26124 -,- - ; March 2003 1iJi~~~I F' ~~ v IT4[,4 9j1J-ELflJflj-~- -- - , F, I .I. - : - |~~~- ,..1 1r -111WL'e )2.-A ~~~~~~~ 11! -t - -- - - ...,, r-jI;-, !.' T "F :I F- - =-ssssm- and Protecti -on :-7 //KySrie E -ditors o - '- - L K-l - - -- ' i , _ Water Quality: - Assessment and Protection ---' --..~ -- Series Editors - -.~~~~~ -t t R 4 WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 Water Quality: Alssessment and Protection SERIES EDITORS RICHARD DAVIS, RAFIK HIRJI The World Bank Washington, D,C. - - Water Resources and Environment Technical Notes A. Environmental Issues and Lessons Note A. 1 Environmental Aspects of Water Resources Management Note A.2 Water Resources Management Policy Implementation: Early Lessons B. Institutional and Regulatory Issues Note B.1 Strategic Environmental Assessment: A Watershed Approach Note B.2 Water Resources Management: Regulatory Dimensions Note B.3 Regulations for Private Sector Utilities C. Environmental Flow Assessment Note C.1 Environmental Flows: Concepts and Methods Note C.2 Environmental Flows: Case Studies Note C.3 Environmental Flows: Flood Flows Note C.4 Environmental Flows: Social Issues D. Water Quality Management Note D.1 Water Quality: Assessment and Protection Note D.2 Water Quality: Wastewater Treatment Note D.3 Water Quality: Nonpoint-Source Pollution E. Irrigation and Drainage Note E.1 Irrigation and Drainage: Development Note E.2 Irrigation and Drainage: Rehabilitation F. Water Conservation and Demand Management Note El Water Conservation: Urban Utilities Note E2 Water Conservation: Irrigation Note F3 Wastewater Reuse G. Waterbody Management Note G.1 Groundwater Management Note G.2 Lake Management Note G.3 Wetlands Management Note G.4 Management of Aquatic Plants H. Selected topics Note H.1 Interbasin Transfers Note H.2 Desalination Note H.3 Climate Variability and Climate Change Copyright © 2003 The International Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentTHE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W, Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America First printing March 2003 r2 CON -I-S ;-s- TENTS Foreword 5 Acknowledgments 7 Introduction 8 Water Quality and Integrated Water Resources Management 9 .- ---- Water resources management has often focused on satisfying increasing demands for water without ad- equately accounting for the need to protect water quality and preserve ecosystems and biodiversity. Water Quality Assessment and Standards 11 Water quality assessment is the evaluation of the physi- cal, chemical, and biological condition of a water re- source in relation to intended uses. It encompasses monitoring, data evaluation, reporting, and dissemina- Authors tion of the condition of the aquatic environment. Frank Rodstake and Albert Tuinhof Technical Adviser The Monitoring Network 12 Stephen Lintner The design of a monitoring network involves selecting the monitoring sites, the monitoring frequency, and Editor the parameters that best demonstrate the water qual- Robert Livernash ity issues being managed. Production Staff S a Caver Design. Cathe Fadel Samping and Analysis 17 Samples are taken either from the water, from sus- Design and Production: pended matter in the water body, from sediments at The Word Express, Inc. the bottom, or from organisms in the water or sedi- ments. Notes Unless otherwise stated, Processing, Interpretation, and Presentation of Data 18 all dollars = U.S. dollarf. The UNEP/WHO GEMS program provides guidance on Al tonsr metric ton the processing and interpretotion of water quality data. Cover photo by urt Carnemark. World nk I The Challenge in Developing Countries 20 er pollution, Latvi L In developing countries, a balance must be struck be- . tween reliable water quality monitoring and assess- l1 JI ment based on international good practice on the -4-1 _one hand, and what is feasible and sustainable on the other. F3. I'WATER ESOURCES AND EMwRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 I-F-,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Water Quality Management Programs 21 Water quality management plans should include actions to be undertaken, responsibilities for ensuring implementation, and a time schedule. Financial, Legal, and Institutional Framework 22 Reforms may be needed in legal and institutional arrangements to make water quality monitoring and management practicable in developing countries. Conclusion 27 Water quality issues should be part of an integrated water resources approach because of the close linkages between water quality and quantity as well as rural and urban development. Further Information 28 Appendix 1 29 Glossary Appendix 2 30 Summary of selected international water quality standards and guidelines Boxes 1. Arsenic contamination in Bangladesh and river salinity in Australia 10 2. Pollution control in Indonesia 12 3. Groundwater quality monitoring in Egypt 15 4. Biomonitoring 16 5. GEMS Global water quality monitoring program 19 6. Redesigning the Mexican water quality monitoring network 21 7. The Aral Sea Basin 26 8. The Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project 26 Tables 1. Major pollutant categories and principal sources of pollutants 9 2. Main water quality characteristics for different water uses 13 3. Basic/reference monitoring: design characteristics for different types of water bodies 14 4. Relevance of common physical parameters to water quality 17 5. Indicative budget components and costs for water quality monitoring 23 6. Analytical costs of the major water quality parameters 24 WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENTAND PROTECTION FOREWORD The environmentally sustainable development and priority in Bank lending. Many lessons have been management of water resources is a critical and learned, and these have contributed to changing complex issue for both rich and poor countries. It attitudes and practices in World Bank operations. is technically challenging and often entails difficult trade-offs among social, economic, and political con- Water resources management is also a critical de- siderations. 'Typically, the environment is treated velopment issue because of its many links to pov- as a marginal issue when it is actually key to sus- erty reduction, including health, agricultural tainable water management. productivity, industrial and energy development, and sustainable growth in downstream communi- According to the World Bank's recently approved ties. But strategies to reduce poverty should not lead Water Resources Sector Strategy, "the environment to further degradation of water resources or eco- is a special 'water-using sector' in that most envi- logical services. Finding a balance between these ronmental concerns are a central part of overall objectives is an important aspect of the Bank's in- water resources management, and not just a part terest in sustainable development. The 2001 Envi- of a distinctwater-using sector" (World Bank 2003: ronment Strategy underscores the linkages among 28). Being integral to overall water resources man- water resources management, environmental agement, the environment is "voiceless" when other sustainability, and poverty, and shows how the 2003 water using sectors have distinct voices. As a con- Water Resources Sector Strategy's call for using sequence, representatives of these other water us- water as a vehicle for increasing growth and r e- ing sectors need to be fully aware of the importance ducing poverty can be carried out in a socially and of environmental aspects of water resources man- environmentally responsible manner. agement for the developmenl of their sectoral in- terests. Over the past few decades, many nations have been subjected to the ravages of either droughts or floods. For us in the World Bank, water resources man- Unsustainable land and water use practices have agement-including the development of surface and contributed to the degradation of the water resoLurces groundwater resources for urban, rural, agriculture, base and are undermining the primary investments energy, mining, and industrial uses, as well as the in water supply, energy and irrigation infrastruc- protection of surface and groundwater sources, pol- ture, often also contributing to loss of biodiversity. lution control, watershed management, control of In response, new policy and institutional reforms water weeds, and restoration of degraded ecosys- are being developed to ensure responsible and sus- tems such as lakes and wetlands-is an importanL tainable practices are put in place, and new predic- element of our lending, supporting one of the es- tive and forecasting techniques are being developed sential building blocks for sustaining livelihoods and that can help to reduce the impacts and manage for social and economic development in general. the consequences of such events. The Environment Prior to 1993, environmental considerations of such and Water Resources Sector Strategies make it clear investments were addressed reactively and prima- that water must be treated as a resource that spans rily through the Bank's safeguard policies. The 1993 multiple uses in a river basin, particularly to main- Water Resources Management Policy Paper broad- tain sufficient flows of sufficient quality at the ap- ened the development focus to include the protec- propriate times to offset upstream abstraction and tion and management of water resources in an pollution and sustain the downstream social, eco- environmentally sustainable, socially acceptable, logical, and hydrological functions of watersheds and economically efficient manner as an emerging and wetlands. L5 --IE j/fjTER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 With the support of the Government of the Nether- The Notes are in eight categories: environmental lands, the Environment Department has prepared issues and lessons; institutional and regulatory is- an initial series of Water Resources and Environ- sues; environmental flow assessment; water qual- ment Technical Notes to improve the knowledge ity management; irrigation and drainage; water base about applying environmental management conservation (demand management); waterbody principles to water resources management. The management; and selected topics. The series may Technical Note series supports the implementation be expanded in the future to include other relevant of the World Bank 1993 Water Resources Manage- categories or topics. Not all topics will be of inter- ment Policy, 2001 Environment Strategy, and 2003 est to all specialists. Some will find the review of Water Resources Sector Strategy, as well as the past environmental practices in the water sector implementation of the Bank's safeguard policies. useful for learning and improving their perfor- The Notes are also consistent with the Millennium mance; others may find their suggestions for fur- Development Goal objectives related to environmen- ther, more detailed information to be valuable; while tal sustainability of water resources. still others will find them useful as a reference on emerging topics such as environmental flow assess- The Notes are intended for use by those without ment, environmental regulations for private water specific training in water resources management utilities, inter-basin water transfers and climate such as technical specialists, policymakers and variability and climate change. The latter topics are managers working on water sector related invest- likely to be of increasing importance as the World ments within the Bank; practitioners from bilateral, Bank implements its environment and water re- multilateral, and nongovernmental organizations; sources sector strategies and supports the next gen- and public and private sector specialists interested eration of water resources and environmental policy in environmentally sustainable water resources and institutional reforms. management. These people may have been trained as environmental, municipal, water resources, ir- rigation, power, or mining engineers; or as econo- mists, lawyers, sociologists, natural resources Kristalina Georgieva specialists, urban planners, environmental planners, Director or ecologists. Environment Department WATER QUALTY ASSESSMENTfAND PROTECTION ACKNOWLELDGMENTS The Bank is deeply grateful to the Government of This Technical Note was reviewed by David - the Netherlands for financing the production of this Hanrahan of the World Bank. Helpful comments Technical Note. were provided by Peter Kolsky of the World Bank. Technical Note D.1 was drafted by Frank Radstake and Albert Tuinhof of Royal Haskoning in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. |[WATER RESOURCES AND ENVRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 INTRODUCTION Growing demands for water and increased pollu- ment (1993). Water quality aspects are evident in tion loads threaten the quality of many lakes, riv- the Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook ers, estuaries and groundwater bodies around the (UNIDO, UNEP, World Bank), which provides au- world and pose serious threats to public health, ag- thoritative and practical advice on implementing ricultural and industrial production, ecological func- water quality programs, including monitoring, use tions, and biodiversity. Maintenance of water quality of models, and integrated wastewater management. is expected to grow in importance in the future. For example, the World Water Vision states that dete- Technical Notes D.1 through D.3 deal with water rioration of both surface water and groundwater quality. This Note begins with a discussion about quality and their impact on ecosystems and generalconceptsofwaterqualityandintegratedwa- biodiversity are central issues for sustainable wa- ter resources management, the objectives of water ter resources development and management in the quality assessment, and the iterative steps in water coming decades. There has been insufficient invest- quality assessment and protection. Thereafter, it dis- ment in water quality protection for urban and ru- cusses water quality standards; information needs ral needs, according to the report, and there is a and monitoring networks, sampling and analysis critical need to promote integrated water resource of water quality; processing and interpretation of management. data; water quality management programs; and the general economic, legal, and institutional frame- The World Bank has been involved in water quality work required for water quality management. The issues for several decades, through investments Note finishes with some concluding remarks and in sanitation, wastewater suggested reading for those treatment and disposal, -, seeking more detailed in- drainage projects, and, more ' * - formation. Appendixes 1 recently, in some nutrient _ , and 2 provide a glossary of control programs. Integra- .L . relevant terminology and Lion of water quality manage- -2 . - concepts and a summary of ment into water resources * , water quality standards. management (IWRM) is re- / E Notes D.2 and D.3 deal with flected in the environmental / o issues specific to municipal objectives of IWRM in the C- wastewater treatment and World Bank's policy paper on o nonpoint source (diffuse) Water Resources Manage- A Stream pollution respectively. Urban Stre8m, Morocco WATER QUALITn. ASSESSMENT AND PROTECT7ONJ WATER QUALITY AND INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT WHY IS WATER QUALITY AN ISSUE? nuclear waste into surface water and groundwater . are a threat, especially in the transition economies Water resources management has often focused on of Central and Eastern Europe. As these examples satisfying increasing demands for water without ad- demonstrate, water quality issues depend very much equately accounting for Ihe need to protect water on the context. Thus, chlorination of drinking wa- quality and preserve ecosystems and biodiversity. ter can introduce trihalomethanes, which are car- Rapidly growing cities and industries, expansion cinogenic. While the presence of these compounds of the mining industry, and the increasing use of is a concern in the developed world, in the devel- chemicals in agriculture have undermined the qual- oping world the benefits from pathogen removal ity of many rivers, lakes, and aquifers. Poor water with chlorination usually far outweigh these r isks. quality can create health hazards, as occurs in nu- merous rivers in the developing world; threaten Even though water quality deterioration is often not downstream irrigation areas; reduce industrial ca- as visible as water scarcity, its impacts can be just as pacity through loss of hydropower production and serious with significant economic consequences. costs arising from removing pollutants; destroy eco- I-lealth hazards, agricultural production losses, and systems; and affect biodiversity. If pollution makes losses of ecological function and biodiversity have the water unfit for human use, degraded surface long-term effects that are costly to remediate and im- and groundwater quality can even add to water pose real suffering on those affected. Sediments shortages in water-scarce regions. eroded from watersheds increase turbidity and re- duce storage capacity in dams. The UNDP-World Maintaining good water quality is a growing con- Bank Water and Sanitation Program estimates that cern in water resources management around the 6,000 people die every day (or over 2.2 million people world. In developing countries, major water qual- a year) from diarrheal diseases; many of these lives ity concerns include fecal contamination from the could be saved through improved hygiene, sanitation, disposal of untreated or patially treated municipal and water quality. The economic costs associated with and domestic wastewater into surface water bod- water quality degradation are very significant. ies, and the increased use of pesticides, fertilizers, and herbicides in agriculture. Trace chemicals and KEY WATER QUALITY ISSUES pharmaceuticals, which are carcinogens and en- docrine disrupters, are now seen as a water qual- Both natural processes and human activities can ity concern in the industrialized world. Leaks of cause deterioration in water quality (Box 1). Table TABLE 1. MAJOR POLLUTANT CATEGORIES AND PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS Pollutant Natural Domestic Industrial Broodacre Intensive Urban Category Occurrences Sewage Wastes Agriculture Agriculture Runoff Oxygen-demanding material X X X X Nutrients X X X X X Pathogens X X X X X Suspended solids/sediments X X X X X X Salts X X X X Toxic metals X X X Toxic organic chemicals X X X Heat X X Modified after: Davis, M.L. and D.A. Cornwell, 1998. Introduction to Environmental Engineering. International edition. WCB/McGraw-Hill, R9 WATER RESOuRCSES AND EMIRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 T - ~BOX 1. ARSENIC CONTAMINATION IN BANGLADESH AND RIVER SALINITY IN AUSTRALIA Bangladesh. The Government of Bangladesh had been active in securing safe drinking water supplies in rural areas by sinking about 4.5 million tube wells. In 1993, arsenic-contaminated water was detected in tube-well water in some southern districts of Bangladesh. Now, arsenic-contaminated wells are found in more than half of Bangladesh's 64 districts. The arsenic crisis in Bangladesh may be one of the largest poisoning episodes in history. Although only about 1,000 cases of chronic arsenicosis have been reported in Bangladesh, it is estimated that at least 1.2 million people are exposed to arsenic poisoning, and perhaps one-third of the country is potentially exposed. It has become clear that the arsenic originates in a particular geological deposit in the upper alluvial sediments. Many experts assume that overextraction of groundwater for irrigation caused arsenic to separate from naturally occurring compounds, with consequent water contamination. Arsenic concentrations above the acceptable limit in Bangladesh (0.05 mg/I) have only been found in shallow tube-well water; deep tube-well water does not show arsenic contamination yet. The World Bank is supporting the Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation/Water Supply Project to provide alternative water supplies and emergency medical relief. Australia. Over the last 200 years, much of arable Australia's natural vegetation has been cleared and replaced with shallow-rooted annual crops. This has altered the water balance across large areas of the country, causing increasing recharge to groundwater and a concomitant rise in the water table. Many Australian soils contain salts, either from previous marine incursions or from wind-borne deposition, and the rising water tables are bringing this salt to the surface. At least 2.5 million ha (5 percent of the currently cultivated land) are affected by dryland salinity, and 33 percent of rivers are in poor condition. One major city. Adelaide, will fail to meet WHO standards for salt in drinking water 2 days out of 5 within 20 years. Salinity levels are predicted to rise in many major rivers of the Murray-Darling basin, which may endanger their use for irrigation within 20 years. The state and federal governments have recently agreed to an action plan that includes sefting targets for salinity levels in each catchment, developing community-based integrated catchment management plans to meet the targets, building the capacity of communities to implement these plans, improving the governance framework for long-term action, and alerting the public to the long-term risks and options for salinity management. Sources: Harun-ur-Rashid and Abdul Karim Mridha. 1998. "Arsenic contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh." Proceedings of the 24'h WEDC Conference, Islamabad, Pakistan. Basin Salinity Management Strategy 2001-2015, Murray-Darling Basin Ministerial Council. 2001 National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality. Canberra: Commonwealfh of Australia. 1 summarizes the main sources of pollution from tection of land and water resources. Hence, IWRM is both causes. Water quality concerns also change not limited to addressing just physical relationships over time. For example, surface waters may con- or water resource characteristics. It also includes wa- tain a high concentration of sediments in the rainy ter as an integral part of the ecosystem, a finite natu- season because of erosion of catchments, while do- ral resource, and a social and economic good. mestic and industrial waste pollution may be a major concern during the dry season as a result of reduced It is essential that water quality issues be addressed dilution or restricted microbial activity. within an IWRM framework to properly handle the often-conflicting demands on water resources that WATER QUALITY AND INTEGRATED arise in many countries, such as competition be- tween irrigation and domestic water supply, in- WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT creased degradation of water resources, variations in water quality stored behind hydraulic structures Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in- (such as dams), and increased cost of treatment. cludes social, economic, and environmental factors Different economic and environmental uses place in the planning, development, monitoring, and pro- different demands on water quality (Table 2). WATER QUALITY: ASSESSMENT1AND PROTECTION WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND STANDARDS WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT * Report on compliance with national or inter- - national standards or action plans Water quality assessment is the evaluation of the physical, chemical, and biological condition of a WATER QUALITY STANDARDS AND water resource in relation to intended uses. It en- GUIDELINES compasses monitoring, data evaluation, reporting, and dissemination of the condition of the aquatic The term "standards" usually refers to legally en- environment. forceable measures of water quality, while the term "guidelines" is used for nonbinding measures. Un- Water quality assesments have a variety of purposes. less noted, we will use the term "standards" in this For example, they can be used to: document. * Describe water quality at regional or national scales, including a determination of trends in Various water quality standards have been devel- time and space oped to assess the suitability of a water resource * Determine whether or not water quality meets for particular uses (Appendix 2 summarizes selected previously defined objectives for designated water quality guidelines for drinking water supply, uses, including public health irrigation and livestock supply, and selected guide- * Manage resolution of specific pollution man- lines for river water quality and effluent discharges). agement issues, including post-audit functions The WHO drinking water quality standards are a * Determine investment options based on poten- global reference, which are complemented in many tial benefits from proposed or alternative countries by local standards. Problems can arise remediation options when there are major differences between local * Provide a comprehensive assesment of river standards and international standards. Itis also quite or lake basins and aquifers, especially to deter- common to find incomplete standards. For example, mine the relative importance of point- versus in many countries drinking water quality standards nonpoint-source pollution are often well-developed, while standards or even * Support regional or river and lake basin plan- guidelines for irrigation and ecological uses are nfing, and groundwater planning, including the absent. development and implementation of national/ regional policies. Water quality standards and guidelines should be regarded as tools for sound water resources man- agement, rather then an automatic assurance of good water quality. Deviations from standards may be justified for various economic and technical rea- $ _ sons and should be assessed for each specific case. For instance, temporary drinking water quality stan- F dards were drafted in Tanzania to permit the use of p waters with higher fluoride levels than recom- , mended in WHO standards, since no feasible or cost [ effective treatment for naturally high fluoride con- centrations was available. Standards can be imple- mented through not only enforcement mechanisms, ER but also through mechanisms such as financial in- Water lilies, China centives and public pressure (Box 2). _LWATER RESOURCES AND EwNIRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 ', -.7BOx 2. POLLUTION CONTROL IN INDONESIA Indonesia began formal water qualily regulation in 1992, establishing maximum allowable volumes and concentrations of BOD and other water pollutants from 14 broadly defined industry sectors such as textiles and wood pulping. In 1995, the government introduced the Program for Pollution Control, Evaluation and Rating (PROPER PROKASIH). In the program's initial phase, the government decided to focus on compliance with water regulations. Polluters are assigned environmental performance ratings (excellent, good, adequate, poor, or very poor), which are announced to the public. PROPER's ratings are designed to reward good performance and call public attention to polluters who are not in compli- ance with the regulations. Armed with this information, local communities can negotiate better environmental arrange- ments with neighboring factories; firms with good performance can advertise their status and claim market rewards for their performance; investors can accurately assess environmental liabilities; and regulators can focus their limited resources on the worst performers. By committing itself to a public disclosure strategy, the environmental agency also reveals its own ability to process information reliably and enforce the existing regulations. During its first two years of operation, PROPER was effective in moving poor performers toward compliance and motivat- ing some firms to pursue higher ratings. Undeniably, public information is having an important impact on industrial pollution control in Indonesia. The new approach to regulation in Indonesia shows that local communities and market forces can be powerful allies in the struggle against excessive industrial pollution. Source: Afsah, S., B. Laplante. and D. Wheeler. 1997. Regulation in the information age: Indonesia Public Information Program for Envi- ronmental Management (www worldbank.org). THE MONITORING NETWORK PURPOSE OF MONITORING erence monitoring susceptible to cutbacks in gov- ernment support. Table 3 provides typical moni- Water quality monitoring can be carried out for dif- toring design characteristics for the different ferentreasons. The UN' distinguishes four purposes: waterbodies that may need to be monitored. (1) basic/reference; (2) effluent control and regu- lation; (3) protection of functions and uses; and (4) Monitoringfor effluent control and regulation. Regu- early warning monitoring. latory authorities, such as environmental protec- tion agencies, often require industries that are Basic/reference monitoring (Ambient water quality). discharging wastes to include water quality moni- Government agencies, water boards, and the gen- toring as part of their license conditions. The pa- eral public need basic information in order to track rameters to be monitored depend on the nature of changes in water quality and gain a general appre- the wastes and the intended uses of the receiving ciation of the state of their water resources. This waters. Discharges from sewage treatment plants type of monitoring is intended to provide long-term will typically be monitored for BOD, fecal coliforms, trends in water quality across large areas and can and nutrients. be applied at different scales from national to local. Both groundwater and surface waters should be This type of monitoring also includes the collec- monitored on a regular basis. tion of water quality data on the impact of indus- tries and landfills on groundwater quality. Because These data underpin indicators of the success of national water resource programs, as well as local efforts to clean up specific water quality problems. ' UN/ECE Task Force on Monitoring and Assessment, However, the lack of a targeted purpose makes ref- 1996. f72A WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT.AND PROTECTION TABLE 2. MAIN WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS FOR DIFFERENT WATER USES 1r Uses of water Typical issues Typical water quality Examples of International resources and concerns parameters standards/guidelines (See also Appendix 2) Public water supply Expensive treatment Turbidity WHO guidelines; US Safe (domestic, commercial, Toxic pollution Total dissolved solids Drinking Water Act (SDWA); industrial, and other Bacteriological Health-related inorganic EU Directive 98/83/EC public uses) contamination and organic compounds Microbial quality Industrial water supply Expensive treatment Largely industry- World Bank Pollution Prevention (e.g. food processing) Toxic pollution dependent and Abatement Handbook Bacteriological (effluent/waste reduction) contamination Industrial water activities, Expensive treatment Suspended and World Bank Pollution Prevention (e.g. production dissolved constituents and Abatement Handbook and cooling) (industry dependent) (effluent/waste reduction) Agricultural water supply Salinization Sodium content FAO guidelines on Water (irrigation and livestock) Bacteriological Total dissolved solids Quality for Agriculture (#29 contamination rev. 1) Toxic pollution Navigation (waterways) Development of Sediments sludge banks Habitat maintenance Oxygen depletion Dissolved oxygen US Clean Water Act; EU (Fish propagation, Toxic pollution Chlorinated organic Directives 91/271/EEC & 98/15/ aquatic and wildlife) Turbidity compounds EEC (wastewater treatment) Aquaculture Oxygen depletion Dissolved oxygen Zwelg et al 1999 Toxic compounds Algal toxins and pesticides Temperature Heovy metals and metalloids Water contact and Turbid appearance Turbidity US Clean Water Act; EU recreation (lakes, Bacteriological Bacterial quality Directives 76/160/EEC (bathing reservoirs, rivers, diseases Toxic compounds water) and 91/271/EEC & estuaries) 98/15/ EEC (wastewater treatment) groundwater moves much more slowly than sur- Protection offunctions and uses. Places where wa- face water (see Note G.1), it need not be sampled as ter is taken from waterbodies-such as lakes, rivers, frequently as surface water. and aquifers-need to be monitored if the water is intended for sensitive uses such as drinking water, The industries collecting the data will be required recreation and tourism, fisheries such as aquacul- to turn their results over to the regulatory author- ture, and some agricultural uses where water qual- ity for assessment at regular intervals. This approach ity could cause economic losses or health problems. not only reduces the costs to government, but also This type of monitoring is typically carried out by has the potential to make the effluent-producing in- the water users, such as water supply authorities or dustry more aware of the effectiveness of its pollu- aquaculturalists. The parameters to be monitored Lion abatement measures. and the frequency of monitoring depend on the use. For drinking water purposes, for example, they 7- WATER RESOURCES AND ENwiRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 =- V,TABLE 3. BASIC/REFERENCE MONITORING: DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF WATER BODIES Water body Number and location of sampling sites Sampling frequency Main criteria * Representativeness of the sample to the water * Information goals: information sought, statistical (common being monitored methods employed to obtain the information, to all water m Accessibility statistical characteristic of the water quality bodies) * Local knowledge on: "population" being sampled * the geohydrology of the system * Operational and financial constraints: budget to * the uses of the water support travel to sampling sites, distance of * the discharges (avoid areas immediately samplings from the laboratory, ability of the downstream of major effluent) laboratory to process samples River Number of stations m On average, 12 per year * Function of the size of the catchment area (e.g. a river basin of 1.000-5.000 km2 requires about 6 stations) Typical location for each station * Zone with complete mixing: single sample taken at mid-stream or some other convenient point * Zone without complete mixing: several samples taken at various points in the cross section of the stream, and combined to get a composite sample Lake and Number of stations For issues other than eutrophication: reservoir * Depends on the possible horizontal mixing * Minimum: 1 per year at turnover * The number of stations should be at least, the nearest * Maximum: 2 per year at turnover, whole number to the log,0 of the area of the lake in 1 at maximum thermal stratification km2 (e.g. a lake of 100 km2 requires 2 stations) For eutrophication issues: Sampling depth for each station * 12 per year including twice monthly * Lake depth > 1 Om: several samples according to the during the summer position and extent of the thermocline * Lake depth < 1 Om: at least 2 samples: - at 1 m below the water surface - at 1 m above the bottom sediment Groundwater Number of stations * Minimum: 1 per year for large, stable aquifers * Network density depends on aquifer characteristics, * Maximum: 4 per year for small alluvial aquifers vulnerability, groundwater exploitation, water use * Karst aquifers: same as rivers and land use, and population served with groundwater (e.g. 0.02 locations per 1 00km2 in Finland, 1.07 per 100 km2 in the Netherlands) Sample location for each station * One sample is usually sufficient to describe the water quality of one aquifer Modified after: UNEP/WHO, 1996. Water quality monitoring: R. Ward et al., 1990. Design of water quality monitoring systems. would include pH, turbidity, salinity, fecal coliforms, Early warning monitoring. If an emergency arises and other health measures and, depending on cir- from, for example, an accidental spill of contaminants, cumstances, other contaminants such as algal tox- then government authorities-including local govern- ins and heavy metals. These parameters would ments-may have to put an early warning monitoring normally be obtained once or twice a day. program into place to provide data about the effects Il4 WATER QUALITY. ASSESSMETAND PROTECTION of the spill on water quality. Groundwater as well as or similar waterbody can range from weeks to surface water quality can be affected by such spills. years. The sampling frequency will need to be Clearly, the parameters being monitored depend on sensitive to likely changes in water quality while the nature of the spill. The monitoring sites need to keeping the costs of sampling and laboratory be chosen so that they intercept the spill and can pro- analysis to a minimunm (Table 3 and Box 3). vide information on both its concentration and rate * Selecting the parameters that best demonstrate of spread in eilher ground or surface waters. the water quality issues being managed. The selection of parameters depends on the objec- MONITORING NETWORK DESIGN Live of the monitoring program, the regulatory environment, and technical and financial fea- The design of a monitoring network involves three sibility considerations. If regulations require a main activities: certain percentage reduction in emissions, then the monitoring program will need to include * Selecting the monitoring sites so they reflect the spatial variability of the water resource. For parameters that are relevant to those emissions. hexspam ale variverslare usulf thomtenresous. veri- The availability of reliable and affordable ana- examle, iver areusul-lyhomoeneos veti-lytical methods is an important practical con- cally, so they can be monitored along their lenglh, yicathod isen im nt acton- but lakes and groundwater aquifers usually need sid eration wh en desi gn i ng a m on itorin g uto aes monitod iroundworthre duimenis (uablyneed program for developing countries. Several is- 3 and Box 3). sues-such as whether analytical facilities are * Selecting the monitoring frequency to reflect available ata reasonable distance from the moni- the specific purpose of the monitoring and the toring site, or whether lhe costs of monitoring a flow dynamics of the type of water resource. Thus, specific pollutant are reasonable in relation to the surface water flows many times faster than available budget-need to be considered. In many groundwater, while the retention time for a lake cases, generic water quality indicators (such as Box 3. GROUNDWATER QUALITY MONITORING IN EGYPT The Government of Egypt's Research Institute for Groundwater (RIGW) hos established a national groundwater quality monitoring network to (a) measure the long-time quality changes caused by either pollution activities or salt-water intrusion; and (b) describe overall groundwater quality on a national scale. The objective of the monitoring system is to provide decisionmakers with information about the present and future status of groundwater quality, The principal problem in the design of the monitoring network was to ensure that a relatively small number of monitoring wells would represent large areas. Homogeneous monitoring areas were identified during the design phase. The most important factors expected to influence groundwater quality were believed to be homogeneous within each monitor- ing area. Priority areas were then selected within these monitoring areas to represent the importance of the aquifers that are present in each area. Additionally, areas that face a salinization risk were added to the priority areas for monitoring. At present the network consists of 190 observation points, increasing to about 225 points in the coming years. All operating wells have been sampled in the first two sampling rounds. A frequency of one sample per year will be maintained until the natural voriotion is known. The RIGW and stakeholders such as water supply companies will set priorities for the different chemical parameters. Once the priorities are assigned, a 'critical parameter list" will be established. It contains parameters for which a drinking water limit has been set and that are not easily removed from the groundwater by treatment. A groundwater suitability map for drinking water can be produced when the parameters on this list are compared with monitored groundwater quality. Source: RIGW/IWACO. 1999 Environmental Monagement of Grounodwater Resources in Egypt 1994-1999. Project Achievements. Fl 5 . .WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 total dissolved solids (TDS), hardness, electrical quality monitoring area, because of its great impor- conductivity (EC) and sodium adsorption ratio tance. The WIHO provides detailed drinking water (SAR)) can be successfully used to assess water quality guidelines. (See Appendix 2). quality while avoiding the need for expensive labo- ratory equipment and advanced analytical tech- It may be necessary to conduct a preliminary sur- niques.Flowparameters-suchasdischarge,water vey to determine the most suitable media, param- level,andvelocity-mayalsoneedtobemonitored eters, and sample locations. Such preliminary simultaneously. surveys are often short-term or limited versions of the full-scale assessment. While there are some common elements, the pa- rameters needed to monitor the quality of point- Water quality monitoring can target different me- source discharges are different from those needed dia-chemical, particulate matter, and biota. Trans- for nonpoint-source pollution. Urban point sources such as effluent treatment plants would normally p orta tion processes,cb ca be monitored for BOD, pathogens, nutrients, and asformtion and distrition processe su sometimes heavy metals and industrial chemicals. as absorption and evaporation determine the dis- Nonpoint sources such as agriculture would be tribution of various pollutants among different me- monitored for sediments, nutrients, and agro- dia. Water is by far the most commonly monitored chemicals. More detailed information on the par- medium. Particulate matter is monitored in lake ticular parameters can be found in Notes D.2 and and river studies because of the number of pollut- D.3. ants that are absorbed on the surface of sediment particles. Biological monitoring techniques are of Drinking water quality is not dealt with in this Note. increasing importance because of their ability to However, this area is the best developed of any water monitor the integrated effects of pollution (Box 4). Box 4. BIOMONITORING Biomonitoring uses the responses of aquatic biota (typically invertebrates) as a measure of water quality. This ap- proach has several advantages over chemical monitoring of pollution. First, biomonitoring methods measure effects in which the bioavailability-that is, the ability of organisms to take up chemical compounds-of the compounds of interest is integrated with the concentration of the compounds and their intrinsic toxicity. Secondly, most biological measurements integrate the effects of the pollutants over a large number of individuals and interactive processes. Thirdly, biomonitoring methods are often cheaper, more precise, and more sensitive than chemical analysis in detecting adverse conditions in the environment because the response is accumulative in nature, especialy at the higher levels of biological organization. This may lead to a reduction in the number of measurements. At the same time, it is usually difficult to relate the observed biological effect to specific aspects of pollution. That is, an increase in mortality of the target aquatic organisms will provide a measure of pollution, but it may not be clear what pollutant is responsible or where it is coming from. Pollution abatement policies are written in terms of chemical standards, so biomonitoring will never totally replace chemical analysis. However, in some situations the number of standard chemical analyses can be reduced by allowing bloeffects to trigger chemical analysis (integrated monitor- ing), thus buying time for more elaborate analytical procedures. Biomonitoring techniques can be used in several circumstances, including bioaccumulation monitoring for measure- ments on chemical concentrations in biological material; toxicity monitoring of the responses of individual organisms to toxicants; and ecosystem monitoring of the integrity of ecosystems in the face of environmental perturbations. The latter type of monitoring will include inventories on species composition, density, availability of indicator species, and rates of basic ecological processes. Source: de Zwart, D. 1995. Monitoring water quality In the future. Volume 3: Bio-monitoring WATER QUALITY ASSESSMEN7AND PROTECTION SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS FIELD SAMPLING suspended matter in the water body, from sediments - at the bottom, or from organisms in the water or sedi- Sampling is the process of taking a representative por- ments. Each of these media requires specific sampling [ion of a water body to determine its quality or proper- techniques. Common physical field measturements for ties. Samples are taken either from the water, from different water bodies are summarized in Table 4. TABLE 4. RELEVANCE OF COMMON PHYSICAL PARAMETERS TO WATER QUALITY Parameter Device Information Rivers Lakes Groundwater Temperature Thermometer High values due to thermal pollution (e.g. * * U downstream of power station discharges). Water temperature values are required for the analysis of the other water quality parameters. pH pH meter Controlled by atmospheric CO2 and/or mineral * * U corbonate buffering. Freshwaters: pH 6.5-7.5 Lower values due to acidic inputs from acid rain, acid mine drainage, illicit acidic discharges Higher values due to algal blooms, illicit alkaline discharges. Electric EC meter A function of the total dissolved solids at a * * conductivity certain temperature. If sodium chloride is the predominant constituent, the EC indicates whether the water is fresh (EC< 1 500mS/cm), brackish (EC between 1,500 and 20.0O0mS/cm), or salty (EC> 20.OOOmS/cm). Dissolved Oxygen Oxygen depletion indicative of presence * l oxygen electrode of oxidizable organic matter (for example, downstream of point source organic waste inputs) Light Light sensor Determination of the euphotic depth of a water * O body, i.e. zone in which photosynthesis occurs. Turbidity Turbidimeter Due to biotic and abiotic particles. * U LABORATORY FACILITIES . Analytical methods should be well-validated, described, and standardized, and sufficiently The availability of qualified staff and affordable labo- elective and robust. Standardization is espe- ratory facilities are often limiting factors in the set- cially important for parameters-such as COD up and implementation of water quality monitoring and BOD-where the results can depend on and, in reality, largely determine the selection of moni- the analytical method chosen. toring parameters. The following general rules on ana- lytical and organizational procedures should guide * The sensitivity, accuracy, and precision of the the set-up of laboratory facilities: measured parameters should correspond with El71 W ATER REsoURCES AND ENVIRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 k- I- a+the defined monitoring and/or protection ob- predetermined requirements of accuracy and pre- jectives. cision. An example of this inefficiency is the require- ment in some countries to use an atomic absorption Experience shows that it is inefficient to impose rigid spectrophotometer (AAS) for the analysis of heavy legal standards, both for the parameters used for metal concentrations, whereas new techniques us- regulation and for the types of analyses that are ing emission spectroscopy would reduce costs by permitted. Performance-based techniques offer sim- one to two orders of magnitude. pler and more cost-effective ways to attain program goals. In these techniques, the method of analysis The last section contains information on the costs is not rigidly prescribed, but the outcome must meet of standard laboratory procedures. PROCESSING, INTERPRETATION, AND PRESENTATION OF DATA DATA PROCESSING Maximum benefit can be obtained from water qual- ity assessments by integrating hydrological and en- Data should preferably be stored in a computer- vironmental data. Ideally, monitoring data collected ized database, using a codified system for second- by different institutions-such as governmental wa- ary information (location, station, basin, etc.). ter and environmental institutions-should be com- Examples of information to be stored include: bined in one database. * Sampling location: geographical coordinates, The resources to buy computerized databases are name of the water resource, basin or subbasmn namefthwatrreourc, baso, not available in many parts of the developing world. state, province, municipality, and type of water Whether computerized or manual methods are used, resource. it is important that at least two copies of the ana- * Sample information: sample location, date and lytical results should be kept, with one of them in a time of sampling, medium sampled, sample secure location. matrix, sampling method and/or sampling equip- ment, depth of sampling, preservation method, INTERPRETATION WITH MODELS field (pre)-treatment, and project identification. * Measurement results: variable measured, loca- Numerous mathematical models covering the trans- tion where the measurement was made (in situ, port, transformation, and effects of pollutants are field, field laboratory, or regular laboratory), available to help interpret the data. Some, such as analytical method used, and actual result of the mass balance calculations, and simple one-dimen- measurement, including the units. sional spreadsheets-for example, for modeling pol- lutant transport along a river-do not require Detailed descriptions of possible codes are avail- sophisticated computer technology. Many of these able from the UNEP/WHO Global Environmental models can be linked with GIS packages to facili- Monitoring System (GEMS). This program, with tate the presentation and interpretation of the data. over 50 participating countries worldwide, provides Others, such as diffusion/dispersion flow models professional assistance and scientific information require more advanced understanding and exten- on water quality monitoring (Box 5). Use of its rec- sive data sets to be applied and are of less relevance ommended codes facilitates the transfer and com- in developing countries. parison of water quality data around the world. WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENTAAND PROTECTION Box 5. GEMS GLOBAL WATER QUALITY MONITORING PROGRAM GEMS/Water was initiated in 1976 by UNEP and WHO with the support of UNESCO and WMO as a global freshwater monitoring network. The primary objectives of the GEMS/Water Program were (a) to monitor the pollution and contami- nation loads and trends of the world's freshwater resources; and (b) to assist national water quality agencies in improving monitoring and assessment programs. In August 1990, GEMS/Water entered a new phase. At that point, three long-term objectives were defined: 1. To provide governments, the scientific community, and the public timely access to information on the state of global freshwater, long-term trends in the level of critical freshwater quality indicators, cause-effect relations and impact assessment of observed trends, and policy options for problem containment and solution. 2. To provide assessments on the flux of toxic chemicals, nutrients, and other pollutants from major river basins to the world's oceans and inland seas. 3. To strengthen national water quality monitoring networks in developing countries, including the improvement of analytical capabilities and data qualify assurance. A computerized database (RAISON) containing GEMS/Water information is maintained at the WHO Collaborating Center on Surface and Ground Water Quality at the National Water Research Institute in Canada. Results on the state of global water trends are published on a regular basis. PC-based information systems have been developed for water management purposes. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US/EPA) provides quality control (QC) support to the program. Eight laboratories in 40 countries participate in the QC program in order to ensure data quality. Sources: http://v cci. ca/gems Each model has a set of assumptions about its proper termining trends. This requires the integration use. It is essential to understand the limitations and of externally collected data, preparation of ag- purposes of these models beFore applying them. gregated data such as quality indexes, and some- While water quality staff can be trained in the use times the application of models. of simple mass balance and spreadsheet models, * The wider dissemination of the results: tech- the more complex models would normally require nical analyses mustalso be tailored to the needs an experienced modeler. and the level and interest of nontechnical audi- ences, such as policy/decisionmakers, specific PRESENTATION AND DISSEMINATION stakeholders, and the general public. Unfortu- nately, in many cases little attention is paid to The presentation and dissemination of water qual- this last step, making the outcomes of monitor- ity assessments can occur on three levels: ing unintelligible to general audiences, and * Presentation of the monitoring data: for tech- clearly reducing the effectiveness of water qual- nical audiences it is important to have an in- ity assessment and protection programs. sight into the actual data collected. Tables, graphs, and maps are common methods to docu- Although the practical use of GIS and remote sens- ment monitoring data, normally directly acces- ing data is in most cases limited to visual presenta- sible from computerized databases or GIS, tion, these technologies encourage a more although paper records can be used if that is all systematic approach to information collection and that is available. to the analysis of spatial relationships and impacts. * Presentation of interpreted data: a second level Moreover, the possibilities they offer for flexible and consists of the professional interpretation of the effective data presentation make them particularly data, such as inferring sources of pollution from suitable for nontechnical audiences; for example, as the observed water quality data, assessing the a way to broaden the scope for public participation degree of compliance with standards, and de- in investment projects that affect water quality. ivi9l -- i LWATER RESOURCES AND ENWRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 THE CHALLENGE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES The above description of a monitoring network, taminants, might be monitored in rapidly indus- analytical procedures, and data interpretation rep- trializing countries, while microbial parameters are resents a good practice target. The challenges in likely to be more relevant in most African, Latin most developing nations are far different. It is not American, and Asian countries. Complicated and uncommon to find that a standard suite of water sensitive analyses for heavy metals and toxic or- quality parameters-major ions, nutrients, and mi- ganic contaminants should be avoided unless the crobiology-are being monitored without careful country can genuinely support these analyses in consideration of their management purpose. Wrong the long run with well-trained staff, clean and main- parameters are sampled in the wrong places, us- tained facilities, quality control, and full backup ing the wrong substrates, and at inappropriate fre- services. The most advanced analytical equipment quencies. Laboratory procedures are often poorly does not need to be used; it is better to use simpler controlled and the analytical results are unreliable; equipment that can be maintained even if the re- laboratory equipment is defective or inoperative sults are less accurate. If advanced analyses need because of unaffordable parts or lack of reagents. to be carried out for specific purposes, then this These difficulties are exacerbated because of lim- work can be contracted out to an accredited out- ited high-level support arising from the poor link- side laboratory. age between the monitoring programs and management activities. The poor understanding of The water quality standards should be written with the potential relevance of the monitoring and as- these analytical limitations in mind and not simply sessment programs also compound the problem. copied from other international standards. Biological The result is that budgets get cut and monitoring indicators are usually cheaper to use than chemi- programs deteriorate further. cal parameters, require low investments, and match the technical skills of developing countries. They Such situations can be retrieved by following the provide a first screening, after which chemical good practices described above to the extent that analyses can be employed. Most importantly, the they are possible in the developing country. A bal- monitoring program needs to be designed around ance must be struck between reliable water quality the needs of the water quality management program, monitoring and assessment based on international and the results need to be communicated to rel- good practice on the one hand, and what is feasible evant managers in order to keep their support. and sustainable on the other. It is better to invest in a functional, simple design that is robust and reli- In some cases, it is not possible to make existing able than in a technologically advanced design that assessment programs more responsive to program does not function. objectives by simply modifying them. In these cases, the water quality assessment program needs to be The parameters to be monitored should be selected completely redesigned to make it relevant. Box 6 to illuminate progress toward meeting water qual- describes the experience of redesigning the Mexi- ity objectives. Toxicants, especially organic con- can water quality monitoring network. WATER QUAUTY: ASSESSMENT!AND PROTECTS10jJ Box 6. REDESIGNING THE MEXICAN WATER QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK I! Water quality monitoring in Mexico is carried out by the National Water Commission (CNA). CNA assessed its monitor- ing programs in the early 1990s and concluded that the information base had no strategic design, had major gaps, was not representative of important areas, was often unreliable, and suffered from out-of-date (or nonexistent) facilities. Programs were not cost-effective and not linked to management requirements for data. Thus, the monitoring network continued to sample water quality parameters that were poorly related to the industrial and agricultural contaminants that were being discharged. Partly funded by the World Bank, the PROMMA project was instituted to redesign the monitoring and assessment program over the period 1996-2001. The original fixed network of monitoring stations was reduced to a smaller primary network of about 200 stations that would provide long-term descriptive information. A secondary network of stations for regulatory and enforcement purposes was installed for limited periods on highly impacted water bodies, and further stations were planned for investigation purposes and for emergency response purposes. The parameters being monitored were also overhauled, with screening analyses being used to determine which samples merit more costly chemical analyses, indicators being used instead of less informative chemical concentrations, and simplifica- tion of parameter schedules. The analytical laboratories were modernized under PROMMA, with a proper quality assurance/quality control program that applied not just to the CNA laboratories but also to the private laboratories that provided analytical services. A major capacity building program has also been instituted with managerial training, technical training, and the education of users of the services so that they are better able to specify their needs. The institutional structure of CNA has also been simplified: 31 state offices have been reduced to 13 regional offices, and basin councils will be instituted to ensure stakeholder participation. The previous 36 water quality laboratories will be reduced to a notional reference laboratory, six regional laboratories, and a number of mobile and fixed laboratories for basic analyses. Source: Ongley, E.D., and E. B. Ordonez. (1997) "Redesign and modernization of the Mexican water quality monitoring network." Water Infernationol22(3): 187-194. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS POLICIES AND MANAGEMENT 1. Define the objectives first, and adapt the moni- ALTERNATIVES toring program to them, not vice versa (as was often the case for multipurpose monitoring in the past); obtain adequate financial support. Winkedwitwater quality mo gandassessment. is closy 2. Understand the type and nature of the water linked with water quality management. The moni- toring program can point out issues needing man- body (through preliminary surveys), particularly agement intervention; it can also be used to assess the spatial and temporal variability within the the elTectiveness of management actions. In prin- whole water body. ciple, waterbodies with acceptable water quality (for 3. Choose Lhe appropriate media for monitoring the intended beneficial uses) need to be protected (water, particulate matter, and biota). from deterioration, while those where water qual- 4. Carefully choose the variables, type of samples, ity is below the required standard will need reme- sampling frequency, and station location. dial action. 5. Select the field, analytical equipment, and labo- ratory facilities in relation to the objectives, not The UN/ECE Task Force on Monitoring & Assess- vice versa. ment (see Further Information) has proposed 10 ba- 6. Establish a complete and operational data treat- sic rules for successful water quality assessment and ment scheme. protection: VVTER RESOURCES AND EWPRONMENT * TECHNiCAL NOTE D. I 7. Couple the monitoring of the quality of the The actions can include management of both point aquatic environment with the appropriate hy- and nonpoint sources of pollution (Notes D.2 and drological monitoring. D.3). 8. Regularly check the analytical quality of data through internal and external controls. Not all water quality problems need to be tack- 9. Give the data to decisionmakers not as a list of led. In practice, priorities will need to be estab- variables and their concentrations, but inter- lished for water quality protection and preted and assessed by experts with relevant remediation because of the inevitable limitations recommendations for management action. on human and financial resources. Both point and 10. Periodically evaluate the program, especially nonpoint pollution can cause water quality prob- if the environment has changed either natu- lems, and management actions can be directed rally or by measures taken in the catchment towards either or both types. In many cases, it is area. simpler to tackle point sources first, since they can be readily identified, quantified, and moni- Box 2 provides an example of policy development and tored. However, nonpoint sources-often run- don~plemesia. ion of water quality management in i"' off from agricultural lands-will need to be tack- donesia. led in many developing countries because they Water quality management plans should include often contribute the largest loads of some impor- actions to be undertaken, responsibilities for en- tant pollutants, particularly nutrients, agrochemi- suring implementation, and a time schedule. cals, and sediments. FINANCIAL, LEGAL, AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK COST OF WATER PROTECTION Financing water protection programs. Many coun- PROGRAMS tries face practical difficulties in putting designed water quality assessment and protection policies into T pof main practice. Common constraints include the lack of Table 5 provides estimates of the costs of the huameorcsisiaioaiaaiy,iaeut components of a water quality monitoring program eumen andopoorsquality control, imprati based on European experience. Table 6 lists typi- eqimnadporultycto,ipatcl base on uroean xperenc. Tale 6liss t3~3i water quality and effluent discharge standards, poor cal laboratory costs for the principal water quality parameters assessed in a water quality monitoring financing mechanisms for managing quality and program. Together, the tables provide a basis for controlling pollution, and lack of enforceability. estimating the costs of a full water quality assess- A market-oriented approach would partially resolve ment program, although these estimates should be some efficiency-related constraints. Thus, quality modified to reflect local labor costs, information control of laboratory results and investment in train- availability, extent of the monitoring network, qual- ing and necessary maintenance can often be im- ity control requirements, and implementation ar- proved by putting these services out for tender. rangements. In developing countries, the more However, this would require a shift of thinking in labor-intensive assessment methods may be more countries where the government has traditionally cost-effective than use of costly and high-mainte- controlled all aspects of water quality management. nance equipment. Thus, many monitoring tasks can be carried out locally with relatively low-cost ap- Enforcement costs can be significantly reduced by proaches. involving local beneficiaries of improved water WATER QUALITY., ASSESSMENT!AND PROTECTION quality, delegating responsibilities to those causing luter Pays Principle" is a good yardstick for,sele cng and being affected by pollution, and reducing the measures that assign the costs of pollution to the role of government to that of coordinalion and en- cause of the problem, although in practice a lrade- t, forcement. This not only reduces costs, but creates off will have to be reached between the polluter and ownership of water quality assessment and protec- the beneficiaries of reduced pollution. There are tion programs. Many routine monitoring tasks can various economic instruments for pollution control. be delegated to local levels, with periodic reporting * Pollution charges can work effectively in con- and quality control. For instance, it has been shown trolling discharges from facilities that can be that there is less cost to governments and betler monitored at reasonable cost, such as medium compliance with environmental standards if indus- and large industrial facilities and municipal sew- trial effluent monitoring is carried out by the re- age Lreatment plants. spective industries. The government's role, however, * Tradable discharge permits are useful if the remains critical in setting and enforcing rules, and number of sources within the water body or developing and enforcing national data standards basin is large enough to sustain a reasonable through programs of quality assurance and labo- level of lrade without any one source having a ratory accreditation. This means that governments disproportionate influence on the market. This must still retain the capability of checking the moni- approach is best applied to point sources (rather toring results provided by industries. See Techni- Lhan diffuse sources) and requires the establish- cal Notes D.2 and D.3 for details. ment of a trading system. * Increasing the prices of environmenlally dam- Economic incentives. Economic instruments can be aging inpuLs to agriculture to betler reflecl the an effective way to reach objectives such as a reduc- unpriced costs of environmental damage from tion in pollution discharges (see Note B.2). The "Pol- excessive use-by removing subsidies, levying TABLE 5. INDICATIVE BUDGET COMPONENTS AND COSTS FOR WATER QUALITY MONITORING Budget component Description Indicative unit cost (US$) A. Design of the Consultants, monitoring experts monitoring network B. Implementation of In the case of groundwater, installation of monitoring wells. 50 per meter (depth: 0-10 m) the monitoring As an example, the prices are given for one well in the Netherlands. 60-120 per meter (depth 10-100 m) network However these values may increase significantly depending on local conditions (type of soil, number of local contractors, etc.) C. Sample collection * Vehicle for Transportation (car, pick-up) 20,000-50,000 (field costs) * Field measurement equipment 1,500-2,500 * Working hours (average of 5 samples per day) + transportation. 90 per sample D. Data management Laptops, database, process software 20,000 system E. Laboratory analysis * Chemical analysis for the most common 20 to 40 parameters. 200-500 per sample (with quality control) If the analysis includes more specific parameters, like pesticides, this cost may increase significantly. * Biological analysis 170-300 per sample F. Data handling, Working hours. Strongly depend on availability and characteristics 50-70 per sample analysis, and of database for storage, calculation, and retrieval. reporting Note: The cost of working hours may vary significantly, depend on local conditions. i 3I [WATER RESOURCES AND ENVRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 ' - 11 I=-=§TABtE 6. ANALYTICAL COSTS OF THE MAJOR WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS Pollutant Category Parameter Technique Investment Labor Time Operational (in US$) Costs Oxygen-demanding BOD Potentiometric 10,000 intermediate low material Nutrients Nitrogen and phosphorus Colorimetric 30,000 low intermediate or titrimetric 30,000 low intermediate or ion chromatography 40,000 intermediate intermediate Suspended solids TSS Gravimetric <100 low low Pathogens Fecal coliforms and Microscopic <5,000 intermediate low fecal streptococcus (sterilization in autoclave) Salts Cl- ions Specific ion electrode < 5,000 low low or ion chromatography Toxic metals Heavy metals (e.g. Atomic absorption 100,000 high high cadmium, mercury) spectrophotometry or inductively coupled plasma spectrometry 150,000 high high Toxic organic Pesticides, herbicides, Gas chromatography 75,000 intermediate high chemicals organic solvents, phenols Oil Infra red 15,000 intermediate low Acethylcholinesterase Colorimetric 40,000 intermediate high inhibiton Organochloride pesticides Coulometric 75,000 intermediate intermediate chlorinated hydrocarbons Modified after: UN/ECE task force on monitoring and assessment, 1996. Note: Investment and operational costs are based on Western European standards. However, these values provide a reference for any certified laboratory in the world. taxes, or raising prices of agricultural chemicals- pressed in a national policy statement. Key ele- may be useful to control nonpoint source pollution. ments of legislation include clear assignment of * Subsidizing inputs that improve environmen- institutional roles (including a separation of regu- tal performance of polluters may be justified, if latory from administrative functions); reconcilia- society would otherwise have to bear the cost tion with other regulations and legislation; of the environmental damage. authority to charge for pollution costs through permits; and involvement of diverse stakeholder LEGAL AND REGULATORY groups in the management of the water resource. REQUIREMENTS Regulations can include sanitary norms and mini- mum treatment requirements; assignment of li- Effective water quality monitoring and protection ability; monitoring and surveillance aspects; programs must be supported by practical and ap- reporting requirements and data access, water propriate legislation, regulations, and codes of quality standards, interim standards, and exemp- practice. The legislation, in turn, needs to be sup- tions. Note B.2 provides an overview of the regu- ported by a strong government commitment ex- latory dimensions of water resources management. F2 4 WATER QUALITY. ASSESSMAN7AND PROTECTION INSTITUTIONAL SETTING grams, a number of rounds of consultatiohs may need to be organized with stakeholders. Apart from technical and financial constraints, suc- cessful implementation of water quality protection While consultation and cooperative approaches pave--<=- and management is dependent on the cooperation the way for successful water quality management, of institutions and stakeholders. While water qual- regulatory institutions must retain the ability and ity standards are often defined on a national scale, willingness to enforce regulations. There are many pollution control is usually the responsibility of examples where all the institutional and adminis- regional or local authorities. Thus, close coopera- trative mechanisms are in place, but water quality tion among local, regional, and national levels is remains a serious problem because regulations on required for effective implementation of water qual- point and nonpoint source discharges are simply ity management. not enforced. For this reason, it is essential that all stakeholders Internal institutional constraints in large govern- are encouraged to be actively involved in water qual- ment organizations may hamper the modernization ity management. Raising the awareness of people of water quality monitoring and protection. In prac- is important because few people will make changes tice, modernization is impossible if not supported without understanding why change is needed and by the senior management. Modernization does not how the change will affect them. Public consulta- always require additional funds; sometimes, a re- tions and stakeholder workshops can help recog- assignment of funds and staff is necessary. Without nize local practices, discuss the most appropriate their support, these changes will not occur. Conse- approach for implementation, and allow society to quently, the benefits of more effective water qual- participate in integrated water management. De- ity management need to be clearly apparent to the pending on the type, scale, and objectives of the pro- managers of these organizations. INTERNATIONAL AND TRANSBOUNDARY WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT A number of international conventions exist on water quality management in transboundary wa- ter basins. The most relevant conventions include the 1991 Convention on Environmental Impact As- sessment in a Transboundary Context (in force since 1997), the 1992 Helsinki Convention on lhe protection and use of Transboundary Watercourses and Lakes (in force since 1996), and a comple- __ _~- mentary Draft Protocol on Water and Health _. '*-4 (signed in 1999). These conventions and protocols have limited practical value beyond defining broad frameworks. Consequently, it is common to pre- - pare more specific multilateral agreements and _ _ -_ _ . R treaties for transboundary river basin or lake man- agement. However, national interest frequently _ overrides regional objectives, and international treaties themselves are no guarantee of effective cooperation. Assistant in laboratory, Thailand L WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT * TECHNICAL NoTE D. 1 Biox 7. THE ARAL SEA BASIN The Aral Sea basin, covering parts of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, and a small area in Afghanistan, has been turned into a "disaster zone" due to the diversion of large amounts of inflow from the Syr Darya and Amu Darya Rivers. The Aral Sea lost half its area, and the water flowing into the sea is brackish to saline. As a consequence, there has been widespread unemployment and poverty among the inhabitants of the region. An international agreement laid a foundation for regional cooperation by establishing an Interstate Commission for Water Coordination (ICWC). In February 1997, a new International Fund for the Aral Sea (IFAS) was proposed as the implementing agency for a GEF Project. Its executive board is made up of five deputy ministers, each of whom represents the respective country portfolio for agriculture, water, and environment. The framework for improving both water quality and quantity is to be supported by improvements in water control infrastructure, flow monitoring, data sharing, studies on water quality, projects to improve management of the upper watersheds, and capacity building for regional institutions. Preparatory studies toward the design of a water resources management strategy identified water quality as one of eight major issues or themes. The water quality assessment and management study dealt primarily with pollution issues other than salinity, and found that those are not generally of great significance at the regional scale. Recommenda- tions on data collection and information systems have been incorporated into the design of the strategy, while other issues are being dealt with at the national level through National Environmental Plans. Construction projects have been agreed to address problems of the basin environment directly, including large-scale irrigation and drainage improve- ments, water supply projects for the near-Sea disaster zone, wetland restoration, restoration of the northern Aral Sea, and restoration of some river channels. Source: World Bank, 1998. Project Document. Water and Environmental Management Project: Aral Sea Basin Program. Washington D.C.: World Bank. Box 8. THE LAKE VICTORIA ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAM Lake Victoria, the largest freshwater body in Africa, is an important economic and natural resource for almost 25 million people. Due to the pressures of population, the introduction of Nile perch, and water hyacinth to the lake, unregulated discharges of pollution, and atmospheric deposition of pollutants, the lake ecosystem has become seriously de- graded, Although the Nile perch is an important commercial species, it has eliminated up to 300 of the lake's native fish species, many of which were important sources of protein for the local people. Discharges of untreated sewage, wastewater from industries, deposition of dust and rain on the lake surface, runoff from agriculture and livestock operations, and runoff of sediments due to deforestation have contributed heavy nutrient loads to the lake. The bottom waters of the lake are now seriously depleted of dissolved oxygen and the surface waters are vulnerable to toxic cyanobacterial blooms. Contributing significantly to the problem is the water hyacinth, which first appeared in the lake in 1990 and has multiplied rapidly. This destructive plant forms dense mats, which inhibit navigation and deplete oxygen. It has recently been brought under control. A Tripartite Agreement (signed August 5, 1994) among the Governments of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania formally set in motion the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP). It is the first phase of a longer-term program to (a) provide the necessary information to improve the management of the lake ecosystem; (b) establish a mechanism for cooperative management by the three countries; and (c) identify and demonstrate practical, self-sustaining remedies, while simultaneously building capacity for ecosystem management. A major challenge in developing a comprehensive (international) water quality management strategy is the far-reaching economic implications for the member states. Implementing the strategy will not be limited to developing and harmo- nizing regulations, but also managing pollution by, for example, strengthening enforcement and setting priorities, Source: Hirji. R., and D. Grey. 1998. 'Managing International Waters in Africa: Process and Progress." In World Bank. 1998. International Watercourses: Enhancing cooperation and managing conflict. Washington: The World Bank WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND PROTECTION Implementation can, however, be improved by: policy reviews, seminars, and target pub]ica-< * Fostering regional, subregional, and basin-level tions, at all levels. dialogue among countries * Addressing the need for institutional capacity Boxes 7 and 8 provide illustrative examples of on- building, information dissemination, and fi- going efforts lo improve water quality of interna- nancing tional waterbodies through such mechanisms. * Promoting national political commitment to in- tegrated water resources management through CONCLUSION Water quality deterioration is one of the most im- based on international standards such as those of portant water resource issues of the 21st century. WHO1, they should be realistic for the resources of The causes are widespread and arise from nearly the country. every activity within a catchment that directly or indirectly discharges water to lakes, rivers, and A program to monitor water quality has to be fo- coastal areas. The pollutants also are diverse, in- cused on the water quality objectives of the rel- cluding pathogens, excess nutrients, sedimentloads, evant water management program. The and agricultural and industrial chemicals. monitoring need not be carried out entirely by government agencies-it is common to require This Note has emphasized the need to manage wa- point-source dischargers to install a monitoring ter quality issues as part of an integrated water re- program and report the results to a regulating sources approach because of the close linkages agency. Enforcement costs can also be reduced between water quality and quantity issues, as well by including stakeholders in water quality in the as rural and urban development. Water quality stan- planning and implementation of management pro- dards need to be established that recognize the ben- grams, so that they take ownership of polluting eficial uses of the various waterbodies. Although activities. WATER REsOURCES AND ENVIR0NMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 FURTHER INFORMATION The design of water quality assessment programs is contained in: Foster, S., R. Hirata, D. Comes, M. D'Elia and M. Paris. 2002. Groundwater Quality Protection: A Guide for Bartram, J. and R. Balance, editors. 1996. Water Quality Water Utilities, Municipal Authorities, and Envi- Monitoring -A4 practical guide to the design and ronment Agencies. Washington: The World Bank implementation offreshwater quality studies and Group. monitoring programmes. 15t edition. London: Chapman and Hall. The UNEP/WHO Global Environmental Monitor- ing System (GEMS) provides advice and some re- The World Bank Group, in collaboration withtheUnited sources for those undertaking water quality Nations Industrial Development Organization assessment programs. http://wwwcciwca/gems and United Nations Environment Programme. 1998. Pollution Prevention and Abatement Hand- International water quality guidelines are described book. Washington: World Bank Group. in: Chapman, D., editor. 1996. WVater Quality Assessments - A guide to the use of biota, sediments, and water in WHO. 1993. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 2id environmental monitoring 2nd edition. London: edition & Training pack (2000), both available Chapman and Hall. online at http://www.who.org. United Nations Environment Programme (UN EP) and Zweig, R. D., Morton, J. D., and Stewart, M. M. 1999. Source World Health Organization (WHO). 1988. Assess- Water Quality for Aquaculture: A Guide for As- ment of Freshwater Quality. Report on the results sessment. Washington: The World Bank Group. of the UNEPIWI-JO program on health-related environmental monitoring. Nairobi: UNEP. (http:/ The following reference and website provide de- /www.unep.org) tails on laboratory techniques and laboratory ac- creditation: United Nations/Economic Commission for Europe. Task Force on Monitoring & Assessment. 1996. Guide- American Public Health Association (APHA). 1995. Stan- lines on Water-Quality Monitoring and Assessment dard methods for the examination of water and of Transboundary Rivers. Institute for Inland wastewater. 19th edition. Washington, D.C.: APHA. Water Management and Waste Water Treatment (RIZA), Lelystad, the Netherlands. (Ths and vari- International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation ous other related documents are available at http:/ /www.waterland.net/riza/imac-water/ (ILAC) (vww.ilac.org). index.htmnl) Water quality modeling is described in: Ongley, E.D. 1998. "Modernization of water quality programmes in developing countries: Issues of e ePalmer, M.D. 2001.. Water ualitynModeling: Guide to relevance and cost efficiency!" Water Quality In- Lffective Practice. Washington: The World Bank ternational, Sept/Oct: 37-42. Group. WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT'AND PROTECTION APPENDIX 1 Eutrophication - The process by which a body of GLOSSARY water becomes richer in dissolved nutrients and experiences a seasonal deficiency in dissolved oxy- Abatement - Reducing the degree or intensity of, gen. Human activities can accelerate the process. or eliminating, pollution. Fecal Coliforms - Microorganisms found in the AOX - Chlorinated organic compounds, which may intestinal tract of humans and animals. Their pres- include dioxins, furans, and others, collectively re- ence in water indicates fecal pollution and poten- ferred to as adsorbable organic halides or AOX. tially dangerous bacterial contamination by disease-causing microorganisms. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - A mea- sureiofthemicamou Ofoxygen comansumeOD- in mhea- Heavy Metals - Metallic elements with atomic num- sure of the amount of oxygen consumed in the bio- brgetrthn2,eg,mruyadla.Te logical processes that break down organic matter ber greater than 20, e.g., mercury and lead. They in water. The greater the BOD, the greater the de- can damage living things at low concentrations and tend to accumulate in the food chain. gree of pollution. Microorganism - Microscopic organisms such as Betmonitabinglitheyuse of lffluentsfordivinghorganisto r algae, animals, viruses, bacteria, fungi, and proto- test the suitability of effuents for discharge into re- za oeo hc as iess ceiving waters and to test the quality of such wa- ters downstream from the discharge. Organic chemicals/compounds - Animal, plant- produced, or manmade substances containing Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) - A measure mainly carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. of the oxygen required to oxidize all compounds in water, both organic and inorganic. Non-biodegrad- Pathogens - Organisms that can cause disease in able and recalcitrant (slowly degrading) com- other organisms or in humans, animals, and plants. pounds, which are not detected by the test for Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), are included Suspended Solids - Organic and inorganic particles in the analysis. thal are carried in flowing water. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) - The oxygen freely avail- Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) - A measure of the able in water. Dissolved oxygen is vital to fish and amount of material dissolved in water (mostly in- other aquatic life and for the prevention of odors. organic salts). Typically aggregates of carbonates, Traditionally, the level of dissolved oxygen has been bicarbonates, chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, ni- accepted as the single most important indicator of trates, etc. of calcium, magnesium, manganese, so- a waterbody's ability to support desirable aquatic dium, potassium, and other cations which form salts. life. The critical level varies greatly among species, ranging from 4-7.5 mg/I. Secondary and advanced Principal sources: WB Pollution Prevention and J 24~~~batement HVandbook (1998); WXater WVords Dictio- waste treatment are generally designed to protect narymevada on of Water Planning DO in wase-receivig waters.nary, Nevad a Division of WXater Planning (www. state. nv. us/cnr/ndwplhome. htm ). Dissolved Solids - Disintegrated organic and in- organic malerial contained in water. WATER RESOURCES AND EwIRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 APPENDIX 2 SUMMARY OF SELECTED INTERNATIONAL WATER QUALITY STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES A. SELECTED DRINKING WATER QUALITY GUIDELINES WHO categories Parameter Units WHO, 1993 EU, 1998 US-EPA Bacteriological quality Total coliforms Counts/i 00ml 0 0 (i) Total coliforms Number of 5% samples/month Inorganic Chemicals Arsenic mg/i 0.01 (p) 0.01 (c) 0.05 (of health significance) Barium mg/l 0.7 2 Boron mg/l 0.5 (p) 1 (c) Cadmium mg/l 0.003 0.005 (c) 0.005 Chromium mg/l 0.05 (p) 0.05 (c) 0.1 Copper mg/l 2 (p) 2 (c) 1.3 (r: 1.0) Cyanide mg/l 0.07 0.05 (c) 0.2 Fluoride mg/l 1.5 1.5 (c) 4.0 (r: 2.0) Lead mg/l 0.01 0.01 (c) 0,015 Nickel mg/l 0.02 0.02 (c) Nitrate - NO3 mg/l 50 50 (c) 10 Nitrite - NO2 mg/l 3 0.5 (c) 1 Manganese mg/i 0.5 (p) 0.05 (i) 0.05 (r) Mercury mg/l 0.001 0.001 (c) 0.002 Selenium mg/l 0.01 0.01 (c) 0.05 Pesticides Dieldrin p g/l 0.03 0.03 (c) Atrazine pg/l 2 0.03 (c) 3 DDT 9g/i 2 0.1 (c) Gamma-HCH(Lindane) pg/i 2 0.1 (c) 0.2 Permethrin pg/l 20 0.1 (c) Pesticides total pg g/l 0.5 (c) Disinfectants and disinfectant by-products Chlorine mg/l 5 Radioactive constituents Gross Alpha activity Ba/litre 0.1 Gross Beta activity Bq/litre 1 Aesthetic guidelines Turbidity NTU 5 (a) Aluminum mg/l 0.2 (a) 0.2 (i) 0.05 - 0.2 (r) Ammonia - N mg/l 1 .5 (a) 0.5 (i) Chloride mg/l 250 (a) 250 (i) 250 (r) Copper mg/I 1 Hydrogen sulfide - H2S mg/l 0.05 (a) Iron mg/l 0.3 (a) 0.2 (i) 0.3 (r) Manganese mg/i 0.1 0.05 (i) 0.05 (r) Dissolved Oxygen mg/l >5 (i) pH < 8 (a) 6.5 - 9.5 (i) 6.5 - 8.5 (r) Sodium mg/l 200 (a) 200 (i) Sulfate mg/i 250 (a) 250 (i) 250 (r) Sulfides mg/l 0.05 (i) Total dissolved solids mg/l 1000 500 (r) Electrical conductivity pS/cm 2500 (i) Zinc mg/l 3 (a) Residual chlorine mg/i 0.6 - 1 Sources: EU, 1998. Drinking water standards (EU Directive 98/83/EC). (i) Indicator parameter; (c) chemical parameter US-EPA, 1974. Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), plus subsequent amendments. Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) values (health, enforce- able); (r) Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (aesthetically recommended, but nonenforceable) WHO, 1993. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. 2nd edition. (p) Provisional guideline value; (a) aesthetic guideline. ,30 WATER QUALaI7 ASSESSMENTI AND PROTECTION B. SELECTED IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY GUIDELINES Potential irrigation Parameter Unit No Slight to moderate Severe Remarks problem restriction restriction restriction on use on use on use Salinity EC, ps/cm < 700 700 - 3000 > 3000 (affects crop TDS mg/l < 450 450 - 2000 > 2000 water availability) Infiltration EC, PjS/cm > 700 700 - 200 < 200 SAR: 0 -3 (affects infiltration rate > 1200 1200 - 300 < 300 SAR: 3 - 6 of water into the soil. > 1900 1900 - 500 < 500 SAR: 6 - 12 Evaluate using EC, and > 2900 2900- 1300 < 1300 SAR: 12 - 20 SAR together) >5000 5000 - 2900 < 2900 SAR: 20 - 40 Specific Ion Toxicity Sodium (Na) SAR < 3 3 - 9 > 9 Surface irrigation (affects sensitive crops) me/I < 3 > 3 Sprinkler irrigation Chloride (Cl) me/I < 4 4 - 10 > 10 Surface irrigation me/I < 3 > 3 Sprinkler irrigation Boron (B) mg/l < 0.7 0.7 - 3.0 > 3.0 Miscellaneous effects Nitrogen (NO3-N) mg/I < 5 5 - 30 > 30 (affects susceptible Bicarbonate me/I < 1.5 1.5 - 8.5 > 8.5 crops) (HCO3) pH Normal range 6.5 - 8.4 Source: FAO, 1985 - Water Quality for Agriculture (#29 rev. ]). C. SELECTED WATER QUALITY GUIDELINES FOR LIVESTOCK Parameter Units Value Ratings/indicator Salinity (Electrical Conductivity) gS/cm < 1500 Excellent 1500 - 5000 Very satisfactory 5000 - 8000 Satisfactory for livestock; unfit for poultry 8000 - 11000 Limited use for livestock, unfit for poultry 11000 - 16000 Very limited use > 16000 Not recommended Magnesium (maximum values) mg/I < 250 Poultry, Swine, Horses, cows (lactating), Ewes with lambs < 400 Beef cattle < 500 Adult sheep Sources: FAO, 1986 - water for animals. Report # AGL/MISC/4/85. FAO, 1985 - Water Quality for Agriculture (#29 rev. 1). Values are the limits between None - Slight/moderate - Severe. WATER RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT * TECHNICAL NOTE D. 1 -.DT SELECTED GUIDELINES FOR RIVER WATER QUALITY Parameter Units EU Microbiological Total coliforms Counts/1 00ml 500 / 10000 Fecal coliforms Counts/1 00ml 100 / 2000 Physico-chemical pH 6- 9 Phenol mg/l <0.005 / <0.05 Sources: EU, 1975 - Bathing water quality (EU Directive 76/1 60/EEC). guide / mandatory values. US-EPA, 1972 - Clean Water Act (CWA), plus subsequent amendments. Recommended values for State regulation. E. SELECTED EFFLUENT DISCHARGE GUIDELINES World Bank Categories Parameter Units EU, 1991 WB, 1998 Miscellaneous pH 6-9 Biochemical Oxygen Demand - BOD, mg/l 25 50 Chemical Oxygen Demand - COD mg/l 125 250 Total suspended solids mg/l 35-60 50 Oils and grease mg/l 10 Phenol mg/l 0.5 Cyanide mg/l 0.1 Ammonia - N mg/I 10 Total Nitrogen mg/l 10-1 5 (s) Total phosphorus mg/l 1-2 (s) 2 Residual chlorine mg/l 0.2 Total coliforms MPN/1 00ml <400 Temperature increase °C <3 Metals Arsenic mg/l 0.1 Cadmium mg/l 0.1 Chromium mg/l 0.1 Copper mg/I 0.5 Fluoride mg/l 20 Iron mg/l 3.5 Lead mg/l 0.1-0.2 Mercury mg/l 0.01 Nickel mg/l 0.5 Selenium mg/l 0.1 Silver mg/I 0.5 Sulfides mg/l 1 Zinc mg/l 2 Total Toxic metals mg/l 5-10 Sources: EU, 1991 - Urban Waste WaterTreatment (EU Directives 91/271/EEC & 98/15/EEC). (s) for sensitive (eutrophication) areas only; upper limits applies to smaller systems (i.e. 10 000 - 100 000 population equivalents). WB, 1998 - Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook. General Environmental and Manufacturing guidelines I The World Bank Environment Department The World Bank 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. www.worldbank.org '. For information on these publications c1tact the L. - 4 ESSD Ad4sory Service at eadvisor@w,lbako Idban_z. A I~~~~~~I11 or cll naX2.3773 6v1l- v. X* -- - * _ -.,-v :,, - _ * _ ; - ,- ' ,_ _-pm - -t,_ ,. to~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~;' - r.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ tW~~~~~~~~~~~~- ES -