa Ket, Surin, Ubon Ratchthani, Udon Thani, Yasothon pollution intensity, organic effluent per worker de- clined from 0.22 kilograms per day in 1980, to 0.16 South (7) Chumphon, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Narathiwat, Songkhla, Tapipum kg in 1997 largely as a result of the adoption of Trang, Pattani, Pattani, Phangnga, Phattalung, Ranong, Satun, Songkhla, Surat Thani, Trang, Yala cleaner technologies.13 Lanugsuan, Saiburi, Kuiburi, Bangnara Khlongta, Pranburi 9 State of Environment Report, 2000 10 Estimates of the Development Research Group, World Bank 11 1997 PCD water quality survey 12 World Resources Report 2000-2001 13 Estimates of the Development Research Group, World Bank 8 Regional contribution of industrial, agricultural and domestic BOD, 1999 Central Agricultural runoff, domestic wastewater and industrial effluent are responsible for the poor water Bangkok quality in Thailand. At the regional level, the bulk Northeast of industrial effluent occurs in the Central and East- North ern regions, where over 50,000 firms contribute sig- East nificantly to the country’s total organic pollution. South Agricultural sources of BOD are highest in the Northeastern and Central regions, accounting for 0 200 400 600 800 1000 more than 29 percent of the national and 30 percent BOD (’000 kg/day) of each regions’ generation. The dominant source Industry Domestic Agriculture for organic pollution, however, is domestic wastewater, which is responsible for 54 percent of Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 total national generation and an average of 60 percent across regions. At a national level, the top ten water basins in terms of total BOD generation contribute to 79 per- Cumulative contribution of Top 10 water basins to total cent of total organic pollution in Thailand’s surface BOD generation, 1999 waters. Ranging from the Moon basin (0.4 million Basin Region BOD 1 Percent Cumulative kg/day) to the Bang Pakong (0.06 million kg/day), ( Kg/Day) these ten basins are characterized by large Moon Northeast 405,451 16.7 16.7 populations and agricultural activities, along with Chao Phraya Central 363,705 15.0 31.7 industry in the Central region. Chi Northeast 284,467 11.7 43.4 Across industrial sector sub-groups, effluent Mekong Northeast 228,743 9.4 52.8 generation is also concentrated in relatively few sec- Tha Chin Central 208,122 8.6 61.4 tors, with the top ten sectors accounting for 95 and Mae Klong Central 129,935 5.3 66.7 97 percent of BOD and Total Suspended Solids Pasak Central 115,148 4.7 71.5 (TSS), respectively. Sectors such as pulp & paper, East Coast- industrial chemicals, food & beverages (i.e. sugar, Gulf East 65,673 2.7 74.2 spirits, dairy, fish, fruits & vegetables) are high gen- Nan North 57,500 2.4 76.5 Bangpakong East 56,743 2.3 78.9 erators of BOD, while iron & steel, pulp & paper and nonferrous metals tend to be associated with 1- Includes generation from industry, domestic, and agriculture Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 larger contributions to TSS. Cumulative contribution of top 10 industrial sectors to total BOD and TSS emissions, 1999 BOD # firms % Cumulative TSS# firms % Cumulative Pulp & paper 96 32 32 Iron & steel 479 61 61 Industrial chemicals 305 15 47 Pulp & paper 96 9 70 Sugar factories 137 10 57 Nonferrous metals 674 9 79 Distilled spirits 28 9 66 Jewelry 592 7 86 Dairy products 83 8 74 Drugs & medicines 274 3 89 Nonferrous metals 674 7 81 Athletic goods 99 2 91 Plastics 3940 6 87 Industrial chemicals 305 2 93 Fish products 359 5 92 Fertilizers & pesticides 204 1 94 Preserved fruits & vegetables 488 2 94 Distilled spirits 28 1 96 Spinning & weaving 1597 1 95 Sugar factories 137 1 97 Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 9 Condition of Water Quality Very Good Surface Waters Good 0% Very poor In 1999, the Pollution Control Department 25 % 23 % (PCD) monitored the quality of 50 rivers and lakes in Thailand. Findings revealed that 48 percent of water bodies surveyed were suitable for agriculture Moderate Poor and general consumption (“good� and “moderate� 23 % 29 % quality). Over 50 percent of Thailand’s surface wa- ters were found to be “poor� to “very poor� quality. Source : Pollution Control Department, 1999 No surface water in the study is categorized as ‘very good’ quality (extra clean water which is suitable geoning tourism industry. Such pollution is result- for aquatic animals and human consumption after ing in damage to coral reefs, as well as affecting normal treatment). Water quality appears to be wors- fish populations which use the waters of the Bay as ening, in terms of BOD, DO and TCB indicators spawning grounds. surveyed by the PCD of major rivers and lakes in PCD has set up 218 monitoring stations along Thailand. the 2,600 km coastline and important islands. Water Surface water quality varies widely in the dif- quality at most stations were good to fair in 1999. ferent regions of Thailand. Water quality studies by Poor water quality was found near the inner Gulf the PCD revealed that surface water monitored in and river mouths of Pak Panang, Pattani, and the Central, Eastern and Southern regions appeared Ranong. In 25 percent of the stations, TCB contami- to have poor quality; while water in the Northern nation was higher than the standard. High con- region was fair. Compared to the other regions, the tamination was also found near the mouths of major rivers and lakes monitored in the Northeastern re- rivers, such as the Chao Phraya and Tha Chin, as gion had good quality surface water. well as the eastern and southern coasts. In terms of DO, surface waters in the Northern and Northeastern regions rank the best with 6.4 mg/l, Ground water is mainly recharged by rainfall followed by the Southern and Eastern regions (with and seepage streams. Aquifers yield a large amount 5.6 mg/l and 5.2 mg/l respectively). The Central of water throughout Thailand, with the exception of region ranks the lowest with 4.6-mg/l average. The the Eastern region. The largest source of groundwater highest concentrations of TCB, among surface waters is found in the Lower Central Plain, particularly in monitored, is found in the Central region (63 per- BMR and surrounding provinces, and is being used cent), followed by the Eastern region (15 percent). to meet the growing water demand.14 Unlike the Surface waters in the Northern and Northeastern other regions, some groundwater extraction data is regions have relatively lower TCB levels. available for the central region. During the dry months between May-July, Agricultural run-off, coastal aquaculture, in- when water flows are low, many rivers deteriorate dustrial effluents and domestic sewage are responsible to very poor water quality (e.g. the lower Chao for the pollution of groundwater in Thailand. Also Phraya River, the Pasak River and the Petchaburi the lack of an appropriate pricing policy is leading River). Deteriorated and polluted waters are also to over-exploitation of groundwater beyond sustainable periodically found in Mae Klong, Bang Pakong, yield levels. There is limited information on Pasak, Ping, Wang, Yom, and Nan Rivers. groundwater extraction rates, or the extent of con- tamination at the national-level. Coastal water quality is also deteriorating. The main pressures are from domestic discharges (which 14 Water demand doubled between 1980 and 1990 to reach a daily amount of about 43,000 million cubic meters, and it is growing at the rate of 10 contribute to 70 percent of total marine pollution in percent annually. Demand is projected to continue roughly doubling each the Gulf of Thailand), industrial waste, and the bur- decade for at least the next twenty years. 10 costs of Polluted WateR Water pollution causes damage to human Putting your Money where the River Mouth is: health, fisheries, and agriculture, and results in as- W illingness to Pay of Bangkok s residents to Clean Up the sociated health and economic costs. It also threatens Chao Phraya River ecosystems through eutrophication, and is responsible Bangkok s central Chao Phraya River and many of its 1,145 canals for the loss of plant and animal species. are heavily polluted. Since 1990, the levels of dissolved oxygen in Exposure to polluted water results in numer- the lower reaches of the Chao Phraya have been close to zero, making it almost impossible for aquatic life to survive. ous diseases including diarrhea, hepatitis, typhoid, In 1998, a contingent valuation study was carried out to estimate the trachoma and hookworm infection. More toxic water willingness of Bangkok residents to pay for improved water quality pollutants may lead to other health effects includ- in the Chao Phraya and its canals. Heads of about 1,100 households ing skin disease, liver cancer, and birth defects. For (residential, commercial, canal houses and informal settlements) were interviewed in 20 of the city s districts, in addition to consultations many of these health effects, it is often difficult to with various departments and focus groups. show the exact cause without large epidemiologi- The survey found that over 60 percent of people interviewed thought cal surveys carried out over many years. In contrast that water quality was very poor , with 20 percent rating it as poor . to fecal-borne diseases such as diarrhea, water pol- More than two-thirds of the respondents indicated that they were lution related cancers and birth defects are believed willing to pay for water treatment services should they be made available. Results show that they were willing to pay on average 100 to be caused by heavy metals and toxic chemicals baht/month (approximately US$2.3) to improve water quality from that can be removed through cleaner production and boatable to fishable and 1 15 baht/month (US$2.7) to go from waste treatment. fishable to swimmable . Furthermore, half of the respondents said that they would prefer a separate billing for any such fee charged, so In the past, policy setting and decision making that they would know how much they are contributing to improving did not fully consider the economic and health costs the quality of the water near their household. of water pollution. The estimates in this Monitor Following the release of the study, the BMA announced the intention represent a first attempt in Thailand to account for of starting a household wastewater treatment fee of 100 baht/ the full economic and health costs of water pollu- household/month —-the mean willingness to pay revealed in the survey. This fee, however, has not been implemented yet. tion. The analysis is limited to only “reported� cases of three diseases- diarrhea, typhoid and dysentery - Source: Tapvong, C., and Kruavan, J., Water quality improvements: A contingent valuation study of the Chao Phraya river, EEPSEA Research and therefore greatly underestimate the true costs Report, 1999. of water pollution.15 Although about 89 percent of households have access to safe public water supply and sanitation, Total Patient Hospitalization Costs, 1999 mortality and morbidity associated with water-borne Disease Out- Out In- In In-Out Patient Patient Patient Patient Total diseases remains high in the country. In 1999, more Cost Case Cost Case Patient than 1.1 million cases of diarrhea were registered, (million Cost per (million Cost per Cost US$) Patient US$) Patient (million leading to 323 cases of premature death (25 percent (US$) (US$) US$) of which were children below age four), and 95,000 Diarrhea 4.69 4.5 2.28 24.0 6.97 cases that needed hospitalization. Furthermore, in the same year, there were 7,165 cases of typhoid Typhoid 0.03 9.7 0.14 32.5 0.17 and 59,064 cases of dysentery, of which more than Dysentery 0.24 4.5 0.22 31.5 0.46 4,000 and 7,000, respectively needed hospitalization. The total costs of out-patient hospitalization Total (million US$) 4.96 2.64 7.59 amounted to US$4.9 million -averaging US$6 per case. Source: Supakankunti Siripen, Pirus Pradithavani, and Tanawat Likitkererat, Valuing Health and Economic Costs of Water Pollution in Thailand. May 2001 draft.See also Methodology section. 15 See Methodology section. 11 Summary of Costs for Diarrhea, Typhoid and Dysentery, 1999 Disease Diarrhea Typhoid Dysentery Total Total Hospital Costs (million US$) 6.97 0.17 0.46 7.59 Diarrhea, typhoid and dysentery patients required Wages Loss Hospitalization 0.45 0.06 0.03 0.53 hospitalization for treatment averaging hospital stays Wages Loss of 2.1, 4.3 and 2.2 days respectively, at a total cost Premature Death 14.34 0.06 0.54 14.94 Total of US$2.6 million. The total out-patient and in-patient (million US$) 21.75 0.28 1.03 23.06 hospitalization costs for these three water-borne diseases Source: Supakankunti Siripen, Pirus Pradithavani, and Tanawat Likitkererat, amounted to US$7.5 million in 1999 alone.16 Valuing Health and Economic Costs of Water Pollution in Thailand. May 2001 draft. See also Methodology section. Assuming an average wage of US$ 4 per day, Estimated Annual Income Spent wages lost due to hospitalization and to premature to Access Water and Sanitation death were estimated at US$0.5 million and US$7 Population Percent of Per- Percent Total million, respectively. These preliminary estimates (Million) Population capita of Costs with no Income income (US$M) show that, in 1999 alone, diarrhea, typhoid and dys- access to (US$) spent on entery have cost the Thai economy about US$23 safe water safe water million —0.02 percent of gross domestic product Urban 23 11 2010 10 506 (GDP).17 Findings from earlier studies of household Rural 39 23 700 3 180 spending and water markets indicate that 11 per- Total 62 686 cent of Thailand’s total urban population (2.5 million Source: Monitor Team Estimates, World Bank, 2001 people) and 23 percent of the total rural population (9 million people)18 have no access to safe water, Contamination of Klity Creek: The Role of the Public in and spend up to 10 and 3 percent of their annual Natural Resources Management income for it.19 This means that about US$ 686 mil- Located near the Thung Yai Wildlife Sanctuary a World Heritage lion is spent annually for accessing safe water -which Site in Kanchanaburi Province —Klity Creek has been the primary source of water for many generations of Karen villages that live along amounts to 0.56 percent of Thailand’s GDP. the Creek. About 30 years ago, the Department of Mining Resources Improvements in water supply and sanitation (DMR) granted a mining concession to Lead Concentrate Thailand can substantially reduce the incidence and severity Co. The company operated the lead separation plant upstream from the Karen village, and used to discharge contaminated sediment into of these diseases. Under a medium-term investment the river. scenario (examined by the World Bank), annualized Since 1994, many village children have been diagnosed with Down s costs for implementing urban sanitation and water Syndrome and physical deformities, while the adults suffer from an pollution control measures would amount to unidentified illness which caused the body to swell and ache. In US$0.66 billion in 2005 and US$1.76 billion in 2020 addition, the deaths of hundreds of cattle that consumed water from Klity Creek was attributed to lead poisoning. Reacting to this health -a per capita investment of about $11 and $30 re- crisis, the Karen Studies and Development Center requested the PCD spectively. The health and economic benefits gen- in 1998 to test lead concentrations in the surface waters, sediments, erated under such a scenario is estimated at about aquatic life in the Creek, as well as in the blood of the villagers. The first blood tests in 1999 revealed that the lead concentration was 4-5 US$5.2 billion in 2005 and US$8.9 billion in 2020. times higher than 4.9 ug/dl, the average for Thai adults. Creek water This means that for each dollar invested in water concentrations were tested at 0.55 mg/l (PCD s standard allow 0.05 and sanitation measures, almost $7 is gained in benefits.20 mg/l), while lead concentrations in the sediment tested 3,000 times higher than the 11 mg/kg safety level set by PCD. In 1998, DMR ordered closure of the lead separation plant and fined 16 the company 2,000 baht (US$ 48). In 2000, the company dredged Siripen et al, 2001. the river bed sediment in an effort to remove contaminants. Since 17 See Methodology section. 18 World Bank. The Little Green Data Book 2001, From the World then, the water quality has improved, although lead concentrations Development Indicators, 2001. in the creek waters are still higher than what is considered safe for 19 MOSTE, World Bank. Thailand Building Partnerships for Environmental human consumption. This is particularly worrisome as villagers and Natural Resources Management. September 1999. continue to drink water, catch and consume fish from the creek, despite 20 MoSTE, World Bank, Thailand Building Partnerships for Environmental official warnings. and Natural Resources Management, Washington D.C. September 1999; Source: PCD, Bangkok Post articles from 1998-2001 World Bank, Can the Environment Wait: Priorities for East Asia, November 1997. 12 regional Water QualitY Central Region The Central region comprises of 4 larger wa- ter basins and seven smaller basins -Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong, the lower Pasak, and Sakae Krung. The Chao Phraya originates at the conflu- ence of the Ping, Wang, Yom and Nan rivers at Nakhon Sawan about 200 km north of Bangkok. From Nakhon Sawan, the river flows down through the central plain, passing Bangkok, to the Gulf of Thailand. Flood plains of the Chao Phraya cover an area of about 1 million hectares. The Central region is the richest and most densely populated region in Thailand. Its economy is extremely well diversified among industry (due in large part to the proximity to the supporting in- frastructure of Bangkok), agriculture (the Chao Phraya Basin has rich soils and good water supply), Sector contribution to total BOD load, 1999 and commerce. Central BMR Agriculture Water Quality Profile. Pollution is most se- Industry Agriculture 0% Industry vere in the BMR, especially in the lower reaches of 37% 24% 19% the Chao Phraya and Tha Chin rivers, owing to high industrial and domestic wastewater discharges. For the region as a whole, domestic and agri- cultural sources constitute the largest shares in terms of organic pollution (BOD), with industry contrib- Domestic Domestic 39% 81% uting to 24 percent of overall generation. Within the BMR, due to large population density and limited Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 wastewater treatment capacity, domestic discharges account for 81 percent of total BOD pollution, while Contribution of industry, domestic and agriculture industry with over 21,000 plants, contributes 19 to Central region basin , BOD, 1999. percent. The Chao Phraya basin is the largest and most Chao Chao PhrayaPhraya polluted owing to the diverse nature of economic Thachin activities that cater to the area. Along with the BMR, Mae klong Mae Klong industry in the basin maintains over 32,000 indus- Pasak Pasak Lopburi Lopburi trial factories, employs 1.5 million people, and as a Noi Noi sector, constitutes 32 percent of the basins’ load. Sakae Sakae KrungKrung Fertile soils in the Chao Phraya delta facilitate the Khaewnoi Khaewnoi heavy use of land for agriculture, leading to organic Khaewyai Khaewyai Phetchaburi Phetchaburi runoff which constitutes 17 percent of BOD gen- Salawin Salawin eration in the basin. The largest contributor how- 0 100 200 300 400 ever is domestic wastewater, where over 50% of the 0 Emissions (’ 00 kg/day) generated load comes from over 5 million people in Industry Domestic Agriculture the basin. Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 13 Industrial sector contribution to BOD and TSS loads, Central region, 1999 BOD # firms % TSS # firms % Pulp & paper 55 37 Iron & steel 396 61 Of the 46,000 industrial plants that characterize Industrial chemicals 211 11 Nonferrous metals 575 9 Nonferrous metals 575 9 Pulp & paper 55 9 the region, only a selected number of sub-sectors Dairy products 36 9 Jewelry 536 8 are responsible for BOD and TSS effluents. The Distilled spirits 12 8 Drugs & medicines 253 4 most notable sector, pulp & paper is responsible for Total number of firms in the Central region: 45,928 37 percent of regional BOD and 9 percent of TSS. Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 Also significant, are the food processing sectors of dairy and spirits contributing to BOD and jewelry and drugs & medicines to TSS. BOD Levels in the Central region, 1993-98 4 Surface Water Indicators 3.5 The PCD monitored the quality of three major 3 rivers - the Mae Klong, the middle Chao Phraya and 2.5 M oderate the middle Tha Chin, in terms of three indicators - 2 BOD, DO and TCB. Throughout this period, the 1.5 1 middle Tha Chin had the poorest levels of DO, which 0.5 worsened over the years, while the Mae Klong had 0 the most elevated levels. Similarly, the middle Tha 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Mae Klong Chin consistently had the worst BOD concentrations Middle Chao Phraya Middle Thachine throughout this period. However, the study also re- BOD standard: Class 3 - Moderate Quality vealed that BOD levels improved in all three rivers Source: PCD, 2000 from 1996 to 1998. Overall, TCB remained un- changed during the last three years, with the exception DO Levels in the Central region, 1993-98 of the Mae Klong. Between 1996 and 1997, the TCB 8 levels in this river peaked, and then dropped back 7 to low levels in 1998. 6 5 Groundwater 4 3 Moderate Nearly 13,000 wells supply over 2.5 million 2 cubic meters of water for variety of uses in BMA 1 and 7 adjoining provinces. Commercial and indus- 0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 19 98 trial sector and households account for 65% and 25% Mae Klong of that use.21 Though government institutions own Middle Thachine Middle Chao Phraya DO Standard (Cl ass 3 - Moderate Quality) 32% of the wells, they use a mere 7% of the total groundwater extraction. Reports indicate that extraction Source: PCD, 2000 is exceeding safe yields, causing land subsidence particularly in the eastern and southern suburban Groundwater Extraction in BMA plus 7 provinces, 2000 areas of Bangkok. Groundwater quality in this region 3 is also progressively worsening due to the buildup Wells % Extr. M /d % Household 3246 25 580669 24 of nitrates from agricultural runoff, toxics from pes- Bus/Industry 5204 40 1598398 65 ticides, and saltwater intrusion. Agriculture 131 1 5869 0 SoE 146 1 122154 5 Govt 4186 32 160570 7 Total 12913 2467660 21 Source: DMR, 2001 Department of Mineral Resources, March 2001 14 eastern RegioN The Eastern region comprises of four larger water basins and the following river basins —Rayong, Prasae, Pangrat, Chantaburi, Weru, and Trad, located along the coastal areas; the Bang Pakong river basin, located further inland; and the upstream part of the Tonle Sap basin. Eight provinces fall under this region, of which the two largest in terms of size are Chonburi and Chanthaburi. Tourism and industry (pulp and paper, pottery, porcelain, food, petrochemicals and agroprocessing) drive economic development in the region, with agriculture and mining contributing sig- nificantly. Water Quality Profile. Regional water qual- ity is broadly classified as poor due to the heavy concentration of industry in the major centers of Chonburi, Prachinburi and Rayong. Dense populations Sector contribution to total BOD generation, 1999 in these areas further contribute to overall genera- tion. Domestic wastewater discharges contribute to Agriculture 50 percent of the total BOD generated, while industry 17% Industry and agriculture account for 33 and 17 percent re- 33% spectively. At the water basin level, the relative contribu- tions from agriculture, industry and domestic sources varies quite substantially. In the East Coast- Domestic 50% Gulf basin, for example, industry contributes as much as 46 percent to the total BOD generated in Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 the basin, whereas in Tonle Sap it is less than 1 percent. Contribution of industry, domestic and agriculture In the Bang Pakong basin, agriculture runoff ac- to Central region basin BOD, 1999. counts for 32 percent of the basins’ BOD, whereas in Prachinburi it represents only 6 percent. BOD generated from domestic wastewater is more con- East Coast- Gulf sistent across the Eastern basins where it represents approximately 50 percent of each basin’s total load. Bang Pakong The Eastern region, with over 5,000 firms, has a highly diversified manufacturing structure, how- Prachinburi ever, in terms of BOD and TSS, it is the chemicals, pulp & paper and iron & steel sub-sectors that com- T onle Sap prise the bulk of industrial effluent generation. The chemicals and pulp & paper sectors are responsible 0 20 40 60 80 for 69 percent of BOD, while the iron & steel in- E missions (’000 kg/day) dustry alone contributes to 72 percent of total TSS. Industry Domestic Agriculture Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 15 Surface Water Indicators BOD Levels in the Eastern region, 1993-98 A 1998 survey of eight rivers and lakes revealed 2.5 that, on average, the Eastern region was the second Moderate most polluted in Thailand in terms of TCB count. 2 The worst counts were recorded in the Rayong Basin 1.5 (2,000 MPN/100ml), followed by the Trad basin 1 (900 MPN/100ml), and the Pranae River. In the Eastern Region, water samples taken by 0.5 PCD from the Bang Pakong, Pranae and Rayong 0 rivers, showed improvements in levels of pollution 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 from TCB between 1996 and 1998. Between 1993 BOD standard: Cl ass 3 - Moderate Qual ity and 1998, dissolved oxygen in the Rayong river Bangpakong Pranae declined slightly, while DO in the Pranae and Bang Rayong Pakong improved marginally. In terms of BOD levels, Source: PCD, 2000 the Rayong river remained unchanged, while the Bang Pakong showed improvements in water quality. DO Levels in the Eastern region, 1993-98 Coastal Waters. Petrochemical and other in- dustries proliferating along the Eastern Seaboard 8 represent a growing threat to the coral reefs and 7 seagrass in the coastal area. Rapidly expanding ho- 6 5 tels in coastal areas, accompanied by ineffective 4 wastewater treatment systems has degraded the wa- 3 Moderate ter quality in important tourist sites such as Chonburi 2 Bay, Loy Island, Pattaya Beach, and Bangsaen. 1 0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Groundwater. Little information is available Pra nae about current groundwater quality. But trends are R ayong Ba ngpakong expected to be the same as in the Central Region. C D O Standard ( lass 3 - Mo derate Quality) Saltwater intrusion, caused in part by intensive Source: PCD, 2000 pumping of water from the aquifers, contributes greatly to pollution. Industrial sector contribution to BOD and TSS loads, Eastern region, 1999 BOD # firms % TSS# firms % Industrial chemicals 85 41 Iron & steel 55 72 Pulp & paper 14 28 Pulp & paper 14 7 Nonferrous metals 58 7 Nonferrous metals 58 7 Sugar factories 28 6 Athletic goods 25 6 Distilled spirits 3 6 Industrial chemicals 85 5 Total number of firms in the Eastern region: 5,374 Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 16 northern RegioN The Northern region comprises the following water basins: Ping, Wang, Yom and Nan basins that conform the Upper Chao Phraya and the Upper Pasak River basin; the Pai and the Khun-Yuam river basins which form a part of the Salawin basin, which Thailand shares with Myanmar; and the Kok and Ing water basins that constitute part of the Mekong basin. This region accounts for one-third of the coun- try’s land area and about 21 percent of the popula- tion. There are significant variations in income across areas within the region, with large pockets of poverty among upland hill tribes. Agriculture, dominated by crop production, plays an important role in the region. Despite a low population density, agricultural activities are concentrated in small- montane basins and narrow river plains. Water Quality Profile. Water quality in this Sector contribution to total BOD generation, 1999 region is fair owing to the poor conditions for agri- culture and the relatively low presence of industry. Agriculture Industry Agriculture and industry together account for 17 6% 11% percent of total BOD generation while domestic wastewater discharges account for about 83 percent. The water basins of the Nan, Ping, Yom, and Wang together account for about 77 percent of or- Domestic ganic pollution in the Northern region. With the 83% exceptions of the Nan and the Ping, BOD genera- tion from agricultural runoff is low, typically Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 amounting to only one or two percent of each ba- sins’ total. Similarly, although the region is home Contribution of industry, domestic and agriculture to Northern region basin BOD, 1999. to over 7,600 manufacturing firms, the industrial sector contributes only marginally in the Nan, Ping Nan and Yom water basins with 14, 12, and 9 percent of Ping BOD respectively. In all eight basins, however, Yom domestic sources account for the major portion (over Wang 80 percent on average) of BOD generated. Kuang Ing Across industrial sub-sectors, pulp & paper is Kok responsible for 37 percent of BOD and 31 percent Li of TSS. Sugar and spirits total 42 percent of BOD 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 generation, while nonferrous metals and jewelry Emissions (’000 kg/day) account for 33 percent of TSS. From a regulatory Industry Domestic Agriculture Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 17 standpoint, there is much to gain from the relatively BOD Levels in the Northern region, 1993-98 small number of firms and composition of industry. 2.5 Ninety-one percent of BOD is generated from only five sub-sectors and 228 firms, or only 3 per- 2 Moderate cent of all firms in the region. Similarly for TSS, 1.5 81 percent is generated from only 105 firms. 1 Surface Water Indicators 0.5 Between 1995 and 1998, the TCB count in the 0 northern region averaged approximately 825 MPN/ 1 993 1994 1 995 1996 1 997 1998 100ml, especially in the Ping and Wang rivers. This, BOD standard: Class 3 - Moderate Quality Ping however, was still lower than the national average. W ang The Bung Borapeth and the Kwan Payao are among Yom the cleanest rivers, with very low concentrations of Source: PCD, 2000 TCB (averaging 35 MPN/100ml). Water samples taken by the PCD from the Ping, Wang, and Yom rivers between 1996 and 1998 showed dramatic improvements in total coliform DO Levels in the Northern region, 1993-98 bacteria concentrations. BOD and DO levels were 8 also within the water quality standards, making the 7 rivers suitable and safe for fisheries and domestic 6 uses. Throughout this period, the Ping was the 5 Moderate cleanest river in terms of BOD. 4 3 Groundwater 2 Large amounts of groundwater are found in the 1 North in Chiang Mai and Lampang provinces. There 0 is some evidence of nitrate and fluoride contamina- 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 tion from fertilizers as well as naturally occurring Ping hot springs in the Chiang Mai province. Wang Yom DO Standard (Class 3 - Moderate Quality) Source: PCD, 2000 Industrial sector contribution to BOD and TSS loads, Northern region, 1999 BOD # firms % TSS # firms % Pulp & paper 27 37 Pulp & paper 27 31 Sugar factories 22 22 Nonferrous metals 22 17 Distilled spirits 6 20 Jewelry 42 16 Preserved fruits & vegetables 161 7 Distilled spirits 6 9 Dairy products 12 5 Iron & steel 8 8 Total number of firms in the Northern region: 7,633 Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 18 northeastern RegioN The Northeastern region is mainly dry. A range of hills constitute a number of small watersheds draining into the Chi, Moon and Mekong rivers. The Mekong basin bounds the northern part of the re- gion as well as the plateau in the northeast. The river basins are underlain with impermeable layers of latterite causing intense surface run-off in the rainy season, and short droughts in the dry season. Covering one-third of the country’s land area and 44 percent of the rural population, the North- east is the most populous and poorest region. The combination of low agricultural productivity and low incomes has spurred massive forest encroachment (for marginal land conversion to agriculture) as well as large scale migration to other regions for employ- ment. While the Northeast accounts for about 40 percent of total agricultural land in Thailand, it con- tributes less than one-quarter of total agricultural output, reflecting poor soils, erratic rainfall, and Sector contribution to total BOD generation, 1999 seasonal drought and flooding. Water Quality Profile. The 1998 PCD water Industry 2% quality survey ranked the Northeastern region as having cleanest surface water, despite being the most Agriculture populous and agrarian region in Thailand. The re- 41% gion is largely characterized by marginal agricul- Domestic ture, which as a sector accounts for 41 percent of 57% total BOD generation. With over one-third of the country’s population, domestic sources of wastewater account for 57 percent of the total BOD Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 load. The industrial sector maintains a relatively low Contribution of industry, domestic and agriculture presence and is responsible for only 2 percent. to Northeastern region basin BOD, 1999 At the water basin level, agricultural activities are responsible for about 40 percent of each basins’ organic pollution. Domestic wastewater effluents Moon average 58 percent of the total generated load in each basin and is greatest in the Moon basin. The Moon basin was identified as the largest in terms of Chi absolute BOD generation with over 405,000 kg/day. The manufacturing sector is quite large, with over Mekong 7,000 firms and employing over 176,000 people in 0 100 200 300 400 500 the region. However, its relative contribution to BOD generation is small with only one to three per- 000 kg/day) Emissions (’ Industry Domestic Agriculture cent share of each basins’ load. Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 19 Looking closer at the industrial sector, food Industrial sector contribution to BOD and TSS loads, products such as sugar, dairy, and spirits comprise Northeastern region, 1999 the top shares of BOD generation, while iron & steel BOD # firms % TSS # firms % accounts for 70 percent of TSS. As in the Northern Sugar factories 25 41 Iron & steel 13 70 region, the relatively small number of firms in each Dairy products 26 22 Sugar factories 25 9 sub-group indicates that there are potential gains in Distilled spirits 5 20 Distilled spirits 5 6 regulation. Plastics 104 5 Jewelry 7 5 Industrial chemicals 5 4 Nonferrous metals 15 5 Surface Water Indicators Total number of firms in the Northeastern region: 7,151 Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 Between 1993 and 1998, water samples taken by the PCD from the Moon, Siew, and Songkram rivers showed improvements in water quality in BOD Levels in the Northeastern region, 1993-98 terms of both TCB, and DO levels. DO levels improved 3 in all three rivers, indicating increases in levels of oxygen which would benefit aquatic life. Although 2.5 BOD levels improved in the Moon river, BOD loads 2 Moderate increased in both the Siew and Songkram rivers, 1.5 resulting in higher organic pollution. While rivers have shown good water quality, 1 on average, there have been some severe cases of 0.5 water pollution in lakes around the region. Rapid 0 eutrophication is resulting in the proliferation of algal 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 species that poses a threat to humans and biota, and BOD standard: Class 3 - Moderate Quality hinders water treatment processes. Cases of Moon eutrophication have been reported in the Mae Guang Siew Songkram dam, and the Mae Ngad dam reservoirs. In 1995, increased inflow of wastewater from households, Source: PCD, 2000 restaurants, and agricultural runoff resulted in algal proliferation in the Lake of Lam Ta Khong dam - DO Levels in the Northeastern region, 1993-98 disrupting Korat’s water supply. 8 7 Groundwater 6 Groundwater is mainly found along the 5 Mekong river, particularly in the Nong Khai and 4 Moderate Nakhon Phanom provinces. The little information 3 available on groundwater quality indicated some 2 contamination from fertilizers, as well as from natu- 1 rally occurring salt, iron, sulfate, and calcium car- bonate. 0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Moon Siew Songkram DO Standard (Class 3 - Moderate Quality) Source: PCD, 2000 20 southern RegioN The Southern region, which receives heavy rainfall, has the highest water resource availability among all regions. The upper Southern region con- sists of the Petchaburi and the West Coast Gulf river basins. The lower Southern region can be divided into the East Coast and West Coast river basins, with higher annual run-off from the East coast. The lower Southern region comprises the Peninsular-East Coast, Tapipum, Thale Sap Songkhla and Pattani river basins on the East coast; the Peninsular-West coast river basin; and the Kolok River marking the Southern border with Malaysia. The Southern region, with about 14 percent of the land area and population, has a well developed economy. Along with the lucrative tourism indus- try, fishing and agriculture contribute significantly to gross regional product (including large shares from rubber production), reflecting good moisture Sector contribution to total BOD generation, 1999 and humidity in the tropical climate. Mining, aqua- Industry culture and natural gas development have also been 11% growing rapidly in the region. Agriculture 26% Water Quality Profile The quality of surface and coastal waters in the Southern region is poor. Domestic wastewater discharges, primarily from the tourism industry, are Domestic 63% responsible for nearly two-thirds of total BOD gen- eration, while agriculture accounts for 26 percent Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 and industry for the remaining 11 percent. Contribution of industry, domestic and agriculture Across the 11 major water basins, the Songkhla, to Southern region basin BOD, 1999 Tapipum and Pakphana basins account for 58 per- cent of total regional BOD generation. Among these Songkhla top three, agriculture averages 35 percent of each Tapipum basins’ total BOD, while domestic wastewater av- Pakpha na erages 55 percent. The presence of industry is larg- Tra ng P attani est in Songkhla and Tapipum, where the fishing in- La ngsua n dustry is an important source of local income. Saiburi Important industrial activities in the South in- Kuiburi clude food products and rubber production, which Bangnara Khlongta employ 50,000 and 29,000 people, respectively. Pranburi These major economic sectors also have their con- 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 sequent impact on the environment. In terms of Emissions (’000 kg/day) BOD and TSS generation, ninety-three firms in the Industry Domestic Agriculture Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 21 fish industry alone account for 43 percent of BOD Industrial sector contribution to BOD and TSS loads, Southern region, 1999 generation, and 16 percent of TSS. Rubber produc- tion accounts for 33 percent of TSS, while the iron BOD # firms % TSS # firms % & steel industry contributes 25 percent. Fish products 93 43 Rubber products 241 33 Distilled spirits 2 17 Iron & steel 7 25 Preserved fruits 35 16 Fish products 93 16 Surface Water Indicators & vegetables Water quality indicators for the Chumporn river Dairy products 6 9 Distilled spirits 2 6 between 1993 and 1998 showed relatively un- Sawmills 500 4 Preserved fruits 35 6 changed BOD levels. BOD improved in the & vegetables Songkhla Lake over this time frame, and worsened Total number of firms in the Southern region: 4,138 slightly in the Langsuan River. Dissolved oxygen Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 levels improved in all three rivers during this pe- riod. In general, DO levels are high and suitable for BOD Levels in the Southern region, 1993-98 conservation and fisheries. High TCB counts are found in the Noi Sea and 7 the Songkhla Lake, where pollution is possibly ex- 6 acerbated by the restricted exchange of water be- 5 tween the lagoon and the open sea. 4 3 Coastal Waters M oderate 2 In contrast, along the Andaman coast, water 1 quality ranges from fair to very good, particularly 0 in Ranong, Phang-Nga, Krabi and Phuket provinces 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 where low TCB concentrations were recorded. BOD standard: Class 3 - Moderate Quality Chumporn Langsuan Songkhla Lake Groundwater The largest source of groundwater is found Source: PCD, 2000 along the east coast, adjacent to the Gulf of Thai- land. A study of groundwater in Hat Yai, southern DO Levels in the Southern region, 1993-98 Thailand, revealed that seepage of urban wastewaters adversely affected the quality of the 8 shallow groundwater directly beneath the city. Fur- 7 ther infiltration is also gradually contaminating the 6 deeper aquifers - the source of the city’s potable 5 4 water.22 Moderate 3 Groundwater is also found to be contaminated 2 by iron and trace metals from mining, as well as 1 arsenic, around Nakhon Si Thammarat. In addition, 0 the wells are also thought to be contaminated by 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 naturally occurring arsenic from the soil as a result Chumporn Langsuan of intensive pumping of water. Songkhla Lake DO Standard (Class 3 - Moderate Quality) 22 A.R. Lawrence, D.C. Gooddy, P. Kanatharana, W. Meesilp and V. Ramnarong.Groundwater evolution beneath Hat Yai, a rapidly developing Source: PCD, 2000 city in Thailand. Springer-Verlag, 2000 22 water Policies and LawS Five-Year Plans Since 1961, the Royal Thai Government (RTG) Promote and support private sector investment has developed five-year National Economic and in solving water pollution problems. Social Development plans that establish the overall priorities and policy framework for the country’s Legislation development. While early plans emphasized economic Water pollution control is administered under development through the exploitation of natural re- various laws. Many of the water pollution laws were sources, the 7th Plan (1992-1996) declared the gov- originally enacted to primarily regulate the use and ernment’s commitment to promoting sustainable management of, rather than protection of natural economic development that protects the environment. resources and the environment.23 One key objective of the 7th plan was to rehabilitate In 1992, the Enhancement and Conservation water quality in the lower reaches of the Chao Phraya of National Environment Quality Act (NEQA) was and Tha Chin rivers. enacted. In the same year, a number of environmen- The ongoing 8th Plan (1997-2001) continues tal laws -including the Factory Act, Public Health to emphasize the rehabilitation of natural resources Act, Hazardous Substances Act, and the Energy and the environment by strengthening environmental Conservation Promotion Act were amended. In ad- management, and increasing local and community dition, the Decentralization Act of 1999 entitles participation. Key principles emphasize good gov- LGAs to develop local plans to manage and con- ernance through decentralization, public participation serve natural resources and the environment as well in decision-making, increased transparency and ac- as gives them the legal authority to construct and countability, and empowerment of communities. The operate central treatment facilities for solid waste, forthcoming 9th Plan (2002-2006) builds on these and wastewater. foundations. Twenty-Year Perspective Plan Institutions Developed by OEPP and approved by the The Thai regulatory system for water resources Cabinet, the 20 year Policy and Prospective Plan management and pollution control is both central- for Enhancement and Conservation of National ized and fragmented. Thirty agencies within six Environmental Quality (1997-2016) establishes Ministries share authority depending on jurisdic- goals, principles, and policies, including sectoral tion.24 Each Ministry administers its own laws and policies and guidelines for environmental quality management. The Prospective Plan also recognizes the role of local government authorities (LGAs) and NGOs in improving and protecting water quality by increasing awareness and monitoring. Under this plan, policies for water pollution aim to: Accelerate the rehabilitation of water quality in important water resources; Reduce and control water pollution originating from community activities, agriculture, and industry; 23 Senate Environmental Committee Report, p. 14, 2000 Apply the polluter pays principle; and 24 The six Ministries are: Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Public Health, and Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 23 Water Pollution Legislation and Responsible Ministries Legislation Regulated Activities Responsible Remarks Ministries Enhancement and Conservation Regulates specified point sources for wastewater MoSTE Amendment to NEQA is being drafted; of National Environment Quality discharges into public water resources, or the key environmental legislation to fill Act (NEQA) of 1992 environment, based on effluent standards gaps; no criminal or civil liability for violation of standards Factories Act of 1992 Limits level of effluent discharged and MoInd MoInd also promotes industrial devel restricts concentration levels of chemical opment activities which creates conflicts and/or metal pollutants of interest. An amendment to the Act is being drafted to require polluters to pay for clean-up costs. Navigation in Thai Waterways Act Prohibits dumping of any refuse including oil MoTC Many cases have been successfully (Volume 14 ) as amended in 1992 and chemicals into rivers, canals, swamps, brought against polluters reservoirs, lakes or waterways that may pollute the environment or disrupt navigation in Thai waterways Public Health Act of 1992 Regulates nuisance activities related to water MoP Decentralized implementation to LGAs pollution such as odor, chemical fumes, wastewater discharge system of buildings, factories or animal feedlots that cause harmful health effects Cleanliness and Tidiness of the Prohibits dumping of refuse in waterways LAOs Decentralized implementation to LGAs Country Act of 1992 Canal Maintenance Act of 1983 Prohibits dumping or discharging of MoAC Little used wastewater in canals Building Control Act of 1979 Regulates discharges of water pollution MoInt Decentralized implementation from buildings to LGAs Penal Code of 1956 Prohibits adding harmful substances in water resources reserved for consumption OAG Little used Fisheries Act of 1947 Prohibits dumping or discharging of hazardous chemicals into water resources Difficult to prove intention for MoAC criminal liability reserved for fishing Royal Irrigation Act of 1942 Prohibits dumping of garbage or discharging polluted water or chemicals into irrigation canals MoAC Limited jurisdiction regulations. While MoSTE develops national poli- tablishment of river basin organizations. In 1997, cies, plans, standards, and regulations for water pol- the Government also established the Chao Phraya lution control, implementation authority often rests River Basin Organization to implement the com- with other ministries. prehensive Chao Phraya Basin Water Management Based on the Decentralization Act, LGAs, pro- Strategy. vincial administrative organizations, municipalities, tambon (village) administrative organizations, and BMA also play major roles in wastewater treatment and water pollution control through wastewater treatment facilities. Under the NEQA, the PCD has an oversight function to ensure efficient and effec- tive results on the ground. The Office of the National Water Resources Committee, established in 1996, coordinates water resources management. This Office oversees the drafting of the new Water Law that calls for the es- 24 Enforcement Enforcement of existing environmental laws nomic instruments for the abstraction of ground and is weak due to the lack of political will, inadequate surface water and appropriate pricing will also spur coordination among various agencies, low techni- conservation efforts. cal capability for proving violations, and limited access to information. To initiate regulatory reforms and improve firms’ compliance with environmental Environmental Law at Work: standards, existing command-and-control measures The Nam Phong River Cases are being complemented by market based instruments The 1992 Case: Establishing Standing to Sue and public disclosure tools. In 1992, prior to the enactment of NEQA, the Office of the Attorney The Thai Administrative Court -recently estab- General (OAG) made a legal determination that clean up costs lished under a 1997 Constitutional requirement -pro- incurred by the government for a molasses spill on the Phong River vides an opportunity for citizens and civil society could not be recovered, since no one could claim ownership of the river which is public property. Since there were no damages to to participate in enforcement. Citizen suits can be agencies or citizens, there was no standing to sue. brought against agencies which fail to perform their non-discretionary duties under the law. The Court In 1997, however, the OAG reversed its decision citing that natural resources are the common heritage of mankind. Arguing that NEQA is now receiving over fifteen new cases per day, supports public participation and decentralization in environmental many of which related to the environment. Despite protection, OAG recommended that agencies or citizens that have such provisions, access to courts by citizens seeking been injured have standing to sue for clean up costs or damages. pollution damage claims remains limited by the tra- The 1993 Case: Recovering Government Clean-Up Costs ditional standing doctrines of causation, burden of In 1993, the Nam Phong River suffered from a series of major proof, access to information, and litigation costs. wastewater discharge events from a pulp and paper factory located below the Ubonrat Dam. Contamination led to significant fish kills and impacted the livelihood of fishing communities along the river. In an effort to restore acceptable water quality, the Electricity Public Disclosure Generating Authority of Thailand released 1.9 million cubic meters Under public disclosure programs, the environ- of water, which were worth about US$6,735 in electricity production. mental performance of firms are publicly an- In 1999, for the first time since the enactment of NEQA and based on nounced, and subsequent public pressure often re- NEQA provisions for the Polluter Pays Principle, EGAT brought a sults in pollution reduction activities. PCD is currently lawsuit against the pulp and paper company to recover costs associated developing a public disclosure program to improve with clean up through lost electricity production. The case is currently pending in the Thai Civil Court. the environmental performance of industrial polluters. Source: Office of the Attorney General Economic Instruments These instruments are intended to provide in- centives that will result in a changed behavior of water users and polluters. DIW, OEPP and PCD have undertaken separate studies to design and im- plement pollution charges program to contain wa- ter pollution from industrial enterprises. The chal- lenge before decision makers is to integrate the find- ings of these studies and develop a coherent pro- gram that reduces the cost of compliance and pro- vides incentives for polluters. Application of eco- 25 Physical Investments in Waste Water Over the past 15 years, Thailand has embarked Municipal WWTS Capacity in Thailand on an ambitious program for the management of Region Existing Treatment Existing Plants + water pollution generated from urban municipal Plants Those under construction sources. Capacity % of Total % of (m3/day) Municipal Capacity Municipal Population (m3/day) Population Construction of WWTSs in Thailand Covered by Covered by Prior to 1990, there was virtually no treatment Capacity Capacity of municipal wastewater in Thailand. By the end of North 83,600 22 139,500 37 1995, 25 WWTS - 2 in the Northern region; 7 in the Northeast 106,650 19 170,710 31 Northeastern region; 9 in the Central region; 5 in Central 164,350 23 399,850 57 the Eastern region; and 2 in the Southern region - South 102,950 35 233,650 51 had been constructed with a combined treatment East 214,400 85 326,300 85 capacity of about 430,000 m3/day. In spite of such BMA 270,000 27 992,000 98 progress, the available total capacity was sufficient Total 941,950 29 2,262,010 65 to provide service to just over 10 percent of the urban Source: OEPP, 2001; Plant data from PCD August 2000; Population statistics population in 1995.25 from NSO, 2000. For the period 1995-1999, the RTG budgeted Note : Capacity in excess of the needs of the municipal population for certain tourist provinces in the East, South and Central regions is not included as this capacity is designed about $950 million for capital investments in the to cover the tourist population. wastewater sector, for 40 additional facilities to be constructed and/or expanded. However, following Types of Technologies in Existing WWTS a 38 percent reduction in capital investments due to the 1997 economic crisis, the implementation sched- 30 ule suffered significant delays and in some cases 25 investments were cancelled. To date, 57 wastewater treatment plants, have 20 # of plants been constructed in 50 municipalities at a total cost 15 of almost 19 billion baht.26 About 75% of the treat- 10 ment capacity provided by these systems has entered service only over the past four years. Another 28 5 facilities are presently under construction or under- 0 SP AL OD AS RBC going expansion.27 Although the serviced popula- tion is much lower due to problems with operation Treatment Plant Technology and collection, it is estimated that there is enough wastewater treatment capacity to cover 29% of Source: PCD, August 2000 SP: Stabilization Pond; OD: Oxidation Ditch; AL: Aerated Lagoon; RBC: Rotating municipal population and after the completion of Biological Contactor those facilities that are under construction or under- going expansion this will increase to 65%.28 tations in funding for capital and operational costs, the lack of operational experience, and limited staff. Treatment Technologies: Technology choices The treatment plants primarily consist of proven and for WWTS in Thailand took into account the limi- relatively simple technologies, such as oxidation ditches, aerated lagoons and stabilization ponds. 25 OEPP, 2001; PCD, August 2000. These systems have low capital and O&M costs. 26 PCD, March 2001. The activated sludge process is more complex and 27 PCD, March 2001. 28 World Bank Task Team estimates. costly to build and operate, but requires less land. 26 Key Issues in Wastewater Management Insufficient Funding. While there has been significant progress over This technology is used in some urban areas of the the past decade in constructing new facilities, there remains a large central region or the BMA where land costs or avail- backlog in unmet investment needs. With the large investments necessary, the sector would greatly benefit from additional sources ability limit the application of other technologies. of financing that rely on direct cost recovery, including debt over the shorter term and private sector equity investment over the longer Condition and Operation of Facilities. term. Thailand has been only moderately successful Sustainability of Services. In addition to inadequate collection systems and poor plant design, serious deficiencies also exist in the in operating wastewater treatment plants. About a funding of operations and maintenance. This affects the quality and third of the existing plants have major malfunctions sustainability of services. This is due primarily to reliance on public or do not operate.29 The major reason for this is the sector operations and maintenance; lack of cost recovery options; and inadequate enforcement of existing environmental regulations. inadequacy of funds to cover O&M costs. This short- Technical Skill Shortages. Technical skill shortages are a major factor fall in terms of O&M budgets was also revealed in responsible for poor performance in operations and maintenance. The a 1999 survey of 29 facilities, that showed that most lack of private sector participation and better job incentives in the private sector exacerbate this shortage. facilities suffer from equipment failure or damage, Lack of Cost Recovery. User charges are implemented in only a and deficiencies in staff skill levels.30 few municipalities in the country. The adoption of user charges by The effectiveness of wastewater systems is also municipalities has been slow primarily due to the lack of political limited by the condition of the collection systems. will and public acceptance. The lack of cost recovery is a major obstacle to private sector participation, which could play a major Typically, wastewater collection systems in Thai- role in addressing the existing funding and skills shortages in the land rely on old drainage systems comprised of canals sector. or open sewers and poorly maintained drainage pipe Inadequate Enforcement. There is presently no regular program for the monitoring discharges from existing municipal wastewater networks with limited connections. Investments facilities, or penalizing municipalities with inadequate or no have primarily focused on intercepting the flow from treatment facilities. With environmental awareness within Thailand these systems with little focus on rehabilitation of still low, active enforcement tends to be the primary catalyst in driving environmental improvement programs. the drainage networks. As a result, the collection efficiency of these systems is low. Performance data on 19 plants has shown that these collection systems can, on average, collect only 55% of the wastewater Piloting Innovative Treatment Technologies that treatment plants are designed to treat.31 In addition for the Thai Context to making almost half the capacity of these plants Treatment technologies using natural processes such as constructed redundant, inadequate collection has, in many cases wetlands provide an attractive alternative to conventional interfered with proper treatment plant operation.32 technologies. They have low O&M costs, provide effective treatment, and often remove heavy metals better. They also can be used to enhance the natural habitats or to grow plants that can be harvested and used for other purposes. In Petchaburi province, the Laem Phak Bia Environmental Research and Development Project is an ambitious Royal Initiative involving 3 universities and 6 national government entities. The project treats a portion of the waste from the city of Petchaburi using plants —such as wetland grasses, mangroves and rice —that have productive or ecologically value. The project systematically assesses the suitability of the major Thai plant species and the identifies optimal operating conditions for wastewater treatment. In addition, the project increases public awareness and education through publications and tours, and provides assistance to municipalities planning on constructing wastewater treatment facilities. 29 Survey of REOs, April 2001. 30 PCD, 1999. Source: Laem Phak Bia Environmental Research and Development project. 31 Based on performance data from 19 operating plants in Thailand. 32 Survey of REOs, April 2001. 27 Costs of Organic Pollution Control : A Case Study of the Food and Beverage, and Textile Sectors The food and beverage and textile sectors play the total investment cost. In the textiles sector, the a major role in the economy, representing 20 and Central region along with the BMR comprises 91 23 percent of total industrial production. Together percent of total investment cost requirements. they also contribute to approximately 37 percent of The level of treatment also has different impacts Thailand’s industrial BOD load. The total costs of in each sector. In the food processing sector, moving reducing this pollution, however, are largely un- from a pre-treatment level 2 to a level 1 standard known. Using information from a recent case study33 would result in a 60 percent reduction in BOD con- of in-plant treatment costs34 for these two sectors in centrations for a 25 percent increase in cost (58 to Samut Prakarn, it is estimated that full treatment 72.6 billion baht). The same 60 percent reduction in (BOD5≤ 20 mg/l) of organic effluents in Thailand the textiles sector would imply an 82 percent increase would total approximately 229 billion baht ($US 5.4 in investment costs. Overall costs would be signifi- billion) with annual O&M costs of 26 billion baht ($US cantly reduced if there were centralized treatment 0.6 billion) for food & beverage and textile sectors.35 of wastewater and rigorous application of cleaner At a regional level, these costs vary depending production techniques. on the location and scale of the two sectors. For the food processing sector, the largest concentration Total investment costs1 of in-plant treatment of BOD occurs in the Central and Northeastern regions, in the food & beverage sector (billion baht) where together they constitute nearly 56 percent of Food Proc/ Full PRE- PRE- # of firms Regions treatment 2 TREATMENT TREATMENT Estimated per plant investment costs of local BOD Level 1 3 Level 2 4 treatment for the food processing and textile industries Central 3045 46.8 27.3 21.8 (million baht) Bangkok 936 17.1 9.9 7.9 East 1063 16.0 9.3 7.4 Sector/ Capacity Full Pre- Pre- North 1134 13.3 7.9 6.4 Scale (m3/d) treatment treatment treatment Northeast 1662 23.0 13.5 10.8 (BOD5≤20 Level 1 Level 2 South 622 7.9 4.7 3.7 mg/l) (BOD5≤400 (BOD5≤1000 Sector total 8462 124.2 72.6 58.0 mg/l) mg/l) Food/Beverage Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 Large Scale 1000 37.4 21.6 17.2 Note: 1. Calculated as the cost per plant times the number of plants in the region and sector; 2. Consists of Sand and Grease Trap, Fine Screening, Equalization, and Medium Scale 100 10.1 6.3 5.1 Conventional Activated Sludge process; 3. Consists of Fine Screening, Equalization, Small Scale 10 3.7 3.5 3.3 and Dissolved Air Flotation, including chemical precipitation and/or coagulation; 4. Consists of Dissolved Air Flotation, Fine Screening, and Equalization. Textiles Large Scale 1000 36.9 20.6 11.3 Medium Scale 100 10.0 7.5 5.7 Total investment costs1 of in-plant treatment of BOD Small Scale 10 3.6 2.4 N/A in the textile sector (billion baht) o Source: Samut Prakarn Wastewater Management Project — Pr ject Report Textiles/ Pre- Pre- on Treatment of Industrial Wastewater from Textiles and Food Processing # of Full Industries, July 1998 Regions firms Treatment 1 treatment treatment Level 1 2 Level 2 3 33 Central 1521 26.9 15.1 8.3 DANCED and Carl Bro International, Samut Prakarn Wastewater Bangkok 3678 67.8 37.8 20.8 o Management Project — Pr ject Report on Treatment of Industrial Wastewater from Textile and Food Processing Industries, July 1998. East 229 3.8 2.1 1.2 34 In 1998, 50-55% of plants had no in-plant treatment, thus investment and North 180 2.8 1.6 0.9 O&M costs were estimated based on new designs of local in-plant treatment. Northeast 218 3.1 1.8 1.0 Estimates were derived for large-, medium- and small-scale industries for South 20 0.1 0.1 0.0 three different treatment levels for 9 textile and 18 food processing plants. Sector total 5846 104.5 58.5 32.2 Reported costs do not include upgrading and/or retrofitting of existing treatment facilities. Total 14308 228.7 131.1 90.2 35 Plant-level investment and O&M costs vary with the scale of activity. For Source: Development Research Group, World Bank, 2001 example, the cost of treatment for a large-scale food processing plant is Note: 1. Consists of Fine Screening, Coarse Screen, Equalization, Conventional Activated 0.03 million baht/m3 ($US 890), whereas for a small-scale plant the cost is Sludge process, Circular Clarifier, and Sludge drying beds; 2. Consists of Fine Screening, 0.37 million baht/m3 ($US 8,810). O&M costs are, on average, 10-13 percent of Coarse Screen, Equalization, Circular Clarifier, and Sludge drying beds; 3. Consists of total investment costs. Fine Screening, Coarse Screen, and Equalization. 28 spending on Water Pollution ControL Budget allocations for water pollution control and mitigation measures are made at both the na- tional and local levels. The wastewater sector is heavily dependent on Government budgetary allocations to fund capital investments. MoSTE and PWD have contributed about two thirds of the total capital costs of existing municipal wastewater infrastructure. LGAs typically provide limited contributions, usually in the form Capital Cost of Existing Municipal Wastewater of land. One important exception to this is the BMA, Infrastructure (million baht) which self-funded 33 percent of its wastewater in- vestment program over the 1995 - 2000 period.36 Region PWD MoSTE LGA & other1 Total While the role of local and regional governments North 871 296 0 1,167 has so far been limited in terms of funding capital Northeast 829 64 90 983 Central 2,962 184 215 3,361 investments, they assume the primary responsibility South 1,003 1,254 10 2,257 for operations and maintenance. Since the enactment East 3,216 1,982 0 5,198 of NEQA in 1992, they are also increasing their role BMA 0 0 5,886 5,886 in the planning and implementation of sector invest- Total 8,881 3,780 6,201 18,852 ments, though much more remain to be done. Fund- 1 Local government authorities, Department of Local Administration, King s projects, ing for environmental infrastructure is allocated on Fisheries Department, Irrigation Department & Tourism Authority of Thailand Source: PCD, May, 2001. the basis of Provincial Environmental Action Plans (PEAPs). The funding requirements for the PEAPs are determined by the RTG through the National Impact of ISO 14001 on the manufacturing Environment Board (NEB) and then distributed to sector in Thailand the LGAs through MOSTE agency budgets. With The ISO 14001 certification process was first introduced in Thailand the enactment of the new Constitution in 1997 and in 1996, and nearly 400 companies have been certified as of June, the supporting Decentralization Act, the process of 2001. A recent survey of 45 certified companies revealed a number moving decision making authority to the local and of positive findings. Among the major benefits to the environment, 82% of firms regional levels of government has accelerated. experienced an average reduction of 76% in industrial wastewater, Existing Government policies and legislation 69% experienced an average decrease in hazardous waste of 60% (to support private sector participation in the wastewater be treated and land filled), and 40% of firms decreased their particulate emissions by an average of 40%. sector. To facilitate this objective, Wastewater The highest benefits stated by companies came in the form of better Management Authority was established in 1995 to corporate image, improved working environments, and cost savings. identify, prepare, and participate in public-private Two of the key determinants to implementation were staff awareness partnerships in the sector. However, progress in achiev- and commitment of top management. ing private sector participation has been slow, largely The average cost of establishing the system and achieving certification by the 45 firms was just under 3 million baht (US$70,000), with an because of the lack of cost recovery, a supporting regu- average cost savings of 4.7 million baht (US$112,000) through water latory framework and contractual mechanism. recycling, reduced sludge production, reduced electricity consumption and chemical substitution. The average payback period was 2 years. The largest cost allocation was for the acquisition of new equipment, infrastructure improvement, and the modification of existing equipment and processes. Source: How can it benefit business? A survey of ISO 14001 certified companies in Thailand, Thailand Environment Institute, March 1999. 36 PCD, 2001 29 Capital Expenditures in the Wastewater Sector: 1995 — 2000 (million baht) Source FY95 FY96 FY97 FY98 FY99 FY00 Total OEPP 121 503 2,894 2,209 1,994 3,559 11,280 PWD 1,738 1,545 1,613 1,439 832 680 7,848 BMA 1,316 2,448 1,538 291 1,214 929 7,735 Environment Fund 32 351 935 3,091 871 555 5,834 BMA 322 1,482 537 256 726 551 3,874 Contributions Total 3,529 6,328 7,517 7,285 5,638 6,274 36,571 % change over N/A 79 19 -3 -23 11 previous yr. Total — equivalent $ mill. 141 253 240 176 149 156 1,115 Source: BOB, OEPP, PCD, BMA Trends in wastewater expenditure Between 1995 and 2000, capital investment in for sustainable O&M on the recently commissioned the sector totaled almost 37 billion baht ($1.1 bil- Yannawa WWTP. lion). Capital spending on wastewater management accelerated rapidly throughout the early and mid- Future Investments 1990s. Between 1995 and 1997, annual spending Future investments in the sector will need to more than doubled. However, the recent economic focus on rehabilitating dysfunctional treatment crisis has highlighted the vulnerability of the sector plants and collection systems as well as construct- to its heavy reliance on government budgetary allo- ing new facilities to expand existing treatment plant cations. Between 1997 and 1999, total capital ex- and collection capacity to cover the urban popula- penditures in the sector were cut by 25%.37 tion. While it is difficult to estimate rehabilitation The Government contributed 82 percent of total costs, the costs of new construction necessary to capital expenditures, which included 5.8 billion baht provide treatment and collection to the municipal from the Environment Fund (EF), mostly in the form population is estimated at 87 billion baht with the of grants. However, only about half of the EF com- largest investment needs in the Northeastern Region. mitments had actually been disbursed as of 2000.38 Four-fifths of this would go towards funding col- lection systems. Funding for O&M O&M costs are to be funded primarily from Additional Investment Needs for New Municipal the budgetary resources of the municipalities. How- Wastewater and Collection Systems ever, the municipalities cannot cover the full cost Region Investment Costs Million Baht of O&M from general revenues, and have been re- Treatment Collection Total luctant to establish and implement customer tariffs North 3,285 12,491 15,775 that could cover these costs. Of the 50 municipalities Northeast 5,371 20,091 25,463 having wastewater treatment facilities, only two - Central 3,713 11,139 14,852 Pattaya and Patong (Phuket) -presently apply a direct Southern 2,038 7,836 9,874 user charge. In both cases , however, the full costs Eastern 416 1,247 1,663 of O&M are not recovered. Furthermore, because BMA 269 19,556 19,826 of budget constraints, BMA is presently spending Total 15,092 72,360 87,453 less than half of the amount estimated to be required Source: Team Estimates, World Bank, 2001 Represents the investment needed to cover the municipal population not 37 PCD, 2001 including investments for existing WWTSs and those under construction (PCD, 38 August 2000); PCD, 2001 30 glossary of Environmental TermS Ambient Measurement: A measurement of the concentration Red Tide: A proliferation of marine plankton toxic and often ○ ○ of a substance or pollutant within the immediate environs of fatal to fish, perhaps stimulated by the addition of nutrients. A ○ an organism; taken to relate it to the amount of possible tide can be red, green, or brown, depending on the coloration ○ ○ exposure. of the plankton. ○ ○ ○ Aquifer: An underground geological formation, or group of Run-Off: That part of precipitation, snowmelt, or irrigation ○ formations, which are sources of groundwater. water that runs off the land into streams or other surface-water. ○ ○ It can carry pollutants from the air and land into receiving ○ Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The amount of oxygen waters. ○ ○ consumed in the biological processes that break down organic ○ matter in water. The greater the BOD, the greater the degree Salinization/ Saline Intrusion: The invasion of fresh surface ○ ○ of organic pollution. or ground water by salt water. Dissolved Oxygen (DO): The oxygen freely available in water, ○ ○ ○ ○ Sewage: The waste and wastewater produced by residential vital to fish and other aquatic life and for the prevention of and commercial sources and discharged into sewers. ○ ○ odors. DO levels are considered a most important indicator of ○ a water body’s ability to support desirable aquatic life. Standards: Norms that impose limits on the amount of ○ ○ Secondary and advanced waste treatments are generally pollutants or emissions produced. ○ designed to ensure adequate DO in waste-receiving waters. ○ ○ Subsidence: Downward movement of the land surface ○ Effluent: Wastewater - treated or untreated - that flows out of associated with groundwater pumping, especially where such ○ ○ a treatment plant, sewer, or industrial outfall. Generally refers pumping exceeds safe yield and the water table has dropped. ○ to wastes discharged into surface waters. ○ ○ Suspended Solids: Small particles of solid pollutants that float ○ Heavy Metals: Metallic elements with high atomic weights on the surface of, or are suspended in, sewage or other liquids. ○ ○ (e.g., mercury, chromium, cadmium, arsenic, and lead); can They resist removal by conventional means. ○ damage living things at low concentrations and tend to ○ ○ accumulate in the food chain. Total Coliform Bacteria (TCB): A collection of relatively ○ harmless microorganisms that live in large numbers in the ○ ○ Most Probable Number (MPN): An estimate of microbial intestines of man and warm- and cold-blooded animals. A ○ density per unit volume of water sample, based on probability specific subgroup of this collection is the fecal coliform ○ ○ theory. bacteria - whose presence in aquatic environments indicates ○ that the water has been contaminated with the fecal material ○ ○ Organic Pollution: Carbonaceous waste contained in plant of man or other animals. ○ or animal matter and originating from domestic or industrial ○ ○ sources. Total Suspended Solids (TSS): A measure of the suspended ○ ○ solids in wastewater, effluent, or water bodies, determined by ○ Pesticide: Substances or mixture thereof intended for tests for “total suspended non-filterable solids.� (See: ○ preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest. Also, ○ suspended solids.) ○ any substance or mixture intended for use as a plant regulator, ○ defoliant, or desiccant. ○ Water Quality Standards: The standards prescribe the use ○ Point Source: A stationary location or fixed facility from of the water body and establish the water quality criteria that ○ which pollutants are discharged; any single identifiable source ○ must be met to protect designated uses. ○ of pollution; e.g., a pipe, ditch, ship, ore pit, factory ○ smokestack. ○ Watershed: The land area that drains into a stream; the ○ watershed for a major river may encompass a number of ○ Pollutant: Generally, any substance introduced into the ○ smaller watersheds that ultimately combine at a common point. ○ environment that adversely affects the usefulness of a resource ○ or the health of humans, animals, or ecosystems. ○ ○ ○ ○ Source: This glossary is based on United States Environmental Protection ○ ○ Agency’s “Terms of the Environment�, revised May 1998. ○ 31 Thailand’s Surface Water Quality Classification and Definitions Effluent Standards. Many agencies are authorized Water Classification to set effluent standards, however, under NEQA, Class 1 (Very Good) Extra clean fresh surface water resources MoSTE has the authority to set the regulatory floor. used for: Agencies that establish less stringent standards must • Conservation not necessary pass through water correct their standards to conform to MoSTE. If there treatment process require only ordinary process for is a conflict, the NEB intervenes and makes the final pathogenic destruction • Ecosystem conservation where basic organisms can decision. breed naturally Although under NEQA MoSTE may prescribe • Conservation of ecosystem for water sources effluent standards based on the quality of the re- ceiving waters, in practice MoSTE does not adjust Class 2 (Good) Very clean fresh surface water resources used effluent standards, and effluent standards apply to for: • Consumption which requires ordinary water all receiving waters.39 treatment process before use • Aquatic organism of conservation There are three types of effluent standards: • Fisheries Building effluents standards; • Recreation Factory and industrial estate; and Class 3 (Moderate) Medium clean fresh surface water Housing estate effluent standards. resources used for: • Consumption, but passing through an ordinary Point Sources. Under NEQA, “point source of treatment process before using pollution� is broadly defined to include “any • Agriculture community, factory, building, structure, vehicle, Class 4 (Poor) Fairly clean fresh surface water resources place of business or activity or any other thing from used for: which pollution is generated�. However, only point • Consumption, but requires special water treatment sources that MoSTE prescribed and published in the process before using Government Gazette are subject to effluent • Industry standards. The 15 types of point sources that are Class 5 (Very Poor) The sources that are not classified in regulated are: (i) factories and industrial estates; (ii) classes 1-4 and used for navigation housing estates; (iii) condominiums; (iv) hotel dormitories; (v) massage parlors; (vi) hospitals; (vii) school and university buildings; (viii) governmental Ambient Standards. To date NEB has prescribed office buildings; (ix) department stores; (x) fresh three types of water quality standards: food markets; (xi) restaurants; (xii) hog farms; (xiii) (1) Surface Water Quality Standards for 5 solid waste incinerators; (xiv) power plants; and (xv) classes; rock mines. (2) Coastal Water Quality Standards for 7 classes, Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Bang Pakong, Nakorn Nayok, Prachinburi, and Mae Klong rivers; and (3) Drinking Water Quality including Bottled Drinking Water Quality Standards and Ground Wa- ter Quality Standards for drinking purposes. 39 Environmental Law Handbook DEQP, p. 19 (1999). 32 thailand at a GlancE Geography Economy/Society GDP: US$ 121.8 billion (2000) Area: total: 514,000 sq km land: 511,770 sq km GDP growth rate: 4.3 percent (2000) water: 2,230 sq km Land boundaries: GDP-composition by sector: total: 4,863 km agriculture: 11.2 percent border countries: Myanmar 1,800 km, industry: 39.3 percent Cambodia 803 km, Laos 1,754 km, services: 49.5 percent (2000) Malaysia 506 km Coastline: 3,219 km Inflation rate-consumer price index: 1.5 (2000) Maritime claims: Unemployment rate: 3.7 percent (2000) continental shelf: 200-m or to depth of exploitation Gross Domestic Investment/GDP: 19.9 (1999) exclusive economic zone: 200 nm Exports of good and services/GDP: 58.5 (1999) territorial sea: 12 nm Gross domestic savings/GDP: 32.6 (1999) Climate: Gross national savings/GDP: 30.1 (1999) tropical; rainy, warm, cloudy southwest monsoon (mid-May to September); dry, cool northeast monsoon Industrial production growth rate: 2.8 percent (2000) (November to mid-March); southern isthmus Agricultural production growth rate: 2.2 percent (2000) always hot and humid. Agriculture-products: Terrain: rice, cassava (tapioca), rubber, corn, central plain; Khorat Plateau in the east; sugarcane, coconuts, soybeans. mountains elsewhere. Exports: total value: $67.9 billion (f.o.b., 2000) Elevation extremes: Imports: total value: $62.4 billion (c.i.f., 2000) lowest point: Gulf of Thailand 0 m highest point: Doi Inthanon 2,576 m Population, mid-year: 61.8 million Mineral resources: Population growth rate: 1.1 percent tin, natural gas, tungsten, tantalum, timber, lead, Urban population ( percent of total population): 37 fish, gypsum, lignite, fluorite. Birth rate: 16.76 births/1,000 population (1998 est.) Land use: Death rate: 7.11 deaths/1,000 population (1998 est.) arable land: 34 percent Infant mortality: 33 deaths/1,000 live births (1995-96) permanent crops: 6 percent Access to safe water ( percent of population): 81 permanent pastures: 2 percent Access to sanitation ( percent of population): 84 forests and woodland: 26 percent Life expectancy at birth: 69 years other: 32 percent (1993 est.) Literacy (at age 15): total population: 93.8 percent Irrigated land: 44,000 sq km (1993 est.) Gross primary enrollment Environment-international agreements: ( percent of school-age population): 87 party to: Climate Change, Endangered Species, National capital: Bangkok Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Administrative divisions: 76 provinces (changwat) Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Independence: 1238 Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94. (traditional founding date; never colonized) signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity, Law of the Sea Sources: Thailand Social Monitor “Poverty after the Crisis: Thailand’s new Challenge�, March 2001; East Asia Quarterly Update, March 2001; Bank of Thailand Statistics