21810 October 1994 Regional Program for the Traditional Energy Sector Directed by The World Bank, Africa Region Supported by Directorate General for International Cooperation The Netherlands RPTES Coordination Team Boris Utria, Program Manager Mathieu-C. Koumoin, Energy Economist Koffi Ekouevi, Economist Suzanne Roddis, Operations Analyst For additional information on the RPTES program or the Discussion Paper series, please contact: RPTES Program Energy Africa Region The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 tel: (202) 473-4488 / 473-0719 fax: (202) 473-5123 e-mail: RPTES@worldbank.org Project No. / Projectnr. I 1176 Title / Titel R I PT-ES Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects October 1994 Prepared for / Voor Wor.d B nk BTG 3 biomass technology group University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands W Telephone: +31-53-892897 Telex 44200 thtes ni Telefax: +31-53-893116 List of abbreviations 3PA Trois Pierres Ameliores - improved stove model AFTPS Africa Technical Private Sector Division AFVP Association Franuais des Volontaires du Progres ATl Appropriate Technology International CERER Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches sur les Energies Renouvelables CuSS Comite Permanent Interetats de Lutte contre la S6cheresse dans le Sahel; Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel CNESOLER Centre National de l'Energie Solaire et des Energies Renouvelables DANIDA Danish Internation Development Agency DNAS Direction Nationale des Affaires Sociales EC European Community (now European Union) FED Fonds Europeen de Ddveloppement, European Development Fund (EDF) FSSTD United Nations Financing System for Science & Technology for Development GTZ Gesellschaft fir Technische Zusammenarbeit IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries PNUD UNDP PRG Programme Regional de promotion de l'utilisation du Gaz butane dans les pays saheliens RPTES Review of Policies in the Traditional Energ Sector UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme TTNniEM United Nations Women's Development Fund UNSO United Nations Sudano-Saheian Office UNV United Nations Volunteers USA United States of America USAID United States Agency for International Development V1TA Voluteers In Technical Assistance WB World Bank (IBRD) Executive summary Introduction Pacing the environmental problems of the Sabel region, the CILLS countries decided in 1986 to allocate at least 60M of the regional funds of the VIth EDF to the struggle against desertification in the Sahel. Although domestic consumption of woody fuel (firewood and charcoal) is not the single or main cause of desertification, the collection of woody biomass for use as household fuel has a negative impact on the forest cover. In certain areas the decrease in forest cover is striking, and the cause of ever rising conern. The growth of urban areas has caused the rise of a commercial sector, providing the urban population with firewood The regional concentration of firewood demand and the lack of government control on the commercialization caused systematic over-exploitation and even destruction of important forest reserves near the cities. Reducing the household firewood demand is one of the means to relieve pressure on forest resources. Basically, two options exist to reach this objective: * to reduce woody fuel consumption by introducing better cooking equipment (improved woodstoves), promoting efficient cooking techniques and improving charcoal production efficiencies (improved kilns); * to substitute woodfuels by promoting other energy sources (such as butane gas, LPG and/or kerosene). Over the last two decades a large number of stoves projects have been implemented, comprising one or both of these elements. The general impression is that the projects have not been as effective as expected. In the Regional Study: Review of Policies in the Traditional Energy Sector (RPTES) of the World Bank's Africa Technical Private Sector Division (AFTPS), a study was initiated to review and analyze stove projects and to identify the reasons for their success or failure. In early 1994, a consultant' undertook a retrospective review of the principal improved wood and charcoal stove projects, fuel substitution projects, and charcoal kiln programs carried out over the last 10 years in the Sahel. The five countries involved in this review wer the RPTES sample countries: Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, Gambia and Senegal. The mission wes carried out and this report prepared by Piet. Vister, a domesuc energy speciaist of BTG, The Netherands. ii Excutivc summary Evaluated were nine improved wood and charcoal stove projects, six fuel substitution projects, (including the regional LPG project and the Tchip kerosene stove substitution project in Niger) and four improved charcoal kiln projects in Senegal. Improved stove programme The main objective ofthe improved stove programmes was to reduce deforestation through reduction offuelwood consumption by disseminating improved stoves. The strategy followed generally included a research and development stage, aimed at developing a stove that was adapted to local cooking habits and attractive to the user. In the next stage, the stove was promoted through demonstrations and publicity campaigns, which emphasized the fuel economy and comfort aspects of the improved stoves, with reference to the enviromnental background. In the urban areas, craftsman were trained on improved stove production techniques (e.g. by using templates); in the nual areas the user herself was trained to construct and maintain her stove. The average length of the stove programmes was 7 years, spread out over up to 3 phases. The shortest project had a duration of 3 years (I phase only); the longest project a duration of 11 years (3 phases). At present, most projects reviewed have been completed. Total budget of the reviewed projects was about 10-12 million US dollars. On one hand, woodstove and charcoal stove programs in the reviewed countries have been successful: the project goals set in numbers of stoves to be disseminated were met or even surpassed, and (former) project staff members were positive about the results of the projects they were managing; On the other hand, the impression exists that the final overall effect of the introduction of improved stove has not been as expected, because of the resulting low number of improved stoves in use. Here two principal aspects play a role: a. the replacement rate of improved woodstoves is low because they do not fulfil their promise to lead to the expected reduction in fuel consumption, generally due to improper use of the stoves. b. after ceasing project activities, the sales of imnproved stoves generally declined, because no new promotional activities were undertaken (no new customers) Hii Executive summary Recommendations to improve the results of improved wood and charcoal stove project are: - Woodstove programs should be integrated in overall programs that combat the ecological disaster developing in the sahelian zone. These programs should contain elements on saving and substitution of traditional (woody) fuels. - Programs should have a clear linkage to related policy-areas, such as forestry, public housing, health, water and sanitation, social welfare, education, etc. - On an intaregional level, an active exchange of information should be promoted. Periodical meetings on the exchange of information and experience can contribute to this. Efforts developed in one country should not be seen isolated form other countries. - Programs should from the beginning be carried out in clearly distinguished phases. An example of such approach is given in table ... (project-phasing). - The program set-up should take the following factors into consideration: a. Reducing firewood demand should be the overall objective. All other objectives should be related to the overall objective; b. Strategy should contain a differentiation towards target groups: - lowest income groups: fuelwood saving through energy saving cooking techniques; - low income groups: cooking techniques and improved stoves - low-middle income groups: introduction of improved stoves and kerosene as a substitution fuel - middle and high-income groups: LPG as a substitution fuel. c. Development of improved stoves should be based on the knowledge present at the target groups. End-users should participate in project priority assessment and the (technical) development of improved stoves; d. Dissemination of improved stoves and substitution fuels should be accompanied by an extensive information and awareness campaign on their correct use; e. Adequate monitoring systems should be set up, which permit a continuous evaluation of it's results and impacts, all over the chain of firewood conmmercialization and consumption; f. Sales and taxation policies on firewood, charcoal, substitution fuels and stoves; g. A follow-up phase, providing funds to continue publicity, monitoring and evaluation activities, as well as continuation of promotion activities through a limited number of channels (schools, churches). In order to avoid duplication of efforts, promotion of improved cooking techniques should be executed through existing programs on education, nutrition, health, women, credit funds, water and sanitation, social reforestation, etc, through schools, churches and projects. In order to provoke the desired mobilization, the energy project's activities iv Executive sumuazy should aim at training and motivation of promoters, teachers and other staff of these organizations. The Sahelian Regional Butane Gas Program Main objective of the Regional Butanization Program of CILSS was to promote the use of butane gas as a cooking fuel in urban centres in order to stop the progressive exploitation of forests for firewood. Funds were put at the disposal of the national governments of the CILSS member countries to be spent at their judgement on the production and/or purchase of equipment (gas bottles, bumers and supports), the purchase of fuel (butane gas) or to subsidize equipment and/or gas. Equipment and fuel were to be made available to the urban population in cooperation with the gas importing petroleum companies: Shell, Total, Mobil and smaller local companies. Loans were provided to the petroleum companies in the form of capital or equipment (gas bottles). The petroleum companies took care of the (re)filling of the bottles and the sale of bottles and other equipment. These loans, with a modest interest of 2.5%, were retumed to the project in monthly terms, and formed a revolving fund. In the case of gas subsidies the money did not flow back to the project and eventually the goverment of the country concemed had to find its own funding to maintain the subsidy. Generally this was done by increasing the tax on other petroleum products, such as gasoline and diesel fuel. The gas stoves were promoted through demonstrtions and publicity campaigns, which put emphasis on the comfort and modernity aspects of the new stoves. Usually, reference was made to the environmental reasons to substitute woody fuels. The average length of the country programs in was three years. Except for Gambia, the project goals set in terms of numbers of stoves to be disseminated and quantity of gas sold, were not met, although in Burkina Faso, Senegal and Mali reasonable results were obtained. In absolute numbers, gas consumption and market penetration in Senegal is much higher than in the other countries, because the introduction of butane gas as a household fuel for the poor households started already in 1974. For the Regional Gas Programme it can be concluded that: - The duration of a three year project is far too short to reach all of the urban population in the Sahel. Only in Senegal, where gas was introduced almost a decade before the start of the CELSS program, other cities outside the capital were reached in the butane promotion programme. In the other countries it was but a start of a process, which now risks to be frustrated by the recent devaluation. - The limited number of diseminated stoves is partly due to a lack of infrastructure; in particular disruptions in supply of gas, and equipment. On the other hand the limited number of stoves dieminated does not justify large investments in an v Execuive summay improved LPG infrastructure like storage capacity, bottling plant etc., and certainly not on a national level. The introduction of butane, as a strategy to reduce woody fuel consumption in the urban areas of the reviewed countries, can be of interest for the population of a certain (middle and high-income) group. Gas is a relatively expensive fuel, and investment costs (bottles and gasstoves) and the refill costs make it beyond reach of low-income groups; Gas prices differ between the five countries: In Senegal, gas subsidies make operational costs for gas and wood cooking similar, while in the other four reviewed countries gas prices make cooking on gas twice as expensive as cooking on wood; The introduction of liquid gas requires time: In Senegal, were gas was introduced to the urban population during the early eighties, a substantial part of domestic energy supply is covered. In the other countries, the short period since introduction (two- three years) has been too short to reach a major part of the urban population. On the other hand, even in countries like Niger and Mali, where only a small part of the population has switched to gas consumption, the effect on wood fuel demand is comparable to a major improved stove program; - The recent devaluation of the F.CFA may have a negative impact on the dissemination of LPG as a cooking fuel: the relative price gap between gas and firewood has increased, and investment costs for purchasing gas bottles and cookers, both imported, are now even further out of reach than before. In order to overcome this, a major effort should be done to establish the local production of gas bottles and burners The Niger-kerosene "Tchip" stove project The main objective of the Projet Energie II - Energie Domestique (PEII-ED) project in Niger, of which the Tchip kerosene stove project is a main component, is to create a diversification of household energy fuels, to stabilize the woodfuel consumption of the urban population at the 1989 level and to gain effective control on the woodfuel demand in the cities. For the Tchip kerosene stove project the kerosene wick burner was imported from Indonesia and the supporting structure was made locally. Initially the burners were imported directly by the project, but soon this activity was taken over by a private entrepreneur. There entrepreneur also installed a workshop for the production of the supports and a network of selling and service points for the Tchip stove. The kerosene stoves were promoted through demonstraion and publicity campaigns, which emphasized the fuel economy, comfort and vi Executive summtary modernity aspects of the new stoves, referring to the environmental background of the problems. For the Tchip project is can be concluded: - By the end of 1993, finalizing the Energie II project, 8000 kerosene stoves had been imported of the possible 24.000, including the 4000 burners imported by the projecL The single reason for this poor performance is the lack of adequate financial management by Tchip-import; To date, all imported Tchip stoves have been sold without problems. Publicity campaigns have been successful the Tchip stove is widely and well known, and there are sales points in every neighbourhood. At fir negative consumer reactions have been observed, concerning the (high) fuel consumption and the requirement to replace wicks frequently; - To stabilize woodfuel consumption in Niamey in 1993, the total wood-saving capacity of sold improved wood, kerosene and gas equipment is approximately 6,000 tonnes of fuelwood. In practice, it was estimated that 3900 tonnes were economized (PEII-ED, 1993), of which 2,300 tons result can be contributed to the use of Tchip stoves. - Project sustainability depends to a very large extent on the availability of burners. If they can no longer be imported, the success of the stove project depends on the creation of local production facilities. Production of burners is technically not very complicated, but not an easy job either, especially under African conditions and without prior production experience. - The negative consumer feedback should be taken into account The high kerosene consumption can be taken care of by using a less powerful burner, or by better tnuining in the use of the actual burner - In the case of involvement of the private sector, a good and legally sound contract should be drawn up so that some level of control and correction is possible in case the entrepreneur shows to be unable to manage his business. Stove activities should be separated from other commercial activities in order to avoid priority problems. - The devaluation of the F.CFA will have an important impact on the price of the Tchip stove. Madon (1993) estimates that after devaluation the stove will cost 18.000 F.CFA (imported from Indonesia) and 13.000 F.CFA if locally produced. The price of kerosene is also likely to increase. The price will probably reach 200 F.CFA/1 shortly. vii Executive summary - Both factors can cause the costs of cooking with kerosene to increase with 50 to 100%1/. Up to now, in spite of the devaluation, the costs of cooking with wood have hardly increased, what makes kerosene less attractive and less -affordable. The "Casamance" improved kiln program (Senegal) The main objecive of the Casamance Improved Charcoal Kiln Programme in Senegal was to improve the yield of charcoal making in Senegal through the introduction of the Casamance kiln and the training of charcoalers in its use. During the implementation of the programme 700 charcoalers were trained in the use of the Casamance kiln. Today an estimated 350 of them still use the Casamance kiln. Apparently the investment for the metal chimney is the bottleneck in the system, as long as there was financial assistance to buy chimneys. As long as there was financial assistance to buy chimneys and other equipment, charcoalers tended to keep using the Casamance kiln. But as soon as they needed to invest themselves in new equipment the tended to return to the traditional kiln. Whether the additional profits of the Casamance kiln weren't apparent enough to make the investment for the chimney themselves or that the financial means were lacking, is not clear. No data were available to the mission on how much charcoal has been produced by the charcoalers trained in the use of the Casamance kiln, nor about the amount of wood saved. It has proven difficult to organize the charcoalers in the Casamance kiln project and this lack of orgaization and structure has obstructed financing and training facilities, as well as project sustainability. Therefore, the implementation of improved kilns might be more successful in the settings of more general programs, that also promote the organization of the target population. viii RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Table of contents List of abbreviations ........... ............................ i Executive summary .................. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... . ii Table of contents ................... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. . .ix Introduction ............................................. xii I REVIEW OF THE IMPROVED WOODSTOVE PROGRAMS ...... 1.... 1.1 Improved woodstove programs - underlying rationale and justification I 1.2 Program objectives and strategies 2 1.3 Project Organization and Management 4 1.3.1 Funding and donor coordination 4 1.32 Length and phasing of activities 5 1.3.3 Linkage to regional programs and expeiences 6 1.3A Institutional famework: actors and roles 6 1.4 Adaptation of the stoves 7 1A.1 Technological criteria and benchmarks 7 1.4.2 Improved stoves for urban markers 8 1.4.3 Inproved stoves for nrual markets 9 1.4A Improved stoves and fuel economy 9 1.5 Production of Improved Stoves 11 1.5.1 Production of improved stoves for the urban markets 11 1.5.2 Production of improved stoves for the rural markets 12 1.6 Marketing of Improved Stoves 12 1.6.1 Communication: Awareness-raising on background problems 13 1.6.2 Sales promotion and distribution 13 1.6.3 Monitoring: consumer acceptance and satisfaction 14 1.7 Pricing policies and taxation 14 1.7.1 Urban markets environment 14 1.7.2 Rur areas 16 1.7.3 Taxation policies 16 1.8 Gender issues 17 1.9 Evaluation 18 1.9.1 Project effectiveness 18 1.9.2 Project efficiency 19 1.9.3 Project sustainability 19 1.9A Factors affecting consumers satisfaction and project sustinability 20 1.9.5 Lessons learned 24 1.10 Conclusions on wood- and charcoal stoves 27 1.11 Recommendations on wood- and charcoal stoves 30 ix RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects 2 THE SAHELLAN REGIONAL BUTANE GAS PROGRAM ..31 2.1 Program Context 31 2.1.1 General background 31 2.1.2 Program funding and donor coordination 31 2.1.3 Program management and supervision 32 2.1.4 Regional program objectives and targets 32 2 Institutional framework actors and roles 33 2.3 Stove technology 34 2.4 Marketing and dissemination 35 2.5 Pricing policies and taxation 35 2.6 Program evaluation in the 5 RPTES sample-countries 36 2.6.1 Targets vs achievements 37 2.6.2 Program efficiency 38 2.6.3 Program sustinability 39 2.6.4 F.CFA devaluation 40 2.7 Conclusions on the PRG 41 3 THE NIGER KEROSENE "TCH[P" STOVE PROJECT . .42 3.1 Introduction: Overview of improved kerosene stove programs in the RPTES sample-countries 42 3.2 Organization and management of the "Tchip" project 42 3.2.1 Funding and donor coordination 42 3.2.2 Institutional framework: actors and roles 42 32.3 Project objectives and targets 43 3.42A Stove selection criteria and technical parameters 44 332.5 Market dissemination strategies and systems 45 3.2.6 Pricing and taxation policy environment 46 32.7 Project operation 47 3.3 Project evaluation 48 3.3.1 Targets and achievements 48 3.32 Lessons learned 49 3.3.3 Expected impacts of the F.CFA devaluation 49 3A Conclusions and policy recommendations 50 4 THE "CASAMANCE" IMPROVED KILN PROGRAM (SENEGAL) .. 51 4.1 Introduction 5 1 4.1.1 Background 51 4.12 Project objectives and targets 52 4.1.3 Kiln selection criteria and technical paraneters 53 41A Project funding and donor coordination 53 42 Project evaluation 54 4.2.1 Targets vs achievements 54 4.2.2 Fuelwood savings impact 54 4.2.3 Project sustainability 54 4.2A Lessons learned 54 x RPTES - Review of Imprved Stove and Fuel Substitution Prjects Bibliography .................. 55 Annex 1: Terms of reference 60 Annex 2: Summary of Improved Woodfuel Projects Reviewed .61 Annex 3: Summary of Improved LPG Stove Projects Reviewed .70 Annex 4: Summary of Improved Kerosene Stove Projects Reviewed .75 Annex 5: Summary of Improved Kiln Projects Reviewed .76 Annex 6: Testing procedures for woodstoves ....................... 79 Annex 7: List of interviewed persons .81 xi RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Introduction Facing the environmental problems of the Sahel region, the CILLS countries decided in 1986 to allocate at least 60% of the regional funds of the VIth EDF to the struggle against desertification in the Sahel. Although domestic consumption of wood fuel (firewood and charcoal) is not the single or main cause of desertification, the collection of woody biomass for use as household fuel has a negative impact on the forest cover. In certain areas the decrease in forest cover is striking, and the cause of ever rising concern. The growth of urban areas has caused the rise of a commercial sector, providing the urban population with firewood. The regional concentration of firewood demand and the lack of government control on the commercialization caused systematic over-exploitation and even destruction of important forest reserves near the cities. Reducing the household firewood demand is one of the means to relieve pressure on forest resources. Basically, two options exist to reach this objective: i to reduce woody fuel consumption by introducing better cooking equipment (improved woodstoves), promoting efficient cooking techniques and improving charcoal production efficiencies (improved kilns); * to substitute woodfuels by promoting other energy sources (such as butane gas, LPG and/or kerosene). Over the last two decades a large number of stoves projects have been implemented, comprising one or both of these elements. The general impression is that the projects have not been as effective as expected. In the Regional Study: Review of Policies in the Traditional Energy Sector (RPTES) of the World Bank's Africa Technical Private Sector Division (AFTPS), a study was initiated to review and analyze stove projects and to identify the reasons for their success or failure. In early 1994, a consultant2 went on mission to five of the CILSS countries to undertake a retospective review of the principal improved wood and charcoal stove projects, fuel substitution projects, and charcoal production programs carried out over the last 10 years in the Sahel. The countries visited were Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, Gambia and Senegal. 2 The mission was carried out and this report prepared by Piet Visser, a domestic energy specialist of BTG b.v. (The Netherlands) xii RPTES Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Based on interviews with (ex-) project staff, on the RPTES country studies and on a review of the most important evaluation reports, improved wood and charcoal stove projects, fuel substitution projects, (including the rmgional Butane Gas project and the Tchip kerosene stove substitution project in Niger) and improved charcoal kiln project in Senegal were evaluated. The terms of reference for the mission mention a number of aspects that should be specifically addressed, including (See Annex I for the complete TOR): project organiation and management * specific technologies targets and achievements - dissemination strategies - curret status and sustainability - principal reasons for success or failure The five weeks of the mission, from March 12 to April 13, have been equally divided over the five countries. In each country a work program was set up in collaboration with the RPTES country team and officials from the selected projects were interviewed. From the projects visited a general picture arises, because most projects have more in common than that they differ in concept, execution and follow up. For a nunber of the aspects mentioned above however, a distinction should be made betweerd nrual and urban projects. The underlying report tries to present a synthesis of the structure, execution and results of these projects. All prices in C.CFA mentioned in this report are from before de devaluation in 1993, unless stated differently. The first chapter deals with the improved wood and charcoal stove programs and presents a generalization of "the Sahelian Stove Project". Chapter two deals with the butane gas programs in the five countries and the third chapter will consider the kerosene wick stove project of the Energy II program in Niger. The only country of the sample where charoal is used and produced on a large scale is SenegaL Chapter 4 gives a short summary of the Senegalese charcoal kiln projects. xiii RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects REVIEW OF THE IMPROVED WOODSTOVE PROGRAMS In this part of the report a general picture will be presented of 'the Sahelian Improved Stove Project". From the interviews held with the representatives of the different stove projects, the picture arises of projects that have more in common than that they differ in concept, execution and follow-up. The information will be structured according to the main aspects suggested in the Term of Reference for the mission. When necessary a distinction will be made between rural and urban projects. 1.1 Improved woodstove programs - underlying rationale and justification Facing the environmental problems of the Sahel region, the CILSS3 countries decided in 1986 to allocate at least 60% of the regional funds of the Sixth European Development Fund (6-EDF) to the struggle against desertification in their countries, and although domestic woody fuel consumption (firewood and charcoal) is not the single or most important cause of desertification, it has a negative imnpact on the wood-covered area of the region. In certain zones, the wood deficit is striking, and the cause of ever rising concern. The growth of the cities has caused the establishment of a commercial sector to provide the urban population with firewood. Concentrated firewood collection and the absence of govermnent control on the commercialization caused systematic over-exploitation, even destruction, of an significant share of the forest reserves close to the cities. Reduction of the firewood demand is one of the means to relieve the pressure on the forest resources and contributes to the struggle against the enviromnental degradation of the sahelian zone. Basically, two options exist to reach this objective: * )On the supply side: o to increase the production of firewood, through better forest management, re- plantation and commercial wood production; o to substitute woody fuels through the introduction and promotion of other energy sources, such as butane gas, LPG and/or petrol. * reduce woody fuel consumption, by introducing better cooking equipment (improved woodstoves), disseminating more efficient cooking techniques and improving charcoal production efficiencies (improved kilns); In the Sahelian zone numerous projects were started to reduce woody fuel consumption by the mral and/or urban population. The five countries reviewed in this study, multiple projects were counted on this theme, while the present review will consider 18 projects and *The nine CILSS countries include: Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Chad, Gambia, Guinee-Bissau, Mali. Mauritania, Niger and Senegal. Fiv of thse countries re covered in this sudy. 1 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects programs, executed in the period between 1980 and 1994. Amongst these eighteen were programs on development and dissemination of improved woodstoves, charcoal stoves and kilns. Fig. I presents a cause-effect scheme in the context of domestic energy programs. The principal problem for our concern is mentioned in the bold printed box "increasing firewood demoandfor domestic pwposes, and the three main causes of this problem: - Lack of alternative fuels at reach to the people - Inefficient use of woody fuels, and - Corrective actions are little effective and not sustainable. Indications exists that efforts realized to correct the problems were not very successful: The actions undertaken by the projects were not as effective as expected, were not efficiently undertaken and the effects were not very lasting, while users of the stoves seem to be only partly satisfied, which is expressed in the low replacement rate of improved stoves: users do not replace their improved stove by a new one. How does these problem occur, and how have projects dealt with them. Which actions were undertaken to correct them, which of them were successful and what lessons were learned? 1.2 Program objectives and strategies Table I resumes the objectives of the reviewed programs. In general, the objective is to alleviate the serious deforestation problems and it's climatic consequences this zone is suffering from. Most projects adopted specific objectives, derived from this final goal: research and development of improved stove models and/or the commercialization (i.e. production and dissemination) of stoves. Two programs mentioned the improvement of the conditions of women and/or children as a specific objective. In order to comply with these objectives, the programs adopted the following strategies: research and development * research and development of improved stoves through local research institutes, * monitoring of consumers reactions and satisfaction with the product production * training and technical assistance to local craftsmen, to stimulate the commercial production of improved stoves a monitoring of production quality * direct support, through initial working capital and credits dissemination * communication fbr creating awareness in sahelian society on the deforestation problem and the role of improved woodstove programs in these, through television 2 $~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-- -- - ----- [--H[t-F1t t S--i +1F1HiSttH1-2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-------- --- 19 L--t F i LH LA W F- - tt t t 18~~~~~~~~iF ------ - ----- - - --------------- b..w wk~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. _ _ _j. _ _ i_ _ _ _ _ . . _ _ . ._ RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substilution Projes Table 1 Objectives and targets of the reviewed projects Proje Country Objective Quanaive target ws1 Niger Reduction of firewood demand 20,000 stoves in Phase I wS2 Burkina Stove development (I) 120,000 stoves Fao Reduce wood consumption (I) Develop forestry actions with women mI) WS3 Mali Stove dissemination 25,000 stoves (I) 100,000 stoves (U) WS4 Mali Stove development Stove dissemination, urban training of craftsmen WS5 Mali Stove development nural Stove dissemination, rural WS6 Mali Reduce wood consunption 5,000 stoves Improve conditions of women 20 craftsmen trained WS7 Gambia Stove development Stove dissemination Improve conditions of women and children WSS Senegal Stove dissemination 500,000 stoves 10,000 craftsmen trained WS9 Senegal Reduce charcoal consumption and radio spots * promotion of improved stoves, through publicity campaigns, demonstrations, etc. - direct support, through subsidies, etc. monitoring of sales and consumers satisfaction domestic energy policy e pricing and taxation legislation on (de-)forestation and wood commerce In practice, each project has developed and adopted its proper mix, according to its specific objective. Also the applied strategy mix may have varied by project phases. 1.3 Project Organization and Management 1.3.1 Funding and donor coordination Donor countries that have financed the stove programs reviewed include Denmark, Norway, Germany, the USA, the European Union and the OPEC fimd. Financing has been channelled through development agencies like the World Bank, GTZ, USAIID and UNSO. Donor finance was basically used for local and expatriate personnel, cars, equipment and materials. Also demonstration activities, promotion and publicity activities were paid from external funds. 4 RPTES - Review of Imprved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Table 2 Executing organizations and donor funding Project Executing organization Expatriate Donor orgauization WS1 Min. of Energy and Govem. GTZ Dev. WB, GTZ Mining, Dir. of Energy Agency WS2 Ministry of Govem. - Sweden, UNSO Environment and Tourism WS3 Direction Nationale des Govem. GTZ Dev. GTZ Affaires Sociales Agency WS4 CNESOLER Res. Inst. VITA Techn. USAID Assist. WS5 CNESOLER Res. Inst. 7 Dev. USAID Agency WS6 Ministire des Eaux at Govemr. Norway, UNSO, For6ts UNIFEM WS7 DCD: Ministry of Econ. Govem. UNDP Intem. Denmark, UNSO Planning and Ind, Dev. Agency WS8 CERER Res. Inst. - Denmark, UNSO, USAID, OPEC WS9 AT] (Appropriate NGO - USAID Technology International0 Govem. Govemmental organization Intem. Agency International Agency Res. Inst. Research institute Dev. Agency Development Agency NGO Non Govemmental org. Techn. Assist. Technical Assistance Agency The contribution of thc local governments consisted in general of local personnel, office space and the cooperation of govermmental organitions like research institutions. Projects were generally financed by one single donor. In the rare case of a co-financing one of the donors only contnbuted to the funding, without further participation in the execution of the project Sometimes several subsequent phases of a project were financed by different donors. In some projects assistance was provided by voluntary organizations like Peace Corps, AFVP, EU, UNV, etc. 1.3.2 Length and phasing of activities The average length of Table 3 Project duration the progrm periods roJ. Strt End Duration Pbase Budget was 7.2 years, mostly WSI 1935 1993 9 2 FCFA 90,000,000 (1) spread over severa DM 744,000(11) project phases. The WS2 1984 1992 9 3 US 238,000 (1) shortest project had a US 2,416,4340 (11l) duration of 3 years, WS3 1983 1998 11 3 FCFA 640 min (1) the longest a duration FCFA 640 mln (U) FCFA 640 min (11) of 11 years over 3 WS4 1936 1938 3 1 US 482,000 phases. To date, most WS5 1980 1985 6 1 US 4,000,0000 WS6 1988 1991 4 1 US 212,000 projects reviewed WS7 1982 1991 10 2 US 1,300,000 have been terminated. WSs 1930 1933 9 2 FCFA 770,000,000 WS9 1991 1994 4 1 US 340,000 Some coninue on , *Woodtov project forms pal of a arger pro ccA 5 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substituuon Projects residual funds of the official project budget, but on a very limited scale. Only one wood stove program is likely to continue, the DNAS/GTZ program in Mali on new GTZ funding. Proposed is a three year continuation with an additional 2 years of follow-up activities. 1.3.3 Unkage to regional programs and experiences The linkage of individual stove projects to other stove programs in the region is very low. The common factor in the different projects originated from the recommendations done by CELLS following the international CILSS/FSSTD seminar of Ouagadougou in 19.84 [CILSS, 1984]. There the Improved Three Stone Fire (3PA = Trois Pierres Ameliords) and the cylindrical sheet metal stove (Ouaga Metallique) were recommended as the preferred stoves to be disseminated in rnual and in urban areas respectively. Also, thanks to the Ouagadougou seminar, the set up and organization of the projects is very much alike. 1.3.4 Institutional framework: actors and roles local counterpart organization National counterparts for the donor organization or executing agency in a stove project were governmental organizations, such as ministerial departments, research centres or, in one case, an NGO (see Table 2). The project coordinator, generally from the energy departnent, is responsible for project management, together with expatriate counterparts. Stove testing and demonstrations are performed in cooperation with a national stove research centre, often a department of a national research centre on renewable energies. For stove promotion in many cases (women) promotion teams are formed and trained, while for the promotion campaigns, and especially for the production of mass media spots, most projects have been assisted by professional publicity agencies. Statistic offices are contracted for realizing monitoring surveys on culinary habits, kitchen equipment and consumer satisfaction. international technical assistance In most projects technical assistance was provided by expatriates. Sometimes a stove technician, sometimes also a sociologist and/or a marketing specialist, sometimes both. One expatriate technician normally was resident for the duration of the project, others came on shorter (one to three months) missions. Stove technicians assisted in testing and adaptation of the stoves to local habits and cooking equipment, the training of the ardsans in stove production and the execution of stove demonstrations. The sociologist and/or marketing specialist assisted in the information campaigns, the consumer and market surveys and the organization of the stove demonstrations. 6 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Drvate sector In the urban components of the stove projects the informal private sector played an important role as the producer of the stoves. Stoves were made from scrap metal by informal sector artisans. While these artisans usually operated in small self owned shops, sometimes more organized, larger, informal outfits participated in the production of improved stoves. Most projects have assisted the artisans with credits to assure a sufficient supply of steel sheet for the production of the improved stoves. Setting up an organizational structure for the artisans was a part of the proposed goals of the DNAS/GTZ project in Mali. The private sector also played a role in the commercialization of improved stoves, again in the urban areas. Artisans sold the stoves at their workshops, but these are normally centralized at markets or in a quarter of town. To make stoves more widely available, merchants order and buy the stoves from the artisans and sell them in the other quarters. In Mali, in order to stimulate the availability of stoves in the different quarters of towns, the project gave credits in kind in the form of stoves, to merchants that operated in those neighbourhoods. 1.4 Adaptation of the stoves 1.4.1 Technological criteria and benchmarks For a description of technologies, a distinction must be made between urban and rural applications. For both categories, however, basic technology is the same: stoves are closed with a shield to protect the pan against wind and to improve heat transfer between pan and fire, resulting in stoves that cook faster and use less fuel. Based on this technology a number of improved stove types was developed in the Sahel by different research centres.' At the CUSS meeting in 1984 recommendations were made on the stove models to be considered for dissemination. The Improved Three Stove Fire, or 3 PA, was reconmended for rural areas, and the portable Ouaga Metallique for urban applications. Three technical parameters characterize the performance of an improved woodstove: power output, efficiency and fuel consumption. See Annex 6 for a more elaborate discussion. efficiency: The efficiency is the ratio between the heat absorbed by a water pan and the total energy released by the fuel under the assumption of complete combustionEfficiency varies with the power output. power output: Maximum power output together with the efficiency determine the time required to bring the content of a pan to the boil; minimum power output determines the fuel consumption for the simmering phase of the cooking process. 4 ONERSOL in Niger, IBE in Burkina Faso, CNESOLERILESO in Mali. CERER in Senegal and the test centres in Bekama and Mansakonko in Gambia 7 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects fuel consumption: Fuel consumption is the amount of wood needed for the preparation of a standard meal, such as a local main dish compared to the fuelwood consumption with a traditional stove. For comparison of different stoves the fuel composition is compared to the fuel consumption of a traditional stove (el economy). For the determination of energy economy fuel consumption of alternative fuels is compared to fuel consumption with traditional fuel. 1.4.2 Improved stoves for urban markers The CILLS recommendation for urban areas was the Ouaga Metallique, the Sahelian adaptation of the shielded fire (Fig. 2). Reason fur the choice of this stove was that is was adapted to Sahelian cooking habits and easy to make from scrap metal by local artisans using existing productionn V technologies. Tests in several Sahelian stove laboratories had shown a fuel economy of at least 30% compared to the Fig. 2 Ouaga Mdtallique traditional stoves or open fires. (see, i.e. GTZ (1994)). The Ouaga Metallique model was introduced by a number of projects, with slight adaptations, under different local names. One of the disadvantages of the Ouaga Metallique model, as was felt by the users, was the limitation that it could only be used with one size of pan. Several projects therefore developed a version of a MultiMarmite stove that could accommodate several sizes of pans. In addition, in Burkina Faso stoves were developed that could burn both wood and charcoal, the so-called Mixte stoves. Of the countries visited, only in Senegal charcoal is the basic urban fuel, and therefore only in Senegal specific charcoal Rg. 3 Sakkanal stove stoves were developed and introduced, called the Saklanal and the Diambar stoves. The Sakkanal (Fig. 3) is an original Senegalese design while the Diambar is the Senegalese name for the Kenyan liko (Fig. 5) In the Gambia the Nofly stove, which appears much like the Sakkanal stove, was developed Fig. 5 Diambar, or Jiko stove Fig. 4 Urban reramic stove out of the Danish EKO- briquette stove. The Nofly could burn briquettes from peanut shells as well as wood. This stove was made in a semi- industrial way and the production involved welding. Originally it was made from new steel 8 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects sheet, but this proved to be too expensive and the sheets of old oil dnins became the construction material. At first only the Nofly was disseminated, later also the Ouaga Metallique, as a cheap alternative to the Nofly. Finally projects in Burkina and Gambia have introduced urban ceramic stoves (Fig. 4). 1.4.3 Improved stoves for rural markets Fig. 6 Example of a Multi- Marmite stove The CILLS recommendation for rural areas was the Improved Three Stone Fire, or 3PA (Trois Pierres Amdliords, also known in some areas as Cumba Gaye or Al Barka etc, Fig. 7), a mud version of the shielded fire. Reasons for this choice were the close resemblance to the traditional three stone fire, for which it was well adapted to Sahelian cooking habits, and the simple and cheap construction from locally available materials: clay sand and stones, sometimes mixed with cow dung and/or straw. Tests Rg. 7 Trois Pierres Amaiior6s in several Sahelian stove laboratories had shown a fuel O3PA) economy of at least 30% compared to the traditional three stone fire. No efforts have been made (or were necessary) to develop a local model or to adapt the 3PA to local conditions. Besides the 3PA some other mud stoves have been disseminated on a smal scale, like models with 2 and three pot holes and models with a chimney (Fig. 8). 1.4.4 Improved stoves and fuel economy Rg. 8 2 Pot hole stove Most projects have tested their stoves by using their country specific utensils and preparing their country specific meals. The potential fuel economy of the improved stoves established by the tests was at least 25% and up to 40% compared to the traditional metal stoves (mainly in urban environments) and open fires (for rural environments). Higher economies, up to 50%/o, are also reported, but only for gas and kerosene stoves (Bussmann & Visser 1986; Chatain 1988; Visser 1989; Jorez 1991). As explained in the previous paragraph these differences are possible because not al the improved stoves are compared to the same traditional stove. In general, the lower fuel 1 economies origin from comparisons with traditonal metal stoves, the higher economies from comparison1 with the Faso) Three Stone Fire. 9 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substition Projects To verify the expected fuel economies, as predicted by the laboratory tests, the actual fuel savings were determined by surveys. In most of these surveys the housewives were asked how much fuel their improved stove saved in comparison to the traditional stove. The outcomes of these surveys tended to confirm the lab results. Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 give examples of traditional metal stoves, Fig. 10 Malgache (Senegal both called "Malgache". In only a limited number of surveys field tests were done on fuel consumption: In Mali the GTZ project undertook a socio-economic evaluation of the impact of improved stoves, considering as well the aspect of their proper use. In field tests in Bamako, 42% fuel economy was reached for Teliman (=Ouaga mdtallique) stoves, compared to the traditional three stone fire, provided the stove was properly used. In the same investigation resulted that 57% of the households used their stove properly (GTZ 1994). In this investigation, 30,000 stoves were considered, although no data were given on the sample size (GIZ, 1994). In the district of Sofara surveys were conducted, showing 26% fuel -- economy reached in the city of ' ......... .......*...... Sofara, whereas in the villages - around this city 36% was reached. . In this case, the results reflect the aAs .. .. .... average of field test results. No data l _ .. were available on the number of stoves considered, nor on the a _ __ sample size (GTZ, 1994). "- ^ _FIc-_mim Fig. 11 Daily per capita fueiwood consumption in In Niger by the Energy II proJect, three capitals (Ouagadougou. Bamako and Niamey) field tests were done on fuel (GTZ. 1994) consumption amongst 353 Niamey households, taking into consideration different stoves and fuels. The results of this last survey show wood economies of 7% for families that use only improved wood stoves, to 19 % for combined kerosene and wood users. In this case, the traditional metal stove Foyer Malgache was taken as a reference. In general can be stated, that the fuel wood use per capita in Niger is lower than in other countries (GTI, 1994), however it is not clear which part of this economy can be contributed to the use of the Foyer Malgache. The fuel economy reached with the Malgache as compared to the tmditional three stone fire is has never been determined in field tests(PEII - ED, 1993). The results from both evaluations show the importance of the proper use of the stove: if users do not employ wood saving cooking techniques, the effect of the introduction of improved stoves will be very limited. Fig. 12 shows in a simplistic model the importance 1 0 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects of cooking techniques ("proper husbandry") for the performance of improved opm | woodstoves. In the same way, the cause- effect analysis presented in Fig. I puts emphasis on the dissemination of improved cooking techniques in improved woodstove " X programs, in order to achieve optimal wood-saving results. Rg. 12 The importance of cooking techniques on the fuel economy in improved cookstove projects (after: P.J.T. Bussmann. 1988) 1.5 Production of Improved Stoves 1.5.1 Production of improved stoves for the urban markets Traditionally artisans produce stoves from scrap metal, such as old oil drums, car bodies etc. The artsans work under rather basic conditions: on the ground, sometimes under a small roofing, without workbench, etc. The stoves were produced using traditional production technology (with hammer and chisel); seaming and rivetting were the (traditional) techniques for making joints. In general, the projects did not pretend to improve quality by the introduction of new or improved tools, with exception of the templates. (As an exception the production of the Gambian Nofly should be mentioned, which was set-up in a semi-industrial way, involving welding). The urban artisans were trained to produce the improved stoves models by technicians from the projects or from a local research centre, making use of the already installed production capacity. The production was generaly based on the traditional production techniques, although some improvements were introduced in order to increase production speed and to improve product quality, such as better materials and templates. Furthermore, much attention was paid to quality control, as the performance of improved stoves depends highly on the accuracy of production. Finally, projects assisted artisans providing loans for materials and other inputs, in order to guarantee an umintmrpted production (mostly during an initial phase of the project). 11 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projccts 1.5.2 Production of improved stoves for the rural markets The production of improved stoves in rual areas was mainly carried out by the beneficiaries themselves: improved stove projects provided training and technical assistance to interested communities and/or individuals, mostly women. Trainng of stove masons in the rural areas generally was done in a top- down approach (see Fig. 13): Project masons were trained by (expatriate) - stove experts and/or technicians from the local stove centres. These project l ' masons, in turn, trained district masons, who trained village specialists to assist rural housewives with the construction of their stoves. This on-site construction was mainly done on request of the beneficiary, who was to provide building materials (mud and clay) and (part of the) h .~ J labour. During the construction, the beneficiary was not only trained in R 13 RuI stove construction, but also in the maintenance. stove dissemi- nation In order to reach remote areas of the country, some projects installed local project centres and used mobile teams. 1.6 Marketing of Improved Stoves Marketing played an important role in all stove dissemination projects. Strategies employed were communication (awareness creation), promotion (demonstration, publicity campaigns, credits), monitoring of sales and consumers acceptation and satisfaction. Subsidies were not applied in any of the reviewed projects, except for the Kayes project in Mali. Before starting dissemination activities, the improved stoves were to be acceptable to the users, specifically women. At the same time, women should be convinced of the use of investing in improved stoves: Prices of these stoves are always higher than of traditional stoves and the potential costumers should be convinced that the extra investment is made up by fuel savings. In Niger, Mali and Senegal marketing studies were done to establish the housewives' stove preferences in terms of shape and/or colours. At the same time, fuel preference (wood, charcoal, kerosene, gas) and budget for stoves and fuel were surveyed. This was done during stove demonstration meetings where they could express their preferences for a stove out of a number of improved stove models presented to them. The expected economy of the improved stoves, as established in the laboratory tests, was explained and they could indicate what would be an acceptable price for the improved stove. In all countries household surveys were done to establish an inventory of kitchen utensils and to determine the most frequently cooked meals. This latter data enabled technicians to develop improved stoves adapted to local kitchen equipment and culinary habits, and to 12 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects make estimations on fuel savings in laboratory situations, based on the preparation of a local "standard meal". 1.6.1 Communication: Awareness-raising on background problems Improved stove projects carried out demonstration and information activities to raise awareness about the fuel crisis and its background, about the existence of improved stoves and their role to reduce the pressure on woodfuel resources. The stove demonstrations were organized in neighbourooods and villages and during manifestations like fairs, independence days, etc. They were organized in cooperation and coordination with women organizations and/or local governmental or non-governmental organizations. Project teams also gave demonstrations at markets and other places where many people would assemble. In order to get more attention and improve the awareness raising effect, theatre groups and griots (traditional African story tellers) were often involved. During the sessions, improved stoves were presented as a solution to the problem: Meals were prepared on traditional and improved stoves and the difference in fuel consumption and needed cooking time was shown. Explanations were given about the functioning of the improved stoves, and the differences with traditional stoves, on how and why they economize on fuel, time and money, -etc. Other advantages of the improved stoves like safety and comfort were also brought to the attention of the potential consumers. The prize of the improved stoves was discussed and the principle of the pay-back period explained. Apart from the public demonstrations, awareness of the fuel problem was increased by information campaigns at schools, nurseries, nutrition centres, and through mass media. 1.6.2 Sales promotion and distribution Improved stove projects supported the marketing of the stoves by a series of sales promotion activities, through mass media and in demonstration and promotion campaigns. The principal goal of these was to create a demand for the improved stoves and inform the public where to buy them. Distribution of the stoves generally was left to market forces through the existing production system and commercial channels. The basic idea was that if a demand is created and made sure the availability of the product, market forces will act and a commercially viable system will install itself Sales of the improved stoves were promoted on television, radio and in the local press. In these spots and advertisements emphasis was laid on the same items as during the demonstations: economy, safety and comfort, how to use the stove and when a stove must be replaced. These promotion campaigns were held periodically, typically once a year, with a duration of two to three months. TV spots featured once or twice a week, radio spots daily. Radio spots were also cmitted in local languages. For a number of projects these sales promotion campaigns were developed with the assistance of professional agencies. 13 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects During promotion meetings at markets etc. T-shirts, stickers, leaflets, posters and alike were handed out. The existence of improved stoves was also brought to the attention of the public through billboards and signposts at selling points. Some projects intervened to improve the distribution of the stoves by installing selling points in neighbourhoods far from the production sites and giving credits to wholesalers and detailers. In some cases, interested households were offered credits to purchase an improved stove through their employer. The credits ware refunded through salary deductions. 1.6.3 Monitoring: consumer acceptance and satisfaction Surveys were done to assess the acceptance of the stoves, before the start of the dissemination as well as during the course of the projects. In a number of cases the reactions of the users led to the development of new models like the MultiMarmite in Niger and the Mixte models in Burkina Faso, but in general the consumers seemed to be satisfied with their stoves. Users agreed upon that improved stoves reduce fuel consumption and improve comfort because of a reduction in cooking time and time to gather fuel, lower smoke levels, and lower hazards to injuries through burning. They are well adapted to the culinary habits. On the other hand it was noticed that comfort was reduced because of. dirtier pans and the smaller amounts of charcoal remaining for ironing. 1.7 Pricing policies and taxation Pricing policies and taxation that interfere in improved woodstove projects, are those on wood fuel, on the stoves and on substitution fuels, i.e. alternative fuels. In this case, it is useful to make a distinction between urban and nuai markets environments. 1.7.1 Urban markets environment The price of improved stoves is substantially higher than the price of the traditional stoves, due to higher material and labour costs. The projects, in concertation with the artisans, calculated an advisory retail price, taking into account the labour costs, the costs of primary material and a profit for the manufacturer. In some cases a profit for a wholesaler or a retailer were added. Table 4 gives an indication of the prices of traditional and improved stoves in the reviewed countries. The price difference between the improved stove and traditional stoves should be compensated, in an economic sense, by the value of the woodfuel saved through the use of the stoves. 14 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Table 4 Price indications for traditional and improved woodstoves, and of woodfuel, in reviewed countries Country Stove model price US S year source Traditional stoves Seneal 3 stone fire self constr. self constr. Jor, 1991 Niger (Niamey) Foyer Maigache F 225 S0.76 1991 GTZ. 1994 Improved stoves Seiegal 3 PA self constr. self constr. JorcZ 1991 Senegal Sakk-l mono-mamite F 1250-2000 S 420-6.72 Jorez, 1991 Seneal Sakksnal multi-marite Jorez, 1991 Scnega Diamber I (Jiko) F 1350-3000 S 2.50-5.70 1993 Mission data Senegal Diamber 2Qiko) F 1250-2500 S 2.40-4.80 1993 Mission data Burkina Faso Ousga Metalique F 750 S 2.50 1991 GT7, 1994 Mali (Bamako) Teliman F 825 S 2.75 1991 G0Z1 1994 Niger (Niamey) Mal Sauki F 700 S 2.35 1991 GTZ 1994 Niger (Nianey) Mumamite F 1500 S 5.00 1993 Mission data Gambia Nofly D45 S-4.70 1991 Bialy, 1991 Fue(prwu Fue Price US/IOOkg ear source Scnegal charcoal F 40/kg S 13.40 1993 Mission data Burkira Faso firewood F 24/kg S 8.10 1991 GTZ, 1994 Mali (amako) firewood F 201Ag S 6.70 1991 GIZ7 1994 Niger (Niamey) fimewood F 20/kg S 6.70 1991 017, 1994 Gambia firewood D IO/15 kg S 7.00 1991 Bialy, 1991 F - F.CFA (F.CFA 100 - US 03360 (lcvel August 1991, (GI1, 1994)) D - Dalasis (Gambia) - D 9.52 - US 1.00 In this respect the price of the wood also plays an important role. Wood still is relatively cheap in the reviewed countries, and the price is generally left over to demand and supply mechanisms. Firewood is, certainly in urban areas, a so called informal commercialized good, and governments have not been able to impact on it's price because, in general, the urban population has easy access to plant cover in order to extract wood. In rural areas, the situation is even more difficult, since firewood is considered as a freely available good. Only in those situations that people spend a substantial part of their time on the collection of wood, they are interested to save wood, and improved stoves appear to be successful. If not, the dissemination of the stoves has proven to be a difficult and cumbersome process, not only in the reviewed countries (Barnes et al, 1993). Supply management altemnatives, varymg from natural resource management to afforestation, all have considerble consequences for firewood costs: Natural forest management is estimated on 60-120% over the market price (with an average of 80%) of firewood, taking into account costs for the installation of fireaks and payment of guards, as well as tansport and marketing costs (GTZ, 1994). Firewood, cultivated and commercialized im afforestation projects, would cause firewood prices to rise approximately 275% in Ouagadougou and 335% in Bamako. (GIZ, 1994). 15 RPTEs - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitudon Projects In paragraph I.4., some remarks were I M hWasbnnt NhIaS made on the fuel economy reached by the ) - introduction of improved stoves: Laboratory experiments showed 30% fuel '5 economy of the improved stove over the traditional stove, resulting in a pay-back 0 period for the extra investment to be two M to four weeks. If the fuel economy realized in practice is lower than 30%, as field-tests 0 show, the pay-back period wil of course °% 10% 20% 30% be longer. Fig. 16 shows increasing economy, expressed as the pay back Fig. 14 Payback period of improved woodstoves period, for decreasing fuel economy from related to firewood savings 30%/ to 5% for a typical situation for the reviewed countries, considering actual average firewood and woodstove prices. 1.7.2 Rural areas In runal areas, the construction of the improved stoves was mainly based on self- construction: the persons who requested the construction of an improved stove had to supply the materials, being clay, sand and stones, themselves. For the construction of the stove they were assisted by the village masons trained by the project The housewives had to pay for this service, but costs were limited. After the construction of the stove, which was a training session for the housewife as well, the beneficiary was expected to be able to maintain her stove and to construct a new one when necessary. Because generally fuel is gathered directly and not purchased, the pay-back principle was not applied to the rural areas. 1.7.3 Taxation policies Stoves were not taxed in any of the projects reviewed, Subsidies were not applied either, except for the Kayes project. In this latter project, stove prices, varying from F.CFA 800 to 2900, were considered too high by the population. During promotional sales, stoves were subsidized to cost F.CFA 250 to 1450. After re-establishing the normal, commercially viable price, sales virtually stopped. Wood and charcoal are taxed as far as they are commercially traded, but the tax level is low and the level of control is such that paying tax can easily be avoided. The trading of wood and charcoal is an informal business and wood merchants are very ambulant The price of the wood and charcoal only reflects labour and transport costs and the profit margins for the traders, the wood itself is not paid for. Sometimes a small price has to be paid for the concession to cut wood, but these sums do not reflect the costs involved in reforestation, forest maintenance and protection. Afforestation projects, that pretended to commercially cultivate firewood, have failed because they were not able to compete with the cheap wood brought to the market by the informal sector. 16 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substituion Projects Only the PEII programme in Niger has an integrated supply side project, PEII - ED - Volet Offre, that tries to control the wood supply to Niamey by efficient control at the city limits and a taxation system that favours fuelwood that comes from less endangered areas. Part of the tax is imposed at village level, thus making the fuelwood trade, forest management and control of direct interest to the rural population. 1.8 Gender issues Gender roles did not play a specifically distinguished role in most of the Sahelian stove projects. Generally, they have been limited to the perception of the woman as client, as the buyer of the woodstove who, in order to be willing to buy a woodstove, was to be convinced of it's usefulness. Therefore, women participated in demonstration and promotion activities, as well as in surveys to determine whether the stoves were accepted. During stove research and development the controlled cooking tests were perfonned by women and their observations and suggestions have much contributed to the modifications and adaptations of the stoves. Test series of improved stoves were given to households and again the observations of the users were used to improve the stoves and to make them better adapted to local culinary habits. Stove demonstration sessions organized during the marketing studies involved groups of 50 to 60 housewives that could give their opinion on the stoves presented. At these demonstrations the stoves were used by female demonstrators of the project to prepare meals and the housewives were invited to participate. During stove demonstration and sales manifestations discussions with housewives about the merits of the stoves provided some feedback to the projects. On the other hand, with the exception of two projects, improvement of the conditions of women was not an explicit objective. Woodstove projects generally were set-up for ecological and energetic reasons, not to improve the health and living conditions of women. On the level of discussions and project preparations, initiatives exists to explicitly integrate these social objectives into the woodstove projects in Sahelian countries. No information could be obtained whether women, or women's organizations, participated with the formulation of the projects and were involved in project set-up and organization of the reviewed projects. New projects have a tendency to involve beneficiaries, and specially women, more actively in the definition of their activities (Hedon, 1994). In only one case a woman formed part of the project staff, while all projects contracted female promoters. 17 RPMS - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects 1.9 Evaluation When evaluating improved stove projects, the question whether they were successfl should be answered considering the following aspects: - Effectiveness, or: have the projects achieved their targets - Efficiency, or: judged on a rational basis, what have been the costs at which thefinal result is achieved - Sustainability, or: what are the (epectea9 results on the long term 1.9.1 Project effectiveness In the cases where project goals were set Table 5 Targets vs achievements in tems of numbers of stoves to be Number of stoves dsseminated, the effectiveness of the Project Target Result project should be easy to evaluate if wsi ? 97,000 adequate monitoring would have been WS2 120,000 182o000 WS3 125,000 32.000 + ? performed. In practice, however, ws6 i 5,000 substantial problems were encountered on WS7 40,000 40,000 monitoring. In the case of some major WS8 500,000 36,000 projects, no data were recorded on the amounts of disseminated stoves (See annex 2). The number of stoves disseminated by the projects does not reflect the penetration rate achieved with improved stoves, as the average service life of improved woodstoves is estimated by the consultant on I to 3 year, although some projects claim service lifetimes of 2-4 years (GTZ, 1994)). Therefore, it can be expected that a very substantial part of the stoves sold at project start are already lost by the time the project finishes. None of the projects evaluated the number of stoves actually in use, neither on the average service life time through field tests or surveys, and no data are available on the number of persons who replace their improved stove after stove break-down. In other cases the project goals were set in qualitative terms like "put into place a potent system for the production and dissemination of improved stoves",or "improve the living and women's working conditions" or 'reduce the pressure on wood resources through the introduction of improved stoves". No verifiable quantitadve targets were set, and it is evident that adequate determination of the project's effectiveness is virtually impossible. At the same time, these projects did not realize efforts to quantify the effects of the developed activities. In all cases, except one, the people interviewed for this evaluation, stated that they regarded their project as successful because the goals set were met and the users gave enthusiastic reactions during the surveys. The one exception was the Kayes project in Mali where only a very small number of stoves was disseminated because of organizational and personnel 18 RPTES - Review of Impoved Stovc anS Fuel Substitution Project reasons, and "les evenements du mars 1991", the outburst of violence that came with the political changes in Mali. In Kayes much of the project hardware was destroyed during these outbursts, and the project was trminated. 1.9.2 Project efficiency Concerning project efficiency, a Mali project claimed success on the total amnount of fuel economized (GTZ, 1994). Based on the total number of stoves disseminated and assuming they are "properly used", was calculated that the total value of all fuel saved exceeded the total project budget (assuming shadow prices for the saved fuelwood). Another parameter often used as an 40ur $42.4 piao indication for project efficiency is the total a amount of project costs per disseminated S 30 . _ ...... ..... stove. Fig. 15 shows a simple analysis of I targets and obtained quantitative results vs. W 0.. project budgets. Costs varied from S8 to le X2s 'M over $40 per stove.S In some cases, a. program costs per stove were very high, so I WS2 W53 WS6 WS7 WS8 and were a multiple of the cost of a stove. P"e A separate observation should be made on Fotser stove project WS3; Afterasuccessfuil sta, when g. 15 Project costs er stove project targes were surpassed, stove dissemination stagnated during the second phase. Of the 100,000 stoves foreseen, only a non-quantified small number was distributed. The project was not able to compete with the an other type of improved stove, which was inferior from the fuel economy poilt of view, but which was prefered by the Mali women for reasons of cooking convenience (Gajo, 1993). 1.9.3 Project sustainability Most projects reviewed have ended last year or some years ago. The DNAS/GTZ project in Mali and the Energie ri project in Niger are in a transition phase, but on a low level, using the remaining funds from the previous phase. They have issued an application for funds to continue and are awaiting the final decision. If the DNAS/GTZ project will be continued, it will be on a smaller scale and more focused on follow-up on the created stove production and dissemination system than on initiating new activities to disseminate improved stoves. Only in Mali a new domestic energy strategy program is scheduled to start, prepared by the "Unite de Pilotage de la Strategic Energie Domestique" (UPS), comparable with the Energy II progrsm in Niger. IIn comparison: Brnes a.o. menton program costs per stove in run from less than $2 fin China) to just over *4 a stove (in India) 19 RPTES - Rtvicw of Impmved Stove and Fuel Substituion Projects For the stove programs that have ended, there are still officials at department level who do some follow-up work, but in practice this is not effective because of a lack of political interest and priority, and consequently deficiency of financial means. For these projects only a very limited impression exists of the actual status and monitoring data on stove sales and performance are not recorded any more. As soon as projects have come to an end and the activities to promote improved stoves have stopped or continue only on a low level, the tendency is that sales numbers of improved metal stoves decrease and construction of 3PA stoves declines, until both seem to stabilize on a low but constant level. There are no hard numbers on this phenomena, especially not for the rural ares, because no project had progranned follow-up monitoring activities. But the little data available gives enough indication. For instance: - in Niamey now the sales of Mal Sauki stoves are at 400 per month, while they were around 1000 stoves per month during the project Sales rate for Mar Sauki to traditional stoves is estimated to be I to 6. - in Mali sales numbers of metal stoves have gone down, even during project intervention, from 900 to 250 stoves per month. Sales of 2000 stoves per month are claimed however for an improved stove that is not promoted by the project(!) and preferred by the consumers, the 'foyer a trois barres".(Gajo, 1993). The fuel saving capacity of this improved stove, however, is doubtful, It is a Ouaga M&allique with a different pan support system that allows for the use of smaller pans, leading to increased heat losses and a reduced fuel economy. - in Gambia 60% of a control group of 3PA users was still using the stove after 2 years. During this period the project was still active. - in Senegal the market share of the Sakkanal stove is estimated at a stable I0%. On the other hand, in Bamako the penetration rate of improved stoves is 65%, but one has to keep in mind that in Mali the possession of an improved stove is obliged by law. Nevertheless the utilisation rate of improved stoves was estimated on 63%. (Gajo, 1993). In the other countries, improved stoves are stilU on the market, but their share is small and limited to a hard core of improved stove users: those households that appreciated the advantages the improved stove can bring, like reduction in cooking time and fuel costs, giving them the motivation to replace the old improved stove with a new one. Now it is clear that improved stoves don't sell themselves automatically and that users don't always replace the improved stove by a new one, after breakdown. In the next paragraph an attempt will be done to investigate the reasons for this phenomenon. 1.9.4 Factors affecting consumers satsfaction and project sustainability Improved stoves were bought because the user expected certain benefits from them. What benefits could be expected was extensively explained in the demonstrations and publicity 20 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substiwtion Projects campaigns. Main items were economy of fuel and time, comfort and the environmental gains. If one or more of the promised benefits does not show in the daily use, the customer feels deceived and will not buy a new improved stove. So the fact that improved stoves often are not replaced by new improved stoves can be explained by: - disappointing fiel economy * disappointing reduction in cooking time - relatively high price compared to traditional stove - disappointing increase in comfort These disappointments lead to a low motivation to buy a new improved stove. Environmental arguments to buy a new inproved stove are not so important and less so to the urban population as to the rural population. Fuel economy The promised fuel economy of around 300%, was based on tests done under controlled and favourable conditions. There is no doubt that this level of economy can be realized, but then the fire needs a lot of attention. This may not be the case in the daily practice of a household. 100 80 * . 60- ----- -.---- -i - .--- U 40- ------ ----- - -----0~ 20 ... --- .-.----. Traditional 5% 20% 30% Fuel economy EStove costs la Fuel costs Fig. 16 Costs of traditional and improves stoves for an average urban family, based on a 1 year acononic stove duration 21 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substizwion Projects Hardly any measurements have been done to verify the fuel economy realized in practice, most results come from surveys. The latest measurements done in Niger show economies of only 7%. Why should the situation in the other countries be so much different and better? If fuel economy of improved stoves is really only somewhere between 5% and 10%, one of the main advantages for the households disappears: hardly any money or time to collect fuel is saved. And the small savings that might be realized are hard to appreciate, because most of the poorer families buy their fuel on a day to day basis (see Fig. 16). With fuel- economies of 5 to 10%, the pay-back period, as far as it was understood and served as a motivation for the improved stove, looses all meaning. During cooking, improved stoves need a lot of attention to realize the potential fuel economy. If the same attention is given to a traditional stove or three stone fire, then an important fuel economy is possible. But still the comparative laboratory cooking test results stand: with maximal attention given to the traditional as well as to the improved stove, fuel economies of over 30%/ are possible. In practice 25% fuel economy should be possible and is realized in some cases (ref Rwanda, Niger some cases, Mali (G1Z, 1994)), probably in the group of families that keep buying improved stoves. The technology of improved wood and charcoal cook stoves is not (yet) on a level where the user can leave the stove unattended for some time like for gas or kerosene stoves. The wood needs to be pushed in, the door needs to be closed, new fuel needs to be added, etc. Maybe on this point the expectations of the customers were also to high. Besides, the efforts of most projects did not aim at the improvement of cooking techniques. A clear lesson learned from the Sahelian experience is, that the introduction and dissemination of improved stoves should be accompanied with a strategy to introduce fuel- saving cooking techniques. Cooking time No complaints have been recorded about the quickness of the improved stoves and this was also not to be expected. The power and efficiency of the improved stoves are higher than those of the traditional stoves, resulting in shorter times to bring the contents of the pan to the boil. This suggests that the time saving feature of the improved stove technology worked as expected. High price compared to traditional stove Improved stoves have to be purchased from the daily household budget, which is managed by the housewife (this in contradiction with kerosene or gas stoves which are considered a technological innovation compared to the traditional stove and therefore normally are paid for by the man). To buy a new improved stove, that costs twice as much as the traditional stove, the housewives must be really motivated. If the performance of the first improved stove has not been as good as expected, the motivation to buy a new one will be low. And even if she goes to the market to buy a new improved stove, she might change her mind on the spot because at the market she is confronted with a number of other articles she also 22 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects needs. So if the motivation to buy a new improved stove is low, she might change her mind, buy a traditional stove and use the remaining money for other necessary items. It was for this reason that several projects have created stove selling points in the neighbourhoods. In Niger, for instance, selling points were installed in the neighbourhoods during the first phase of the project. At the end of this first phase these selling points were liquidated, followed by an immediate drop in the number of stoves sold. In this respect the price of the wood also plays an important role. Wood still is relatively cheap, and the price certainly does not represent the economic value. Basically the market price of fuelwood is composed of labour and transport costs and profit. Sometimes a little tax is included, but the control on fuelwood is so poor that paying the tax can easily be avoided. In generl, the shadow price of firewood is two to three times the market price, as reflected to the costs of wood produced through sustainable natural forest management or afforestation (see paragraph 1.7.1). At the same time, higher woodprices would stimnulate the sales of improved stoves. Several projects have noticed an increase in stove sales when fuel prices went up. Of course fuel prices should not be raised to promote improved stoves, but because they should reflect the economic value and to stimulate it's rational use. Convmenience It is doubtful if improved stoves add much to the convenience of the housewife other than in reducing the quantity of fuel needed and reducing the cooking time. Improved stoves use the samne fuel as the traditional stoves and advantages and disadvantages of the fuel do not change with the use of an improved stove. If the old stove produced smoke, the improved one will (with the exception of the few cases where stoves with chimneys were introduced). Improved stoves maybe a little easier to light and less messy because the ashes stay inside the stove, but ignition still needs some effort and ashes need to be removed. In this aspect only gas and, to a lesser extend kerosene, offer a real improvement in comforL The closed improved stoves offer a lower risk to direct bums from fire. Often quoted disadvantages of improved stoves, related to users' convenience, are that they don't provide light and that they give dirtier pans, there is no remaining charcoal for ironing and it accommodates only one size of pan. Maybe be the closed improved stoves offer a lower risk to direct burns from fire, but the urban metal stoves still get very hot, hot enough to get burned, and this high temperature of the stove body is not obvious, especially not to children. 23 RPTES - Review of Improved SlDve and Fuel Substituion Projects 1.9.5 Lessons leanmed I Better marketing studies are needed before project starts, parting from the needs of the beneficiary population: What is it that the housewives want to improve their situation? Maybe they would not put improved stoves on the first place. An integrated approach is needed to improve the kitchen as a whole, considering energy and health aspects, and life conditions. More coordination with water and nutrition and health and urbanization and possible other projects. 2 During cooking, improved stoves need a lot of attention to realize their potential fuel economy. If not, the firewood saving effect of the use of improved stoves to reduce firewood demand are disappointing, on micro- as well as on a macro level. But still the comparative laboratory cooking test results stand: with maximal attention given to the traditional as well as to the improved stove, fuel economies of over 30%/O are possible. The aspect of "proper stove use' has to be taken into account seriously when planning improved woodstove projects. Specific activities should be defined, aimed at the adoption of fuel-saving cooking techniques at multiple levels and through multiple activities, such as school lessons, demonstrations, nutrition programs, through women organizations, water and sanitation projects, etc. 3 At the same time, the introduction of fuel saving cooking techniques to traditional stove users can also reduce their firewood consumption, albeit to a lesser extend than in combination with improved stoves: If adequate attention is given to a traditional stove or three stone fire, an important fuel economy is possible. 4 The technology of improved wood and charcoal cook stoves is not (yet) on a level where the user can leave the stove unattended for some time like for gas or kerosene stoves. The wood needs to be pushed in, the door needs to be closed, new fuel needs to be added, etc. It is possible that on this point the expectations of the users were too high. Up to now, little research has been done on improved wood stoves that need less attention. One way is to cut the wood in small pieces and have closed stoves with separated primary and secondary air supplies. In principle charcoal stoves need less attention then wood stoves because the fuel is already in small pieces and only primary air is needed. But one can not say that improved charcoal stoves are a bigger success than improved woodstoves, so there are apparently more hidden factors that influence customers behaviour. 5 Fuel economy achieved by the use of improved woodstoves, has not been of sufficient interest to provoke a permanent switch to these cooking devices for the major part of the urban an rural population. As soon as project activities stop, the diemiation rate of improved stoves reduces. An important factor is, that the market price of woodfuel does not reflect it's economic value, and is relatively cheap compared to other fuels. In some situations an increase of the sales of improved stoves was actually recorded when fuelprices rose, such as in Senegal, upon the rise of charcoal prices. On the other hand, however, it might be that this enthusiasm for 24 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects improved stove might be a first and temporal reaction of the market to higher fuelprices. 6 Better monitoring and evaluation systems are needed. What happens to stoves, how do they perform in practice, and what do users think of them? This study shows that lacking or failing monitoring systems frstrate the improvement of projects. 7 Improved stove projects should be integrated in an overall household energy policy of a country, which should develop a clear policy towards the reduction of firewood consumptions for the different segments in the energy market. Demand and supply- side interventions should be integrated, while woodsaving activities should be coordinated with substitution activities, as shown in Fig. 1. Domestic energy consumers should have a range of possibilities to reduce wood fuel consumption. 8 Stove projects should be well planned, and phased from the beginning. An example, with the enumeration of some crucial project elements, is given in Fig. 17. 25 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects I Project preparation Objctie Fornulate a woodstove project integrated in overall policies to reduce firewood consumption, on energy, forstry, urbanization and nutrition Slategies (participative) investigations, studies and project formulations P"wtpk activitis * Assessment of objectives, strategy, tasks and (differendated) consumer makets for traditional and modem energy sources; * Adaptation of models to local conditions, based on field experience; * Crate awareness on the necessity to reduce fiewood consumption; * Investigate possibilities for legisladve, tauation and control measures, on forest management, firewood commerce and stimultion of firewood economizing acdvities; * FomWulation of second phase. 2 Production and disseminaton of woodstoves Objectie Introduce improved woodstoves and efricient cooking habits S*iatega5 Stimulation of commercial production, educational activites, community mobilization, sales promotion, monitoring, evaluation, legislation PrvwcjI activities * Set-up of a loca commercial production capacity; * Intoduction of stoves in the local market; * Promotion of education activities on economic cooking techniques and correct woodstove use towards housewives, seeking integration with existng projects on health, gender, housing and/or education. Development of educational materials; * Introduction pricing and taxtion measures towards traditional and substi- ution fuels; * Permanent monitoring of production and marketing, fiewood sales data, deforestaion rate, etc; * lnmprovements on introduced models based on monitoring results; * Formuladion of third phase. 3 Follow up Objectiv Guarantee sustinability of introduced measures SUNgeies Sales promotion, monitoring, evaluation Stimulation of commercial producdon Oimited) h*Ji ac5ivh * saies promotion: booster campaigns, making use of monitoring results; * monitDring: x monitor producbon and sales data; x monitor effects of pricing and taxation policies; x monitor reduction of overall firewood consumption dat,; x monitor consumer satisfaction (for at least 2-3 product service life cycles); * follow-up: x stimulate technical improvements on woodstoves; x stimulate activities that promote reduction of firewood consumption. Fig. 17 Possible program cyde for improved woodstove projects 26 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substituion Projects 1.10 Conclusions on wood- and charcoal stoves 1 Wood and charcoal stove programs have played an important role in the efforts of govements of Sahelian countries in their struggle against deforestation; the reduction of the domestic energy demand is a key element in a broader strategy to reduce the demand of woody fuels, which is one of the principal causes of wood cutting in forests close to the urban centra; 2 On one hand, woodstove and charcoal stove programs in the reviewed countries have been successful: the goals set were met or even surpassed, and (ex-) project staff members were positive about the results of the projects they were managing; 3 In urban areas local craftsmen were taught and motivated to produce improved stoves based on a standardized design (Ouaga Mitallique stove). Project activities were limited to the training of the craftsmen and promotion of the stoves (demonstration, publicity, social promotion). Production and commercialization was left to market forces. 4 In rnual areas more simple improved three-stove (3 Pierres Amrliores), which was recommended at the international CILSSIFSSTD seminar of Ouagadougou (1984). Dissemination was based on self-construction by rural women, accompanied by trained (local) craftsmen /women. 5 After almost ten years of project activities in the reviewed countries, the impression exists that the overall effect of the introduction of improved stoves has not been as expected, although the number of stoves to be disseminated in almost all projects were reached. 6 The observed dissatisfaction has two principal aspects: a. the impression exists that the replacement rate of improved woodstoves is low; b. after ceasing project activities, sales-of improved stoves generally decline, giving the impression of limited project sustainability. low replacement rate 7 In order to explain this geneml feeling of dissatisfaction, a closer look should be taken at the objectives and the targets of the reviewed project. These generally part from the supposition that the introduction and dissemination of improved woodstoves would generate the desired wood-saving effect. Wood fuel economies were determined in the laboratory, and the desired oveall wood-saving effect was supposed to be the product of the dissemination of a certain number of stoves, based on market forces. 8 This rather technical analysis assumed a snow-ball effect to be generated once a certain number of woodstoves would be introduced. Consumers would automatically be convinced of the usefulness of the improved stoves, and would want to have one. In practice, however, this snow-ball effect did not occur. 9 Reasons are the higher price of the improved stoves, and the limited consumer satisfaction with stove performance. 27 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substiution Procuts 10 Surveys and field performance tests indicate that fuel savings in practice are much lower than, based on laboratory experiments, could be expected; The mission is of opinion that these limited fuel savings are due to the dissemination strategies, which failed to include the promotion of improved of cooking techniques. Laboratory tests have already shown that maximum fuel economy can only be reached when the stoves are used properly. Similarly, it has been shown that also with traditional stoves, improving cooking techniques may also save fuel (the Bussmann diamond, Fig. 12), albeit to a lesser extend than with improved stoves. 11 At the same time, many improved woodstove users did not find sufficient incentives to save firewood, due to it's market price, which does not reflect it's economic value. 12 Due to the incomplete dissemination strategy, consumers saved less wood than they had expected, causing longer pay-back periods. In an optimal situation, the extra-investment for an improved stove may be recovered within a few days or weeks; whereas with improper stove use this period may rise to a few months. This longer period is far beyond the investment horizon of the average member of the target-group and is, according to the mission, the most important reason why only a limited number of improved stove users replace their stove by a new improved stove. 13 At the same time, the situation of the Sahelian countries and of the project's target groups has deteriorated, rather than improved. the lowest strata of the Sahelian urban societies have found themselves in the deprived situation of decreasing purchase power. At present, investment decisions that go beyond daily basic needs such as food and fuel, are postponed. In our opinion the choice between traditional and improved woodstoves suffers from this situation. 14 The fact that the implied monitoring and evaluation procedures failed to register consumers dissatisfaction, puts a questionmark at these activities and their methodology. The fact that up to now no data are available on penetration of improved stoves in the woodstove market, nor on the replacement rates of improved woodstoves, or on it's causes, suggests incomplete and/or inadequate monitoring. 15 Additionally it should be mentioned that monitoring of the reviewed projects leaved much to be desired. In general no field data were available even the most elementary data needed to evaluate project performance, i.e. woodstove sales, number of craftsmen trained and/or active, or saved firewood. limited project sustainability 16 Limited project sustainability, resulting in rapidly declining sales rates of improved woodstoves can partly be explained from the ceasing promotion when projects stop. Continuation of promotion activities, including demonstrations, publicity and environmental awareness activities, appear to be of crucial importance for lasting high sales rates. 28 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects 1.11 Recommendations on wood- and charcoal stoves I Woodstove programs should be integmted in overall programs that combat the ecological disaster developing in the Sahelian zone. These programs should contain elements on supplying, saving and substitution of traditional (wood) fuels. 2 Programs should have a clear linkage to related policy-areas, such as forestation, public housing, health, water and sanitation, social welfare, education, etc. 3 On an intrangional level, an active exchange of information should be promoted. Periodical meetings on the exchange of information and experience can contribute to this. Efforts developed in one country should not be seen isolated fonn other countries. 4 Programs should from the beginning be carried out in clearly distinguished phases. Suggestions for such an approach is given in Fig. 17; 5 The program set-up should take the following factors into consideration: a. Reducing firewood demand should be the overall objective. All other objectives should be derived from this main project goal; b. Strategy should contain a differentiation towards target groups: - lowest income groups: fuelwood saving through energy saving cooking techniques; - low income groups: cooking techniques and improved stoves - low-middle income groups: introduction of improved stoves and kerosene as a substitution fuel - middle and high-income groups: LPG as a substitution fuel. c. Development of improved stoves should be based on the knowledge present at the target groups. Endusers should participate in project priority assessment and the (technical) development of improved stoves; d. dissemination of improved stoves and substitution fuels should be accompanied by an extensive information and awareness campaign on their correct use; e. adequate monitoring systems should be set up, which permit a continuous evaluation of it's results and impacts, all over the chain of firewood commercialization and consumption; f. sales and taxation policies on firewood, charcoal, substitution fuels and stoves; g. a follow-up phase, providing funds to continue publicity, monitoring and evaluation activities, as well as continuation of promotion activities through a limited number of channels (schools, churches). 6 In order to avoid duplication of efforts, promotion of improved cooking techniques should be executed through existing programs on education, nutrition, health, women, credit funds, water and sanitation, social reforestation, etc, through schools, churches and projects. In order to provoke the desired mobilization, the energy project's activities should aim at training and motivation of promoters, teachers and other staff of these organizations. 30 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects 2 THE SAHELIAN REGIONAL BUTANE GAS PROGRAM 2.1 Program Context 2.1.1 General background Most of the Sahelian countries have worked on the dissemnination of improved wood fuel cooking stoves since the late seventies or early eighties, often supported by the CELSS and external funding. Only Senegal, Cape Verde and Mauritania started to promote the use of substitution fuels, concentrating on butane gas, in the same period. From the mid eighties, when the Sahelian countries were confronted by ever increasing urban populations, the woodstove programs in each of the countries adopted a wider strategy to reduce wood fuel consumption. In this strategy, substitution played an important role. Under these circumstances, the Sahelian Regional Butane Gas Program (PRG) was initiated. The financing agreement was signed in February 1989 and regional project activities commenced in January 1990 (Djimrangar, 1994). National activities started in 1990 (Niger), in 1991 (Burkina Faso, Chad, Gambia, Mali and Senegal), in 1992 (Mauritania and Guineee-Bissau and even as late as 1993 (Cape Verde). With this program, favourable conditions were to be reated for the introduction and penetration of butane gas at the level of middle- and high-income groups in the big cities, offering them a broad range of equipment, well adapted to the cooking habits of the local population and at a competitive price. The participating countries were to organize awareness raising and information campaigns and promotion activities. 2.1.2 Program funding and donor coordination The Sahelian Regional Butane Gas Program (PRG) was financed by the Commission of the European Communities (CEC) and coordinated by the CILSS, based in Ouagadougou. Funds were put at the disposal of the national governments of the CILSS member countries to be spent at their choice on equipment (gas bottles, burners and supports) and/or fuel (butane gas). Equipment and fuel were to made available to the urban population in cooperation with the gas importing petroleum companies: Shell, Total, Mobil and smaller local companies. The participating countries were left quite free in the way they choose to use the funds. It was used to arnange the import of substantial quantities of gas bottles and burners and/or to subsidize this equipment and/or to subsidize the gas itself. Loans were provided to the petroleum companies in the form of capital or equipment (gas bottles). The petroleum companies took care of the (re)filling of the gas bottles and the sale of the gas bottles and other equipment These loans, over one year, with a modest interest of 2.5%, were returned to the project in monthly terms, and formed a revolving fund. In the case of gas subsidies the money did not flow back to the project and eventually the government of the country 31 RPrEs - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects concerned had to find its own funding to maintain the subsidy. Generally this was done by increasing the tax on other petroleum products, such as gasoline and diesel fuel. About 17% of the program funds were used for the regional progrm coordinator, based in Ouagadougou. ? shows the breakdown Table 6 Project's quantitative targets per counry of program funds Targets allocated to each country consumption Budget and, gives a brief Country (tlyr) stoves (F.CFA) explanation of the Burkina Faso 4,000- 30,500 270,640,000 Gambia 1,400 4,800 206,353,000 objectives. Mali 2,040 48,000 312,047,000 Niger 1,700 15,000 324,000,000 The contributions of the Senegal 50,000 - 382,415,000 local govenments were usually in kind and consisted of the provision of personnel (usually the national program coordinator and support staff), office space and facilities, the cooperation of governmental organizations like research institutes, and the assistance of improved stove projects to demonstration and promotion activities. 2.1.3 Program management and supervision The overall progran was coordinated by CULSS through a regional program manager based in Ouagadougou, whose responsibilities included: - to assure program coordination and monitoring; - to provide technical assistance to the national programs; - to promote exchange of information and experience; - to organize the annual regional CELSS meetings; and - to prepare and distibute the annual mports. At the national level the progmra was executed by the National Coordinator, assisted by a secretary and a small team of promotors. During the annual meetings, national program coordinators, the regional program coordinator and representatives of the donor (CEC) discussed the progress of the activities and coordinated joint promotion activities. As another way of liaison, the regional coordinator had the possibility to visit each country up to two times annually. 2.1.4 Regional program objectves and targets The project document described as the overall objective of the progrm the effective utilisation of butane gas at both the national and regional level. The secondary objective was to promote the use of butane gas as cooking fuel in urban centres in order to stop the progressive exploitation of firewood, a practice that gradually destroys the semi-urban forests. 32 RPIES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects The following targets were set in 1990: - Evaluate the gas promotion activities in each of the member states and supervise the coherence between the national programs; - Supervise the establishment of the national program structures; - Establish activity plans in each member state which are coherent and take into account the interest of all parties involved; - Establish a system for the exchange of information between the national and regional coordinators; - Acquisition of fuel trucks for land-locked member states to reduce the transport cost component in the butane gas price. - Contribute to the training of national program coordinators To realize the objectives and tasks, the national coordinator was to develop activities in the following fields: - Consumers information and promotion - Support the establishment of a gas fund; - Support the production of pan supports; - Provision of gas transport means; - Technical and financial assistance to program execution; The quantative targets per country were set in numbers of gas stoves to be disseminated and in an increase in tons of gas to be sold compared to a reference year. These quantative targets are also summanzed in Table 6. 2.2 Institutional framework: actors and roles The national coordinator was to initiate the project activities, like making the financial anTangements with the private sector and organizing the promotional activities. In all countries the program was executed in close collaboration with the oil and gas importing petroleum companies like Shell Total, Mobil and smaller local companies. These companies arrange the import of gas, the filling of the bottles, and the import and retailing of the equipment Imports werelare done in concertation with the national government/coordinator. An important aspect of the activities of the private companies is the control of safety. At the filling plants the bottles are checked and fixed ore taken out of circulation. The manufacture of the supports was done by local workshops. These workshops were trained to manufacture the supports according to the specifications of the petroleum companies who were responsible for the design of the supports. 33 RPMES - Review of Improved StDve and Fuel Subsdtution Projects 2.3 Stove technology Gas stoves The gas stoves introduced use gas bottles of 3 and 6 kg, with a burner screwed directly on the bottle. The small 3 kg bottle with burner is placed in a supporting structure to assure the stability during cooking. The bigger 6 kg bottle offers enough stability from itself and the pan support is fixed directly on the bottle, see Fig. 18, which shows a 6 kg bottle with the Nopale (Senegal) or Gateli (Mali) pan supporL In this way a simple, safe and cheap construction is assured, without hoses and pressure reducers. Two types of gas burns are used, the Primus burner that is marketed by hg. 18 Gas botte with pan Total and the Camping Gaz burner that is sold by Shell. support Both burns can be used on 3 and 6 kg bottles. In Gambia a copy of the Primus burner is used that appears of the same quality but costs half the price of the Primus burner. The one exception is Burkina Faso where an important number of small, two burner gas- ranges were marketed, that are connected to the gas bottle by means of a pressure reducer and a hose. The advantage of this system is, that they can be used with a 6 kg as well as with a 12.5 kg bottle. Efficiency and fuel consumption In general the gas stoves are developed. and tested by the petroleum companies, but efficiency numbers are not known. In some cases the stoves have also been tested by the local stove laboratories, using waterboiling and controlled cooking tests. No results are known, but the results were said to be satisfactorily. In Niger, Mali and Senegal gas stoves were tested by the consultant during ESMAP Household Energy Studies. P varied from 3 kW for the Camping Gaz burner to 7 kW for the Primus burner. In a number of cases the performance of the gas stoves could be improved by reducing the height of the pan over the burner. The tests also showed that the Camping Gaz burner was difficult to control in the low power range, resulting in unnecessary high fuel consumption (Bussmann and Visser, 1986; Visser, 1988). In Senegal the Camping Gaz burner has been replaced by an improved model. Stoves have not been field tested, although there is a consumer feed-back during the stove demonstrations. In some cases this has led to adaptations of the stoves. In general stoves are well accepted and appreciated for their convenience and cleanness. Stoves were well adapted to local habits. 34 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects 2.4 Marketing and dissemination Market studies were not always done: In some countries the number of potential customers was estimated by adding up the number of civil servants, employees of semi-statal enterprises and officials of private companies. In general, the marketing studies showed that the people was interested in butane gas because of its ease of use and cleanliness, but they were afraid of gas and thought it to be too expensive. The butane gas was promoted through demonstrations in quarters, neighbourhoods and marketplaces, through promotion spots on radio and television, through advertisements in newspapers and through billboards. At the demonstrations promotional material was distributed like posters, stickers, T-shirts, calendars and leaflets. Themes of the promotion campaigns were the comfort of use and the struggle against desertification: awareness about the woodfuel crisis and its background and the role butane gas stoves can play to reduce the pressure on woodfuel resources was stressed in the demonstration sessions. Goal of the promotion and demonstrations was to create a demand for the gas stoves, and leave the actual distribution to the market. The sale of equipment was also promoted through the creation of credit systems for people with steady jobs, like civil-servants, employees of semi-statal enterprises, officials of private houses and militaries. Payment was arranged through the employer. Household equipment was sold at selling points of the petroleum companies like gas stations, but also through a system of wholesalers and retailers. The empty bottles were returned through the same channels for checking and refilling. 2.5 Pricing policies and taxation The manufacture of the locally made supports was organized through the petroleum companies and were sold without profit. The complete set of equipment (burner, bottle and support) received a 5000 F.CFA subsidy except for Gambia and Senegal. The price of the gas bottle was more a deposit because it was around 50% of the real value of the bottle, which was between 10.000 and 12.000 F.CFA. The costs of this outstanding capital were recovered through a supplement in the gas price. At the filling stations the gas bottles were/are checked for damage. Often they can be repaired, sometimes they have to be discarded. Actual percentage of discarded bottles in Senegal for instance is around 2%. These costs are also recovered through a supplement in the gas price. Table 7 gives an indication of price structure of the bottles, burners and supports before the F.CFA devaluation. It was not possible to get a detailed picture of the gas prices in all five countries. In most countries tax and customs rights on the gas are low. Gas is sold at around 250 F.CFA/kg. Of the countries reviewed Mali, Senegal and Niger subsidize the gas. Senegal subsidies up to 50%/1, rewlting in a consumers price of 125 F.CFA/kg and in Niger and Mali the gas is subsidized at around 50 F.CFAJkg to keep the consumer price at 240 F.CFA/kg. In Mali the gas price after devaluation has risen to 500 F.CFA. Subsidy has gone up to 220 F.CFA/kg, 35 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Table 7 Indication of equipment prices (before the F.CFA devaluationl Niger Burkina Faso MaSl Gambia Senegal (F.CFA) (F.CFAI CF.A) (Dalasi) (FCFA) 6 kg equipment bottle 8.000 3,000 4,000 196 3,000 burner 2,500 2.500 2.500 16 2.500 support 4,500 5,000 5,500 206 2.000 total 15,000 10,500 12,000 418 7,500 subsidy 5,000 5,000 5,000 0 0 cons.price 10,000 5,500 7,000 418 7,500 3 kg equipment botte 6,000 2500 4,000 123 2,500 burner 2,000 2,000 2,000 16 2,000 support 4,000 4,000 4,000 164 2,000 total 12,000 8,500 10,000 303 6,500 subsidy 5,000 5,000 5,000 0 0 cons.price 7,000 3,500 5,000 303 6.500 leaving the consumer price at 280 F.CFA/kg. These subsidies are paid from the program fonds or from supplementary taxes on the other oil products like diesel oil and gas oil. 2.6 Program evaluation in the 5 RPTES sample-countries The introduction of butane gas as a household fuel has definitely been a success in Senegal, where introduction already started in 1974 with the 3kg bottle and the Blip stove. Gas consumption increased with the introduction of the 6 kg bottle and the Nopald stove in 1983, but the major increas was achieved in 1987 with a new price structure for gas resulting in considerably lower prices. At this moment, the yearly growth of the gas sales is around 22%. (Shell Senegal. 1994). In other countries butane gas was only introduced on a large scale as a substitution fuel for the urban households with the CILSS program. Since this program only ended in december 1993, it is still to early to judge if the program was a success or not, even though the number of stoves to be dseminted was not realized. Main reasons for this are a regular shortage of available equipment and, sometimes, gas. The consumption of gas has increased, but not to the extend it was planned. In Niger and Mali, where gas is subsidized through the project, the wealthier part of the population (that already used the gas) has also profited from the CILSS fuids, despite the original goals of the program. A weak point in the whole program was the difference in pricing policy in the different countries. In some countries gas was subsidized, in others it wasn't, resulting in large price 36 RPTES - Rcview of Improved Stove and Fuel Substiaion Projects differences between countries and sometimes within a country. Prizes for equipment also varied from one country to another due to different subsidizing policies. These differences are hard to explain for a regional progam. Apparently governments are not willing to coordinate pricing policies, which makes it difficult to believe that, in a next phase of the gas program, the CILSS countries can commonly realize gas import and equipment production activities. In the same way as in the first part of this study, evaluation of the projects can be presented on three aspects: - Effectivity, or. have the projects achieved their targets - Efficiency, or judged on a rational basis, what have been the costs at which the final result is achieved; - Sustainability, or what are the (expected) results on the long term. 2.6.1 Targets vs achievements butane gas market penetra don Targets of the programs were set in rather quantitative terms, on gas fuel importation and stove dissemination. Table 8 and Table 9 summarize these targets as wel as the quantities of gas and numbers of stoves sold. Table 8 LPG import data (1987-1993) Gas Sales God Realized 1987 1990 1991 1992 1993 1992 1992 1993 Counry It) It) It) It) It) (t) 1%) (%) Niger 480 556 613 670 700 4,000 39 41 Burkina 1230 2151 2519 2886 3495 1,400 72 87 Mali 670 834 1136 1441 1800 2,040 71 88 Gambia 450 800., 1084 1366 1800 1,700 98 129 Senegal 18100 32111 36306 40500 45000 50,000 81 90 Table 8 shows the butane gas consumption data for 1987 to 1993, as compared to the quantitative targets set for the year 1992 (1991 data are obtained trough interpolation). Data show that only in Gambia sales targets were met In Burkina Faso, Senegal and Mali reasonable results were obtained. Table 9 presents the targets and achieved sales of gas stoves, 3 kg and 6 kg together. Results are poor, below 50%f. of the target sales, except for Niger where 67% of the targeted number was sold. 37 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Table 9 Stove sales data (1992-1993) Stoves sold Goal Rearized 1992 1993 Country .1992 1993 1992 M%) (%) Niger 6,871 10,123 15.000 46 67 Burkina 10,000 14.378 30.500 33 47 Mali 9.460 16.666 48,000 20 35 Inter fuel substWdon and woodfuel savings impacts Assuming that gas is exclusively used as a cooking fuel, the increase in butane gas sales in a country can be an indicator for the effectiveness of the project. Data on butane gas consumption in the project target group (low and middle class income households) from before project start were not available, so an absolute estimation of the project impact, inter fuel substitution and woodfuel savings cannot be made. However, for the purpose of estimation, a zero consumption rate for this group of households before 1990 on 3 kg and 6 kg bottles may be assumed for all countries except Senegal, where butane gas started to penetrate the market since the early eighties. This means we assume that before 1990 al the gas was consumed by "rich" households that have never even used wood. Fuelwood savings can be estimated based on a butane gas-woodfuel equivalent of 6 kg firewood per kg butane, assuming wood heating value of 17 MI/kg and gas 45 MJ/kg and 50% energy savings compared to traditional wood fuel stoves. Table 10 Estimation of woodfuel substitution Gas consumption increase {tonnes) Fuelwood savings (tonnes) Country 1992 1993 1992 1993 Niger 114 144 684 864 Burkina 735 1,344 4,410 8,064 Mali 607 966 3,642 5,796 Gambia 566 1.000 3,396 6,000 *) Based on daily consumption of 0.7 kg firewood/pers.day and 6 persons per family Based on this, woodsavings can be calculated (see Table 10). Calculated in this way, wood substtution is much lower than estimated by Madon (1994) 2.6.2 Program efficiency An indicator which could permit some comparison between the efficiency of a substitution program like PRG with other programs that aim at the reduction of fuelwood demand, could be the amount of program costs, compared to the amount of firewood saved. Table 11 calculates this indicator for the five programs. The indicators obtained for Burkina Faso, Mali and Gambia show an average program cost of US 78.- per ton firewood saved. Fig. 15 on page 19 shows the program costs for the dissemination of woodstoves, which is between US 8 and US 40/stove. Comparing this number with the case of gas substitution, 38 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Table II Program costs referred to wood equivalent Gas consumption country Budget increase Program costs 1990-1993 gas wood eq. (F.CFA) (US$1 (t) (US$/t) (USS/t)I Niger 270,640 902,133 315 2,864 477 Burkina F 206,353 687.843 2,447 281 47 Mali 312,047 1,040,156 1,877 554 92 Gambia 324.000 1,080,000 1,852 583 97 Senegal 382,415 1,274,716 25,473 50 8 _Totl 1,495,455 4,984,848 31,964 572 95 Expressed as US$/ ton firewood saved, based on 1 ton gas 6 ton wood. and assuming that the improved woodstove would save aprox. 200 kg/year6, some idea can be obtained on the relation of costs and effects: - for gas substitution, program costs a approximately US 62.- per ton firewood saved; - for improved woodstoves, program costs lie between US 40 and US 240.- per ton firewood saved. 'Te Senegal case showed that, once the penetration of gas passes a certain level, gas importations raised very quickly. Over the last few years, the increase of gas consumption has been over 20% per year. The Senegal case also indicates that once the market share of gas passes a certain level, the costs per ton of fuelwood saved can decrease enormously and the cost effectiveness of gas substitution becomes much higher than that of an improved woodstove program. 2.6.3 Program sustinabiity It is for certain that households are highly interested in butane gas as a household fuel, but it remains to be seen if the price level of equipment and gas is good enough and if the supply of gas is secure enough to realize continuously high penetration rates. The high price of the gas and the necessary equipment is the most serious threat for large scale dissemination under the poorer part of the population. The duration of a three year project is far too short to reach the whole urban population in the Sahel. Only in Senegal, where gas was already introduced long before the start of the CILSS program, other cities outside the capital are effected by the butanisation. In the other countries it was but a start of a process that now risks to be frustrated by the recent devaluation. based on average firewood savings (25%), family size (7 persons), stove number (2 stoves/family) and fueiwood consumption (0.7 kg firewood/person.day) 39 RPES - Reviw of Improved Stove and Fued Substitution Projects The limited number of disseminated stoves is partly the result of a lack in infrastructure: disruptions in supply of gas and equipment. On the other hand the limited number of stoves disseminated does notjustify large investnents in an improved butane gas infrastructure like storage and bottling capacity, certainly not on a national level. In the execution the program has been a strange mix of mandate by governments and petroleum companies, mainly because the funds were put at the disposal of the governments. But governments are not the right organisms to market a new product, however much this product may be of national interest. A more efficient way might be to contract the introduction of butane gas stoves directly out to the petroleum companies. For the actual program already they have done most of the work. Despite of the remaining funds from the CILSS program that have come back to the governments as revolving funds, there is a need for supplementary funds to continue the gas dissemination program, especially in view of the recent devaluation of the F.CFA. The program now has only touched the capital cities and some major town and should continue the dissemination of gas stoves in other town and then in rural areas. The program should also be continued in the cities that have already attained a significant penetration of gas stoves, to promote a second gas stove to replace the wood/charcoal stove that is still in use next to the first gas stove. In a continuing program the participating countries should combine their imports of equipment and gas, to achieve a lower-price and to homogenize prices and price structures among the countries. On the long run petroleum companies are basicly interested to sell gas. Side activities, such as the sales of household equipment, do not really have their concern. It might be a good idea to interest other private entrepreneurs to start the import, manufacture and sales of the equipment 2.6.4 F.CFA devaluation There exists no doubt that the devaluation will have a negative impact on the position of butane gas as a household fuel. Because fuel as well as equipment are imported goods, their prices will increase, probably by a 1000/e, having a devastating consequence for the dissemination of butane gas under the larger part of the population that have medium and lower incomes. In Senegal for instance, the deposit for a 6 kg gas bottle will go up from 3000 F.CFA to ±7000 F.CFA. It is to be expected that this will bring butane gas out of reach for the initial .target group, such as households with a regular income like government officials, laborers, militaries, etc. Only the rich top layer of the population, that already used gas already before PRG started, will be able to afford gas as a cooking fuel. To counteract this development, prices should be kept as low as possible. This could be reached by: 40 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects * subsidies on gas and equipment, and tax reduction. Subsidies could be financed by increased taxes on other petroleum products, the system that is already used in some countries. * prices can also partially be reduced by the regionally coordinated purchase of gas on the international market, in order to benefit from economy of scale. For bottles, burners and materials for the production of supports this could probably be arranged in the near future, since it only implies organizational activities. There seems to exist the will and determination to do so. Large scale importation of gas is not possible at the short term, since the required infrastructure is not available: storage facilities at port(s), land transport capacity, filling stations, etc. * Cheaper equipment might become available if locally produced. Supports are already locally made, but bottles and burns are all imported. 2.7 Conclusions on the PRG I The introduction of Liquified Petroleum Gas, as a strategy to reduce wood fuel consumption in the urban areas of the reviewed countries, can be of interest for the population of a certain (middle and high-income) group. Gas is a relatively expensive fuel, and investment costs (bottles and gasstoves) and the costs of refills make it beyond reach of low-income groups; 2 Gas prices differ between the five countries: In Senegal, subsidies make operational costs for gas and wood cooking equal, while in the other four reviewed countries gas prices make cooking on gas twice as expensive as cooking on wood; 3 The introduction of liquid gas requires time: In Senegal, were gas was introduced to the urban population during the early eighties, a substantial part of domestic energy supply is covered. In the other countries, the introduction period of two-three years has been too short to reach a major cover of the population. On the other hand, even in countries like Niger and Mali, where only a small part of the population has switched to gas consumption, the effect on wood fuel demand is comparable to a major improved stove program; 4 The recent devaluation of the F.CFA may have a negative impact on the dissemination of butane gas as a cooking fuel: relative price gap between gas and firewood has increased, and investment in gas bottles and cookers, all imported, is now even further out of reach than before. In order to overcome this, a major effort should be done to establish the local production of gas bottles and burners. 41 RFPMS - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Subsdtuion Projects 3 THE NIGER KEROSENE wTCHIP" STOVE PROJECT 3.1 Introduction: Overview of improved kerosene stove programs in the RPTES sample-countries In the IJNDP/WB ESMAP Household Energy Surveys in the Sahelian countries, the feasibility of the introduction of kerosene as a substitute fuel for wood and charcoal was investigated. Of the five RPTES sample-countries these studies were carried out in Niger, Mali and Senegal. The studies concluded that in Niger and Mali an important part of the urban households was prepared to change over to kerosene as the principal cooking fuel. In Niger a project to disseminate kerosene cooking stoves was actually implemented. The Project Energie II disseminated the "Tchip" kerosene stove, therefore the project is commonly known as the Tchip-project. The potential market share for kerosene stoves was estimated at 20 - 30% of urban househdlds (Madon, 1993) In Mali dissemination of kerosene stoves will be part of the new household energy strategy project prepared by the "Unite de Pilotage de la Strategie Energie Domestique" (UPS). This project is expected to start shortly. In Senegal kerosene stoves were received less positively. The Senegalese people considered kerosene stoves as being dirty, giving a kerosene smell to the food, and giving poor cooking performance. There are no explicit plans to disseminate kerosene stoves in Senegal. 3.2 Organization and management of the 'Tchip" project 3.2.1 Funding and donor coordination The Tchip kerosene stove project is part of the "Projet Energie 1 - Energie Domestique" (PEII-ED) project. It is funded by Denmark and the World Bank. The local input of the Niger govermnent includes personnel and office space. 3.2.2 Institutional framework: actors and roles The PEII-ED project has two main parts. "Volet Offire" is aimed at the rationalization of fuelwood supply, and "Volet Demande" is aimed at fuel substitution through kerosene stove dissemination. The main activity of "Volet Demande" is the execution of the Tchip-project. In addition, it coordinates the activities of the GTZ funded Improved Woodstove Project and the CILSS Regional Butane Gas Program. Finally, it manages the publicity and promotion campaigns of the three projects. 42 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Prjects The project director of "Volet Demande" is from the Departnent of Energy of the Ministry of Energy and Mining. He is assisted by a resident expatriate technical assistant. Further project staff consists of locally recnuited administrators, secretaries, promoters, surveyors, drivers etc. Several short term consultants assisted the project, providing technical assistance for the testing and production of the stove supports, with the importation of the burners from Indonesia, and with publicity. The project aimed to turn the dissemination of the kerosene stove into a commercially viable and self-sustainable operation. Therefore the project cooperated with a local entrepreneur for the import, production and commercialization of the kerosene stoves. 3.2.3 Project objectives and targets Based on the results of the Household Energy Survey a Household Energy Strategy was adopted with the following objectives: - to limit the demand for firewood and to create a diversification of household energy fuels; - to create a more precise, rational and controlled management of the wood fuel resources; - to improve the planning capacity of the government in the field of domestic energy In the framework of this Household Energy Strategy the PEII-ED project would concentrate its efforts on the 4 main cities of Niger, ie. Niamey, Maradi, Zinder and Tahoua. These cities represent over 80°/ of the total urban population. Principle project targets were: - to stabilize firewood demand at the 1989 level; - to effectively control the woodfuel supply to the cities; - to annually increase fuelwood supply from controlled forest exploitation, combined with the creation of rural woodfuel markets; - to put in place a new pricing policy for fuelwood, together with new tax systems for fuelwood, which would assure economic production and consumption, reduce fraud and create substantial tax revenues; - to create a permanent system of information and evaluation on stoves and fuels (sales rates, consumer acceptance, prices etc); and - to attune forestry and energy policies and to improve the coordination of domestic energy. More specifically for the stoves component, the target was to create a commercial viable and sustainable system for the dissemination of kerosene stoves. Over the 5 years of the project the target was to disseminate 80.000 stoves to the urban population in the cities of Niamey, Maadi Zinder and Tahoua. During missions of PEII-ED, Tchip-Import and BTG to Indonesia it appeared that only one factory could manufacture burners of the desired quality which were technically complying, 43 RFPES - Review of improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects the Pendowo stove factory in Malang on Java that produces the Thomas Cup stove. The manufaaurer's production capacity for export was limited to 1000 burners per month. The contrat between the producer with Tchip-Import was agreed upon in December 1991 and signed in lanuary/February 1992. The first money transfer to Pendowo arrived in Indonesia in March 1992 so the maximum number of kerosene stoves that could be disseminated over the remaining project duration was 20,000. Before the import by Tchip-Import started, PEH-ED had imported 4000 burners for marketing purposes and to assure the availability of the product during the first publicity campaigns. Thus the total number of stoves that might be disseminated was around 24.000. 3.2.4 Stove selection criteria and technical parameters Two basic types of kerosene stoves were tested- wick stoves and pressurized stoves. Wick stoves use wicks to transport the kerosene from the fuel tank to the burner. In the burner the kerosene evaporates, the vapour mixes with air and the mixture burns with a blue flame. Power is controlled by rising or lowering the wicks. The power density of a wick burner is relatively low: a big burner is needed to reach a reasonable power level. The pressurized burne uses a pump to pressurize the fuel tank. By this pressure the kerosene is trnsported to the burner. It is injected into the burner through a very small nozzle, forming a vapour jet. This jet entrains the combustion air and the mixture burns with a blue flame. Power is controlled by varying the pressure in the tank. To start evaporation the burner must be preheated. The power density of a pressurized burner is high: only a small bumer is needed to reach a reasonable power level. Gravity fed stoves, a variety of the pressurized stove where the pressure is not created by pumping but by putting the kerosene tank about two meters above the burner, were not considered. Except for the omission of the pumping they have the same disadvantages as the pressurized stoves (see below) with the added handicap of being difficult to trnsport Several models of wick and pressurized stoves were tested, using the water boiling tests and controlled cooking tests, described in chapter 1.4.1 and annex 6. Because all the kerosene stove models originated from outside Africa, they had to be adapted to local utensils (pots and pans) and cooking habits. Adaptations involved only the supporting structure of the stove, not the bumer itself. Testing showed that of the wick stoves only one, the Tbomas Cup stove from Indonesia, was powerful enough to suit Sahelian cooking practices. The energy economy established in the tests was. over 50% compared to the traditional woodstove, and it also offered a financial benefit of 10 to 20% because of reduced fuel consumption. Therefore this wick stove was chosen to be diseminated. 44 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Wick stoves were prefered above pressurized based on the outcome of a marketing study (Madon and Matly, 1986). Consumers showed a clear preferce for the wick stoves because they- were easier to use and cheaper to buy. Pressurized stoves were not considered because of the pumping needed, the requirement for a second fuel (alcohol) to preheat the burner, the noise of the flame, and fear for the 0000 fuel container to upture under pressure. A serious practical disadvantage of the pressurized stoves was that they proved to be very sensitive to contaminated fuel. Dirt in the fuel Fig. 19: TCHIP kerosene stove would clog the fine nozzle. Wick stoves are indifferent to contaminated fuel. The choice to disseminate a powerful wick stove as the vehicle for the substitution of fuelwood by kerosene introduced a couple of new aspects that were not encountered before in other (wood) stove projects. The burner of the stove had to be imported from overseas (Indonesia) and the support, that would be manufactured locally, had to be made within small tolerances so that burne and support would fit together without problem. 3.2.5 Market dissemination strategies and systems The Tchip stoves wer to be disseminated through an autonomous self-sustaining commercial system. Input from the project included, apart from initiating the import of burners and the manufacture of supports, publicity and promotion campaigns. The Tchip stoves were promoted through television and radio. Promotional material included T-shirts, stickers, leaflets, calendars and alike. The existence of the Tchip stove was also brought to the attention of the public through billboards and signposts at selling points and through stove demonstrations at markets and other highly frequented places. SO/es Points About 35 sales point are set up in the 4 cities covered by the project In addition to buying the stoves and spare parts like wicks, consumers can get information about their operation at these selling points customers. As discussed below, sales points gradually evolved into sales and service points. After saes service and warranty The project has installed service centres in each of the cities where the Tchip stoves are sold. Stoves were warranted and customers could get their stoves serviced (maintenance, wick replacement) at these service centres when handing in their warrantee coupons. The stove service centres were separated from the stove sales points. Because customers tended to return to the shop were they had bought the stove once their warrantee had expired, shop keepers were also trained to service the wick stoves. 45 RFrES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projcts 3.2.6 Pricing and taxation policy environment Stoves The market studies had shown that a price up to approximately 10,000 F.CFA was considered acceptable and would put the stoves within reach of consumers in the desired market segment (Matly, 1990). The first stoves cost approximately 15,000 F.CFA because of the high transport cost of the imported burners and supports. The project has subsidized these stoves to make them available at a reasonable price. After optimizing sea transport from Indonesia (packing I 100 instead of 600 burners per container) and the localization of support manufacturing, production costs went down. The price structure of the Tchip stove (before devaluation of the F.CFA) is shown in Table 12 (Madon, 1993). Table 12 Tcnip stove - price structure |tem F.CFA Burner (Indonesia) 2.975 Packing and local transport Indonesia 180 Sea transport and insurance 900 Surface transport Africa 670 Margin exporter 445 Stove support 2.853 Margin Tchip-lmport 1.700 Margin wholesaler 600 Margin retailer 1.600 Sales price 11.923 Fuel Kerosene prices in Niger have varied considerably over the last years, due to the unofficial kerosene imports (smuggle) from Nigeria. In April 1993 kerosene was priced at approximately 65 F.CFA/I in the south of the country, near to the Nigerian border (PEI-ED, 1993). With the official price fixed at 105 F.CFA/A the official kerosene traders in that region were forced to close down. Due to fuel price increases in Nigeria and better border control at the Niger side, infonnal kerosene prices have gone up to around 150 F.CFA/A by the end of 1993. After the recent devaluation the official price remained fixed at 105 F.CFAII, but the availability of kerosene at the official fuel stations was limited. Madon (1994) expects the kerosene price to increase to approximately 200 F.CFAII. At this price level, a subsidy of 46 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove ana Fuel Substitution Projects 100 F.CFAIA is still required for the kerosene that is sold through the official channels. This level of subsidy is not sustainable and kerosene prices are likely to increase substantially. 3.2.7 Project operation Import and Production cycle Of the two main components of the stove, the burner is imported from Indonesia and the supporting structure is locally made. For the import of the burners a contract was signed between Tchip-lmport and the Indonesian manufacturer, Pendowo. The contract arranged for the manufacture of lots of 6000 burners at a fixed price, to be produced and shipped at a rate of 1000 burners per month. Per batch of 6000 an advance payment of 30%/a was to be paid to pre-finance the necessary primary materials. The remaining 70°/o was payable after each shipment of 1,000 bumers. An Indonesian consultant was hired to represent Tchip-Import and to take care of the payments, the quality control and shipment of the stoves and to liaise between Tchip and Pendowo. The local consultant would order each batch of 1,000 burners after receiving the funds for burners, packing and transporL Burners were shipped to Cotonou (Benin) where they were received by the clearing agent representing Tchip-lnporL Tchip-Import arranged the surface transport from Cotonou to Niamey. Because the imported burners must fit in the locally produced supports, these supports must be manufactured according to strict specifications. This necessitates industrial production with adequate machines and tools. For the first batches of imported burners PEII-ED ordered test series of supports at local workshops in Niamey, Maradi, Tahoua and Zinder, but the quality of these supports was not sufficient. To be able to control quality and to be assured of a sufficient number of supports, Tchip-Import decided to start its own production of supports. For this purpose it has acquired a shed, machines and tools. The production capacity is sufficiently large for the production of the necessary supports and offers possibilities for the production of burners. To that effect Tchip-Import has recently installed a 80 tons hydraulic press. 47 RPTES - Rtview of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Procts 3.3 Project evaluadon 3.3.1 Targets and achievements Stove disseminatdon and sustained consumer acceptance By the end of the project 8000 kerosene stoves were disseminated, including the 4000 stoves imported by PEII-ED before the activities of Tchip-Import started. Therefore over a two years, Tchip-Import imported and marketed only 4000 stoves of the possible 20.000. The single reason for this poor performance was the lack of adequate financial management by Tchip-hmport Except for the first payments, others were always too late and/or in- sufficient. Delays of several months were no exception, in spite of repeated promises of Tchip-lmport that money would be transferred shortly ("before the end of this week"). The last batch of 1200 burners was never paid for by Tchip-Import and Pendowo consequently cancelled the contract To date, all the imported Tchip stoves have been sold without problems. Publicity campaigns have been successful, the Tchip stove is widely and well known, and there are sales points in every neighbourhood. The stove is a popular product but it is hard to forecast whether this demand is sustainable, as the period it has been on the market in sufficient numbers has been too short The first negative consumer reactions, however, have been noted, concemning the (high) fuel consumption and the requirement to replace wicks frequently. Interfuel subsdtution and woodfuei savings impact The recent survey on fuel consumption in Niger has shown that families that have a Tchip stove use the stove together with their (improved) wood stove. These families economize 19% of fuelwood compared to those that exclusively use the traditional woodstove. To stabilize woodfuel consumption in Niamey at the 1993 level, the total number of improved wood and kerosene and gas stoves should economize about 6000 tons of fudiwood. In total about 3900 tons were economized (PEII-ED, 1993), of which 2300 tons can be contributed to the use of Tchip stoves. Consumer benefts Main advantages of kerosene stoves as perceived by the user are the easiness of lighting, its power and its controllability. In addition it is a modern piece of equipment, improving the status of the households owning one. PrjeCt sustainabty Project sustainability depends to a very large extent on the availability of burners. If they can no longer be imported from Indonesia, everything depends on the creation of local production facilities. Production of burners is technically not very complicated, but not an easy job either, especially under African conditions and without prior production experience. 48 RPTES - Review of Imprved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Secondly, to keep the customer satisfied, the negative feedback should be taken into account: high kerosene consumption and rapid wear of the wicks. The high kerosene consumption can be taken care of by introducing a less powerful burner with only 24 wicks or by emphasizing the correct use of the Tchip stove with 36 wicks. Unfortunately the room for importing burners of any kind ceased after the connection with Pendowo ended so the option for a 24 wick stove becomes only materialises when the local production of burners can be realized. The high kerosene consumption is most probably due to insufficient (if any) power reduction during the simmering phase of the cooking process ( Ref. Annex 6). If this is the case, the introduction of a 24 wick burner will only cure this problem to a very limited extend. A better approach is to intensify and improve the training of the users of kerosene stoves. Quick wear of the wicks is a maintenance problem: the wick length should be adjusted every day. If not done every day, the wick will burn and adjustment becomes difficult or impossible and wicks must be reinstalled for which special tools are needed. This problem can be overcome by improved training of the user or by installation of wicks with a glass fibre protection cover. 3.3.2 Lessons leamed Leaving the dissemination of kerosene stoves to a single entrepreneur has proven to be tricky. The entrepreneur involved, for whatever reason, did not fulfil his contractual obligations and has caused the import and dissemination of kerosene stoves to cease. In the case of involvement of the private sector, a good and legally sound contract should be drawn up so that some level of control and correction is possible in case the entrepreneur shows to be unable to manage his business. Stove activities should be separated from other commercial activities in order to avoid priority problems. It never became clear what caused the owner of Tchip-Import to delay and eventually cease the payments to Indonesia. 3.3.3 Expected impacts of the F.CFA devaluation The devaluation of the F.CFA will have an important impact on the price of the Tchip stove. Madon (1993) estimates that after devaluation the stove will be priced at 18.000 F.CFA when burner import from Indonesia ceases, and at 13.000 F.CFA if the burner can be produced locally. The price of kerosene is also likely to increase. As discussed above it is not unlikely that it will reach 200 F.CFAII shortly. Both factors will probably cause the costs of cooking on kerosene to increase with S0 to 100%. As, in spite of the devaluation, fuelwood prices have hardly increased to date, the expected price increase will make kerosene less auractive and affordable. 49 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substiuion Pmjccs 3.4 Conclusions and policy recommendations Conclusions I Kerosene stoves can cater to an important market niche in Niger. They are a popular product and all the imported stoves have been sold to date. 2 Publicity and promotional campaigns have been successful. Urban population knows about the Tchip stove and about its advantages. 3 A large number of sales and service points for the Tchip stove has been created. 4 Due to inadequate management of the entrepreneur in charge of the import from Indonesia, the number of bumers imported was very low and import eventually ceased. 5 Local production facilities for supports of good quality were set up by the entrepreneur. A start was made to initiate local production of burners. 6 The first negative consumer comments have been noted concerning high fuel consumption and wear of wicks. RecommendsaFons 1. Every effort should be focused at making Tchip stoves available on the market again. 2. The reason for high fuel consumption and wear of wicks should be investigated and corrected. High kerosene consumption could be the result of incorrect use of the stove. Wear of wicks could be the result of a lack of daily maintenance. If both assumptions are true, the problems result from an inadequate training program on the functioning and use of the stove; the introduction of a less powerful burner will only partially remedy the high fuel consumption, and not the wear of wicks. 50 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects 4 THE "CASAMANCE" IMPROVED KILN PROGRAM (SENEGAL) 4.1 Introduction The available information on the Casamance kiln project is very limited. It was only on the afternoon of the last day of the mission in Senegal that I was able to have a short interview with Mr. N'Diaye, Coordinator of the Carbonization Projets at the Water, Forest, Hunting and Soil Conservation Departnent 4.1.1 Background Charcoal is the key fuel for urban households in Senegal. Urban households use 85% of the total energy and over 90% of their cooking fuel in the form of charcoal. Charcoal is traditionally produced with an efficiency of 18-20%; thus, to make one kg of charcoal requires 5.0-5.5 kg of wood. Because of urban growth and the intensity of urban fuelwood consumption in the form of charcoal, cities are casting a growing "urban shadow" over the countryside, with charoal makers cutting trees to supply urban demand. Commercial wood-cutting and carbonization are regulated and only registered forest users are authorized to engage in these activities. The registered forest users employ charcoal cmakers, known as sourghas, to cut wood, build kilns, and supervise carbonization. The sozrghas are primarily from the Peul tribe in the neighbouring Ghana. They are paid per sack and often receive an advance from their employer to meet basic needs. Because of their staus as foreigners, their indebtness and the fact that administrative paperwork is handled by their employers, they are completely dependent on (and often exploited by) their patrons. The Senegalese charcoal makers are known to be the best in West Africa (Esmap, 1989) Traditionally, they burn charcoal in very big earth mound kilns with an average size exceeding 200 stere. Carbonization takes 3 months or longer from initial loading to packing the last charcoal bag. The yield7 (by weight) of their traditional earth-covered kilns approaches 18-20°/.. Each charcoal maker prepares an average of 2-3 kilns per season, each of which produces 10-20 tons of charcoal from 50-100 tons of wood. Total charcoal production in Senegal was estimated at 220,000 tons in 1988; thus the number of charcoal makers would exceed 5,000. In principal, three methods can be applied to improve yields of traditional charcoal kilns: (1) using drier wood', (2) constructing larger kilns (which incur relatively lower heat 'Yield - ratio between charcoal weight (air-dryl and wbod weight (air-dry} I At lower moisture contents the carbonization efficiencies are higher, and vice versa at higher moisture conents. In theory, a 10% decrease in wood moisture content lexpressed on wet basis, mcwb) will cause a 3.8% increase in the kiln charcoal yield. Drying wood for 30-45 days will in the dry season normallyreduce the mcwb from around 40% to 20%, and in theory lead to 7.5% increase in charcoal yield. However, even charcoalers who have been demonstrated the potential to increase yields usually do not dry green wood prior to carbonization, inter efia because they cannot afford the large investment in working capital nor do they wish to take the risk of theft by fellow charcoaiers. 51 RPTES - Reviw of Improved Stove and Fuel Substidton Projects sa GM2O mS) Snd /\ R~~~~~~~~~~~~~Chkne Fig. 20 The Casamance improved kiln losses), and (3 improving process control. Preferably all methods are to be applied simultaneously. In Senegal, the last method was employed in a project funded by USAID which aimed at improving control of the carbonization process by disseminating the Casamance kiln developed by the US Peace Corps. The Casamance kiln is a modified version of the traditionally vertically stacked earth kiln and incorporates an extenal chimney with tar collector. The size of the kiln ranges between 30 and 100 m3 capacity. The kiln is constructed by first placing a horizontal layer of medium sized wood (15 to 20 cm in diameter) dispersed radially on the ground. On top of the base layer small-sized wood pieces (7 to 10 cm in diameter) are placed in order to ensure good circulation of the gases duing operation. The metal chimney is made of three used barrels welded together. The bottoms of the barrels are opened partially by about 20 cm in order to cool and condense the hot gases into pyroligneous acid and wood tars, which are collected through a small opening at the base of the chimney. Approximately 3.3 litres per stere of wood is recovered. These by-products may be used as a replacement for imported creosote for the treatment of telephone poles or fences. The carbonization yield (oven-dry basis) is estimated to be around 25%, depending on the type of moisture content of the wood, the timber's actual density and stacking density, etc. In the Senegalese situation this means a relative gain of 25% as compared with the traditional kiln 4.1.2 Project objectives and targets The objective of the project was to improve the yield of charcoal making in Senegal through the introduction of the Casamance kiln. The objective was to be achieved by the training of charcoalers in the use of the Casamance kiln. 52 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substidtion Projects 4.1.3 Kiln selection criteria and technical parameters The choice for the Casamance kiln was made after an evaluation of four different improved kilns during the "Projet d'amenagement de la foret de Tabor" in the Casamance province in the south of Senegal. The four kiln type evaluated were: - Casamance kiln - metal kiln "Mark V" - retort kiln - mixed kiln 'Metal and ditch' The Casamance kiln was selected for two reasons: - low investments costs compared to the other improved kilns; and - charcoal yield was high compared to the tradtional kiln. To produce 1000 kg of charcoal the wood input for the traditional kiln were claimed to be 13 stere of wood while the Casamance kiln needed 7 stere (I stere = ± 450 kg 9), signifying an efficiency improvement from 17 to 31%. 4.1.4 Project funding and donor coordination The project was funded by USAID in two stages of 100 million F.CFA and 200 million F.CFA respectively. over a period of six years, 1980 - 1986. After 1986 the Senegalese govermment continued the support of the charcoalers using the Casamance technology from its own resources by making available 60 million F.CFA over 1987 - 1990 (Budget Nationale d'Equipement) and 50 million F.CFA over 1989 - 1991 (Fond National de l'Energie). The money of these funds was exclusively to be used to buy tools for the charcoalers, like shovels, rakes, balances, chimneys, etc. Table 13 Project funding in the different phases of the Casamance improved kiln program Period Donor Funding Program 1980-83 USAID 100 mF.CFA Projet National de Carbonisation par la 1983-86 USAID 200 mF.CFA vulgarisation de la meule Casamance 1987-90 Senegal 60 mF.CFA Budget Nationale d'Equipement 1989-91 Senegad 50 mF.CFA Fond National de I'Energie number quoted by mr. N'Dbiye. Other sources mention values varying from 250 to 350 kg/stere 53 RPTES - Review of Impoved Stove and Fuel Subsdtution Projets 4.2 Project evaluation 4.2.1 Targets vs achievements The project has trained about 700 charcoalers in the use of the Casamance kiln. 4.2.2 Fuelwood savings impact No data are available to the mission how on much charcoal has been produced by the charcoalers trained in the use of the Casamance kiln, nor about the amount of wood saved. 4.2.3 Project sustainability After the financial assistance of the "Fond National de l'Energie" has stopped, there is no follow up on the project, nor any systematic monitoring. It was estimated that 350 of the 700 charcoalers trined stiluse the Camance ldln. There is no data as to wbat rate charcoalers have invested in new chimneys or other equipment. 4.2.4 Lessons learned Measurements during project execution have shown that the Casamance kiln can give a higher charcoal yield, although the technique has less impact than originally estimated (Feinstein, 1991). But the amount of wood to cut is much higher than for a traditional kiln so the charcoalers need to organize and they need to invest in a chimney. Apparently the investment is the bottleneck in the system: as long as there was financial assistance to buy chimneys and tools, charcoalers tended to keep using the Casamance kiln. But as soon as they needed to invest themselves in new equipment they returned to the taditional khln. Whether the additional profits of the Casamance kiln weren't apparent enough to the charcoalers to make the investment for the chimney themselves or that the financial means were lacking is not clear. It has proven difficult to organize the charcoalers in the Casamance kiln project and this lack of organiztion and sttre has obstructed financing and training facilities, as well as project sustainabiity. In order to overcome these problems some kind of organization could be introduced. In the "Projet d'amenagement de la foret de Tabor", which formed the basis for the Casamance project, forest management groups were created These groups had a certain stability and status, which enabled them to get credits from a bank, for instance for a chimney. In the Casamance project, however, the project did not succeed in organizing the charcoalers, since the specific target population is from nomad origin (Peul). A second reason was that attempts to organize sourgas in collectives were discontinued due to lack of financing (Feinstein, 1991). The implementation of the improved kilns might be more successful in the settings of more general programs (integrated rural development, or sustainable forest management programs), that also promote the organization of the target population. 54 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projcts Bibliography General CELSS: "Seminaire regional CILSS/France: Reunion des chercheurs Mansakonko". CILSS, Ouagadougou, June 1986. CILSS: 'The CILSS/UNFSSTD international seminar on research and dissemination strategies of improved stoves for the Sahelian region". CILSS, Ouagadougou, Nov. 1984. Jorez, Jean-Philippe: 'Guide technique de l'economie du bois de feu: L'expdfience du Sahel". Lund Centre for Habitat Studies, Lund, Nov. 1991. Madon, Gerard and Matly, Michel: "Conservation et substitution de 1'energie a l'usage domestique". Consultancy report for the World Bank, Washington, July 1986. Madon, Gerard: "Propositions pour une 2eme phase de misc en oeuvre de la strategie energie domestique" (Document provisoire). SEED, Paris, Jan. 1994. Burkina Faso. Kabore, Marguerite 'La promotion des foyers amdliores au Burkina Faso". Ministere de l'Environnement et du Tourisme (MET), Ouagadogou, date unmnown MET, "Rapport annuel d'activites (Janvier - Decembre 1986) - Projet UNSO/BKF/85/X03 - Appui i la construction et diffusion des foyers ameliorcs (phase IU)". Minist&re de l'Environnement et du Tourisme (MEI), Ouagadogou, January 1987 MET, "Rapport sir la campagpe de promotion des foyers ameliores (Bobo-Dioulasso 16 Juin - 15 Juilet 1987) - Projet UNSO/BKF/85/X03 - Appui A la construction et diffusion des foyers am6liores". Minist6re de l'Environnement et du Tourisme (MET), Ouagadogou, 1987 MET, "Rapport d'activites 1987 - Projet UNSO/BKF/85/X03 - Appui A la construction et a la diffusion des foyers amelior6s". Ministere de I'Environnement et du Tourisme (MEI), Ouagadogou, January 1988 MET; -Projet UNSO/BKF/89/X03 Foyers Ameliores - Rapport Final". Ministere de l'Environnement et du Tourisme (MEI), Ouagadogou, September 1993 55 RPTES - Revicw of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects MET, "Exanen des politiques, stratdgies et programmes du sous-secteur energetique traditionnel". Ministere de l'Environnement et du Tourisme (MET), Ouagadougou, February 1994 Saka, Parfait, "Evaluation a mi-parcours de la strategie de production/diffusion des foyers ameliords a dolo dans la ville de Ouagadougou - Rapport Final". Ministere de l'Environnement et du Tourisme (MET), Ouagadougou, December 1993 SEGP, "Rapport d'evaluation de la strategie test d'autonomisation de la production et de la commercialisation des foyers metalliques ameliorEs a Ouagadougou - Rapport Final". Consultancy report for Ministere de l'Environnement et du Tourisme, Ouagadougou, May 1993 Yameogo, Georges and Sawadogo, Armande, "Test de performances et etudes d'acceptabilitd du foyer a gaz bugunana". Institut Burkinabe de l'Energie (IBE), Ouagadougou, January 1992 Gambia Berthelsen, S. "UNSO/GAM/85/X01 Production and promotion of improved cooking stoves - Draft strategy paper for project reorientation 1990-1991/1992". UNSO, Banjul, May 1990 Bialy, Jan ao. "The production and promotion of improved cooking stoves UNSO/GAM185/X0I - Final report of the in-depth evaluation mission". Report for UNSO/UNDP, Edinburgh, June 1991 Bulow, Dorthe von, "The improved stoves project in the Gambia - Six-monthly progress report (November 1993 - May 1994)". For UNSO, Banjul, June 1984 DANIDA, 'The improved cooking stoves project in the Gambia". Mission report from Danida/OPE/UNSO, Banjul, July 1984 MEPID, "Lme m Regional Programme for the Sahel Countries - LPG project (national component for the Gambia) - Action Plan", Ministry of Economic Planning and Industrial Development (MEPID), Banjul, November 1989 RPTES, "Review of the traditional energy sector (RPTES) - Gambia Country Study (Ist draft)". RPMES Gambia, Banjul, 1992 Mali 56 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects ABF/GTZ7ITDG, "Recommendations pour des Programmes Foyers Ameliores en Milieu Rural - Elabore par le colloque foyers ameliores". ABF/GTZ(ITDG, Bamako, November 1991 Gajo, Michael ao.: "Projet foyers ameliores DNAS/GTZ (Herdverbreitung Mali) Mali. Rapport sur le contr6le de l'etat d'avancement du projet". Consultancy report prepared for GIZ, Eschborn, April 1993. Lo, Masse ao. 'Diffusion de foyers ameliores et intervention sur les filieres d'approvisionnement en bois-energie de la ville de Kayes, Mali (draft du rapport provisoire)". Report for UNSO/UNIFEM, Bamako, April 1993. MSSPA, "Etude filiere foyers ameliorEs". Ministere de la Sante de la Solidaritd et des Personnes Agees (MSSPA), Bamako, January 1994 RPTES: "Examen des politiques, strategies et programmes du secteur des energies traditionelies - Evaluation du secteur de l'energie traditionelle". RPTES Mali, Bamako, February 1994. Visser, Piet "Stoves and lamps for Mali". Consultancy report for the World Bank, Washington D.C, July 1989. Niger Aboubacar, Idi: personal communication. Niamey, 16 March 1994. Bussmann, Paul and Visser, Piet 'Stoves for the UNSO/NER project". Consultancy report for the World Bank, Washington, July 1986. Gajo, Michael ao. "Rapport final du Projet Foyers Ameliores GTZ-PSE/BM/DE - Activites, Analyscs, Recommendations". Ministere des Mines et de l'Energie, Niamey, January 1987 PEII - ED: "L'Indicateur energie domestique Niger". PEII-ED, Niamey, 2eme sen. 1993. RPTES, "Examen des politiques, strategies et programmes du secteur des energetique traditionnel - Evaluation du secteur de l'energie traditionelle". RPTES Niger, Niamney, February 1994 leimou, Issoufou: personal communication. Nimaey, 17 March 1994 UNDP/WB ESMAP, "Mid-term progress report - Niger: Improved Stoves Project 57 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects UNDPtWB Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme, New York/Washington D.C., July 1986 (bilingual) UNDP/WB ESMAP, "Activity Completion Report - Niger. Improved Stoves Project. UNDP/WB Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme, New York/Washington D.C., December 1987 (bilingual) UNDPlWB/Biliteml Aid ESMAP, "La consummation de bois de feu aNiamey - Analyse' et conseils mdthodologiques pour les prochaines enquetes". The World Bank, WashingtQn D.C., 1988 Visser, Piet 'Aide-memoire relative a la mission nr. 2 de l'expert technologique foyer. Avril-Mai 1990". Consultancy report for SEED-CTFT, Paris, May 1990. Senegal BTG, The charcoal industry in Liberia, for. UNIDO, Vienna, March 1990 BTG, An investigation of charcoal production, for Ministry of Agriculture, Maputo, December 1990 Chatain, Elisabeth: "Diffusion massive de foyers amdliores: Contraintes et perspectives".. UNDP, Dakar, May 1988. ESMAP, Rwanda, Improved charcoal production techniques, for WBtUNDP. Washington, February 1987 ESMAP, Senegal - Urban Household Energy Strategy, for. WP/UNDP. Washington, March 1989 FAO Forestry paper 41 - simple technologies for charcoal making, Rome, 1983 Feinstein, C; Plas, R. van der, Improving charcoaling efficiency in the traditonal rural sector, World Bank, Washington, July 1991 Foley, G. - Charcoal making in developing countries, for Earthscan, London, Janaury 1986 Jambes, J.Pierre: "Diffusion de foyers ameliores dans la region urbaine de Dakar". Report for Ministere de la Cooperation, Paris, February 1992 58 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Jores, Jean-Philippe" "Evaluation du Programme de Diffusion de Foyers Ameliores au project PRBOVIL". Consultancy report for Ministere de l'environnement et de la protection de la nature, Dakar, January 1994. Laura, Phillippe and Jambes, J.Pierre: "Diffusion de foyers ameliores dans la agglomeration de Dakar". Report for Ministere de l'Industrie et de l'Artisanat, Dakar, Augustus 1990 Laura, Philippe: 'Les combustibles domestiques au Senegal - Consommations et pratiques des minages", report for Ministere de l'Industrie, du Commerce et de l'Artisanat, Dakar, December 1992 MEMIMEPN, "L'observatoire des combustibles domestiques - Num6ro 3", Ministere de l'Energie, des Mines et de I'lndustrie (MEMI) with Ministere de l'Environnement et de la Protection de la Nature (MEPN), November 1993 MICA, "Document preparatoire i la reunion sectorielle sur I'dnergie - Annexe A: combustibles domestiques". Ministere de l'Industrie, du Commerce et de l'Artisanat (MICA), Dakar, October 1991 MICA, "Appui au secteur des combustibles domestiques - rapport d'activites Novembre 1990 a D6cembre 1991. Report for Ministere de l'Industrie, du Commerce et de l'Artisat (MICA), Dakar, 1992 MICA/MDRH, "L'observatoire des combustibles domestiques - Numero 1", Ministere de l'Industrie, du Commerce et de l'Artisanat (MICA) with Ministere du Developpement Rural et de l'Hydraulique (MDRH), July 1992 NRI- Charcoal production - a handbook, for Commonwealth Science Council, London, November 1991 RPTES: "Etude du secteur des energies traditionelles". RPTES Senegal, Dakar, February 1994 59 RPMES Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substiuton Projects Annex 1: Terms of reference 60 AFRICA REGIONAL STUDY Review of Policies il the Tr2ditional Enera Sector RPTES) Ter=s of Referac=e Miom=ss TccJnology Goup - BTG hiirw E Sr Tecmlo Speciaift L Projec Obia:ctive 1.1 The Energ Uni within the Africa Technical Department (located organizationally within the Division for Private Sector Developme and Economics - AF`PS) has commissioned a regonl review of the uadidonal ener sector in Sub-Saharan Africa with the following W objeccives: () underukg a reurospective evaluation of the objectives, scope and approach of the eadiii enegy sector work done to dam and of its reslig policies, sreategies, and programs on the evidence of stated publc policy, its execution by agents in the public and privt sector, and activities of external ass agencies and iorgazations; CHi) ientfying the principal criical irter-sectorial linkages that ifuenie the operation of the traditional energy sector in selected couties, and dveloping a concepmUal framework and strategy for the sector wihin this enlarged operational consent (iii) prepaing a set of rec dion of new policy directions for the development of the traditonal energy sector, and for the establishmemt of implementation priorities by national insdttdons and economic agens, complemented by appropriate instuments of ^exrnal ass; (iv) identifying projects and/or programs and ths to arnve in the shortest possible time at operazional rcsuIts; and (v) disseminating the operational result amongthe donor community at large. 12 Given the wide scope of the proposed review, it is being implemented by examiing and evahating the relevant sector activities in several phases: (1) A summary overiew of past actvies in the traditional ergy sectcr througho Sub-Saharan Africa; this inial actiiy is amed at sharpening the focus of the issues. preparmg terms of reference and contracting extrl consulting assismnce required in the next phase; Cii) "The policy review itself, tO be caried out for a few reasoiably homogeneous groups of sample cuunmies and m ing in a symbesis of those resuls that ear of broad significance for the Afric Region. TIe county selection is based on the perceived severity, of actual sector problems, the ctent of work already done, the 2 existence of complementary daa bas in adjacent cou=,ies. the eperience with alternate policy approaches in similr environments, etc. The initial xecution Phase Ila will evaluat a group of five Sahdlian cocuries comprising Senegal. Gambia, MaLi Niger and Burlina Faso. 1.3 The activities descied above are being financed out of a tusr fumd provided by the Goverment of The Netherlands and administered by die World Ban. It is envisaged that, upon completion of Phase IL. the policy revnew would continue with separate funding to cover othe groups of representative sample counnries (Phas Ilb), with the objective of obtaining an operational verview and synthesis for all of Sub-Sahran Africa. IL BankSuRzion 2.1 The Project supervision within the Bank is the responsibility of the Division-for Privae Sector Development and Economics within the Afric Technical Department (AFTPS). AFTPS * assures the liaison wih ezmrnal Consultnts through a full-time Task Manager whose functions incine: (i) Direcng the day-co-ay project implementation and integrating the con=ibutions of consultants and African coumerparts in the field in intim reports and cosoldating t results in the final report; (Ul) Maintaining conract with public and private sector entities in the fave counties (im coopeation with Bank. Residem Missions); Cmii) Faciiatig contacs betwee Consulnts and Bank units concerned wih the subject mater, specificaUlly the Sector Opeating Divisions (SOD's) in the Africa Region responsible for energy, the themat teams in the Technical Department. the Divisions in cennAl Vice-presidencies responsible for the development of Bank policy in the relevant subject areas and ESMAP staff, and *iv) Facilitating contacts between Consultants and other bilateral and multilateral donors and aid organizations. 1rL Sgpe oL Consultan Ser,i 3.1 Under the direction of tte Task Manager, and in accordance with thme Tesms c£ Reference, the Consultants will provide the folowing services within their areas of experse: (i) Undemdk a retrospective review of the principal improved soves (woodfaels and perolea fueLs) and kilns programss that have been implemented in the RPTES cOU7 samssplc (Burkina Faso, Mali. Niger. The Gambia. Senega during the last 10 years. ~T review wiUl ke as a stting point the iformatin already coecd by RPTES' African countrpart teams and wri up in the draft cou~ reptITtN presented ar the Second RPTS Workshop heid m February 1994,The ffeid rhphase otf the assignmearill comprise a discussin of the results obtained thuis;tr with.the counterparts concemed, and the completion of the ino smation b.Le As necessary. When identifyn and analysing each 3 progn2/projeca the Constltants will pay speific ion to the followmg aspects: - project arn=n=n and mmagemnt (soice atd amounts of extrnal and local fuing, length of activity, linage to regional programs, moality of tchnical assistance inchdin arrangemem for uaing and tecmology transfer national countepart seup, a i supa ion and - the speCific technologies (stoves and klna) promoted and die rSaole tor the choices; proposed targets and actual achievenwnus (stavesikilns producedlimported, swves/kilnk disseminaed, engy effIciency azdior energy savings (conudsting efcieqcy i rov ifeTred fom laboratory m wih the likly results obtinable in the field); the market dissemnation stragies used (consum/ awaress & disseminaion programs, picing and axaion policies, promotion campaigns, etc.); curreI stMaus of programs/projects and assessment of their mminaWfi (including a thorough evalaon of problems) uon termination of donor and principal resons for success or fai of program/proct (ii) Based on the tfins of item (i), above, ientify and analyze te common sub- regional issuesthemes that emerge at the sub-regional vel (RFTES sample counmdies), paying specal atcedon to: - institutonal aspects (including but not limited to financing, donor coordnation oepart oriz management, gender roles. continuity, ncentves for =dmum piva sector pamciaion); - pricmg and txadto policy (as applied to fels and cooking eqipment); - market dlsseminatlon strategy (mcicudng the relative of stove promotion m urban anzd rural areas); - technology aspects (including adeoffs mong consumer acceptnce, efficieny, convenince, e=.); - the relaive mits of b and kerosene subsumunm for woodftels (with special reference to die commeca operation of the rchip' stove actiury in amey, Ngr, the prospects for dissemination of this stve in ither cou=ies and esplly Eastem Mali, and tbe advisability of ' prmisting kgrosene sW iton in The Gambia). .4 - for the counries in the franc zone, he likely effects of the recent CFAF devauation on the cost of cooking and the householders' choice of cooing equi t and faels. The issues listed under Cd) above, are a subset of a more general set of questios thax was included in the RPTES application for financing as Appendix IL under the tide OA Sampling of Policy-Relaced Questions. This Appendix is attahed to thes Ters of Rference as an nfomaoiotei. that may assist the Con=stants to place ther contribution in the overal fr-amework of the RPT . 3.2 Implementation of Assig ment. The Consultants will implement the assignment according to the foLowing calendar: CI) Intrim report on item (I at the end of the sixh (6th) week of the asignment. CH) Draft finlt report on items (i) and CH) at the end of the twelfth (12th) week of the asstigrnorn Upon receiving the interim report from the Consuha, the Task Maagr will provide comments within S worldng days. The Consultans will forward a final report on his assignmenr within 15 working days of receiving the comments from tte Task Manager on the final report. 3.3 Term ofAssinment. In ct execmion of this assignment the Consultants will utilize a maiinnm of elev (11) weeks wihin a m =xinm period of bee (15) weeks. This assignment wi include, approxiately, five (5) weeks of field work and six (6) weeks of desk workL CB%umToI RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substimton Projects Annex 2: Summary of Improved Woodfuel Projects Reviewed WSI I Country Niger 2 Name Projet Foyers Amiliores, phase I (urban) and II (urban and rural) 3 Current status Stopped in december 1993, actually very limited activities in follow up phase on remaining project budget (umtil end 1995) 4 Donor(s) World Bank and GTZ for phase I and GTZ for phase n 5 Donor Budget 90 millon F.CFA for phase I and 744.000 DM for phase n 6 National Budget PersonneL offices 7 Execution Period phase 1: 1995-1987, phase 11: 19S9-1993, interim period 19S8 8 Expatriae Executing GTZ Agency 9 National Executing Ministry of Energy and Mining, Direction of Energy Agency 10 T.Assistance Modality Resident T.A. for project management Consultants for stove development and publicity. 11 Project linkage Projet Energie U - energie Domestique - Volet Demande - Programme Regionale Gaz 12 Target population urban and rural 13 Proposed Qualitative Reduction of fuelwood demand (phase 11) Objectives - good use of stoves -dissimination of stoves 14 Prposed Quanave 20.000 stoves in phase Targets 15 Achieved Qualitative Reduction of fuelwood demand (15-25% savings, based on Objectives extrapolation of data) 16 Achieved Quantitaive 40,000 stoves in phase I Targets 45,000 (urban) and 12,000 (rual) in Phase 11 17 Principal problems Verification of wood savings Sustang level of stove sales / sustaining sales structure 18 Lessons leamned Project should crte sustainable tail system (phase 1) 61 RPMES - Review of Impmved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects WS2 I Country Burkina Faso 2 Name Projet Foyen Ameliores 3 Current status completed 4 Donor(s) Sweden, through UNSO 5 Donor Budget US 23S.000 for phase L US 860.333 for phase 11 and US 2.416.440 for phase m. Phase m includes forestry actions. 6 National Budget personnel offices (t US 350,000 for phase Ell) 7 Execution Period phase 1: 1984-19S6, pbase n: 1986-1988, phase m: 1988-1992 8 Expatriate Executing - Agency 9 National Executing Ministry of Environment and Tourism Agency 10 T.Assistance Modality Resident TA for project management and stove technology, through swedish consultancy firm I Project linkage 12 Target population urban and nual 13 Proposed Qualitative Phase 1: stove development and pilot studies Objectives Phase n and m: reduce wood consumption by introduction and use of improved stoves Phase I: Develop forestry and agro-forestry actions vith women 14 Proposed Quantitative 120.000 Targets 15 Achieved Qualitative Not evaluated Objectives 16 Achieved Quantitaive 52,000 stoves in phase II Targets 130,000 stoves in phase m 17 Principal problems No data on woord economy or market penetration, stoves in use, etc. Inadequate project prepaation and isfficient project sustainability. IS Lessons learned Project was too much focused on stove promotion and distribution. Need for ber project preparation to assure project sustainability. 62 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects WS3 I Country Mali 2 Name Projet Foyers Ameliorts 3 Current status preparing phase Im 3 years of continuing project work, 2 years of follow up activities. 4 Donor(s) Cermany (GTZ) 5 Donor Budget phase 1: 640.000.000 F.CFA; phase II: 640.000.000 F.CFA; phase III: 640.000.000 F.CFA (projected) 6 National Budget personnel, office room 7 Execution Period phase I: 198-1991. phase n1 1991-1994, phase m: 1994-1998 (?) S Expatiate Executing GTZ Agency 9 National Executing DNAS Agency 10 T.Assistance Modality Resident TA for project management Consultants for marketing 11 Project linikge . 12 Trge popuation urban 13 Proposed Qualitative phase II: Creation of a performant stove dissemination system Objectives 14 Proposed Quantitative phase 1: 25.000 Targets 15 Achieved Quaiitative stove dissemination system in place Objectives 16 Achieved Quantitative phase 1: 32.000 stoves Targets phase n: no data available 17 Principal problems stove sales down to 250/month 1S Lessons learned continue reinforecement stove production and commercialization system 63 RPES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects WS4 I Country Mali 2 Name Projet Foyers Amiliores 3 Curent status finished 4 Donor(s) USAED 5 Donor Budget US 482.000 6 National Budget CNESOLER facilities (office, laboratory, test facilities) 7 Execution Period 1986-1988 8 Expatriate Executing VITA Agency 9 National Executing CNESOLER Agency 10 TAssistance Modality Resident TA on stove technology I Project linkage Volet Foyers Amdliores du Projet Energies Revouvables 12 Target population Urban 13 Proposed Qualitative Development of urban metal stove models; Objectives Dissemination of stoves in Bamako; Training of cratnsmen on stove production 14 Proposed Quantitative Targets 15 Achieved Qualitative Development of the multi-marmite trois barres metal stove model; Objectives Craftsmen trained, clients satisfied 16 Achieved Quantitative Stove dissmuination number unknown. Targets 17 Principal problems Stoves used with too small pans. Inadequate pan supports. 18 Lessons leamned Stoves should only adapt to one pot size 64 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects WS5 I Country Mali 2 Name Volet Foyers Amdliores du Projet Energies Renouvables 3 Current status finished 4 Donor(s) USAID S Donor Budget US 4,000,000 for the complete project Budget for stove-component is not known 6 National Budget CNESOLER facilities (office, laboratory, test facilities) 7 Execution Perod 19S0-1985 S Expauriate Executing AID Agency 9 National Executing CNESOLER Agency 10 TAssistance Modality Resident TA on stove development and management I Project linkage 12 Target population Rural 13 Proposed Qualitative Development and large scale dissimination of heavy stoves in nrual Objectives areas 14 Proposed Quantitative Targes 15 Achieved Qualitative Development of a number of wood stove models, principally heavy Objectives stoves with 2 or 3 holes; development of 3PA 16 Achieved Quatitative Number of stoves developed and dissiminated unknown Targets 17 Principal problems 18 Lessons learned Need for a portable metal stove 65 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects WS6 I Country Mali 2 Name Volet Foyers Am6liores du Projet Pilote de Foyers Amdliores et Forestiere dans la ville de Kayes 3 Current staus Finished 4 Donor(s) Norway through UNSO and UNIFEM 5 Donor Budget US 212,000 for Volet Foyers; US 530,000 for total project 6 National Budget Personnel and offices, estimated at 12 million F.CFA 7 Execution Period 1988-199 S Expatriate Executing Agency 9 National Executing Ministere des Eaux et Forts Agency 10 TAssistance Modality Incidental (short term) TA when needed 11 Project linkage 12 Target population 13 Proposed Quaitative Improve conditions of women through the introduction of improved Objectives stoves. Reduce pressure on wood fuel through imprved stoves. 14 Proposed Quantitative Targets 15 Achieved Qualititive Proposed objectives have not been reached Objectives 16 Achieved Quantitative 5,000 stoves Targets 20 ctaftsmen trained in stove production 17 Principal problems Poor excution lack of expets, disgreement between staff membes, rgular short of fitds due to combersame UNSO approval procedures for releasing funds IS Lessons learned 66 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects WS7 I Country Gambia 2 Name Gambia UNSO Stove Project 3 Current status stopped in june 1991, limited activities on remaining project budget 4 Donor(s) Denmark through UNSO 5 Donor Budget US 1,300.000 6 National Budget PersonneL offices, test facilities 7 Execution Period 1992-1991, in 2 phases (19S2-1985; 1985-1991) and several prolongabons 8 Expatriate Executing UNDP Agency 9 National Executing DCD: Directorate of Community Development; Ministry of Agency Economic Planning and Industrial Development 10 T-Assistance Modality Resident TA on project management Consultant on stove technology 11 Project linkage l 12 Target population urban and rural 13 Proposed Qualitative phase 1: Research and development, technical and social stove Objectives dissimination, persue Banjul declaration phase U: Improve daily life of women and children 14 Proposed Quantitative Targets 15 Achieved Qualitative Noflie I and U stoves Objectives Pottery stove developped 16 Achieved Quantitative 40,000 stoves dissiminated Targets 17 Principal problems Noflie too expensive, ceramic stoves to fragile. Project iatemzption in 19S9 1S Lessons learned Project should be continued in order to maintain the momentum iniiaed by the project 67 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects wsS I Country Senegal 2 Name Projet Foyers Ameliorts CERER 3 Current status finisbed 4 Donor(s) Denmark through UNSO, USAID and OPEC 5 Donor Budget 700 mln F.CFA 6 National Budget 70 mln F.CFA 7 Execution Period 1980-19S8 8 Expatriate Executing - Agency 9 National Executing CERER Agency 10 TAssistance Modality Peace Corps Volunteers 11 Project linkage Precoba and Probovil reforestation projects Chodak (Chomage Dakar), employment project 12 Target population urban and rual 13 Proposed Qualitative - Objectives 14 Proposed Quantitatve 500,000 stoves and 10,000 stoves masons in the nual zone, between Targets 19S0-19S4 15 Achieved Qualitative Objectives 16 Achieved Quantitative rural: 12.000 (1980-'S4) and 24,000 (19S4-'88), all in rural zones Targets 7,500 female masons tained 17 Principal problems self-consuction is difficult; Quick deterioration of 3PA, not transportable. Stoves no priority of women. 18 Lessons learned 68 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects WS9 I Countzy Senegal 2 Name Projet Fouers Amrliores ATI 3 Curent status near the end, for the time being no fmnance for prolongation 4 Donor(s) USAID S Donor Budget US 340,000 6 National Budget 0? 7 Execution Period 1991.1994 | Expant Execing Agency 9 National Executing ATI Agency 10 TAssistance Modality 11 PjCct linIkage 12 Target population 13 Proposed Qualitative Objectves 14 Proposed Quandtative 7.900 Targets 15 Achieved Qualtative Objectives 16 Achieved Quantiative Targ 17 Principal prmblems 18 Lessons leaned 69 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Annex 3: Summary of Improved LPG Stove Projects Reviewed PRGI I Country Niger 2 Name Prome Regionale Gaz 3 Current status Stopped in December 1993. Limited follow-up activities for two years 4 Donor(s) EC, thrmugh CILSS 5 Donor Budget F.CFA 324,000,000 6 National Budget Project coordinator, office Tax reduction on gas 7 Execution Period 1990-1993 S Expatriate Executing Agency 9 National Executing Direction d'Energic Agency 10 T.Assistance Modality I IProject linkage CILSS Regional Pmgram. PEU-DE, Petrol companies 12 Target population ubn capital 13 Proposed Qualitative Promote the use of Bune gas as a household cooking fuel in urban Objectives aas 14 Proposed Quantitative 20,000 stes Targets 1,700 tons gas (1992) 15 Achieved Qualitative Promotion has brought gas stoves under the attention of an important Objectives part of the urban population 16 Achieved Quantitaive 12,000 stoves Targets 17 Principal problms Gas imports am exclusively from Nigeria, which is considered vulnerbl; Informal gas imports from Nigeria; Reglar supply interruptioms; Since the project has ended, sales of stoves have declined due to the retraction of subsidies on stoves; 1 Lessons learned 3 years program is too short; Need of reliable gas supply; Subsidized gas is mainly used by rich usm 70 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projecs PRG2 I Country Burkina Faso 2 Name Programme Regional Gaz 3 Current status Finished. Subsidy on equuipment continues on remaining budget 4 Donor(s) EC through CILSS 5 Donor Budget F.CFA 270.640.000 6 National Budget National project coordinator and offices. Gas subsidy 7 Execution Period 1991-1993 8 Expariate Executing Agency 9 National Executing Direction d'Energie Agency 10 T.Assistance Modality - 11 Project linkag CUSS, Petr Companies 12 Targe population urban, capital 13 Proposed Qualitative Promote the use of Butane gas as a household cooking fuel in urbin Objectives areas 14 Proposed Quantitative 2,000 - 32,000 stoves I year Targets 1,100 - 3,500 tons gas / year 15 Achieved Qualitative Promotion has brought gas stoves under the attention of an important Objectives pat of the urban population 16 Achieved Quantitative 14,37S households reached Targets 2,S00 (1992) and 3.400 (1993) tons of gas imported 17 Principal problems Shorage of equipment bottes, burners. Initalry: lack of promotion Lack of engagement of the petol companies 1S Lessons leamed 71 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects PRG3 1 County Mali 2 Name Prgame Regional Gaz 3 Current status Finished. Continuaton by the gouvernment 4 Donor(s) EC through CUSS 5 Donor Budget F.CFA 400,000,000 6 National Budget Project coordinator, offices 7 Execution Period 1991-1993 S Expatriate Executing - Agency 9 National Executing Direction Nationale de l'Hidraulique et de l'Energie Agency 10 T.Assistance Modality 11 Project linkage CILSS regional prograunme; Petrol companies 12 Target population urban, capital 13 Proposed Quaitative Promote the use of Butane gas as a household cooking fuel in urban Objectives ar 14 Proposed Quantitative 41,000 stoves sold (1992) Targets 2,000 tons gas imported (1992) 15 Achieved Qualitative Promotion has brought gas stoves under the attention of an unportant Objectives part of the urban population 16 Achieved Quantitative 1441 (1992) and 1,S00 (1993) tons of gas imported Targcts 17 Principal problems Shortage of equipment and gas Petol companies werc not interested in the distribution of equipment (boutles, burner, support) 18 Lessons learned 72 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects PRG4 I Country Gambia 2 Name National Gas Program 3 Current status just started 4 Donor(s) EC thrugh CILSS 5 Donor Budget ECU 860,000 (10,000,000 Dalasi) 6 National Budget 0? 7 Execution Period 1991-? Effective progran start in 1993. End date not yed determined. S Expatriate Executing - Agency 9 National Executing Ministry of Trade and Industry and Employment Agency 10 TAssistance Modality - 11 Project linkage CELSS regional programme; Pe_tl companies 12 Target population urban, capital 13 Proposed Qualitative Promote the use of Butane gas as a household cooking fuel in urban Objectives areas 14 Proposed Quantitaive 4,800 stoves Targets 1,400 tons of gas (1992) IS Achieved Qualitative too early Objectives 16 Achieved Quantitative too eary Targets 1,S00 (1992) and 1800 (1993) tons 17 Pnncpal problems No bulk storage for gas. Dependent of Senegal for import. Lack of bottles. Costs of equipmenL 18 Lessons learned Gambia needs LPG terminal 73 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects PRG5 I County Senegal 2 Name Programme National Gaz 3 Curnnt statis stopped; Activities filly commercialized and taken over by Shell and Total 4 Donor(s) EC through CILSS L Donor Budget F.CFA 3S2,415,000 6 National Budget 0? 7 Execution Period 1991-1993 8 Expiate Executing Agency 9 National Executing Ministere de I'Energie, des Minies et de l'Industrie Agency 10 TAssistance Modality II Project linkage CILSS regional progamme; Petrol companies 12 Target ppulaion urban 13 Proposed Qualitative Promote the use of Butane gas as a household cooking fuel in urban Objectives area 14 Proposed Quantitative 50,000 tons of gas (1992) Targets 15 Achieved Qualitative Promotion has brought gas stoves under the attention of an important Objectives part of the urban population 16 Achieved Quantiative Increased gas sales (22WSyear)l Targets 40,500 tons (1992) ad 45,000 tons (193) 17 Principal problems Shortage of bottles, due to exportation 1 Lessons learned Harmonization with neighbour countries. Monitoring system should be improved 74 RPES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Annex 4: Summary of Improved Kerosene Stove Projects Reviewed 1 Country Niger 2 Name Projet Energie 11, Volet Demande, Foyers a petrole 3 Current status Completed. Second phase proposed 4 Donor(s) Denark 5 Donor Budget USS 23m (.??) 6 National Budget 7?' 7 Execution Period 19S9 - 1993 S Expatiate Executing World Bank Agency 9 National Executing Department of Energy, Ministry of Mines and Energ Agency 10 T.Assistance Modality Resident TA. project coordinator Short term TA. stove fabrication experts I1 Project linkage GTZ Projet Foyers Am6lior6s, PRG 12 Target population Urban 13 Proposed Qualitative To limit fiuelwood demand through fuel substitution Objectives 14 Proposed Quantitative To stabilize fuelwood demand in 1993, thus saving 6000 tonnes of Targets fuclwood 15 Achieved Qualitative Approximately 2300 tonnes of fuelwood saved in 1993 Objectives 16 Achieved Quantitative 3000 stoves (in 5 years) Targets 17 Principal problems import of buner, financial problems, lack of control over entreprenaurs, higher fuel and wick consumption than expected 18 Lessons learned solid conact with private sctor 75 RPIES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substtution Projets Annex 5: Summary of Improved Kiln Projects Reviewed I Country Senegal 2 Narne Projet d'Amenagement de la Foret de Tabor 3 Current staus finished 4 Donor(s) PNUDtFAOlUNSO S Donor Budget US 1,000,000 6 National Budget ? 7 Execution Period 1978-1986 S Expatriate Executing Agency 9 National Executing Direction des Eaux, Forets, Chasses et Conservation des Sols Agency 10 TAssistance Modality ? 11 Project linkage ? 12 Targt population ? 13 Proposed Qualitative Forest maintenance and upgrading; Thinnings to be carbonized. Test Objectives of carbonization Idlns 14 Proposed Quantitative Targets 15 Achieved Qualitative Forest upgrades; Experience was gained with four types of kilns. Objectives 16 Achieved Quantitative Targets 17 Principal problems 18 Lessons learned The Casanangaise kdln was found to be best adapted to Senegalese conditions. 76 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects I Country Senegal 2 Naine Projet National de la Vulgarisation de la Meule-Casamancaise 3 Curent status finished 4 Donor(s) USAID 5 Donor Budget F.CFA 300,000,000 6 National Budget 0? 7 Execution Period 1980-1986 8 Expatriate Executing ? Agency 9 National Executing Direction des Eaux, For6ts, Chasses et Conservation des Sols Agency 10 TAssistance Modality 11 Project linkage 12 Target population 13 Prposed Qualitative Improve efficiency of charcol production by the introduction of Objectives Casadminse ki 14 Proposed Quantitative Targets 15 Achieved Qualitative Objectives 16 Achieved Quantitative 700 charcoal makes trained Tagets 17 Principal problems 18 Lessons leaned 77 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects | I Country | Senegal 2 Name Budget National d'Equipement I Fonds Nationale d'Energie 3 Current status finished 4 Donor(s) 5 Donor Budget 6 National Budget F.CFA 60,000,000 / 50,000,000 7 Execution Period 1987-1990 1 1989-1991 S Expatriate Executing Agency 9 National Executing Direction des Eaux, Forets, Chasses et Conservation des Sols Agency 10 TAssistance Modality 11 Project linkge 12 Target population 13 Proposed Qualitatve Financal support to trained charcoal makers to buy equipment Objectives chimneMys, spades, wicks, rakes, balances 14 Proposed Quantitative Targets 15 Achieved Qualitative Objectives 16 Achieved Quantitative Targes 17 Principal problems Rate of orgnization of charcoal makers is low. Difficult aragmnsfor lowns, etc. IS Lessons lened 78 RPMES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Pmjects Annex 6: Testing procedures for woodstoves With the introduction of improved stoves the need arose to test stoves in order to establish and verify fuel consumption. At first stove testing concentrated on the determination of the maximum efficiency of the stoves while later it was realized that the ability of a stove to give a low simmering powers was even more important to realize a low fuel consumption. (Prasad, 198?). Many different test procedures have been in use by different organisations until in 1984 the proposed international standards were agreed upon. For the Sahel these standards were slightly adapted to local ccummstances and agreed upon in the meeting of Sahelian stove researchers in the Gambia (Mansakonko) in 1936 (CILSS, 1986). The standard includes water boiling tests and controlled cooking tests. Water boling tMMts In the waterboiling tests the following stove parameters are determined: P. the maximum power of the stove E. the stove efficiency at the maximum power P, the mJnimum power of the stove E the stove efficiency at minimum power P. is the power at which the maximum amount of fuel is burnt while maintainng a constant fuelbed, while P_ is the power at which the water in the pan just continues to boil. It is clear that both definitions are not very exact, but skilled testers arive at reproducible results. Efficiency is the ratio of the heat transferred to the pan and the heat generated by the combustion proces. Waterboiling tests are used in the laboratory for research and development work on stoves. The results are mainly of technical interest but they give important indications as to what can be expected of a stove under eal cooking conditions. This can be illustat as follows. The cooking proces needs different heat inputs to the pan over varying Siapole Power Regime periods of time: the power regime. The simplest power regime is like for the prparation of patatoes or rice or beans. The content of the pan must be brought to the boil and i then the food must be kept , simmering to make it edible. Simmering time is food dependent, and cannot be shortened by incaing the heat input to the panL - The limiting factor is the 100 C . . . . . . . . . boiling temperature of the water. In prestue cboas, where the Rg. 21 Example of simple power regime operational temperature is 120 C, simmering time is reduced to half the time needed at 100 C. The maximum power and efficiency determine the time and fuel consumption to bring the content of the cooking pot to the boil. A combination of a high P. and a high E. give short boiling times at a low fuel consumption. The minimal power determines the fuel consumption for the simmering phase of the cooking proca. The efficiency at minimum power is less 79 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects importanL The following table illustmtes the equal importance of E. as well as P. on the fuel consumption. The table is calculated for a pan with 5 kg of water equivalent of food. A simmering time of 40 minutes is assumed. The table shows that if E. is improved from 35% to 45%, cooking time is reduced by 4 minutes and fuel consumption by 11%/. In case for the same stove P., can be reduced from 2 kW to I kW, cooking time remains the same but fuel consumption is reduced by 25 /. When the simmering time is shorter the influence of P. decreases, when longer it increases. Te 32 Fuel consumption for different stoves P. F,_ P_ E_ due to fuel to time to fuel to tDat total eco boil boil smmer simmer time fuel n. Ex p (kW (%) (kW) (%) (min) (g) (min) (B) (min) (g) (%) 1 4 35 2 25 20 282 40 232 60 565 2 4 45 2 25 16 220 40 232 56 502 11 3 4 35 2 25 20 282 40 282 60 565 4 4 35 1 25 20 232 40 141 60 424 25 In order to obtain reliable results, each test must be repeated at least three times and the outcomes averaged. Because of the standadization of waterboiling tests, the results from different locations can be used for stove COMpaison. ConheolW cookdng tes. The controlled cooking tests serve to determine the fuel consumption of a stove for the preparation of a sandard meal. The standard meal is the local main dish for which the quantities of the igredients are fixed: for each test the same amount of water, rice, meat, vegetables etc. is used. Experienced cooks prepare the meals on the traditional stove and on the different improved stoves. The quantity of fuel used is measured. The results are presented in terms of fuel economy compared to the traditional stove. To get reliable results each test must at least be repeated three times and the outcomes averged. The results of controlled cooking tests from different locations re not comparable because the standard meal (ingredients and quantities) may be different and the traditional stove may be a different one. To be able to compare stoves that use different fuels, like charcoal, gas or kerosene, the fuel consumption can be expresed in terms of energy (Joules). Comparison to the traditional stove can then also be done in terms of energy and is called the energy economy. When the power regime for the preparan of the standad meal is known, the theoretical fuel consumption can be calculated using the power and efficiency results from the waterboiling tests. 80 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Annex 7: List of interviewed persons Niger MOUSSA Mahamane National Coordinator RPTES; Head of Unit for New and Renewable Energy, Energy Department Kiri TOUNAOU Director ai. Energie n - Energie Domestique, Volet Demande Idi ABOUBACAR Coordinator Improved Stoves Project, Phase nI Issoufou TIEMOU National Coordinator of CISS Regional Gas Program Idrissa MADOUGOU Managing Director TCH[P-IMPORT Francis MODY Program Officer World Bank Resident Mission Burkina Faso. Sardou OUIMINGA National Coordinator RPTES; Director of Energy Department ZaDle DAOUDA Head of the Energy Economy Unit, Forestry Department Richard Ngabaoum DJIMRANGAR Regional Coordinator of CILSS Regional Gas Program Godefroy THlOMBIANO Head Research Programs "Institut Burkinabe de lEnergiea Mm. OUEDRAOGO Action Sociale, Ministry of Health Celestin B4pio BADO Project Officer World Bank Resident Mission Mali. Ismael TOURE National Coordinator RPTES; Hydrology and Energy Deprtement Mahamadou SIDIBE Director of Hydrology and Energy Departement Amadou TANDIA National Coordinator of CIUSS Regional Gas Progranm; Head of Energ Division, Hydrology and Energ Departement Cheick SANOGO Head of the Domestic Energy Unit, Hydrology and Energy Dpmtement Hamadi KONANDI Head of the Lignouos Fuels Unit, Department of Water and Forests Ounou CAMARA Coordinatrice Improved Stoves Project DNASIGTZ Samake TOURE Head Promotion Improved Soves Project DNAS/GTZ Mohammed TOURE Sociologist DNAS Mahamane Bilaly TOURE Head of Wind-energie and Bio-conversion Unit, CNSOLER Kalfa SANOGO Program Officer UNSO, UNDP Resident Mission Gambia. Omar SALLAEI National Coordinator RPTES; Director of the Gambia Renewable Energy Centre Abdou TOURAY Assistant Director of Community Development Amadou LOWE National Coordinator of CILSS Regional Gas Program Mr-M.B. CAMARA General Manager M&C Gas Ltd. Leo GRUBER Managing Director Escapag Gambia Ltd. 81 RPTES - Review of Improved Stove and Fuel Substitution Projects Seneea Mamnadou DIANKA National Coordinator RPTES; Dicor of Energy Departnent Babar GUISSE National Coordinator of CILSS Regional Gas Program Joseph SARR Head of Thermal Laboratory CERER Kory DIONE Former Improved Stove Specialist CERER Phi[ippe LAURA Technical Adviser at National Energie Board Ibrahima N'DIAYE Coordinator Carbonization Projets, Water, Forest, Hunting and Soil Conservation Department Mr. DIKKER-HUPKES Director Geneal Shell Senegal Ibrahima D[ABY Direr AT Intemational Alioune SARR Head of Technical Unit, Senegal Peat Company 82