SOCIAL EXCLUSION AND INCLUSION IN GEORGIA: A Country Social Analysis April 2017 Standard Disclaimer: This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Ex- ecutive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Copyright Statement: The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly. For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA, telephone 978-750-8400, fax 978-750-4470, http://www.copyright.com/. All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Pub- lisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA, fax 202-522-2422, e-mail pubrights@ worldbank.org. 2 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Contents Acronyms and Abbreviations.............................................................................................................................. 4 Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................................ 6 I. Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 7 1.1. Background........................................................................................................................................ 7 1.2. Defining Concepts: Social Inclusion and Exclusion............................................................................... 8 1.3. Methodology and Structure.............................................................................................................. 10 II. Exclusion Mapping.................................................................................................................................... 11 2.1. Perceptions about the drivers of inclusion and exclusion..................................................................... 12 2.2. Which groups are excluded: findings from qualitative and quantitative research.................................. 15 2.3. Policies for Inclusion......................................................................................................................... 32 III. Experiences of Exclusion: Case Studies..................................................................................................... 36 3. 1. Case Study: Azerbaijani Minority....................................................................................................... 36 3.2. Case Study: Persons with Disabilities................................................................................................. 46 IV. Conclusions and Recommendations......................................................................................................... 57 V. References............................................................................................................................................... 60 Annex I: Exclusion Mapping: Matrix.................................................................................................................. 62 Annex II: Methodology..................................................................................................................................... 64 Annex III: Policy and Institutional Overview....................................................................................................... 67 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 3 A Country Social Analysis Acronyms and Abbreviations AA Association Agreement CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child CRRC Caucasus Resource Research Center CSA Country Social Analysis CWD Children with Disabilities DCFTA Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area EC European Commission ECMI European Centre for Minority Issues ESF European Social Fund EU European Union FGD Focus Group Discussion FSU Former Soviet Union GEOSTAT National Statistics Office of Georgia GoG Government of Georgia GOC Georgian Orthodox Church ICT Information and Communication Technology IDAHOT International Day against Homophobia and Transphobia IDI In-Depth Interview IDP Internally Displaced Person IHS Integrated Household Survey IOM International Organization for Migration ISIS Islamic State of Iraq and Syria KII Key Informant Interview LEPL Legal Entity of Public Law 4 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis LGBTQI Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer or Questioning, and Intersex MAC McLain Association for Children MHLSA Ministry of Health, Labor, and Social Affairs MRA Ministry of Internally Displaced Persons from the Occupied Territories, Accommodation and Refugees NDI National Democratic Institute NEET Not in Education, Employment, or Training NGO Nongovernmental Organization OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe OSGF Open Society Georgia Foundation PARSP Post-Accession Rural Support Project PPP Purchasing Power Parity PWD Person with Disability SDG Sustainable Development Goal TSA Targeted Social Assistance UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WHO World Health Organization WVS World Values Survey Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 5 A Country Social Analysis Acknowledgements This study was prepared by a World Bank team led The team benefitted from peer review comments by by Sophia Georgieva and consisting of Nora Dudwick, Nistha Sinha, Maurizio Bussolo, Michael Woolcock, Ewa Sobczynska, Cesar Cancho, Cristina Chiarella, and Cory Welt. The team is also grateful for valuable Michelle Rebosio, and Carolyne Makumi. The Cau- advice on the research design and final report by Hol- casus Resource Research Center (CRRC) in Georgia ly Benner, Maitreyi Das, Sophie Devnosadze, Sarah was the main research counterpart for this study and Michael, Leonid Mujiri, Inga Paichadze, Stavros Stav- conducted the desk and policy review and the prima- rou, Rob Swinkels, Emcet Tas, and Mark Woodward. ry qualitative research. Its team was led by Koba Tur- Michael Ben Aharon (Golda Strategies) produced the manidze and consisted of Natia Mestvirishvili, David infographics for the report. Ekaterine Asatiani, Gohar Sichinava, Kristine Vacharadze, Zaza Chelidze, and Ta- Grigorian, and Victoria Bruce-Goga provided valuable muna Khoshtaria. The study was conducted under the support throughout the preparation of this report. overall guidance of Nina Bhatt, Practice Manager for ECA Social Development, and Mercy Miyang Tembon, The team is grateful to all individuals who participated Country Director for South Caucasus. in interviews, focus group discussions, and brainstorm- ing events in Tbilisi. 6 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis I. INTRODUCTION This study focuses on one particular aspect of Geor- gia’s path to inclusive growth: social inclusion. It uses 1.1. Background the concepts of social inclusion and exclusion to help un- derstand why some members of society may be con- Georgia has an impressive record of reforms and is sistently left behind from the development process, and on a steady track of poverty reduction, but ensuring to provide insights into policies that can have a trans- that of its all citizens can equally benefit from and formational impact on the situation of systematically contribute to its development remains a challenge. disadvantaged groups and individuals. Social exclusion, During the first decade of this century, Georgia’s econ- as described in more detail below, implies that certain omy grew by an average of 5 percent or more per members of society, due to their social or cultural iden- year, but the poorest 40 percent of the population tity, may face complex barriers and, due to them, have experienced limited and even negative growth (Bus- persistently lower outcomes—e.g., access to quality ed- solo and Lopez-Calva, 2014). This trend has changed ucation, health, employment, and income—relative to since then, and in the period 2010-2014, the poorest the rest of society, thus not achieving their full potential. 40 percent registered higher rates of growth than the national average (World Bank 2015). Still, with approx- The challenge of socially inclusive growth is not unique imately a third of the population living in poverty—32 to Georgia. Today, over 70 percent of the world’s poor percent of citizens live under USD 2.5/per day— live in middle-income countries (World Bank 2015). As Georgia registers one of the highest poverty rates in countries continue to develop, this poses a new chal- Europe. Moreover, sixteen percent of its population lenge of finding better solutions to ensure that segments of the population are not consistently left behind. Margin- experiences persistent poverty. alized populations in middle-income countries encom- There are multiple reasons why Georgia should pass diverse groups, such as ethnic or religious minori- make inclusive growth a priority. Global research ties, migrants, refugees, displaced persons, persons with shows that in order to sustain growth, policymakers disabilities, and residents of rural or remote locations, should strive towards an inclusive process – both po- among others. In many high and middle-income coun- tries, women continue to face barriers to fully achieve litical and economic. Societies divided by inequality, their potential as citizens and agents of growth. ethnic fragmentation, or those whose institutions are otherwise unable to manage conflict are less able to In Georgia, social inclusion is an imperative for eco- preserve their level of growth and development in nomic development as well as for peace and sta- the long run (Rodrick, 1999; Acemoglu and Robinson, bility. Ethnic and religious diversity, regional econom- 2012).1 Ensuring equal opportunities for all has both an ic discrepancies, and mountainous geography make intrinsic value – it is the right thing to do - and an instru- Georgia more susceptible to growing inequalities mental one in sustaining long-term development goals. across social and spatial groups. Evidence of system- Exclusion is also costly. A growing body of evidence atic discrepancies in incomes and sources of incomes reveals that failure to address barriers for groups, who across different social groups—men and women, mi- are systematically excluded or marginalized, can have norities, rural and urban, internally displaced persons a tangible cost to the economy (De Laat, 2010; World and the rest of the population—reveals that not all Bank, 2013; Ferrant and Kolev, 2016).2 citizens may have the same opportunity to prosper.3 1 Rodrick, Dani. (1999) Where Did All the Growth Go? Exter- USD 3.6 billion in South Africa (Banks, Lena M. and Polack, nal Shocks, Social Conflict and Growth Collapses. Journal of Sarah. The Economic Cost of Exclusion and Gains of Inclusion Economic Growth 4: 385-412; Acemoglu, D. and Robinson of People with Disabilities: Evidence from Low and Middle-In- (2012) Why Nations Fail? The Origins of Power, Prosperity come Countries. Ferrant, Gaelle and Alexander Kolev. 2016. and Poverty. Crown Publishing House, New York, NY. The Economic cost of Gender-based Discrimination of Gen- 2 World Bank (2013) Inclusion Matters: The Foundation for der Institutions. Shared Prosperity. The World Bank, Washington DC. 3 For certain social groups, e.g. persons with disabilities Note: Studies estimate that exclusion of Roma minority has and IDPs, social assistance and social transfers have cost 887 million euro in lost productivity in Romania and over played a particularly large role in sustaining their liveli - 320 million euro in Serbia (de Laat, 2010) Lost incomes from hoods. This implies not only costs to the economy but excluding people with disabilities from the labor market has also to the dignity and independence /empowerment of been estimated at over USD 1.1 billion in Morocco, over these groups. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 7 A Country Social Analysis Demographic shifts and a steep popula- For the purposes of this research, social inclusion is tion decline as registered in the latest Census4 defined as the process of improving the ability, oppor- are another reason why ensuring equal participation tunity, and dignity of people to take part in society.6 and opportunities is also a smart economic choice. Individuals and groups can be disadvantaged based Georgia is also vulnerable to external geo-political on their identity (ethnic, religious, gender, etc.) as well factors, including global security concerns such as re- as other characteristics (their age, place of residence, ligious extremism, which necessitate a renewed focus having a disability, being affected by conflict or displace- on strengthening social cohesion. Through its interna- ment, etc.). Social inclusion is a dynamic process. An tional commitments, including those to the SDGs and individual may suffer social exclusion in a specific stage the EU Association Agreement, Georgia has already of his/her life due to their age, place of residence, or demonstrated a commitment to both social economic circumstances such as conflict, displacement, or em- and social inclusion goals. ployment status. Moreover, exclusion is shaped by people’s multifaceted identities and disadvantages can This research adds knowledge on the ways in which be multiplied if various characteristics collide. social exclusion and inclusion manifest themselves The concept of social inclusion, as introduced in in Georgia. Looking through the lens of excluded the World Bank’s flagship report, Inclusion Mat- groups and individuals, it sheds light on the ways in ters, and discussed in this study, captures a concern which social inclusion and exclusion are understood for ability, opportunity, and dignity. Ability is linked in Georgia, ways in which they affect socio-econom- to the multiple endowments that individuals receive ic outcomes for selected groups, as well as some of such as education, healthcare, skills, connectivity to the underlying causes of exclusion. As such, the report services and infrastructure. Opportunity relates to the seeks to inform broader efforts by policy-makers, in- notion of providing all individuals with an equal access ternational development partners including the World and quality of essential services, and thereby an equal Bank Group, Georgian citizens, scholars, and civil so- chance to enhance their well-being. Dignity relates to ciety towards advancing inclusion and equal opportu- notions of respect, recognition, and attitude, i.e., the nities for all. way groups and individuals are treated by others in so- ciety. Lack of dignity perpetuates exclusion or self-ex- clusion of individuals or groups; it may perpetuate I.2. Defining Concepts: Social Inclusion and their invisibility in statistics and consequently in policies Exclusion if they are not recognized as citizens in full capacity.7 Social exclusion overlaps with, but is not synony- The concept of social inclusion has been evolving mous with, poverty. Inclusion and exclusion encom- over the past two centuries to capture states’ as- pass not only notions of poverty, but also the many eco- pirations for equitable development. Originally used nomic, social, and political relations that bind members in twentieth-century Europe, the notion of social ex- of a community together (Silver 2007). Understanding clusion and inclusion reflected concerns for growing social exclusion deepens our knowledge of multidi- divisions in wealth and opportunities across population mensional poverty in a specific country context. The groups. The premise of social inclusion goes beyond concept of multidimensional poverty affirms that poor economics to also include the social, political, and cul- people experience deprivation in multiple domains, tural processes that enable all members of society to such as education, employment, health, living condi- participate and benefit on equal terms in society. This tions, incomes, and disempowerment from voice and broader notion of social inclusion has been further re- participation. The concept of social exclusion examines the underlying historical, social, political, and cultural flected in the rise of measures such as multidimension- processes that also play a role in explaining why certain al poverty and human development indices (Atkinson and Marlier 2010.)5 6 This definition and the conceptual framework of this study, focusing on characteristics, domains, and roots of exclusion 4 Between 2002 and 2014 Georgia “lost” about 15 percent of are based on the World Bank’s 2013 flagship report Inclusion its population: from 4.4 million (Census, 2002) to 3.7 million Matters: The Foundations of Shared prosperity, The World (Census, 2014). Bank, Washington DC 5 Atkinson, Anthony and Eric Marlier. 2010. Analysing and Mea- 7 For example, children or adults with disability may be omitted suring Social Inclusion in a Global Context, United Nations as household members during household surveys or not reg- Publication, New York, NY. istered at birth. 8 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis groups continue to face lower endowments. Those Social inclusion relates to people’s chances to re- who are excluded generally suffer from multiple and ceive a suitable education, find a job, live in ade- interrelated disadvantages that result in both economic quate housing, build the social capital often needed and social deprivation. for obtaining information and good services, and coping during crises. The extent to which everyone A few more features help define the concept of has an equal chance to be included, prosperous, suc- social exclusion as discussed in this report. Firstly, cessful, and resilient to adverse circumstances depends social exclusion is both a process and an outcome; it partly on how inclusive their society’s formal institu- encompasses both the knowledge of particular individ- tions are. But even in societies with well-established uals or groups with identities that are prone to exclu- and equitable formal institutions, there are often seg- sion as well as the processes by which they are exclud- ments of the population who are consistently left out ed (stigma, discrimination, social norms or practices, of development processes because of informal norms inequitable distribution of resources, political barriers and practices (World Bank 2013). to voice and participation, etc.). Secondly, social ex- clusion is dynamic and may change over the course of The links between social inclusion and exclusion and a person’s lifetime as a result of either changes in per- poverty in Georgia are relatively underexplored, sonal circumstances or external policies and practices. and often fail to enter the development dialogue. Thirdly, the consequences of social exclusion can accu- Certainly tackling social exclusion is not straightfor- mulate and cause barriers that are particularly difficult ward, because drivers of exclusion are multiple and for specific sub-groups to overcome. For example, an overlapping. They may be anchored in formal poli- ethnic minority woman in a remote rural area may face cies and institutions that have led to consistently lower barriers on account of her gender, ethnic identity, and quality of infrastructure or services for certain groups. location and thus have lower opportunities than a per- They can also be rooted in social or cultural differenc- son without – or with only one of – these characteris- es, attitudes, or biases that discourage people from tics. Individuals and groups are affected by exclusion in pursuing certain kinds of education or employment. more than one way through their multiple identities or In some cases, these formal and informal processes characteristics: being a woman, being a member of an reinforce each other such that people internalize as- ethnic or linguistic minority, having a physical disability, sumptions about their own limitations, and appear to living in a remote area, etc.). exclude themselves. Figure 1: A framework for propelling social inclusion Attitudes and perceptions play an important role in defining who is excluded in a particular social context. Attitudes and perceptions can shed light on LAND HOUSING the processes through which inclusion or exclusion LABOR Markets CREDIT takes place. For example, prejudices, stereotypes, or MARKETS SERVICES misperceptions linked to persons with certain charac- SOCIAL PROTECTION INFORMATION ELECTRICITY teristics can affect the quality of services or access to opportunities available to them. Perceptions (including TRANSPORT EDUCATION HEALTH WATER self-perceptions of exclusion) have been linked to low- SPACES Spaces Services er socio-economic outcomes. For example, negative POLITICAL PHYSICAL attitudes towards women’s education, access to jobs, CULTURAL or holding leadership positions have been associated with lower outcomes for women (World Bank, 2013). Exclusion and inclusion manifest themselves both in tangible and intangible ways, differences in so- ABILITY OPPORTUNITY DIGNITY cio-economic outcomes as well as less tangible barriers. The World Bank (2013) report introduces a framework of exclusion and inclusion in three domains: markets, spaces, and services (see Figure 1). These three domains cut across all aspects of an individual’s life. Experiences of exclusion, either direct or subtle, are Source: World Bank, 2013. Inclusion Matters: The Foundation for likely to be revealed in one or more of these domains. Shared Prosperity Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 9 A Country Social Analysis I.3. Methodology and Structure The present study uses this framework to present Specifically, this study sets out to understand how the landscape of social exclusion in Georgian soci- social exclusion is understood in the context of ety and its implications for development. It seeks to Georgia, who is perceived as socially excluded, understand how exclusion and inclusion play out in the and in what domains are they excluded, based on Georgian context, what characteristics (social, cultural, both perceptions and existing evidence. In addi- physical, geographic, etc.) are most commonly asso- tion, for two case study groups, the study uses qual- ciated with being included or excluded, and to what itative research to look deeper into the root caus- extent the characteristics of exclusion correlate with es and processes that drive exclusion of selected poverty and other socio-economic outcomes. groups. Figure 2: Framework and structure of CSA report How is Exclusion Understood in Georgia? How is social exclusion understood in Georgia? What do citizens perceive as drivers social inclusion in their country? Who is Excluded? Exclusion Which groups are perceived as socially excluded Mapping and what evidence exists to support that? In What Domains Are They Excluded? What are the key domains (markets, spaces, services) where exclusion is demonstrated? Why Are These Groups Excluded? Case What are the underlying factors studies and processes that cause or drive exclusion? A social inclusion and exclusion lens is also import- clusion and the situation of specific groups was ant to highlight the invisibility of groups that face carried out. This review includes an overview of such constraints and need additional attention. In legislation, policies, and programs designed to re- this sense, a social inclusion analysis should not only duce disparities for vulnerable groups. It draws on lead to better targeted policies, but also improvements scholarly as well as media sources; government in data and coordination among existing institutions, reports; research by international organizations; programs, and services that serve socially and eco- public opinion surveys; and legislation, policy, and nomically marginalized populations to better assess program documents by the Government of Geor- their needs. gia. The report draws on a desk review, quantitative • Quantitative data: Analysis of Integrated House- and qualitative data, and two roundtable discussions hold Survey data from 2014, collected by the in Tbilisi held at the beginning and at the end of the Georgian National Statistics Agency (Geostat). For fieldwork phase. groups with relatively low representation (e.g., persons with disabilities, 3.8 percent of the IHS • Desk review: A literature review of Georgian and sample), aggregated data for a three-year period English language sources pertaining to social ex- (2012-2014) was used. 10 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis • Qualitative data: Two rounds of qualitative re- II. EXCLUSION MAPPING search were conducted. One round informed the ‘exclusion mapping’: it consisted of twelve focus In every society, there are multiple exclusion sto- group discussions (FGDs) in the capital city, rural, ries. Each person may be affected by exclusion in and small town locations, and fourteen key infor- more than one way through his or her multiple iden- mant interviews (KIIs) with Government, inter- tities (see Figure 3).8 Exclusion and inclusion are dy- national organizations, NGOs, and academics. A namic processes and can change over time and in the second round of FGDs and KIIs informed the case course of one’s lifetime. studies focusing on the Azerbaijani minority and persons with disabilities. This chapter is intended as a broad overview of the social exclusion landscape in Georgia. It answers • Roundtable discussions: Two roundtable discus- the questions: Who are the groups most likely to be sions were held in Tbilisi with Government, inter- excluded and why? In what ways are they excluded, national organizations, and NGO representatives. and how does this exclusion affect their welfare? What One was conducted at the inception stage of the drives exclusion and what drives inclusion in Georgian study (November 2015) to guide the scope and society? How do different forms of exclusion overlap research question. A second discussion took place and reinforce each other? And how do these drivers of at the conclusion of the fieldwork (June 2016) to exclusion correlate with poverty? present emerging findings and collect feedback to guide policy recommendations. Figure 3. Illustration of overlapping identities The report is organized in four chapters: Chapter I (Introduction) includes the rationale for conducting a social inclusion analysis, a discussion of the concep- tual framework for the study, definitions of social in- clusion/exclusion, a statement of the objectives and Religion Gender a description of the study’s methodology. Chapter II Disability (Exclusion Mapping) presents a broad country-level status ‘exclusion mapping’ to answer the questions: how is social exclusion understood in Georgia; what are the Sexual key perceived drivers of social inclusion; who is ex- cluded and in what ways. Chapter III (Experiences of orientation Ethnicity Exclusion) provides an in-depth qualitative examination of root causes, domains and outcomes of social ex- Employment clusion for two case groups (the Azerbaijani minority status and persons with disabilities). Chapter IV (Conclusions Location and Recommendations) makes recommendations for inclusive policy planning at the country level, as well as specifically for the two case study groups. Source: World Bank (2013) Georgian legislation does not explicitly define what ‘social exclusion’ means in the country’s context. However, the GoG identifies several vulnerable groups and targets them for social assistance programs. 8 Source: World Bank (2013). The size of bubbles is arbitrary and not Georgia-specific. It is used here to illustrate the point that each person simultaneously embodies various character- istics. Vulnerabilities, associated with such characteristics, can thus accumulate for the individual. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 11 A Country Social Analysis These groups are IDPs, war veterans,9 PWDs, victims tify a similar set of groups as most prone to exclusion,10 of political repression of the Soviet regime, the elder- as shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5 below. The catego- ly, those living in the most extreme poverty, and mi- ries listed in these figures reflect references from FGDs nors from impoverished households. Residents of high and KIIs; they are not mutually exclusive. mountain settlements are eligible for financial privileg- es. The eligibility of settlements, and the set of benefits While there are broad similarities between the were updated through the recent Law on High Moun- groups highlighted by citizens and policy experts, tain Regions approved in December 2015. In addition, there are also a few discrepancies. These may be the Government offers special programs and services due to the level of information that respondents have (nonfinancial) to facilitate integration of certain groups, on the situation of various groups and/or to the de- such as ex-convicts. gree to which certain groups are entitled to assistance by the state. Ethnic minorities and PWDs are two of Prior country-level studies have attempted to sys- the most frequently mentioned groups. Other groups tematize trends and group characteristics that may highlighted by the majority of respondents include les- have contributed to exclusion and reduced socio- bian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, economic outcomes in Georgia. The European and intersex (LGBTQI) (or sexual minorities), religious Commission (EC) report in 2011 highlighted national minorities, former prisoners, poor, unemployed and minorities, Roma, eco-migrants, PWDs, IDPs, street socially vulnerable people, elderly, and IDPs, among children, and children deprived of parental care as others. Focus group respondents are more likely to most prone to exclusion. At the same time, it identi- draw attention to poor, unemployed and ‘socially vul- fied persons engaged in subsistence agriculture, pen- nerable’ persons, as well as mountain residents. At sioners, and children more broadly as groups at high- the same time, a few groups, highlighted by key infor- est risk of poverty. The United Nations Development mants, such as IDPs, the homeless and street children Programme (UNDP) (2013b) assessed the situation of that do not feature prominently in the FGDs. three specific groups compared to the general popu- lation—conflict-affected IDPs, PWDs, and residents of 2.1. Perceptions about the drivers of high mountain regions—based on their ability to ac- inclusion and exclusion cess and use financial, human, physical, and social re- sources. The latter study concluded that while charac- The strength of informal networks (family, friends, teristics and life events (such as displacement, disability, neighbors, political connections) is perceived to be residence in remote area) contribute to overall vulner- of utmost importance when it comes to drivers of ability the outcomes for each individual and household inclusion and prosperity11 in Georgia, based on the are more nuanced and can vary widely within each qualitative research conducted for this study. Social group. It also concluded that social exclusion in Geor- networks are considered important both for getting gia is tightly linked to income and livelihood opportuni- access to opportunities such as good quality of edu- ties. The current report builds on this research, and at cation, finding good employment, as well as a means the same time suggests the persistence of some of the of coping in time of difficulty. Having a job, good edu- trends that remain a concern for the groups identified. cation, knowing the Georgian language, and one’s lo- cation/place of residence are other factors significantly The exclusion mapping, presented below, begins linked with inclusion and ability to realize one’s aspi- with a qualitative exploration of how exclusion is rations. Weak social capital, low education, inability to perceived in Georgian society. Focus group respon- speak the state language, being unemployed, and/or dents (composed of general public—men and women living in a rural or remote area are considered factors in rural area, small town, and Tbilisi) and key informants that drive exclusion and diminish one’s chances of be- (Government, NGO, academic representatives) iden- ing ‘successful’ in life. 10 In the FGD and IDI introduction, moderators first offered a very broad definition of excluded (‘consistently left out’, ‘ig- 9 According to the Law on Veterans of War and Military Forc- nored’, or ‘bypassed’); they also probed for how respondents es of Georgia (reg. no. 280.070.000.05.001.000.120), the themselves understand exclusion and what it means to be following groups are considered as war veterans: participants ‘excluded’ or ‘included’ in Georgia (summarized later in this of World War II; persons who took part in military actions section) abroad; participants of military actions for restoring Georgia’s territorial integrity, freedom, and independence (this includes 11 Respondents were asked what are the most important factors veterans of wars in Abkhazia and South Ossetia); and retired for one to be integrated and to be ‘successful’ or ‘prosperous’ military personnel. in life in Georgia. 12 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Figure 4. Excluded groups according to focus group respondents12 Source: CRRC based on FGDs in Phase I Figure 5. Excluded groups according to KIIs13 Source: FGD and IDIs conducted by CRRC-Georgia in Mar- Apr 2015; font size reflects number of references. Having good social connections is mentioned as an important factor for social inclusion. Families, Source: CRRC based on KIIs in Phase I relatives, and neighbors are also key sources of help for economic survival if a household faces financial or other hardship. Informal networks were also high- Figure 6. What drives inclusion: responses from FGDs lighted as the best way to get information in Geor- (left) and KIIs (right) gia. In the words of respondents, the strong role of informal networks can be either an advantage or an obstacle. Having relatives from a high social class may increase one’s chances of inclusion of getting better employment. But, respondents also mention that having a large social network does not automatically contribute to better opportunities, and may in fact perpetuate social exclusion if one’s network is from lower social class or less powerful. Having a job and income are also mentioned as an important factor for social inclusion. As one key in- formant noted: “If a person does not have a job and receives social assistance s/he is locked in his/her home and thinks about only what to eat. One cannot talk about integration and social life here. S/he is isolated” (KII 1, male). 12 Elaborated by the Caucasus Resource Research Center (CRRC) using NVivo coding of FGD (12 FGDs with 8–10 Education, along with economic and social status, participants each, conducted in Tbilisi, Samtredia [small town is seen as a driver of social inclusion. In particular, in western Georgia], and Badiauri [rural area in eastern Geor- the role of non-formal education, vocational training, gia]). The size of the font indicated frequency with which a group was mentioned. NVivio is a software package for qual- and higher education was highlighted. It was also men- itative data analysis. tioned that socially excluded groups need to be edu- cated on their rights. The role of education is especially 13 Elaborated by the CRRC using NVivo coding of KIIs (14 KIIs of which 11 in Tbilisi, and one in each of Telavi, Kutaisi, and important for ethnic minorities according to key infor- Batumi). The size of the font indicated frequency with which mants, since the language barrier makes it even more a group was mentioned. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 13 A Country Social Analysis difficult for them to get quality education: “it is proven Georgians). These factors are again related to the ac- that ethnic minority representatives who get higher ed- cess to quality education, which is another important ucation in Georgia are well integrated in society for a factor for social inclusion. Other respondents note number of reasons: they know the Georgian language national stability, and threats to security, as possible better and also they are in close contact with Georgian contributors to social isolation of minorities: “Geor- society” (KII 4, male). This is confirmed by quantitative gia’s multi-ethnic composition is not used as a strength analysis, showing that insufficient education is one of of the country, on the contrary, it is considered as a the strongest contributors to the likelihood of poverty threat and we are almost afraid of it, which is not right” for minority groups.14 (KII 14, female). The place of residence is related to exclusion Religion and gender—being Orthodox Christian mostly through the possibilities for education and and being a man—are mentioned as other factors certain infrastructure barriers that may prevent ac- of social inclusion. “There is a list of mainstream char- cess to good quality services. Institutions providing acteristics, and religion is among them. If one meets quality education are mainly located in Tbilisi. How- those factors you are more or less integrated in society ever, not everyone in the regions15 can afford to send irrespective of your economic status” (KII9, female). Re- their children to Tbilisi to study, because as report- spondents are less likely to openly mention gender as ed by respondents, living in Tbilisi is more expensive a characteristic likely to lead to exclusion. However, than the tuition fees of universities. A quote from the as one respondent notes, the ‘invisibility’ of gender as respondents: “Some kids have to walk five kilometers a source of inequality is in itself problematic: “Women in order to reach the school because their school does are not considered as an excluded group which makes not provide them with a school bus and they cannot do them invisible, they are not recognized. Since we live in this” (KI14, female). The place of residence can also a patriarchal society men have better starting positions be important for ethnic minorities, because according than women. For example, if an ethnic minority repre- to key informants, ethnic minorities living in urban ar- sentative is a man, he has better chances of political eas have a better chance to be integrated in Georgian participation and access of resources than a woman society compared to those who live in rural areas. An- partially also because of the cultural dimensions” (KII9, other group for which the place of residence might be female). Similarly, men with disabilities are believed important, according to respondents, is PWD. They to have better chances of getting married and being tend to have access to better infrastructure in Tbilisi integrated in society compared to women with dis- and therefore have more opportunities to go out than abilities. those living in rural areas of Georgia.16 Poverty and social inclusion, as expressed in the Being ethnically Georgian, and especially knowing strength of social networks, seem to be closely the Georgian language, also increases one’s chanc- related as evidenced by recent public opinion re- es of social inclusion according to the respondents. search. An exploration of the relationship between “Even though this is not formalized, it is informally pre- social exclusion, poverty, and psychosocial well-be- sumed that ethnic Georgians have higher chances to ing (Mestvirishvili 2012) based on Caucasus Barom- get employed in the state and private sector” (KII 1, eter data, shows that persons who perceive their male). This assumption is further confirmed by anal- economic situation as ‘poor’ report much weaker ysis of quantitative data showing that the share of social networks, lower trust in others, and a nar- ethnic minorities working in the public administration rower circle of people on whom they can rely (see sector is very low (5.3 percent compared to 13.2 of Figure 7). 14 Quantitative analysis conducted for this study, based on GEO- STAT IHS data 15 Georgia is administratively divided into autonomous repub- lics, regions, and municipalities. 16 Although some respondents disagree that Tbilisi is a place well adapted to the needs of PWDs, this issue is discussed more in the case study on persons with disability. 14 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Figure 7. Relationship between perception of economic situation (poor, fair, good) and social inclusion Source: Mestvirishvili 2012, based on Caucasus Barometer data (CRRC 2011). II.2. Which groups are excluded: findings Table 1. Share of selected vulnerable groups in the total from qualitative and quantitative re- population171819 search Share in Total Evidence from desk review, qualitative and quanti- Excluded Groups Population (%) tative analysis points to a consistent set of groups Ethnic minorities, 2014 Census 13 that face greater risk of exclusion. These include eth- Religious minorities, 2014 Census 15 nic and religious minorities, PWDs, homeless, street children, ex-convicts, persons living in poverty, unem- Registered PWDs, 2015 3.3 ployed and especially long-term unemployed, women, IDPs, 2015 7 LGBTQI population, residents of remote mountain People living in mountainous 9 areas, and of rural areas more broadly. This section areas, 2014 summarizes evidence emerging from qualitative and Unemployed, 2015 12.017 quantitative sources, including original research con- Poor, 201518 31.219 ducted for this study, to better illustrate the aspects Beneficiaries of subsistence 11.6 of exclusion based on available evidence for each of allowance, 2014 these groups. Data on the share of selected vulnerable Source: Produced by the CRRC based on data from GEO- groups in the total population is presented in Table 1. STAT, the Ministry of Internally Displaced Persons from the Two important considerations should be highlighted Occupied Territories, Accommodation and Refugees (MRA) in this exclusion mapping analysis. First, this mapping of Georgia (IDPs), and the Ministry of Labor, Health and So- is an effort to represent a broad and comprehensive cial Affairs (PWDs). account of population groups and categories that may experience exclusion in Georgian society; however, it II.2.1. Ethnic minorities cannot claim to represent a complete and full picture The share of ethnic minorities in Georgia has steadi- of exclusion as experienced by every individual. Sec- ly declined since independence; still they comprise ond, these forms of vulnerability overlap as they affect over a tenth of the population. According to the outcomes and opportunities of individuals. The case most recent census (2014) about 13 percent of the studies presented in Chapter III illustrate experiences population (489,000) belong to an ethic minority (see of overlapping vulnerabilities as per the accounts of representatives of two selected groups (people with disabilities and Azerbaijani minority). 17 Of the active labor force. 18 Absolute poverty based on USD 2.5 per day per person pov- erty line (2005 PPP). 19 Share of population under 60 percent of the median con- sumption (%). Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 15 A Country Social Analysis Table 2). This is a decrease from 16.2 percent in the preservation of identity. It is based on the principles 2002 Census. Indeed, the latest census confirms that of providing equal opportunities, while also supporting ethnic minorities opt for out-migration at a higher rate preservation of minorities’ culture and identity. than ethnic Georgians. While the national out-migra- tion rate was 15 percent between the 2002 and 2014 Still ethnic identity seems to play a role in devel- Census, the Russian minority declined by 61 percent,20 opment outcomes and opportunities, at least for Armenian by 32 percent, and Azerbaijani by 18 per- some minority groups. The situation of the two larg- cent (Democracy and Freedom Watch 2016). est minority groups—Armenian and Azerbaijani—is examined in more detail below. The sample of other Table 2. Share of ethnic minorities in Georgia minorities is insufficient to draw valid results from the national household survey data. Armenian and Azer- Ethnicity Share (%) baijani groups in Georgia are concentrated mostly in the regions of Samtskhe-Javakheti and Kvemo Kartli, Georgian 86.8 respectively, but fewer numbers also inhabit other Azerbaijani 6.3 parts of the country (see Figure 8). Armenian 4.5 Figure 8. Distribution of Azerbaijani and Armenian Russian 0.7 minority population in Georgia Yezidi 0.3 Ukrainian 0.2 Kist 0.2 Greek 0.2 Assyrian 0.1 Other 0.4 Source: Census 2014 Georgia has adopted relevant legislation to protect the rights of minority groups; however, the defini- tion and status of national minorities and specific Source: CRRC based on 2014 Census data. entitlements relating to this status need to be ad- Representatives of the Azerbaijani minority seem vanced. According to Georgian legislation the status of to be performing consistently worse compared to ‘national minority’ is conferred to groups of individuals other ethnic groups, looking at basic socioeconomic who: are citizens of Georgia; differ from the majori- indicators, such as poverty, income level, education, ty of the population with regard to language, culture, and type of employment, according to the quanti- and ethnic identity; have been living on the territory of tative analysis conducted for this study21. Poverty Georgia for a long time; and live in compact settlements among the Azerbaijani minority exceeds 45 percent, on the territory of Georgia. In 2005 the Georgian Par- higher relative to the national average of 32 percent liament ratified the European Framework Convention (see Figure 9). They are also the only ethnic group to for the protection of National Minorities, and in 2009 be slightly overrepresented among the poor, relative to the Government adopted the National Concept for their share in the total population (see Figure 9). Ethnic Tolerance and Civic Integration. The Concept elabo- Armenian representatives, on the other hand, are less rates national strategic goals in six main areas: rule of likely to be poor and are underrepresented among the law, education and state language, media and access poor relative to their share in the population. to information, political integration and civic participa- tion, social and regional integration, and culture and 21 All of the following analysis (para. 20-25) is based on the Georgia CSA Quantitative Analysis Background Study of 20 Possibly driven by the conflict in 2008. GEOSTAT IHS data. 16 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Figure 9. Poverty levels by ethnic identity Incomes of the Azerbaijani population are consis- 50 46,4% tently lower across wealth quintiles and the Azerbai- jani population appears to benefit less from remit- 40 32,3% tances, as well as have lower average incomes from 30 23,4% 24,4% self-employment (see Figure 10). To some extent this 20 can be attributed to the fact that the majority, over 80 10 percent, of the Azerbaijani population in Georgia lives in rural areas (see Figure 12), which is associated with 0 Georgian Azerbaijani* Armenian* Other minorities lower quality of services and fewer employment op- portunities. It is also notable that the discrepancies in income are larger among the wealthier quintiles. Source: GEOSTAT, IHS, 2014. Ethnicity based on self-dec- laration of the respondent. Poverty based on USD 2.5 per Figure 12. Distribution of ethnic groups by location (%) day (2005 PPP). *Statistically significant differences relative to Georgians 90 80 Figure 10. Representation of different ethnic groups 70 among the poor (%) 60 50 Other Minorities 40 Armenian 30 20 Azeri 10 Georgian 0 Georgian Azerbaijani Armenian Other minorities 0 20 40 60 80 100 Tbilisi Rest Urban Rural share in the total population share of the Poor Source: GEOSTAT, IHS, 2014. Ethnicity based on self-dec- laration of the respondent. Residential distribution shown Source: GEOSTAT, IHS, 2014. Ethnicity based on self-dec- within ethnicity (columns per ethnic group add up to 100%) laration of the respondent. Poverty based on USD 2.5 per day (2005 PPP). Moreover, other factors such as land ownership, ed- Figure 11. Income of ethnic groups by wealth quintile ucation, trade networks, and so on can be at play (GEL) explaining the difference in incomes. Figure 13 shows that Azerbaijani households tend to have smaller land plots. There are various factors that could be contrib- 2000 * uting to this, including geographic limitations to land pri- 1500 * vatizations in border areas imposed between 1992 and * 1000 * * * ** 1998 affecting minority populations and the manner of * 500 ** * * * * privatization that unfolded after these limitations were * lifted.22 Overall, ethnic minorities in Georgia tend to 0 I II III IV V Median have higher rates of employment in agriculture which is Georgian Azerbaijani Armenian Other minorities generally associated with lower earnings (see Figure 14). 22 Gvaramia 2013; International Crisis Group (2006) reports Source: GEOSTAT, IHS, 2014. Ethnicity based on self-dec- that after border area limitations on land privatization were laration of the respondent. Income represents total house- lifted, a lot of the lands in Azerbaijani-populated Kvemo Kar- hold income (monthly average in GEL). tli region were already leased to larger landholders, some from outside the region, which caused many local Azerbaijani *Statistical significance relative to Georgian income levels for households to remain landless or rent small plots from Geor- each quintile gians. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 17 A Country Social Analysis Figure 13. Median size of land plot (in ha) Notably, employment and self-employment in ag- riculture – one of the sectors with lowest earnings 1,2 - is higher amongst minorities. Out of all employed 1 ethnic minorities, 6.1 percent are employees in agri- 0,8 culture, compared to 2.1 of Georgians (see Figure 14). Approximately 85 percent of self-employed minority 0,6 citizens are self-employed in agriculture, compared 0,4 to 79 percent of Georgians.24 World Bank (2016a) shows that self-employment in agriculture is the most 0,2 common labor force status among the poor (< USD 0 2.5/day); 39 percent of the poor are self-employed Georgian Azerbaijani Armenian Other minorities in agriculture and this rate decreases progressively for moderately poor, vulnerable, and middle class popu- Source: GEOSTAT, IHS, 2014. The land plot represents land lation. worked by the household (rented, leased, or owned); 97 Education, along with sector of employment, are percent of it is owned. Note: Size of land plot are signifi- the two strongest contributing factors for dispari- cantly different from size plot of Georgians for all ethnicities. ties in incomes across ethnic groups. Data for Geor- gia show that on average a person whose highest Differences in sectors of employment can also be degree achieved is primary school, has a 20 percent observed across ethnic groups. A higher proportion higher probability of being poor than a university grad- of Georgians draw their incomes from public adminis- uate; and a person with secondary education has a 12 tration, real estate, renting property, business activity, percent higher chance of being poor than a univer- health, and social work. A relatively high proportion sity graduate. Quantitative analysis, using the Oaxaca of employed Armenians work in manufacturing, con- decomposition method, demonstrates that there is a struction, social, and personal services. Azerbaijani significant ethnic gap in wages across Georgian and employees work mainly as agricultural employees, in Azerbaijani population - Georgians earning 71.8 per- construction, transport, and communication sectors.23 cent higher wages than Azerbaijanis where wages are Azerbaijani employees have lower earnings compared defined as income from hired employment, self-em- to other ethnic groups in most sectors of employment ployment, and agricultural production. It also shows (see Figure 14). that the two greatest contributing factor to the ethnic wage gap are one’s sector of employment and educa- Figure 14. Employment and earnings in agriculture by tion. In other words, improving educational outcomes ethnic identity for minorities encouraging their participation in high Workers in the agricultural sector earn 55% of the nominal average income. Thus, performing sectors, and supporting moves to high- employment in agriculture greatly impacts economic outcomes, having an outsized effect on ethnic minorities, who are more likely to be employed in this sector. er-paid positions can close almost the entire ethnic Share of population within each ethnic group wage gap (see Figure 15).25 working in the agricultural sector 48% 64% 81% 176 220 160 Average GEL GEL GEL monthly income Georgian Armenian Azerbaijani Source: GEOSTAT, IHS, 2014. 24 Georgia CSA Quantitative Analysis Background Study of GEOSTAT IHS data. 23 Survey data does not allow for further desegregation to find 25 Additionally, the returns that Georgians get from the labor out what communication sectors Azerbaijanis in particular market are higher. If Azerbaijanis would get the same returns work in. as Georgians, the gap would be 17 percent smaller. 18 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Figure 15. Closing the minority wage gap: factors that Citizens of Azerbaijani ethnicity tend to have lower contribute to difference in earnings educational achievement overall. At the national lev- el, Azerbaijanis have about 20 percent lower chance An analysis of the wage gap between ethnic Georgians and Azerbaijanis reveals that almost 85% of the gap can be attributed to differences in educa- of completing secondary school, and 35 percent lower tion, sector of employment, and the positions they occupy. Improving chance of completing university compared to an ethnic educational outcomes for minorities, encouraging their participation in high performing sectors and supporting moves to higher-paid positions could Georgian. To test the extent, to which ethnic identi- close almost the entire wage gap between ethnic groups. ty as opposed to other characteristics plays a role in outcomes such as education, the study performed a matching characteristics analysis.26 This analysis com- pared outcomes for ethnic Georgians and Azerbaijan- is with similar socio-demographic characteristics (for 41% 12.7% 2.3% 21.7% 22.4% example, age, gender, location, employment status, household size, and so on). We see that even when matched with persons from the majority ethnicity with similar characteristics, Azerbaijanis still have lower ed- ucational outcomes. Sector of Employment Urban/Rural Experience Further, cultural differences and norms across eth- Education Occupation nic minority groups account for some disparity in opportunities, particularly for minority women. As Ethnic identity, specifically for Azerbaijani repre- Figure 17, below, demonstrates the gender gap in ed- sentatives, is strongly correlated to lower chances ucational achievement for ethnic Georgian and Arme- of educational achievement. Among the adult pop- nian communities is negligible and in fact shows slightly ulation in Georgia, Azerbaijanis have the highest likeli- more favorable outcomes for girls than boys; however, hood of being illiterate (2 percent, whereas this share there is a pronounced gender gap among the Azer- is almost zero for the rest of the population), as well as baijani minority group with girls being more than 10 of having completed primary education only (see Fig- percent less likely to complete secondary school, and ure 16). It is notable that the highest drop in comple- about 6 percent less likely to complete a university de- tion rates for Azerbaijani minority occurs in secondary gree. Social norms and practices are likely to account education, while for the Armenian population – in the for this difference. The United Nations Population university level. Fund (UNFPA)27 reports that Georgia has one of the highest rates of child marriages in Europe (17 percent Figure 16. Educational attainment for Georgians, Azer- of Georgian women marry before turning 18). This baijanis and Armenians (%) rate is even higher among some minority groups. UN Women study of minority women in Kvemo Kartli Percentage of population attaining education level or higher notes that a third (32 percent) of married respondents 100 were married before the age of 18 (and 5 percent The major gap between the Azerbaijani minority and the rest of the Georgian were married between the ages of 13 and 14). 80 population occurs at the secondary level, with graduation rates for Azerbaijanis dropping by over 25% 60 The major gap between the Armenian minority and ethnic Georgians occurs 40 at the higher level, with graduation rates for 26 Using a methodology developed by Nopo (2008), cited in Armenians dropping by 22% Inchauste and Cancho (2010). According to this methodol- 20 ogy, Georgians are paired with their closest minority neigh- bor based on a Propensity Score Matching technique. The 0 Primary Secondary Higher Masters characteristics included for matching individuals are: area of residence, region, employment status, age, household size, Georgian Armenian Azerbaijani share of dependents, being a single woman and working in the agricultural sector. Once each Georgian is paired with its minority neighbor, educational outcomes, such as having fin- Source: GEOSTAT, IHS, 2014. Ethnicity based on self-dec- ished tertiary and secondary education, are compared. laration of the respondent. 27 UNFPA (2012), cited in UNFPA (2014). Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 19 A Country Social Analysis Figure 17. Ethnic and gender gaps in educational Figure 18. Proficiency in Georgian by ethnic group attainment (self-declared), Census 2014) The male/female gap in the probability of attaining education level 100 14 Most gender gaps in The largest gaps across all 80 education occur among ethnicities occur around the Azerbaijani minority. the secondary education 12 Gender gaps among level, with fewer women Georgians and Armenians than men graduating 60 10 are lower than 1.6% secondary education. across educational levels. 8 40 6 20 4 2 0 Georgian Armenian Azeri Other 0 -2 Primary Secondary Higher Masters Source: Authors’ elaboration based on 2014 Census data, Georgian Armenian Azerbaijani and self-declaration of mother tongue and proficiency of Georgian. The category ‘other’ includes persons who de- clared their mother tongue to be either Abkhazian, Osse- Source: GEOSTAT, IHS, 2014. Ethnicity based on self-dec- tian, Russian, or ‘Other’. laration of the respondent. Controls for age, area of resi- dence and region included. Despite the lack of formal barriers for the integra- tion of minorities in social, political, and economic Focus group and interview respondents in this life, ethnic minorities are underrepresented in po- study highlight the language barrier as one of the litical systems. At the time of this research, there are key causes for discrepancies in social inclusion and three Armenian and two Azerbaijani representatives social and economic opportunities for minorities. in the 150-member Parliament. Azerbaijanis are also In Census (2014) only 19 percent of native Azerbai- not as frequently represented in local government29 jani speakers declare proficiency in Georgian (see in areas where they are a majority. As mentioned Figure 18). These levels are higher for native Russian above, Azerbaijanis are also less likely than Georgians and Armenian speakers (64 percent and 40 percent, or Armenians to be employed in the public adminis- respectively). Language proficiency is directly related tration. to the quality of education, ability to pursue higher education in Georgia, ability to access essential ser- vices such as health care28 and other public services, According to public opinion surveys, tolerance and more broadly to access information from main- and public attitudes toward minorities have im- stream media channels. There is indication that the proved over the decades, but still reveal some language barrier affects women more strongly. In a barriers. Approximately 70 percent of Georgians UN Women (2014b) survey on the needs of women report they would not like to have as a neighbor in the Kvemo Kartli region, 65 percent of Azerbaijani a person from a different race, over 60 percent and 59 percent of Armenian respondents reported would not like to be neighbors with people from that they could not speak, read, write, or understand a different religion (Table 4), and 20 percent would Georgian; and only 9 percent and 21 percent of be against having neighbors who speak a different these groups, respectively, stated they are fully liter- language (Table 3). While many would be willing to ate in Georgian. do business with persons from a foreign nationality or minority identity, most would not accept them as 28 Physicians are required to be licensed in Georgian, and there members of one’s family. is scarcity of minority-speaking licensed physicians. As a result, minority representatives often have to resort to translation 29 International Crisis Group (2006) reported that in Kvemo services from relatives or neighbors, which reduces the qual- Kartli, where Azerbaijanis are a majority ethnic group, they ity of service especially on sensitive medical issues. had no municipal heads and 3–4 deputies. 20 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Table 3. Percentage of Georgians who would not like to Muslims in Georgia include ethnic Georgians (mostly have as neighbors people speaking a different language Sunni, in Adjara region and some in Samtskhe-Javakhe- ti), Azerbaijanis (mostly Shia, concentrated in Kvemo 2005–2009 2010–2014 Kartli), and Chechen Kist (mainly Sunni, and concen- 23.1% 20% trated in Kakheti region) (see Figure 19). The second Source: World Values Survey (WVS). largest minority religious group is Apostolic Armenian. It comprises approximately 3 percent of the popula- Table 4. Percentage of Georgians who would not like to tion and is mostly concentrated in Samtskhe-Javakheti have people from a different religion as neighbors region. Other groups, with under 1 percent, are Cath- olic, Jehovah’s Witness, Yezidi, Protestant, and Jewish. 1995–1998 2005–2009 2010–2014 About 2 percent of the population in the latest census 73.5% 64% 63.6% does not report affiliation with any religion. Source: CRRC based on WVS. The range of years indicates the wave of the WVS. Data for Georgia was Figure 19. Share of Muslim population by municipality gathered in 1996, 2009, and 2012. To summarize, evidence shows that ethnic identity is associated with development out- comes in Georgia. For some groups, for example Azerbaijani minority, this may be symptomatic of a set of barriers or overlapping disadvantages that together contribute to diminished opportunities for this group. The underlying reasons for this are explored in more detail through qualitative re- search, presented later in this report (Chapter III, case study on the Azerbaijani minority). It should Source: CRRC based on Census 2014 be highlighted that other smaller minority groups (Roma, Kist, and so on) may also face significant social, economic, or cultural barriers but data for There is no empirical evidence that religious minori- these groups is scarce and inquiry into these barri- ties are performing consistently worse on any set of ers would require further dedicated research.30 indicators, based on quantitative analysis conduct- ed for this study. Yet, focus group respondents and II.2.2. Religious minorities key informants interviewed in this research point out some areas where religious minorities may face addi- Religious minorities comprise about 15 percent of tional obstacles, such as education. Respondents note the population. Muslims are the biggest religious mi- that the school curriculum continues to be linked with nority (just over 10 percent of the whole population). Orthodox Christian traditions and that may perpetu- ate feelings of exclusion of non-Christian students.31 30 For example, key informants in this research mention Roma In some cases, respondents mention strong negative as a strongly marginalized group, but due to the size of the attitudes from teachers, principals or parent communi- Roma population there is little empirical evidence on social and economic indicators for this group. The 2002 Census ties toward Muslim students, including anecdotal infor- showed there were about 500 Roma living in Georgia. In mation of school personnel promoting conversion of 2010, the Open Society Georgia Foundation (OSGF) report- students into Orthodox Christianity, or parents block- ed that there were approximately 750 Roma and 800 Mol- dovans living in Georgia, noting that many inhabitants in Roma ing children who attend madrasas (Islamic instruction settlements in Georgia identify themselves as Moldovan. The schools) from enrolling into mainstream schools.32 European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI) reports that ap- proximately 1,500 Roma registered in Georgia as of 2015. 31 For example, customs of praying before class. This shows that—similar to other countries in eastern Eu- rope—official data on Roma shares in the population may be 32 The latter story is based on a case of a school in Kobuleti, underestimated. Most of the Roma in Georgia reportedly live Adjara region, where a principal’s decision to accept students in Tbilisi. Many lack official state identification documents and from a madrasah into the public school brought on public op- as a result cannot access education or other state services. position from parents and the community. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 21 A Country Social Analysis The extent to which religion is incorporated in the II.2.3. Residents of rural and remote school curriculum has been subject to public debate mountain areas34 for over a decade. A constitutional agreement be- tween the state and the Orthodox Church of 2002 in- Residents of rural, and especially remote mountain troduced a voluntary Orthodox study program in pub- areas, face barriers from multiple perspectives: lic schools. Because of this, practices may vary across quality of infrastructure and connectivity to markets areas and schools in the country. Another set of issues and services, for example, distance from schools, uni- relate to public attitudes toward minority students and versities, quality health care centers, and so on. High may obstruct their integration in mainstream education mountains comprise over 60 percent of Georgia’s system.33 territory. Population decline affects mountain regions most strongly. Between 2002 and 2014, the moun- Overall, respondents agree that being an Orthodox tainous border regions of Racha-Lechkhumi and Kve- Christian is an important part of being a Georgian mo Svaneti were most affected by out-migration losing and as a result there may be some mistrust toward 37.4 percent of its population, followed by Samegre- other religious groups. “In order to be a full-fledged lo-Zemo Svaneti with 29 percent. Over 150 villages Georgian, the Georgian society demands from you… in Georgian mountain regions have been completely They demand that they are like them, in terms of religion deserted, and a similar number are barely inhabited.35 as well because religion was very important for Georgians, The scale of migration may be even higher than official during the identity formation.” (KII 4, male). The latest figures indicate, as many migrants remain registered in wave of World Values Survey (WVS) shows that 32.2 their places of origin.36 percent of Georgians would not like to have a person from a different religion as a neighbor. Focus group par- Some of the main challenges faced by high moun- ticipants allude specifically to stereotypes toward more tain villages are infrastructure (roads, electricity), ‘newly converted’ persons to Western religions such communications, and availability of basic goods and as Jehovah’s Witnesses, implying that converts to such services (schools, health centers, grocery stores). ‘non-traditional’ religions are generally of ‘lower social UNDP (2013b) notes that residents of high mountain class’ and choose to convert due to material benefits. areas are less likely to have health insurance or to ap- ply for social assistance. Respondents interviewed for The Georgian Constitution declares “complete this study mention that “Communication is the biggest freedom of religion” and provides for freedom of issue, in some places they do not have electricity, or tele- expression on the basis of religion, while recog- communication [telephones] to be in touch…In Kakheti, nizing the special place of the Georgian Orthodox there are many villages like that where people live but… Church (GOC) in the history of the country (US they have no cell reception, they can’t watch TV…” State Department 2014). While some stakeholders (FGD, Badiauri, male, 20–39). Roads are another have criticized the privileged position of the GOC in big issue for these villages, as they cannot be reached relation to state polices and funding, public opinion is by car. And as there are no schools in these villages, more divided. Government policies to promote inclu- young people are unable to be educated. Therefore, sion of religious minorities are seen not only from an according to the respondents, there are only a few angle of social and economic integration, but also as a families left in such villages: “There are villages with only security issue. four or five families left. It has not always been like this, but [the families] are left there and no one pays attention 34 These groups are discussed here together due to common and overlapping barriers to their inclusion and opportunities. 35 Depopulation of high mountain areas has been a long-term process, driven by multiple factors: industrialization in the So- viet period starting in the 1960s, recurring natural disasters (earthquakes and landslides), conflict on the South Ossetian border in the 1990s and 2008, as well as general deteriora- 33 A case in Kobuleti (Adjara region) was flagged where the local tion of infrastructure and services. IWPR (2016). population opposed children from a local madrasah school joining the local public school. When the school principal ac- 36 International Organisation for Migration (IOM) cited in IWPR cepted them, it resulted in protests from local residents. (2016). 22 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis to them…Everyone who had a chance, left that village” There is a perception that being from a rural area (FGD, Badiauri, male, 20–39). may impose some characteristics of exclusion that are hard to shed even after changing one’s location In 2015 the Georgian Government approved a new of residence. Respondents allude to features, such Law on the Development of Mountainous Regions. as manner of speech: “It can be said that if someone The law applies to settlements located 1,500 m above is a ‘villager’, and uses a smoother ‘L’, this symbolizes sea level, or between 800 and 1,500 m if they meet a villager, that he/she is disadvantaged compared to a additional criteria, related to mountain slope inclina- ‘city-dweller’, who does not use such smooth ‘L’…” (KII 5, tion, infrastructure, climate and natural environment, male). Even in urban areas, people living in the suburbs lack or scarcity of agricultural lands, demographic situa- or periphery of the city have a harder time integrating tion, rate of out-migration, and so on. According to this into the society compared to those living in the center. law, 1,582 towns and villages were granted status of This is mainly due to their poor economic conditions, high mountain areas, and are eligible to receive certain and lower connectivity to good quality services. “…If tax and social benefits.37 a person lives in the periphery [of an urban area], he/she has a bigger problem integrating compared to those who The law has been in force since January 2016, hence live in central areas. Consequently, people in peripheries it is too soon to evaluate its social or economic im- are poorer…and have more problems…” (KII 5, male) pacts on high mountain areas. Rural respondents in Some respondents make a connection between in- the current study consider this law a positive initiative clusion and prosperity in rural areas, and the devel- though insufficient to address depopulation in high opment of tourism. They note that the situation may mountain areas: “They [the government] have devel- be particularly difficult in towns and villages, in which oped a policy to return people to the mountains, and there is no developing tourism services. Because of they raised pensions in high mountain villages, but this is less dynamic local economic development, citizens’ practically nothing. You cannot keep people there if there participation in local development is also much weak- is no infrastructure…” “…if there is no infrastructure, if er: “What gives you the feeling of being a citizen? When a normal school is not built, a clinic is not opened, people you have an opinion and participate in processes where will physically not stay” (FGD, Badiauri, male respon- your opinion matters…Here the priorities of the village dents, 20–39). are set and the little money is spent without asking or involving these people…” (KII 9, female). In rural areas, more broadly, lack of jobs besides subsistence agriculture and strong dependence on II.2.4. Persons with disabilities agriculture is another cause of vulnerability. It is worth noting that, according to World Bank (2016a), The share of officially registered PWDs in Geor- persistent poverty38 is present in both rural and urban gia is believed to be strongly underestimated. As areas, and that though some rural areas show growth of February 2016, the number of persons registered in employment in nonagricultural sectors (for example, with the Social Service Agency and receiving a disability Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti, Guria) most are still highly pension stood at 123,957 persons, or approximately dependent on agriculture (for instance in Samtskhe-Ja- 3.3 percent of the population, while the World Health vakheti, Kakheti and Guria itself agricultural employ- Organization (WHO) estimates a global prevalence of ment represents more than two thirds of total jobs). disability of about 15 percent. Census (2014) reports a higher share if 342,042 PWDs, or 8.7 percent of all Georgian citizens. Causes for underreporting of dis- 37 A 20 percent increase in pension for the elderly; a 20 percent ability are explored in more detail in Chapter III of this supplement to social assistance of eligible vulnerable house- report (case study on PWDs). holds; a bonus for doctors and nurses in the amount of the state pension; a monthly cash assistance for newly born chil- dren; and a compensation of 50 percent monthly charges for PWDs have higher poverty rates, lower educational electricity (not exceeding 100 KWh). achievements, and lower labor force participation, 38 Georgia Poverty Assessment (World Bank 2016) shows that based on the quantitative analysis conducted for this about half of the poor in 2013 were persistently poor, and study. At 42 percent, poverty rates among PWDs are overall roughly half of the population has either left or fallen significantly higher than the national average of 32 per- into poverty. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 23 A Country Social Analysis cent. About 6 percent of PWDs are illiterate, whereas Ossetia in 1990–1993, 1998, and 2008, as well as by this figure is close to zero for the rest of the population. ecological disasters in Upper Adjara and Svaneti. Slightly less than half (45 percent) of PWDs complete secondary education, about a fifth complete second- Table 5. Number of registered IDPs, refugees, ary professional programs, and 12 percent complete a and persons with humanitarian status Master’s or equivalent university degree (compared to Registered Refugees 24 percent of the general population). Registered IDPs and Persons with Humanitarian Status Moreover, having a PWD in the household affects Women 141,381 166 incomes and labor market participation of caregiv- Men 122,574 191 ers and the entire household, according to respon- dents interviewed for this study. The Government Total 263,955 357 allocates a monthly pension of GEL 160 for PWDs, Source: The CRRC based on data by the MRA, February registered with the Social Service Agency. Caregivers 2014. are often dependent on this pension as well, in addi- tion to targeted social assistance (TSA) allowance, if the (a) IDPs Displaced by Conflict household qualifies. Respondents (caregivers of PWDs interviewed during FGDs) note that family members IDPs from occupied territories are largely concen- are sometimes reluctant to taken on a job, especially trated in areas adjacent to the border zones and in informal or temporary job, so as not to lose social as- major cities, such as Tbilisi and Batumi. About 75 sistance coverage. At the same time, additional medical percent of these IDPs live in urban area (whereas only and transportation costs often pose a higher burden to 49 percent of the general population lives in urban ar- households with a PWD compared to others. eas). This is largely due to housing and economic op- portunities. Less than 40 percent of IDPs own their Exclusion of PWDs is a result of multiple mutual- homes. About 22 percent live in new buildings and ly reinforcing barriers. Interviews and focus group cottage settlements, and 38 percent still inhabit col- discussions with PWDs, caregivers, and service pro- lective centers (hotels or other public buildings where viders, presented in chapter III of this report illustrate they were given shelter upon resettlement). Though how the interaction of various factors act together to some collective centers have been rehabilitated, liv- perpetuate low social and economic outcomes. These ing conditions in most of them are substandard and include barriers to physical access to public spaces and overcrowded. Living conditions are one of the main infrastructure, barriers to education, employment, low challenges for IDPs. Apart from preventing social in- access to information, and general social stigma. Adap- tegration by physically isolating IDPs from other resi- tation of the physical environment and channels of in- dents, poor living conditions contribute to health and formation to be accessible for PWDs is still incipient in psychological problems. Georgia. Availability of state-funded social services, such as specialized day centers for children with disabilities Beyond reported poverty rates, which appear to be (CWD), medical personnel to provide rehabilitation, higher compared to the general population, IDPs special education teachers, and so on are confined to face a set of distinct disadvantages. At 43.4 percent, major urban areas. The presumed under-registration poverty rates among IDPs are higher than the general of PWDs also constrains state institutions to adequately population,39 as well as somewhat higher than those of plan and allocate resources to address their needs. other vulnerable groups (PWDs [41 percent], elder- ly [40 percent]). But perhaps the largest challenge for II.2.5. Internally Displaced Persons (by con- flict and natural disaster) 39 It is worth noting that different surveys indicate different levels of poverty gaps between IDPs and the rest of the population. These are described in more detail in World Bank (2016b). Despite its relatively small size, Georgia hosts one It has been noted by various organizations (EU, United Na- of the largest per capita shares of IDPs in the world, tions High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], World about 7 percent of its population or approximately Bank) that IDPs in Georgia are a very heterogeneous group: 264,000 (MRA 2014) persons. Internal displacement some continue to face a cycle of poverty, unemployment, and substandard housing conditions, while others have integrated has been caused by conflicts in Abkhazia and South well both into society and into the labor market. 24 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis IDPs are housing and independent livelihoods (UNDP not operational during the 1990s but it was in place in 2013b; UNHCR 2009; World Bank 2013, 2016b). 2008). The majority of 2008 case load IDPs received IDPs are more reliant on remittances and social trans- support to purchase private housing, while the IDP fers.40 All IDPs with income less than GEL 1,250 per collective centers still house mostly families displaced month are entitled to a government benefit of GEL 45 in early 1990s. per month. Barriers to self-reliance mostly stem from lack of productive assets, collateral, and long-term To some extent vulnerabilities of IDPs are intergen- security. Many IDPs have traditionally had rural liveli- erational. Prior research and qualitative analysis point hoods, but most of them do not own land or livestock out that IDP children tend to be disadvantaged in qual- after resettlement. Not owning a house prevents long- ity of education; however, this tends to be an outcome term planning and also means that they lack collateral of lower socioeconomic status than of displacement and access to finance for entrepreneurial activities. directly. For conflict-displaced IDPs, the IDP status, and eligibility to the IDP social allowance, is inherited. While prior qualitative studies (World Bank 2016b) and respondents in this report highlight that IDPs The social and economic integration of IDPs has are generally well-accepted and integrated social- been actively promoted by the Government, inter- ly in their communities, this acceptance does not national partners, and NGOs. Support includes the translate into strong social networks that support monthly IDP cash allowance, housing programs to re- social or economic mobility such as finding a bet- habilitate collective centers, construction of new settle- ter job. Discussions with IDPs in four regions in 2015 ments or supporting transition into private housing for (World Bank 2016b) reveal that unemployment along IDPs, and a number of livelihood programs, including with housing are considered priority needs by IDPs. land leasing pilots for rural IDPs. Respondents also point out that women tend to find employment more easily than men; however, this is (b) IDPs Displaced by Natural Disasters (‘Eco-Mi- likely to result in women’s willingness to take low- grants’) er-skilled and lower-paid jobs, for example, as domes- tic workers or agricultural employees. A less-researched group of IDPs are the so-called ‘eco-migrants’ displaced by natural disasters. A large It is worth noting that after more than twenty years number of these IDPs have been displaced from or from the first wave of displacement, IDPs are a very within Adjara and Svaneti regions by earthquakes, heterogeneous group. Prior studies (World Bank, landslides, or floods. As there is no established legal 2013; World Bank 2016b; UNHCR 2015) indicate definition of eco-migrants in Georgia, this group has that IDPs who still live in non-rehabilitated collective traditionally not been eligible for social allowances, du- centers away from the capital are one of the most mar- rable housing, or livelihoods assistance. ginalized sub-groups. This is due to on the one hand to crowded and sub-standard living conditions that While the causes of their vulnerability is largely sim- may contribute to lower health outcomes, psycho-so- ilar to other internally displaced citizens, attention cial problems, and on the other hand, due to spatial to the needs of eco-migrants has been weaker. In isolation that contributes to weaker social networks, 2014 an Eco-Migrants Department was created within challenges in accessing good quality services, educa- the Georgian MRA. Still, financial constraints and the tion, and job opportunities. Moreover, IDPs displaced lack of legal status of ‘eco-migrants’ confine addressing from rural locations in an urban setting with no access their needs to sporadic assistance rather than compre- to land are often not able to maintain their tradition- hensive policy. Since 2004, 3,000 families have filed al livelihoods. The same studies point to differences applications for resettlement, of which 1,182 were ap- between 1990s and 2008 caseloads of IDPs. Due to proved. Over the last decade, over 570 households better economic situation of the country, those dis- have received state support in the form of new house placed in 2008 were able to get better returns from and small land plot, but thousands more are either dis- both housing and social assistance (TSA program was placed and in waiting, or are at risk of displacement by pending disasters (Lyle 2012). In 2015, 140 families 40 Social transfers (pensions, scholarships, assistantships) com- were relocated, a huge increase from the 36 families prise 36 percent of IDPs’ income, compared to approximate- ly 26 percent for the general population. resettled in 2013 and 2014 combined (IWPR 2016). Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 25 A Country Social Analysis II.2.6. Elderly Table 7. Household size and number of working adults in households with elderly Population ageing is taking place rapidly in Georgia. HH size Elderly - Urban Elderly - Rural In 2010, out of its 4.4 million people more than 14 percent were 65 years and older and about one-third 1 14.21 14.08 were 50 years old and above; by 2030 these shares 2 26.07 26.17 are expected to grow to 21 percent and 40 percent, 3 17.26 13.32 respectively. Life expectancy at birth, which in 2010 4 13.79 11.12 was 78 years for Georgian women and 71 years for Georgian men, is predicted to rise to 80 years for 5 12.53 11.67 women and 73 years for men in 2030. While this is 6+ 16.14 23.64 welcome news, older people suffer from high levels Number of adults of poverty, unemployment, and underemployment 0 30.52 31.81 (UNECE 2015). 1 22.87 18.21 Quantitative data collected for this study show 2 26.71 25.81 that income levels for the elderly are significantly 3 11.19 13.95 lower than those for the rest of the population. At 4 8.71 10.22 40.2 percent, poverty rates among the elderly are substantially higher than the national average though Source: Integrated Housheold Survey, 2014 comparable to those of other vulnerable groups (42 When talking about problems and barriers of the percent among PWDs; 43 percent among IDPs). elderly, respondents of FGDs and KIIs mention age- Among the elderly, women are at a disadvantage ism, employment, and violence. Informants say that with overall lower median income levels (see Table opportunities for the elderly are limited, including for 6). Elderly seem to be living in smaller households, finding jobs: “Generally ageism exists in Georgia…there both in urban and rural areas, and 26 percent live in are closed some spaces for people elder than 40 years a house with only two people. The percentage of el- old, for example, political space… but this does not hap- derly living with no adults of working age in the house pen in regions…” (KII 5, man). Focus group participants is also considerably high – almost a third of urban and highlighted that it is very hard for people older than rural elderly do not have any working age adult in the 40 to find employment in Georgia. Respondents men- house (Table 7). tioned anecdotal evidence of when they were rejected Table 6. Median incomes of elderly by location for positions because of their age, noting that this made and gender them feel excluded. According to respondents, em- ployers prefer to employ young people because it is Median Monthly Income by Quantile (in GEL) easier to manage them: “The jobs are limited for people who are older than 40 and are unemployed. Nowadays Elderly Elderly Female Male our generation is excluded. Nobody needs you. You have Elderly Urban Rural Elder Elde experience and nobody looks at your professionalism. Of- Median ten they [employees] want a young person who is more 661.5 686.6 643.0 628.0 711.43 Income manageable. She/he will do anything you ask.” Note: For elderly individuals, their average total household This also related to other areas of life, beyond em- income has been reported. Total household income in- ployment: “The elderly have some barriers linked with cludes wages, earnings from self-employment, income from finding jobs, participating in political processes, social and selling agricultural production, property income, pensions, cultural processes, because it is considered that when scholarships, assistances, remittances from abroad, money one retires he/she must be away from everything.” (KII 8, received as gifts and non-cash income. woman). With regard to violence, respondents men- tion the elderly as victims of psychological and physical violence within their own families, such as their chil- dren and relatives. 26 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Low incomes and financial dependence on children living on the streets of Tbilisi, but these records are are another area of concern. Respondents say that recognized as incomplete. Local researchers report the elderly are not able to improve their situation and that in most cases, street children either belong to the state does not provide them with necessary ser- homeless families, or have a home but are regularly vices to help them. The pensions provided are not on the streets due to poverty, conflict in the family, or enough: “…The income that pensioners have does not issues of physical, emotional, or sexual violence in their meet all their needs, and the state does not offer them household. Among street children, the number of services that will be sufficient for them…” (KII 3, man). boys is slightly higher than that of girls. Key informants According to one informant, the state has some pro- consider this to be result of the fact that, in conditions grams for the elderly, including day centers and homes of poverty, boys are more driven to leave school and for the elderly, which are run by NGOs and gov- look for work. ernment agencies and function like boarding houses. However, these programs are not enough to meet the Some services to address the needs of street chil- needs of the elderly. dren are provided by the Government or NGO- run day centers through vouchers allocated by the II.2.7. Homeless persons and street chil- state. As there are no consistent statistics on the num- dren ber and background of street children these services are likely insufficient to address the full needs or tackle Homelessness among adults and children is largely root causes of the problem. In the words of some re- an urban phenomenon. Most of the recorded home- spondents: “to eat, drink and [provide] hygiene does not less live in Tbilisi. There is no consistent data on the really mean that these children will be integrated [in the prevalence of homelessness. Yet there is consensus society]” (KII 6, female). Similar services are provided among respondents in the study that this group is by international NGOs, such as World Vision. In addi- among the most marginalized in society. tion, the Center for Crime Prevention and Innovative Programs of the Ministry of Justice targets street chil- The 2002 Census reported that there were ap- dren and at-risk from an angle of juvenile crime pre- proximately 2,500 homeless persons in Georgia, vention. Its programs mostly aim to raise awareness about two-thirds of whom are men and a fifth of among young people on repercussions of committing whom are elderly. The root causes of the homeless- a crime. ness are considered to be poverty, migration to the cities, problems in housing market, drug or alcohol Focus group and interview respondents in the cur- addiction, problems related to huge health expendi- rent study tend to describe symptoms or outcomes tures, and domestic violence, the latter mostly affecting of vulnerability among street children, such as their women and the elderly. extremely poor hygiene. These characteristics further Homelessness among children is considered par- perpetuate their exclusion and create immediate bar- ticularly worrisome because of its long-term con- riers to access services such as integration in schools. sequences for children who miss education and “Children who do not know how to wash their hands, other basic human development opportunities. In how to brush their teeth, to shower, and to change their 2005 and 2008, surveys commissioned by the United clothes. There were cases, when classmates did not ac- Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and Save the Chil- cept a child, because of he/she wouldn’t wash and had a dren (2007),41 respectively, reported that there were specific scent, because of sleeping on the street and not 1,000–1,200 children living in the streets of Tbilisi. In taking care of him/herself.” (KII 10, female). At the same 2015, the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Social Affairs time, there is low awareness among citizens, as well (MHLSA) had a record of approximately 400 children as key informants, on the root causes of homelessness among children. Further research and awareness ef- 41 Save the Children (2007) Assessment of Urban Street Chil- forts are needed to understand and address preven- dren and Children Living in Government Institutions in Geor- tively their exclusion either through preventative or gia: Development and Testing of a Locally-Adapted Psychoso- remedial programs. cial Assessment Instrument. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 27 A Country Social Analysis II.2.8. Ex-convicts erties and assets of these individuals and households. Participants in this study reported they had lost all of The ex-convict population in Georgia is particularly their financial means and many of them were depen- large and faces constraints in social integration and dent on their parents’ pensions and donations of close employment due to specific historical circumstanc- relatives. Most of the surveyed ex-prisoner women es. In the first decade of the 2000s, fast-paced reforms considered their sentences to be unlawful and dispro- to improve the rule of law, business environment, and portionate with respect to the offences committed. so on were also accompanied by a steep increase in Many of them were victims of violence during prose- convictions. Between 2003 and 2010 Georgia’s prison cution and investigation. population grew by 300 percent, making it the country with fourth largest rate of incarceration per capita in Young people, between ages 20 and 30, who have the world. Following the approval of an Amnesty Law been imprisoned also face the challenge of missed in 2013, approximately half of the prison population opportunities in higher education. The Government was released. There is no official published statistic on offers professional courses to ex-convicts which award the scale of the former prison population; approxi- certificates and are popular and well-received. How- mately 25,000 persons were released only in the year ever, participants still face obstacles to compete in the after the adoption of the Amnesty Law (OSGF, 2014). labor market due to stigma, physical and mental health issues, and reduced social network. Exclusion of former prisoners was mentioned in about a quarter of interviews and FGDs. The group II.2.9. LGBTQI Population of former prisoners is fairly heterogeneous. The op- portunities for ex-convicts to integrate in socioeco- Data on sexual minorities is scarce in Georgia. Stud- nomic life are seen as dependent on their age, gen- ies conducted by Heinrich Boll Foundation, local NGO der, education, and type of crime committed. Still, this ‘Identoba’, Eastern Partnership Civil Society Forum, as group faces some common obstacles such as psycho- well as of the Georgia Ombudsman, show that hate logical difficulties and trauma, social stigma, and weaker speech is commonly used against LGBTQI people. It social network that affects their ability to find a job. is assumed that only a small part of the LGBTQI popu- lation are open about their sexual identity due to likely Women are especially vulnerable to negative atti- discrimination in education, employment, among oth- tudes from society and inadequate economic op- er areas, negative attitudes from family and society, and portunities. Women, who have gone to prison, are safety concerns.42 more likely to lose their immediate social or family network. “In Georgia, because of the homophobic atti- tude, these people can have problems at work. “We found out that when a woman is going to Most of them are not ‘coming out’, they are not a jail, her social circle … is narrowed… the telling anyone that they are LGBT representa- society does not forgive her for committing a tives, so they are socially and psychologically crime… this is one issue, and the second is that oppressed.” (KII 9, female) husbands usually leave their wives if they are jailed…” (KII 9, woman) “A friend of my child saw two men kissing on the street in Tbilisi and there was a construc- Qualitative studies by UN Women and the Geor- tion site nearby, so he took a brick and killed gian Ministry of Justice with former prisoner wom- one of them. Now he has to go to jail for this… en highlight a number issues and problems affecting This is how much hate there is towards [sexual their daily life. Two key issues are employment and minorities].” (FGD, rural area, female, 40+) poverty. Former prisoners have limited chances for employment due to their criminal records. Some of 42 For example, in 2014, police was not able to guarantee safety them had been refused a job on these grounds. The of participants in the International Day Against Homophobia stigma and distrust toward former prisoners exists in and Transphobia (IDAHOT) celebrations, and due to the high risk of violence, the LGBTQI community in Georgia decided both the public and private sectors. A zero-tolerance not to hold any public event to mark this day. The GOC has policy toward criminal sanctions has affected the prop- declared a day of family and parents on the same day to cele- brate as an alternative. 28 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Public opinion surveys show that society is still “We know that popular people that we see largely intolerant toward LGBTQI population, on the main TV channels do not have tra- though this has slightly changed over time. Half or ditional sexual orientation and these people more of Georgians would not like to have homosexu- are not excluded from society. It happens in als as neighbors, and do not believe that rights of sexual the villages that such people are excluded… minorities should be respected (Table 8; Table 9). who are financially not strong…” (FGD, Samtredia, female, 40+) Table 8. Would you like to have a homosexual as a neighbor? (WVS 1995–2014) Some gender and age differences are also men- tioned. According to interviewees there is greater ag- 1995–1998 (%) 2005–2009 (%) 2010–2014 (%) gression toward homosexual men, whereas for wom- Yes 26.5 36 36.4 en this issue is less visible and their sexual orientation No 73.5 64 63.6 is not taken seriously. There are also generational dif- ferences with younger LGBTQI persons more likely Table 9. How often should a good citizen do the to be open about their identity. Support programs for following? LGBTQI population are mostly sponsored by bilateral organizations and foreign embassies in Georgia. Some- Never Often Always times (%) (%) (%) Poor and unemployed II.2.10. (%) Obey laws 0 5 24 71 Respondents of FGDs and KIIs define socially vul- Respect rights of 1 12 21 64 nerable people as those living under the poverty ethnic minorities line and receiving government assistance. Respon- Respect rights of 6 9 19 63 dents think that socially vulnerable people are exclud- religious minori- ed by society, but not by the state, as the state helps ties them financially. Socially vulnerable people do not have Respect rights of 49 18 11 16 many opportunities to be part of society (such as social sexual minorities or cultural activities) as their time is spent on activities Defend traditions 0 8 19 72 that will allow them to afford basic necessities for their Be critical toward 4 22 25 46 survival. Others hold differing views, especially with government regard to reliance on social assistance: “…They are sit- Source: Caucasus Barometer, CRRC, 2013. ting at home and waiting for social assistance. They do nothing. We live in a region and we have such people in the villages...They don’t do even elementary things for The majority of respondents in this research spon- earning money...” (FGD, Samtredia, male, 20–39). taneously highlighted LGBTQI population as an ‘ex- cluded’ group. Respondents named intolerance and Adding to their exclusion is the lack of access to aggression toward sexual minorities, discrimination quality education mentioned by respondents. The in the work place, and issues related to health ser- system of education does not provide special programs vice providers, and to obtaining identity documents for these children that take into account the different for transgender persons as the main barriers for this hardships the children face. As respondents mention, group. A key issue with negative attitudes is the tol- getting education is often linked to financial resources erance for hate speech, and the fact that is seen as and socially vulnerable people do not even have mon- competing with traditional values. “For Christian people ey to pay for the transportation to go to university, let this is unacceptable.” (FGD, rural area, male, 20–39) alone the tuition fees. Despite the fact that the nation- al exams provide equal conditions, socially vulnerable Some respondents mention that social and econom- people are not able to pass the test with high enough ic standing can reduce exclusion, for example, point- scores to be accepted into prestigious colleges. ing out that wealthier, famous, or better-connected LGBTQI representatives are not as likely to encounter According to respondents, it is very hard for socially barriers or discrimination. vulnerable people to fulfill their potential. A person Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 29 A Country Social Analysis whose main concern is how to feed a child is unable el of women’s economic activities in Georgia. In 2014, to think about anything else. Therefore, the person only 32 percent of recently registered firms in 2014 becomes segregated from society. “…he/she is thinking were owned by women, and less than a third of all pri- what to eat tomorrow or how to feed kids, he/she can’t vate sector managers were women. The gender wage think about self-realization in society or things like that. gap is especially pronounced in sectors where women He/she just doesn’t have time to think about this” (FGD, are prevalent as employees (see Figure 20). In 2015, respondent, exclusion mapping). In addition, self-isola- the average monthly salary of male employees was tion was also named as a problem of socially vulnerable GEL 1226.6 and GEL 759.7 for female employees.44 people. Respondents noted that not having money has a Figure 20. Gender wage gap and gender prevalence by bad effect on person’s aspirations and people start to ex- sector of employment (vertical axis shows ratio of men’s clude themselves from majority. However, respondents to women’s monthly income; horizontal axis shows per- highlight that self-isolation is not characteristic of all so- centage of women in the sector) cially vulnerable people and it depends on the individual. Ratio of men’s to women’s monthly earnings Respondents highlight in particular the long-term 2.2 effects of exclusion due to poverty and unemploy- 2.0 ment. Protracted poverty or unemployment may con- Domestic Services tribute to psychological problems, and also limit educa- 1.8 Men earning tional opportunities for children. Thus, social exclusion more than Hotels 1.6 women Health may be passed across generations. Respondents men- Real Estate Public Administration tion unemployment and poverty might be temporary Mining Wholesale Education 1.4 Finance but if it lasts too long it may cause some psychological 1.2 Other Social Services problems for family members. As one respondent said: Manufacturing 1.0 “Of course, they [socially vulnerable people] do not have Women earning more Transportation any kind of opportunity… these people exist for staying than men Electricity 0.8 alive from month to month… Despite the fact that chil- The greater the proportion Percentage of womenof women in sector 0.6 dren of these families get education, they do not have Construction employed in a sector, the larger the gender earnings gap tends to be opportunities… The possibility of social mobilization for 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0.4 the socially vulnerable classes and their children’s chance Percentage of women in sector to climb the social ladder is minimal...” (KII 1, male). Source: Author’s own based on GEOSTAT, IHS, 2014. Respondents express doubt that the financial assis- tance by the state is sufficient or effective in helping Women in agriculture are a particularly vulnera- families get out of poverty. “They [a socially vulnera- ble group. Even though a slightly higher percentage ble family] don’t have any financial income. His sister has of women are employed in agriculture (48 percent), minimal income. When a child was born, the room had compared to men (44 percent), female heads of been repaired… She bought a small TV for the baby. After household earn 70% of the wages for male heads of one month they [government] stopped to give them social household in the sector: 136 GEL/month compared assistance.”43 (FGD, respondent, exclusion mapping). to 192 GEL/month for men.45 Women are similarly underrepresented in polit- II.2.11. Women ical and senior public service positions. Only 17 Women in Georgia face significant obstacles with out of 150 members of Parliament are women. This regard to good quality employment, political partic- ranks Georgia 147 out of 193 countires worldwide ipation, and inclusion into social life. According to the according to Inter-Parliamentary Union’s ranking.46 World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap index, The same trend is evident in local government. Among Georgia ranked 82nd worldwide, among 145 nations. National gender statistics clearly indicate the lower lev- 44 National average of 15 sectors including public administration. GEOSTAT - http://geostat.ge/index.php?action=page&p_ id=149&lang=eng. 43 Social assistance for socially vulnerable people is dependent 45 Quantitative analysis background report. on point system, which determines who should be helped financially. 46 http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm. 30 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis 9 regional governors, 12 city mayors, and 69 municipal- while fewer respondents consider these unacceptable ities heads there is only one acting female municipality for a man. Rural populations, older people, and those head. Public opinion polls show a trend that is increas- with lower educational attainment are significantly ingly supportive of greater female representation in more likely to answer ‘unacceptable at any age’. These politics. In a 2014 National Democratic Institute (NDI) views are clearly manifested in gender-selective abor- poll, 70 percent of respondents think that number of tions (Dudwick 2015; UNFPA 2015), which are biased women in Parliament should be at least 30 percent. toward boys thus contributing to gender imbalance. Female-headed households are more like- Ethnic minority women in Georgian face ‘double ly to be poor than those headed by men, which burden’ (Peinhopf 2014) with regard to inclusion and may be due to gender wage gaps, gaps in as- opportunities. They are less likely to have complete set ownership, and sectors of employment.47 secondary education, know state language, and be em- Women-headed households are less likely to own land ployed in a formal job than ethnic minority men (UN compared to male-headed households. Overall, and Women 2014b). They are also excluded from almost especially in rural areas, households headed by wom- all decision-making bodies, formal or informal. A UN en with children are particularly vulnerable to poverty. Women (2014b) study finds significant discrepancies A recent study on IDPs (World Bank 2016) suggests in education, employment, and overall empowerment that female IDPs have fewer obstacles to find employ- of minority women in the Kvemo Kartli region. Of the ment compared to make IDPs, but this is largely due to female respondents, 7 percent stated they are illiterate their greater willingness to take on jobs that are below and 33 had incomplete secondary education; 63 per- their level of qualification, insecure or lower-paying cent reported they cannot read, write or understand jobs, for example as wage workers in agriculture. Georgian, and only 14 percent of women considered themselves to be employed. About a third of the mar- Persistent gender inequalities can also be attributed ried respondents stated they got married before the to social norms and beliefs. Public opinion surveys age of 18. The majority of women (74 percent) agreed show women are generally perceived as homemak- with the statement that having a family and children is ers and are supposed to take care of children, while of primary importance for a woman, whereas a career men are supposed to be breadwinners and make deci- and making money are of prime importance for men. sions at home. A study commissioned by the UNFPA48 shows that women are the primary caregivers of chil- Norms that may enable gender-based violence also dren and sick family members (UNDP 2013a). Lack appear to be more widely spread among minority of widely available early childcare options further ex- populations. A study by the ECMI notes that 16.5 per- cludes women from advanced education or employ- cent of female Azerbaijani respondents in Kvemo Kar- ment opportunities (Dudwick 2015). tli fully agreed with the statement that “if the husband uses physical violence against the wife (physical punish- Expectations of decision-making roles, as well as of ment), it means the wife has deserved it,” compared social behaviors, still vary widely for men and wom- to 10 percent of Armenians and 8.3 percent of ethnic en. While a moderate majority of people consider it Georgians (UN Women 2014a; Peinhopf 2014). In acceptable for females to give orders at work, only 1 the national Reproductive Health Survey, 84.9 percent percent of Georgians think that a woman should be of Azerbaijani women agreed with the statement that the one who makes decisions at home. Almost two- “a good wife obeys her husband” compared to the na- thirds of Georgians say this is a man’s role, while only tional average of 42.5 percent. Only 52.6 percent of one-third thinks that decisions should be made equally Azerbaijani respondents regarded it as legitimate for a (CRRC 2011). A majority of Georgians believe it is un- woman to refuse intercourse if her husband has a sex- acceptable at any age for a woman to smoke tobac- ually transmitted infection (compared to the national co, to live separately from parents before marriage, to average is 76.5 percent). drink strong alcohol, to have sexual relations before marriage, or to cohabit with a man before marriage, The exclusion mapping also identified groups who, owing to their smaller size and less availability of 47 GEOSTAT’s gender report. information, were not discussed in detail above. These groups also did not feature prominently either in 48 “Public Perceptions on Gender Equality in Politics and Busi- ness” discussions with citizens or KIIs, as being most prone to Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 31 A Country Social Analysis exclusion. Such groups include people living in suburbs These policies and programs, along with services pro- or outskirts from urban area, drug addicts, alcohol ad- vided by non-state institutions—NGOs and other dicts, HIV-infected persons, racial minorities, refugees, development organizations—provide a necessary but returned migrants, people excluded due to political be- rather fragmented and incomplete network of support liefs, people in heavy working conditions, sex workers, to individuals and families who experience multiple and young people who are not in employment, education, overlapping disadvantages. Moreover, existing services or training (NEET), and so on. These groups are listed are concentrated on target groups for whom better in the exclusion mapping matrix in Annex I. data exist (and vice versa, more data exist for groups that are recipients of assistance), whereas others con- II.3. Policies for Inclusion sistently may fall out of policy attention. The section above has presented a broad-based So what does all of this evidence mean for policy? account of how exclusion and inclusion are under- stood in the context of Georgia. It has also presented Three observations can be made: (a) The need for more some evidence on groups that are likely to face sys- regular and robust evidence on groups (large and small) tematic disadvantages. While this cannot be a con- that tend to be consistently overrepresented among the clusive account of all forms of exclusion in Georgian poor, as well as monitoring of their progress across rel- society, the present research does demonstrate the evant indicators. To collect better data, the implemen- multifaceted nature of exclusion and the fact that accu- tation of some laws and policies needs to be advanced. mulating disadvantages can also find expression in low- For example, reaching clearer legal definitions on er socioeconomic outcomes. Groups, who are most groups, such as eco-migrants and national minorities, commonly recognized as excluded, tend to face ob- would enable better tracking of the situation of these stacles across a number of sectors and services. At the groups. (b) The need for stronger institutional coordina- same time, drivers of inclusion, in the case of Georgia tion and a comprehensive approach to social policy. Per- are commonly identified as strong social networks, sons and households, belonging to many of the groups good education, a certain ethnic, linguistic, religious, discussed above, face multiple deprivations: physical, and gender identity, and so on. This reveals that the financial, social and cultural, and so on. Consequently, necessary ‘ingredients’ of success and prosperity are better outcomes for these groups would depend on seen as a function of both equitable policy outcomes a wide set of improvements in their life and welfare. (for example, in education) as well as of entrenched Yet assistance programs and services for such groups norms and the interactions between the two. are often fragmented across multiple programs and in- stitutions. (c) The need for locally appropriate solutions. The comprehensive mapping of exclusion also re- In a country, as geographically and ethnically diverse veals that state and non-state programs and ser- as Georgia, inclusive policies and programs would vices only partially address the multiple barriers be most effective if targeted to the local context, and faced by disadvantaged groups. As noted earlier in implemented with the feedback and participation of this report, government programs offer financial as- beneficiary populations. In the framework of its decen- sistance for persons of certain status (IDPs displaced tralization reform, Georgia already envisages a stron- by conflict, war veterans, PWDs, and so on), as well ger role for local government in targeting resources as targeted means-tested assistance to households.49 for local development. As discussed below, some of The Government also offers additional services aimed the best international practices on inclusion have been to reduce disparities for selected groups, such as day centered around locally driven programs to integrate centers for children with special needs, inclusive ed- and expand opportunities for vulnerable populations. ucation services in schools, bilingual education op- tions for students of minority ethnic groups, hous- (a) Need for evidence-based monitoring and ing assistance for IDPs, a nationwide reintegration improved data systems program with training and employment assistance for ex-convicts, financial support and privileges for There is need for more consistent data on who is residents of high mountain regions, among others.50 left behind. The situation of specific vulnerable groups (for example, IDPs displaced by conflict) is consistently 49 TSA Program. 50 More details on existing programs and services are available in Annex I and Annex III. 32 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis documented. Yet other groups are further from pol- often require assistance in more than one area (for icy maker’s attention, or the full scale of their needs example, education, employment, housing, health, is unknown. Some groups, such as Roma, homeless financial assistance, and so on); yet, services that are children, may face severe marginalization, including targeted at these groups are often partial or fall under lack of identity documents that place them outside the purview of fragmented programs and institutions. the scope of state assistance. Addressing the needs of A holistic approach is necessary to ensure that support this population would be impossible without better is available equally to citizens through the lifecycle in- documentation on their numbers, characteristics, and cluding health, education, infrastructure, career guid- needs. Even the needs of groups, for whom dedicated ance, etc. to support transition to school, and to the programs and services exist, such as CWD are also labor force. likely to be underestimated if a proportion of this group remains unregistered (more details on causes for un- The two groups, discussed as case studies in this der-registration of PWDs are discussed in Chapter III). report (Chapter III) offer a good example. Improv- Improved data systems and coordination and sharing ing opportunities for Azerbaijani minority in Georgia is of data, as well as referral mechanisms across differ- contingent on progress in a variety of areas: a strong ent programs, could lead to more targeted outreach education system that takes into account language dis- so that vulnerable persons and households are better parities, public awareness and cultural shift in norms served by existing policies. promoting girls’ education and labor force participation for women, availability of linguistically/culturally appro- Monitoring and evaluation of socioeconomic prog- priate health care services, among others. Similarly, ress for vulnerable groups is equally important. Pol- PWDs and their households are potential recipients icies and programs that aim to reduce disparities for of various programs and services. But the extent to selected groups need to be continuously adapted and which these amount to better opportunities for them evaluated for impact. Rather than evaluating success is inconsistent. On the one hand, available services, or failure, the purpose of continued monitoring should for example, admission to a day center or receipt of a aim at incremental improvements so that programs wheelchair, are not guaranteed. They are sometimes can in the long run tackle a wider set of barriers that inaccessible or require a long waiting period during may obstruct the optimal intended outcomes of the which the beneficiary may miss important opportu- program. For example, tracking of literacy and school nities. On the other hand, overarching barriers such completion for girls in minority communities may imply as weak adaptation of infrastructure rendering it inac- that public awareness measures should be incorporat- cessible for PWDs may prevent them from accessing ed more strongly to promote incentives for families otherwise available services. Without a comprehensive and schools to keep girls in education, or that language approach that is centered on the needs of the particular barriers for parents need to be addressed so that they individual or household, resources allocated to a vari- can better support girls in education pursuits, and so ety of services are not likely to reach their optimal out- on. Monitoring of inclusive education for children with come. A similar case can be made for the needs of vul- special needs may demonstrate that unlocking import- nerable IDPs, for whom financial assistance, housing, ant barriers on physical or digital access through state- livelihood support, psychosocial services, and so on are wide policy and regulation, is necessary so that existing all highly important to ensure their overall integration. programs and services can fully reach and have greater impact for their intended beneficiaries. The challenge of addressing the mounting needs of small pockets of groups left behind are common (b) Stronger institutional coordination (a com- to many developed and middle-income countries. prehensive approach) To address this issue, many countries have developed specific coordination mechanisms or adopted a com- Committing additional resources to the needs of a prehensive lens of social protection policies. Two good wide range of marginalized groups may be unrealis- examples of a move toward better policy coordination tic and unsustainable, but better policy coordination are the experience of the European Social Fund (ESF) can go a long way to ensure that existing services (see Box 1), and approaches of some South American amount to better outcomes for excluded groups. As states such as Chile’s Solidarity program (Chile Solidar- described above, excluded individuals or households io) and Uruguay’s Plan for Social Equity (see Box 2). Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 33 A Country Social Analysis Box 1. The European experience with lo- Box 2. Examples from South America: Chile Solidario and Uru- cal social inclusion interventions guay’s Social Equity Plan The European Social Fund (ESF) is Europe’s Chile Solidario main tool for promoting employment and social Chile Solidario is a component of the Chilean social protection system inclusion. It is used by member states to imple- in charge of serving vulnerable individuals, families, and regions. It was ment programs and promote the integration of founded in 2002 as the Government’s strategy toward tackling com- disadvantaged people into society, and ensure plex roots of poverty. Later, as the country consolidated its institutional fairer life opportunities for all. ESF is available for network to better support social integration, Chile Solidario was able programs in four main areas: (a) Strengthening to expand its support to other groups and created initiatives to sup- employment and mobility (opening pathways to work, creating chances for youth, boosting busi- port persons in different situations of vulnerability. These included the ness, caring for careers); (b) Better education; Bridge Program, aimed at families in extreme poverty; the Bind Pro- (c) Giving a chance to all (fighting marginalization, gram aimed at elderly citizens living alone; the Street Program, working promoting social enterprise, and so on); and (d) with the homeless; and the Opening Pathways Program, targeting chil- Better public services. Local governments and dren in situations of forced separation. The programs are implemented existing local organizations are the main appli- by municipalities and NGOs. The programs provide a comprehensive cants to and beneficiaries from the ESF. set of services, including psychosocial support, advice, linking beneficia- ries to relevant services and institutions with the ultimate goal to enable The ESF offers diverse experiences as each them to participate independently in social and economic life. member state has tailored its programs to prior- ity needs. For example, Germany has used ESF Source: Ministry of Social Development, Chile (http://www.chilesoli- funding to build skills of youth and of the elder- dario.gob.cl/en/chs_en.php). ly, promoting ‘active ageing’, expand the work- force and facilitate participation of persons with Uruguay Social Equity Plan immigrant background, persons with disabilities, and low-skilled workers in higher-earning jobs, Uruguay is one of the countries with both greatest political stability and and support transition from school to work for strongest welfare traditions in Latin America. It has maintained one of youth. Poland and Hungary have promoted local the lowest inequality rates in the region, as well as one of the highest social enterprises for persons and communities rates of social cohesion, as measured by the number of citizens who with fewer economic opportunities. For exam- perceive a high degree of solidarity in society. By 2009, Latinobarómet- ple, cities in Poland have used funds to create ro survey (http://www.latinobarometro.org/lat.jsp) also showed that self-help associations among populations such Uruguayans had the highest percentage of citizens in the region who as the homeless, and ex-convicts. Other local expressed trust in the way government resources were spent. governments have organized supplementary training courses in soft skills for disadvantaged In the early 1900s Uruguay made significant progress with regard to job-seekers. Even though the ESF is a large fund labor rights. By the late 1990s it had developed a comprehensive social administered EU-wide, examples of small-scale protection system, accessible to all formal employees. Nevertheless, implementation that it has enabled at the local various trends—globalization, rise in informal employment, rising fertil- level, are relevant to contexts beyond EU mem- ity rates in the lower-income segments of the population—called for a ber states. new approach to social policy. By 2005, the Government had extend- ed its family allowances program to all families living in poverty (beyond The European Commission has encouraged in- formal employees) and established the National Social Emergency tegrated social and infrastructure interventions Program (PANES) which included: a community outreach program to to ensure that funds contribute to addressing a identify households at risk; an employment program; a ‘poverty-ex- comprehensive set of challenges for disadvan- it’ program (Rutas de Salida); food, education, and health assistance taged groups, for example, improving roads, housing, and small infrastructure along with components for families at risk. As the program ended in 2007, it was improving quality of educations, providing live- expanded as a national Social Equity Plan. This Plan was based on the lihood support, awareness-raising activities, etc. model and lessons learned from PANES, and focused on making these programs more sustainable strengthening the coordination role of the Sources: European Commission (http:// Ministry of Social Development. ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=325); World Bank (2014). Sources: Filgueira et al. (2009); Reuben et al. (2008). 34 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis It is essential to incorporate feedback and participa- Box 3. Poland: Post-Accession Rural Support tion of beneficiaries in policies that are aimed at them. Project The section above has highlighted the importance of bet- ter data, evidence, and continuous monitoring and im- Between 2006 and 2011 Poland implemented provement of programs. Consistent feedback from ben- the Post-Accession Rural Support Project (PARSP) eficiaries themselves is especially important to be able to targeting the most excluded groups in 500 poor continuously improve services. This can be done through rural communities (gminas). The project operat- regular consultations with beneficiaries and/or groups that ed on the principles of community-driven devel- represent their needs (caregivers, NGOs, local service opment. Local residents participated in creating a local social inclusion strategy for their gmina. providers, and so on), through interactive platforms for These were tailored to reach specific excluded public communication as well as by ensuring that informa- groups in the community. Some local strategies tion and communication about programs and services is focused on building skills for children outside of delivered in an accessible way, for example providing in- schools, others on meeting the needs of mar- formation in minority languages for programs serving mi- ginalized elderly; other communities prioritized nority communities, and so on. Beneficiary surveys such benefits for single parents, persons with disability, as report cards can also contribute greatly to improve among others. At its closing the project was es- policy makers’ understanding of desired improvements in timated to have reached approximately 230,000 a service or program. children and youth, 74,000 elderly people, 42,000 persons with disability, 25,000 victims (c) Identifying locally appropriate solutions of violence, and 59,000 homemakers. A second component of the project aimed to modernize A policy approach to inclusion would also entail bet- the efficiency of social insurance for farmers. Proj- ter tailoring of policies to the local context, building ect outcomes included: a) substantial increase in capacity of, and stronger reliance on, local institutions. the proportion of the excluded population who Global experiences have shown that some of the most received relevant services (from 11.3% in 2006 to 40% in 2012); b) improved awareness and effective programs to combat exclusion and increase op- monitoring of social inclusion strategies for solving portunities for vulnerable citizens and households have social problems in all 500 targeted gminas (which come from implementing successful local strategies to were then adopted in 492 gminas by project clo- development. As Georgia advances in its efforts toward sure); c) high satisfaction: 87% of respondents to decentralization, it would be important to integrate con- the 2010 beneficiary assessment felt the quality crete targets of inclusion so that local development and of social services had improved; 72% reported growth do not exacerbate but help level inequities for the needs of the elderly, and 73% reported the citizens and households who face complex disadvantag- needs of single parent families, were better ad- es (see example of Poland Post-Accession Rural Support dressed. Project, Box 3). One of the values of the project was the focus on Locally driven and locally implemented programs a comprehensive set of services to improve the have multiple benefits. They allow for better use of situation of specific vulnerable groups. For exam- ple, services tailored to persons with disabilities local knowledge, tailoring interventions to make them included a strong public awareness component accessible and acceptable to citizens in different geo- to increase their self-esteem but also influence graphic, economic, cultural contexts within a country. attitudes of the broader community toward this Many high- and middle-income countries have empha- group. Another important outcome of the proj- sized the role of local, community-based solutions to ect was to improve preparedness of local policy tackle problems of persistent poverty and exclusion.51 makers to leverage funding by European Struc- tural Funds. The project raised the capacity of 51 See Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development participating municipalities to plan, implement, (OECD) LEED Programme (http://www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/, and monitor local strategies and programs, and to http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/archive/innovation/inno - manage resources. vating/pacts/pdf/leed_en.pdf); Hungary Social Inclusion Strategy 2020 (http://romagov.kormany.hu/download/5/58/20000/Strat- egy%20-%20HU%20-%20EN.PDF); and Indonesia Nation- Source: Plonka (2013); World Bank (2013); wide Community Program (PNPM), among others. World Bank (2010). Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 35 A Country Social Analysis III. EXPERIENCES OF This research suggests that the presence of per- EXCLUSION: sistently lower outcomes for Azerbaijani minority are largely influenced by underlying factors of social exclusion. They cannot be fully explained, for exam- CASE STUDIES ple, with universal shortcomings of the national edu- 3. 1. Case Study: Azerbaijani Minority cation system, labor market, or regional development Although Azerbaijanis have been living in Georgia policies. Consequently, broad reforms in education, for hundreds of years, they have maintained their labor, or local economic development may not auto- linguistic and religious distinctiveness. During the matically reduce the gaps between this group and the early period of post-Soviet independence, a large num- rest of the population unless more fundamental ‘roots ber migrated to Azerbaijan, Russia, and elsewhere, but of exclusion’ are addressed. These include a large and as the interviews cited below suggest, many of those possibly widening language barrier, geographic con- remaining strongly identify as Georgian citizens. Nev- centration and mostly rural residence, as well as histor- ertheless, they are considerably poorer on average ical legacies such as distribution of assets and participa- than Georgians and Armenians (Georgia’s largest eth- tion in governance and decision-making. Cultural and nic minority), have lower educational attainment, and religious differences are also likely to act as drivers of cluster lower paying sectors such as agriculture. As a exclusion. The country can strive to bridge the cultur- group, their exclusion results from a combination of al divide through improved access to information and factors: failure to master the state language of Geor- public awareness, e.g., on the importance of girls’ ed- gian, which in turn excludes them from all public sector ucation, and opening space for voice and participation and some private sector employment, impedes their in local decision-making. access to information and contributes to their very low Figure 21. Roots, domains, and outcomes of exclusion representation in national and even local government for Azerbaijani minority in Georgia bodies (see Figure 21). Evidence presented in chapter II suggests that rep- Outcomes of exclusion resentatives of the Azerbaijani minority in Georgia • Lower educational achievement concentrate characteristics that contribute to low- • Lower quality of education er incomes; the contribution of education to this • Lower incomes income gap is particularly strong. Data also shows • Lower earnings form agriculture that discrepancies in income between Georgians and • Lower voice and representation in decision-mak- Azerbaijanis are lower in more integrated regions, such ing functions as Kakheti, compared to the national average which may suggest that certain benefits derive from greater Domains of exclusion interaction between ethnicities.52 These could include • Quality of edcaution (curriculum, instruction) likelihood that Azerbaijanis have learned Georgian lan- • Level of educaitonal attainment (especially for guage because they need it to function in the commu- women) nity, and/or better quality of services because the region • Access to information prepares and attracts more skilled providers. Histori- • Narrower social networks (including restricted cal legacies also play a role in explaining lower welfare markets for selling produce) outcomes over time; for example, trends that have led • Concentration of employment in agriculture to Azerbaijani population having more fragmented land plots or weaker representation in local governance. • Restricted representation /lower civic and political participation 52 Oaxaca decomposition of monthly wages comparing Geor- Roots of exclusion gian and Azerbaijani incomes at the national level, and for Kakheti region. The ‘ethnic gap’ at the national level is 71.7 • Language barrier percent, meaning that predicted incomes of Azerbaijanis are • Geographic concentration 71.7 percent lower than those of Georgians, controlling by gender, education, experience, sector of employment and • Historical legacies (affect asset distribution, limited region. For Kakheti region this gap is lower, 19.6 percent. In representation in local government) both the national and Kakheti region data, the gap is mostly explained by education and sectors of employment. Source: Author’s elaboration based on qualitative research 36 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis The qualitative data presented in this case study others. Azerbaijanis are often detached from main- collects voices and perspectives from Azerbaijani stream news and media, living in what some describe residents of Kvemo Kartli on their aspirations, per- as an ‘information vacuum’. The language barrier is ceived barriers to prosper in society, and priorities especially high for women. UN Women (2014b) re- for overcoming these barriers. Consistent with the ports that 63.4 percent of women in Kvemo Kartli findings from quantitative data analysis, language and cannot read, write, or understand Georgian. Some of quality of education, are amongst the most poignant the older female respondents in this study share that topics of concern for these respondents. They recog- they value knowledge of Georgian even more than an nize that the quality of basic education lags behind that education degree because it allows them to navigate of the general public school system—curriculum and services, help others, and be “a respected person in textbooks are not updated at the same rate, the qual- the community,” which is an important aspiration. ifications of teachers are outdated, and there is a low influx of new teachers. Social and cultural norms additionally contribute to isolation, and in particular perpetuate exclusion of The issue of language of instruction is particularly women in Azerbaijani communities. Early marriag- controversial. Opinions on this issue in the FGDs gen- es, early curtailment of education, lower proficiency erate debate and competing concerns over quality of in Georgian, and inactivity in the labor market affect schooling versus preservation of culture and identity. Azerbaijani women more strongly. Most respondents embrace the view that one should The remainder of this section shares the voice and know the Georgian language to prosper in their coun- perspectives of Azerbaijani men and women in Kve- try; yet, others cite losing their identity and language as mo Kartli. The presented views focus specifically on one of their biggest worries (see Figure 22). Regardless their sense of belonging in the country, region, and of views on language, all agree that education oppor- community; views on what it means to be included, tunities for Azerbaijani children and youth are currently to be successful; aspirations for themselves and future substandard and pose one of the greatest barriers to generations, as well as the main challenges they per- achieving their goals in life. ceive in realizing these aspirations (focusing on edu- Figure 22. Azerbaijani communities face a difficult educa- cation, incomes and employment, voice and partici- tional choice between the Georgian and bilingual school pation). Gender differences are discussed within each system category. Azerbaijani minority choice Sense of belonging All respondents in this study, from the Kvemo Kartli Georgian Azerbaijani Language School Improves likelihood of Helps preserve Language School region, feel a strong sense of belonging and attach- further education and better employment culture and community ment to living in Georgia. The majority were all born in their communities and have not considered migration, nor would they like for their children to leave the coun- try. Safety from crime and violence, a well-functioning justice system, and low levels of corruption are some of Fear of cultural Difficulty learning Outdated curriculum Less qualified the main perceived positives of living in Georgia. in a new identity loss and textbooks teachers language “The place where you were born is your moth- erland. I was born here and grew up here. My Harder to find a job Greater distance to school due to language barrier ancestors were also born here… I want my children to live here, get good education and a good job. Georgia is a democratic country and Source: Authors’ elaboration based on FGDs and KIIs I’m satisfied with my country.” (Woman, 61, employed, rural area) The language barrier affects all aspects of life: the ability to receive information, follow media, com- Both rural and urban respondents are also generally pete for public jobs, access public services, among satisfied with living conditions in their community. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 37 A Country Social Analysis They highlight improvements in electricity, water gas Lastly, urban men note that a discrepancy in atti- supply, reconstruction of roads, and improvements in tudes and preference for ethnic Georgians in the medical services, in particular financial help from the labor market also exists. This is attributed to a com- Government with surgery costs. bination of language barriers, cultural difference, and historical legacies, for example, obstacles for older “I’m satisfied with our village. We have all condi- Azerbaijani population who were educated in the So- tions for living: electricity, water, and gas supply.” viet Union to adapt their language skills. Some express (Woman, 30, employed, rural area) regret that Azerbaijani-speaking specialists are not suf- “Despite all difficulties, we have normal condi- ficiently used even in their region where Azerbaijani tions for living: water, electricity, gas. Roads are population is the majority. reconstructed, covered with asphalt even in vil- lages. Government is doing a lot for us, support- “We have a lot of professional electricians in our ing us. Medical support is good. Government community. But they hire a Georgian electri- covers a major part of surgery costs.” (Man, 45, cian, who comes here from Tbilisi every day.” unemployed, urban area) (Man, 63, unemployed, urban area) However, participants also acknowledge there are difficulties and the top ones for them are the qual- Understanding prosperity and success ity of education in their region and employment The understanding of prosperity and success for opportunities. Regarding education, language comes up as a controversial issue (attending school in Geor- Azerbaijani men and women is summarized in two gian versus Azerbaijani language), but it is related to a characteristics: having a good education and ‘being broader issue of gaining good quality of schooling. Lack respected’ in the community. Financial indepen- of opportunities for youth development—libraries, dence is seen as traditionally associated with ‘being a clubs, and cultural centers are also seen as a potential respected man’ but many male respondents contest- draw for young people and families to leave the region. ed this statement as they find that nowadays financial security is not fully in one’s control and one can be a “I do not want to live in the village all my life. respected member of society without financial success. I want my children to get good education. We For women, having a ‘happy family’ is of great impor- have difficulties with children’s education.” tance and is often underscored by maintaining a good (Woman, 30, housewife, rural area) relationship with her husband and relatives. “I’m satisfied, but our people are making a big mistake by sending their children to Georgian On the part of men, there is resistance to adhere to schools. They are facing big difficulties and can- traditional views on success being mostly measured not get good education there.” (Woman, 62, in financial terms. The majority of male respondents employed, rural area) observe that that the traditional norms for men, asso- ciating prosperity with being financially stable, are no Unemployment and financial difficulties are the oth- longer valid (though they do not explicitly deny men’s er strong challenges. This includes unavailability of role as breadwinners in the family). Men do acknowl- jobs and also lack of access to affordable finance due to edge that such traditional values, which equate success very high bank rates. It is mentioned that many people with money, are still popular in their communities. This in the community have trouble with repayment of bank is evidenced in conversations with women, who em- loans (for example, taken for agricultural supplies). phasize that, “The main problem for us is unemployment. If “Opinions about success vary in our community. this problem is resolved it would have been great Some people consider having money and a well- for us and our children.” (Male, unemployed, paid job. Others think that a successful man is 39 years old, 2 children) a well-educated and established person. I think “We are always thinking, what to do to feed our that to be successful, means to be well educat- families. If we would have working places here, ed. If you have good education, you have oppor- we would be more confident.” (Man, 56, busi- tunity to become a prosperous man.” (Man, 20, ness-owner, rural area) unemployed, [rural/urban]) 38 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis “To be a ‘successful man’ means to have a job. “If a woman wants to make a career, she needs Majority of men in our community are unem- support from her family. And this is only possible ployed. They spend their time sitting in teahous- in a good, happy family.” (Woman, 44, em- es. Imagine that our women have to work at the ployed, urban) bazaar and their husbands could not find any job.” (Woman, 54, employed) Opinions among men on women’s aspirations demonstrate an ongoing transformation in attitudes Respondents offer various interpretations of what it that for some leads to embracing more conserva- means for a man to ‘be respected’ in the commu- tive values, whereas for others, accepting greater nity. Mostly, this is associated with the characteristics gender equality. For example, some of the urban listed above: having a good education, being a good male discussants emphasize that Islamic values still specialist in one’s profession (regardless of one’s actual have a strong hold in their society. These values de- job), being able to help others, having honesty and in- tegrity in business. termine expectations that, they believe, still hold true in their communities, for example that women are “I think, that a good specialist in his profession responsible for maintaining peace and good relations is a successful man. For example, a good, pro- in the family even if it means foregoing professional fessional doctor. We have such people in our opportunities. Others maintain that these norms are community.” (Man, 47, employed, urban area) no longer true and that, nowadays, being ‘a good pro- fessional’ and striving for economic prosperity such as “I think, it [a successful man] means respect- owning a business is equally important for women as ed person, educated person, to whom you may for men. turn for an advice.” (Man, 63, unemployed) “It is very important for women to have hap- Prosperity and success for women are similarly as- py families. They are responsible for bringing up sociated with education and respect from the com- their children and taking care of their families.” munity, but also with the well-being of her family. For women being a ‘respected’ member of society is (Man, 39, unemployed, rural) more closely linked with having a ‘happy family’, hav- ing children, supporting her husband, helping others in “Some attributes of Islamic society have an in- the community. Financial well-being as an element of fluence on peoples’ opinions in our society. It is success is mentioned only briefly in the discussion with accepted that a woman has to obey her hus- urban women. Moreover, some women emphasize band, not to be in public places, to stay at home that achieving education, having a successful career in and raise children, to have good relations with itself depends on support by one’s family which is why spouse... Even if a woman has a good position, having a ‘happy family’ is paramount to other forms of earns more, than her husband, she should not success. demonstrate her superiority. It could lead to the divorce.” (Man, 54, employed, urban) “I think ‘a successful woman’ means a happy, educated woman and respected in the commu- “I disagree with such attitude. A woman should nity” (Woman, 30, employed, rural) go to public places, be active in social life. A successful woman means that she has a happy “A ‘successful woman’ has a happy family, val- family, good relations with her husband, happy ues her family and children, supports her spouse children.” (Man, 52, employed, urban) in all aspects – socially and also in religious as- pects.” (Woman, 30, housewife, rural) “I also disagree. A lot of young girls from our “For me, education is not so important. You community are getting higher education now. may have no education, but still be ‘a successful Women have their own business nowadays. In woman’. Being a respected woman in the com- the past it was not common, when a woman munity is more important [than to be an educat- was driving a car either. Now this is normal.” ed woman].” (Woman, 65, employed, rural) (Man, 47, employed, urban) Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 39 A Country Social Analysis Education in Georgian society and economy. Another draw is better quality of textbooks, more modern curriculum, Good education is at once a coveted aspiration and and qualified teachers. a source of frustration for Azerbaijani communities. Respondents voice their particular concerns with (a) “We are living in Georgia and have to know the quality of teachers and overall schooling in Azer- Georgian language. It is not possible to get any baijani schools, (b) the controversial choice between job without knowing Georgian.” (Man, 55, un- Azerbaijani or Georgian schools faced by families and employed, rural) the implication of these choices for the future of Azer- baijani language and culture in Georgia, and (c) the cost “When we studied, it was not necessary to know of education that prevents families to make the most the [Georgian] language. And for us it is difficult out of opportunities available. to start learning now. But our children learn the language easily.” (Man, 39, unemployed, ru- Participants share that the quality of teaching and ral). qualifications of teachers are very low and obsolete in Azerbaijani schools. Teachers are old, they do not “Nowadays 70 percent of families send their know modern teaching techniques and children prefer children to Georgian schools. These children to go to schools in the nearby villages. These percep- cannot understand anything and have difficul- tions are confirmed by current research that the quality ties studying in Georgian. This discourages the of general education is a persistent challenge in minori- children from continuing their education.” (Man, ty communities in Georgia (Bobghiashvili, Kharatyan, 56, business-owner, rural). and Srmanidze 2016). Responses are mostly positive On the other hand, children have difficulties adapt- about the opportunities provided by the higher edu- ing to a Georgian language environment. As many of cation ‘4+1’ program, which allows minority language their parents do not speak Georgian they need addi- students to enter university taking entrance exams in tional help. Families, who can afford it, opt to supple- their mother tongue and spend the first year of uni- ment this education with private tutors. Some worry versity studying Georgian. But basic education (primary about bad attitude of teachers in Georgian schools. and secondary) is where most obstacles are concen- In addition, Georgian schools are not always available trated. in the proximity of rural Azerbaijani-populated areas. “There is one Azerbaijani school in our village. Some families share that they would rather opt for a It is in a very bad condition and has not been private Turkish school available in the area; however it repaired for ages. The level of education is very is unaffordable for the majority. low, teachers are old, and cannot teach any- “I’m against Azerbaijani parents sending their thing new to our children. They were educated children to Georgian schools. Children become during Soviet times and have not learned any- half educated, face big difficulties while learning. thing after that. Children do not want to study If no one in the family speaks Georgian, it is not there and have to go to Russian or Georgian good for children to go to a Georgian school.” schools in the neighboring villages. (Man, 20, (Woman, 62, employed, rural) unemployed, rural) “Children become half educated, face big dif- The issue of education quality is complicated by the ficulties. Some textbooks are in Azerbaijani, scarcity of educated young professionals who either some in Georgian. Children cannot learn history, speak the Azerbaijani language or, if of Azerbaijani ori- physics, chemistry, biology and other science. I gin, are willing to return to their communities to teach. think teachers in Georgian schools in Azerbaija- Given the state of schooling in Azerbaijani schools, ni community should speak Azerbaijani as well.” respondents report a growing trend for their chil- (Woman, 61, employed, rural) dren to attend Georgian school; this is a difficult and The preservation of the Azerbaijani language and controversial choice. On the one hand, the need to culture is a preoccupation for many; about half of learn Georgian language is recognized by all to partake the respondents mention it as one of the issues they 40 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis worry most about. In particular, they are concerned ”It is very important to know other languages: that if the number of children in Azerbaijani schools English and Russian. Even when you go to the declines quickly, Azerbaijani schools may close, Azer- doctor, the second language of the prescription baijani language would be even more unpopular (‘op- is English.” (Woman, 30, employed, rural) pressed’) in Georgia, and it would be even harder for Azerbaijani speakers to compete for jobs. Instead of Another set of challenges relates to motivation and opting for Georgian schools some suggest that main- incentives to continue one’s education. Younger tenance and quality of teaching in Azerbaijani schools people in the community are mostly worried about should be improved along with teaching of the Geor- getting a job after finishing secondary school, rather gian language from early childhood (kindergarten) and than going to universities. The current high rates of un- making space for greater interaction between ethnic employment and inactivity across the region and the Georgian and Azerbaijani children and youth. difficulties and cost associated with getting a good edu- cation are seen as a big demotivating factor. Also, some “Azerbaijani language is oppressed in Georgia. participants doubt that investing effort in ‘better general This is something to worry about. Our young gen- education’ by going to a Georgian school necessarily eration does not know history of Azerbaijan, does brings better returns. not know our literature and culture. They do not know any Azerbaijan well-known writers, musi- “It is not common to continue the education in cians. Yes, we are living in Georgia, but should our community. 10 out of 100 children continue keep our mentality. I see the problem in our their education. Half of them are girls.” (Man, people. They prefer to send children to Georgian 56, business-owner, rural). schools. Parents should understand the impor- “Young people do not want to continue educa- tance of learning in Azerbaijani schools. They tion after finishing school. They have no motiva- have all opportunities to learn Georgian language tion to study, as it is very difficult to find a job there.” (Woman, 54, employed, urban area) later. There are no industries, factories, planta- “Azerbaijani schools need more care and sup- tions, where they could find a job.” (Woman, port. It is very important for Azerbaijani people 32, unemployed, urban) to have the opportunity to study in our lan- “We usually talk about the language barrier. But guage.” (Man, 20, unemployed, rural) finishing Georgian schools does not mean that “In Georgian schools, teachers do not pay spe- children continue their education. Sometimes cial attention to Azerbaijani children. It is good if they finish Georgian schools only for learning the teacher of Georgian language is Azerbaijani. the language and then work at the market. And It is good to start learning Georgian from kin- you know, usually children who continue their dergarten, go to summer camps with Georgian studies and go to universities are Azerbaijani children, have more communication, have com- school graduates. There are some Azerbaijani petitions between schools, etc.” (Woman, 61, young men, who finished Azerbaijani schools employed, rural) and now are working in banks.” (Woman, 44, employed, urban) Some respondents emphasize that there should be NGO experts voice a concern that in the absence of more interaction across communities beyond the viable education options for Azerbaijani communi- school system. This is particularly a challenge for chil- ties, more young people turn to religious education dren and adults in rural areas where the population is alternatives. One expert notes that religious Muslim predominantly Azerbaijani. Overall, respondents agree organizations are quite active in Kvemo Kartli. They that it is important to give Azerbaijani children a real facilitate education abroad for young men, who later chance to learn both languages, as well as Russian and return to teach in Islamic madrasah schools in Geor- English. gia. Such organizations are also proactively opposing “Our children should know both - Azerbaijani girls’ education and training programs that seek to end and Georgian. To give equal opportunity to both early marriage and advocate for women’s rights. ECMI languages.” (Woman, 54, employed, urban) (2012) reports that religious organizations in Kvemo Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 41 A Country Social Analysis Kartli, run by local ethnic Azerbaijanis with foreign services and provide substandard services. For exam- sponsors have begun founding mosques and madra- ple, an NGO respondent notes cases of young Azer- sah schools since the 1990s. A small number of young baijani women having to be accompanied to the gy- men from Kvemo Kartli travel for their education, necologist by their fathers-in-law because they cannot mostly to Iran, and the majority of them return to their understand Georgian and are not allowed to leave the region. The same report notes the small but growing house on their own. appearance of Salafism (radical Islamic movement) in Georgian Muslim communities including Kvemo Kartli. “Can you imagine a woman going to the gyne- cologist in the company of her father-in-law? Language and Access to Services How can she talk to the doctor in his presence?” (KII, NGO representative) The problems of language, education, and the scar- city of bilingual professionals in Azerbaijani com- Gender norms munities (teachers, doctors, and so on) affects all areas of life beyond the school system. Even though Traditional gender norms, leading to practices of Azerbaijanis may be the prevalent population in urban early marriage and discontinuing secondary edu- and rural areas in Kvemo Kartli, their interaction with cation have been highlighted by various studies on the local government, key state services, even health Azerbaijani minority. The problem of girls below care in some cases often depends on speaking and un- the legal age of marriage, some as young as 11, living derstanding Georgian. In fact, among middle-aged or in unregistered marriages is reportedly widespread elderly female participants in this study, speaking the among Azerbaijani minority communities and in Ad- Georgian language is of higher importance than having jara among Georgian Muslim communities. In such achieved a secondary school diploma or university de- situations girls lose the opportunity to complete their gree education degree. It allows them to access neces- education are also vulnerable to domestic violence sary services as well as help others. (Dudwick 2015). “I do not see any difference in getting higher or Most participants in this case study emphasize that secondary education. Being useful for people gender norms are changing and more girls and around is more important. I do not have higher women are pursuing education and jobs outside education, but I know Georgian language and the home. According to respondents, the incidence I’m helping everyone in our village.” (Woman, of early marriage is lower now, a trend that was es- 62, employed, rural) pecially promoted by a legislative amendment of No- vember 2015, that specifically bans marriage under 16 “I told that education is not so important, but and allows it only with court decision (as opposed to knowing the [Georgian] language is very import- parental consent as was previously the case) between ant. I know Georgian and people in our commu- the ages of 16 and 18. Legislative changes that curb nity ask me to accompany them, when going early marriage are also expected to have an effect on to the doctor, I also help them to write official the rate of school completion. letters, read documents and give them legal ad- vice…” (Woman, 65, employed, rural) “The number of girls who get higher education has increased in our community.” (Man, 43, Health services are another example where the employed) language gap and training of bilingual service pro- viders causes discrepancies. Prior to the adoption of “In the past we had the situation that girls from the adoption of the State Universal Healthcare Pro- some families in the villages did not finish sec- gram, practicing physicians in Azerbaijani communities ondary education and got married very early, were able to produce any documentation in Azerbai- before they turned 18 years old. But now this jani or Russian. Currently doctors need to use a Geor- does not happen often anymore. I think that gian-language system; moreover, license to practice as education for girls is important in order to be a physician is contingent on speaking Georgian. This secure in the future.”(Woman, 61, teacher, ru- may cause daily inconvenience to the users of these ral area) 42 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Despite this positive trend, changes in culture and “I’ve got good education and worked at school mentality are likely to take effect only in the long for over 27 years. Now we have to pass an term. An effort must be made to sustain the focus on exam to continue working, we need training to increasing school completion for Azerbaijani girls, en- pass these exams.” (Woman, 61, employed, couraging their participation in public and social spaces rural area) and in the labor market. NGO representatives with experience in implementing programs for women in The most desirable professions are economic and Azerbaijani communities recount that they still face dif- finance professions and accounting for men, and ficulty mobilizing the participation of women. Experts teachers and doctors for women. Respondents mention that there are a lot of banks in the region and also warn that the practice of early marriages may graduates may have more chances to find a job in fi- continue informally with marriages being conduct- nance. Another profession mentioned as a potential ed by religious institutions.53 A UN Women survey aspiration for young people is lawyer; in particular, ru- (2016) reports that 51 percent of married women in ral women note there is need for more female lawyers Kvemo Kartli were married before the age of 19, and in their communities. Some lament that young people 42 percent had their first child by the same age. The have to look at going abroad to get a job. same survey reveals that illiteracy rates among minori- ty women in Kvemo Kartli (7 percent) are 23 times In addition to lack of jobs and language barriers, af- higher than the average illiteracy rate for women in fordable access to finance owing to high bank in- Georgia. terest rates are mentioned as a big problem. Many Azerbaijanis work in agriculture, which comes with a Employment and income-generating opportunities lot of uncertainties (demand and price for produce, cli- mate, and so on); in addition, as shown earlier in this Employment and low incomes are among the most report, land ownership—an important asset in agri- frequently mentioned concern among Azerbaijani culture—tends to be more fragmented than for other respondents, along with fears of losing the Azerbai- population groups. Due to this, a number of Azerbai- jani language. Lack of job spaces and language barriers jani farmers may find themselves in debt to financial are again highlighted as the main problems with unem- institutions. ployment or underemployment. Middle-aged and el- derly respondents note that skills acquired during their “First priority should be creating jobs in the youth may be irrelevant and their chances of finding region. Second, controlling loan rates. People here are in a big trouble with covering bank a job are slim without mastering Georgian language, rates. And third, one of the most important is which is difficult at their age. to improve the level of education in secondary “...I’ve finished medical college and am a nurse. schools.” (Man, 20, unemployed, rural area) But could not find a job here.” (Woman, 24, ”My parents are engaged in agriculture. They unemployed, urban) took a loan from the bank to buy some supplies. Now they cannot earn enough to cover bank “Without knowing the Georgian language, you commissions.” (Woman, 32, unemployed, ur- will not be able to find a job now. My husband ban area) graduated from the Law School in Russia and was working for many years. Now he cannot find ”We have a farm and we are selling the milk, any job, because of not knowing Georgian lan- prices are very low in our region. It would have guage. I’m a teacher and received education in been great if dairy plants are opened in the re- Russian language. I cannot work at a school now, gion. People could work there and we could de- because I could not pass the language exam. It liver milk from our farms by fixed price.” (Man, is very difficult for me to start learning Georgian 41, unemployed, rural area) language now.” (Woman, 54, employed, ur- ban) Increasing pensions is also mentioned as a high priority. It is notable that increasing pensions is men- 53 https://iwpr.net/global-voices/georgia-tightens-early-marriage. tioned by younger and middle-aged participants. This Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 43 A Country Social Analysis could reflect overall dependence of the household on water. Another time, we managed to repair the incomes of the elderly as a secure source of income, road”. (Woman, 63, employed, rural) feeling financial uncertainty for the future, or obser- vations on vulnerability of elderly in their families and “I’m very active, especially during elections. Yes- communities as being financially dependent on young- terday people from our community asked me er generations. to help them to write an official letter regard- ing pasture. And I helped.” (Woman, 65, em- Voice and participation ployed, rural) The ability to participate in local decision-making “We usually have community meetings, where is perceived very differently by urban and rural re- we discuss our problems. Both women and men spondents in Kvemo Kartli. In rural areas, both men participate and express their thoughts. We are and women are overwhelmingly positive about the very active in our community’s everyday life.” opportunity to raise issues and concerns to the atten- (Woman, 62, employed, rural) tion of local authorities. They are aware of channels to use within the community to bring forward problems Urban residents mention that ordinary people are and believe that authorities generally listen and take ac- not involved in the decision-making process. Some tion to address problems. Overall rural residents feel say that the reason is that decisions are implement- more connected to their local decision-making author- ed in a top-down manner and there are few consul- ities than urban ones. tations with residents. Others add an element of fear and reluctance to argue with authorities. Urban men “We have the village council, elected from our also emphasize weak access to information and media villagers. They discuss the village problems and that would allow them to be better informed about make decisions. Ordinary people, including on national reforms and policies, and better seek their young people of the village, are participating rights. Some express frustration that even for locally in discussions. The council always listen to our implemented programs, information is not distributed opinions. For example, young people from our in Azerbaijani or Russian language which prevents the village proposed to the council to renovate the local population from engaging and benefitting. village stadium. Elder people had other priori- ties. The council took our proposal into consid- “Decisions are not discussed, but implemented eration and repaired the stadium.” (Man, 20, directly. Officials do not ask peoples’ opinion. unemployed, rural area) Ordinary people cannot influence any decisions. No one wants to argue with the officials or the Rural women, especially older women, feel that authorities. They are afraid. People still have a they are involved in making important decisions in syndrome of fear here in the community. People their village either directly or through their fami- do not want to interfere in others’ work. Perhaps lies. Some state that they have the opportunities to they will get rid of that fear, when they will have influence decisions by writing letters to authorities or more confidence in their rights.” (Man, 54, em- meeting with officials. However, others prefer to be ployed, urban) active in their families and communicate through other members of the family. Being active in the community “Government is doing reforms, but they do not is a matter of pride. reach us. People have no information on these reforms. There is a center here, which gives “I myself could not participate, but we make de- loans for agricultural activities in the region. This cisions in our family and my husband’s parents process lasts during two years, but people are then could communicate our family’s sugges- not aware of it. If people knew, they would ap- tions.” (Woman, 30, employed, rural area) ply. Staff in that center do not speak Azerbaijani or Russian. But they could release bulletins in “My neighbors had no plumbing in their house. I Azerbaijani and distribute among the villagers. wrote an official complaint in Georgian and sent People would be more informed in that case…” it. We got an answer soon and now they have (Man, 54, employed, urban) 44 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis “We are not aware of 80 percent of what is Table 10. Priorities for inclusion of Azerbaijani minority happening in the parliament, because of the according to focus group participants in Kvemo Kartli language. It will be good to give people the opportunity to receive information in their lan- Rural Men Rural Women guage.” (Man, 47, employed, urban area) 1. Create jobs. 1. Create jobs. 2. Improve the level of 2. Improve education Various factors could explain the difference in education in second- system in Azerbaijani opinions across urban and rural respondents. This ary schools. communities. discrepancy could partially reflect the importance 3. Decrease the cost of 3. Teach Georgian lan- and strength of local and informal networks in rural education in universi- guage in Azerbaijani communities that are not available in urban areas. It ties. schools. could also reflect lower expectations on the part of 4. Control and reduce 4. Train Azerbaijani rural residents, and rural women in particular, to - high bank rates. teachers in Georgian language and support ward opportunities to participate in decision-making. 5. Support farmers (for Azerbaijani schools. It could also speak of reluctance on the parts of par- example, open dairy plants with the fixed 5. Increase pensions. ticipants, especially in a small community, to share price on milk). views that may be perceived as politically sensitive. 6. Reduce taxes. Pathways to inclusion Urban Men Urban Women 1. Increase pensions. 1. Create jobs. This case study reveals that inclusive policy inter- 2. Create jobs. 2. Improve people’s ventions can make a difference to reduce dispari- housing conditions. ties for the Azerbaijani population. There is a strong 3. Distribute land to peasants fairly. 3. Support Azerbaijani sense of belonging and mostly positive outlook of schools. Azerbaijani minority regarding their future in Georgia. 4. Provide people with information on re- 4. Open colleges, youth However, building a strong and inclusive civic identity forms. centers, and libraries would require an effort to ensure that policies work in the region. equitably to their benefit. Priorities, as voiced by par- ticipants in this case study are summarized in Table 10. Reducing disparities in education and language are They include job creation, improving quality of edu- paramount to the integration of Azerbaijani minori- cation, support for farmers (in land, access to finance, ty. With regard to language, efforts should be directed improving demand for agricultural produce) as well as both toward enhancing proficiency in Georgian for the a call for better to access to information and opportu- local population, as well as toward making essential nities for young people to develop their skills beyond information and services available in Azerbaijani lan- formal education. guage. One priority is diminishing the ‘information vac- uum’ for Azerbaijani minority through language training What would an inclusive policy lens look like? It is but also making the information available in the local notable that many of the concerns of the Azerbaijani language. Efforts toward building of a stronger civic population in Kvemo Kartli are also applicable to oth- identity and enforcing equal opportunity should also er parts of the population in Georgia—job creation, be directed at the ethnic majority to minimize negative quality and cost of education, better finance and mar- attitudes. In addition, proficiency and literacy in Azer- baijani language can be an asset for trade relations with ket opportunities for farmers. Still, the narratives of re- Turkey and Azerbaijan. spondents suggest that the accumulation of language barriers, limited access to information and represen- When it comes to creating skills and jobs, an inclu- tation in local government may pose structural barri- sive policy would imply effort interventions in mul- ers that could prevent the Azerbaijani population from tiple sectors. Efforts to diversify income opportunities benefitting from future reforms without a deliberate away from agriculture, as well as to enable better re- policy effort. turns from agriculture, would require raising results Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 45 A Country Social Analysis in education for this group but also reducing barriers PWDs face multiple barriers that reinforce each to assets such as land and finance, reducing barriers other as individuals move through their life cycles. to information and communications, building a better These range from physical barriers to negative atti- cohort of local professionals to improve basic services tudes from family and society that can also be inter- and consequently human capital, with a goal to facil- nalized resulting in self-exclusion. For persons, who itate access of this population’s entry in the national are born with a disability, disadvantages begin to ac- rather than restricted local markets. cumulate early in life and are incremental. Lack of so- cialization as a child impedes performance in school Lastly, better outcomes for Azerbaijani minority are and work later in life; exclusion from mainstream ed- also likely to depend on evolving cultural norms, ucation prevents development of skills to realize one’s such as stronger integration of girls and women in full potential; lower educational achievement, conse- education and labor markets. This is a long-term pro- quently, creates obstacles to optimal employment and cess, toward which state policies can build the right earnings. incentives. Explicit awareness efforts at gender inclu- sion and enforcing completion of basic education can Figure 23. Roots, domains, and outcomes of exclusion help alleviate the double burden of Azerbaijani wom- for PWDs in Georgia en and girls. As most respondents in this case study have noted, some progress and positive trends can be Outcomes of exclusion observed such as reducing incidence of early marriage and families promoting girls’ education. However, key • Lower educational achievement; lower quality of education informants also warn of possible countertrend, where lagging policy attention to inclusion of minorities in the • Low employment rate areas listed above—viable education, employment, • Lower incomes for PWD and their households economic opportunity, reducing information gaps— • Dependence on others for basic functions can also produce a shift toward greater cultural isola- tion, seeking alternative services away from state insti- • Lower voice and representation in decision-mak- ing functions tutions and even create a risk of enabling radicalization. Domains of exclusion III.2. Case Study: Persons with Disabilities • Access to physical spaces and mobility PWDs are a diverse and heterogeneous group. Re- spondents in this case study included people (or their • Access to information caregivers) with various degrees of mobility impair- • Socialization/narrower social networks ments, impairments of sight and hearing, and care- • Education givers of children and young people with intellectual • Employment disabilities. The sample was too small to allow compar- • Health and rehabilitation services ison or contrast across groups or to explore in detail the kinds and degrees of support needed. However, • Civic and political participation the very challenge, experienced by the research team in organizing discussions and interviews among PWDs Roots of exclusion and their caretakers, attests to the significant barriers PWDs face in Georgia, and to their relative invisibili- • Gaps in data and registration (invisibility) ty in Georgian society. In many cases, the invisibility is • Low public awareness (attitudes from family and more a barrier to inclusion than the actual physical or society) mental disability, which in other environments might • Poor adaptation of the environment (infrastruc- have been only a minor impediment to full integration ture and ICTs) in society. It should also be noted that due to this chal- • Knowledge, capacity, and funding constraints un- lenge, the PWDs that participated themselves in this derly coverage and quality of services research represent a relatively better-integrated sam- ple than the average. Source: Author’s elaboration based on qualitative research 46 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis PWDs, caregivers (most often mothers or grand- Most respondents in this study share the perception mothers), and key informants identify a similar set that there is under-registration of PWDs in Geor- of constraints, summarized in Figure 23. Factors list- gia. One of the most commonly mentioned reasons ed as root causes are ones that were identified by all is the choice of the family not to openly acknowledge respondents to be at the core of exclusion, creating or a child’s special needs due to shame, social stigma, or perpetuating barriers for PWDs. Policy efforts, focused being overly protective from the attitudes of others. on these issues, can have a transformational impact on opportunities for this group. Domains of exclusion illus- “I have heard many cases that some families trate key spaces and services, where exclusion takes have PWDs closed in rooms and do not show place, and affects opportunities for PWDs in a tangible them to anyone. I have heard a story of one way. The Outcomes category reveals the most visible young woman, who was tied to the bed and expressions of exclusion. even did not have an ID. Now this woman is in Zestaponi (city) in a special center and is feeling Root causes, outcomes, and domains of exclusion better.” (IDI, man, 57, [Tbilisi]) are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. Because exclusion and inclusion are both processes and out- Some adults with disability themselves make a comes, they cannot be confined to a simple line of choice not to register due to a fear that a formal cause and effect or clearly distinguished causes and re- ‘disability’ status may hurt their chances for integra- sults. Nevertheless, a social exclusion lens of analysis, tion. These respondents avoid speaking directly about as summarized in the figure above, demonstrates that this issue but their responses suggest that they do not merely concentrating on discrepancies in socio-eco- wish having a disability to be part of their identity. nomic indicators (summarized as ‘outcomes’ above) solutions risks to overlook essential underlying barriers “I am a person with special needs, but I have (summarized as ‘root causes’ above), without attention never been registered and I do not want to. So, to which policy solutions for these groups would not I agree that there are more disabled people in be effective. This case study analyzes some of the key Georgia than officially registered.” (Female, 27, roots to exclusion as identified by respondents. employed) PWDs—in contrast to service providers and care- Another reason for not registering disabled children givers—highlight the ability to be independent, and is lack of incentives for families, or lack of informa- to be seen by others as independent individuals, as tion. Many are not aware of benefits or services that a highest priority. This perception is aligned with the the state or NGOs can offer. Some do not trust that definition of inclusion used in this study (“improving the anything will change by proactively seeking support, or ability, opportunity, and dignity of individuals to take in fact believe that being proactive may contribute to part in society”). It is from this perspective, that the psychological trauma if the support is temporary or in- discussion of pathways of inclusion and policy recom- mendations should be understood and advanced. consistent. In remote and rural areas many households simply lack the knowledge that there are available ser- Gaps in Data and Registration (Invisibility) vices, especially if there are no active NGOs/service providers in the area. As discussed in Chapter II, evidence suggests that the share of Georgia’s population affected by any “…there is no support, you have to go through type of disability is likely to be underestimated. This difficulties, there is no support from the govern- fact is important, on the one hand, because it affects ment.” (Middle-aged woman, caregiver, small the ability of the state to allocate resources, provide town) sufficient services, and monitor outcomes for PWDs. It is also significant because this invisibility indicates there international definition includes the 2006 UN Convention on may be broader causes of exclusion, affecting this the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Art. 1), which states that “Persons with disabilities include those who have long- group.54 term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their 54 The definition of disability in Georgia is more limited and full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with confined to medical diagnosis whereas a better accepted others.” Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 47 A Country Social Analysis “The advantage [of registering] is that if you business partners and you won’t meet them ev- need a wheelchair, they may give you one. Most ery day in the streets, not much will be changed probably but not for sure.” (Young woman with in this regard.” (Male, 44, employed, social en- disability, small town) trepreneur, married, one child) “One day they are on TV helping them [PWDs] Attitudes from the broader public are seen as one and on the other day they forget about them. of the main causes for isolation and exclusion from This of course has negative impact on people’s services and spaces. These attitudes are internalized psychology.” (Young man with disability, rural by PWDs, and make them more prone to self-exclu- area) sion. Young respondents in particular emphasize that the main obstacle for them is feeling pitied by their It is also recognized that the trend of under-registra- peers or not considered as an equal. tion is slowly changing especially in bigger cities. In those locations there is more visibility of other PWDs, “It is irritating for us when they look at us like and better information on services, so that families this. They feel sorry for us and it shouldn’t be can see the immediate advantages of seeking support. like this.” (IDI, young woman with disability, Caregivers in Tbilisi share that nowadays most fami- small town) lies would register so that they can at least receive the minimum cash allowance (disability pension) from the “The worst thing is when you see that other state. people pity you. But on the other hand if you, for example, have an argument with the same Additionally, respondents share that the practice for person they look at you like: who are you to ar- identifying and extending support to PWDs is overly gue with me?” (IDI, young man with disability, reliant on the families being proactive and PWDs rural area) themselves. Hence, those who are more proactive reap the benefits of formal support services. They be- “Some of them need psychological help to come lieve that outreach should be strengthened on the part out and even psychologist cannot help them to of NGOs and service providers. deal with this.” (FGD, caregivers, Tbilisi) “I know that there are 3,000 PWDs in [my Public awareness efforts are considered essential to town] and I’m sure they won’t register all of reduce stigma, and even to eliminate some myths them. I don’t know the reason... They [NGOs] and stereotypes, for example that certain forms of don’t search for them, are not interested in find- disability are contagious. Expectations to champion ing them. You have to go and integrate yourself.” public outreach are primarily directed at NGOs and (Young woman with disability, small town) media. Awareness campaigns and inclusion in schools Registering for services is implicitly associated with at an early age are considered especially important. being more active and visible in the public space. “Children will not stare in the street at the dis- Younger participants note that one of the greatest ad- abled people, because they will know, they will vantages of higher registration rates is not as much re- have met them, they will be friends with CWD ceiving support, but rather improving awareness and visibility that can in turn contribute to changing atti- and it won’t be new for them.” (Young woman, tudes. small town) “People will know that we exist, and there is no “They should understand that this is not tuber- difference between us except of physical limita- culosis or HIV/AIDS or any other communicable tions.” (Young man with disability, rural area) disease, these are normal people. Even our chil- dren who have severe [mental] disability feel Public awareness (attitudes of family and society) whether people’s attitudes towards them are positive or negative. They are very loving per- “I know one thing: if people with special needs sons. Nobody can love like them” (FGD, care- won’t be your classmates, your colleagues, your givers, Tbilisi) 48 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Attitudes of family members and relatives play a the rule, and is far from comprehensive. An inacces- big role. Some participants even state that parents of sible environment impedes the completion of most CWD are primarily responsible for the fact that their basic functions, such as going to the bank, the grocery children are not better integrated. This may be due store, a school or university, places of employment, to lack of information or protective instincts, but can cultural buildings, and so on. There is also a feeling that be especially harmful for CWD causing them to miss adaptation is sometimes conditional on acceptance of opportunities (gaining education, professional skills, others. For example, a caregiver noted that her neigh- having a social network) with lifelong consequences. bor protested the installation of a ramp at the entrance of her disabled grandchild’s building. “Parents lock up their children, because they have no support and no information.” (Female, “For me the infrastructure is the biggest prob- 38, housewife, partially employed, married, 4 lem. The public transport is not adapted and children) you cannot do anything with it. I need to pay more and use cabs. …..I am used to the atti- “If a person has an accident when he over 30 tude of society towards me and I have learned and cannot walk he already has an education how to overcome it. But I cannot do anything and opportunity to have a job. But when a per- with the infrastructure and the environment son is born with a disability family treats them around.” (IDI, young woman, blind, Tbilisi) differently.” (IDI, young man with disability, ru- ral area) “We have the same needs as any other people - food, shops, supermarkets - and it would great if While public awareness is important, it is insufficient we could actually go there.” (IDI, young wom- to provide inclusion into markets and services that an with mobility impairment, small town) are essential for improving welfare, such as schools and jobs. Caregivers of children and young PWDs “[My priority is] an adapted city. I cannot go to note that there are often double standards in society. the store. When I’m with my mother she goes People express empathy in general, but in practice inside and I stay outside. It is not pleasant for would not like to be associated with this group. me. Maybe I also want to go inside and pick things by myself. I cannot go shopping. Nobody “If you ask them, they all will say that it is neces- cares and nobody thinks about it. Also I have to sary to include disabled people into the society, receive my pension in [..] Bank. There is a ramp but for example, if my grandchild has to go to but it is so bad I cannot use it.” (IDI, young the kindergarten, there might be a problem that woman with cerebral palsy, small town) the parents of other children are aggressive if their child is in the same group…” (FGD, mid- Accessibility of public transport is still incipient. dle-aged woman, caregiver, small town) Transport is an important constraint, on the one hand, because it imposes an extra cost, having to rely on “Separately everyone is kind but as soon as it taxis, and on the other hand, because of uncertain- comes to concrete things, for example, em- ty and attitudes of drivers. The majority of caregivers ployment, everyone stands aside.” (FGD, mid- interviewed in Tbilisi invoke examples of taxi drivers dle-aged woman, caregiver, Tbilisi) refusing to serve them. Considering that taxis are the only transport they can use this is a serious problem Adaptation of the environment for them. Some believe that this attitude stems from an unexplained fear or protection instinct of not harming Accessible buildings, transportation, and public a disabled child. spaces are key to all aspects of inclusion and par- ticipation. Many respondents note that there are im- “One driver told me: even if you pay me 800 provements in this regard in urban areas, such as the lari55 I won’t take this kid with my car” [normal addition of ramps, and that, as a result, one can now fare in the city is about 5 lari] (FGD, caregivers, see more people in wheelchairs in public spaces than Tbilisi) in the past. Still, adaptation is rather an exception than 55 Georgian Lari (national currency, 1 GEL = 0.43 USD) Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 49 A Country Social Analysis “In most cases, there are no ramps at the bus only once or twice, because it very difficult for stops and if you call a cab, you can’t get on that me to cover long distances… I know a lot of cab either…” (Male, 35, unemployed, mar- people in Kutaisi and I’d love to meet with them ried, 3 children) again, but it is so hard for me to leave the house to get there. I have not seen them for ages. I Younger respondents with disabilities stress the im- cannot even go to visit my daughters in Tbilisi.” portance of adapted environment for autonomy and (IDI, elderly man, rural area) independence. They emphasize that the state should have mandatory regulations for spaces to be accessi- “I have friends and acquaintances who desire ble, and provide them with an opportunity to perform to go out, go to a concert but cannot go. When essential tasks without needing additional help. my friend who is in the wheelchair wants to go to Meskhishvili theatre she cannot go there. Be- “They [in the bank] told to one person once: be cause she cannot go inside.” (Young woman, at home and we will bring it [pension] to you. small town) Maybe I don’t want to stay home, maybe I want to go to the bank as the other people do.” Additionally, participants believe that an adapted envi- ronment will help improve visibility and reduce stigma, “It would be better if the city was better adapt- as well provide incentives for families to encourage ed and we didn’t need other people help.” (IDI, CWD to be more active. young woman with cerebral palsy, small town) Coverage and quality of programs and services “Also, laws are not designed for people like us. When I go to the bank and need to sign a con- Another set of factors underlying exclusion is the tract I need to have a person with me who will coverage and quality of available support services. sign it on my behalf. This is very inconvenient.” Most respondents in urban areas, and ones with (IDI, young woman, blind, Tbilisi) CWD, were aware of disability pensions and day cen- ters for children with special needs. However, rural re- The quality of adaptation is also raised as an issue: spondents and ones who have encountered a disability condition later in life are often not aware even of these “[In our town] there is no infrastructure for dis- services. abled children. For example, if a building has a ramp, there is no way to use it independently, “I haven’t thought about this. I don’t use any they are in disastrous conditions.” (FGD, mid- service and cannot imagine what service I could dle-aged women, caregiver, small town) use.” (Young man rural area, spinal cord dis- ease) “There are no ramps. And if there are any, they and not built properly and in horrible conditions” “We [my family] don’t use any service. I only (FGD, middle-aged women, caregiver) have a pension.” (Young woman, Kutaisi, ce- rebral palsy) Impacts from lack of accessibility include not only barriers to basic services, but also to socialization The first issue regarding services and programs is and opportunities to build or maintain social net- that there is no guarantee of access. Receiving a works. This issue is prominent in discussions with wheelchair, white stick, or other aids, or attending a adults who have become disabled due to illness or day center usually requires a waiting list. For children, accidents later in their life. And as noted earlier in this this might mean missing months or years of attending study, informal networks and social capital are seen as special education. Depending on one’s location, the a top prerequisite for being integrated and prosperous cost of transportation to a service center can be pro- in Georgian society. hibitive. “My brother, who died several months ago, was The low availability of specialized services is per- living in the same village but a bit far from my ceived to be due to scarcity of qualified special- house, about 500-600 meters. I went to him ists, knowledge and capacity constraints to plan 50 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis programs for PWDs, as well as restricted funding. NGOs. These caregivers suspect that some NGOs are Young respondents think that the country can adapt only interested in collecting registrations to raise funds experiences from European countries: from the state and donors rather than actually pro- viding services (“they are making business out of these “Georgian government should learn from them, children”). A young woman with disability shares that adjust it to the country and make it work. ... inclusion programs, run by NGOs, sometimes sound [in Europe] there are special groups for that. If like self-promotion campaigns but do not put enough a person is in a wheelchair they visit and help attention on reaching out to beneficiaries. Outreach, them go out, even on holidays. In our country as well as the provision transportation, is seen as es- talking about it is ridiculous.” (Young man, rural sential for NGOs to really cater to the needs of PWDs. area, spinal cord disease) “You have to remind them [institutions] of your- Where specialized day center services for children self. Fill the forms and be active. But the result are available most parents recognize their value. won’t be necessarily positive. Negative results Day centers are seen not only as building the skills and are more frequent than positive.” (IDI, young confidence of children, but also as an important space woman with disability, small town) for information, support, and socialization of caregiv- ers. However, these centers are not widely available Respondents wish for greater flexibility of available across the country and even in places where they are, services to better address their needs. For example, they usually operate with long waiting lists. the possibility of vouchers for rehabilitation camps to- ward other services, or of using funding allocated for a “My child was three, when I found out about this wheelchair or a white stick to purchase a better quality organization and brought him/her here… And I one if the beneficiary wants to contribute to the cost. am very happy with the result… Me personal- ly, I get psychological support for my child and “The government buys these sticks every year, assistance from a speech therapist, I am very but most of them are useless. What are they happy with the psychologist…my child was cra- doing with these sticks nobody knows?” (Female, zy about him…My child had moved forward, I 27, employed, married, 1 child) am very, very content.” (Female 55, employed, takes care of her grandchildren). All of the factors, described above, congregate to create barriers to the inclusion and prosperity for A challenge for children and young adults is the fact PWDs. These barriers are revealed in various domains: that day center services are only available up to age education, health, employment and income-generat- of 18. There is no opportunity to continue building ing activities, civic and political participation, access to skills, socialize, or get specialized rehabilitation services information, strength of social networks (the ability to in a similar environment for young adults. This gap is build or maintain social networks), and so on. These potentially detrimental in the transition to adulthood are elaborated in more detail below. because the needs of the beneficiary are growing. Moreover, this age comes with an expectation for Education greater independence for those who are able to pur- sue education and employment. Respondents share that educational institutions are generally not ready to accept CWD. Even if they are “I never agree with the state when they have required to by law (except in cases of severe disability) programs for people up to 18 years. What rejection of students with special needs may occur due should that person after 18 years do? When to inaccessible infrastructure of the school, lack of qual- he has no education or job? And his needs are ified teachers, or general attitude of teachers or par- growing?” (Young woman, urban area) ents. Adaptation of one educational institution can be a determining choice for the professional orientation of Some caregivers also share some mistrust toward students with special needs. NGO service providers. The fact that one has to reg- ister in various NGOs, and subsequently wait a long “It is rather frustrating that when you are send- time, makes some caregivers doubt the motivations of ing a child with special needs to the school and Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 51 A Country Social Analysis they cannot admit him/her, because they are of services, and low levels of information among not ready to have a student with special needs.” persons who are entitled to certain medical sup- (FGD, caregivers, small town) port. This is attributed to funding constraints and pos- sibly lack of knowledge or capacity to assess real needs “My child used to go to the kindergarten, but he/ of beneficiaries relative to the assistance that is provid- she sometimes screams unexpectedly, and they ed. Medicines and medical supplies pose a big financial made us leave the kindergarten…they said that burden for families. Most respondents question the it is disturbing them and that they don’t want adequacy of health insurance, and some misinforma- such child in the group and that we should take tion persists as far as the coverage they are entitled to care of him/her somewhere else.” (FGD, care- versus the coverage they receive. One-time assistance givers) from state programs or private donors is appreciated but insufficient to support recurring expenses. Similarly, “I’m very thankful that they started adapting caregivers mention that state funding allocated for re- trade school. It is a good opportunity of disabled habilitation services covers only a small proportion of people to have a profession.” (IDI, young wom- the needs, does not include transportation which is not an, small town) important to access the services, and is not of optimal quality. This is attributed mostly to lack of funds and While experts recommend that children attend relevant infrastructure, for example, swimming pools. regular school and go to a day center after school hours, in practice many parents prefer to send “We bring invoice for one month and if you need their children only to a day center or keep them at 500 lari they give you 100. I am very dissatis- home. This is linked to fear of negative attitudes, but fied, because the invoice says clearly how many also to convenience and cost. Getting basic education medicine my child needs daily and they should requires a higher investment with need of additional count it but they give you medicine which is transportation, materials, or specialized services. In ad- enough only for 10 days instead of one month” dition, most special education professionals are avail- (FGD, caregivers, Tbilisi) able in cities; hence some families choose to move to a nearest town or the capital to secure proper education “In the insurance we have right now nothing is for a special needs child. Having school personnel be included that we need. Encephalogram which sensitized to the needs of students with special needs sometimes is needed every day is not included can also make the difference in their education. in our insurance not to talk about tomography or medicines. Another great problem is dentist’s “Often parents do not do anything to take their service for these children. There are only a few children to schools. Day centers are more con- dentists in Tbilisi that serve these children often venient for them, because they are here from for free.” (FGD, caregivers, Tbilisi) 9 am to 4 pm and have breakfast and dinner.” (KII, NGO representative) “We need to fight for every medicine, diaper, we need money for taxi to get our children to “I remember when I moved to Kutaisi from the rehabilitation center.” (FGD, caregivers, Tbilisi) village, in 11th grade, I was afraid how would the society react, how will they perceive me. And I Overall, respondents in the study call for a more remember my principal saying to me: I believe individualized approach to the medical needs of in you! This was very important and I still re- PWDs. It is also emphasized that support should be member those words and it gives me strength timely, as long waiting times contribute to isolation. up to now. I don’t know what person I would be if not for those words.” (IDI, young woman, small “There is no individual approach to people with town) special needs. For example, I have heard of a case, when a person, who is in wheel chair, had Health care appendicitis. The doctors were examining him/ Similar to other programs and services, challenges her like other patients, but actually there is a related to health care are related to low coverage different way to check appendix in people who 52 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis are in wheelchairs. This poor person was suffer- CVs but nothing. The environment is also not ing several days until they found out what was adapted for us to physically go to work.” (IDI, wrong with him/her.” (IDI, male, 42, employed, young man with spine trauma, rural area) founder of the NGO ‘Accessible Environment for Everyone’, single) “I have an acquaintance who is a PWD but has an education. He/she sent his/her CV to a bank As with education, location also plays a role in access but they refused to employ him/her. They told to health services. Many of the rehabilitation services him/her that having a PWD who walks with a are available only in urban areas or only in Tbilisi. Resi- crutch as an employee might be a problem for dents in remote locations are further disadvantaged by the clients.” (Young woman, Kutaisi, accoun- lack of information and knowing their entitlements as tant) far as health services. Most respondents stress the value of employment “There is an NGO named ‘For independent life’. not only as an income-generating activity but also They were here and told us that we could go to for social integration. They believe that the employ- any clinic or healthcare facility and have 100 ment of disabled persons in the private sector should percent free service. But in reality in the clinics be more proactively encouraged. A distinction is made where we asked about this the answer was no, based on the type of disability. Caregivers of children we don’t have such service… We’ve called in with mental disability are less optimistic about employ- Human rights center and they told us that these ment prospects for them and are more likely to stress organizations only work in Tbilisi. ” (IDI, young the need for continued financial assistance by the state. man with spine trauma, rural area) These households also emphasize the emotional bur- den on the family and fear for the future and for the Income and Employment continuity of care. Lower educational achievement, inaccessible spac- “While we are alive we will take care of our chil- es, as well as social stigma and narrower social dren. I thank god that my kid has two sisters but networks, all together present significant obstacles you know what? I am sure they will take care for employment of PWDs. Cases of some, who are after him/her too but nobody can care on him/ successfully employed, are rare and often in the non- her like I do. I know already from his/her eye profit sector or at the own initiative of the person him/ movement what s/he wants and whether s/he herself. The majority of the employed respondents is happy or not. I don’t know what happens with with disability were in Tbilisi and were employed in him/her afterwards” (FGD, caregivers, Tbilisi) the NGO sector. Family members of PWDs, who are caregivers, “This is very rare… I have seen it only on TV. also face diminished chances of employment. At the There is one [PWD] who is a cohost of the TV same time, the disability pension that the household program ‘Shuadge’.” (Woman, 38, housewife) receives, GEL 160, is deemed insufficient for living and especially for covering additional medical or trans- “I personally don’t know anyone. There was one portation costs. Some households supplement this actor, maybe you know also, on the discovery income with social assistance, which makes them addi- channel. In Georgia people only know those who tionally reluctant to take on additional employment (in are in the media.” (Young man, 31, spinal cord particular if it is temporary or informal) for fear of losing disease, rural) social assistance benefits. “There are many who are active. Many my “Can I use my child’s money? What is GEL 160 friends have jobs, writing articles, are active but per month? The child needs medicines, clothing, this number is very low compared to the whole diapers, hygiene products. And the parents also number [of PWDs.]” (Young woman, Kutaisi, need something.” (FGD, caregivers, Tbilisi) mobility problem) “We all have a record that our child needs con- “For me it is very hard. I try to have a job, send stant care, which means that they are depen- Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 53 A Country Social Analysis dent on us. We, parents, are disabled, because “I was invited to the meeting, as they said the we cannot work. Don’t we need anything?” city has to have a plan how to improve the en- (FGD, caregivers, Tbilisi) vironment for PWDs. They argued a lot and I didn’t go there for the second time.” (Young “I need to use taxi almost every day to go to woman, Kutaisi) college and 160 lari is not enough at all.” (IDI, young woman with disability, small town) “There are no websites in Georgia that can be accessed by people who have problems with Parents of CWD also note a discrepancy in state eyesight.” support to foster parents versus caregivers who are biological parents. Foster parents, who adopt CWD, “People need to get information in order to get are provided GEL 600, a higher allowance than biolog- integrated in the society. I remember that when ical parents, which some construe as an incentive by there was a war in 2008 how 200 people with the state to give away CWD to foster care. hearing problems have gathered at Mushtaidi park and tried to get information from each oth- “We want to serve to our children with dignity… er about ongoing war.” (Male, 42, employed, Don’t urge us to give away our children”. (FGD, founder of the NGO ‘Accessible Environment caregivers, Tbilisi) for Everyone’, single) A gender discrepancy in the burden of caregivers Caregivers in small towns and rural areas also point was emphasized. It was stressed that in most fami- out that access to information should be facilitated lies, where child with disability is born, mothers usually for the households of PWDs, on the various sources adopt the role of caregivers. Moreover, it is not un- of support they can access. That way they can better common for fathers to leave the family. Even in families help family members with disabilities to be more active where husband is present, women are primarily re- in social life. sponsible to manage care, and are seen as emotionally stronger and more resilient. Pathways to inclusion “Men are cowards. My son-in-law ran away. He Despite the accumulation of obstacles, many ran away from his child. I cannot say that he PWDs, especially younger participants, are optimis- does not help us. Moreover he is a doctor, imag- tic about recent trends. They believe that inclusion is ine. But the fact is that he destroyed his family.” possible with continuous efforts to address root causes (FGD, caregivers, Tbilisi) highlighted above: raising public awareness, adaptation of infrastructure and channels of information, raising Participation and Access to Information knowledge and capacity in, and coverage of, programs and services. PWDs note that the inability to perform tasks inde- pendently also affects their initiative to be proactive Public awareness and adaptation of the physical en- as citizens. While participation in decision-making, civic vironment have to advance together to promote and political life is mentioned as an obstacles by various more visibility and opportunities for this group. disadvantaged groups, physical and informational con- In addition, respondents believe that greater visibility straints account for even greater obstacles for PWDs. helps to promote more public acceptance that can These have to do with inaccessible infrastructure and, help reduce barriers in education, employment, par- for some, inability to access media and internet due to ticipation, and so on. lack of adapted digital technologies. “When I think of 90s, when I damaged my spine “We cannot independently enter the electoral the situation was absolutely different. First of all, district. Somebody has to lift me like a bag, and the country was in poverty and no one was think- I do not want this. I prefer not to participate in ing about PWDs. Second, such people were not elections at all.” (Male, 42, employed, founder seen at all, they were sitting in the houses and of the NGO ‘Accessible Environment for Ev- were not involved in anything. Now it is different, eryone’, single) you can see more PWDs studying, working or 54 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis moving in the streets.” (Male, 57, employed, for PWDs and facilitating inclusion of children with entrepreneur, married, two children and two special needs in mainstream education should be im- grandchildren) plemented. These can in itself contribute to changing attitudes and confidence. “I remember that when I was a child, children like us were locked in houses. When I was com- “It is crucial to have a job. Having friends, going ing out in the street people were gazing at me out, being socially active is connected to having like I was an animal in the zoo. But now, when a job. When one is at home all the time and there are some NGOs working on this issue, a has no job, he also doesn’t have friends.” (Young lot of trainings are done and I think, that young woman/man, rural area, spine trauma) people have changed their attitude. We should persuade the society to accept us as we are.” “I have a friend in Tbilisi. He is also in the wheel- (Female, 27, employed, administrator in a fa- chair and has his own NGO, ‘Coalition for inde- mous magazine, single) pendent life’. He is very integrated, has a wife and a family.” (Young woman/man, rural area, In the current context of Georgia, personal initiative spine trauma) is one of the strongest factors for inclusion. A high proportion of the respondents in this study are, by their Location is another factor seen as tightly linked with own account, successfully integrated in society. They inclusion; this points to the need to work toward assess being proactive and family support as some of reducing regional discrepancies. Being in the capital the strongest drivers in their integration. To younger is seen as best for CWD due to the availability of more respondents, in particular, an enabling environment to specialized day centers. There is a perception that succeed means one in which they can accept who they mobility (public transportation, streets, buildings) are are and be independent. One participant involved in better adapted in Tbilisi and large cities, though Tbilisi NGO work (‘Accessible Environment for Everyone’) respondents do not share this view. Some consider being in the city also better for socialization and em- shares that when he was injured and began using a ployment opportunities. Information about programs wheelchair, he thought the only way to be accepted and services is higher in urban areas. Most rural re- in society was to get up and walk. But he no longer spondents were not aware that they were entitled to thinks that is the case, and believes that if people with any support such as wheelchair, rehabilitation services, special needs work hard they can also achieve almost or a disability pension. At the same time, rural respon- everything and be independent. Another respondent dents more so than urban ones, share that their envi- states that if she does not have the opportunity to be ronment and community is very supportive. independent, no amount of state support can change her situation. “Not a single organization in the villages would work on these issues. Nothing for the disabled “The most important thing is to be a full mem- people who need wheelchairs. No ramps or re- ber of the society and be independent. If you habilitation centers….Yes, of course I think that feel this, it does not matter whether you can in the [city] I could do more.” (Young man, rural move your fingers or not. You can achieve every- area, spine trauma) thing.” (Male, 44, employed, social entrepre- neur, married, one child) “The chances [to have a job] are much higher when you live in Tbilisi. I know many PWDs who “…if the state gives me 1 million it doesn’t mat- are employed in Tbilisi. In [my town] there is no ter now because I won’t have skills and abilities such thing. …I have a friend in Tbilisi who works to use it.” (Young woman, accounting degree, in a call-center. In [my town] I don’t know any- small town) one.” (IDI, young woman with cerebral palsy, accounting education, small town) Education and employment are seen as drivers as much as outcomes of inclusion. In this regard, re- “Transportation is very hard, there is no adapted spondents believe that having more proactive pro- public transport here. Only in Tbilisi and Batu- grams encouraging employment or entrepreneurship mi.” (Young man, rural area, spine trauma) Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 55 A Country Social Analysis To summarize, PWDs face complex and mutually cannot be generalized. While they may be common reinforcing barriers that contribute to their con- barriers that all PWD encounter, policy interventions sistent exclusion and diminished opportunities to from health and education to labor market, livelihood enhance their welfare. As presented earlier in this re- and social assistance should be tailored more specifi- port, PWDs and their households have higher poverty cally to the needs of different subgroups. rates, lower labor force participation and employment, and are more strongly dependent on social benefits. In addition, policy interventions in any of the above This case study, based on conversations with disabled need to take a cross-sectoral approach given that persons, caregivers, and service providers, was aimed improvements in each area may fall under the pur- to understand better the specific domains in which ex- view of multiple institutions. For example, improv- clusion occurs and the key contributing factors or root ing access to and quality of education for children and causes to this exclusion. Understanding the underlying youth with special needs requires strong collaboration reasons for exclusion, in turn, helps to direct policy ef- with transport and infrastructure institutions to ensure forts toward areas that would have greatest transfor- an inclusive environment, with labor market institu- mational impact on opportunities for this group. tions to better tailor skills programs for special needs youth and adults, with technology and information and Root causes for exclusion can be summarized communication technology (ICT) experts to ensure in four areas: (a) persistent invisibility of PWDs and that inclusive digital tools are used to support learning gaps in registration; (b) low public awareness, stigma for such groups, with youth and sports authorities to among family and society at large; (c) poor adaptation ensure development of soft skills and socialization, and of the environment impeding access to information so on. and physical spaces; and (d) low coverage and quality of services that can be traced to knowledge, capacity, The majority of PWDs, especially the younger ones, and financial constraints. Together these four sets of is- emphasize that inclusion to them signifies an en- sues contribute to suboptimal participation of PWDs in abling environment where they can pursue oppor- social, economic, and civic life and contribute to their tunities independently. Cases of successful integration reaping lower benefits from education, labor markets, reveal that personal initiative and being proactive seem and decision-making processes. to play a key role in successful integration and out- comes such as educational achievement, employment, Addressing each of these issues through more in- and an expanded social network. This supports the clusive policy interventions requires dedicated re- conclusion that, to the extent possible, effective pol- search and knowledge. PWDs are a heterogeneous icy interventions should be geared to ensure greater group and their specific needs and the services required autonomy and choice for PWDs and their caregivers. 56 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis IV. CONCLUSIONS AND There are multiple exclusion stories in every soci- RECOMMENDATIONS ety. This study has defined inclusion as both a process and outcome for improving the terms on which indi- This study explores the expressions and drivers of viduals and groups can actively participate in society, social exclusion and inclusion in Georgia to explore have a voice in decisions which affect their lives, and more inclusive policy options. The study is based enjoy equal access to markets, services, and political, on the premise that social inclusion is paramount to social, and physical spaces (World Bank 2013). Social achieving shared prosperity; in particular, that under- exclusion overlaps with but is not synonymous with standing the roots of exclusion and inclusion can give poverty. Those who are excluded generally suffer insight into why certain segments of the population from multiple and interrelated disadvantages that result continue to face persistent poverty and fail to benefit in both economic and social deprivation56 as well as a from development policy and growth. lack of voice. Following this objective, this research has drawn a Discussions with citizens and quantitative evidence broad-based mapping of: how are exclusion and in- identifies a set of characteristics and groups that clusion understood in Georgia; who is excluded and may be facing systematic barriers to inclusion and in what ways; do characteristics of socially excluded prosperity. This study looks into some of the most individuals or groups correlate in any way with pover- prominent ones, recognizing that multiple character- ty or other socioeconomic outcomes; what processes istics associated with exclusion may affect each individ- are perceived as key drivers of inclusion in Georgian ual, household or community. These include ethnic society. For two selected categories—representatives and religious minorities, PWDs, IDPs by conflict or of ethnic Azerbaijani minority in Georgia, and PWDs— natural disaster, homeless persons and street children, the study has explored more in-depth causes of exclu- residents in rural, remote, and high mountain areas, sion and overlapping vulnerabilities through qualitative elderly and unemployed, former prisoners, women, research. LGBTQI population, among others. The overlap of Georgia has a positive track record of growth, these characteristics can amount to substantial barriers reforms, and poverty reduction but as other mid- to individuals or groups to effectively benefit from and dle-income countries it harbors pockets of, poten- participate in the country’s development. tially persistent, poverty. Promoting policies that The research indicates that individuals and groups enhance social inclusion makes economic sense with such characteristics not only face tangible bar- in the long run. For example, it can help encourage riers in services, markets, and spaces, such as ed- greater participation in the labor market, and inclusion ucation and the labor market, but are also subject in higher-skilled and higher-paying jobs for groups that to different extents to negative social attitudes and have traditionally lacked such access; it can contribute stigma, and that the two processes—social stigma to reducing regional disparities and spurring growth of and socioeconomic outcomes—are mutually rein- lagging regions, given that some excluded groups tend forcing. For example, one of the strongest barriers to be regionally concentrated; as well as help to reduce faced by some categories of PWDs is the lack of en- dependence on the state and encourage greater social abling social environment, attitudes, and awareness and economic independence, for example for groups of others (teachers, principals, employers, service such as IDPs or PWDs that are currently highly de- providers, general public), attitudes that may express pendent on social transfers. Inclusive policies are also themselves in curtailed access to essential services or fundamental to cohesion and stability. Development opportunities. research is increasingly looking into the roots of rad- icalization as a product of substandard opportunities, This research also explores drivers of inclusion or youth disillusionment, inactivity or unemployment, what it means to be ‘included,’ ‘successful’ or ‘pros- and/or as a result of prolonged conflict, displacement, perous in life’. In this study the examination of path- and border instability, all of which affect Georgia di- ways to inclusion is limited to qualitative data. Pathways rectly. Lastly, inclusive policy targets and actions are of inclusion for specific groups and subgroups merit an essential part of national and international legal further in-depth research (for example, why some commitments in Georgia’s development path such as minority groups have achieved better outcomes than agreements with EU, SDGs, and Georgia’s own na- tional development strategy. 56 Silver n.d., cited in World Bank (2014). Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 57 A Country Social Analysis others; what are important drivers of success for youth supporting advancement of universal access for PWDs in rural or remote areas, for religious minority youth, in country policy and in infrastructure investments proj- and so on). The most important perceived determi- ects; helping transfer of new technology and knowl- nant for inclusion, based on the current research, is edge to expand access to information for persons with the ability to rely on a strong social network. Other hearing or visual impairments; ensuring that project in- factors such as having a job, having good education, formation is available in the relevant language for ethnic living in an urban area or in Tbilisi, are also perceived as minority population. Development organizations can strong determinants of inclusion and prosperity. Prior also help explore innovative ways to support pathways public opinion research in Georgia also shows a cor- to employment, skills, and livelihoods for groups who relation between poverty and strength of social net- face more complex barriers such as PWDs, IDPs, rural works whereas lower-income Georgians report much and minority youth, youth in remote, border and high weaker trust in others and narrower social network on mountain areas, and so on. which they can rely for support. Inclusive policy can be expressed in additional ben- Knowing that social exclusion and inclusion may af- efits and services for selected groups, but it is often fect socioeconomic outcomes and potentially per- more than that. Good practices in inclusive social pol- petuate pockets of poverty, what would a more icies emphasize empowerment, reducing dependence inclusive policy approach entail in practice? Three on state support, and sustainability. Policies targeted elements stand out in the Georgia context: first, at certain groups or regions need to emphasize lon- the need to improve data and evidence on vulnerable ger-term and sustainable goals. For example, policies groups who face systematic disadvantages. This study aiming to address trends of rapid depopulation in shows that while some categories of the population high-mountain regions need to emphasize opportuni- are well defined and protected through respective ties for youth, both education and livelihood related. programs and services, others may consistently fall On the other hand, service providers working with out of the attention of state and NGO programs. If ethnic minorities should ensure continuous quality of their situation and challenges are relatively invisible, this service by future qualified professionals who are able in turn, constrains the ability of the Government or to communicate (in the respective ethnic languages) non-state organizations to better address their needs. with the population they are serving. Monitoring of outcomes for vulnerable groups should also be strengthened to track progress of related pol- The two case studies illustrate some more concrete icies. Second, a comprehensive approach to services priorities for a more inclusive policy direction. and stronger institutional coordination should be en- couraged. While legislation, policies and services exist Persons with Disabilities to address the needs of vulnerable populations, these services operate in a fragmented manner and may be Root causes for exclusion of PWDs can be summa- insufficient to overcome complex and cumulative bar- rized in four areas: (a) persistent invisibility of PWDs riers (physical, social, economic, and so on) such as and gaps in registration; (b) low public awareness, the ones faced by many of the groups discussed in this stigma among family and society at large; (c) poor ad- report. Third, capacity building and strengthening of lo- aptation of the environment impeding access to infor- cally tailored policies and programs may be considered mation and physical spaces; and (d) low coverage and so that inclusion policies are effective in the unique quality of services. These challenges call for a set of geographic or cultural environment of the region to interrelated efforts: which they are applied. (a) A push toward improvement in data, regis- Understanding exclusion and drivers of inclusive tration for this population. This would entail, policy is also important for international partners on the one hand, improving incentives for working in Georgia. Development organizations such PWDs and parents of CWD to seek support, as the World Bank can be a more effective partner in and on the other hand improved outreach by the goals described above, ensuring that policy advice state and NGO organizations toward identi- and investments in its portfolio are sensitive toward fying PWD and CWD who can benefit from and tailored to the needs of vulnerable groups; that such support. they help to lower rather than perpetuate barriers for (b) Strengthening public awareness efforts to disadvantaged groups. This may include, for example, reduce stigma in society and consequently 58 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis among families of PWDs, and improve their A comprehensive effort to enhance inclusion and op- visibility in the public space. The impacts of portunities for Azerbaijani minority would therefore greater visibility are likely to be multifold: need to take into account all of the following aspects: diminishing stigma and restrictions imposed by attitude of others, but also strengthening (a) Improving the quality of basic education. This confidence and initiative by PWDs them- entails both raising quality of teaching, mod- selves thus preventing further self-exclusion. ernizing curriculum, and so on in Azerbaija- ni-language schools parallel to improvements (c) Legal, regulatory, and technical advance- taking place in the general education system, ments to expand accessibility of the physical but also increasing confidence among com- environment, as well as of digital and infor- munities in the quality of bilingual education mation media for persons who due to spe- options. cific condition cannot access information or physical spaces on an equal basis. (b) Reducing the language gap and promoting better access to information. A parallel effort (d) A move toward more comprehensive and to improve the quality of Georgian language better coordinated services, along with instruction in Azerbaijani communities, as building capacity of specialized personnel. well as to ensure that essential information These may include greater attention to early reaches these communities in their moth- childhood education for children with special er tongue. For the elderly and middle-aged needs, as well as transition services for young population, the ability to access information, adults with special needs (over 18 years of services, and participate in Azerbaijani lan- age); increasing the cohort of trained inclu- guage will remain a necessity, while younger sive education and rehabilitation specialists; generations can be encouraged to develop continually improving programs that provide skills in both languages. specialized aids and health care to PWDs to incorporate the feedback and needs of bene- (c) Improving quality and access to basic public ficiaries, and so on. services (reducing dependence on interme- diaries). This entails promoting a stronger (e) Continued efforts to strengthen legislation cohort of educated—including local and bi- and empower independence of PWDs. lingual professionals (teachers, doctors, pub- Georgia has made a lot of progress in the le- lic officials, and so on)—who can serve in gal arena to support the right to independent Azerbaijani communities. living; still gaps remain toward ensuring voice and participation of PWDs in decisions that (d) Support to diversifying sources of income affect their lives. and livelihoods. This includes building of in- centives, skills, opportunities for young peo- Azerbaijani minority ple to move away from agriculture, but also efforts to improve returns from agriculture, Representatives of the Azerbaijani minority dis- for example, through access to land, afford- play persistently lower incomes and higher poverty able finance, better markets for agricultural rates, which quantitative analysis suggests can be produce, and so on. explained largely by gaps in education and sector of employment. Disparities in education and employ- (e) Encouraging greater cultural interaction es- ment are in turn influenced by factors such as: (a) a pecially for youth. Educational outcomes and persisting language barrier that has become an even incomes tend to be better for minorities liv- more significant determinant of social and economic ing in more integrated environments; more- integration following the country’s independence; (b) over, experts point to a risk of deepening cul- quality of services and service providers in communi- tural isolation and its impacts particularly on ties where Azerbaijani population is concentrated; (c) young women. Facilitating greater interaction access to productive assets such as land, and affordable for youth across ethnic communities, beyond finance; (d) cultural norms that may exacerbate barri- that in integrated schools, can help barriers ers for subgroups such as minority women; (e) barriers for young people growing up in predomi- to information and participation. nantly minority communities. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 59 A Country Social Analysis V. REFERENCES IWPR (Institute for War and Peace Reporting). 2016. “Saving Georgia’s Mountain Villages.” By Aleksandre Bobghiashvili, Giorgi, Arsen Kharatyan, and Irine Sur- Gachechiladze. January 25. Accessed July 15. CRS Is- manidze. 2016. “Minority Language Education in Geor- sue 802. https://iwpr.net/global-voices/saving-geor- gia.” Journal of Conflict Transformation, Caucasus Edition. gias-mountain-villages. Accessed September 19. http://caucasusedition.net/anal- ysis/minority-language-education-in-georgia/. International Crisis Group. 2006. Georgia’s Armenian and Azeri Minorities. Bussolo, Maurizio, and Luis F. Lopez-Calva. 2014. Shared Prosperity: Paving the Way in Europe and Central Asia. Lyle, Justin. 2012. “Resettlement of Ecological Migrants Washington, DC: World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-1- in Georgia: Recent Developments, and Trends in Policy, 4648-0230-0. Implementation, and Perceptions.” Working Paper 53, European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI). de Laat, J. 2010. “Roma Inclusion: An Economic Oppor- tunity for Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Romania and Serbia.” Mekhuzla, Salome, and Aideen Roche. 2009. “National Policy Note, Human Development Sector Unit, World Minorities and Educational Reform In Georgia.” Working Bank, Washington, DC. Paper 46, European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI). http://www.ecmi.de/uploads/tx_lfpubdb/working_pa- Democracy and Freedom Watch. 2016. “Ethnic and Re- per_46_en.pdf. ligious Minorities Affected by Population Decline.” May 4. Accessed July 14. http://dfwatch.net/ethnic-and-re- Mestvirishvili, Natia. 2012. “Social Exclusion in Georgia: ligious-minorities-affected-by-population-decline-cen- Perceived Poverty, Participation and Psycho-Social Well- sus-42339. being.” Caucasus Analytical Digest, July 11. http://www. css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/ Dudwick, Nora. 2015. Missing Women in the South Cau- center-for-securities-studies/pdfs/CAD-40-2-6.pdf. casus: Local Perceptions and Proposed Solutions. Washing- ton, DC: World Bank Group. MRA (Ministry of Internally Displaced Persons from the Occupied Territories, Accommodation and Refugees). ECMI (European Centre for Minority Issues). 2012. 2014. “Number of Registered IDPs-Statistics by Region.” “Georgia’s Muslim Community: A Self-Fulfilling Prophe- Accessed July 18, 2016. http://www.mra.gov.ge/eng/stat- cy?” ic/55. European Commission. 2011. Social Protection and Social Inclusion in Georgia. DG Employment, Social Protection Molinas Vega, J. R., R. Paes de Barros, C. J. Saavedra, and Inclusion. Tbilisi, Georgia. M. Giugale, L. J. Cord, C. Pessino, and A. Hasan. 2012. Do Our Children Have a Chance? A Human Opportunity Filgueira, Fernando, Sophia Georgieva, and Sergio Li- Report for Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington, jtenstein. 2009. “Moving Toward Comprehensive Social DC: World Bank. Policy.” In Building Equality of Opportunity through Social Guarantees: New Approaches to Public Policy and the Real- OSGF (Open Society Georgia Foundation). 2014. Crime ization of Rights, by Gacitua, Estanislao; Norton, Andrew; and Excessive Punishment: The Prevalence and Causes of and Georgieva, Sophia, eds.Washington, DC: World Human Rights Abuse in Georgia’s Prisons. http://www.osgf. Bank. ge/files/2015/Publication/Final_Report_ENG.pdf. Gogsadze, Giorgi, Iago Kachkachishvili, and Luka Bashe- Parliament of Georgia. The Constitution of Georgia. Geor- leishvili. 2014. Minority Integration in Georgia: Main Chal- gia: 1995. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitu- lenges and Opportunities (Case of Javakheti). The Levan tion/Georgia_2013.pdf?lang=en (accessed September Mikeladze Foundation. Tbilisi, Georgia. http://mikeladze- 13, 2016) foundation.org/multimedia/ups/1/Minority_Integration_ In_Georgia_Eng_-_Levan_Mikeladze_Foundation.pdf. Peinhopf, Andrea. 2014. “Ethnic Minority Women in Georgia – Facing a Double Burden.” Working Paper 74, Gvaramia, Alexander. 2013. Land Ownership and Devel- European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI). opment of the Land Market in Georgia. Tbilisi, Georgia. Reuben, William; Miodosky, Marisa; Watanabe, Eri. 2008. Inchauste, Gabriela, and Cesar Cancho. 2010. Inclusión “Building on Experience: Improving Social protection in Social en Panamá: La Población Indígena. IDB-WP-194. Uruguay and the Plan for Social Equity.” En Breve #132. Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank. World Bank, Washington DC 60 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Save the Children. 2007. Assessment of Urban Street sons in Georgia: A Gap Analysis. http://www.unhcr. Children and Children Living in Government Institutions in org/4ad827f59.pdf. Georgia: Development and Testing of a Locally-Adapted Psychosocial Assessment Instrument. http://pdf.usaid.gov/ ———. 2014. “Submission by the United Nations High pdf_docs/Pnadk676.pdf. Commissioner for Refugees For the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights’ Compilation Report Silver, Hilary. 2007. “The Process of Social Exclusion: The Universal Periodic Review: 2nd Cycle, 23rd Session, Dynamics of an Evolving Dynamic.” Chronic Poverty Re- Georgia.” http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/5638630f4. search Center Working Paper 5. pdf. Tolerance Center under the Public Defender of Georgia. ———. 2015. “Intentions Survey on Durable Solutions: 2011. Monitoring Results of Implementation of the National Voices of Internally Displaced Persons in Georgia” Tbilisi, Concept and Action Plan on Tolerance and Civil Integra- Georgia. tion, 2010–2011. Council of National Minorities under the auspices of the Public Defender of Georgia. http://ec- UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Eu- micaucasus.org/upload/cnm/UNDP-Publication-ENG-FI- rope). 2015. Road Map for Mainstreaming Ageing Georgia. NAL.pdf. ECE/WG.1/22. New York and Geneva: UN. http://www. unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/pau/age/Capacity_building/ Tsekvava, Tengiz. 2015. “National Implementation of Road_Maps/Georgia/Publication/ECE-WG.1-22_12-15. the SDG Monitoring from the Perspective of a NSO.” pdf. Presented in Xi’an, China, October 21, 2015. http://un- stats.un.org/sdgs/files/meetings/sdg-seminar-xian-2015/ US State Department. 2014. International Religious Free- Presentation--4.2-Implementation-of-SDG-Monitor- dom Report. Washington, DC: Bureau of Democracy, ing--Georgia.pdf. Freedom, and Human Rights. http://www.state.gov/j/drl/ rls/irf/2014religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper. UN (United Nations). 2016. “Georgia National Review 2016.” Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform UN Women. 2014a. Needs Assessment of Ethnic Minori- Policy Note. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/in- ty Women in Georgia. Prepared by the European Cen- dex.php?page=view&type=6&nr=170&menu=139. tre for Minority Issues (ECMI), Tbilisi, Georgia. http:// www2.unwomen.org/~/media/field%20office%20 UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). georgia/attachments/publications/2014/study%20 2013a. Public Perceptions on Gender Equality in Politics and on%20ethnic%20minority%20women_eng.pd - Business. Research Report. Tbilisi, Georgia: UNDP . http:// f?v=1&d=20150410T190238. www.ge.undp.org/content/georgia/en/home/library/ democratic_governance/public-perceptions-on-gen- ———. 2014b. The Needs and Priorities of Ethnic Minori- der-equality-in-politics-and-business.html. ty Women in Kvemo Kartli Region. ———. 2013b. Economic and Social Vulnerability in Geor- ———. 2016. “How Child and Early Marriages Hin- gia. By Franziska Gassmann, George Berulava, and Mi- der Women in Kvemo Kartli from Getting Education chael Tokmazishvili. Tbilisi, Georgia: UNDP. http://www. and Becoming Financially Independent.” Accessed ge.undp.org/content/dam/georgia/docs/publications/ September 16. https://feradi.info/en/visualizations/ GE_vnerability_eng.pdf. how-child-and-early-marriages-hinder-women-in-kve- mo-kartli-from-getting-education-and-becoming-finan- UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund). 2012. Mar- cially-independent. rying Too Young: End Child Marriage. New York: UNFPA. https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Marry- World Bank. 2013. Inclusion Matters: The Foundation for ingTooYoung.pdf. Shared Prosperity. Washington, DC: World Bank. ———. 2014. Child Marriage in Georgia: An Overview. World Bank. 2014. Toward Greater Social Inclusion in Po- Tbilisi, Georgia: UNFPA. http://eeca.unfpa.org/publica- land: A Qualitative Assessment in Three Regions. Washing- tions/child-marriage-georgia-overview. ton, DC: World Bank. ———. 2015. Gender-biased Sex Selection in Georgia: World Bank. 2016a. Georgia: Recent Trends and Drivers of Context, Evidence and Implications. Tbilisi, Georgia: UN- Poverty Reduction. Washington, DC: World Bank. FPA. World Bank. 2016b. “Transitioning from Status to Needs UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Ref- Based Assistance for IDPs: A Poverty and Social Impact ugees). 2009. Protection of Internally Displaced Per- Analysis.” Working Paper, World Bank, Washington, DC. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 61 A Country Social Analysis Annex I: Exclusion Mapping: Matrix5758 Group (and % Geographic Aspects of exclusion (based on quali- share of total concentra- tion (if appli- tative and quantitative research and Government policies/programs population, if analysis; and desk review) applicable) cable) Ethnic minori- Kvemo Kartli, Language issues; Access to information and Ethnic minorities are mentioned in: the Constitution; ties (13% of total Samtskhe-Ja- state services; Political participation; Access to the Criminal Code; the Law on the Elimination of All population) vakheti, Ka- employment; Income; Access to education Forms of Discrimination; Labor Code of Georgia kheti and educational achievement; Health care; Key program: National Concept for Tolerance and Risk of poverty; Land property gap; Public Civil Integration and Action Plan attitudes toward minorities; Limited political and social engagement; Cultural norms (for Other governmental programs to make education example, early marriage); Subjective barriers accessible for ethnic minorities (including right to and self-exclusion receive education in minority languages; free class- books and quota access to higher education/“bridge program”) Religious minori- Adjara, Kve- Cultural differences; Influence of Orthodox Guaranteed freedom of religion in the Constitution ties (15% of total mo Kartli, Christian traditions on education, school cur- National Strategy for the Protection of Human population) Kakheti, Tbilisi, riculum, and public life; Influence of major re- Rights (2014–2020) fosters religious tolerance Samtskhe-Ja- ligion on identity formation vakheti Absence of legislation to ensure the rights of reli- gious communities other than Orthodox Christians; State Agency on Religious Affairs Women n.a. Political participation; Underrepresenta- Gender equality/prohibition of discrimination on tion in elected offices, senior public service, gender grounds are mentioned in: the Constitution; and managerial positions; Wage gap; Fe- the Criminal Code; the Law on the Elimination of male-headed households at risk of poverty; All Forms of Discrimination; Labor Code of Georgia “Double burden” for minority women; Pref- Key policy: The Law of Georgia on Gender Equality erence for sons; Intolerant community (2010) Action plans: Gender Equality National Action Plan for 2014–2016; National Action Plan on the imple- mentation of the 2006 Law on Domestic Violence; coordinated by Gender Equality Council within the Parliament of Georgia LGBTQI com- n.a. Employment opportunities/discrimination Discrimination based on sexual orientation is men- munity in workplace; Intolerant political parties; tioned in the Criminal Code of Georgia, the Law on Negative public attitude (especially toward the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination, and homosexual men); Unable to get married; Labor Code of Georgia Problems related to identity documents for transgender people; Vulnerability to physical and verbal abuse; Hate crimes; Prejudice by health care providers Disabled people n.a. Access to social and state services; Public at- Discrimination because of disability is mentioned in: titudes (stigma and discrimination); Access to the Law on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimi- (3.3% registered education; Lower labor participation; Fami- nation; and Labor Code of Georgia PWDs of total ly members’ attitude; Bullying; Self-isolation population;57 2014 Key policy: the Law on Social Protection of Persons and lack of social engagement; Infrastructure with Disabilities Census reports and physical barriers; Public spaces, including that 8.7% of total public transport, not adapted; Barriers to mar- Other policies that cover assistance to PWDs: the population are riage; Low coverage by health care; Limited Law on Social Assistance of Georgia; the National PWDs) political participation Program of Social Rehabilitation and Childcare; Law of Georgia on Secondary Education and the Nation- al Education Plan (inclusive education) State programs supporting employment of PWDs; Community Organization Program for PWDs; and Early Child Development Program Eco-migrants58 Adjara, Svaneti Housing problems; Lack of resettlement pro- The Eco-migrants Division within the Department cedures; No legal status for ‘eco-migrants’ for Migration, Repatriation and Refugees (within MRA) manages the assessment and resettlement processes; there is no comprehensive policy or long-term strategy for eco-migrants 57 This number reflects only registered persons with disabilities. 58 It is believed that tens of thousands of people were displaced by natural disasters in Georgia over the past 30 years; there are no official numbers for eco-migrants (Lyle 2012). 62 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Group (and % Geographic Aspects of exclusion (based on quali- share of total concentra- tion (if appli- tative and quantitative research and Government policies/programs population, if analysis; and desk review) applicable) cable) Former prison- Countrywide Lack of employment opportunities and limited The Rehabilitation and Resocialization Program for ers (ex-convicts) access to skills training; Refused jobs because of former prisoners criminal record; Psychological stress; Negative public attitudes (especially for women ex-con- victs); Stigma; Restrictions from public service Homeless Mostly in large Access to information and social services; Bad Municipal-level programs (with limited budget) people59 cities/Tbilisi living conditions; Lack of political participation and social engagement IDPs Tbilisi and Access to land; Lack of access to permanent State Strategy for Internally Displaced Persons and other major housing problems; Bad/inadequate living con- Action Plans; Law on Social Assistance of Georgia (7% of total cities60 ditions; Lack of employment opportunities population) and low income Pensioners and n.a. Limited political and social participation; Em- There are very few programs for the elderly, includ- elderly people ployment discrimination (favoring younger ing day centers and homes for the elderly, which are workers); Violence by family members run by NGOs and government agencies (14% of total pop- ulation is 65 years or older [2010]) Socially vulner- n.a. Lack of access to quality education; Inability to The Law on Social Assistance of Georgia able (including fulfill their potential; Self-isolation and sense of unemployed shame and living below poverty line) (Unemployed - 12.4%; Poor - 21.4%; Social assistance benefi- ciaries - 11.6%) Residents of ru- n.a. Income to services, state programs, and in- The Law on the development of mountainous re- ral and remote formation, Education, Employment, and In- gions (2015); Regional Development Program of mountain areas come. Georgia; (9% of total pop- ulation lives in mountainous areas; high mountains comprise over 60% of Georgia’s territory) Refugees61 n.a. Access to services; Employment; Equal op- The Law on Refugee and Humanitarian Status of portunities and support; Language Georgia (2012) Street children62 n.a. Appearance and bad hygiene; Limited educa- The National Program of Social Rehabilitation and tional opportunities; Lack of future employ- Childcare; Day centers for street children program ment prospects by the Ministry of Labor, Health and Social Affairs Returned mi- n.a. Access to information and social services; Lack The State Migration Strategy and Action Plan grants of employment opportunities; Lack of social networks Sex workers n.a. Access to social services; Violence — 59606162 59 No official data is available on the scale of homelessness in Georgia. In 2014, data shared by the ombudsman indicated 401 buildings in Tbilisi where homeless people live. 60 75 percent of IDPs live in urban areas. 61 As of January 2015, Georgia hosted 265,750 persons of concern to UNHCR, comprising 903 refugees and humanitarian status holders (including 467 Syrians in Abkhazia); 1,792 asylum-seekers; 262,285 IDPs, including persons in an IDP-like situation; and 770 stateless persons (http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/5638630f4.pdf). The main countries of origin of refugees and asylum-seekers in Georgia are Iraq, Ukraine, and the Syrian Arab Republic. 62 The 2005 and 2008 surveys commissioned by UNICEF and Save the Children, respectively, reported that there were between 1,000– 1,200 children living on the streets of Tbilisi. In 2015, the MHLSA had a record of approximately 400 children living on the streets of Tbilisi, but these records are recognized as incomplete. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 63 A Country Social Analysis Annex II: Methodology tors for selected groups: ethnic minorities,64 IDPs,65 and PWDs66 with crosscutting fo - 1. The data and evidence gathered for this cus on youth and gender, using GEOSTAT study were obtained through a desk review household survey data. The quantitative of secondary sources, analysis of quantita- analysis for the Country Social Analysis tive data, and original qualitative research (CSA) began in 2015, using data from 2014. (see Table 2.1 for overview and timetable). For variables where the sample was smaller The study was conducted in two phases: (for example, for PWDs), aggregated data (a) a broad country-level exclusion mapping from three years (2012–2014) was used. and (b) two case studies that examined the In addition, the quantitative analysis includ- situation of selected groups facing exclusion. ed a ‘matching characteristics’ component to The exclusion mapping is based on qualita- analyze more precisely the differences be- tive and quantitative data and literature/desk tween members of the Azerbaijani minority review. It represents a comprehensive look and Georgians living in the same communi- at who is excluded, in what ways and why, ties. This analysis compared the likelihood of drawing upon perceptions of experts and the being poor and of achieving secondary and general public and empirical data as available tertiary education for Azerbaijanis and Geor- for the identified groups. The case studies gians who otherwise live in similar circum- were selected following the exclusion map- stances and/or share similar characteristics, ping. The main criteria for case selection was that is, live in an urban or rural location, are the value added, that is, focusing on groups the same age, are the same household size, whose situation is either under-researched or and so on.67 the relationship of exclusion and economic opportunity/shared prosperity has not been examined in depth. A local research firm, 64 The IHS collects information on 33,586 Georgians, 2,404 Azerbaijanis, 2,706 Armenians, and 831 other minori- CRRC-Georgia, conducted the desk review ties, which include Abkhazian, Greek, Ossetian, Russian, and qualitative field research. An international Ukrainian, and others. consultant conducted the quantitative analysis 65 The IHS identifies IDPs at the individual level. For each indi- of the GEOSTAT IHS data. vidual in the household, a question is asked on whether each person has a special status of IDP, though there is no further 2. Desk review. A review of English and Geor- information on whether the person was displaced during the gian language literature was conducted per- 1992–93, 1998, or 2008 conflicts. In each household, there can be IDP and non-IDP members. Quantitative analysis pro- taining to social exclusion or the situation of duced data at the individual level, but there are few cases in specific groups. The review draws on schol- which the information was reported at the household level. arly as well as media sources; government re- In these cases, the IDP categorization is determined based on ports; research by international organizations; the household head’s status. public opinion surveys; legislation, policy, and 66 The IHS identifies PWDs as the ones who suffer any of the program documents by the GoG that relate three degrees of assessed disability: severe disability (Type I), to addressing disparities and specific needs of significant disability (Type II), or moderate disability (Type III). The joint data bases for years 2012, 2013, and 2014 pro- groups that are considered vulnerable; as well duced information for 4,816 persons with disability, which as program documents or evaluations con- represent the 3.85 percent of the total number of individuals ducted by local or international organizations for those three years. that are aimed at the needs of excluded or 67 Using the methodology presented in developed by Nopo disadvantaged groups. (2008), cited in Inchauste and Cancho (2010). Georgians are paired with their closest Azerbaijani neighbor based on 3. Quantitative analysis of the IHS by the Na- a Propensity Score Matching Methodology. The character- tional Statistics Office of Georgia (GEO- istics considered for the matching analysis include: area of residence, region, employment status, age, hh size, share of STAT).63 Analysis included key welfare indica- dependents, being a single woman and working in the agri- cultural sector. For different outcome variables are compared 63 The IHS of the National Statistics Office of Georgia (GEO- for each pair of Georgian and Azerbaijani individuals: the like- STAT) is nationally representative, with data collected on a lihood of being poor, the likelihood of being unemployed, and quarterly basis. The survey collects information for 39,526 the likelihood of having finished secondary and tertiary educa- individuals in 11,165 households. tion. 64 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis 4. Qualitative research and analysis. Qualita- Kvemo Kartli region, where a large propor- tive data was used in two different phases of tion of Georgia’s Azerbaijani minority lives. the research. All FGDs were video recorded For the case study on PWDs, FDGs and IDIs and transcribed and data were analyzed in were conducted with PWDs and caregivers NVivo (qualitative data analysis software for and KIIs with relevant NGOs in Tbilisi, Ku- researchers). taisi, and rural locations in the Imereti region of Georgia. This phase of qualitative research • Broad country-level exclusion mapping. contributed to understanding of sources of Phase I was used to assess how ordinary exclusion, specific barriers, and positive or (non-expert) people define or conceptu- successful examples of integration, including alize ‘exclusion’ and ‘inclusion’ and what it recommendations for measures to improve means in the context of Georgia, in addition opportunities for inclusion, as perceived by to gathering perceptions about what drives representatives of the case study groups. exclusion and inclusion and who is consid- ered ‘excluded’. In this phase, 12 FGDs were 5. Two roundtable/brainstorming events with conducted, 4 each in Tbilisi, Samtredia (small stakeholders in Georgia. These events were town in western Georgia), and Badauri vil- held in the World Bank office in Tbilisi in No- lage (Kakheti region, Eastern Georgia). Sepa- vember 2015 and June 2016. The November rate FGDs were held with men and women, roundtable helped shape the initial concept, and these were further divided by age;68 se- while the June roundtable helped nuance and lection of participants was conducted through validate the emerging findings and policy rec- ‘random selection’ method. The FGD guides ommendations. also included questions about perceptions of the Government’s programs and policies Table 2.1. Methods used in the Georgia CSA and time- that help groups and individuals who are ex- table69 cluded within the community. In addition, 14 KIIs with representatives of the Government, Component Research Tools Time Frame NGOs, and international organizations were conducted to elicit opinions on the expres- Desk review February–May sions and drivers of exclusion and inclusion in 201669 Georgia (see Table 2.2). The collected data Quantitative analysis December complimented desk review and quantitative Exclusion 2015–May mapping 2016 analysis and were used as an input to the ‘ex- clusion mapping’ stage of the study. A sep- Qualitative research March–May arate analysis of the Government’s policies 2016 (14 KIIs; 12 FGDs) and programs that addresses exclusion was Desk review and Same as above also conducted. quantitative data Case study: • Two case studies. Phase II of qualitative re- Azerbaijani Qualitative research June 2016 search was the main source of data for the minority (4 FGDs; 4 IDIs; 2 case studies (on Azerbaijani minority and KIIs) PWDs) (see Table 2.3, Table 2.4, Table 2.5). Desk review and Same as above For the Azerbaijani minority case study, FGDs quantitative data with Azerbaijani men and women, additional Case study: Persons with Qualitative research June 2016 IDIs with Azerbaijani women, and KIIs were disabilities conducted with relevant NGOs in the town (4 FGDs; 5 IDIs; 2 of Marneuli and different rural locations in KIIs) 68 In each location, four FDGs were held with male participants 69 The quantitative analysis of IHS data was conducted by an ages 20–39; male participants ages 40 and older; female international consultant and began in December 2015; it was participants ages 20–39; and female participants ages 40 and finalized in parallel with the rest of the exclusion mapping re- older. search in the country through May 2016. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 65 A Country Social Analysis Table 2.2. KIIs, Phase I Table 2.4. FDGs, Phase II # Gender Location Agency # of # Age Location Focus Area Participants People with 1 Female Tbilisi special needs Ministry of Education 1 20–30 Tbilisi 3 (limited eye- 2 Female Tbilisi sight/blind) People with 3 Male Tbilisi Ombudsman’s office special needs 2 25–60 Tbilisi 5 (limited or no 4 Male Tbilisi MRA mobility) Caregivers of 3 34–55 Kutaisi CWD 8 Center for Human Rights Edu- 5 Female Tbilisi Caregivers of cation and Monitoring (EMC) 4 38–63 Tbilisi 10 CWD Center for Civil Integration and Azerbaijani 6 Male Tbilisi Marneuli men from rural Inter-ethnic Relations 20–56 5 (rural) area 7 7 Female Tbilisi UNFPA Azerbaijani Marneuli 8 Male Tbilisi UNDP 6 30–65 women from 7 (rural) rural area Azerbaijani 9 Female Tbilisi Independent gender expert Marneuli men from ur- 7 45–63 ban area 6 (city) 10 Female Tbilisi UNICEF Azerbaijani 11 Male Tbilisi ECMI women from Marneuli 8 24–54 urban area 6 (city) 12 Female Telavi World Vision Georgia 13 Female Kutaisi World Vision Georgia Table 2.5. IDIs, Phase II 14 Female Batumi Step Forward # Age Location Gender Table 2.3. KIIs, Phase II PWD 1 31 Gelati Male (no mobility) PWD (limited # Gender Location Agency/Position 2 67 Godogani Male mobility) PWD 3 26 Kutaisi (limited mobility) Female Neuropsychologist at the Mc- Lain Association for Children PWD (no mobil- 1 Female Tbilisi (MAC), people with special 4 26 Kutaisi ity/neurological Female needs disorder) PWD 5 27 Simoneti (no mobility) Male Day center coordinator and special teacher, Bridge for Social Azerbaijani-speak- 2 Female Kutaisi Inclusion, people with special 6 34 Marneuli ing woman with Female needs disabled child Unemployed Gizil Ajilo Facilitator and trainer at Jour- 7 52 Azerbaijani-speak- Female village 3 Female Tbilisi nalists Network for Gender ing woman Equality Unemployed Gizil Ajilo 8 24 Azerbaijani-speak- Female village Chairperson of the NGO the ing woman 4 Female Marneuli Union of Azerbaijan Women in Employed Azer- Georgia 9 24 Marneuli baijani-speaking Female woman 66 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis Annex III: Policy and Institutional Georgia punishes the violation of equality of humans Overview (Art. 142) due to their race, color of skin, language, sex, religious belonging or profession, political or other How do current governmental policies and opinion, national, ethnic, social, gender, sexual orienta- programs address exclusion? tion, rank or public association belonging, origin, place of residence, or material condition that has substantial- Existing policies ly prejudiced human rights. The Georgian Government has made important ef- The Georgian Parliament also adopted the Law on forts to respond to the challenges facing disadvan- the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination and taged, vulnerable, and excluded groups. Those who supporting amendments in other laws. The law, ad- are identified as primary targets for assistance are the opted in 2014, intends to eliminate all forms of discrim- elderly, the poor, IDPs, PWDs, children from needy ination and ensure equal rights of every natural or legal households, war veterans, victims of political repres- person under the legislation of Georgia, despite race, sion, and people living in high mountainous areas. skin color, language, sex, age, citizenship, origin, place However, legal and institutional frameworks also exist of birth or residence, property or social status, religion for inclusion of ethnic minorities and tackling gender or belief, national, ethnic or social origin, profession, discrimination. marital status, health, disability, sexual orientation, gen- der identity, and expression of political or other opin- The social, political, and economic integration and ions. The Labor Code of Georgia also prohibits any protection of socially excluded or vulnerable groups and all discrimination in labor and/or pre-contractual is directly or indirectly regulated by national legis- relations due to race, skin color, language, ethnic or so- lation, ratification of international frameworks and cial belonging, nationality, origin, material status or title, conventions, and other normative acts. Georgia is a place of residence, age, sex, sexual orientation, marital member of the Council of Europe and party to the Eu- status, handicap, religious, social, political or other af- ropean Convention on Human Rights and has ratified filiation, including affiliation to trade unions, political or the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms other opinions. of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). As a Georgian legislation does not set up any obvious member of the Council of Europe, Georgia ratified the barriers for ethnic minorities to participate in the Framework Convention for the Protection of National public or political life of the country. At the same Minorities in 2005 and the European Social Charter in time, legislation does not develop special schemes with 2005. Georgia is also committed to sign and ratify the respect to electoral quotas, proportional representa- European Charter for Regional and Minority Languag- tion of ethnic groups in public service, or the promo- es and to adopt a law on minorities, but it has yet to do tion of careers of minority representatives. The Law so. In 2013, Georgia ratified the United Nations Con- on Political Unions of Citizens (October 31, 1997) for- vention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. bids the establishment of political parties on a regional These developments signify that Georgia has taken on or territorial basis to prevent secessionist movements important international commitments with reference in regions which are densely populated by minorities. to the inclusion of vulnerable groups and protection of their rights. Minority issues are regulated by provisions scat- tered in various legal and policy documents, but At the national level, the Constitution of Georgia Georgia does not possess any special legislative act contains provisions on equality and nondiscrimina- on national minorities. This shortfall may be explained tion of minority groups. The Constitution also guar- by the lack of consensus, but also, to a certain extent, antees the rights to freedom of expression, thought, by the lack of clear awareness about importance of conscience, belief, and religion. Georgian legislation national minority rights in the society, political class, also sets the preventive norms of violation of rights and public institutions. Georgia has also taken steps of any minorities and implies the punishment for any to protect and integrate its national minorities by de- type of violence. For example, the Criminal Code of veloping the National Concept for Tolerance and Civil Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 67 A Country Social Analysis Integration and Action Plan70 and establishing, in 2009, Occupied Territories of Georgia (the Law on IDPs) 73 the State Ministry for Reintegration (renamed the State amended four times, most recently in 2014, entitles Ministry for Reconciliation and Civic Equality in 2014). IDPs to a monthly allowance, adequate housing, free The implementation of the action plan has been a chal- primary and secondary education, medical coverage lenge due to low levels of awareness of the action plan under existing state programs, and assistance in finding among minorities, despite implementation of various temporary employment in accordance with their pro- projects and regular monitoring.71 fession and qualifications.74 Since the Rose Revolution of November 2003, Since 2009, the Government has shifted its focus the Government has taken measures to integrate from providing temporary assistance to creating non-Georgian populations into Georgian public life. greater opportunities for integration. A new State These include greater emphasis on teaching Georgian Strategy for Internally Displaced Persons-Persecuted in schools where national minorities are concentrat- and Action Plan focuses on creating conditions for the ed, often with the assistance of international donors dignified and safe return of IDPs and supporting decent such as the Organization for Security and Co-opera- living conditions for the displaced population as well tion in Europe (OSCE); efforts to improve the basic as their participation and socioeconomic integration infrastructure in areas where national minorities are in society. Subsequent action plans (2009–2012 and concentrated; the establishment of a school of public 2012–2014) have addressed the problem of a long- administration aimed at recruiting members of national term resolution of IDP housing problems, a primary minorities to work in the civil service; and the estab- challenge for their integration. lishment of youth camps called ‘patriot camps’ aimed at bringing together young people from different ethnic The Georgian Constitution and legislation provide backgrounds. important bases for tackling gender discrimination, although implementation has significantly lagged. Although Georgian is now the only official state The Constitution (Art. 14), states that “Everyone is language and proficiency is required of all civil ser- born free and is equal before the law, regardless of vants, Georgian legislation protects the right to re- race, skin color, language, sex, religion, political and ceive education in minority languages. For university other beliefs, national, ethnic and social origin, prop- entrants, however, a new ‘bridge program’ has been erty and title of nobility or place of residence.” The introduced that will allow students to spend their first year studying Georgian. Thus far, however, efforts to Law on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination educate minorities in Georgian have not been fully suc- (2014) also aims to eliminate all forms of discrimination cessful, given underfunding of education and the out- regardless of sex. In 2010, Georgia also passed the flow of qualified teachers.72 Law of Georgia on Gender Equality, which establishes the fundamental guarantees of equal rights, freedoms, Georgia has created a strong legal and policy frame- and opportunities of women and men granted by the work to support the welfare of IDPs. Over 200 Constitution, and defines legal mechanisms and con- legislative acts with provisions concerning IDPs have ditions for their implementation in relevant spheres of been adopted since 1992, demonstrating active policy social life. The aim of the law is to ensure prohibition concern for the well-being of IDPs (UNHCR 2009). of all kinds of discrimination based on sex in all spheres Georgia sets out the rights of IDPs and responsibilities of social life, create appropriate conditions for imple- of the GoG toward them. Adopted in 1996, the Law mentation of equal rights, freedoms, and opportuni- on Internally Displaced Persons – Persecuted from the ties of women and men, and support prevention and elimination of all kinds of discrimination based on sex. 70 http://diversity.ge/files/files/National%20Concept_Eng_AD - The Government also adopted the Gender Equality OPTED.pdf. 71 http://mikeladzefoundation.org/multimedia/ups/1/Minori- 73 Law of Georgia on Internally Displaced Persons – Persecuted ty_Integration_In_Georgia_Eng_-_Levan_Mikeladze_Foun- from the Occupied Territories of Georgia. http://mra.gov.ge/ dation.pdf; http://ecmicaucasus.org/upload/cnm/UNDP-Pub- res/docs/201406171444442634.pdf. lication-ENG-FINAL.pdf. 74 Law of Georgia on Internally Displaced Persons – Persecuted 72 http://www.ecmi.de/uploads/tx_lfpubdb/working_pa - from the Occupied Territories of Georgia. http://mra.gov.ge/ per_46_en.pdf. res/docs/201406171444442634.pdf. 68 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis National Action Plan for 2014–2016 and national ac- A number of legislations cover issues regarding so- tion plan on the implementation of the 2006 Law on cial assistance, protection of PWDs, and social re- Domestic Violence; both plans pay particular attention habilitation. Law on Social Assistance of Georgia (De- to IDPs, rural population, ethnic minorities, and wom- cember 29, 2006) regulates relations related to social en.75 However, weak enforcement and limited im- assistance, defines administrative bodies authorized plementation have been cited as challenges, including in the field of social assistance, and determines type limited knowledge about such policies and legal instru- and fundamental principles for the allocation of so- ments among minority women.76 cial assistance. The Law on Social Protection of Persons with Disabilities serves as the basis for the state policy Regarding religious rights, the Constitution provides toward PWDs and is intended to ensure equal enjoy- for the freedom of religion and the separation of ment of rights by PWDs as well as to create favorable church and state. The Government also instituted a conditions for these persons to lead full lives and par- National Strategy for the Protection of Human Rights ticipate in the economic and political activities of the (2014–2020) and a corresponding action plan aimed society. On April 14, 2014, the GoG approved the at fostering religious tolerance and ending discrimina- National Program of Social Rehabilitation and Child- tion on religious grounds. However, there is absence care. One of its sub-programs—Emergency Help for of legislation to ensure the rights of religious commu- Families in Crisis with Children—includes provisions nities other than Orthodox Christians, and such com- for satisfying the basic needs of poor families with chil- munities suffer from a lack of legal protection and are dren. The program aims at improving living conditions obliged to register as NGOs or nonprofit legal associ- and social inclusion for PWDs (including CWD), the ations. The Greek Orthodox Church has a constitu- aged population, and poor families with children and tional agreement with the state and practice shows that socially vulnerable children. In 2012, the minister of laws and policies favor the Greek Orthodox Church, Justice of Georgia also initiated the Rehabilitation and granting it privileges not accorded to any other reli- Resocialization Program, which is the first state pro- gious group. gram to support former prisoners, released from pen- itentiaries, and assist their successful reintegration into In 2015, the Georgian Government approved a new society. Law on the Development of Mountainous Regions to assist people living in remote areas of the coun- Existing programs try. The law applies to settlements located 1,500 m Health care: In 2013, the Georgian Government above sea level, or between 800 m and 1,500 m if started implementation of a universal health care in- they meet additional criteria, related to mountain slope surance program and all citizens are now provided inclination, infrastructure, climate and natural environ- with basic medical services (including preventive care). ment, lack or scarcity of agricultural lands, demograph- About 3.2 million people are involved in the Universal ic situation, and rate of out-migration. According to this Healthcare Program, while 530,000 are on private or law, 1,582 towns and villages were granted status of corporate benefits. high mountain areas, and are eligible to receive certain tax and social benefits.77 Social assistance allowance (TSA Program) is based on the rating score, which includes various compo- 75 http://www.ecmi.de/uploads/tx_lfpubdb/Working_Paper_74. nents: land, livestock, income, expenses for utilities, pdf. demography, education, property including all mov- 76 http://www2.unwomen.org/~/media/field%20of - able property, and home appliances. Poorest families fice%20georgia/attachments/publications/2014/study%20 on%20ethnic%20minority%20women_eng.pd- receive GEL 60 for one member and GEL 48 for each f?v=1&d=20150410T190238. subsequent family member. Additional subsidy is also 77 These benefits include a 20 percent increase in for the el- provided to certain groups to assist with household derly; a 20 percent supplement to social assistance of eligible utility bills. A separate program (provision of the chil- vulnerable households; a bonus for doctors and nurses in dren under the risk of abandonment with food) pro- the amount of the state pension; a monthly cash assistance for newly born children; and a compensation of 50 percent vides children (0–1 year of age) from the socially vul- monthly charges for electricity (not exceeding 100 KWh). nerable families with artificial food products. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 69 A Country Social Analysis Assistance for PWDs: istry of Sport and Youth Affairs has a program of social integration of PWDs. (a) The Law on Social Protection of Persons with Disabilities serves as the basis for (e) Education and employment. To fulfill the ob- Georgia’s policy toward PWDs and is intend- ligations of the Convention on the Rights of ed to “provide social protection to PWDs Persons with Disabilities, the Ministry of Edu- and create necessary conditions for their in- cation and Science of Georgia is working on dividual development, and realization of their the reform ‘Implementation of the Inclusive creative and production capabilities.”78 The Professional Education in the System of Pro- Internal Audit Department of the Ministry of fessional Education and Retraining of Geor- Labor, Health and Social Affairs is responsible gia’. The program aims to provide PWDs for monitoring the implementation of all rele- and the ones who need special education vant policies and programs. with necessary skills. The Ministry of Educa- tion and Science of Georgia, together with its (b) The social assistance to PWDs includes pro- counterpart ministries, already implements vision of both financial (social package - pen- pilot projects of employing PWDs. sion, other types of financial support) and technical and other assistance (wheelchairs, (f) The implementation of inclusive education prosthetic and orthopedic products, and oth- started in 2005. The Law of Georgia on Sec- er supporting facilities79). The Law of Geor- ondary Education and the National Education gia on Social Assistance defines the basis for Plan were amended and appropriate work awarding of a social package—pension to was started to create the necessary environ- PWDs. ment in schools. There are nine integrated classes for CWD in different schools of Geor- (c) Assistance programs are available for PWDs, gia. In addition, the Ministry of Education and such as the Community Organization Pro- Science works with the Ministry of Labor, gram for PWDs over 18 years of age, imple- Health and Social Affairs to integrate day cen- mented by about 20 NGOs across the coun- ters into public schools. The total number try, which aims to provide the PWDs with of CWD who go to school are 6,000 and food, clothes, medical service, and vocational there are 1,300 teachers in different schools training and to support their integration. For in Georgia trained to teach CWD. Of the children, the Early Child Development Pro- 2,084 public schools in Georgia, 250 public gram aims to develop the social, cognitive, schools have ramp access for the physically self-care, and communication abilities for in- disabled; 13 new schools with ramp access tegration of the disabled children (with men- will be added by the end of the year. In ad- tal and physical disability), including rehabilita- dition, additional funding has been allocated tion and daycare. for the schools where there are children with special educational needs and special guides (d) In addition, there are programs to assist with have been created for teachers. employment of PWDs. Some state agencies (for instance, the Public Registry, Revenue Implementation/institutional arrangements Service) are implementing programs sup- porting the employment of PWDs. The Min- There are a number of state bodies responsible for assistance to vulnerable groups. 78 http://www.ombudsman.ge/en/specializirebuli-centre - bi/shshm-pirebis-uflebata-dacvis-departamenti/informa - (a) The Public Defender of Georgia (also re- cia-shshm-pirtatvis. ferred to as the Ombudsman) and the Con- 79 Such as provision of sign language translators for the hearing stitutional Institute, which supervises protec- impaired and mute; program for people with mental disor- tion of human rights and freedoms within the ders; physical rehabilitation; household-utility cash benefit; territory of Georgia, report violations and fa- and others. 70 Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia A Country Social Analysis cilitate the restoration of violated rights. The receive their monthly allowances, temporary Ombudsman works on the national preven- accommodation, and emergency aid, sup- tive mechanism, anti-discrimination mecha- ports with finding temporary employment, nism, and monitoring of the convention on and so on. the rights of PWDs among a number of other competencies. The Ombudsman supervises (d) To ensure systematic and coordinated work the activities of national and local public au- regarding gender issues, the Gender Equality thorities, public officials, and legal persons; Council was established in the Parliament of evaluates all legal acts passed by the Gov- Georgia. The council develops an action plan ernment; and gives recommendations and on gender equality and ensures the coordi- proposals. The Ombudsman supervises the nation and monitoring of its implementation. implementation of international conventions In addition, the council performs an analysis on human rights, minorities, gender, chil- of legislation and develops proposals to elim- dren’s rights, the rights of PWDs, and oth- inate existing gender inequality in legislation. er related conventions. The Ombudsman’s The council coordinates activities with vari- Office is well funded from the state budget. ous public institutions on gender issues and The office also receives some support from consists of the representatives of each agen- donors. There were no major complaints on cy. underfinancing the office. Overall, the implementation of Georgia’s legislation (b) The Ministry of Labor, Health and Social Af- on the elimination of ethnic and religious discrim- fairs regulates the  health care system, labor ination is evaluated as insufficient by local NGOs. issues, and the social security system and car- There are frequent cases of xenophobic expressions ries out social protection policy. State social in the media as well as in statements by politicians. and health protection programs are adminis- A number of NGOs monitor cases of discrimination, trated by the Social Service Agency, the legal rights violations, and violence against children, wom- entity of public law (LEPL) which acts under en, ethnic, and religious and sexual minorities, but in the direct supervision of the ministry. The their data they rely on legal filings. Unfortunately, due agency directs its services to beneficiaries— to stereotypes and the attitude of society in general, the various contingents which require ser- many victims do not file complaints. Newspapers and vices or assistance, with social disbursements, sometimes school textbooks often plant negative ste- state health and social programs—state pen- reotypes and a misleading vision of ethnic or religious sion, social assistance, health  insurance, ap- minorities. Despite amendments made to the Criminal propriate provision of the PWDs, guardian- Code (March 2012), which qualifies crime committed ship and custody of children deprived of care, on the grounds of intolerance to be an aggravating and so on. circumstance, there is still much to accomplish in the (c) IDP policy is regulated by the MRA. It also realm of protection of minority rights. defines state policy on refugees, asylum seekers, repatriates, and victims of natural disasters and their accommodation. The ministry also works on migration issues. One of the main duties of the ministry is to pro- mote IDPs’ socioeconomic integration and improve their living conditions (IDPs’ housing solutions). The ministry is the sole collector of national figures on IDPs. It registers the displaced and grants IDP status in line with the Law on IDPs.80 It also ensures that IDPs 80 Law of Georgia on Internally Displaced Persons – Persecuted from the Occupied Territories of Georgia, February 6, 2014. Social Exclusion and Inclusion in Georgia 71 A Country Social Analysis