E N E R G Y A N D M I N I N G S E C T O R B O A R D D I S C U S S I O N P A P E R P A P E R N O . 1 0 F E B R U A R Y 2 0 0 4 Pass Through of Power Purchase Costs Regulatory Challenges and International Practices Beatriz Arizu, Luiz Maurer, and Bernard Tenenbaum THE WORLD BANK GROUP The Energy and Mining Sector Board AUTHORS DISCLAIMERS Beatriz Arizu (barizu@mercadosenergeticos.com) is an The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in executive with Mercados Energéticos, a consulting firm based this paper are entirely those of the authors and should not be in Argentina. In this capacity, Mrs. Arizu has been involved in attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated the restructuring of power sectors in about 20 countries. organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Before joining Mercados, she worked for the Energy Secretary Directors or the countries they represent. in Argentina. CONTACT INFORMATION Luiz Maurer (lmaurer@worldbank.org) is a Senior Energy Specialist at the World Bank. Before joining the Bank, he To order additional copies of this discussion paper, please worked as an executive and as a consultant in the oil & gas contact the Energy Help Desk: +1.202.473.0652 and utility industries in Latin America and in the United States. energyhelpdesk@worldbank.org Bernard Tenenbaum (btenenbaum@worldbank.org) is a Lead Energy Specialist at the World Bank. Before joining the Bank, he served as the Deputy Associate Director of the The material in this work is copyrighted. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including Office of Economic Policy at the U.S. Federal Energy photocopying, recording, or inclusion in any information storage and retrieval system, Regulatory Commission. without the prior written permission of the World Bank. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission promptly. For permis- sion to photocopy or reprint, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA, fax 978-750-4470. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, World Bank, 1818 H Street N.W., Washington DC, 20433, fax 202-522-2422, e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. E N E R G Y A N D M I N I N G S E C T O R B O A R D D I S C U S S I O N P A P E R P A P E R N O . 1 0 F E B R U A R Y 2 0 0 4 Pass Through of Power Purchase Costs Regulatory Challenges and International Practices Beatriz Arizu, Luiz Maurer, and Bernard Tenenbaum The World Bank, Washington, DC THE WORLD BANK GROUP The Energy and Mining Sector Board Copyright © 2004 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. All rights reserved CONTENTS FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 1. WHY IS PASS THROUGH OF POWER PURCHASE COSTS AN IMPORTANT ISSUE FOR ELECTRIC SECTOR REFORM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 2. DESIRABLE GOALS FOR EFFECTIVE PASS THROUGH REGULATION . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Overall Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Subsidiary Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 3. METHODOLOGIES TO REGULATE POWER PURCHASE COST PASS THROUGH . . . .11 Range of Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Full Pass Through of Power Purchase Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 The Single Buyer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 Vesting Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Review of Power Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Administratively Set Benchmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Mandated Competitive Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Physical Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Financial Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 The Panamanian Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 The New Jersey (USA) Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Market Benchmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Spot Market Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Spot Price Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Ex Ante Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 Ex Post Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 The Price Volatility Concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Contract Market Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Multi-Market Benchmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 4. RANKING PASS THROUGH METHODOLOGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 5. CHALLENGES FOR REGULATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Dealing With Affiliate Transactions and Cross-Ownership Issues . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Obligations Imposed on Distribution Companies to Maintain a Minimum Contracting Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Performance-Based Regulation (PBR)--Calibrating Incentives and Penalties . . .35 Performance-Based Regulation on Power Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Partial PBR (Focusing on Some Elements of Power Costs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 6. PASS THROUGH PROCEDURES--A POSSIBLE EVOLUTIONARY PATH . . . . . . . . . .37 7. CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42,44 ii FOREWORD Dramatic changes in sector regulation, structure and The genesis of this paper was a request from the ownership have marked the last two decades of the Brazilian Ministry of Mines and Energy in 2002 to take electricity industry around the world. Much of the a fresh look at international experiences with power focus has been on creating competitive power markets. purchase pass through mechanisms and recommend Arguably, with the benefit of hindsight, this enthusiasm alternatives to the approach then being used in Brazil. for trying to create competitive markets was not justified There was general recognition that the existing system in small countries with little potential for effective of administratively established price caps known as competition. Nevertheless, wherever there has been "valores normativos" had contributed to under- unbundling and de-verticalization, an important, but investment in generation and was one of the factors often ignored, regulatory issue in both developing that had led to serious rationing in most of Brazil in and developed countries is the pass through of power 2001. It soon became apparent that our work on purchase costs for separate distribution companies. behalf of the Brazilian government, funded by the Without rational regulatory policies, it will be impossible Public Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility (PPIAF), to achieve sustainable power sector reforms, a principal would be of interest to a number of countries since goal of the Bank's recently announced Infrastructure Brazil's experience was not unique. Action Plan. The paper does not present a "magic solution" that 1 Establishing regulatory policies for power purchase costs is applies in all circumstances and all times. It does, an important issue since power purchases constitute the however, provide detailed descriptions and analysis single largest cost for distribution utilities. Like almost all that will be of use to government officials, regulators regulatory issues, regulators must balance consumer and and power sector managers who are facing similar investor interests. Since consumers usually have no issues in a variety of sector structures. Therefore, I believe alternative suppliers, they obviously want distribution that the paper will be of considerable interest to World companies to purchase efficiently on their behalf. Ideally, Bank clients in many developing and transition economy consumers want distribution companies to have a mix of countries. I would like to commend the three authors long term and short term purchases at the lowest possible for synthesizing the experience of many countries and cost. Distribution companies, on the other hand, want bringing focus and clarity to an important issue for assurances that the costs of past and future power sustainable power sector reform. purchases can be recovered in the tariffs that they charge their customers. Distribution companies also point out that no one will be willing to build new generating plants to sell Jamal Saghir electricity to them if regulatory "benchmarks" for the pass Director, Energy and Water through of power purchase costs are set too low. The Chairman, Energy and Mining Board regulator must come up with clear rules that satisfy these February 2004 competing interests. The emphasis, then, should be on how to improve regulatory policies to obtain better, real world results. This paper examines the alternatives available to regulators in establishing rules for the pass through of power purchase costs. As with other papers in our Sector Board discussion paper series, it goes beyond general theory and first principles. It describes different specific approaches available to regulators based on the authors' experience in several countries and their direct knowledge of regulatory actions and policies in other countries. The paper analyzes the pros and cons of different approaches and how they depend on the sector's underlying structure. 2 ABSTRACT An important, but often ignored, regulatory issue in developing and developed countries is the pass through of power purchase costs for distribution companies. It is important because power purchase costs constitute the single largest cost for distribution utilities. Pass through rules are especially important for most developing countries because incumbent utilities are likely to be the sole supplier of most retail customers for the foreseeable future. Therefore, the electricity regulator must establish rules that create incentives for distribution utilities to purchase efficiently while being able to recover the costs of their purchases. This paper identifies, compares and contrasts several pass through methodologies used in both developed and developing countries. It presents lessons learned 3 and best practices. The paper suggests that the best methods for establishing pass through benchmarks rely on market prices and competitive procurements. However, when power sectors are at the very early stage of reform, market prices may be not available or may be distorted by market power. The paper examines these cases and proposes an evolutionary path for pass-through regulation. This regulatory path is meant to indicative rather than prescriptive. Ultimately, the best methodology will depend on a country's objectives and sector structure which, in turn, implies that the specifics of the pass through rule will have to be designed on a case-by-case basis. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This paper could not have been written without the assistance of many friends and colleagues inside and outside the World Bank. These individuals helped us to develop an understanding of the power sector and regulatory reforms in developing and developed countries. They gave freely of their time and insights to make sure that we got the facts right and understand what the facts really meant. They include Sabah Abdullah, Ian Alexander, Tonci Bakovic, Max Bradford, Marco Carvalho, Vivien Foster, Nelson de Franco, Philip Gray, Chantale LaCasse, Mário Pereira, Jayme Porto Carreiro, Michael Rosenzweig, Fred Sampaio, and Alan Townsend. Of course, none of them should be held responsible for any errors of fact or interpretation that remain despite their best efforts to educate us. 4 Finally, we wish to acknowledge the financial assistance of the World Bank's Energy and Water Department (EWDEN) in preparing this report. We owe a special debt of gratitude to the department's director, Jamal Saghir. Jamal provided resources and encouraged us to pursue this topic, because of his strong view that the Bank must provide practical assistance on the "second generation" power sector reform and regulatory issues. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY to sell to customers who do not have the legal right to purchase from alternative suppliers or supply their own Dramatic changes in sector regulation and structure, power. A supplier acting as a monopoly may not be risk allocation, and pricing schemes have marked the buying power or building power efficiently--and its last two decades of the electricity industry around the customers are put at disadvantage because they do not world. Throughout this period, the focus has been on have the option of looking for alternative suppliers or creating competitive power markets, establishing spot taking their business elsewhere. The regulatory pricing, managing congestion, arranging payment for challenge is to avoid this scenario while ensuring the generation capacity and reserves, responding to transfer of legitimate costs incurred by a distribution demand, and monitoring market abuse. Indeed, these company to end customers. are all key elements in reforming the wholesale power market to make it more organized and competitive; The pass through of energy costs can be regulated however, less attention has been given to how power in a number of ways. This paper describes the various purchase costs should be paid for by distribution methodologies--not as a rigid, prescriptive guideline, companies and recovered from their end customers. but in a sequence that somewhat follows the power Accordingly, this paper examines issues related to the industry's stages of development. The international "pass through" of these costs, and addresses concerns, experience is discussed in detail, with case studies requirements, and experiences in the design of pass highlighting examples from several countries such 5 through methodologies. as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Panama and Peru, in addition to The paper discusses international experiences to show developed countries such as Holland, Northern that performance-based, market-driven mechanisms are Ireland, and several regions in the United States. the most desirable in managing pass through power purchase costs. · The Full Pass Through of energy costs is usually adopted when the government or the regulator has To be effective, pass through methodologies have to determined that a distribution company has limited achieve multiple, often conflicting objectives. Some of or no discretion to influence volumes, prices, risk the most important among those objectives are allocation, or choice in power procurement. In this providing incentives for efficient procurement, fostering scenario the company is allowed to recover its full power sector expansion, eliminating some of the market purchase costs by automatically passing them on to volatility, and at the same time conveying some price retail customers. signals for demand to react to prices. Ease of implementation by the regulator is also a desirable · The Review of Energy & Power Contracts goal. Finally, methodologies have to be able to mitigate (which can be conducted before or after the structural failures that are caused by market or sector signing of a contract, and referred to as "ex ante" design hostile to competition. and "ex post," respectively) is done individually and a decision rendered in terms of the "reasonableness" Pass through practices and regulation should provide of the prices, risk allocation, and other specifics incentives for efficient energy procurement, mitigate involved. Based on this assessment, the regulator price volatility, allow distribution companies to recover may approve full pass through or prohibit some legitimate power purchase costs in full and encourage or all energy costs from being passed on to retail them to enter into long-term power purchase agreements, customers--or may decide that certain contract terms and reduce the potential for self-dealing and collusion. should be dropped or modified. The government While performing this regulatory task, however, the goal or legislature may also perform an additional of eliminating unnecessary regulatory actions and review in lieu of one performed by the regulator. decisions and reducing the opportunity for price manipulation by government should be kept in mind. Ex Ante Reviews aim to ensure that the contract complies with the electricity laws as well as with There is a concern about the pass through of power contract guidelines that may have been previously purchase costs whenever a power enterprise is positioned set by the government or the regulator. Ex Post Reviews, particularly in developing countries, · Mandated Competitive Procurement--the last may be conducted when there is an allegation of alternative is to introduce a mandated and corruption or incompetence in the award of a competitive procurement process for most of the particular contract. They are almost always extremely energy needs of a distribution company. In exchange contentious and generally undesirable because they for this commitment, full pass through of the purchase tend to deal with extreme examples of incompetence costs to the customers is allowed. This is possibly the and inefficiency and tend to drag on seemingly best methodology, provided that well drafted interminably. The recommendation in this paper is regulations are put in place. Rules and regulations that such reviews should be used only if there is clear should enable transparency and a level playing field evidence of pervasive corruption, major commercial in the procurement process, without creating malpractice, or legitimate "acts of God." Given the unnecessary barriers to entry for new players. likelihood that this kind of review may be motivated Mandated Competitive Procurement is a viable by political considerations, it should be seen as a alternative at several stages of industry and market "last resort." reform. The nature of the procurement process will vary, depending on whether the distribution company · The methodology of Administratively Set Benchmarks plays an active or passive role in designing and involves defining a "reasonable" cost for power implementing the procurement. 6 purchases using administratively established estimates of investment and operating costs. These estimates It is important to note that none of the methodologies are then used to serve as a reference to performance summarized above and explored in more detail in this based regulation, where the efficiency (or inefficiency) paper is appropriate for power sector models across the in power procurement is shared between the disco entire spectrum. The choice of methodology depends in and its customers. This approach may bog down in some measure on the characteristics of the sector. One controversy as well, since the establishment of the example mentioned in the paper cites the absence of a benchmark is subject to political manipulation. The functioning market, which makes a market benchmark recommendation in this paper is that even though this inadvisable. Another example concerns the presence (or approach may prove useful and necessary early in the absence) of affiliated generators or marketers. When a reform process, it is desirable to move on to the distribution company has the right to buy from an methodologies of Contract Market Prices or Multi-Market affiliated generator or marketer, there is always the Benchmarks (summarized below) as soon as feasible. possibility that it may pay higher prices or assume more risk than it would if it were purchasing from a non- · Multi-Market Benchmarks--based on the price of affiliate. One of these issues concerns the potential for power traded between companies that generate "self-dealing." And how this detrimental outcome for power and companies that distribute it--may offer an customers may be mitigated. interesting alternative. Regulators establish one or more market benchmarks as a baseline for assessing Even though an "apples and apples" comparison is not a distribution company's power purchase costs. If the possible, owing to different characteristics and company is able to acquire energy at a price below circumstances (such as feasibility as mentioned above) the established benchmark(s), it retains all or part of involving pass through methodologies, this paper the difference, as an incentive to good procurement.1 presents a side-by-side assessment to explore the If it pays more than the benchmark, however, it bears strengths and weaknesses of the different methodologies all or part of the additional costs (in other words, it is in a direct and transparent way. not allowed to recover these costs through tariffs). This mechanism better aligns the interests of the The assumption held by the authors is that despite all company shareholders with the interests of the the challenges outlined, there is sufficient regulatory customers because they both benefit from lower prices. capability to reform the power distribution sector. Nonetheless, there are still some pass through-related issues that remain unresolved from a regulatory standpoint. Lack of consensus on how to address those issues in part reflects insufficient empirical evidence, as well as the difficulty of coming up with a solution tailored to a variety of potential problems. Finally, a consensus has not emerged on how to adjust pass through regulations based on distribution company performance--specifically, how to calibrate penalties and incentives--so that power purchase costs are shared in a fair manner. The key recommendations outlined in this paper cover a range based on the principle that the sector evolves and becomes more competitive over time. Ranging from no competition to full competition, they are not meant to be a rigid, prescriptive evolutionary path for the power 7 sector to be followed by every single country, but simply to illustrate some of the best pass through methodologies that may be available to regulators as the sector changes. Since there is no single pass through approach that works in all situations. As the power sector evolves, so must the procedures for pass through. The design of the wholesale market and the pass through mechanism should go hand in hand, developing over time to maximize the potential synergies between retail and wholesale markets. This is not to imply, however, that the proposed evolution should bring about unpredictable changes and regulatory uncertainty among industry players. It is important to establish a road map for the evolution of pass through methodologies based on a long-term view of reform and stable development of competition in the power sector as a whole, as proposed in this paper. 1. WHY IS PASS THROUGH OF POWER There are now more opportunities for efficient power PURCHASE COSTS AN IMPORTANT ISSUE procurement and cost reduction--which need to be FOR ELECTRIC SECTOR REFORM? encouraged. At the same time there are also more opportunities for gaming and trading among affiliates-- Introduction which need to be closely monitored. During the last two decades, the electricity industry Regulators should become concerned about the pass around the world has gone through a revolution in through of power purchase costs whenever a power regulation, sector structure, risk allocation, and pricing enterprise is selling to captive customers (that is, systems. Much has been written or discussed about customers who do not have the legal right to competitive power markets, spot pricing, congestion purchase from alternative suppliers). In the traditional management, payment for generation capacity and language of regulation, the supplier of the captive reserves, demand response, and monitoring of market customers has a monopoly franchise, raising the abuse--all critical elements for any reform effort that regulatory concern that the monopoly supplier may attempts to establish an organized and competitive not be buying or building efficiently and its customers wholesale power market. are hurt because they do not have the option of taking their business elsewhere. The fundamental challenge 8 However, less attention has been given to how is to create regulatory mechanisms to provide discos power purchase costs should be paid for by distribution with incentives for good procurement while also companies (or by single buyer entities acting on their ensuring adequate supplies of new generation. behalf) and recovered from their final customers. The sustainability of any reform depends ultimately on Figure 1 illustrates the typical supply chain and whether there is consistency between upstream (that is, associated cost components within the electric sector. wholesale markets or single buyer procurement) This paper will focus on the pass through mechanisms and downstream (that is, retail supply) regulatory for power purchase costs, labeled in figure 1 as mechanisms. A very important, but often ignored, "Authorized Generation Costs."1 These costs typically regulatory design issue is how the regulator decides represent 30 to 50 percent of the total costs of the on the allowed pass through of power purchase costs supply chain, but may be as high as 70 to 80 percent incurred by separate distribution companies (henceforth in some African countries or in some states in India. called "discos") or the distribution components of Power purchase costs are higher in these countries vertically integrated power companies. because, among other factors, losses are higher. When a distribution company loses 30 to 40 percent In the past, pass through regulations were relatively of its acquired electricity because of technical and non straightforward. Utilities, particularly in the United States, technical losses, it has to purchase more power from usually operated under a "cost-plus" regime governed power generating companies (generators) and other by a "regulatory compact." This compact did not fully suppliers than would a disco that loses only 10 to 15 protect utilities against disallowance or findings of percent (privatized discos in Latin America are an imprudence for purchases and construction of their own example of the latter). In such circumstances, it becomes plants. In general utilities were allowed to fully recover even more important to design effective pass through their costs, if they were able to pass a regulatory review mechanisms to encourage the distribution company to of "prudence." purchase economically.2 Unbundling and competition, driven by power sector Discos usually contend that power purchase costs are, reform in many countries, have created new, more to a large extent, beyond their control. They argue that complex interfaces between generation and retail supply. energy costs, often the most important single item in This paper assumes that transmission and distribution charges ("wire costs"), as well as ancillary services are recovered on a "cost-plus" 1 basis. Retail margin may also be recovered in the same way or driven by competitive forces. It may be reasonable for the regulator to review the quantity of power purchased by the disco if the disco is buying excessive amounts of 2 power because of high losses on its distribution system. However, the regulations to help reduce distribution losses are outside of the scope of this paper. FIGURE 1. Pass Through Cost in the Supply Chain COMPETITION: REGULATED: REGULATED: · Generation costs · Transmission revenue · Distribution revenue · Energy procurement · Return on assets plus · Investment costs plus O&M efficient costs rate of return plus efficient O&M costs and losses Retail Revenue Authorized generation costs Transmission charges Distribution charges Retail margin plus plus plus System operator and Total costs to include ancillary services costs in tariffs Note: O&M Operations and management 9 their cost structure, should be a full pass through from success stories and can have broader application. component in the tariff-making process. In contrast, In general, international experience shows that the regulators are generally wary of automatic pass through problem may be tackled more effectively with the procedures, which may lead to inefficient and sloppy support of performance-based, market-oriented buying practices, "sweetheart deals," or even intentional mechanisms--whether the market mechanism is a one- overpayment to generators from distributors in return for time competitive procurement for long-term supplies or a hidden "kick-back."3 In the view of discos, limits on an ongoing competitive spot market. pass through of power costs represent a substantial new regulatory risk. They argue that any attempt to impose limits or delays in the pass through of energy costs to 2. DESIRABLE GOALS FOR EFFECTIVE PASS the final customer could bankrupt them.4 THROUGH REGULATION Objectives Overall Goals This paper aims to address concerns, requirements, and An effective pass through mechanism has to strike a different experiences in the design of power purchase delicate balance between two major and usually cost pass through methodologies.5 While no country's conflicting goals for any regulator: establishing experience has been perfect, some countries have been reasonable rates while providing efficient incentives for more successful than others, in terms of fostering good power system expansion. Regulators have the obligation purchasing behavior and encouraging generation to protect customers from unreasonable and uneconomic capacity expansion. Important lessons can be learned wholesale purchases,6 but they also have a statutory See Bakovic, Tenenbaum, and Woolf (2003). 3 The bankruptcy of the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E), in the midst of the California crisis, was attributable, in large part, to the 4 unwillingness of the Public Utility Commission in California to allow pass through of PG&E's costs or power purchases. The two main power utilities claimed that they had accumulated some US$ 12 billion in uncompensated costs because of the high prices they paid for wholesale electricity. Consequently, they lacked the credit to purchase wholesale power, and their debt rating was slashed to junk-bond status. See Besant-Jones and Tenenbaum (2001, p. 28). Power cost pass through procedures have to address two basic dimensions: price and quantities. This paper focuses on the regulation of 5 prices. Incentive systems for minimizing the quantity of electricity purchased are discussed in Bakovic, Tenenbaum, and Woolf (2003, pp. 36­39). We use the term "protection" in a broad sense. It is not meant to imply that short-term price increases should always be avoided. This 6 would be shortsighted. In the long term, consumers are protected if the regulator creates a regulatory system that facilitates the necessary investments to guarantee the long-term reliability of supply and thereby avoid shortages of power. Consumers are not protected if the regulatory system leads to shortages of supply. obligation to set prices that allow the industry to regulatory risks if the pass through mechanism sets a generate enough funds to provide for a sustainable cap on the costs that may be passed on to the expansion of the power system. The balancing of these customer, particularly if the discos have to buy a large two goals is the central focus of this paper. portion of their energy needs in a volatile spot market.9 These two overall goals imply several subsidiary goals: (d)Provide efficient price signals for demand to react-- The worldwide experience in trying to create Subsidiary Goals competitive power markets has shown that it is extremely beneficial to have the load (or at least part (a)Provide incentives for efficient energy procurement-- of it) react to prices in the wholesale market.10 If This is the raison d'être of any pass through mechanism. some end consumers see spot prices, it creates more Good procurement implies good incentives to purchase demand elasticity and may mitigate the market power at minimum cost, and a regulatory mechanism power of generators. Therefore, it seems reasonable to share these gains (or reasonable losses) with the to try to transmit some price signals (and final customer. The requirement of "economic accompanying volatility) to at least some of the final purchasing" is found in most distribution licenses (or customers. However, there is clearly a tradeoff concession agreements.) But as new regulators quickly between conveying accurate price signals and the 10 discover, it is one thing to have a formal, legal goal of reducing price volatility to customers, as requirement and it is an entirely different matter to suggested in item "b" above.11 The delivery of market create economic incentives that will transform the legal signals has to be acceptable and understood by requirement into actual behavior. Unless there is electricity users. And, in general, consumers will not convergence between the "legal" and the "economic," want to see market prices unless they think they have the legal requirement in the license may be nothing the capability to respond to such prices in a manner more than empty words on a piece of paper. that will lower their overall electricity bill. (b)Reduce price volatility to customers--Many customers (e)Provide incentives for discos to establish long-term do not want to be fully exposed to excessive volatility energy contracts (power purchase agreements or in the wholesale markets.7 Moreover, it is generally PPAs)--In many countries, generators will not build more efficient to have discos managing this risk by new plants unless they have a long-term contract. contracting in the forward markets.8 The contract is, in effect, a prerequisite for expansion. If the regulator sets an artificially low cap (c) Allow discos to fully recover legitimate power on pass through, discos will not find willing suppliers, purchase costs--Discos will face significant risks if and long-term expansion will be jeopardized. This is they are not allowed to fully recover most of the particularly true in countries in which bulk power energy costs incurred when procuring energy markets are in the early stages of power sector effectively within a reasonable timeframe. By the development. In such countries, discos may be the only same token, discos do not want to be exposed to potential buyers in the absence of retail competition. See Littlechild (2003, pp. 68­70). This subject will be discussed in more detail in chapter 3. 7 By forward markets we mean any agreement involving prices and quantities that is set on an ex ante basis and is able to reduce the 8 volatility of the spot prices. If forward agreements are very short term (for example, day ahead), or are indexed to the spot prices, they will not achieve the goal of reducing price volatility. On the other hand, if agreements are closed well in advance of the real-time spot market, and have sufficient duration (for instance, long-term bilateral contracts), prices will reflect expected medium- and long-term conditions, therefore providing greater reduction in price volatility and price hedges to final customers. This occurred in Northern California during the 2001 crisis. The Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) was forced to buy most of its 9 energy requirements on a short-term basis (day ahead or spot), while retail rates were frozen. The mismatch between costs incurred and costs passed through to final customers led to bankruptcy. Please refer to footnote 4 for more details. Power pools such as Pennsylvania - New Jersey - Maryland (PJM, New York Independent System Operator (NYISO), and New England 10 Pool (NEEPOOL), all in the United States, have in the last few years worked to improve the mechanism of price demand response. In Europe, France is an interesting example of a significant number of customers' being partially exposed to prices in the wholesale market. Results in terms of system cost and reliability have been extremely promising. Demand-side response depends not only on the pass through regulations, but also on the existence of other mechanisms in place, such as retail competition, some form of time of use metering or real-time mechanism to reduce loads (for example, disconnection of water heating system), pricing, adequate contractual arrangements, and possibly the existence of a functioning spot market. A possible tradeoff is to convey part of the wholesale market price volatility to large customers, which usually have more price elasticity; 11 the fixed transaction costs of obtaining financial hedges and implementing real-time metering will have less impact on their total energy bill. If prices are set too low, it will be virtually impossible 3. METHODOLOGIES TO REGULATE POWER for discos to procure energy from willing suppliers. PURCHASE COST PASS THROUGH15 (f) Reduce the opportunity for price manipulation by Range of Methodologies government--A pass through regulatory mechanism should be clear, transparent, and objective. It should A wide range of methodologies exists to regulate be based on a formula with parameters established the pass through of energy costs faced by discos. in advance and with limited room for interpretation. The methodologies discussed here should not be If the government or the regulator has considerable construed as a rigid, prescriptive guideline. discretion in interpreting the pass through formula, However, the sequence in which they are presented this creates unnecessary risks, both for generators in this chapter bear some correlation with the power and distributors.12 industry's stages of development. The principal methodologies are described as follows: (g)Reduce the potential for self-dealing and collusion-- A poorly designed regulatory pass through (a) Full-Pass Through of Power Purchase Costs; mechanism may provide opportunities and incentives (b) Review of Power Contracts (Ex Ante or Ex Post); for players to enter into "sweetheart" deals with (c) Administratively Set Benchmarks; affiliates or to engage in collusion with other players. (d) Mandated Competitive Procurement for Physical 11 This raises the cost of power purchases and tariffs to or Financial Contracts; and final customers.13 While the pass through methodology (e) Market Benchmarks Based on Spot or Contract itself is not the cause of the market imperfections, Prices or a combination of the two (Multi-Market some pass through mechanisms may be more Benchmarks.) effective than others in stopping such conduct. Table 1 lists countries, states, or regions within countries (h)Minimize the number of regulatory actions and where these methodologies have been applied. It is decisions--The application of the pass through important to note that these methodologies are not mechanism should be as simple as possible. Some mutually exclusive. Sometimes a country will adopt two designs, however, may require more actions by the mechanisms. For example, the Guatemalan regulator regulator--such as defining benchmarks on a may review the mandated competitive procurement contract-by-contract basis,14 distinguishing between process for compliance with its guidelines and conduct purchases for captive and free markets (that is, non- an ex ante review of the proposed financial contracts price-regulated customers), monitoring contracts, that result from the procurement process. establishing rules for competitive procurement, and other regulatory interventions. Whenever possible, the The main features of these methodologies will be number of regulatory decisions should be minimized. discussed in turn. However, some form of regulatory capability and intervention will always be necessary, no matter the Full Pass Through of Power Purchase Costs simplicity of the selected pass through mechanism. This approach is usually adopted when the government or the regulator has determined that a disco has limited A possible form of manipulation by a government or by a regulator is to set future expected spot prices or long-run marginal costs that 12 pass through to tariffs based on unrealistic assumptions about new generation entry, cost of capital, plant construction schedule, and fuel availability. One example of this phenomenon was the impact of the development of the Camisea gas field in Peru on the estimate of future (48 months) power spot prices used to calculate average energy prices to be passed on through tariffs. See Bakovic, Tenenbaum, and Woolf (2003, p. 33) for a discussion on the "ghosts of Camisea." According to the current Minister of Mines and Energy in Brazil, the existing pass through mechanism in force has allowed utility 13 companies to gouge customers by entering into contractual arrangements with affiliates at above-market prices. Such undesirable behavior required regulatory action, such as the introduction of mandated competitive procurement. (O Estado de São Paulo, February 06, 2003.) More recently, ANEEL (the Brazilian national electricity regulator) has concluded that discos have been willing to accept more contractual risk on purchases from affiliated generators. See ANEEL (2003). This is the case in Brazil, where each long-term contract with duration equal to or longer than two years is tagged with a specific 14 benchmark and with a specific escalation clause, including different weights and price adjustment indexes. The discussion in this chapter draws from Maurer and Arizu (2002), and from Bakovic, Tenenbaum, and Woolf (2003 p. 30). 15 Table 1. International Examples of Pass Through Methodologies The Single Buyer Model METHODOLOGY VARIATIONS EXAMPLES Full Pass Through of "Prudent" expenses in Most USA utilities Many countries have opted for a single Power Purchase Costs cost-plus regime buyer model in the early stages of Brazil, Argentina, Panama, Vesting contracts Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador a power sector reform. This means that generators may only sell their electricity Purchases from a single buyer Hungary, Northern Ireland to a single entity. It also usually implies Review of Power Contracts Ex ante Guatemala, Panama, Nicaragua, that this single entity has been granted Massachusetts and Nevada (USA) Ex post California (USA), India the exclusive legal right to supply all of the power needs of the distribution Administratively Set Benchmark based on regulator's Normative Value (VN) in Brazil entities. Under this sector model, both Benchmarks estimates of long-run marginal (current) cost for new generation the discos and the customers of the Benchmark based on estimates The United States under the 1978 discos are captive customers. of the disco's "avoided cost" Public Utility Regulatory Act (PURPA) Mandated Competitive Physical contracts Florida (USA) There are many variations in the Procurement Financial contracts Panama, Guatemala, Nicaragua, implementation of a single buyer New Jersey (USA) model. One possibility is to have the 12 Market Benchmarks Spot Chile, Peru, El Salvador, Bolivia, state-owned integrated power company Argentina purchasing from independent power Contracts Brazil (planned) producers to supply its own distribution Spot and Contracts (Multi- Colombia, The Netherlands divisions. This has been the approach Markets) taken in many Asian countries in the a Contracts for power purchases that are usually assigned to a new distribution company at the early stages of power sector reform, time of privatization. such as Pakistan, Thailand, and others. Source: The World Bank. Or alternatively, the single buyer may be located within a national or no discretion to influence volumes, prices, risk transmission company or system operator controlled allocation, or choice in power procurement. When the by the national government. This was the approach regulator concludes that the disco has little or no followed in Hungary and Northern Ireland. In either control over a particular purchase, he or she will case the government implicitly or explicitly guarantees usually allow the buyer to recover its full purchase the purchases of the single buyer. When there is a costs by automatically passing them on to retail mandated, "top down" single buyer, distribution utilities customers.16 The most prominent examples are will typically have little or no influence on the purchases "vesting contracts" assigned at the time of privatization made by this entity. As a consequence, the government and restructuring, mandated purchases from "single will put pressure on the regulator to allow full pass buyers," and obligatory purchases under a Build, through of the costs incurred by discos when acquiring Operate & Transfer (BOT)17 agreement. Each one of power from the single buyer. Any disallowance would those cases is examined below. put the government at risk.18 In some developing countries, bulk tariffs were maintained at subsidized levels, distorting expansion and contracting decisions. However, 16 full cost recovery for distributors does not necessarily imply that the tariffs recover the generators' full cost. This was the case in Brazil during the 1980s. There was an estimated revenue shortfall of more than US$25 billion, which was subsequently recovered from the taxpayers. The lack of an independent regulatory authority was a factor that certainly contributed to price suppression. The typical single buyer entity is a mandated, top-down, government-owned enterprise--but it does not have to be designed this way. An 17 alternative form of single buyer would be a voluntary, bottom-up buying agency, formed by a group of municipal distribution utilities to acquire power supplies on their behalf. The joint action agency would perform this function by buying power on spot markets or through contracts or by purchasing ownership interests in existing or new generating units that may also be owned by one or more vertically owned utilities. Such entities have existed for many years in the United States. For example, in Wisconsin, 37 small municipal distribution utilities, serving a population of about 250,000 people, created a jointly owned company called Wisconsin Public Power Inc. (WPPI.) to cover their power needs. The goal of WPPI is to be "a smart, efficient and aggressive aggregator of power for the benefit of our member communities." This means developing and maintaining a diverse power supply portfolio from which members may offer their customers electricity that will be more attractive than other options. In general, there is little or no regulatory oversight of the actions of the joint action agencies. The rationale for this "hands-off" regulatory approach is that, contrary to the typical "top-down" approach of single buyers, the joint action agency is owned and governed by its beneficiaries. This happened in California during its recent power crisis. The state government designated the Department of Water Resources, a state 18 agency, as the sole buyer for customers of the privately owned utilities and the state legislature enacted a law that required the regulatory commission to pass through all of the state entity's power purchase costs in retail rates of the private distribution companies. Vesting Contracts power price adjustments, especially if they result in tariff increases for the end-user, can cause political and social Vesting contracts are usually assigned to discos by the problems. El Salvador is currently revisiting its pass through government as part of a reform or privatization package. arrangements, and is considering the introduction of an The contracts are usually imposed because there is no equalization fund similar to the Argentine fund to room for parties to negotiate volumes, prices, and risk reduce power purchase costs' volatility.19 allocation clauses. Review of Power Contracts Vesting contracts are established to reduce the purchase price risk faced by discos, to provide a stable cash flow The regulator reviews an individual power contract to generators, and to promote a gradual transition and makes a judgment as to its "reasonableness" toward market-based bulk power tariffs. in terms of prices, risk allocation, and other contractual terms. Based on this assessment, the regulator may The transition to bulk power tariffs usually involves a gradual approve full pass through or prohibit some or all price increase, if vesting contract volumes at subsidized energy costs from being passed on to retail customers-- prices are scaled down and replaced by new power or may decide that certain contract terms be dropped priced at market prices or marginal cost. Or alternatively, or modified. The government or legislature may also power tariffs may go down, if there is the need to recover perform an additional review in lieu of one performed 13 high costs represented by "stranded" contracts. by the regulator. Automatic or full pass through, both for single buyer Review of Power Contracts may take place on an ex purchases and for vesting contracts, is sometimes more ante or ex post basis. Ex ante reviews are made to of a concept than a reality. It is not uncommon to see a ensure that the contract complies with the electricity significant lag between when the disco pays higher (or laws as well as with contracting guidelines that may lower) bulk power prices and when tariffs to final have been previously set by the government or the customers are increased (or reduced). In Brazil, for regulator. This is the case in Guatemala, Panama, example, the lag is mandated by law because of the and Nicaragua, where the electricity laws mandate concern that more frequent tariff adjustments would competitive procurement for the discos, and the trigger inflation. Box 1 describes the Brazilian system of power purchase contracts have to be approved by automatic pass through and some of the changes that the regulator before the prices can be passed through have occurred over the last several years. in retail tariffs.20 Once the contracts are approved, there is a usually a guarantee of full pass through as A more timely form of automatic pass through existed in long as no amendments are made to the contracts El Salvador, whose Electricity Law allowed for annual full without regulatory approval. This was the dominant pass through of spot prices in the previous 12 months, regulatory approach used during the 1980s throughout with adjustments every six months. In theory, the the United States. mechanism would protect discos against fluctuations in spot market prices by allowing full pass through of ex Pass through of power costs may also depend on an ex post power costs. However, when spot prices become post contract review (in other words, one that takes very volatile, with unexpected price increases, a disco place after a contract has been signed). This usually may experience a significant revenue shortfall caused by occurs when there is an allegation of corruption or the time lag between actual prices and the prices that incompetence in the award of a particular contract. are recovered through tariffs. Ex post reviews are almost always very contentious. When generation costs are volatile or are transferred on They have been conducted, among other places, in an ex post basis, they become critical to more frequent California and in the state of Maharashtra in India. In adjustments. Otherwise the financial condition of the Maharashtra, a new state government challenged the disco may be seriously jeopardized. But frequent bulk terms and conditions of a power agreement signed A combination of mechanisms is being considered; the first (a stabilization fund for discos) has been regulated to start operation in June 2003. 19 In Panama, it appears that there is no formal ex post review of contracts. Instead, the regulator reviews for compliance with the 20 competitive bidding rules and contract award processes. BOX 1. Automatic Pass Through in Brazil: It Is Not What You Say, It Is What You Do21 Some Brazilian officials describe their power purchase pass through mechanism for vesting contracts as an example of "full" or "automatic" pass through. This normally means that the regulatory contract provides for frequent and complete adjustments for changes in the costs of power purchases. But in fact, this has not been the case because Brazilian law allows ANEEL, the national electricity regulator, to make adjustments in retail tariffs only once a year. The general prohibition on more frequent adjustments reflects a macroeconomic concern that indexing or any regulatory mechanism that mimics indexing (for example, automatic monthly tariff adjustments to reflect changes in power purchase costs) could lead to a new outbreak of the hyperinflation that Brazil experienced during the 1990s. This economy-wide, legal prohibition on more-frequent price adjustments has created significant financial risk for Brazilian distribution companies. For example, suppose that a disco's retail tariffs were set on the assumption that the disco's dollar-denominated debt service and some power purchase costs will be US$1 million (R$3 million in Brazilian currency) per month. If the Real declines in value against the dollar by 10 percent, the distribution company will need to pay R$ 300,000 more per month to cover additional expenditures. However, the retail tariffs are not indexed to the USA dollar and Brazilian law prohibits the discos from adjusting its retail tariffs until the next scheduled annual tariff adjustment. As a consequence, the disco will lose R$ 300,000 per month. When retail rates 14 are finally changed the following year to reflect the higher power purchase costs, there is no "catch-up" mechanism to recover the money that the company lost every month since the previous adjustment.22 One large distribution utility serving part of the state of São Paulo estimated that it lost about US$180 million between June 1999 and October 2001 because its automatic pass through mechanism permitted only annual adjustments for cost changes. There are two solutions to this regulatory lag problem, and both have been adopted in Latin America. One is to have more frequent tariff reviews. The other is to have a tracking account, which records tariff shortfall or surpluses and makes up for any differences in the next tariff adjustment process. Tracking accounts started to be used in Brazil in 2001 and they have proved to be a satisfactory solution for discos' regulatory lag. More recently, as part of an effort to limit tariff increases, the government ordered that the 2002 generation cost increases that had been accumulated in the tracking account would be deferred and transferred to tariffs over several years, rather than being fully recovered only in 2003. Tracking accounts are not without problems, however. They can lead to significant tariff increases at the time of the next adjustment.23 Furthermore, until tariff adjustments are made, a disco could experience significant cash shortfall. Nicaragua's Tariff Normative tried to deal with the first problem by creating a pre-specified "trigger" point, which would "empty" the account once it reached a predetermined level. between the Maharashtra State Electricity Board (MSEB) high prices of energy contracted during the peak of the and Dabhol Power Corporation (DPC)24 for electricity California energy crisis. This was triggered by widespread sales from the Dabhol project.25 To date, the issues in allegations that DWR had purchased power from sellers dispute have still not been resolved. In California, the that had manipulated the market to raise prices.26 state government forced the Department of Water Resources (DWR), the state agency that acted as a single buyer on behalf of the government, to renegotiate the The discussion in this box draws from Bakovic, Tenenbaum, and Woolf (2003, p. 30). 21 This problem is not unique to Brazil. It is usually referred to as "regulatory lag" and has to do with cost variations between two successive 22 tariff adjustments. If differences between forecast and actual costs are substantial--for instance, when currency devaluations take place-- the regulatory lag may have a significant impact on a disco's financials. The financial risk of regulatory lag is not completely eliminated with the creation of an administrative tracking account. Experience has 23 shown that if recovery of past revenue shortfalls lead to a sharp tariff increase, the government or the regulator will try to smooth out the impact, by deferring recovery over multiple periods. DPC is a subsidiary set up by Enron Corporation and its affiliates, Bechtel and General Electric of USA. 24 Parikh (2001) provides a detailed explanation on the nature of the contractual dispute. 25 The implications of this on pass through of power costs are still unknown. To date, the state of California has absorbed part of those 26 costs, increasing its fiscal deficit. The proportion of costs to be passed through to customers is still uncertain at this point; however, it is expected that the taxpayer will probably end up absorbing a large portion of the contract-stranded costs. In commenting on ex post reviews in an earlier period, Usually the avoided cost was calculated based on an one California energy company official observed that estimate of the utility's cost of providing the same such reviews were "time consuming and frustrating, and increment of supply if acquired from some other source left everyone angry because no one got what they (for example, own construction or sources that did not wanted."27 A long-time California consumer advocate qualify under the PURPA Law). The avoided cost described the "retrospective reasonableness reviews" as estimates were determined in formal regulatory counterproductive and ultimately harmful to consumers proceedings. A state regulatory commission would because they create strong incentives for the disco to receive evidence from various parties and then decide make purchases "to avoid regulatory disallowance on a "reasonable" number. In some cases this adversarial rather than try to minimize costs."28 process produced very high estimates of avoided cost, particularly if the commission was under pressure to In general, ex post reviews are undesirable because they encourage nontraditional suppliers of power. tend to focus only on extreme examples of incompetence and inefficiency, provide no penalties for failure to For example, in the 1980s the California Public Utility adopt best practices, offer no rewards for superior Commission required California utilities to sign performance, and tend to drag on and on. In the case multiyear contracts with qualifying independent power of developing countries, these reviews also reduce producers at prices that were based on the contract certainty and may hurt contract sanctity at the Commission's expectation that world oil prices would 15 very times when the country needs to demonstrate both remain at above $30 a barrel for many years. Shortly of these characteristics to international and domestic after the mandatory contracts were signed, world oil investors. Ex post reviews should be used only if there is prices collapsed. But the contracts mandated by the clear evidence of pervasive corruption, major regulator continued to be honored and it is estimated commercial malpractice, or legitimate "acts of God." that California consumers ended up paying several Given the likelihood that this kind of review may be billion dollars above actual market prices. As a result of motivated by political considerations, it should be seen this experience, many commissions later moved toward as a "last resort." estimating avoided cost prices using a mandated auction mechanism.29 This meant that avoided cost Administratively Set Benchmarks prices were the outcome of a market rather than an administrative process. According to this methodology, the regulator tries to define a "reasonable" cost for power purchases using Brazil has taken a similar approach. ANEEL currently administratively established estimates of investment and makes administrative estimates of long-run marginal operating costs. These estimates are then used to cost (LRMC) known as Normative Values (or VNs). establish a benchmark and the buyer is allowed to pass Regulations require that every disco's power purchase through prices up to the benchmark. This was the agreement be assigned a separate VN which is then approach taken during the early years of implementation indexed to various measures of inflation. It is an of the PURPA Law (1978) in the United States. The law administratively cumbersome system. Moreover, there required USA utilities (which were generally vertically has been considerable controversy surrounding the integrated) to buy the output of certain types of economic and operating assumptions used to calculate independent generators known as "qualifying facilities" the benchmark. Not surprisingly, generators and discos at a price equal to "avoided cost." The avoided cost have argued that the numbers are too low. Discos have was deemed to be a fair and reasonable price, and any complained that no power producers were willing to sell power purchases made at or below the avoided cost at the benchmark prices established by ANEEL. Even was automatically passed through to the buying utility's some independent observers have concluded that the retail customers. gap resulting from Administratively Set Benchmarks and "When the regulator looks at the purchasing strategy of the Disco with hindsight there will always have been a better way." Hunt (2002, p. 51). 27 As quoted in Bakovic, Tenenbaum, and Woolf (2003, p. 36). 28 In the United States, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) proposed general rules for a standardized competitive bidding 29 process. However, the rules were never formally issued because of political opposition. A good description of the US efforts to implement PURPA can be found in Plummer and Troppman. (1990) the real market cost of power has been a deterrent to for new supplies was recently adopted in Florida in the capacity expansion in the country and contributed to United States (see box 2). This action seems to have Brazil's supply shortages during 2001­02. To resolve been principally motivated by a desire to create a "level this impasse, the Brazilian government announced in playing field" between competing bids of affiliated and late 2002 that it would replace VN with a market nonaffiliated generators. determined benchmark within a year.30 The fact that a regulator has mandated a competitive Mandated Competitive Procurement procurement is no guarantee that there will actually be adequate competition. This is true regardless of whether According to this methodology, the regulator requires the procurement is for a physical or financial contract. discos to buy some or all of their energy requirements Competition may be inadequate whenever there are through a competitive and transparent procurement barriers to the construction of new plants or insufficient process. This is a kind of "conduct" regulation. The capacity on the transmission grid to deliver the energy hope is that if the distribution company follows the once the plant has been built. In addition, there may specified processes, this will lead to cost-effective not be many sellers who are willing to make actual purchases. As a quid pro quo, the regulator usually offers when there is uncertainty about whether the disco commits to allowing full pass through of the purchase has the ability to pay or when there are regulations that 16 costs to the distribution company's customers. limit the pass through of power purchase costs to retail tariffs. A number of developing countries have experienced Mandated procurement can be required of either these problems. In some cases a procurement is physical or financial contracts. announced but few, if any, generators come forward with actual offers--a problem that is not limited to Physical Contracts developing countries. A similar situation occurred in California in 2001 when generators and other suppliers Physical contracts are usually employed in "bilateral began to doubt that the buying utilities in the state markets," where the buyers are vertically integrated would have the financial capacity to pay for purchases. utilities or separate distribution entities and the sellers When generators refused to sell to the privately owned are independent generators or marketers. Physical utilities, the state of California was forced to purchase on contracts give the buyer an entitlement to energy their behalf and also issue state-backed bonds to produced by one or more generating units. Physical guarantee payment. contracts require that there be an electrical connection or at least a contract transmission path between the Financial Contracts seller and the buyer.31 Depending on the specifics of the agreement, the seller (or the buyer) may have the right In contrast to physical contracts, a financial contract to determine how the generation unit or units will be provides a financial hedge between a seller and a dispatched (or self-scheduled) rather than ceding this buyer for a specified amount of energy during one or decision to a central system and market operator. A type more hours at predetermined prices. The buyer usually of mandated competitive bidding for physical contracts does not care where the power comes from; the only When Brazil established its pass through methodology in 1998, it was meant to be based on a market benchmark. It was assumed that 30 the reform process and implementation of the wholesale market would be finalized during 1999­2000 and market benchmarks would be available soon. Owing to delays in market implementation, regulators lacked a market proxy to set a benchmark for pass through purposes. In the absence of any reasonable proxy, an administratively set benchmark (VN) continues to be applied. A benchmark based on the contract market would be the preferred choice, as market conditions permit. Decree 4.562, on Article 11, 12, and 13 (December 31, 2002) has ruled that ANEEL should migrate to a benchmark based on energy auctions within one year. Physical contracts are based on the "wheeling trading model." The fundamental problem with this trading model is that it assumes "that the 31 power [can] be directed to follow a particular [contractual] path on the network, in breach of physical laws that dictate the flow of the electricity." The experience of the United States and Europe shows that this trading model has problems when there are many participants and many transactions. See Hunt (2002, pp. 143­47). It appears that India's new electricity law will also be creating a wheeling trading model. A pool using financial contracts can deal with multiple transactions in a simpler way, provided a proper metering and settlement system is in place. BOX 2. Mandated Competitive Procurement: Physical Contracts (Florida, USA) Four large vertically integrated utilities under private ownership provide most of the electrical service in Florida. Historically these four utilities have built and operated their own generating units with some limited imports from neighboring utility systems to the north. During the last several years, independent power producers (IPPs) have complained that these four utilities have designed a procurement process for new generation supplies that always results in the utilities' building their own new generation (in other words, a self-build option). The IPP developers have argued that this is unfair and results in Florida retail consumers paying more for new generation than they would if the IPP developers were given an equal opportunity to compete for the right to build new generating units. After more than three years of political and legal battles, the Florida Public Service Commission (PSC) issued the "New Bid Rules" in January 2003 with the intent of creating a "level playing field" between the "self-build" option and competing power sale proposals from IPP developers. The "New Bidding Rule" specifies the following: · Information required in the request for proposals (RFP)--the rule mandates more than 25 information items, including some with several subcomponents, that the utility must provide; · Information that must be provided by bidders; 17 · Procedures for bids by the buyer (the "self-build" option); · Procedures for holding meetings between the buying utility and potential bidders; · Procedures for filing complaints before and after selection; · Type of evidence that can be used in complaint proceedings; · Procedures if the purchasing utility wishes to make any changes in the RFP after it has been issued; · Standards for judging whether additional "extraordinary costs," incurred by the utility if it chooses the self- build option, have been "prudently incurred." The focus of the "New Bidding Rule" is clearly on conduct regulation. It will require heavy and detailed monitoring of how the integrated utilities conduct their procurements to ensure that they comply with both the "letter and spirit" of the new rule. This monitoring by the commission is made more complicated by the fact that the final signed contracts will be for physical delivery rather than for a specified price, which means that the selection criteria must be multidimensional instead of having a single dimension--a price. Because the final selection will be based on a weighting of price and non-price criteria, it will be more difficult for the Florida commission to assess whether the buying utilities acted impartially than if the selection were based solely on price (see box 3 on Panama and box 4 on New Jersey). The "New Bidding Rule" is designed to ensure that the purchasing utility selects the least cost option, whether it is the "self-build" or "purchase" option. However, it appears that there is a fundamental conflict between the detailed regulations of the "New Bidding Rule" and Florida's existing cost-of-service system. Under cost-of- service regulation, a utility can earn a profit on any electricity that is produced from its own generating units because the capital cost of the new generating unit goes into the utility's "regulatory asset base." But if the utility purchases the same amount of electricity from a third party, it is not allowed to earn a profit on the purchase cost (that is, the transaction is simply a cost pass through of an expense item). Therefore, regardless of what the regulations may say in the "New Bidding Rule," the buying utility will always have a strong incentive to "build rather than to buy." A possible course of action would be to change the tariff setting system so that the utility can earn profits on both the "buy" and "build" options. Presumably, if a utility had comparable incentives to buy or build, a commission would not have to spend so much time trying to police the utility's behavior. Instead, the regulator would be able to focus on outcomes rather than processes. continued BOX 2. Mandated Competitive Procurement: Physical Contracts (Florida, USA) - continued Conduct regulation is a second-best regulatory solution because it is labor intensive, slow, and susceptible to legal challenges. It forces a commission to specify and then police relatively minor (but important) procurement actions. In Florida, some IPPs' argued that the procurement process mandated by the "New Bid Rule" could be successfully implemented only if an outside third party not affiliated with the purchasing utility conducted it.32 The PSC rejected this option but it may still make sense for countries where the regulator is new and inexperienced and where corruption (for instance, bribes from a generator to the distribution company that is procuring new generation) is a concern. assurance sought is for the seller to honor the agreed- the principal buyer and had the responsibility of upon price. In an electricity market that operates as a preparing and organizing tenders for competitive pool or has a spot market, the seller may cover the contract procurement on behalf of the discos, under contract quantities with its own generation, through the supervision of the regulator. Box 3 describes previously acquired contracts, or purchases in the spot Panama's efforts to create a mandated competitive market.33 Financial contracts are simpler to implement procurement using financial contracts. 18 and settle than physical contracts.34 However, they are not feasible unless there is a functioning pool or a spot The New Jersey (USA) Approach market that handles the day-to-day and hour-to-hour balancing and settlement process of spot trading. The state of New Jersey in the United States has used a somewhat different approach to financial contracting, as Mandated competitive procurement for financial contracts described in box 4. In the New Jersey procurement, has been adopted in most countries in Latin America. generators (or marketers) bid for the right to provide Any deviations between a disco's actual consumption "tranches" of power to serve the needs of a particular and the total amount contracted in financial contracts is market (or markets). The winning bidder is the one able settled using spot market prices. If the total amount to provide power at minimum price. Contrary to the contracted is less than the disco's actual consumption, Panamanian case, the process does not involve the the disco must buy the shortfall in the spot market. And output of a particular power plant. if the contracted amount is more than actual consumption, the disco can sell the surplus in the spot market. The rationale to establish this mechanism derives from the introduction of full retail competition in some The Panamanian Approach markets that are at the late stages of the reform process. In those markets, every final customer has the Within Central America, Panama has the most legal right to buy from an alternate supplier. This is the experience with this approach. At the outset of the case in New Jersey. However, very few retail customers reform process, the country created a principal buyer have actually exercised this right. As a consequence, model,35 which served as an intermediary between some entity must be designated to operate as a "default discos and sellers. The Transmission Company acted as supplier" or "supplier of last resort" for the power needs Makler and Schleimer (2003, p. 33). 32 If the market design includes mandatory centralized dispatch, the decision as to which power units are actually committed and dispatched will 33 be made by a pooling organization (that is, a "system operator") responsible for centralized dispatch. The system operator will not be a party to the transaction. Depending on the wholesale electricity market design, the spot market trading may operate as a "gross" pool, whereby all the energy sold 34 and bought is settled at spot price and players set contracts for differences (CfDs) to hedge against spot price volatility. Or alternatively, the spot market may operate as a net pool, where only the differences between contracted and physically metered quantities are settled at spot market price. In the absence of taxes, those mechanisms produce the same results in terms of unit commitment, determination of spot prices, and provision of financial hedges to the contracting parties. In either case, we refer to these contracts as financial instruments. Contrary to the traditional single buyer model, the principal buyer in Panama was responsible for procurement of a significant part of the energy 35 in the system, but technically it was not the single buyer. The disco had the right to procure on its own up to 15 percent of its load. This system was designed to create some competitive pressure on the principal buyer. Contractual obligations were set directly between the generator and the discos, and the principal buyer had no liability in case of non-payment or disputes on terms and conditions of the power contract. of these customers.36 In the absence of a geographic market."37 The challenge becomes providing services to franchise, this entity does not necessarily have to be the those customers in the most economic way, while traditional distribution utility. On the contrary, some fostering retail competition. authors believe that the distribution utility should be prohibited from serving those potentially free customers. Different markets have dealt with the issue of default There is an understanding that "if providing default supplier differently. The regulator in New Jersey has services becomes profitable, discos might use their established a mandated competitive procurement by all distribution assets to stifle competition in the retail distribution companies, run by third parties, for the right BOX 3. Mandated Competitive Procurement: Financial Contracts for Captive Customers (Panama) Regulators sometimes mandate discos to acquire their energy needs via a competitive procurement process, in order to introduce some form of competition in the wholesale market. Prices resulting from this process are then passed through to retail customers. This is particularly important in small, illiquid power markets, to ensure maximum transparency, to create a level playing field, and to attract new investments by offering long-term contracts to power developers. 19 Panama is one of the countries in Latin America where there is a mandated procurement process, with an initial transition procurement carried out by a principal buyer. The discos have the obligation to contract the expected load to serve their captive market, which is not covered by their own generation.38 The rationale is that this will facilitate new investments and ensure sufficient generation capacity to cover peak loads. Discos have the right to transfer the power purchase costs that result from the competitive procurement process to retail tariffs, as long as they follow the guidelines approved by the regulator, who reviews and authorizes the process on an ex ante basis. The regulator can provide waivers to the contracting obligations if there is insufficient competition. In this situation, the regulator can authorize a disco to buy energy in the spot market and capacity in the centralized daily capacity market and transfer both costs to tariffs. To enforce the obligation to contract competitively, procurement obligations were defined on three levels: (a) The Electricity Law stated that 100 percent of a disco's load should be met by competitive procurement. If the disco followed the guidelines, full pass through would be granted; (b) The Market Rules assigned the obligation of load forecasting using data submitted by the discos to the System and Market Operator located within the Transmission Company. The Market Rules also provided details on load forecast calculations, volumes to be contracted, type of contracts, and roles of the regulator in supervising and approving the tender process; (c) The regulator issued detailed rules on competitive procurement--both in terms of the tender process and the general design of contracts. According to the procedures set forth by the regulator, discos were required to call the tender several years in advance of actual need in order to maximize competition from both existing and new generators with green-field power plants. continued This nomenclature is not an industry standard. We follow a definition provided by Hunt (2002). Provision of Last Resort (POLR) applies to 36 clients that are not attractive enough to other suppliers or when no other suppliers are available; Provision of Default Services refers to other clients that could have shifted suppliers, but preferred not to do so--because of inertia, economics, or threat of retaliation from the incumbent. Blumstein (1999, p. 3). 37 As noted above, disco is allowed to cover up to 15 percent of its customers' load with its own generation. However, even for these 38 purchases, the discos are bound by competitive procurement rules. BOX 3. Mandated Competitive Procurement: Financial Contracts for Captive Customers (Panama) - continued The first application of the new procurement rules took place in 2002 when the principal buyer was still responsible for centrally administering the competitive procurement for most of the power in the country. It took months of debate for the regulator and the discos to agree on the detailed design of the tender and on the contract's terms and conditions. Some of the complexity in the procurement process was caused by the fact that the Transmission Company was a government entity and it therefore had to comply with general government procurement rules. It was a learning experience for the electric sector as a whole. The experience with these initial procurement guidelines showed the need for changes in the guidelines. After a consultation process, the regulator announced some changes to be effective in subsequent tenders. The most important amendments were as follows: · Allowed generation owned by a disco to participate in tenders of others discos; · Clarified principles on contract design: Contract should have an appropriate allocation of risks between the parties and should not contain too many restrictions, penalties, or transfer of risks to generators, which might lead to excessive contract prices or make the contract unattractive to existing or new generators (and thereby reduce competition and create barriers to entry); 20 · Increased the maximum volume that can be acquired in each tender; · Required each bidder to present an offer for the entire duration of the required contract. Initial procurement rules allowed bidders to present offers for only a portion of the service period proposed in the tender contract; · Established that each bidder should present an offer (quantity, prices) and also prices if such quantity were to be reduced. The purpose was to allow participation by small generators. Therefore, bidders could present an offer for a portion of the quantity required and the disco could award several contracts that, taken together, added up to the required quantity. The regulatory approval process has become faster but there are still problems in the underlying contract design. There is a general perception that discos tried to shift too many risks to generators. The most controversial issue has been the profiling of contract quantities over time. Instead of establishing a fixed quantity or quantities related to actual load, the contracts sometimes called for a reservation of capacity and gave the disco the option of deciding how much of the associated energy it would take from the generators during specified periods. For example, a disco may call for very little of the energy associated with the contracted capacity if it can satisfy its energy needs at lower spot market prices. In a predominantly hydroelectric system such as in Panama, where most of the costs are fixed, giving this option to discos may entail an important risk for generators. To offset this risk, generators have bid high capacity prices in the tenders. In effect, the generators are trying to earn profits in their capacity charges--profits that might otherwise have been earned in energy sales. Efforts to cap contract prices in the tender to protect regulated customers have also been controversial, as there is a strong relationship between risks allocated to the generator in a contract and the costs that the generator needs to cover to accept such risks. The regulator has been trying to reach a balance between risk allocation in contracts and cap prices, protect end consumers, and at the same time attract new investors. New tenders are planned for the second half of 2003. The principal buyer is a transitional arrangement. The Electricity Law defined an initial five-year transition period, during which the model evolved toward a multiple buyer and multiple seller market. to operate as a default supplier. Consequently the element in their cost structure, if procurement guidelines "wires" and "marketing" functions are completely set by the regulator are followed strictly. unbundled and presumably all customers will benefit from maximum competition in the provision of power to Box 4 describes how the procurement for the role of last meet their needs. In principle, costs of power paid by provider has been established in New Jersey. discos to the default suppliers are a full pass through BOX 4. Mandated Competitive Procurement: Financial Contracts to Serve Retail Customers (New Jersey, USA) The four discos in New Jersey were required to assume the role of default supplier for the first two years following the introduction of retail competition. However, starting in the third year, the state's reform law required that the discos acquire the electricity for their default service (known in New Jersey as the "basic generation service") through a competitive auction. In other words, how they fulfilled their role as default providers was no longer left open to their discretion. To date, there have been two such auctions. The second auction, held in February 2003, attracted 20 bidders that competed for the right to supply about 18,000 MW of capacity and associated energy with an estimated value of $5.2 billion dollars. The procurement was conducted over the Internet using a type of auction known as the "clock auction," which involves multiple bidding rounds in which prices tick down until the amount of energy supplied equals the amount of energy sought. Bidders bid for the right to serve 2 percent shares of the residential, commercial, and industrial loads of each of the four discos for periods of either 10 or 34 months. It is anticipated that in the future, the right to serve one-third of each disco's retail load will be subject to competition every year. The winning bidders will assume a one-year supply obligation. The bids for the residential and commercial loads were not time differentiated while the bids for the large 21 industrial customers were time differentiated. The actual auction process was conducted by NERA, an economic consulting firm whose services were paid for by the distribution companies. The winning bids are not, however, final prices to customer. Each of the distribution companies adds a "distribution margin" to the bids received for generation service. More complete information on the 2003 auction can be found at http://www.bgs-auction.com Several observations about New Jersey's mandated procurement follow: First, the distribution companies do not take title to the power. They are acting as agents for those retail customers taking the default service as opposed to the discos' more traditional role as buyers and resellers of power. Under a more traditional form of disco procurement, a disco will seek competitive bids for specific portions of its supply needs and it will take title to the electricity that is supplied by any winning bidders.39 Perhaps the most important implication of this difference is that New Jersey discos bear less risk than other discos that take full title for the energy and therefore bear all quantity and price risks.40 However, in both New Jersey and traditional procurements used elsewhere, the discos continue to bear the risk of nonpayment. Second, even though the New Jersey utilities proposed the form of the procurement, they did not conduct the procurement. As noted above, the actual procurement was conducted by an outside consulting firm that specializes in auction design. To ensure objectivity, the commission hired another consulting firm to review the design and implementation of the auction. In contrast, the regulator in Panama supervised the process, but the actual procurements were conducted by each of the distribution companies. Third, in New Jersey at least three of the winning bidders were affiliates of the discos. Yet there have been no allegations of unfair favoritism toward these bidders. Presumably this reflects the fact that the actual auction was conducted by a third party and the winners were selected solely on the basis of their willingness to supply financial contracts at particular prices rather than the more subjective combination of price and non-price criteria required for evaluating physical contracts (as is the case in Florida, described in box 2). continued In the particular case of Panama, discos were able to transfer a large part of quantity risks to generators, by defining contract volumes as 39 a percentage of metered load. Also, in some contracts quantities are scaled down if free customers (that is, non-captive customers) shift suppliers and stop buying energy from the incumbent disco. This does not necessarily represent an efficient risk allocation for the market as a whole, since it shifts risks to generators, which may not be in a position to manage those effectively. Quantity risk has to do with demand being greater or smaller than anticipated. This may be due to forecast errors on demand growth, or 40 the effect of retail competition on the sales of the incumbent utility or disco. BOX 4. Mandated Competitive Procurement: Financial Contracts to Serve Retail Customers (New Jersey, USA) - continued Fourth, the New Jersey distribution companies are also subject to a retail price cap until July 31, 2003 so they cannot automatically pass through the results of the auction to their customers. If the overall costs (distribution margin plus power purchases) incurred before July 31, 2003 go above the retail price cap specified in the New Jersey reform law, the "extra" costs are deferred (that is, put into a tracking account) for possible recovery sometime in the future. Therefore the New Jersey system, at least until July 31, 2003, is really a combination of three regulatory tools: mandatory competitive procurement to supply customers that choose not to select an alternative supplier, a mandatory retail price cap, and an after-the-fact review of the "prudence" of all costs that exceed the price cap. Even though the commission could disallow power purchase costs, it seems unlikely since it gave its approval to the results of the first auction a few days after it was completed in February 2002. Starting August 1, 2003, the price cap will be removed and the auction prices will be automatically flowed through to the disco's retail customers. This modification will provide a better linkage between the wholesale and retail markets. Fifth, while this type of competitive auction was tied to serving captive customers, it could also be used in situations where there is no mandatory retail competition. Even in the absence of retail competition, a regulatory 22 commission could mandate that a distribution company conduct an auction to serve some or all of the energy needs of its captive retail customers. In this sense the New Jersey auction provides one way to get some of the benefits without the hardware and software costs of a full-scale system of retail competition.41 The New Jersey auction system is a form of "retail competition-lite" in that there is competition to serve retail customers but without the need to incur the costs of marketing, education, and settlement systems. Even though the state's retail customers are technically being supplied by four to six separate suppliers, these customers generally do not know (or care) who is supplying them with energy. What is lost in the auction is the possibility that a retail service provider could provide other "value-added" services if it had direct contact with retail customers. However, there is nothing in the auction design that would prevent a winning supplier in the auction from also being a full-service retail provider. The New Jersey procurement process has generally market benchmarks as a baseline for assessing a disco's produced good results because it was built on a power purchase costs. If a distribution company is able platform of a well-designed and highly competitive to acquire energy at a price below the established regional power market. Potential suppliers can draw on benchmark(s), it retains all or part of the difference, as resources from the entire six­state-region and beyond, an incentive to good procurement. Conversely, if the rather than just from New Jersey. The possibility of company pays more than the benchmark it bears all or drawing on supply sources from a larger region could part of the additional costs (in other words, is not allowed conceivably be replicated in Panama in the future, if the to recover these costs through tariffs.) A benchmark Central American electricity power market, which started mechanism better aligns the interests of the shareholders operating in November 2002, enables discos and other with the interests of the customers because they both buyers in the six Central American countries to procure benefit from lower prices. Such incentives do not exist energy from any place in the region.42 when the regulator automatically allows the disco to pass through its power costs just because it complied Market Benchmarks with the guidelines for a specified procurement process. These are benchmarks based on the price of power Benchmarks can be based on the spot prices, contract traded between generators and discos in the contract or market prices,43 or a combination of both. In using spot markets. Regulators will establish one or more benchmarks, the underlying assumption is that the See Hunt (2002, pp. 220­36) for a discussion on the costs of setting and operating full-scale retail competition. 41 There are plans to strengthen and increase transmission capacity in the regional electricity market. 42 For the purposes of this paper, the "contract market" includes ex ante power agreements of any duration between market participants. "Spot 43 market" encompasses transactions that are settled by a centralized system at the prevailing spot price. Spot prices may be differentiated on a location basis--either as a region (zonal) or nodal (each electric node at which the market participants are connected), depending on the market rules adopted by each country. discos being compared are buying the same product. Locational differentiation may take into account However, this may not be true if one disco has a marginal losses (variable transmission costs).46 Therefore significantly different load pattern from others. in a single country or region there may be as many spot For example, if one disco has a more "peaked" prices as nodes in the transmission system. The spot load shape, it will have to buy more expensive reference price for a given utility will then be an average peaking power. If its power purchase costs are of the spot prices in all the nodes from which it draws compared to a disco that serves a flatter load curve, energy from the transmission system. it will always look worse. The problem with any benchmark is that no discos will ever be exactly the In the Latin American countries analyzed for this study, same. The regulatory judgment that has to be made nodal prices for pass through purposes are calculated is whether the differences are so large that it would be using some simplifications while trying to preserve, as unfair to use the benchmark or whether the benchmark much as possible, the dimensions of location and time. requires further adjustments. Spot prices are usually calculated first for a reference node and then adjusted to the node(s) of each disco Some of the power purchase benchmarks that have using loss adjustment factors. As a result, different been used in different countries are described below. benchmarks are calculated for each disco, taking into account marginal losses (and congestion in the case Spot Market Prices of Argentina and El Salvador) with respect to the 23 reference node.47 This benchmark is based on spot prices, sometimes referred to as reference prices.44 The latter are used as Regulators may make further adjustments to estimates a reference for the pass through decisions of power of ex ante spot prices. They will sometimes apply an purchase costs in regulated tariffs to final customers. adjustment to reduce volatility or to tie the estimated Spot prices may be computed on an ex ante (predicted spot prices to prices of non-regulated transactions based on expected conditions) or ex post (actual between market participants. For example, in Chile observed) basis.45 and Peru, ex ante reference prices are compared to the average prices in an unregulated contract market. The spot prices used in the benchmark may be The spot prices used for pass through purposes are differentiated by hour, day, month, and season. not allowed to diverge from the contract prices by For pass through purposes, there is typically one more than 10 percent. reference price for peak, shoulder, and valley loads in the smoothed (averaged) period (one or more months). Spot Price Calculation The generation pass through price at the wholesale level is transferred to final customer tariffs if retail Table 2 summarizes the methods used to calculate spot customers have interval meters--or through a load price benchmarks in five countries in Latin America. profile if interval meters are not available. We define spot prices as actual prices in the spot market. On the other hand, reference spot prices are averages of forecast or actual spot 44 prices. The averaging period may vary from three months up to more than three years. The purpose of averaging is to smooth the impact of spot price volatility on tariffs to final customers. Reference spot prices try to preserve, as much as possible, the dimensions of location and time. Usually, reference spot prices are calculated for a specific node and then adjusted to the node(s) of each disco using loss factors and in some cases congestion costs. As a result, different benchmarks (and reference prices) may be applied to each utility. The statement refers to the calculation of spot prices for pass through purposes only. It has nothing to do with their calculation for energy 45 settlement purposes in the spot market. For example, Argentina determines ex ante, three-month smoothed out reference prices for pass through, but spot energy settlement for market participants takes place with ex post, hourly spot nodal prices. We are not including any differentiation due to Transmission Use of System Charges, which are usually part of the fixed costs of the transmission 46 network ("wires"), and therefore treated as full pass through components. Marginal losses refer to the energy (MWh) lost in a transmission line of a given voltage and are proportional to the square of the power flow (Ohm's Law). Most power pools take these losses into account, and calculate them for each node of the system. Congestion costs on a transmission network exist because there is a need for load to be shed or more expensive generation to be dispatched on the downstream side of a transmission constraint (caused either by thermal limit or potential overload). Prices that take into account both losses and congestion are usually known either as locational marginal prices (LMP) or "nodal prices." 47 Most power pools in Latin America do not differentiate prices by node based on congestion. Some of them differentiate on a zonal basis, (for example, Brazil) while Argentina and El Salvador differentiate on a nodal basis. Table 2. Pass Through Benchmarks Based on Spot Prices COUNTRY EX ANTE OR PRICE SMOOTHING- LIMITS OR ADJUSTMENTS OBLIGATION FOR EX POST OUT PERIOD MADE BY REGULATOR? DISCOS TO CONTRACT? Chile Ex ante Next 48 months, calculated every Yes. Benchmark is adjusted if it differs by Discos can only buy via contracts; they 6 months more than +/­ 10% from the average are not allowed to buy in the spot contract prices paid by large customers in market the free market Peru Ex ante Next 48 months, calculated every Yes. Benchmark is adjusted if it differs by Discos can only buy via contracts; they 6 months more than +/- 10% from the average are not allowed to buy in the spot contract prices paid by large customers in market the free market Bolivia Ex ante Next 12 months, calculated every No Discos obliged to cover 80% of supply 6 months needs via contracts with duration > 3 Further monthly adjustments years. To date, no contracts have been sometimes used signed 24 Argentina Ex ante, Next 3 months, with adjustments No. Discos buy spot at a seasonally No contracting obligations with ex post for the previous 3 months, and stabilized energy price that is also the adjustment calculated every three months reference price transferred to tariffs. Differences between actual spot prices and prices paid by discos are covered by a special fund, administered by the System and Market Operator El Salvador Ex post One year (12 months) average No No contract requirements adjusted every 3 months. Shorter periods down to one month have been used, to mitigate the tariff lag impact. Ex Ante Calculations government. Since the assumptions are "in the eyes of the beholder," the projections can be manipulated by On an ex ante basis, regulators (or system operators) those in charge of forecasting reference spot prices. forecast energy spot prices, which are differentiated by location and time of day and usually are smoothed over In the countries of Latin America that use only ex ante a period of several months. This has been the method spot price benchmarks, the electricity law usually used Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. The calculation depends imposes an additional requirement that discos sign on assumptions about system expansion, fuel prices, contracts for their energy needs. Spot price estimates availability and hydrological conditions.48 Such projections are used as a reference for the allowed pass through of are inevitably controversial. The longer the time horizon, power purchase costs but the actual purchases must be the more controversial are the predictions. The estimates made in the contract rather than the spot market.49 The are usually made by the regulator or by the system presumption is that such contracts are needed to get operator, whose decisions may be influenced by the investments in generation and that discos will Assumptions on the introduction of natural gas have had a significant impact in the ex ante spot price calculations in both Chile and Peru. 48 There is not a uniform definition on the duration of a power agreement to satisfy the minimum contracting requirement. There may be 49 different interpretations of how long medium- and long-term durations should be. In Guatemala and Panama, a contract must have a duration of one day or longer, but discos must contract for longer durations. Typically, all contracts proposed in competitive procurement have a duration of one year or more to qualify as long term. not enter into such contracts in the absence of control more than 60 percent of the country's power a regulatory requirement. generation sources. Based on the experience of other countries, this high degree of seller concentration In Chile and Peru, generators can buy and sell in the creates the distinct possibility of generators raising spot market, but discos are prohibited from buying.50 prices though the exercise of market power. If this Chilean and Peruvian discos are obligated to acquire happens, the discos will benefit from an artificially 100 percent of their energy needs through contracts. In high power purchase benchmark that they can easily Bolivia, there is an explicit minimum contract requirement beat and make profits on their power purchases. that is set equal to 80 percent of the disco's supply However, these profits will probably not reflect their needs, but discos are allowed to buy any shortfall in the competence as proficient buyers. Both discos and spot market. Despite this requirement, to date, no generators may have reinforcing incentives to see contracts have been signed in Bolivia and the minimum high spot prices. This suggests that a power purchase contract requirement has proved to be difficult to enforce.51 benchmark tied to spot prices is undesirable, if the market is highly concentrated and generators have Ex Post Calculations the capability to manipulate spot prices. In El Salvador, the Electricity Law states that discos The Price Volatility Concern are allowed to pass through the observed average 25 spot prices, regardless of the actual mix of their Spot electricity prices may be extremely volatile.53 power purchases in the spot and contracts markets. A regulatory mechanism based solely on pass through Unlike Chile, Peru, and Bolivia, there is no minimum of the price of power in the spot market could lead contracting requirement for discos.52 The mechanism to volatile prices for retail customers, which would be has a built-in lag between the time when spot prices politically unacceptable. The issue then becomes one paid by the market participant are set and when the of dealing with this volatility in the prices experienced average spot prices are transferred to the final customers. by retail customers. Owing to price increases and higher volatility, the government has tried to minimize the effect of the Some observers have argued that spot prices in the tariff lag. Smoothing periods were reduced to one wholesale market should be transferred, if possible on a month in some cases. The recently modified electricity real time basis, to the final customer. They contend that law established a regulatory lag period of six months this would provide a better linkage between the wholesale between successive adjustments of power costs incurred and retail markets, forcing customers to react to price by discos. The new law also allows the pass through of fluctuations.54 These observers contend that this linkage contract prices produced by competitive procurements provides an effective way for customers to fully capture as a further inducement to attract new investments in the benefits of wholesale competition and create demand generation. However, there is no obligation imposed response to mitigate generators' market power.55 on the discos to procure energy competitively. Others have argued that retail customers should not be One possible problem with El Salvador's use of a forced to see spot prices on their bills. They contend benchmark tied to actual spot market prices is current that there is little point in trying to send price signals if industry structure, in which two generation companies the customers are not able to respond to these price There is not a quid pro quo regulatory obligation imposed on independent generators to contract. Under some special circumstances, generators 50 prefer to sell energy in the spot market. Please refer to chapter 5 on minimum contract requirements and their enforceability in Latin America. 51 Recent increases in spot prices have challenged the existing pass through mechanism. As seen in California, full pass through of power purchases 52 in the spot market may entail a lot of volatility for customers and becomes politically difficult, particularly in periods of high spot prices. In contrast to the situation in California, discos in El Salvador were allowed to hedge volatility by signing contracts. Despite the absence of minimum contract requirements, about 70­80 percent of the energy delivered by discos was contracted, while the remaining part was acquired in the spot market. Spot prices in cost-based markets with generation capacity payments tend to be less volatile than those in markets that are based on price bids 53 and have no generation capacity payment. Some of the most developed power markets in the United States, such as PJM, NYISO, and New England Pool have explicit demand response 54 mechanisms, which are useful in increasing demand elasticity, reducing spot prices, mitigating market power, and making the system more reliable. Joskow (2000). 55 fluctuations. Since most retail customers are metered and forced to sell at fixed tariffs that cap power prices billed on a monthly or bimonthly basis, it would not and are adjusted infrequently. Unless there is an accomplish much to tell them what spot prices were over explicit compensation for the risks taken by the the last month or two. Retail customers hold, therefore, discos, they may be put in a dangerous position that they should be shielded from spot price fluctuations because they may be exposed to high spot prices through price-hedging mechanisms adopted by the disco. without the possibility to pass these prices through to Bernard and Roland (2000, p. 162) state: "First, end- their customers. One extreme case was observed in users are presumably more exposed to risk than power California during the recent energy crisis. The utilities marketers, since the latter can to some extent diversify in Northern California were required to make all of risk from non-correlated demands among consumers. their power purchases in the California spot market. Second, frequent price changes lead to substantial They were prohibited from hedging by buying some transaction and adjustment costs for the consumer, of their power supplies under forward contracts. They mainly due to the need to get information on price were also prohibited from passing the prices of their changes and react rapidly to them. Carr (2003, p. 2) spot market purchases onto retail customers because observes that "exposing small users to market forces their retail tariffs were capped. When spot market without some protection against volatility and some prices skyrocketed because of some combination of a measures of pricing predictability can trigger political shift in market fundamentals and the exercise of market 26 intervention." Littlechild observes that a full pass through power, the discos were caught in an impossible squeeze of wholesale prices would impose a volatile price profile between significantly increased spot market prices on retail customers, who would not be allowed to and fixed retail tariffs. As a consequence, PG&E, one negotiate the best price hedge or contractual arrangements of the California utilities, filed for bankruptcy. to meet their particular needs.56 Littlechild also points to evidence that final customers prefer some form of (ii)"Socialized hedging." Discos buy in the spot market hedge rather than being fully exposed to spot prices:57 at ex ante "smoothed" spot prices, and these prices serve as a basis for cost pass through. Some seasonal · Customers in San Diego, California, fiercely objected spot price variation may be incorporated in the to price variations when prices rose unexpectedly. calculated price and passed through to final customers. Price increases proved to be politically unsustainable; Differences between estimated (ex ante) and actual · In the United Kingdom, there is full retail competition (ex post) spot price are absorbed by an "equalization" and marketers are free to offer pool-price terms to fund. Neither the discos nor the retail customers are their customers. However, when given this choice, just a exposed to volatility in the spot market. Under this small percentage of industrial customers and virtually system there is hedging but it is performed by a no residential customers are buying at "un-hedged" government-run fund rather than through the actions pool prices; of individual discos. This system has been used in · Less than 15 percent of customers in Norway have Argentina and is described more fully in appendix 1. chosen to buy at "un-hedged" pool prices, even though they have this option. (iii)Power contracts. This is the most common form of hedge. Discos are allowed, encouraged, or even Regulators have several options for dealing with the mandated to sign power contracts with generators or pass through of spot price volatility to retail customers. marketers. These contracts, known as forward The principal options and their implications are contracts, provide a hedge against future variations discussed below: in the spot price. In effect, the discos are hedging on behalf of their retail customers. Ultimately consumers (i) Forced discos hedging without remuneration. must pay for the cost of hedging. And like any other Distribution companies are forced to buy in the spot cost incurred on behalf of captive customers, the market, but are not authorized to pass through their regulator must decide whether the disco did an spot market costs and volatility. Instead, they are efficient job of hedging. Littlechild (2000). 56 Littlechild (2003, pp. 68­79). 57 (iv)Fixed/variable (known as "Fi/Va"). This is a hybrid market prices at the early stages of sector reform. proposal. It combines the advantages of full pass Countries in Central America that have adopted this through of spot prices with the possibility of providing approach have generally established high minimum some form of hedge via contracting. Final customers contracting obligations for the discos, typically that are partially exposed to variations in the spot price 80­100 percent of the load of their regulated customers because a pre-specified portion of their purchases is being covered by medium- and long-term contracts. The tied to spot market prices, while the remaining rationale for imposing this obligation is the belief that it portion is sold at a fixed price. The disco must hedge will be difficult to get investments in new generation on behalf of final customers for the portion of sales capacity without long-term purchase commitments from that are sold at fixed prices.58 Under this design a the discos. While this provides a more stable pass disco has to procure a certain percentage of its through mechanism, it does not provide any short-term energy in the spot market, and this percentage price signals to consumers.60 corresponds to the portion of retail load that will be sold at full spot prices. The regulator must specify a Multi-Market Benchmark recommended spot/contract mix when defining the benchmark for pass through purposes. A variant of This approach creates a benchmark based on both this tariff model was used in Brazil between June actual spot and contract purchases by discos. The 2001 and February 2002 as a technique for dealing benchmark is typically based on the actual power 27 with supply shortages.59 The Fi/Va model has been purchases of all discos within a country. Ex post, Multi- recommended as a permanent solution since it has Market Benchmarks have been adopted by Colombian the potential for creating more demand response. and Dutch regulators.61 In both countries, discos are allowed to automatically pass through a large percentage Contract Market Prices of their total power purchase costs, but pass through of the remaining share is keyed to a benchmark rather An alternative approach to spot prices is to define the than to the actual purchase costs.62 The benchmark is pass through benchmark using prices of energy traded based on average prices paid by all distribution companies in the contract market. Needless to say, this mechanism or retailers for all purchases (that is, spot, intermediate, assumes the existence of a liquid and competitive and long-term purchases). In Colombia, the pass through contract market to provide a reliable "proxy" or mechanism uses a benchmark that takes into account benchmark. Contract market prices are also one an average of market purchasing prices. Each month element of the Multi-Market Benchmark calculated by the wholesale costs component in tariffs is adjusted the regulator in Colombia (see the next section below). using an ex post 12-month moving average. For each A similar approach has been proposed for Brazil, once disco the moving average is calculated using the actual a contract market develops sufficiently. prices that it paid for its spot and contract purchases. The same calculation is done for the market as a whole If a fully developed contract market is not yet in place, (the average price for all discos and retailers that results the benchmark may be based on contract prices from their mix of spot and contract purchases). resulting from competitive procurements, as previously discussed. Those represent the best available contract Parmesano (2003). The author contends that this mechanism enables regulators to encourage some demand response without the drawbacks of 58 the full-pass through model proposed by Joskow (2000). The rationing system put in place had the explicit objective to create price demand response. Large customers were charged the spot price for 59 consumption above their assigned quotas. Residential customers were charged a "proxy" for the spot price. For more details, see Maurer (2003). Most benchmarks based on contract prices also allow the pass through of power purchased on a spot basis, to hedge utilities against the risk of 60 errors in the load forecast. However, since the level of contracting is so high, the impact of short-term prices on the final benchmark may be almost negligible. This model was introduced in the Netherlands in January 2001 and was discontinued in March 2002. A Dutch court found that the mechanism 61 was inconsistent with the Dutch Electricity Act enacted on July 1, 1999. The percentage of a disco's total power purchase costs keyed to a benchmark varies on a country-by-country basis. In Colombia, it is about 10 62 percent while in the Netherlands it is 50 percent. This implies that in Colombia, 90 percent of the energy costs has automatic pass through and 10 percent depends on the disco's performance relative to the benchmark. In the Netherlands, only 50 percent of the energy costs has automatic pass through; therefore the Dutch discos are more exposed to the risk of not having their power purchasing costs fully recovered. Table 3. Pass Through Mechanisms Scorecard Review of Mandated Competitive Market Benchmarks Power Procurement Contracts (By Regulators) (D) (H) (I) Cost) (K) weroP Benchmarks ) (G) (F) Prices Prices of (E Set et et (A) Avoided I (J) Supplier Mark Mark Benchmarkste Through Costs Contracts (B) (C) Phase Contracts Prices Spot ssaP Spot DESIRABLE Ante stoP A Default Ante stoP ATTRIBUTES Full Purchase Ex Ex Administratively (PURP Physical Financial For Ex Ex Contract Multi-Mark a) Provide 28 incentives for 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 3 3 4 5 effective energy procurement b) Provide incentives for 4 3 2 4 4 4 3 2 1 3 4 contracting and expansion c) Reduce price volatility 3 4 4 4 5 4 4 2 2 4 3 for customers d) Allow discos to fully recover 4 3 2 4 4 4 5 3 3 3 4 prudent power purchase costs e) Provide efficient price signals for 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 3 4 customers to react f) Reduce chances of price 3 3 1 1 3 4 5 2 3 4 4 manipulation by government g) Reduce self- dealing and 2 3 3 4 3 4 5 2 3 4 4 collusion impacts h) Minimize the number of 3 3 2 3 3 4 3 3 4 4 4 regulatory actions/decisions TOTAL SCORE 23 24 19 26 29 33 34 21 23 29 32 Source: The World Bank The ex post, Multi-Market Benchmark requires effective some developing and transition-economy countries. spot and active contract markets, with a sufficiently For example, as noted above, a market benchmark large number of buyers and sellers. Those conditions is not feasible if there is no functioning and observable are initially encountered in many developing and market. And even if the market is functioning and transition-economy countries. As a general rule, observable, it still may not provide a good benchmark a market benchmark is appropriate only when there if it is not competitive. Nevertheless, we still think that is reason to believe that no market participant, it is useful to do a side-by-side assessment as if all pass whether a buyer or seller, is in a position to through methodologies were available. This has the manipulate the benchmark. benefit of exposing the strengths and weaknesses of the different methodologies in a direct and transparent way. 4. RANKING PASS THROUGH Based on their relative attractiveness shown in table 3, METHODOLOGIES methodologies may be grouped into four major clusters, as illustrated in table 4. As previously stated in chapter 3, no one methodology is appropriate in all power sector models. The choice of A discussion of the ranking clusters shown in methodology will be influenced by the characteristics of table 4 follows. the sector in which the disco is operating. For example, 29 a market benchmark is not feasible in the absence of a functioning market or when sellers are able to Table 4. Ranking Pass Through Methodologies manipulate the market. CLUSTER #1 CLUSTER # 2 CLUSTER # 3 CLUSTER # 4 (OVERALL (25 < OVERALL (< 20 OVERALL (OVERALL A key sector characteristic that influences the selection SCORE >30) SCORE < 30) SCORE < 25) SCORE < 20) of a pass through methodology is the presence (or Mandated Mandated Ex Ante Review of Ex Post Review of absence) of affiliated generators or marketers. Competitive Competitive Power Contracts Power Contracts Whenever a disco has the right to buy from an affiliated Procurement Procurement for for Default generator or marketer, there is always the possibility that Physical Contracts Supplier the disco may pay higher prices or assume more risk than it would if it were purchasing from a non-affiliate. Mandated Market Ex Post Spot Prices Another important consideration is the starting level of Procurement Benchmarks ­ for Financial Contract Market retail tariffs. If these do not cover the cost, then it would Contracts Prices be dangerous to establish a pass through benchmarks that create an additional risk that some portion of power purchases will not be recovered. Such benchmarks Multi-Market Administratively Ex Ante Spot Prices Benchmarks Set Benchmarks could easily drive the disco into bankruptcy. As the sector evolves and these characteristics change, it may also be desirable, as discussed in chapter 6, to Full Pass Through of Power Purchase make changes in the regulatory pass through Costs mechanism. Table 3 provides our subjective assessment of the pass Source: The World Bank. through methodologies described earlier against the set of desirable attributes spelled out in chapter 2. For any given attribute, "5" is the highest score and "1" is the Cluster # 1 (Overall score > 30) lowest. The implicit assumption is that the disco is operating in an industry structure that allows the regulator Mandated Competitive Bidding for Default Supplier--If to employ any of the pass through methodologies. the sector structure can support it, the best methodology However, this is clearly an unrealistic assumption in would possibly be to have generators bidding out a portfolio of contracts to the discos, which would play The New Jersey approach could be enhanced if it the function of a default provider.63 (See column G in were combined with the Fixed-Variable tariff-setting table 3). This process has to be conducted by a third, methodology for captive retail customers recommended independent party. This was the approach used recently by Parmesano (2003). The combination of the two in New Jersey. As discussed earlier, this methodology approaches would help to minimize overall supply was introduced in the context of choosing a default costs while still exposing retail customers to the provider when there is full retail competition. If adopted, marginal cost of power for some part of it leads to a significant change in the role of the disco. their consumption. The disco is no longer an active agent in seeking power supplies for its captive customers. Instead, it assumes If a government decides that it wants distribution the role of a passive procurement agent that is reimbursed companies to remain as active procurement agents on for procurement expenses but with no potential for earning behalf of their captive or default customers, two other profits on its procurement activities. If a government is approaches are worth considering: Mandated Competitive willing to accept this diminished role for a disco, this Procurement for Financial Contracts (column F in table approach has several advantages: 3) or Multi-Market Benchmarks (column K). Both of them require a functioning spot market and adequate · It directly transfers the benefits of wholesale institutional and regulatory capability. Those conditions 30 competition to retail customers; may not be present in some World Bank client countries. · It does not require second-guessing the actions of distribution companies; Mandated Competitive Procurement for Financial · It avoids discos to stifle retail competition, since the Contracts--This option may be implemented in both bidding process does not create any economic value large and small systems. Financial contracts are for the discos; relatively straightforward. They provide a financial · The regulator does not need to specify an optimal hedge against spot price volatility and basically specify pattern of spot and contract purchases; and energy volumes and prices.64 Financial contracts do · It makes it difficult for the distribution company to not have to address a myriad of issues such as plant show favoritism to affiliated producers. reliability or penalties in response to the unavailability of generation. In principle, if the seller is not able to However, this is a feasible option only if there is a well- supply the energy, it must acquire the shortfall in the functioning spot market and if it operates over a relatively spot market, which is the simplest possible form of large geographic area so that it is both liquid and compensation for "liquidated damages." Therefore competitive. And, if there is congestion on the transmission these contracts do not need to include complex clauses grid, the congestion should be explicitly priced (as is the and related penalties for unavailability. Such contracts case in the Middle Atlantic, where New Jersey is located). may be awarded solely based on prices, which increase Those conditions are unlikely to exist in the near future in transparency and the regulator's ability to monitor most countries in which the World Bank provides financing. the process. We recommend these contracts to be implemented after the initial stages of sector reform. In New Jersey, this methodology was adopted in the It is very important that market participants and context of choosing a default supplier in the presence of regulators develop financial contracts that are simple full retail competition. But we think that it might be and easily understood. A simple, cost-based65 spot possible to employ a similar approach even in the market based on financial contracts is a natural absence of retail competition as long as the wholesale transition from the existing centralized least-cost market prerequisites are satisfied--sufficient competition dispatch pools and represents the best tradeoff and technology to support the auction process. In Brazil, between efficiency and implementation complexity. there have been some discussions of adopting a variant of the New Jersey approach for auctions of capacity Multi-Market Benchmarks--These are based on actual and energy that become available as initial vesting purchases of multiple discos in multiple markets contracts expire. (contract and spot markets). The benchmark explicitly Hunt (2002, p. 234). 63 Energy volumes and corresponding prices may be profiled over time (day, month, season, year) 64 Cost-based markets are simpler because the operation of the spot market is based on the security-constrained, centralized least-cost 65 dispatch criteria that have been used for many years in a large number of World Bank client countries. recognizes that a disco can and should purchase bulk sufficient number of discos (at least five or six) to create power under a variety of terms and conditions. It has a benchmark that will not be dominated by the several advantages: performance of one disco. · The regulator does not need to pre-specify an optimal Cluster # 2 (25 < Overall Score < 30) pattern of spot and contract purchases;66 · Since the benchmark is transparent, the regulator If spot markets are not available or if a procurement does not need to conduct after-the-fact "prudence" price benchmark is infeasible because there are only reviews of the discos' purchasing practices; one or two discos, the next best available options are · The regulator does not need to mandate competitive probably the Mandated Competitive Procurement for procurement because the disco will have an incentive Physical Contracts (column E in table 3) or Market to seek out the least-cost supply options, since they Benchmarks based on Contract Prices (column J). may be able to earn profits on their purchases if they "beat" the benchmark; Mandated Procurement Based on Physical Contracts-- · It creates an incentive for distributors to engage in This approach emphasizes regulating conduct (the hedging or other risk management practices; procurement process) rather than performance (price · It creates a disincentive for distributors to pay above- benchmark). The option may be effective, but it is market prices to affiliated generators and marketers usually complex. The Request for Proposals (RFPs) must 31 because such payments create the risk that the discos specify many different attributes such as energy volumes, will not be able to pass through the inflated costs to prices of capacity and energy, point(s) of delivery, their captive customers; and reservations on transmission system, penalties for plant · It is simpler to implement and reduces the impact of unavailability, generation sources, environmental self-dealing transactions. constraints, and other key parameters. This, in turn, requires a more elaborate system of evaluation to find However, Multi-Market Benchmarks do have certain the best outcome after giving explicit weights to the disadvantages. First, a benchmark will not be fair to any different attributes.68 In countries where competition is company that is always on the "wrong side of the limited, the design of physical contracts may lead to benchmark" for reasons beyond its control. For only one or two bidders. Given the complexity of the example, a distribution company may always be above physical contracts, if the incumbent disco has the right the benchmark if its customer mix is more costly to serve to build and own generation assets, it will likely "game" (it may be serving customers that in the aggregate the system to favor its own generation.69 This has been produce a more peaked load curve).67 Second, the the ongoing concern in Florida for more than a decade. disco may always have to pay a higher purchase price if it is considered less creditworthy by generators (for Market Benchmarks Based on Contract Prices-- example, if it is a distribution company serving an area This option is a simplified version of Multi-Market with a large number of customers in arrears). Third, the Benchmarks, whereby energy purchased on a spot basis benchmark requires a full disclosure of contract (if any) is not taken into account by the regulator when information to the regulatory authorities, which may setting a pass through reference price. Only the price of create some discomfort among industry players. Finally, power traded under contracts matter. This alternative this alternative is feasible only in countries in which shares many of the advantages and disadvantages of there are efficient spot and contract markets and a Multi-Market Benchmarks, and it is more applicable In Colombia, the discos purchase about 70­ 80 percent of their supply needs through contracts even though there is no formal and legal 66 requirement that they do so. In contrast, the Bolivian discos are required to purchase 100 percent of their supply needs but they have never complied with this obligation. Hunt (2002, p. 50) observes that discos, when given the freedom to make their own procurement decisions, tend to obtain about 80 percent of their supply needs in the contract market and the rest in the spot market. Each utility will sign a variety of contracts depending on the load shape and the degree of "firmness" required by its load. An optimized 67 portfolio will include, among other things, seasonal contracts, peaking versus base power, firm versus interruptible, and other arrangements necessary to match supply with actual demand. If a utility's load shape varies considerably from the average of the market, some adjustment may be necessary to fine-tune the Multi-Market Benchmark. For a more elaborate analysis on bid evaluation procedures, please refer to Makler and Schleimer (2003, p. 35). 68 This has been one of the reasons why in some countries distribution and generation have been explicitly unbundled and discos are not 69 authorized to own generation assets. when discos procure a large part of their power needs operator whose calculation and assumptions can be on a contract basis, or in situations under which discos influenced by government authorities. The behavior are not allowed to participate in the spot market at all and the determination of spot price becomes a matter (for example, in Chile). of great interest to politicians whenever spot prices have a direct impact on tariffs. As spot prices increase, Administrative Set Benchmarks--These represent a governments may be tempted to promote changes in "proxy" for Contract Prices. Such benchmarks are likely the rules and methodologies to avoid tariff increases. to be used at the early stages of the reform process, Moreover, when benchmarks calculated with estimated when benchmarks from both the freely negotiated spot prices are kept artificially low, or generators are contract and spot markets are not available or are not fearful of benchmark manipulation, a disco is unlikely reliable, if most of the power is still traded under vesting to find generators that are willing to contract or build contracts, and at subsidized prices. Administrative Set new generation. In some cases, discos have held Benchmarks can easily be manipulated for near-term procurements for new long-term supplies but failed political needs. Those benchmarks may be necessary at to receive any bids. Spot price benchmarks create the outset of the reform process, but our recommendation risks of high tariff volatility, which may affect the is to migrate to Contract Prices or Multi-Market financial viability of a disco, depending on the lag Benchmarks as soon as feasible. in tariff adjustment. 32 Cluster # 3 (20 < Overall Score < 25) Review of Power Contracts on an Ex Ante Basis--Under this approach, regulators specify the guidelines and This cluster includes Spot Market Benchmarks, detailed terms and conditions of the power contracts. calculated either on an ex ante (column H in table 3) It is often used in conjunction with Mandated Competitive or ex post basis (Column I). In the absence of spot Procurement. Industry players complain that, by reviewing markets, regulators may rely on Review of Power contracts, the regulator becomes more of a manager Contracts performed on an ex ante basis (column B) than a regulator and that they cannot be held responsible or Full Pass Through of Contract Costs (column A). for the outcomes if the regulator is interfering with decisions that should be made by market participants Spot Market Benchmarks--These benchmarks are based rather than the regulator. This was a complaint in exclusively on actual or predicted spot prices and are Panama, where the regulator played an active role in widely used throughout Latin America. The fundamental specifying the terms and conditions of the contract that problem with a spot market benchmark is that it provides discos will be allowed to sign. few incentives for long-term contracting--often a prerequisite for the expansion of generation capacity.70 Full Pass Through of Power Purchase Costs-- If a disco has the right to automatically pass through This alternative has several drawbacks. It effectively actual spot prices, it will generally have little or no incentive eliminates any incentives for distribution utilities to to enter into long-term contracts. To counterbalance this purchase efficiently--by removing penalties for disincentive to contract, several Latin American countries inefficient purchases. The lack of incentives for effective have added an additional requirement that discos must procurement increases the likelihood of self-dealing and enter into a long-term contract. So, this is the case collusion. However, this is a reasonable regulatory where the flaws in one regulatory action (the use of a approach when the power purchase price is clearly spot market benchmark) have to be corrected through a beyond the control of the disco, for example, when a secondary regulatory action. disco has been assigned vesting contracts or is required to purchase power from a single buyer or through Spot Market Benchmarks are susceptible to competitive procurement. manipulation, particularly if the benchmark is based on ex ante calculation by a regulator or the system That has been the situation observed in Argentina, where pass through of power costs has been based exclusively on spot prices. Discos 70 have pointed out that long-term contracts may attract additional capacity and therefore reduce spot prices. While this benefits consumers, it endangers their ability to pass through the contract costs to the final customers. Cluster # 4 (Overall score <20) 5. CHALLENGES FOR REGULATORS Ex Post Review of Power Contracts--This methodology Regulatory capacity is a must in power sector reform. ranks last in our evaluation because of the considerable At the early stages of introduction of competition "for regulatory uncertainties associated with the process, the market," when private developers are invited to which hinder expansion and effective procurement. build green-field generation, there is a need for an It greatly increases risks for investors because the contracts independent, transparent, and capable regulator, who become vulnerable to after-the-fact manipulation and can understand and monitor procurement costs, system modifications by the regulators, and therefore raises reliability, risk allocation, and their impact on doubts about contract sanctity. Discos have no guarantee investments and tariffs to final customers. that legitimate power purchase costs will be recovered. The overall process is time-consuming and cumbersome. In trying to develop effective pass through mechanisms, several major unresolved issues remain for regulators. The after-the-fact review by the regulator becomes Those issues will be discussed as follows. especially complex if the disco is allowed to purchase from an affiliated supplier. As seen in the Florida Dealing With Affiliate Transactions and Cross- example, it is very difficult for a regulator to detect and Ownership Issues prevent subtle forms of favoritism. And even if affiliated 33 purchases are prohibited, there is still the issue of Whenever there are transactions between affiliated corruption--particularly if the disco is state owned. companies, there is a potential for self-dealing. Because of the complexity and the large amounts of Affiliated companies may include generators, marketers, money involved in these procurements, they are prime or discos that are owned by the same stockholders, candidates for bribery and corruption. In some countries, have the same board of directors, or are governed by state-owned utilities were forced to enter into overpriced interlocking directorships. In the context of power PPAs. Presumably, this will be less of an issue for purchases, self-dealing will hurt the customer if the privately owned discos that are less susceptible to political disco purchases power from an affiliated entity on terms interference. But there still remains the problem of how and conditions that are more favorable than those that to motivate a private disco to purchase efficiently if it is would be offered to a non-affiliate. not allowed to make profits on its purchasing activities. However, self-dealing need not be limited just to price. After-the-fact review may be necessary in cases in which The disco might, for example, assume more risk there is clear evidence of corruption in the signing of (for instance, risk on demand fluctuation) on purchases the original contract. If such contracts are allowed to from an affiliate than from a non-affiliate. Self-dealing stay in force, they may effectively block further reforms could arise even if the contract terms on purchases because of their high prices, and the questions that they from affiliates were exactly the same as the terms raise about the integrity of the reform process. If there is offered to non-affiliates. Despite the uniformity in an after-the-fact review, we recommend that it be contract terms, the disco might enforce a particular conducted by an independent and non-political group. provision such as penalties for non-supply more If it is conducted by a political entity (for example, a strongly for a nonaffiliated supplier than for an legislative committee), it is likely that the process will affiliated supplier. Differences in contract enforcement become highly politicized and produce few, if any, long- are very subtle and are difficult for a regulator to detect. run benefits for consumers. In the late 1980s, the California electricity regulatory commission prohibited one of the major California utilities from unfairly favoring its generation affiliates when enforcing contract terms and conditions. Similarly, independent power producers in the Southeastern United States that failed to win supply contracts have complained that the Southern Company unfairly favored its affiliated suppliers. It has been difficult to investigate the allegations because the contracts were given confidential status by the relevant regulatory requirements to be written into a country's electricity commission. As a general rule, it is harder to detect law. However, real world experience has shown that such favoritism in physical than in financial contracts, these requirements are not always enforceable.73 In because physical contracts have many more terms and some countries, discos unable or unwilling to meet conditions that affect performance and selection. In the requirements have lobbied to either get full pass contrast, the selection decision for financial contracts is through for their purchases on the spot market, or to usually made on the basis of a single parameter: price. get last-minute caps on spot prices, therefore limiting discos' exposure.74 The most obvious option for regulating self-dealing and cross-ownership issues is to impose an outright Colombia provides an interesting counter-example to prohibition on affiliate transactions. A second option the conventional wisdom that discos must be mandated is to establish a maximum percentage of power to enter into contracts. The country waived minimum (for example, 30 percent) that can be purchased from contract requirements in 1999, and has observed the affiliates. These measures try to correct market structure emergence of a vibrant contract market. Generation flaws, but are not always effective.71 A third approach expansion continues to take place, and it has been is to mandate a procurement that makes it difficult to supported by short- and medium-term contracts.75 Like favor an affiliate over a nonaffiliated supplier. Usually, Colombia, El Salvador has no minimum contracting 34 this involves requiring discos to acquire a significant requirements for its discos. Instead, discos are allowed part of their energy requirements via a competitive to recover costs of power purchases up to actual spot procurement process. This last approach has been prices. Under this system, discos there have been used in many countries and at different stages of contracting about 70­80 percent of their supply needs. electric sector reform. If the competitive procurement is going to be successful in preventing affiliate abuse, the Based on the above examples, it seems that the procurement rules need to be simple, transparent, and minimum contracting obligation alone has not capable of reducing barriers to entry. The design of the achieved its objectives. There should be more auction process itself, both on the buyer's and seller's important factors that explain differences in side, is also critical to mitigate market power.72 However, contracting attitude among countries. as the Florida experience shows, it is not easy to craft such rules in a world of physical contracts (see box 2). A reasonable explanation has to do with the existing incentives and penalties for a disco to contract energy in Obligations Imposed on Distribution Companies a responsible and profitable way. It is well known that to Maintain a Minimum Contracting Requirement electricity is one of the most volatile commodities. For a distribution company with an implicit obligation to Are mandated contracts a must for power expansion? serve, this volatility (and the risks it entails) should be In many countries long-term contracts have been the strongest incentive for it to remain highly contracted, mandated on the presumption that they are needed therefore covering a very large part of its supply needs. to obtain adequate investment in new generation Contracts should work as a hedge against the supplies (see table 2). Therefore, many countries potentially catastrophic risk of being "short," particularly have established minimum contracting requirements for in times of power scarcity and high spot prices. The discos. It is not uncommon for the minimum contracting incentives and penalties to encourage responsible and Outright prohibition may exclude some market participants with genuine economies of scale or scope. Limits on self-dealing are difficult to 71 enforce, particularly during periods of shortage, when the goal of expanding the system overrides any concern for market competitiveness. Furthermore, energy traded within the self-dealing limits has to be reviewed so the potential for abuse is still present though on a smaller scale. A lot of experience has been accumulated in the last few years in auction design and implementation in infrastructure industries. A detailed 72 discussion on this subject is beyond the scope of this paper, however. In Bolivia, no contracts have been signed by discos even though the law requires that they must contract for 80 percent of their supply 73 needs. In Chile, at least two discos have held procurements for long-term supplies for which no bidders showed up. On the other hand, if a disco is unable to contract and becomes unwillingly exposed to spot purchases for reasons beyond its control, some 74 protection may be necessary to guarantee its feasibility. If no generators are willing to sell energy on a contract basis because of price caps on pass through price, regulatory provisions should be adjusted to allow discos to recover costs of power procured in the spot market. The design of the pass through mechanism has to be consistent with the reality of the power market. Colombia challenges the conventional wisdom that 15­20 year PPAs are the only avenue to achieve expansion of the power sector. 75 profitable contracting seem to be clearly in place, as reach very high levels. Some discos indeed suffered the long as the pass through rules are consistent with this risk.76 consequences of being "short" in the market. Another example took place in New Zealand, during the 2001 However, there are countervailing forces that create drought, when prices reached US$ 300/MWh. Transalta, incentives for a disco to be under-contracted: a Canadian subsidiary with operations in that country, was under-contracted and had to buy significant amounts (i) In power sectors where hydro-generation is of energy in the spot market at very high prices. The dominant, there may be several consecutive years of company went bankrupt, and there was no protection low spot prices, followed by a period of extremely high or bailout from the government. Transfer of ownership spot spikes (caused, for example, by a serious drought). took place in a very smooth way, with no flicker of light This kind of price behavior may create incentives for or service disruption.79 If a disco fully internalizes the discos to gamble, by remaining under-contracted consequences of its procurement policies, managers most of the time; will try to protect the company against market and price (ii) Quarterly-results-oriented managers making risks by adopting a responsible contracting attitude. decisions today may benefit from low spot prices in several consecutive seasons or even years if the pass Performance-Based Regulation (PBR)-- through mechanism allows them to retain part of the Calibrating Incentives and Penalties profits deriving from low prices paid in the spot 35 market. Purchases in the spot market may end up Performance-Based Regulation on Power Costs being the preferred course of action, particularly if there are other pass through risks associated with Gains and losses deriving from good or bad long-term contracting;77 procurement should be shared among customers and (iii) Discos may have an expectation of being bailed out discos' shareholders. By mandating this, regulators by the government if their exposures to high prices create a better alignment between the interests of reach dangerous levels. When there are scarcity customers and those of shareholders--which is the conditions and spot prices skyrocket, it is likely that underlying motivation for performance-based regulation utilities or discos will ask for government support. (PBR). However, there is no single optimal sharing Governments in general are reluctant to let private mechanism. The challenge is to create incentives for infrastructure providers go bankrupt. There is a efficient procurement while recognizing that there are perception that essential services may be disrupted. factors beyond a disco's control. A well-designed and Therefore bankruptcy is not perceived as a credible calibrated sharing mechanism can help regulators deal threat by discos' managers.78 with those tradeoffs. These factors, in tandem with poorly designed pass through Table 5 provides a simple example of a sharing mechanisms, may seriously weaken the incentives for mechanism. Let us assume that the amount discos to enter into contracts which in turn may compel a authorized to be passed through is determined government to impose mandated contracting requirements. by the following formula: However, expectations of bailout are not the same Amount Authorized for Pass Through = Alpha x Price across utilities in different countries. For example, in Paid for Power + (1­Alpha) x Benchmark80 Colombia, companies have learned, in the aftermath of El Niño, that the government would not provide a Alpha is a number between 0 and 1, which assigns relative generalized bailout to cover their losses when spot prices weights to the actual Price Paid by Power vis-à-vis the There are other factors--regulatory and market design decisions--that will affect the behavior of discos and generators. These include generators' 76 receiving a capacity payment, discos' having a legal obligation to enter into long-term contracts for some portion of their retail load, the coverage of the pass through mechanism (price, quantity, or total cost), and the time lag before the pass through actually occurs. On this last element, see box 1. If by contracting a disco can make an additional profit, the situation may change. Both in Colombia and El Salvador the disco that 77 contracts at lower prices will profit from the difference. In both of these markets all discos maintain a high percentage of contracts, even if there are no contracting obligations. An interesting discussion on governments' reluctance to let private providers go bankrupt can be found on Ehrhardt and Irwin (2003, pp. 26­29). 78 Informal conversation with Hon. Max Bradford, former Minister of Energy in New Zealand. 79 This is a simplified version of the pass through formula. A more detailed algebraic formulation is shown in appendix 2. 80 Benchmark established by the Regulator. A high Alpha In this particular example, incentives and penalties are assigns more weight to the actual price paid. Conversely, symmetrical, that is, deviations over and below the a very low Alpha assigns more weight to the Benchmark. benchmark have a symmetrical treatment in terms of The latter entails more risk to the discos. Assuming an incentives or penalties. Alpha factor of 0.9, and a benchmark of US$ 33/MWh, the sharing mechanism would work as follows: The overall PBR mechanism provides a good alignment between the interests of the customers and those of the · If the disco is efficient and able to procure energy at utility shareholder. However, it needs to be "calibrated" a lower cost than the Benchmark--for example, US$ to meet the needs of a particular sector. Changes in 28/MWh--it would pass through [0.9 * 28 + 0.1 * Alpha will affect the following attributes:81 33] = US$ 28.5 to the customers and it would retain (i) Incentives for effective procurement; a benefit of [28.5 ­ 28.0] = US$ 0.5/MWh; (ii) Incentives for discos to contract and hedge · Conversely, if the disco pays US$ 38/MWh, therefore themselves against spot price volatility; exceeding the benchmark, it would pass through only (iii)Possibility of discos' fully recovering costs of [0.9 * 38 + 0.1 * 33] = US$ 37.5/MWh to the final effective power procurement; and customer, and the disco would bear a cost of [38.0 ­ (iv) Incentives (or penalties) for self-dealing transactions. 37.5] = US$ 0.5/MWh. 36 Table 5. Performance-Based Regulation--A Numerical Example ENERGY PRICE PAID BENCHMARK ALLOWED PASS THROUGH DISCO BENEFIT OR BY UTILITY (US$/MWh) COST (US$/MWh) (PENALTY) (US$/MWh) (US$/MWh) $28.00 $33.00 $28.50 -$0.50 $30.00 $33.00 $30.30 -$0.30 $32.00 $33.00 $32.10 -$0.10 $33.00 $33.00 $33.00 -$0.00 $34.00 $33.00 $33.90 -$0.10 $35.00 $33.00 $34.80 -$0.20 $38.00 $33.00 $37.50 -$0.50 Source: The World Bank. Table 6 illustrates variations in the Alpha parameter and their impact on each of the relevant attributes and objectives. Table 6. Design of Performance-Based Regulation & Self-Dealing Issues PROVIDE PROVIDE INCENTIVES ALLOW DISCOS TO REDUCE SELF- INCENTIVES FOR CONTRACTING FULLY RECOVER DEALING AND FOR EFFECTIVE AND EXPANSION PRUDENT PURCHASE COLLUSION PROCUREMENT COSTS IMPACT LO W A L P H A H I G H A L P H A KEY: Helps achieve Does not help the objective achieve the objective Source: The World Bank. These are only some of the attributes desirable for a pass through mechanism identified in table 5. Those attributes not affected by Alpha 81 variations have not been included. A low Alpha provides incentives for effective The "calibration" of the PBR mechanism has evolved procurement. However, given the heavier weight over time. After a few years of experience, the regulator assigned to the market benchmark, there is a regulatory decided that the cap and collar mechanisms were too risk that part of the costs of power purchases will not be wide and the maximum profit was easily being attained. fully recovered by the discos. This tends to discourage More recently, with the opening of the domestic power discos to enter into long-term contracts. On the other market, PPB is no longer a monopoly seller or hand, less weight assigned to the disco's purchasing monopsony buyer. PPB is now allowed to compete for costs in relation to the market benchmark minimizes sales to non-franchised customers, and incentives to the incentives for self-dealing and collusion. price formula are being adjusted accordingly. It is expected that with the opening of the market, PPB will A high Alpha has the opposite effect. It reduces experience competitive pressure and the new price incentives for effective procurement, since the disco will formula and incentives will need to be reviewed again. have most of its power purchase costs automatically Northern Ireland's experience demonstrates the passed through.82 A high Alpha reduces risk for the "dynamic" aspects of any regulatory PBR mechanism discos by providing more certainty that power purchase and how such mechanisms need to be adjusted as the costs may be recovered. For this reason, a high Alpha market structure evolves. increases the incentives for contracting and expansion. Unfortunately, a high Alpha creates more incentives for 37 self-dealing transactions and market abuse. 6. PASS THROUGH PROCEDURES-- A POSSIBLE EVOLUTIONARY PATH Partial PBR (Focusing on Some Elements of Power Costs) Pass through methodologies for power purchases are not static. They need to be adjusted as power markets Under the PBR approach, it makes sense to give the and sector structure evolve. This section describes a disco (or any purchasing agent, acting on its behalf) possible evolution in pass through approach(es) as the an incentive to control and manage some costs over sector becomes more competitive. The sequence of which it has significant influence. However, in certain industry and market structure shown in table 7 is not circumstances, the purchasing agent has control over meant to be a rigid, prescriptive evolutionary path for the only some elements of the power cost structure. The PBR power sector of every single country, but instead is intended has to be designed to address those control elements in to illustrate some of the best pass through methodologies particular. The following example illustrates a case where that may be available to regulators as the power sector a company had control over only some elements of evolves. For example, it may not be feasible for a small power costs. PBR was designed around those elements. country that is not connected to a larger power system to have a competitive pool because the country's size During the early stages of the sector reform, Northern precludes the likelihood of workable competition. Ireland introduced the concept of a single buyer. This function was carried out by Northern Ireland Electricity's The main phases of the proposed evolution are Power Procurement Business, or PPB. As a single buyer, discussed next. PPB did not bear significant risks, since it had a captive market and costs could be passed through to the final No Competition--When competition does not exist and customers. The first price control formula gave PPB, power markets are not feasible, the regulatory options among other things, incentives to manage the price of include an ex ante Review of the Power Contracts and a fuel for generation, a cost item over which PPB had full pass through of power costs. For integrated discos, some control and influence.83 The price control included the costs of self-generation and power purchases should a sharing mechanism, supplemented by a cap and be subject to a possible "prudence" review. This was the collar which limited the maximum profits (or losses) that mode of regulation for vertically integrated utilities in PPB could incur. the United States. "Prudence" reviews were not automatic. However, it was the possibility of a "prudence" review that kept utilities "on their toes." If Alpha = 1, the mechanism would be equivalent to a full pass through. 82 Northern Ireland Electricity's Power Procurement Business (2002, p. 4). 83 Table 7. Sector Evolution and Pass Through Issues " et "in " mark et DESIRABLE wholesale ATTRIBUTES retail the PASS THROUGH competition mark wholesale retail METHODOLOGY No Limited competition "for Some competition the Full competition Some competition Full competition * Full Pass Through of Power Purchase Costs [A] * Review of Power Contracts - Ex Ante [B] - Ex Post [C] * Administratively Set Benchmarks (D) 38 * Mandated Competitive - Physical Contracts Procurement [E] - Financial Contracts [F] - Default Supplier [G] * Market Benchmarks - Ex Ante Spot Market Prices [H] - Ex Post Spot Market Prices (I) - Contract Market Prices (J) - Multi-Market Benchmarks (K) More desirable Less desirable Least desirable Source: The World Bank. Limited Competition "For the Market"--This is the The selection between those two types of contracts situation when there is a dominant supplier, but some will depend on how the power market is designed. form of competition in generation has been gradually Our recommendation is to organize markets around introduced. It is the phase when governments are willing "financial contracts," if feasible, because of their to allow private independent generators to meet future simplicity and because they pave the road for a expansion needs. At this stage an integrated utility or seamless evolution of the power market. To ensure single buyer will ideally look at alternative proposals maximum efficiency and transparency, the Terms of from different IPPs. The preferred regulatory alternative Reference for the procurement of power should specify is to mandate the disco (or a buyer acting on its behalf) "blocks" of energy and associated capacity as opposed to conduct a competitive procurement for new power to specific, earmarked projects. By doing that, the supplies, either with physical or financial contracts. regulator will enable the market to select the least- cost, most creative options, as opposed to having Benchmarks. In other words, the fact that a market is the government earmark a power plant that may competitive on the supply side provides no guarantee not necessarily represent the best alternative to end that a disco will take advantage of this competition and consumers. This simple procedure helps to mitigate reduce tariffs to its customers. Conversely, if the some of the corruption that is sometimes associated procurement process and the power contracts are with procurement by single buyers in countries with defined and controlled by the regulator, power purchase central, deterministic planning.84 If competitive costs should be granted full pass through. procurement is not feasible,85 a second-best option is to use Administrative Set Benchmarks combined with Some Retail Competition--Once the sector introduces some form of PBR. Vesting contracts may still exist, retail competition, some customers are eligible to look and should be granted full pass through. At this phase, for alternative suppliers.86 Initially only large customers the regulator will usually establish minimum contracting are typically given this option and most customers remain requirements on the discos. captive to the disco. It may also be the case that many free customers prefer to continue to be served by the local Some Wholesale Competition "In the Market"-- At this utility. The disco will have the continued obligation to phase, we assume that there is some competition at the serve its captive customers, at regulated tariffs, as well wholesale level and that the market is basically organized as free customers, possibly at freely negotiated tariffs. around financial arrangements. Discos may buy in a Under this scenario, the utility will have an incentive to 39 contract market, a spot market, or a combination of the recover expensive power purchase contracts from captive two. There is still a need to review the disco's purchases, customers and use cheaper power contracts to retain since its retail customers have no opportunity to buy and possibly attract new customers. From a regulatory from alternative suppliers. The regulator must protect standpoint, there are two challenges to be addressed. the disco's captive customers while avoiding the creation of disincentives for investment in new generation supplies. · First, the regulator must try to ensure that there are no The recommended alternatives include Mandated cross-subsidies among those two customer groups. Competitive Procurement, Multi-Market Benchmarks, or This can be accomplished either by requiring the a combination of both. The use of Multi-Market disco to create a separate subsidiary to sell to non- Benchmarks depends on the existence of good "proxies" captive customers, or by specifying accounting rules for power prices at the wholesale level. In less mature on power purchase cost allocation among the free markets, it is reasonable to start with Mandated and captive customer groups; Competitive Procurement and gradually evolve toward · Second, the regulator must decide on the best pass Multi-Market Benchmarks. Reference prices from the through methodology. competitive procurement will help improve the quality of the benchmark, as more purchases are made on a Assuming that the captive and the free customer groups competitive basis. Some form of full pass through of power continue to be served by a disco as one single entity, costs will be necessary if vesting contracts are still operative. the best available options will probably be Mandatory Competitive Procurement for financial contracts, Multi- Full Wholesale Competition--This phase is a natural Market Benchmarks, or a combination of both. evolution of the previous one, where all energy at wholesale level is traded on a competitive, freely Full Retail Competition-- This represents the final stage negotiated basis. It implies the existence of efficient and of development in both wholesale and retail markets. liquid power markets. The regulator may adopt At this stage, all customers are eligible to choose Mandatory Competitive Procurement for financial alternative suppliers. This would seem to imply that contracts, Multi-Market Benchmarks, or a combination regulation of power purchases is no longer necessary of both. If a regulator gives discos the freedom to because the distribution company's retail customers are conduct their competitive procurement for power and no longer captive. But even though retail customers may select their suppliers, the disco's overall procurement have the legal right to choose, some may never exercise performance should be judged against Multi-Market this option and others may never receive competing offers Lovei (2000). 84 Because of the small size of the market, lumpiness of the investment, or the absence of alternative suppliers. 85 In Latin America these customers are often referred to as free customers. 86 from other marketers. Therefore the incumbent may still Mandated Competitive Procurement seems to be the be required to serve those customers and some form of most sensible alternative for captive customers or small pass through regulation will still be necessary. In this customers that are not able or willing to change situation, our recommendation is to require Mandated suppliers. Under those conditions, it should be Competitive Procurement for the discos as default applicable to all of the energy requirements of a suppliers. Specific rules for competitive procurement distribution company.88 Well-drafted regulations need to as a default supplier should be defined by the regulator. be put in place, to achieve transparency and a level The model currently used in New Jersey, where the playing field in the procurement process, without discos are required to obtain default supplies through creating unnecessary barriers to entry for new players. an auction, and the auction is performed by a third The nature of the pass through mechanism will vary party, represents an industry best practice to be depending on whether the distribution company plays considered by other countries. an active role in designing and implementing the procurement. Mandated Competitive Procurement may However, it is important to keep in mind that the success be used at different stages of market development and of this approach derives from the efficiency of its wholesale industry structure. It should preferably be used with market.87 Many World Bank client countries are either financial contracts, where a spot market does exist. too small or do not have an efficient wholesale market 40 that would support this type of auction. Determining power cost benchmarks represents another option that becomes feasible once efficient wholesale markets start to emerge. Those benchmarks should be 7. CONCLUDING REMARKS established based on power prices observed both in the contract and spot markets. Benchmarks based just on Selecting a pass through methodology for the costs projected spot market prices, the norm in several Latin of power acquired by discos is a challenge faced by American countries, seem to create a number or regulators worldwide. There is no single, "one-size-fits- unintended consequences. A composite benchmark all" pass through approach that is appropriate for all based on spot plus contract market prices requires a countries. Methodologies have to be selected and more developed market system. It is not an option for "fine-tuned" to the specifics of each country or region. small countries or countries without organized wholesale The selection will depend critically on the stage of markets. Finally, market benchmarks may do more harm development of the power sector and on existing than good if one or more sellers in the market are able market institutions. to exercise market power. Any pass through methodologies must satisfy multiple Other methodologies include full pass through of power and often conflicting objectives. These objectives include purchase costs, Administratively Set Benchmarks, and providing incentives for efficient procurement, fostering regulatory review of contracts. They usually fall short of power sector expansion, and reducing market volatility, achieving the desired goals for a pass through while still conveying price signals for at least some mechanism, and their use should be minimized. consumers to respond. And ultimately, whatever methodology is selected must be capable of being As the power sector evolves, so should the regulatory implemented by the regulator. approaches for pass through. There needs to be an ongoing consistency between the design of the Market-based pass through mechanisms are generally wholesale market and the pass through mechanism to preferable. These involve mandated competitive maximize the potential synergies between retail and procurement for power acquired by discos, or wholesale markets. establishing one or more market "benchmarks" against which the "prudence" of the disco's actual power purchase costs are evaluated. Consisting of part of the PJM power pool. 87 With the exception of small volumes of energy traded in a balancing market. 88 APPENDIX 1 This mechanism is analogous to a mandatory insurance policy. If there is insufficient money in the fund, the Electricity Tariff Equalization Fund in Argentina government may have to cover the shortfall though additional government payments. If the shortfalls occur In Argentina, most discos do not rely on forward energy on a regular basis, this is an indication that the ex ante contracts to hedge spot price volatility because they do not spot price is being systematically underestimated, either face this risk. The Electricity Law has protected discos from for technical or political reasons. volatility risks by allowing them to buy energy on a spot basis at a "smoothed" (or stabilized) price that is approved Market rules define the methodology for the System and quarterly, based on regulated procedures and calculations Market Operator to calculate average expected energy carried out by the System and Market Operator. This prices for the next three months, adjusted to take into "smoothed" price (called seasonal price) is fully transferred consideration any surplus or shortfalls in the Fund. In to retail tariffs. The seasonal price is a three-month average the early years problems arose because the market rules of the expected future spot price plus adjustments to reflect established that the Fund surplus or shortfall at the end differences between ex ante seasonal prices and actual of a trimester had to be fully recovered the following spot prices during the previous three-month period. trimester, which implied in some cases major adjustments to tariffs, which in their turn increased In addition, a special fund exists to absorb differences volatility and distorted the economic signals to end 41 between the money paid to all those selling at the actual consumers. For example, a colder-than-expected winter spot price and the proceeds collected from discos when would lead to a fund shortfall and higher reference spot buying in the spot market. It works in the same manner prices transferred to tariffs in the following spring, which as a tracking account. The financial costs (or revenues) was not consistent with the likely abundance of of the fund are included in the seasonal price calculations. hydroelectric generation offered during the spring These seasonal prices resemble a "financial contract" months. New market rules had to be put in place to between the discos and the fund. Discos pay the seasonal administer the fund in a more stable and efficient price and the fund pays spot prices to generators. The manner to avoid this problem. According to the new cost of this hedge is paid by all end consumers that buy rules, the System and Market Operator must analyze from discos, since the cost of hedging is incorporated as different scenarios and the minimum amount of money an integral part of the Fund and therefore a component in the Fund to cover deviations between expected and of the seasonal prices. Figure 2 illustrates, in a simplified actual conditions. way, how the Stabilization Fund works. FIGURE 2. The Stabilization Fund in Argentina GENCOS Pass Through ~ Variable Cost Spot price minus $ @ Seasonal $ @ Regulated seasonal price Price Regulated Spot Stabilization Disco Tariff customers ~ market fund X $ @ Spot Price ract $ Contce @ Reg $ @ Pri Tariff ulated ~ Contract Eligible market customers $ @ Contract $ @ Contract Price Price Source: Mercados Energéticos, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Every three months, the System and Market Operator are guaranteed full pass through.90 Therefore, this submits to the government (Energy Secretariat) a hedging mechanism seems to be an impediment to the seasonal-price report with the relevant calculation, after development of an active and liquid contract market.91 review and comments from market participants. The There have been several attempts to modify the pass government has the right to change the price, but since through mechanism and there is a general perception that the report is public, it is impossible to conceal the some pass through of contract prices should be allowed. manipulation of the seasonal price. Another drawback is that the mechanism may create The System and Market Operator's report on seasonal incentives to manipulate (reduce) actual spot prices.92 prices includes the following elements: This happened in the recent macroeconomic crisis in Argentina. In an attempt to maintain stable tariffs (in a) Average spot prices expected for the next three other words, have no tariff increase), seasonal prices months under different possible future conditions have been maintained constant, in some cases (scenarios), and the probability of occurrence of each; underestimating expected (ex ante) spot prices. Also, b) The difference between the balance in the fund at the market rules have been changed to reduce spot prices end of the trimester and the minimum requirement of that are used to calculate seasonal pass through prices. the Fund for the next three months to offset possible The Stabilization Fund has been used to compensate the 42 deviations. The risk of a shortfall or a surplus in the difference between revenues collected from discos and fund is assessed. payments made to generators selling in the spot market. As a consequence, the Stabilization Fund has been Over a sufficiently long period, and in the absence of depleted as illustrated in figure 3. Despite its merits in political interference, the average seasonal prices should terms of design and initial implementation, the be similar to the average energy spot prices, and bulk mechanism has reached a point where it is not tariffs paid by discos should be sufficient to pay generators sustainable--unless tariffs are adjusted. According to and to cover the working capital needs of the Fund. the Market Rules, any deficit in the Fund should be balanced by the government. The system has advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, it has provided a price hedge to discos.89 The existence of seasonal prices also contributes, at least in FIGURE 3. The Stabilization Fund in Argentina theory, to a better linkage between the wholesale price and retail tariffs, possibly inviting some demand response. 300 "Pesification" 250 However, because of its seasonal component, some 200 complain that there is still too much volatility built into 150 100 the price. On the other hand, generators complain that 50 the mechanism is too risky for them because they are 0 unable to contract with discos or are forced to enter into -50 01- 01- -01 -01 02- 02- -02 -02 03- 03- -03 contracts with prices indexed to seasonal prices. Mar July Sep Nov-01 Jan-02 -100 Jan-01 May Mar May July Sep Nov-03 Jan-03 Mar May July -150 The pass through regulation creates incentives for discos not to contract, since purchases in the spot market Source: Mercados Energéticos. Buenos Aires, Argentina. El Salvador has introduced a similar fund, to protect discos from the regulatory lag impact created by differences between ex ante and ex 89 post spot prices, particularly in times of high spot price volatility. Some contracts were allowed full or partial pass through in Argentina; vesting contracts were allowed full pass through. In a few provinces, 90 the pass through mechanism is slightly different and discos may use a benchmark that includes both the seasonal price and contract prices. In the particular case of Argentina, the lack of contracts did not hinder expansion initially, for two major reasons: (i) there is a capacity payment to 91 efficient generators that make their capacity available for the provision of ancillary services; and (ii) there has been a relatively active "merchant" generation in Argentina developed under the expectation of exporting energy to Brazil. Nevertheless, in the last few years, no generation has been added to the system. This may be due to the existing level of surplus reserve and the lower expectation of sales to Brazil. There have been accusations that the System and Market Operator has tried to reduce actual spot prices by manipulating market rules--for 92 example, by forcing out of merit plants to run, therefore increasing reserves and reducing spot prices. According to the market rules, this type of generation should not set spot prices. 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