Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development Shelton H. Davis Katrinka Ebbe Editors T .o B 4. X aF!;*~~Setebr278, 1993,i' Proceedings of a Conference held at The World Bank Washington, D.C. September 27-28, 1993 Environmentally Sustainable Development Proceedings Series No. 4 ESD Environmentally Sustainable Development Series Proceedings Culture and Development in Africa: Proceedings of an International Conference ESD Proceedings Series no. I (Also in French) Valuing the Environment: Proceedings of the First Annual International Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development ESD Proceedings Series no. 2 Overcoming Global Hunger: Proceedings of a Conference on Actions to Reduce Hunger Worldwide ESD Proceedings Series no. 3 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development: Proceedings of a Conference ESD Proceedings Series no. 4 The Human Face of the Urban Environment: A Report to the Development Community ESD Proceedings Series no. 5 The Human Face of the Urban Environment: Proceedings of the Second Annual World Bank Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Development ESD Proceedings Series no. 6 (Forthcoming) The Business of Sustainable Cities-Public-Private Partnerships for Creative Technical and Institutional Solutions ESD Proceedings Series no. 7 (Forthcoming) Enabling Sustainable Community Development ESD Proceedings Series no. 8 (Forthcoming) Studies and Monographs (formerly Occasional Papers) The Contribution of People's Participation: Evidence from 121 Rural Water Supply Projects ESD Occasional Paper Series no. 1 (Forthcoming) Making Development Sustainable: From Concepts to Action ESD Occasional Paper Series no. 2 Sociology, Anthropology, and Development: An Annotated Bibliography of World Bank Publications 1975-1993 ESD Studies and Monographs Series no. 3 The World Bank's Strategy for Reducing Poverty and Hunger: A Report to the Development Community ESD Studies and Monographs Series no. 4 Monitoring Environmental Progress ESD Studies and Monographs Series no. 5 (Forthcoming) Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development Shelton H. Davis Katrina Ebbe Editors Alicia Hetzner, Editorial Consultant Proceedings of a Conference sponsored by the World Bank Environment Department and the World Bank Task Force on the International Year of the World's Indigenous People held at The World Bank Washington, D.C. September 27-28, 1993 im&' Environmentally Sustainable Development Proceedings Series No. 4 ESD The World Bank, Washington, D.C. i 1995 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing June 1995 This report has been prepared by the staff of the World Bank. The judgments expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors or the governments they represent. Cover photograph by Frederik J. Van Bolhuis. A local leader in the Warwan Valley, Zanskar, India. Shelton H. Davis is Principal Sociologist with the Environment Department of the World Bank; Katrinka Ebbe is a consultant to the same department. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data United Nations International Year of the World's Indigenous Peoples' Conference (1993: World Bank) Traditional knowledge and sustainable development: proceedings of a conference sponsored by the World Bank's Environment Department and the World Bank Task Force on the International Year of the World's Indigenous People held at the World Bank, Washington, D.C., September 27-28, 1993 / Shelton H. Davis, Katrinka Ebbe, editors; Alicia Hetzner, editorial consultant. p. cm - (Environmentally sustainable development proceedings series; no. 4) Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 0-8213-3188-4 1. Sustainable development-Congresses. 2. Indigenous peoples- Congresses. I. Davis, Shelton H. II. Ebbe, Katrinka, 1947- III. Hetzner, Alicia. IV. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. V. Title. VI. Series. HC79.E5U465 1993 338.9-dc20 94-48104 CIP Contents Foreword v Acknowledgments vi Summary of the Conference Proceedings Introduction 3 Traditional Knowledge and Cultural Survival 7 Traditional Knowledge, Land, and the Environment 9 Traditional Knowledge and Agricultural Sustainability 12 Contributions of Traditional Medicine to Health 14 Traditional Institutions and Participation 18 Government Policies and Traditional Knowledge 23 Building a New Partnership 27 Conclusion 30 Post-Conference Discussion Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development: A Conversation 35 Appendixes 1. Program 45 2. Participants 47 3. Indigenous Knowledge Resource Centers 50 4. Operational Directive 4.20: Indigenous Peoples 52 5. Selected Bibliography 58 iii Foreword Knowledge is perhaps the major factor that will knowledge to land use planning and environ- determine whether humankind will be able to mental protection, food security and agricultural create a sustainable future on this planet. Yet, sustainability, and health and medicine. They until relatively recently, our conception of knowl- also highlighted how traditional or customary edge was bound by the philosophy and methods social institutions can promote and facilitate the of Western science. Few, outside of some anthro- practice of sustainable development. pologists and historians, recognized that there This conference made no formal recommen- are myriad "sciences" embedded in the cultures dations. However, consensus (reflected in reports of other peoples and civilizations throughout the such as the UN Agenda 21 documents and those world. Today, both scholars and public policy- from the UN International Year of the World's makers are recognizing the importance of various Indigenous People) seems to be emerging that a local or culture-based knowledge systems in new type of relationship or contract is needed addressing the pressing problems of develop- among indigenous peoples, national govern- ment and the environment. The United Nations ments, and international development agencies. declared 1993 the International Year of the The old top-down or paternalistic forms of devel- World's Indigenous People. This was followed by opment policymaking are no longer acceptable to the United Nations' declaration of 1995 to 2004 to indigenous peoples. Like so many other groups be the Decade of the World's Indigenous People. who formerly were unheard or unheeded, This report, Traditional Knowledge and Sustain- indigenous peoples are asking for respect for able Development, records the proceedings of a their land rights and cultural integrity, and the two-day conference held at the World Bank in right to participate as partners in the develop- September 1993 in support of the United Nations ment decisionmaking process. year. The conference brought together a small For all of these reasons, I am glad to see that number of peoples from around the world- the Proceedings of this conference are being pub- some of them members of indigenous or tradi- lished and will be available to persons involved tional societies-to discuss how the knowledge in sustainable development efforts both inside of indigenous peoples might contribute to creat- and outside of the World Bank. ing more environmentally and socially sustain- able forms of development. Isnmail Serageldin Interestingly, the conference speakers focused Vice President not on abstract propositions but on real world Environmentally Sustainable Development problems, such as the contributions of traditional The World Bank v Acknowledgments Many World Bank staff contributed to the success arbeit (GTZ); International Fund for Agricultural of the Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development (IFAD); and Fletcher Challenge, Ltd. Development Conference. While some were Francis Dobbs video-recorded the conference, instrumental in formulating its goals and content, and Tomoko Hirata provided the graphics for pub- others provided useful suggestions and feedback licity. Logistics were provided by Bill Grundy in the on identifying speakers, arranging outreach, and Bank/Fund Conference Office and Donna Clark collecting pertinent materials. Still others gra- in World Bank Conference Services. Janis B. Alcorn ciously agreed to moderate panels and share their of the Biodiversity Support Program; Joseph insights on the issues discussed. We would like to Matowanyika of The World Conservation Union thank the following people for their invaluable (rUCN) Regional Office for Southern Africa; and support: Emmanuel Asibey, Bhuvan Bhatnagar, Jorge Uquillas, Environment Division, Technical Leandro Coronel, Timothy Cullen, Gloria Davis, Department, Latin America and the Caribbean Mamadou Dia, Paula Donnelly-Roark, Mary Regional Office, World Bank, reviewed and pro- Dyson, Mohamed El-Ashry, Ashraf Ghani, vided useful comments on a draft of the report. Rebecca Jaimes, Maritta Koch-Weser, Pierre Finally, no conference can be successful with- Landell-Mills, Antonia Macedo, Kris Martin, Ralph out administrative support, and for their excel- Osterwoldt, Mario Ramos, Lars Soeftestad, Bachir lent work we thank Myrtle Diachok, Denise Souhlal, Andrew Steer, and Aubrey Williams. George, and Nona Sachdeva. Travel support was generously provided by Cristy Tumale typed the manuscript, and the Global Environment Facility Administrator's Heather Imboden was responsible for layout and Office; the Capacity Building and Implementation page composition. Alicia Hetzner edited the Division, Africa Technical Department, and Exter- document and managed production; Virginia nal Affairs Department of the World Bank; Hitchcock did the final production edit. Tomoko Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammen- Hirata designed the cover. vi Indigenous people and their communities represent a significant percentage of the global population. They have developed over many generations a holistic traditional scientific knowledge of their lands, natural resources and environment. Indigenous people and their communities shall enjoy thefull measure of human rights andfundamentalfreedoms without hindrance or discrimination. Their ability to participatefully in sustainable development practices on their lands has tended to be limited as a result offactors of an economic, social and historical nature. In view of the inter-relationship between the natural environment and its sustainable development and the cultural, social, economic and physical well- being of indigenous people, national and international efforts to implement environmentally sound and sustainable development should recognize, accommo- date, promote and strengthen the role of indigenous people and their communities. Agenda 21, Chapter 26 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development Rio de Janeiro 1992 vii Summary of the Conference Proceedings Introduction Ma te huruhuru ka rere te manu. problems faced by indigenous peoples led the A bird can only fly if it has feathers. United Nations General Assembly to proclaim an International Decade of the World's Indigenous The role of traditional knowledge is the same as People (1995-2004). the feathers. Traditional knowledge is an enabl- To support these efforts, the World Bank held ing component of development.... Our cultural a two-day conference on the topic of "Traditional artifacts, our whole cultural fabric, rely on every Knowledge and Sustainable Development." On single interlocking part of the fabric. Our knowl- September 27 and 28,1993 the conference brought edge system is a very integral part of that. So, we together a group of indigenous peoples with staff have to have access to it. Not just to preserve it, members and representatives of nongovernmen- not because it makes us feel good to have it; we tal organizations (NGOs) and United Nations have to be able to use it. Without my tikanga agencies to discuss the relationship between tra- Maori, I'm just another person. And, if I am just ditional knowledge and sustainable develop- another person, I've failed in my duty to my ment. The closing speaker was Whaimutu Dewes, grandchildren and their grandchildren by not a Maori lawyer who works for one of the largest transmitting these values to them. business corporations in New Zealand. The theme of his summary remarks, as well as the con- Whaimutu Dewes ference itself, was that no contradiction exists Washington, D.C. between the maintenance of strong cultural tradi- September 28, 1993 tions and identities and economic development. To the contrary, for development to be socially On December 18, 1992, the United Nations and environmentally sustainable, it must take declared 1993 as International Year for the into account and draw upon the values, tradi- World's Indigenous People: tions, and cultures of the people in the countries and societies that it serves. ... with a view to strengthening interna- Indigenous peoples-perhaps more than any tional co-operation for the solution of others-are aware of these relationships between problems faced by indigenous communi- culture and development. According to the ties in such areas as human rights, the United Nations, there are more than 300 million environment, development, education, indigenous people in over 70 countries. These [and] health. people live in almost every climatic zone from the Resolution 164 remote Arctic region and the deserts of Africa to the Pacific Islands and the rainforests of Asia and The positive response to the International Year South America. While there is a great diversity of and the need for further progress in solving the language, culture, dress, and customs among 3 4 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development them, indigenous peoples share a strong sense of in consultation with indigenous peoples and, ethnic identity and close attachments to their where conditions permit, to be implemented by ancestral lands. them. These plans are also to respect indigenous Historically, indigenous peoples have been peoples' "cultural uniqueness" and take into socially discriminated against and culturally mar- account "local patterns of social organization, ginalized by the process of economic moderniza- religious beliefs, and resource use." tion and development. Over the past decade, however, policymakers, development planners, The Traditional Knowledge Conference and the public at large have become increasingly aware of the important role that the traditional The September 1993 conference was organized as knowledge of indigenous peoples can play in the part of the World Bank's activities for the UN promotion of sustainable development. International Year of the World's Indigenous The significance of traditional knowledge for People. A major purpose of the conference was to sustainable development was recognized in the bring together a small number of indigenous peo- Brundtland Commission's Report, Our Common ples from around the world to educate Bank staff Future (1987), and at the Earth Summit in Rio de on issues relating to traditional knowledge and Janeiro in 1992. It is also incorporated in the sustainable development. Agenda 21 documents of the United Nations and The questions that the conference explored the International Convention on Biodiversity. were: What is the role of traditional knowledge in sustainable development? What are the contribu- The World Bank and Indigenous Peoples tions that traditional knowledge can make to health and environment programs? How can tra- The World Bank was the first multilateral devel- ditional institutions be used to increase partici- opment agency to establish a special policy for pation in the development process? How can the the treatment of indigenous peoples in interna- Bank and other donor agencies improve their tionally funded development projects. This pol- performance in planning development projects icy dates back to the early 1980s, when the Bank with indigenous peoples? became involved in funding several projects that The September 1993 conference was only a affected the lands and welfare of relatively iso- first step in addressing these issues and did not lated and highly vulnerable indigenous tribes in cover all of the significant cultural and develop- the South American Amazon. The Bank policy ment concerns relating to indigenous peoples. called for the recognition, demarcation, and pro- The people who spoke at the conference provided tection of indigenous peoples' lands, and the pro- their own personal perspectives and experiences; viding of culturally appropriate social services, obviously, they could not represent the spectrum especially to protect and maintain their health. of the great cultural diversity of the world's In the late 1980s the Bank reviewed its project indigenous peoples. In fact, some regions of the experience in this area and, in 1991 issued a world, such as Asia, were not represented at the revised policy. This new policy extends the defi- conference, even though Asia contains a major nition of indigenous peoples to reflect the much segment of the Bank's borrower countries. broader range of social and legal definitions and Furthermore, some of the people who spoke at situations in Bank member countries. Some of the the conference are members of large African earlier protective measures are maintained, but tribal groups, many of which have non-Western the new policy also stresses the need to promote cultures and world views but do not fall within the informed participation of indigenous peoples the restricted definition of "indigenous" used by and their sharing in the social and economic ben- the Bank and other international agencies. efits of development projects. To create dialogue, we did not ask the speak- A major innovation of this revised policy is the ers to prepare formal papers. In this way, we commitment of the Bank to assist its borrowers in hoped to maximize the amount of interaction preparing and financing special Indigenous among the speakers, participating Bank staff, and Peoples Development Plans. These plans, some other conference attendees, as well as to respect of which are being prepared, are to be designed the oral nature of traditional cultures. We also felt Introduction 5 that it was important for Bank staff to hear the stood within the framework of the cultures of "voices" of indigenous peoples-which seldom indigenous peoples. Indigenous peoples find their way into development institutions, value traditional knowledge, because it is fun- which are located far from the often remote areas damental to their cultural values, spiritual in which indigenous peoples live. beliefs, and collective identities. To separate traditional knowledge from its cultural con- Format text is to lose sight of the meaning that it has for the survival and integrity of indigenous This Proceedings contains two sections. The first peoples. summarizes the conference itself. In this section 2. Development. There is no contradiction be- we highlight several themes: the importance of tween the preservation of traditional knowl- traditional knowledge to the cultural survival of edge and development. To the contrary, indigenous peoples; the relationship of this traditional knowledge can be seen as a "tool" knowledge to the land and environment; the con- or "instrument" to promote culturally sensi- tributions that traditional knowledge can make tive or appropriate forms of development. to agricultural sustainability and health; the rele- This is particularly clear in the areas of envi- vance of traditional institutions for development ronment and natural resource management, in planning; and, some recent government and which the use of traditional knowledge is international initiatives in the areas of traditional increasingly recognized as a key to sustainable knowledge and indigenous peoples' rights. development. Similar contributions are being The first section concludes with remarks discovered in the fields of agricultural devel- made to the participants by Ismail Serageldin, opment, health and medicine, education, rural Vice President for Environmentally Sustainable finance, law reform, and the strengthening of Development at the World Bank. His presenta- kin-based social safety nets, especially for tion is significant in that it represents the growing groups such as youth, the handicapped, and interest on the part of the Bank in integrating the elderly. these themes into its development agenda. 3. Participation. As in so many other areas, local The second section of this report is a transcript or popular participation is fundamental to the of a roundtable discussion that took place on the ownership and success of these development day following the conference among some of the interventions. Traditional knowledge can conference participants. It presents many of the key play a role in the design of culturally appro- issues related to traditional knowledge and devel- priate participation mechanisms, particularly opment raised by the indigenous participants. when government policies and programs and The Appendixes comprise the conference pro- project designs give adequate recognition to gram; names and addresses of conference partici- indigenous social and political institutions pants; names and addresses of Indigenous (Chapters 5 and 6). Here, the recognition and Knowledge Centers recently established through- support of indigenous women are especially out the world; the World Bank's Operational important because women are key transmit- Directive on Indigenous Peoples; and a selected ters of traditional knowledge and values, and bibliography. they are significant participants in the devel- opment process. Themes and Perspectives 4. Rights. The contributions of traditional knowl- edge to development also must be seen within While the conference made no formal recom- the larger framework of the struggle of indige- mendations, participants highlighted a series of nous peoples for social justice and the recogni- themes or perspectives. These themes can be tion of their rights. At numerous international organized around five subjects: culture, develop- conferences, including this one, indigenous ment, participation, rights, and partnership. participants have stressed the critical role of land rights recognition for the integrity and sur- 1. Culture. A strong motif of the conference was vival of their people. Other social justice issues that traditional knowledge must be under- voiced by indigenous peoples include the rights 6 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development to practice their own cultures and speak their traditional knowledge can play in the develop- own languages, to be protected and receive ment process, the speakers at the September appropriate benefits from the use by outsiders 1993 conference were not arguing against the of their traditional knowledge (intellectual contributions that Western science (if appropri- property rights), to be free from economic ately applied) can contribute to the problems exploitation and poverty, and to determine faced by indigenous peoples and other margin- their own development paths and destinies. alized populations. 5. Partnership. Several participants stressed the None of the speakers questioned, for example, need for a "new partnership" among indige- the role that modern medicine can play in the nous peoples, national governments, and control of diseases among indigenous and other international development agencies. While the rural peoples; nor did any of the speakers ques- nature of this partnership was not spelled out, tion the utility of modem agricultural and natural indigenous peoples clearly are not seeking the resource management techniques in improving old types of "paternalistic" or "top-down" food security or rehabilitating degraded land- approaches to development so characteristic scapes and ecosystems, especially under condi- of past government and donor agency re- tions of rapid demographic growth and social, sponses to their situations. In contrast, what economic, and cultural change. was expressed during this and other recent The issues at the conference and in this report fora is the need for a new type of relationship are raised less as opposing traditional knowledge in which indigenous peoples, national gov- to Western science than as questioning the cur- ernments, and international agencies are equal rent balance among the uses of different types of partners in a common effort (that includes knowledge in the development process. other actors) for planetary survival and sus- Similarly, the challenge is less one of coming tainable development. Obviously, there are out on the side of one form of knowledge or lessons here for institutions such as the World another than of finding areas in which traditional Bank, and its affiliates, in designing and fund- knowledge and Western science can mutually ing projects in which indigenous peoples are support each other in the common quest for solu- affected populations or key participants. tions to what up to now have often been intrac- table local and global problems. Traditional Knowledge and Western Science Shelton H. Davis It is worth mentioning that, in highlighting the Katrinka Ebbe important (and frequently overlooked) role that Conference Organizers Traditional Knowledge and Cultural Survival What is the meaning to indigenous peoples of tra- Why? Because they know that our com- ditional knowledge and what role can it play in munity has helped preserve the earth, not the development process? Several speakers at the only the natural resources but humanity September 1993 conference argued that tradi- as a whole. tional knowledge is related to the entire culture of a people, including its identity and spiritual This new interest in the scientific value of tradi- and religious beliefs. While some scientists and tional knowledge, however, poses a paradox for development planners may see traditional indigenous peoples. Today, there is an interest in knowledge as a means to resolve certain prob- the economic value of traditional knowledge; this lems of development, indigenous peoples see it is especially true in the area of biodiversity and the as part of their overall culture and vital to their uses of medicinal plants. Many companies, Terena survival as peoples. said, are identifying traditional medicines and In making this point, indigenous peoples are patenting them but not giving back anything to the not saying that their communities are not inter- indigenous communities. Furthermore, there is lit- ested in participating in the development process, tle understanding on the part of these companies or in sharing their knowledge with scientists, or the development community in general about development planners, and the global commu- the meaning that this knowledge has for indige- nity. They are saying that there must be respect for nous peoples. Terena told the conference: the cultural values of this knowledge and that their rights to maintain these values must be This knowledge that we have, we are not acknowledged and protected in the development so eager to sell it and not so eager to process. patent it. Because it is on this knowledge This was the theme of the remarks made by that our community depends for its liv- Brazilian Indian leader Jorge Terena, who told the ing. The important thing is our commu- conference that the history of the West's relation- nity has a traditional belief, a spiritual ship to indigenous peoples and their traditional belief, that controls this knowledge. This knowledge has been contradictory. On the one goes far beyond just thinking of the eco- hand, Western cultures have for 500 years nomic value that the knowledge has.... It rejected traditional knowledge because: is something sacred to us. ... it is said to be a primitive knowledge, Roberto Haudry de Soucy, a Venezuelan econ- from a primitive culture. It is of the past, omist who works with the International Fund for and therefore it is no good .... now, certain Agriculture Development (IFAD), made a similar scientists are beginning to realize that this point: we should look at a people's culture as hav- knowledge can be considered scientific. ing "intrinsic value" and hence invest in it as part 7 8 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development of our development lending and assistance. To do To the Maori there are three very impor- so, however, he said, we will need to accept tant questions: indigenous peoples as "equal partners" who bring their own cultural assets and identities to Ko wai koe? Who are you? (identity) the development process. He suggested that this No hea koe? Where are you from? (lineage) acceptance means financing such activities as the E ahu ana koe ki hea? Where are you head- strengthening of indigenous organizations, cul- ing? (survival) tures, and languages. Haudry said: These questions are the starting point, of The major asset of any indigenous peo- all Maori discussions and negotiations ples is its culture, and since this is an with outsiders. inseparable component among the assets making up its heritage, it is to their culture In trying to explain to corporate people with that any international financial institution whom we are negotiating joint ventures, we start (IFI) should channel its investment. And there. They have to understand that this is a sur- if, in reply to the question as to what the vival issue. Time horizons do not mean a great investment should be made in, we have deal to us. To put it in banking terms, our dis- said 'culture,' then the question as to how count factor is not as high as they are used to such investment shall be made, the reply because we've got a much longer time horizon. must be to acknowledge that a culture is However, that is not to say we are going to accept indivisible and admits no fragmentation. a lower rate of return. A manifestation of a people's culture, The leitmotif of the conference was the intrin- such as its productive technology, is sic value of traditional knowledge to the cultural bound up with a language, with an envi- survival of indigenous peoples. Traditional ronment whence it draws its sustenance, knowledge can play an important role in the with a pattern of distributing the end development process, not only because it offers product, and with a religious view of the some obvious solutions to local problems but also world and practice. because it is an important component of the iden- tity and spirit of a people. Until recently, a local culture has been seen as a hindrance to development, whereas today we must rather look upon culture as an asset, as a dri- It has been 500 years that colonialism has been trying ving force for self-development. Nowadays, one to offer us something different, and yet for 500 years hears it said that if we conserve a heritage (water, the world has still not recognized our traditional forests, biodiversity), future generations will have knowledge. You must respect our culture, our social a larger stock of these component assets of that structure, and our way of living before you can offer heritage, and enjoy a correspondingly enhanced us anything different. wellbeing. Similarly, one might argue that more -Jorge Terena culture is more wealth, that having more know- how, more languages, and more centers of inter- est enriches indigenous peoples, as well as Some implications of this proposition, as well enriching in the process the rest of a country's cit- as its operational relevance to the work of the izens and some segment of humanity as well. World Bank and other development agencies, In a similar way, Whaimutu Dewes noted the were reconfirmed and explored by other partici- importance of traditional knowledge to the cul- pants at the conference. Nowhere was this issue tural identity and survival of the Maori people, of intrinsic value clearer than in the discussions and the role which it plays in his people's devel- concerning the relationship of traditional knowl- opment choices. edge to land and the environment. Traditional Knowledge, Land, and the Environment A second theme of the conference was the idea She then described a conversation she had while that traditional knowledge is rooted in the land berry picking with women from the village. and the environment. Several speakers noted the importance that environmental values have for The women still wear blue handker- indigenous peoples, not only because the envi- chiefs, long-sleeved blue jackets, blue ronment provides them with food, fiber, and other skirts, and moccasins. These women, as necessities but also because of their spiritual rela- they took me over the hill, said: 'You tionship to the earth and deep respect for it. know, you are not allowed to take the berries home.' I said, 'Why not?' I had a Canadian Indigenous Peoples very Western reaction. I thought if I picked them, why cannot I take them Conference participant Cindy Gilday from the home. I would have known better if I had Dene Nation works with the Department of listened to them more carefully in the vil- Renewable Resources in the Government of the lage. One of them, Mary Ann Football, sat Northwest Territories of Canada. She told several me down and said, 'Aside from the fact stories about the respect that her people have for that we like the berries, if you move the the land. One of these stories was about a trip that berries and plants out of the community, she made to a remote Dogrib village that was it will affect the little animals, who eat involved in land claims negotiations with the them. If they are affected, then all the big- Canadian government. ger animals that depend on the little ani- mals will be affected. If those animals are I've travelled a lot, but this place really affected, it will impact us. One living touched me. It's the first time in a long being depends on another living being.' time that I went into a village and found the children still building animals and In another story, which took place outside of houses with sticks and mud and things Yellowknife, the provincial capital, she described they can find on the road.... what happened to the caribou when there was a This is also a place in the Northwest sudden influx of outsiders. Territories where there has just been a massive diamond find. In this village, A lot of these outsiders started going out people reported that helicopters were hunting without knowing what hunting landing every fifteen minutes during the means to Northerners. They shot caribou summer. Within this same area, there is from the roadside and butchered them on another mining company opening opera- the road. They left the heads and insides tions and two hydro dams are planned. scattered along the roadways. These parts 9 10 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development of the animal are considered to be the described the respect of her people for the land most delicate by my people. The chiefs of and environment. In her native language, she the Dogrib were absolutely horrified that said: any civilized group of people would act that way. It goes against the ethics of the Oi matou ofatu o le eleele. way our hunters relate to the land and the We are the seeds of the land. animals.... Our people have reconciled the relation- It is in our language handed down from ship between respect for wild animals and our ancestors, and we strongly believe that usage. There is a lot to learn from this, and our land and our environment are our her- that's Caring-for-the-Earth ethics. For itage from God. We live on it, develop it, thousands of years, our people survived in enjoy, but never destroy it as the next seeds this fragile environment. Their traditional will have nothing to grow on. knowledge is based on how they've inter- acted with the animals, their environment, Savaii Island, Ms. Jackson's home, is the and each other: what they have observed biggest island of the Samoan group and the sec- and tested through time and patience and ond largest Polynesian island after Hawaii. It is relationship with the environment. also considered to be "the cradle of all the Polynesians," and until recently was one of the Ms. Gilday used these stories to communicate most undeveloped and unspoiled of the islands. the deep respect that her people have for the land In 1978 when regular ferry service became and its resources. Obviously, the material survival available, Savaii Island experienced a great deal of of the peoples of the north depends upon the development. The government brought more exploitation and sale of renewable resources, roads, airports, and hospitals; better communica- including fur-bearing animals. However, this use tions systems; and electrification to the island. of the environment is based on a set of traditional One of the consequences of this improved infra- rules, ceremonies, and practices that define the structure was the increased interest of developers. relationships that human beings have to the nat- Development projects led to the clearing of ural world. While native languages may not have forest land; planters who now had more access to specific terms for the modern concept of "sustain- markets began clear-cutting rainforests; and ability," it is obvious that many traditional peo- others started to exploit the island's marine ples had a sustainable relationship to the earth. resources. "Most of these developments were necessary," Ms. Jackson said, "though some were The Faasao Savaii Society of Western Samoa not. Some of these were launched with or with- out plans and consideration of those living on the Moelagi Jackson, founder and president of the island." Faasao Savaii Society of Western Samoa, also Most important, she explained how these activities threatened the cultural traditions of the Savaii people by reducing their access to the forests. For example, Samoans use forest prod- For the Maori, economic development and culture ucsfrtebidnofratoalhssad have a reciprocal relationship that has a metaphor in our relationship to the earth.... I've yet to find a culture canoes and the making of tools. They also use that doesn't talk about Mother Earth. For example, sea medicinal leaves, barks, ferns, roots, flowers, and life has an obligation to sustain me. It's a mutually sup- seeds; perfumed oils for skin care; flowering and porting relationship (Wlwnaungatanga). That's what fruit-bearing trees for predicting the weather; gives me my right to go and exploit the sea. However, and trees for producing tapa clothes and kava Tamure, the red snapper, has got this relationship with bowls. She elaborated on the cultural significance me, and I have to sustain her. When we're looking at of the kava bowl. how we reconcile the tension and the trade-offs, we must make this the metaphor we work within. This is very important to our culture, as it -Whaimutu Dewes is used for mixing our ceremonial drink. Every meeting conducted in the village is Traditional Knowledge, Land, and the Environment 11 opened with a kava ceremony; guests arriving in the village are welcomed by a E tua i le vaoola. kava ceremony conducted by chiefs and orators of the village. The purpose of the This is an expression often used when someone is offering is thanksgiving to God, asking doing well. We say, 'He is doing well as he has a liv- for his blessing, protection, and guidance ing forest to depend upon....' Our everyday and our in our future.. I truly believe this kava cer- oratory languages are both rich with expressions per- emony will continue to keep our people taining to the cultural values of our land and the rain- emony peace and harmony due toourtotalforest. It is a good indication that without our in peace and harmony due to our total rainforest, our culture-which has survived for so belief in communication with each other many generations-will disappear. and with God. -Moelagi Jackson The Faasao Savaii Society was established in 1990 to protect the environmental and cultural values of the island. It comprises 20 corporate zations that have arisen throughout the world to members consisting of 17 villages, 2 youth clubs, provide an alternative vision of land use and and 1 college. The program includes environ- management, based on the traditional environ- mental education, ecotourism, forest conserva- mental knowledge of indigenous peoples. One tion, handicraft production, encouragement of of the challenges that international organiza- traditional medicine and healers, and capacity tions such as the World Bank and its partners in building. One of the Society's major goals is to the Global Environmental Facility (GEF)- establish nature reserves around each village that the United Nations Development Programme are under the control of village chiefs and orators. (UNDP) and United Nations Environment When created, these reserves will enable the vil- Programme (UNEP)-face is how to better lagers to maintain their local cultural use of the incorporate these people and their traditional forest, serve as a place for training young people knowledge into natural resource management in traditional forest management, and provide and conservation programs. This theme was income from tourism. central to the presentations of other participants, The Faasao Savaii Society is an example of including those who dealt with agriculture and numerous local and regional indigenous organi- traditional medicine. Traditional Knowledge and Agricultural Sustainability Food and agricultural production are perhaps the donor agencies. There must be, she said, a deeper major areas in which in recent years some scien- respect for indigenous knowledge, and a com- tists and development planners have sought new mitment to incorporate it into development poli- approaches based on the wisdom and knowledge cies and projects. of traditional peoples. The "Green Revolution" technologies (widespread use of new seeds, Indigenous agricultural practices, reflect chemical fertilizers, and pesticides) introduced the store of experience and knowledge after World War II increased food production. accumulated literally over thousands of However, the costs of this technology transfer, years based on sound understanding of while not immediately evident, are high soil ero- soils, plants, and the environment. [This] sion and loss of plant genetic materials that were knowledge is revealed through various resistant to pests and other diseases. practices that are used in crop production, Dr. Ntombie Gata, Deputy Director of the for example, forecasting seasonality, con- Department of Research and Specialist Services of servation of crop/plant diversity, mixed the Zimbabwe Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and cropping, land fallowing, and others asso- Water Development, stressed the importance of ciated with soil and crop management traditional knowledge in agricultural develop- systems.... ment, especially in Africa. She noted that devel- Farmers deliberately influenced the opment theory has tended to focus on disparate natural processes of mutation by careful factors such as land, labor, and capital; technol- seed selection over centuries. They devel- ogy; socioeconomic conditions; gender; and, more oped an intricate range of crop variability recently, indigenous technology and knowledge generated by sophisticated knowledge. systems. However, she said, "We can't afford shunting back and forth in the train of develop- Dr. Gata stressed the scientific validity of tra- ment picking one factor at a time-sometimes ditional agricultural knowledge. In Zimbabwe, picking the wrong factor. We must seriously for example, farmers are able to predict the onset examine what it really takes to socially, economi- of rain using such signs as changes in leaf color of cally, and environmentally develop sustainably." some tree species, shifts in wind direction, cloud formation, temperature and relative humidity Scientific Validity fluctuations, and bird and beetle songs and their of Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge seasonal migration. These signs," she said, "are crucial in decisionmaking relating to land prepa- The current crisis in African agricultural produc- ration, planting and choice of plants.... tion, Dr. Gata said, demands a change in attitudes She went on to discuss the role of women in and approaches on the part of governments and traditional agricultural systems. 12 Traditional Knowledge and Agricultural Sustainability 13 Indigenous women are excellent sources of both genetic and cultural information For a project to succeed, local people must be on plant and animal species, because they involved, not just in supplying labor but in making have to meet multiple needs within their crucial decisions. Projects must be based on people's sphere of household activities.... Women own ideas and knowledge of their farming systems. Such an approach will change the ownership of pro- playerrea ccalroterinsetin sc ih as color, jects from development agencies to the people. preferred characteristics, such as color, size, genetic stability, disease tolerance, -Ntombie Gata palatability, storage, and processing. Working classifications of crops by gen- der show that crops with multiple uses in Division of the World Bank, described one of form and function (for example, pumpkin these training programs that will be launched in and cow peas) are considered women's Zimbabwe and other Southern African countries. crops. [This illustrates] the central role Its purpose is to study indigenous agricultural played by women in maintaining genetic and land-use knowledge from village elders and diversity, which ensures options for to incorporate this knowledge in training work- responding to environmental changes. shops for government research and extension agents. If the program proves successful in Local Knowledge and Sustainability Southern Africa, it will be extended to other parts of the continent. Similar programs are being Dr. Gata emphasized that agricultural science introduced in other parts of the world, as wit- and technology are not neutral but are deeply nessed by the growing international network of rooted in a society's history and culture. Failure indigenous knowledge scholars and applied to respect other people's knowledge and culture research centers (see Appendix 3). has led to the imposition of alien technologies In designing these training programs, it is also that often undermine local people's self-confi- important, Dr. Gata suggested, to include indige- dence. Dr. Gata pointed out: "Failure to recognize nous women, who are often the repositories of the farmer's point of view and analysis has meant traditional knowledge about plants, seeds, med- that the farmers have never really been part of icines, and other natural products. In many coun- most development initiatives." tries women are the key to the survival of As a counter approach, Dr. Gata and several traditional agricultural and land-use practices. of her colleagues in Southern Africa are looking Some advances have been made, especially in toward a new partnership with grassroots com- countries such as Zimbabwe, in increasing the munities for the common purpose of promoting number of women attending national agronomy sustainable resource use in agricultural develop- schools and in using local women as agricultural ment. In this partnership the traditional farmers' extensionists. However, much more attention knowledge will form the basis for development needs to be focused on the agro-ecological knowl- projects and researcher and extension agent train- edge possessed by rural indigenous women, and ing programs. how this knowledge can be usefully incorporated Emmanuel Asibey, Senior Ecologist in the in national agricultural curricula and teaching Southern Africa Agricultural and Environment materials and in local extension programs. Contributions of Traditional Medicine to Health Traditional knowledge is also of great value in its with and asks for the help of the indwelling spir- contributions to health and medicine. Two of the its (those that reside in every object, plant, and conference speakers, Dr. Maurice Iwu of Nigeria animal); the invoked deities (minor gods who are and Dr. Arturo Argueta of Mexico, are involved asked to intercede with the one all-powerful in studying traditional medicine and demon- God); and the ancestors (the patient's predeces- strating its importance for the health and well- sors who are available for advice and consulta- being of the world's population. tion). These religious or spiritual aspects of the traditional healing process are often misunder- African Medicinal Knowledge stood by Western academics, whose cultural con- ceptions usually pose a fundamental distinction Dr. Iwu is particularly qualified to address this between "science" and "religion." topic, because he is both a researcher at Walter Reed Despite these differences in the underlying Army Hospital in Washington, D.C. and a Profes- approaches of traditional and Western medicine, sor of Pharmacognosy at the University of Nigeria, Dr. Iwu noted that of "the more than 130 clinically Nsukka, as well a member of a society of traditional useful major prescription drugs that are derived healers. He told conference participants: from higher plants, over 70 percent of them came to the attention of pharmaceutical companies The only thing that you can say that tra- because of their use in traditional systems of ditional medicine has in common with medicine." modern medicine is the fact that they Since 1978 his research group at the University both cure disease-one heals, the other of Nigeria, Nsukka, has been systematically treats. But, the role of the traditional investigating the plants used in traditional healer is much broader than that of a African medicine. He described the research find- Western medical practitioner. ings of his group: The traditional doctor is a healer, diviner, adjudicator, and protector of his To date, we have investigated well over whole community. Therefore, it is only a 200 plants and have studied about 26 of part of the traditional healer's role that them in some detail. In nearly all cases, we are discussing when we compare our laboratory findings support the use them to modern doctors. of the plant drugs as therapeutic agents. We have established from the analyses of Dr. Iwu described the three members of the plants used in traditional medicine that traditional healing team: the healer, the spirits, the preference is for dietary supplements and the patient. Through ritual and ceremony, he and masticatories rather than non-edible continued, a traditional healer communicates poisonous species.... 14 Contributions of Traditional Medicine to Health 15 In an earlier study, we reported the Economic Needs of Forest Dwellers pharmacological activity and the thera- peutic application of over 153 dietary In response to these threats he suggested that plants used in traditional medicine. We more attention needs to be focused on the eco- included in our report their botanical nomic needs of forest dwellers, and how their names, local names in the three main knowledge of plants and other forest resources Nigerian languages (Hausa, Igbo, and might be utilized as a "feasible tool for social and Yoruba), their medicinal and dietary economic development." However, he warned uses, and of course their chemical against too rapid an acceptance of the premises of constituents.... recent efforts in what is called "biodiversity [Our research has shown] that a high prospecting." He argued that the research degree of selectivity is involved in the use methodology used by Western pharmaceutical of plants in traditional African medicine. companies is one of identifying biologically active compounds or active constituents from Dr. Iwu pointed out that most of the plants plants and then distilling them into commercial from which these drugs derive are found in trop- drugs. This methodology, Dr. Iwu said, is "based ical forests. Although tropical forests constitute on the [incorrect assumption] that the plant med- only 7 percent of the earth's surface, they contain icine as constituted is not a medicine but has to be an estimated two-thirds of its plant species. Dr. refined to distill the true drug." Under these con- lwu continued: ditions, developing countries are only suppliers of raw plant materials, rather than being Unfortunately, tropical forests are now involved in the development and commercializa- under siege, threatened by over-exploita- tion of the drugs. These circumstances, he tion, habitat conversion, and the ravages argued, resemble the "colonial situation in which of poverty. It is estimated that over 150 tropical countries were raided for cheap raw square miles of rainforest are cut down materials." every day in order to accommodate the In contrast, he described a series of projects socioeconomic needs of human inhabi- that he and his colleagues are carrying out in tants of forest lands. Habitat conversion Nigeria and that attempt to draw on traditional threatens not only the loss of plant knowledge and ensure that a greater proportion resources, but also cultural diversity and of the profits remain both in the country and ben- the accompanying knowledge of the efit local people. medicinal value of several endemic The earliest of these projects was termed Nka- species. na-Nzere, which roughly means "a documentation Biotechnology Development Agency (BDA) * To stimulate public awareness and concern about the vanishing resource base of tropical agriculture; to BDA is a consortium of scientists, nongovernmental support the activities of public interest groups that agencies, and private sector entities established in are working on these issues; and to foster coopera- Nigeria in 1990 to apply modern methodology in the tion and communication among them study of traditional biological resources. BDA's purpose * To stimulate activities and policies that lead to a bet- is to combat the threat to African biodiversity posed by ter assessment of the emerging new technologies the declining economic value of environment-based and highlight their implications for African natural resources. The major objectives of the program are: resources *To collect, collate, and codify available information *Toinitiateand encourageefforts for theconservation on the uses of African plants, with special reference of biodiversity as a feasible tool and exploitable to indigenous food crops, medicinal and aromatic resource for sustainable economic development plants, and industrial crops *To encourage the establishment of small-scale agro- *To encourage basic research on the chemistry, biol- industrial and marketing enterprises and of tech- ogy, and industrial application of indigenous natural nologies in related industries that tap local and resources overseas markets. 16 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development of the arts and norms of the Igbo people." This For the past several years INI has been organiz- project was launched in 1982 by the Institute of ing regional workshops to foster the exchange of African Studies, the Faculty of Arts, and the knowledge among traditional medicinal practi- Department of Pharmacognosy at the University tioners. There have already been two national of Nigeria, Nsukka. It utilized undergraduate stu- congresses and the formation of a National dents who were trained in field data collection Council of Traditional Indigenous Healers, which and sent to their home villages to gather informa- brings together fifty-seven local and regional tion on human interactions with the environment. organizations. There have also been meetings Data were collected on proverbs, music, oral his- with traditional healers from other parts of the tory, ethnobotany, indigenous biotechnology, and continent, and a technical consultation on tradi- ethnomedicine. tional medicine with the Pan American Health The success of this project led to the establish- Organization (PAHO). ment in 1990 of a Biotechnology Development In collaboration with these and other indige- Agency (BDA), comprised of Nigerian scientists, nous organizations, INI has promoted the intro- nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and the duction of reforms in the Mexican Constitution private sector. This agency seeks to use "available that recognize the multi-ethnic and pluricultural human and material resources in Nigeria for the nature of Mexican society. It has also linked tra- conservation of biodiversity through establish- ditional healers and other medical practitioners ment of extractive forestry research parks, initia- (for example, midwives) with the national med- tion of village-based social forestry projects, and ical system. This work has resulted in greater conducting investigation into the uses of biolog- recognition of the role that traditional healers can ical resources in the development of novel phar- play in the delivery of primary health care, the maceuticals, cosmetics and food additives." (See use of traditional healers in regional hospitals box for details.) In turn the BDA initiative led to that serve indigenous communities, and the sen- the formation of a regional organization, Bio- sitizing to and training of medical students in the resources Development and Conservation Pro- knowledge possessed by traditional medical gram (BDCP), which pursues the same goals and practitioners. links similar community-based projects in West and Central Africa. For an estimated 4 billion people in the world, tradi- Mexico's Traditional Medicine Program tional health care is very important. The materials and the procedures, the beliefs and ideology, the Dr. Argueta, an ecologist with the Mexican sacred places and theholy plants-thewhole thing- National Indigenist Institute (INI), also described provides health for many people in the world. The trend is toward growth in the next decade.... More a comprehensive program und waydin hi cou- and more people from Wester societies are using try to protect and preserve the knowledge of tra- non-Western medicinal plants and traditional health ditional healers. This program first sought to systems. document the extent of traditional plant knowl- edge in Mexico. It included a bibliographic search -Arturo Argueta of all available information on useful plant species, their botanical names, and their ethnob- otanical uses. Much of this information existed Traditional Medicine only in unpublished articles, or in the scientists' and National Health Care Systems files. The program has developed a file on over 3,000 plants, which have nearly 15,000 different Following the Mexican presentation, Dr. Gerard uses. This material is being made into the Atlas of Bodeker, an expert on traditional Asian medical the Traditional Medicinal Plants of Mexico, which systems, spoke from the floor and highlighted will contain botanical drawings, indigenous the worldwide significance of traditional medi- names, and maps of their regional distribution. cine. He told the conference that the World A second aspect of the Mexican program is the Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that organization of traditional indigenous healers. 80 percent of the world's population, about four Contributions of Traditional Medicine to Health 17 become a mandatory component of the Traditional Medicine: Promise and Problems health planning equation in all countries that have traditional health care systems. The following comment by Jorge Uquillas, Social Scientist in the World Bank's Latin America and Dr. Bodeker, a consultant to the World Bank's Caribbean Region, indicates both the great promise East Asia and Pacific Population and Human and particular problems of using the traditional Resources Division, has been helping to design a medical knowledge and beliefs of South American traditional medicine component for a Primary Indians: Health Care Project in Viet Nam. In Viet Nam The contributions of traditional medicine to one-third of all medical care is provided by tra- health are enormous. For instance, the great bio- ditional medicine. This includes the use of tradi- diversity of the human tropics and indigenous tional herbal medicine for the treatment of peoples'knowledge about plants and their nutri- malaria, gastrointestinal diseases, and common tional and medicinal value supported whole illnesses such as respiratory disorders, fevers, classes of specialized traditional healers who, hypertension, cardiovascular conditions, and because of a recognized ability to cure some dis- rheumatismi Traditional acupuncture is also eases, are in great demand, as demonstrated by the popularity of some shamans of the Amazon used in analgesia, anesthesia, and the treatment region. of central nervous disorders and other neuro- Yet, it is also necessary to point out that there muscular conditions. are also a few instances where traditional medi- In Viet Nam, as in other Asian countries, these cine has been at fault and has contributed to traditional practices are being modernized and morbidity and death. The widespread belief of integrated into the national health care system at traditional Andean people that persons with the central, provincial, district, and local levels. diarrhea should refrain from taking liquids Vietnamese government policy, according to a because they aggravate matters is a case in point. It has led to many cases of dehydration and early recent report by Dr. Bodeker to the Bank, is: deaths, particularly of infants. ....to gather, record and disseminate the medical knowledge of experienced prac- billion people, rely upon traditional medicine for titioners of traditional medicine [and to their primary health care. He recommended that modernize] traditional medicine, includ- international agencies think more in terms of ing the use of modern medical means of promoting traditional systems of health care diagnosis, scientific evaluation of the rather than promoting medicine. Dr. Bodeker safety and efficacy of the plant ingredi- said: ents in herbal medicines, and drug devel- opment programs based on knowledge When we look at traditional health-care of the bioactive ingredients and proper- systems, we are seeing systems that are ties of medicinal plants. effective, that are locally available, that are affordable, and that are sustainable. His report provides several recommendations On that basis, I'd like to suggest that tra- on how the Bank and other international donors ditional health care in this Year of Indige- might support the national government's policies nous People should become a priority on traditional medicine through financing train- agenda issue in international and national ing, improvement of facilities, equipment pur- health planning. It should quite soon chases, and research. Traditional Institutions and Participation Several speakers at the conference highlighted the ity to motivate and organize rural people. He need for more active participation on the part of described the trials and tribulations of his early indigenous peoples in development planning. At rural development experience and what he the same time they warned against imposing alien learned from working with the people: organizational forms on indigenous communities in the name of participation. It is often easier to I was a civil servant working in a regional promote successful development interventions government organization. My job was to by drawing on traditional social structures and train rural extension workers. My experi- using local decisionmaking institutions. The ence was crowned with some success, World Bank's recent policy directive on indige- and I was told to go to the countryside nous peoples highlights the need for their and try to replicate that success. But I "informed participation" in Bank projects, as well failed miserably. as the design of indigenous peoples' development I realized one of the problems was that plans or strategies in collaboration with their lead- I did not speak the same language as the ership and organizations. (See Appendix 4.) peasants. I then set about studying the philosophical principles of the popula- Burkina Faso and the Six-"S" Program tion. Those principles I found in their proverbs and fables. One of the best cases of this traditional approach I also studied the mentality of each was presented to the conference by Bernard region, the way the society is organized, Ledea Ouedraogo, founder and head of the how the various powers-legislative, Burkina Faso-based Association Internationale political, press, and judicial-govern the Six-"S" (Se Servir de la Saison Seche en Savanne environment. I studied the ways and et au Sahel). means that are used to carry out eco- Burkina Faso is a country of enormous lin- nomic tasks. guistic, cultural, and ecological diversity. There Based on this information, I began to are approximately sixty ethnic groups in the create some trust and motivation. If the country, including descendants of the Kingdom farmers do not trust you, they think you of the Mossi, lineage- and village-based agricul- have come to cheat them. If the farmers tural societies, and pastoral tribes. Large areas of are not motivated, they do nothing. In the country are arid and pose special problems in order to promote development and terms of natural resource management and agri- change, you have to talk their language cultural and livestock development. and create mutual trust. This is what Ouedraogo and his collaborators in Six-"S" creates the spirit of confidence for the have received worldwide acclaim for their capac- workers. 18 Traditional Institutions and Participation 19 It was out of this intimate knowledge of local people, and familiarity with their outlooks and When we train the farmers, we don't train for the sake motivations, that Ouedraogo and his co-workers of training. We train in response to a need that they came upon the idea of using the traditional have identified. When a farmer applies for training, it Mossi institution of Kombi-Naam for purposes of is because he is confronted with a problem and he is development. The objective of the traditional prepared to act and implement new knowledge to solve that problem. If you want to do something suc- institution was the "social integration of youth" cessfully, you have to be involved. That is what we through the inculcation of the society's "funda- expect of our farmers. They must be involved totally. mental values of equality, justice, equity and democracy." Ouedraogo used this traditional -Bemard Ouedraogo institution as the basis for a more widespread community organization, called the Groupe- ment Naam. Its membership was broadened to serve these various community-based economic include other categories of people, including and natural resource management activities. women and the elderly. The elders, in fact, became the "counselors" of the organization pro- Bedouin Tribes of Northwest Egypt viding it with a moral direction that did not exist in other organizations imposed by outsiders or Another situation in which the role of traditional the government. institutions in mobilizing people for rural devel- Due to its acceptability and familiarity to the opment has been important is among Bedouin local people, Groupement Naam had great suc- tribespeople in the Matruh region of Northwest cess and grew rapidly-the first group being Egypt. There are over forty tribal groups in this formed in 1967; with 126 groups existing in 1977, region, most of whom were nomadic sheep, goat, and 4,500 groups active today. These groups also and camel herders until they were sedentarized formed into larger networks at the village, dis- by the Egyptian authorities in the late 1950s. The trict, and provincial levels, and even formed into process of settlement led the Bedouin to be more national federations. Today, the concept of these dependent upon dryland agriculture, and grow- decentralized local groups-based on what ing fodder for their livestock. As a result, land has Ouedraogo calls "qualitative democracy"-has become increasingly overgrazed and soil has spread into neighboring countries, including become seriously eroded. Benin, Chad, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, The Bedouin of the Matruh region all trace Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, and Togo. their descent from a common ancestor and are According to Ouedraogo, the activities of the organized into a segmentary lineage system com- Groupement Naam respond to two priorities: prising tribes, patrilineages or clans, and local training local people so they will be competent to extended-family household groups. While tribal address their own problems; and implementing sheikhs represent these people before the gov- activities that promote self-sufficiency and emient, most aspects of social and economic life increase the revenues of their peasant members. take place at the household level. These groups The second category comprises numerous activi- are called bayt (biyut, pl.), are usually three to four ties, but the major focus is local efforts to combat generations in depth, and contain an average of desertification and restore the ecological equilib- fourteen persons. Describing the significance of rium. Almost all of these natural resource man- these groups among the Bedouin in neighboring agement activities have components whose Libya, British social anthropologist E. Evans- purpose is to increase local food supplies and Pritchard wrote: income. Some of the more successful activities have been the establishment of cereal banks, The tribe may be the residual owner of introduction of simple grinding mills, raising land and water, but the biyut are the own- lambs, and numerous women's activities such as ers in use. Their members live in the same cloth dyeing, sewing, and solar drying of agricul- stretch of tribal territory, move during the tural products. The organization has also estab- rains to the same grazing grounds, use lished a network of rural credit institutions to the same wells during the dry season, 20 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development and cultivate adjacent strips of arable Rural development efforts such as con- land. The members of a bait [that is, bayt] struction of dams and dikes, levelling of have a lively sense of solidarity, and this fields, [and] excavation of cisterns change is most evident in fighting and feuds. the size, shape and value of this land. Spaces between two neighbors that for- For many years the Egyptian government and merly had no practical value can be con- international donors supported rural develop- verted into fertile land. This makes clearly ment programs that showed little understanding defined farm boundaries most important. of these highly complex aspects of Bedouin social We often have to adjust our engineering structure. Many of these programs were based on works according to farm boundaries even notions of the private registry and ownership of where another solution would be techni- land. They also assumed that government-orga- cally more sound and less costly nized cooperatives were the most equitable means of delivering technical assistance, agricul- The QRDP, which began as a pilot program in tural inputs, and credit to the Bedouin. 1988, has encountered several other problems Peter Klemann, team leader for the joint such as the absence of information and research German (GTZ)-Egyptian Qasr Rural Develop- on the Bedouin; difficulties in recruiting staff to ment Project (QRDP), related the difficulties that live in the Matruh region; lack of trust by small have resulted from imposing these nontradi- farmers of government employees; and lack of tional concepts and institutions on Bedouin farm- respect for the Bedouin by outside technicians. ers and herders. The government-introduced On this last point Klemann said: cooperatives did not have the desired results of producing widespread participation and equal- We observed that Egyptian technicians ity among members, because of the hierarchical who lived a longer time in the area deal- organization of Bedouin society. In most cases ing with the Bedouin lost this attitude. these cooperatives reflected the interests of the But after we observed some of our sheikhs or their confidants, not local family, resi- younger Egyptian colleagues releasing dency, and production groups. Klemann said: their extension messages to elderly Bedouin farmers like a captain's orders to As regards the ownership and use of his soldiers, we quickly organized a lands, two systems of land tenure can be course on didactics for our staff. distinguished (among the Bedouin). First, there is tribal land, which can be used by In coping with this broad variety of problems, all tribal members. This is mainly range QRDP found that two major principles were con- land used for grazing. It is a public good, sistently the most effective in implementing its to which all members have access. So, work. Again, to cite Klemann: everybody exploits it to the maximum. This results in the well-known effects of First, the Bedouin participate as far as over-grazing, which lead to deterioration. possible in all project activities right from The second form of land tenure is indi- planning until implementation. For vidual land where a Bedouin is consid- example, the definition of project aims ered the owner even without legal and formulation of the correspondent registration. This falls under the concept strategy was done in planning-by-objec- of wad al yad, which means that the user tive conferences where the sheikhs and has put his hand on it, and has made other leaders of the Bedouin tribes investments like trees and dams on it. actively participated.... [This land] would seem to be less prob- Second, with some very specific excep- lematic. This is not the case at all. tions, we always request a target group In general, this is the most valuable contribution, either in cash or in kind.... land, with deep soils and enough runoff By observing these two principles, we water to ensure relatively high yields. try to ensure sustainability of the executed Traditional Institutions and Participation 21 measures. People will care better for to increase their income-generating activities; investments that have been made with organizing women's groups for access to credit; their full consent and a significant mater- informing women about existing governmental ial contribution of their own. services; and supporting direct access to these ser- vices. She noted that much of the work of Bedouin He further recommended the following as women-such as firewood and water collection- being critical to the success of projects among is very tedious and time consuming; hence, indigenous peoples: women readily accept changes that lower their work loads but do not conflict with their tradi- 1. Allow for more than the normal time tional roles within the Bedouin family structure. for project appraisal. Such missions To get across her point to the women she has should include anthropologists, eth- been working with, she often uses herself as an nologists, or sociologists. example: 2. Allow for flexibility to change the pro- ject strategy after a certain time when I tell [them] that I went out of my house the team on the spot has gained for four or five years after the discussion enough experience. Somebody who and consent of my family. I joined schools has worked with indigenous groups until I reached university stage, yet my for a couple of years knows more traditions are the same. I am still adhering about the subject than the best short- to my traditions. I am not Americanized, term expert in an appraisal mission. and I am not Europeanized. The respect of 3. Involve indigenous peoples to a maxi- traditions gives me an open door of com- mum in all aspects of project planning munication to these indigenous peoples and implementation. who are my people. 4. Respect their organizational structures and try to make the best use of them. Dr. Salima stressed that there is no inherent con- 5. Apply careful staff selection and assure flict between tradition and development, including special training concerning indigenous that of religion. In response to one question con- peoples. cerning whether culture or poverty was the cause 6. Apply close monitoring at short of Bedouin women's difficulties, she replied: intervals. 7. Allow for a long lifetime for indige- What I think and believe is that religion nous development projects. helps development; it's not against it. Culture is something [necessary], but if it Bedouin Women and Development is a closed society that has not accepted any change or revolution, how can we Klemann was accompanied by Dr. Salima Abd El arrive at the best possible way of develop- Rehim Mohamed, a Bedouin woman who has a ment? The most important thing and the university degree in veterinary medicine and basic ingredient in the problem is poverty. works as the Executive Officer of the QRDP Bedouin women live in houses in the Women Affairs Program. Conference partici- desert without any electric power .. pants were extremely interested in her com- Exhausting work for women is transport of ments, because it is rare for Western development water to the houses, which is a job that has specialists to have access to the views of tradi- to be done three times per day. A woman tional Muslim women. might walk up to 15 kilometers daily The Dr. Salima described the goals of the QRDP amount of water she has to lift from the cis- Women Affairs Program as being to "improve the tern by using a bucket is more than 300 living conditions of the Bedouin women." This liters which she transports home on the includes five main approaches to women's activi- back of a donkey ... No wife would refuse a ties: reduction of women's exhausting and time- new method of bringing water into her consuming work loads; encouragement of women home. But, they have their own priorities. 22 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development Extension Agents, who will be nominated by the These are the aspirations for the future for Bedouin participating tribes. women: We are seeking an improvement and devel- Finally, there is a research component under opment of a certain layer of the society's culture. We the project, which includes an assessment of are trying to help women to think of educating their indigenous technical knowledge on local resource children, opening new horizons for them, trying to use. This will include a description and elabora- engage in certain projects which are suitable to their tion of customary legal procedures for resource circumstances.to fcsoaylgl rcdrsfrrsuc use, indigenous knowledge of seasonal environ- -Salima Abd El Rehim Mohamed mental changes, local methods of livestock care, identification of local fodder sources, and local knowledge of soils and cultivation methods. Matruh Resource Management Project In reference to the role of traditional systems and values, Souhlal said: Based on the experience of the QRDP Project, the World Bank assisted in the preparation and An important principle underlying the financing of a follow-up project in the Matruh design of the project has been to ensure region that is intended to reach a much larger that the approach to community plan- number of Bedouin farmers (nearly forty tribes) ning, the selection of interventions and and promote more sustainable land use and activities, and the delivery of services are resource management. The Matruh Resource all in harmony with the traditional sys- Management Project, as it is called, originally tems and values of the Bedouin society. At began as a traditional range-management im- the same time, it has been recognized that, provement program. However, using participa- as is the case for Egypt as a whole, the tory rural appraisal techniques, it was decided to Bedouin society is changing and adapting design a more comprehensive project which to a variety of outside influences. The pro- includes the active participation of Bedouin com- ject will help the entire Bedouin commu- munities and incorporates some of their tradi- nity to preserve, to the extent possible, its tional land-use practices and knowledge. cultural heritage and be more confident as Bachir Souhlal, the Task Manager for the it faces and participates in these changes. Matruh project, described some of its critical It will build on existing tribal mechanisms design features. One of these is the empower- for community action and stimulate ment of local Bedouin groups (the bayt described mobilization of households into user above) to serve as the project's major participants groups to work with the government and beneficiaries. Each "community group" (CG) authorities in sustainable management of or bayt will be directly involved in the design, natural resources. implementation, and monitoring of project activ- ities. These groups, in turn, will select represen- The Matruh initiative represents a new gener- tatives to form part of a CG Council, which will ation of natural resource management and rural be collectively responsible for all land and development projects in which local people resource management decisions, including for- actively participate in project preparation and mulation of a Community Action Plan (CAP). implementation. These projects incorporate tra- The project will also establish special Sub- ditional knowledge and institutions in their Regional Support Centers (SRSCs) to provide activities and provide local people with opportu- extension services to the CGs and assist them in nities to capture project benefits. Lessons learned the preparation of the CAPs. The SRSCs will from these projects are playing a fundamental comprise specialists in such areas as field crops, role in shaping government and international horticulture, range management, and rural donor thinking about how to promote local par- women's extension. There will also be Com- ticipation among indigenous populations living munity Liaison Coordinators and Community in fragile environments. Government Policies and Traditional Knowledge Like many other initiatives in the area of popular divorces, child-custody matters, land disputes, participation, a favorable enabling environment and the maintenance of cultural heritage, prac- is necessary to promote the use of traditional tices, and ceremonies. institutions and knowledge. Governments can Under the direction of Mamadou Dia, the provide such an environment through the pas- Capacity Building Division of the World Bank's sage of legislation and adoption of policies. Some Africa Technical Department is conducting a governments, such as the nation of Ghana and study of the Ghana Chieftaincy Act as part of a the Provincial government of the Northwest broader program called "Indigenous Manage- Territories of Canada, have highly innovative leg- ment Practices: Lessons for Africa's Management islation and policies in the areas of traditional in the 90s." This program is based on the premise governance and the promotion of traditional that much of the "development crisis" in African knowledge. These policies were presented by countries is the result of a failure to take into speakers at the conference and are briefly dis- account the particular values, traditions, and cussed in the following pages. organizational styles of African societies. Devel- opment programs, it is hypothesized, would be Ghana's Chieftaincy Act more effective if they built upon African cultures and institutions, rather than imposed outside The West African country of Ghana provides one forms of organization and management. The of the best examples of recognition of traditional Africa's Management in the 90s program is inves- authority institutions, especially for purposes of tigating the Ghana Chieftaincy Act as an example local governance and development. Ghana has a of new approaches to African governance population of approximately 14 million people whereby traditional authority institutions are comprising 75 distinct languages and major eth- adapted to modern development conditions. For nic groups. In 1971, just fourteen years after its example, it is examining the legitimacy and effec- independence from Britain, the Ghanaian legisla- tiveness of local decisionmaking and control by ture passed the Chieftaincy Act. This act consti- village elders or chiefs. This study, under the tutionally recognized and protected the local direction of Professor Moses Kiggundu of Carle- governance powers of village chiefs, granted ton University, is examining the formal legal them authority to enforce customary tribal laws, recognition and administrative uses of tradi- and established regional and national assemblies tional chieftaincy by modern African nations. in which they could discuss and govern their The conference was fortunate to have as two of affairs. While the state maintains responsibility its participants and speakers Professor Kiggundu for the armed forces, the judiciary, trade, the and the Honorable Nana Oduro Numapau II, cur- economy and other national matters, these local rent President of the National House of Chiefs of chiefs handle more customary concerns such as Ghana. Chief Numapau described some of the 23 24 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development history and problems faced by the traditional lation of national policies. The President of the institution of chieftaincy in Ghana: House of Chiefs, for instance, is a member of the Council of State and counsels the Presidency and Before colonization, chieftaincy was the other state organs. The ten regional and one fulcrum of society in Ghana. It gave unity national House of Chiefs have jurisdiction over and direction to the people and mobi- numerous customary and legal issues, including lized them for common purposes. With adjudication of disputes, codification and unifica- the onset of colonization, the colonial tion of customary law, and elimination of harmful administration found the institution to be cultural practices. Chief Numapau said that he was so viable that, through the policy of indi- "highly optimistic that the institution of chieftaincy rect rule, it sought to make chiefs junior is poised to play an enhanced role in Ghana's partners in the government. development." He mentioned the following factors In the long run, indirect rule had a para- as reflecting the increased potential for chiefs to doxical effect on the institution of chief- participate in the nation's development policies: taincy. On the one hand, the institution appeared to have gained strength through First, we now have highly educated chiefs its close association with the colonial gov- who understand the ramifications of ernment; but, on the other hand, the very modern development and have the exper- fact that the colonial government had tise to contribute to it in various fields. power to grant or withdraw recognition Secondly, because chiefs are not associ- whittled away the local people's right and ated with political parties, ...their advice power to make and unmake their chiefs in and exhortation will henceforth carry accordance strictly with customary law greater moral weight across party lines. and usage. Thirdly, it is now widely realized that tra- This paradoxical situation cast its shad- ditional fora and means of communication ow over the institution during the inde- are relevant to educating the broad masses pendence era. All of Ghana's constitutions of our people on such development- and governments since independence oriented issues as family planning and have given recognition to the institution of population control, indiscriminate sexual chieftaincy And yet the institution has not habits, teenage pregnancy and AIDS. enjoyed a stable status in Ghanaian soci- Fourthly, government-sponsored organs ety. Instead it has experienced ups and have not been able to supplant the chief as downs, mainly as a result of the govern- the medium of mobilizing the local people ment of the day seeking to play politics for communal efforts at development. And with the institution. yet, it is now common knowledge that to achieve true development, the laudable Despite these problems, Chief Numapau efforts of the government will have to be noted that the Constitution of the Fourth meaningfully supplemented at the local, Republic of Ghana contains provisions that have grass-root level through communal effort. strengthened the institution of chieftaincy and protected it from intrusions by national politics. Chief Numapau concluded his talk by stating: The Constitution provides that the decision on who is or is not a chief, as well as all jurisdictional I do not wish to leave you with the impres- matters pertaining to the role of chiefs, are the sion that all is golden with the institution responsibility of the National House of Chiefs of chieftaincy in Ghana. It has its prob- and not the central government. Furthermore, lems. For example, the institution is chiefs are prohibited by the Constitution from plagued with disputes and litigations over participating in partisan politics. rightful occupancy of stools and skins and Nevertheless, there are broad areas, outside of over land ownership. The incessant litiga- party politics, in which chiefs (and queen mothers) tion over land, in particular, poses real do participate in national affairs and in the formu- problems to security of title to land for Government Policies and Traditional Knowledge 25 building, farming, and commercial pur- Resources, Northwest Territories (GNWT) of poses, to the detriment of development. Canada. The GNWT has established a Traditional There is no doubt that [we] chiefs in Ghana Knowledge Policy Based on the report of a will have to put our own house in order by Working Group comprised of representatives of defining more clearly the customary rules the territorial government, NGOs, and local com- of succession and of land ownership, as munity elders, the policy provides a set of guide- the National House of Chiefs has been lines for incorporating traditional knowledge in mandated by the Constitution to do. government decisionmaking and programs. The policy defines "traditional knowledge" as "knowl- In his comments on Chief Numapau's talk, edge and values which have been acquired Professor Kiggundu noted that party politics and through experience, observation, from the land or various government regimes used chieftaincy for from spiritual teachings, and handed down from their own ends and often gave it a bad name. one generation to another." "Politicians," he said, "would often go to the chiefs The opening paragraph of the GNWT's at night and then throw stones at them during the policy states: day" However, Professor Kiggundu stated that the institution is going through a period of renewal The Government of the Northwest Terri- and, with adequate protection from partisan poli- tories recognizes that the aboriginal peo- tics, it could play a vital role in the development ples of the NWT have acquired a vast process, especially at the local or grassroots level. store of traditional knowledge through their experience of centuries of living in close harmony with the land. The Gov- Chieftaincy is deeply rooted in Ghanaian society. ernment recognizes that aboriginal tradi- There is not a single Ghanaian who does not trace his tional knowledge is a valid and essential roots to chieftaincy... It is extremely difficult for any source of information about the natural outside force such as government to go into a com- environment and its resources, the use of munity and do anything without the full support of natural resources, and the relationship of the people and the chief. people to the land and to each other, and -Moses Kiggundu will incorporate traditional knowledge into Government decisions and actions where appropriate. In the area of dispute resolution, especially in terms of land conflicts, the performance of tradi- It then provides a set of principles for imple- tional chiefs is sometimes low, but public percep- menting the government's policy: tion of the institution is high. This, Professor Kiggundu concluded, augurs well for the creation 1. The primary responsibility for the preserva- of a more efficient institution, both for mobilizing tion and promotion of traditional knowledge people for development and for preserving their lies with aboriginal people. cultural life and spiritual well-being. He and other 2. Government programs and services should be participants argued that the institution of tradi- administered in a manner consistent with the tional chieftaincy had great capacity to adapt to beliefs, customs, knowledge, values, and lan- modern circumstances and could be a positive guages of the people being served. force for African development. 3. Traditional knowledge should be considered in the design and delivery of Government Northwest Territories' Traditional programs and services. Knowledge Policy 4. The primary focus of traditional knowledge research should be the aboriginal community. Another initiative in government recognition of 5. Traditional knowledge is best preserved through traditional institutions and cultures was brought continued use and practical application. to the attention of conference participants by 6. Oral traditional is a reliable source of infor- Cindy Gilday from the Department of Renewable mation about traditional knowledge. 26 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development traditional knowledge activities within that In the Northwest Territories Traditional Knowledge department. Policy we're working across the board on justice, The Science Institute of the NWT includes the wildlife, medicine, conservation-the totality of dis- pursuit of research on traditional knowledge as ciplines in which the world engages. We're not just part of its mission statement; and the territorial looking at intellectual property in isolation. We're government's cross-cultural awareness training not looking at promoting traditional knowledge in just wildlife preservation. We're doing this institu- courses, whilch are available to all government tionally as a government so the Departments of employees, will now develop special sections on Education, Renewable Resources, Justice, and so on traditional knowledge. will all have to make traditional knowledge a prior- The GNWT Traditional Knowledge Policy is ity in their work. extremely innovative and could provide a model for other governments that wish to conserve and -Cindy Gilday promote the use of traditional knowledge in their environment, development, research, and science policies. The idea of such promotion was While all government agencies and depart- included in the International Convention on ments are responsible for implementing this Biodiversity and Agenda 21 report both adopted policy, major responsibility for coordination, at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. However, no other implementation, and monitoring rests with the governments have actually adopted explicit Department of Renewable Resources. A tra- policies on the subject; hence, implementation of ditional knowledge coordinator has been the GNWT policy should be looked at closely by appointed in each program department who is both international agencies and other national responsible for coordination and monitoring of and provincial governments. Building a New Partnership The central theme of the International Year of their members; and strengthening their capacity the World's Indigenous People was "Indigenous to maintain their traditional knowledge, cul- People A New Partnership." The idea of the tures, and ethnic identities. As mentioned in Year was to lay the groundwork for more open Chapter 1, Haudry's idea is that by "investing in and cooperative relationships among indige- the culture" of indigenous peoples, through the nous peoples' organizations, governments, and protection of their land rights and strengthening international agencies. No one expected that the of their own organizations, international finan- creation of such a "new partnership" would be cial institutions (IFIs) have the best chance of easy, especially given the history of the relation- promoting the long-term economic develop- ships and paternalistic attitudes of governments ment of indigenous communities. and international agencies toward indigenous In his presentation Jorge Terena highlighted peoples. However, some interesting experi- some ideas behind the Regional Support Pro- ments are taking place, which were discussed at gram, as well as some of the new thinking that the conference and which potentially could pro- he and other South American indigenous lead- vide insights for governments and international ers are trying to introduce into the international agencies that are seeking more effective ways of development dialogue. relating to indigenous peoples. One program that was described in some detail I am very glad that the speakers we is the Regional Support Program of Indigenous heard today have been talking about Peoples in the Amazon Basin of South America. their traditions, customs, and social This program is sponsored by the International structures. I think this is a very clear Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and message that we are trying to give the Andean Development Corporation (CAF). It was World Bank and other financial institu- conceived by IFAD economist Roberto Haudry de tions. The message is that you must Soucy after long years of experience working and respect our culture, our social structure, living with South American Indian people and, at and our way of living before you can the time of the conference, was coordinated by offer us anything else different. Brazilian Indian leader Jorge Terena. It has been 500 years that colonialism A major innovation of the Amazon Basin has been trying to offer us something Support Program is that it works in direct part- different; yet for 500 years the world still nership with a growing network of regional has not recognized our traditional Indian organizations, providing them with knowledge. In these 500 years little has small grants to carry out pre-investment projects been learned about our cultures. that will assist them in protecting their land We have anthropologists, sociologists, rights; improving the health and education of and economists trying to resolve our 27 28 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development problems. They come up with words like defined what it is yet. Now, within the "sustainable development." Sustainable last five years, the world has realized development, they say, is going to solve that indigenous peoples have something the world's problems and society's prob- to give to the modern world. The world lems, or the poor's problems. Yet, as we is beginning to recognize the knowledge look at the history of development as a we have accumulated over years and whole, it has not resolved the problems of years. They realize that this knowledge the world. As a matter of fact, this devel- can resolve part of the problem. opment has become a source of poverty. It has been about two decades since Terena then explained how the World Bank, the financial institutions have been try- IFAD, and other financial institutions can ing to start something with this sustain- improve their development projects with indige- able development. They have not even nous peoples. The first thing I would like to suggest is Indigenous People that you must consider land demarca- and International Financial Institutions tion. I mention this because in Latin America we're fighting to get the govern- The requests from indigenous people that call for ments to recognize our land as our own immediate support from the International Financial so that on our own land we can set up any Institutions (IFIs) concern basically: kind of program we want. If you want to talk about development that needs to 1. Demarcation of specific territories and the estab- come from the community, from the 2. Strengthening indigenous organizations and their inside not the outside, first we must capacity to enter into dialogue secure the land.... 3. Support for self-managed micro-projects in health, How are institutions going to convince bilingual education, and other fields wherein the the governments in Latin America that "partners" are selected and contracted exclusively they must mark the land to strengthen the by the indigenous organizations and not pre- identity of our people? They do not want determined by the donors. to, because governments and our com- It is of great importance to gear any financial aid munities are fighting for the same carefully to the capacity that the respective indige- things-the control of the land. Histori- nous people and their organizations possess for man- cally, we have the rights to the land, but aging such aid. At present, the management capacity according to the laws it belongs to the is very poor, and it would be a serious mistake to government. "inundate" indigenous people with money. It is I believe that as long as there are indige- essential to hand over funds in a limited, progressive nous peoples on the face of the earth, this fashion and to insist on a careful rendering of account. battle is going to go on. But, if we want to [Therefore], any action should be conceived in talk about helping the indigenous peo- terms of pre-investment, such that the indigenous ples to get somewhere, at least help us to people may affirm their cultural values, address their urgent needs, and prepare themselves for managing mark our lands. sizable funds and investment that will be sustainable The second thing we must change is the in the long term. For the IFIs, action here means a spokesmen for whatever these institutions learning process and no project financing (since, in want to do. The government has spokes- official parlance a "project" has objectives, time men telling the international financial spans, and costs that are carefully calculated), and it institutions what to do with our people is here that we are largely ignorant and have to learn without asking our people. [The govern- and accompany our partners in pursuing approaches ment] might send somebody to go and jot that they have chosen. on a piece a paper what they think the -Roberto Haudry de Soucy indigenous peoples want to do.. Yet, when the indigenous peoples come to discuss Building a New Partnership 29 their own ideas with the government, The last thing that Terena mentioned as need- that's not what the government wants. ing assistance from the international financial The international financial institutions institutions is indigenous leadership training. must not only hear, but support, what it is that the indigenous peoples want. That But this is just the beginning. If you really means spending time with the indige- want to help indigenous peoples you must nous community. I'm glad that we have address these four considerations: land begun a process here in this meeting. But demarcation, consultation, organizational it's not because of three or four hours of strengthening, and leadership training. meeting or three or four hours of people Otherwise, I think the attitude will con- talking about culture and tradition that tinue to be just wanting to help the indige- we're going to learn. The real learning is nous peoples without giving them the out in the field. That is where the planners means to solve their own problems. and economists need to be-talking to Otherwise, the exploitation of our land and the indigenous peoples to see what they our natural resources will continue. More want. The international institutions need and more we will continue to be put into to say to the government that this is what the market economy that will destroy our the [indigenous] peoples want and [this people. is] what we're going to support. In the discussion following Jorge Terena's pre- As a third element, Terena claimed: sentation, Maritta Koch-Weser, Chief of the Environment and Natural Resources Division in We must consider the strengthening of the Asia Technical Department of the World Bank, indigenous organizations. Because colo- stressed the urgency of the issues raised by him nialism has tried to destroy our system of and the other panelists. In large areas of the world living, our social structure, our economic indigenous peoples find themselves without the structure, we were forced to organize. We secure land tenure that he mentioned. Similarly, had to create organizations in order to the voices of indigenous peoples are seldom defend our rights before the governments heard within the halls of government or interna- and the institutions. That is why there are tional financial institutions. Thus, development so many indigenous organizations in the policies and projects continue to be planned with- world. We need spokesmen to defend our out the informed participation of indigenous peo- rights, our land rights, our cultural ples. This in turn leads to the loss of valuable rights..., cultural knowledge and heritage, which could be Because these organizations usually do the bases of sustainable development. not have the means to come to a forum In his closing remarks, which appear in the like this and present their defense, what following chapter, World Bank Vice President is needed is to build up and strengthen for Environmentally Sustainable Development these institutions. Help build up the com- Ismail Serageldin also stressed the urgency of the munity organizations. We're not talking situation faced by indigenous peoples and the about only national organizations but importance for development of respecting and organizations at the base where the needs supporting their cultural knowledge, heritage, are most felt. and identities. Conclusion Friends, I am very pleased to be with you here these basic rights. Today these rights are being today to share the sense of commitment to the denied to many people. These rights are being idea that, indeed, we need to think less linearly denied to the 1 billion people who have no access We have to recognize that, frequently, the linear to clean water and to the 1.7 billion who have no paradigm is contributing to the destruction of a access to sanitation. These rights are being denied valuable patrimony, not just of our environment, to their children, of whom 2 to 3 million die annu- our forests, our rivers, but of our heritage, our ally from causes related to this pollution. They cultural dimensions. die from eminently avoidable diseases that are Mamadou Dia referred to an international associated with the lack of access to clean water conference that we held here in April 1992 on cul- and sanitation. ture and development. It highlighted the project We have 1.3 billion people, primarily in the philosophy that we are talking about here-that, developing cities of the world, who are breathing ultimately, the whole purpose of development is air that the World Health Organization says is to improve the well-being of people. Today, after unfit for human beings. Seven hundred million all the efforts toward development, we have to people, mostly women and children, breathe recognize that about a billion people are still liv- indoor air polluted by biomass-burning stoves ing on less than $1 a day, that close to a billion that is the equivalent of smoking three packs of people (mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa and South cigarettes a day. Not to mention the hundreds of Asia but also in other parts of the world)-about millions of farmers who are unable to maintain one in five members of humanity-go hungry the fertility of the soils from which they eke out a every day. We cannot accept the view that this is meager living. somehow an acceptable cost. Against this backlog of problems, at least 90 to Neither can we turn our backs on the very real 100 million people a year are being added to the basis of solidarity that cultural identity provides, world's population, most of them in those very that gives people a sense of being and self-worth. same weak states and poor countries in which the We have to think about the philosophical aspects problems are the worst. The development para- of development in terms of giving people rights. digm that is being pursued by many of these gov- Rights to clean water, clean air, and fertile soil are ernments has not been able to address these one way of looking at environmental protection problems. It can neither respond adequately to issues. We must not think only of protecting the the past stock of problems nor is it likely to meet natural resource base, but we must give people the challenges of the future. These remarks were given by Ismail Serageldin, Vice President for Environmentally Sustainable Development at the World Bank. 30 Conclusion 31 In this paradigm these governments are also pared to the authenticity of peoples and cultures ignoring the wealth that indigenous knowledge in Africa. He reminded us of many other fallacies brings, the wealth of indigenous peoples and that we need to set aside, but the one I would like their cultures. Indeed, we have to recognize that, to emphasize is the link between unity and diversity. by and large, everywhere in the world indige- As Aime Cesaire said, "The universal is nous peoples have been victimized in the name enriched by all its various particularisms." Em- of "progress." They have been persecuted by that powerment and recognition of the rights of peo- which should have empowered. They have been ple to be themselves do not lead to disintegration oppressed by that which should have liberated. into many cultural groups. It is the denial of peo- We must recognize that the post-colonial inde- ple to be themselves that leads to the disasters we pendence of many states has not translated into see in the former Yugoslavia, the former Soviet respect for the individual rights of indigenous Union, and parts of Somalia. It is empowerment peoples or indigenous communities. For indige- that is needed to enable each community to nous peoples, I want to speak of other rights, not define itself, not at the expense of its neighbors or just rights to clean water and clean air. I want to even at the expense of its weaker members. It is speak of the right of a people to be themselves, these groups' capacity to define their destinies the inalienable right of each and every people to and themselves in concord with the broader soci- self-determination. ety that allows a broader unity to be constructed. Here the issue of culture and cultural identity The broader society is enriched by the presence takes on a different manifestation. I speak of it not and well-being of indigenous peoples, by the tra- just as something interesting that might be lost, ditional knowledge and the cultural variety they but as an inalienable right, a central core of being bring. As Jacques Cousteau said at the 1993 First human, as part of human rights. We need to rec- Annual International Conference on Environ- ognize that culture and cultural identity are not mentally Sustainable Development: just things to be studied and written about in anthropological monographs. Cultural identity is We now have to make sure that there will very much the core of what makes a society tick. be an awakening of global public opinion To understand this, we must come to the notion to save the mixed borders and the flow- of empowerment. In answering the question that ering profusion of our motley cultural Whaimutu Dewes mentioned in his talk, "Who jungle.... We have only one way to keep am I?" I think the answer comes from with whom our proud civilization flourishing: we I relate and my ability to act. must protect its diversity. A radical, more dynamic view of cultural identity removes it from links with artifacts and To the exponents of that broader society who objects of a past heritage, from past paintings, speak with a certain degree of arrogance of the sculptures, and places. Such a view sees cultural modernism and advancement that they con- identity as the ability of individuals, groups, tribute, I think we should remind them of the pre- and communities to act and, by their actions, to carious reality of the human condition in most of manifest their identities in the society of which these societies, the vulnerability of unskilled they are a part. They must be social actors, not labor, the soul-destroying impact of poverty and objectified artifacts. In this way wefind the defini- homelessness, and the ease with which the rich tion of cultural identity and authenticity rooted in and powerful subvert law enforcement to their action. In this way we bring cultural identity to own ends. a living people, to the meaning of well-being This scenario of empowerment will be feasi- and development. ble if, and only if, development strategies are When we talk about unitary societies and uni- truly human-centered in the broadest sense. tary nation states, we have to understand that Strategies that invest in people in terms of health within these societies and nation states there and education are essential. However, we must must be room for diversity. Mamadou Dia just also devise strategies that recognize the impor- reminded us of the artificiality of certain legal tance of capacity building, governance, legiti- constructs such as state boundaries when com- macy, participation, priorities, and expression of 32 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development people. An enabling environment must be at the projects that various donor groups agree to center of all development strategies. finance is another missed opportunity to reach Again, Mamadou Dia reminded us of this in out to those kindred souls. terms of the crises of institutions in Africa. This We in the World Bank would like to work with takes me into the domain of human and civil all those dedicated to provide this better future, rights, participation, empowerment, account- be they nongovernmental organizations, acade- ability, and decisionmaking. For these, I would mics, local community groups, reformers, com- advocate that all societies think in terms of creat- mitted governments, intellectuals, international ing a space of freedom in which people can agencies, or national organizations. I stretch out express themselves, in which those who are con- my hand to each and every one. cerned can reappropriate the formulation of their We do not claim to have the answers and, own future communities and societies. This space indeed, we need to be humble about the scope of of freedom must not be the monopoly of certain possible intervention that we can have. But I academic scholars in Western universities. In fact, know that we must dare to be bold, we must dare these indigenous groups must take charge of to be imaginative. For I do believe that imagina- their own destinies. tion is stronger than knowledge, that myth is It is important that we move in this direction more potent than history, that dreams are more quickly. Maritta Koch-Weser rightly reminded us powerful than facts, that hopes always triumph of the urgency of getting things done. As difficult over experience. I think that with this kind of and complex as these issues are, I believe there is vision we can empower the people of the world a crushing and compelling urgency manifested to take charge of their own destinies. For, ulti- by the numbers I mentioned earlier in my talk. mately, real progress lies in enabling the weak Every passing day of misguided policies con- and the marginalized to become the producers of tributes to the misery of millions of human their own bounty and welfare, not the beneficia- beings. Every incomplete package of reforms and ries of aid or the recipients of charity. Post-Conference Discussion Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development: A Conversation The following is a transcript of a post-conference Agenda 21 documents of the U.N., and in the discussion among some of the conference partic- International Biodiversity Convention-on how ipants on the subject of traditional knowledge traditional knowledge is important to sustainable and sustainable development. The discussion development. However, what do indigenous was chaired by Shelton H. Davis, Principal peoples, people from the villages, mean by tradi- Sociologist, Environment Department, World tional knowledge? Why is it important for insti- Bank, and included the following participants: tutions like the World Bank to be concerned with this kind of issue? * Arturo Argueta, Ethnobiologist, National Indigenist Institute, Mexico Terena: Terms such as "sustainable develop- • Emmanuel Asibey, Senior Ecologist, Agricul- ment" and "traditional knowledge" are not ture and Environment Division, Southern known to our community or our leaders. But if Africa Department, World Bank you talk to indigenous people, you will find out * Ntombie Gata, Deputy Director, Department of exactly what traditional knowledge is in their Research and Specialist Services, Ministry of world. If we study how our communities have Agriculture, Lands and Water Development, kept this traditional knowledge for so long, we Zimbabwe find that this knowledge was stored because of a * Maurice Iwu, Visiting Senior Research Asso- need. The day to day need for survival. ciate, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, For example, the Kayapo people in Brazil U.S.A.; and Professor of Pharmacognosy at have small pastures for medicinal plants and the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria food for animals they want to attract in order to * Moelagi Jackson, President, Faasao Savaii hunt. This is done because of a necessity to live. Society, Western Samoa The Kayapo are not thinking that someday out- * Jorge Terena, Director, Regional Support Pro- siders are going to find out that they have good gram for the Indigenous Peoples of the hunting in their area and that they will pay lots of Amazon Basin, International Fund for Agri- money to hunt there. We don't preserve our cultural Development; and Andean Develop- ecosystems because we are thinking about future ment Corporation, Ecuador. economic gain. We preserve them because there is a need to be met for day-to-day living. What Is the Meaning of Traditional Not only are the animals necessary, but the Knowledge to Indigenous Peoples? plants and certain kinds of fruits are essential for our cultural practices. The Xavantes, for example, Davis: There has been a lot of attention need the pequi fruit. Why? To paint themselves for recently-at the [1992 Riol Earth Summit, in the rituals. They also use the plant to feed certain 35 36 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development ritually important animals. The ecosystem must domesticated plants and animals. In Mexico we be preserved to preserve the cultural practices and have 25,000 different species of plants. Maybe 35 these, in turn, preserve the ecosystem. percent of the species that existed in Mexico have Everything that belongs to the ecosystem, the been used and conserved by the people for 10,000 environment, has a strong spiritual meaning to us. years. This is the most important test of the con- Our forest is a sanctuary It is where the spirits live. servation of biodiversity. It is where the spirits that our ancestors worshiped live. Imagine if I went to Rome and set off a bomb Davis: Are you saying that we should not just at the Basilica, St. Peter's Church. What is going to make parks to protect biodiversity, but that peo- happen to me? I'd probably be put in jail because ple should be using all this species diversity? I'm destroying something that is sacred to millions of people. So why is it that some people go out to Argueta: The areas with the greatest biodiversity our sanctuary, our environment, and destroy the in Mexico are in the cultivated lands, in the peasant sacred things that belong to us? and indigenous peoples' areas, not in the national parks or biosphere reserves. The most important Biodiversity and the World Economy areas of biodiversity are in the inhabited areas. Terena: Suddenly, the world has realized that we lwu: What he says of Mexico is also true in Africa. have preserved the ecosystem. That ecosystem Namely, for at least 13,000 years the people have brings economic gain to some people, and now lived alongside forests. They have managed these they are trying to protect our biodiversity. Why? forests. Suddenly, around the turn of the seven- Because they have used everything they on their teenth century, there was a complete paradigm land and now, the only place where these things are shift that led us to the industrial revolution. We found is on our land, on indigenous peoples' land. have gone so far [in using up the natural This question of biodiversity is so important resources] and now we want to have something because 40 percent of the world's market econ- left behind for our children, for our children's chil- omy comes from biological processes and prod- dren. The only way we can do that is to go back ucts. More important, 85 to 90 percent of our and learn from cultures that managed to live community's needs are based on this biological alongside the rivers and forests and use them sus- diversity. Not only that, but millions of people in tainably. We had symbolic ways of doing that. We South America have their needs met by the nat- had shrines and taboos. The symbolism involved ural materials in our ecosystem. in this should not prevent Western science from I am glad that the World Bank and the U.N. are understanding the actual significance of those introducing the vocabulary of traditional knowl- protective mechanisms. edge and sustainable development to our com- For medicinal plants particularly, it is foolish to munity, but, in practice, it is not a strange thing to think we can know something about a forest with- us. I hope that the World Bank, the U.N., and other out asking the people who live in it. The medicinal institutions will visit our communities and learn plants in Africa can only exist where there are peo- what traditional knowledge is in practice, this tra- ple who use medicines. So it is inappropriate to ditional knowledge of sustainable development. build parks and reservation areas without addressing the issue of the people who live along- Indigenous Peoples side them. You cannot have biodiversity protection and Biodiversity Conservation without cultural protection. The two go side by side. Davis: I wonder if we could hear a little more Traditional Knowledge about biodiversity conservation. What role have and Present-Day Agricultural Practices indigenous peoples played in biodiversity conser- vation and what role can they play in the future? Gata: I would like to talk about agriculture, one of the most important factors in sustainable develop- Argueta: I want to mention an historical issue. ment. Scientists have recognized from bitter expe- Perhaps for 10,000 years in America people have rience that technology transfers from the West A Conversation 37 such as pesticides, monocultures, and plow sys- Bush meat has been part of their diet. Scientific tems have not worked well in Africa. In the West analysis shows that nutritionally these animals the climate is temperate, and soils and rainfall pat- are better than the best steak. terns are different from ours. In most African coun- Some also say that the people don't appreciate tries we have sporadic rainfall patterns. In some the beauty of the animals. How can a hungry per- countries the land is bare three-fourths of the year. son appreciate beauty? Armies don't march on an The rain comes in heavy showers on bare land. The empty stomach. So for people to admire beauty, soil and the landscape is fragile. they must be satisfied and have food. The people The local farming systems that existed prior to are starving. The environmentalists say that the the transfer of Western technologies evolved over people should leave the animals alone, because a long period and were designed to cope with the the tourist will pay a lot of money to look at the local climate and landscape. Farmers used mixed animals. These days, tourists pay everything with cropping with a lot of ground cover. This ground a credit card in America and Britain before they cover protected the land from erosion. When travel. How much money is left in the country? monoculture, row planting, and the plow system In the old days we had animal sanctuaries, the came, these facilitated the washing away of soil. places where people did not go. Then we did not In addition, these systems had no roots in the need a whole army to protect the animals, because people so the people together with their local it was built into the culture and you knew you technology were marginalized. We pushed the should not hunt in the sanctuaries. If you did, you people in a passive stream of development, and would bring havoc to the whole community and this did not work. Over time, there has been a lot be excommunicated from the society. Today, we of damage to the environment and to the biodi- keep a whole battalion, and we are unable to pro- versity, and there's been growing poverty. tect the animals, because the people are not con- We should not have ignored the potential in vinced that it is in their interests. the people because they are the actors in the You mentioned traditional knowledge. Again, development process. We must start now we can learn from what has happened in the West. empowering them. This is what we are trying to If you look at Europe and some parts of North tell the World Bank to do-to recognize and legit- America, where is the biodiversity of these areas? imize the people and their knowledge. It is destroyed. The technology that was used has destroyed these places. If we want sustainable Wildlife Preservation and Human Usage development in another country where species in Africa have been preserved and people have been living with nature, it is just common sense to ask: How Davis: Another major issue in Africa is the idea have they been doing this? How do they sustain of using wildlife for food and the conflict that this that? Rather than introducing the very technology poses with parks where some of the large game that has destroyed the West's resources, we need animals are protected for tourism. What are your to understand these peoples' knowledge. To views on this? achieve conservation without that is impossible. Asibey: People assume that we did not have any Traditional Medicine and World Health use for animals because they were free for all. This is not true. In Ghana any hunter who kills a bush- Davis: One of the issues discussed at the confer- buck or a bigger animal must give the hind leg and ence was the relationship of traditional medicine to thigh, about one quarter of it, to the chief. That health problems. A speaker from the floor pointed means about 25 percent of somebody's income is out that about 80 percent of the world's population being taxed. So how can we say that the people still uses medicinal plants. It is not just something place no value on the game, as if everybody can go that is interesting to study or document in muse- and take it for free. This is not the case. ums. He also pointed out that the World Bank has You have a situation where the people are published a World Development Report on health dying of starvation, a situation where they could that made only minimal mention of traditional reduce the animal population to feed the people. medicine.' I was wondering if Maurice Iwu and 38 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development Arturo Argueta have any comments on this whole a "trickle down" of money to the communities issue of health and traditional medical knowledge. who have discovered these medical properties. The pharmaceutical companies should make so Argueta: For an estimated 4 billion people in the much money, and when they are rich enough, world, traditional health care is very important. they should give us 1 percent of their profits. I do The materials and procedures, the beliefs and ide- not think that a "trickle down" is sufficient com- ology, the sacred places and the holy plants-the pensation for this kind of valuable knowledge. whole thing-provides health for many people. Consider the pharmaceutical products that The trend is toward growth in the next decade. we use in developing countries. The shameful Maybe 5 billion people in the next century will part is that we get nearly 99 percent of them from use natural medicines. More and more people the developed countries. They buy raw materials from Western societies are using non-Western from us, modify them, and bring them back to us medicinal plants and traditional health systems. as finished products. We have to pay for them in their currency. We earn their currencies by cut- Iwu: The point made by Arturo is a world-wide ting down forests to plant more cash crops in phenomenon. The World Health Organization order to pay them for the drugs that originally has indeed estimated that 80 percent of the came from us. world's population uses traditional medicine. That means that it is the majority form of health Changing Attitudes care. But how much money is spent on traditional toward Traditional Medicine medicine by the World Bank and other institu- tions? It is probably zero or something minimal. Davis: Let me ask Moelagi Jackson to comment Traditional medicine is "cost effective," to use now, because it is a very different situation in the a World Bank term. Traditional medicine reduces Pacific Islands and Western Samoa. What are hospitalizations. Using plants rather than chemi- some of your thoughts on traditional medicine? cals is also a less expensive proposition. If you are actually trying to develop drugs Jackson: In the Pacific, especially in Samoa, a lot from plants, the very first act should be to has to do with attitude. When the colonial pow- increase the efficiency of traditional healers so ers came, they taught us their way of living, and that they can prepare herbal medicines. The only our Samoan doctors, trained in the West, came way you can do that is to invest in support for tra- home and said "This is the medicine." So the atti- ditional health care practitioners. Until now, they tude was that our traditional medicine was have been working only at the local level. There wrong. A lot of people believed this. But some of was little demand for these plants, but over time the old people never changed their attitude. They people are beginning to recognize that this is a continued to teach and pass down their knowl- growth industry. Several billions of dollars are edge to the young people. spent on drugs each year. The only way, our peo- I have an example from my family. We've had ple can reap the benefits of this is to gain recog- a long line of doctors. My uncle is the medical nition of our traditional practices and bring them superintendent. I can remember twenty years into the international marketplace. ago when he did not like to see a tea leaf in the It is estimated that about 130 pure compounds house. His grandmother, whether we had a cut or that are used as drugs in the West are derived headache, the first thing she would go for was the from plants. Of those compounds, 74 percent tea leaf, the nono leaf. So in my family, we've got come directly from the recommendations of tra- our medical doctors on one side, and our tradi- ditional healers. As Jorge Terena mentioned, qui- tional medicine on the other. nine came from traditional healers. How much We have a hospital near where we live in money does the traditional community make Savaii, but the doctors are never there. So I from quinine? Nothing. It is the pharmaceutical encouraged my children to learn from my grand- companies that make money from it. mother. These children are now healers. When The International Intellectual Property Rights my Western-trained relatives came, they said Commission and everybody else is talking about "What are your children doing?" "Oh," I said, A Conversation 39 "They are mixing medicine for so and so." The people's needs of diversification of food types. doctors were very angry They said "How dare These systems have also been found to have a lot you? This is wrong!" of merit for plant protection, soil, and moisture Now people are realizing that it is too costly conservation, time and labor management, and to fully maintain our hospitals. Maybe they have nutritional balance. the medicine, but they do not have the technol- ogy to diagnose the patient. All of a sudden, they Asibey: Another scientific concept that the are appreciating our local medicine. It has been African farmer has worked out is that of ecologi- proven through generations that there are leaves, cal succession. In the practice of shifting cultiva- roots, and juices extracted from the rainforest that tion, the people know that after farming one area can cure a simple illness, instead of going a great and then leaving it, they must watch for certain distance away to the hospital. Herbal doctors are species to grow again before they return to that very respected members of the community, and plot. Population pressure does not always allow we're trying to reactivate and increase the tradi- this cycle to be complete now. But this is the local tional knowledge. In the Fassao Savaii Society application of the scientific notion of succession, training program, we are teaching the young peo- which the illiterate African farmer worked out for ple to identify medicinal plants in the rainforest. himself. At the same time, we are trying to encourage the Western-trained doctors to work with us. Gata: African farmers have indicator plants for soil classification and land use planning. They Scientific Validity of Traditional Knowledge know that a certain type of plant or tree grows in a soil that is suitable for certain crops. So they Davis: I would like to continue on the issue of actually marry what I would call the physical the scientific validity of traditional knowledge, properties with the biological dynamics of the especially in the agricultural sector. I know you ecosystem. It is time that we legitimize this have some views on this, Dr. Gata. knowledge and start to work together with the people who actually own it. We must start to Gata: It must be emphasized that indigenous work with grassroots farmers as partners in peoples use methods similar to those of the sci- research and development, but not in a one-way entific world. For example, indigenous peoples system in which scientists drain local knowledge classify soils using color, texture, and structure. for their own self-improvement. The knowledge They use indicator plants for deciding the suit- that grassroots farmers have developed thus far ability of soils for a given cropping system. They suggests that they can meaningfully contribute to classify plants using morphological characteris- research and development, side by side with tics and physiological attributes, according to modern scientists. After all, without people's par- their growing and reproductive habits. The fact ticipation, scientists have not made much head- that indigenous peoples do not use microscopes way in developing Africa. or electrophoresis equipment for finer analysis does not nullify their methods. The scientific International Agencies world did not bother to study local people's sci- and Indigenous Peoples ence and technology but instead went about, in many instances, reinventing the wheel. Davis: What should be the policies of intema- Colonial authorities castigated indigenous tional development agencies like the World Bank peoples for slovenly farming methods, for mix- for traditional knowledge and indigenous peo- ing their crops in an unhygienic, haphazard way. ples? Also, what policies should we encourage on But now science has realized that mixed cropping the part of the governments that these donor systems are not haphazard. They were developed agencies are working with? If we were looking through long-term experimentation, resulting in ahead, what should we be promoting? Maybe, an invaluable knowledge of crops that are com- Jorge, we could begin with you. At the confer- patible and often have symbiotic and synergistic ence, you mentioned the issue of assistance with relationships. These combinations answered the land demarcation. Why is that so important? 40 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development Terena: Land demarcation. We need to know that the institution building of our own organizations the land is ours, that legally we can control our and communities. I think that we are sufficiently lands. There is a necessity to demarcate our lands organized now that we can become our own and ensure that nobody is going to invade them. spokespeople. We don't need the church any- The world needs to understand that the things more. We don't need other NGOs to be our that exist in the world today, whether it is medi- spokespeople. We have our own organizations cinal plants or biodiversity, have been preserved and our own people who can speak for us. We only in our areas. The only way that we're going have our own leaders. They can speak to the to continue to have this diversity is by preserving world about our needs. our land. We can assure the world that we will However, in order to function in this world cer- maintain the biodiversity that people will need in tain things are needed. Telephones and copying the future if we're assured of our land. machines are needed. Somebody said the other Recognition of the scientific validity of indigenous day, indigenous peoples in the community don't knowledge. The second thing is, as Dr. Gata use them. Of course, they don't use them, but the pointed out, the need to recognize indigenous organizations in the city do. In order to make con- knowledge as scientific and as an appropriate tact with this world and defend our rights before technology. If it were not scientific, we would not the governments, we need certain tools, and if have preserved the ecosystems that exist on our these tools are not given to us, we cannot do it. land for thousands of years. It's still there, because there is a scientific method to it. That Jackson: Along with Jorge, I would emphasize needs to be recognized. the importance of land demarcation. How can we Intellectual property rights. We've been talking a reactivate and reemphasize traditional knowl- lot about medicinal plants. Some scientists go to edge if there is no land? All traditional knowl- our community and have our people teach them edge is bound with the land. The World Bank what purpose a root or a plant serves. Those sci- must appreciate and support proposals and pro- entists take that plant back to the laboratory and jects that have a viable and sound plan for sus- put chemical additives with it and come up with tainable use of the land. They must insist that an a pill. Then, that person patents the pill in his environmental plan and feasibility study be name or the laboratory's name. They don't give attached to any proposal. It is all very well to have any kind of recognition to the community that a plan, but we must be sure it can be followed. knew the use of that plant in the first place. They The idea of capacity building, mentioned by say they "discovered" it; therefore, they patent it. Jorge, is also important. For example, we have As you know, for someone to patent some- our own universities in the islands like the thing, it must be new and original. How can they Universities of the South Pacific, Australia, and say it's new and original if our communities New Zealand. Is it possible for the World Bank to already knew about it? Why not name our com- fund, through these universities, a special study munity as co-inventors? I'm sure the scientific of our traditional medicine within the Pacific? If world does not want to do that, because it would the World Bank can agree to some funding have to pay royalties to our communities. attached to the institutions we've already got, it As an excuse for not recognizing us, they say would protect the land, protect our medicine, and everything that exists, including the ecological give the knowledge to our young people. diversity on indigenous lands, should be used for humanity's benefit. Well, of course, yes. If, for Cultural Preservation example, Maurice Iwu patents something, it's and the Global Environment Facility going to be used for humanity's benefit, but he wants to get some credit for it. Therefore, one of Davis: One of the things that discussed at the the things the World Bank could do would be to conference was the rapid loss of cultural and lin- help our communities be recognized as co-inven- guistic diversity. For instance, I know a linguist at tors of this technology. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) who Institutional support for indigenous organiza- is studying the situation of the world's indige- tions. Another thing I suggest is assistance with nous languages. There are 6,000 languages in the A Conversation 41 world today. Three thousand of them are threat- There is no way that can continue to happen if the ened with disappearance because children are GEF is to address the complexity of the situation. not being taught these languages. By the year They must not continue to develop concepts 2020, there may be only 300 languages that are at headquarters and then push them onto the actively spoken in the world. That potential loss field. As Moelagi Jackson suggested, the GEF means that we'd better do something quickly, should attach itself to institutions already in especially if language is related to knowledge. place. We need capacity strengthening, not capacity Now we've created a Global Environment building. Building means there is nothing there. Facility (GEF) to deal with global problems. We already have capacity. All we want to do is Should this language and cultural loss be seen as build a bridge between indigenous knowledge a global problem? Should cultural diversity be and Western science. taken up within this framework? In Mexico an inventory of biological resources is being done. We are doing the same thing for Argueta: In 1992 Time magazine carried an arti- West and Central Africa. But the GEF doesn't see cle entitled, "Lost Tribes, Lost Knowledge."2 This any relevance for economic development in what problem is a contemporary problem of the world, we are doing. We don't have any baseline data of and I think the GEF can play a very important the resources we have from a ethnobiological role in the preservation, conservation, support, point of view. The GEF doesn't see that this as the and development of culture and therefore of kind of base data we need. knowledge. The GEF should be set up not to deal with govern- I would like to make two points. First is the ments. The World Bank deals with governments. The importance of the dissemination of information. GEF, because of its unique nature, should recognize and I recommend this not only for peasants or indige- deal with the various tribes and NGOs and leave the nous peoples, but also for technical resource peo- World Bank to deal with lending to governments. Yet ple in the governments. This is very important the structure of the GEF is that the NGOs and the because government staff in many countries tribes can get only $50,000 for projects based in don't know anything about the value of tradi- their home country The big projects are through tional knowledge. I hope that the World Bank, the the governments. For instance the projects to save GEF, and other international donors will empha- the forests of West Africa.. why couldn't there be a size the dissemination of information about commission made up of all the tribal chiefs to work indigenous knowledge and cultures and their with the scientists to look at the forests together? importance to sustainable development. Another point is the need to support conser- Asibey: I think that it is possible to use indige- vation of biodiversity. For nearly thirty years, in nous knowledge in designing our projects if we agriculture and medicinal plants researchers say to the task managers who are designing the have been working on the conservation of seeds biodiversity programs: "Indigenous knowledge in genetic banks, in freezers and so on. For the is important for the management of these past ten years, the new idea has been conserva- resource bases." All we need to do is design our tion in protected areas. Why not change? Why not projects to include the local knowledge on what- put the emphasis on conservation with the peo- ever areas we are going to deal with. ple who have conserved the biodiversity every If we are talking about biodiversity conserva- year for centuries? Why not put the investments tion in Malawi fishery resources, we can design in conservation with the people who live there that project to include indigenous knowledge and and preserve the seeds in situ? use indigenous peoples in the management mech- anism. If we are talking about West African Iwu: I had hoped that the GEF approach would forests, why design as if we are looking after only be a departure from the classical development the trees and exclude animals and other things mentality. But what GEF is doing is the same old which are essential to the people? We must incor- thing. I think it is because of its association with porate indigenous knowledge in project docu- the World Bank. You send the experts to a coun- mentation and indigenous peoples as participants try, and in two weeks there is a beautiful report. in project design and management. 42 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development I think it is a question of reeducating our- dence my research institution was never over- selves. World Bank sensitivity to these issues is hauled like other government institutions. improving, at least in the Southern Africa Because of that, we're having problems changing Country Department. There, I am specifically from the old colonial to the independent mind asked to look at projects from the point of view of set. I know that creating new structures is expen- the local people. We ask the people, What do you sive, but how long are we going to continue with want us to do? We try to find out what they them- things that we know very well are not meeting selves consider to be the most important pro- our needs? Are we serious about change? If it is ject-how they want it. going to be costly, so be it. If we are going to do participatory project planning, we have to convince our colleagues Davis: There have been many interesting ideas that the project design phase must be length- presented here, and I would like to thank every- ened. It cannot move as fast as before because it one who has participated in this discussion. involves local consultation. Projects that include Hopefully, this is a beginning step for the World participation take time. We must get to know the Bank and the various people and organizations local people. Most Africans do not just start talk- who were represented at the conference to con- ing to you because they see you are nicely tinue to share ideas and information. Hopefully, dressed. They take a long time to assess you. together, we can continue to work on these com- World Bank staff cannot assume that they can get mon issues, trying to convince each of our respec- the proper information in the same short time tive organizations to take into account the frame as before. important contributions that traditional knowl- edge and indigenous peoples can make to sus- Gata: I would like to stress that the World Bank tainable development. as well as the national governments have realized that there have been shortcomings in develop- Notes ment efforts to date. Whatever we're going to do frm owo, t ut e ifern apoc.A 1. World Bank, World Development Report 1993: differenton,approach cannotiffebentimplementedA Investing in Health (New York: Oxford University Press, different approach cannot be implemented 11993). within an existing structure. I can tell you that 2. Eugene Linden, "Lost Tribes, Lost Knowledge," from my personal experience. After indepen- Time 138 (12) (Sept. 23,1991): 46-56. Appendixes Appendix 1 Program Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable tute of Research, U.S.A.; Professor of Phar- Development Conference macognosy, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Nigeria Arturo Argueta, Ethnobiologist, Advisor to September 27, 1993 General Director, National Indigenous Insti- tute, Mexico Introductory Remarks Moelagi Jackson, President, Faasao Savaii Society, Western Samoa Mohamed T. El-Ashry, Chief Environmental Cindy Gilday, Special Advisor, Department Adviser to the President and Director of Envi- of Renewable Resources, Government of ronment, World Bank [now Chief Executive Northwest Territories, Canada Officer and Chairman, Global Environment Discussant: Janis Alcom, Program Manager for Facility, U.S.A.] Asia/Pacific, Biodiversity Support Program, U.S.A. The Value of Traditional Knowledge for Sustainable Development Summary and Concluding Remarks Moderator: Emmanuel Asibey, Senior Ecologist, Pierre Landell-Mills, Senior Policy Adviser, Agriculture and Environment Division, South- Office of the Vice President, Environmentally em Africa Country Department, World Bank Sustainable Development, World Bank [now Keynote Speaker: Dr. Ntombie R. Gata, Deputy Chief, Resident Mission, World Bank, Dhaka, Director, Department of Research and Spe- Bangladesh] cialist Services, Ministry of Lands, Agricul- ture, and Water Development, Zimbabwe September 28, 1993 Contributions of Traditional Knowledge Traditional Institutions, Participation, to Health and the Environment and Development in Africa Moderator: Mario Ramos, Senior Environment Moderator: Mamadou Dia, Chief, Capacity Specialist, Land, Water, and Natural Habitats Building and Implementation Division, Africa Division, Environment Department, World Technical Department, World Bank Bank [now Senior Environmental Specialist, Speakers: Bernard Ledea Ouedraogo, President, Global Environment Facility, U.S.A.] Association International, (Six-"S") Se Servir Speakers: Maurice M. Iwu, Visiting Senior de la Saison Seche en Savane et au Sahel, Research Associate, Walter Reed Army Insti- Burkina Faso 45 46 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development Nana Odoru Numapau II, President, National tional Fund for Agricultural Development, House of Chiefs, Ghana Italy Discussants: Moses Kiggundu, Professor, School Jorge Terena, Director, Regional Support Pro- of Business, Carleton University, Canada gram for Indigenous Peoples of the Amazon Paula Donnelly-Roark, Public Sector Man- Basin, International Fund for Agricultural agement Specialist, Capacity Building and Development; and Andean Development Implementation Division, Africa Technical Corporation, Ecuador Department, World Bank Roberto Haudry, Project Official, Latin America and Caribbean Division, Interna- Indigenous Development Planning tional Fund for Agricultural Development, Italy Moderator: Maritta Koch-Weser, Chief, Environ- Discussant: Shelton H. Davis, Principal Soci- ment and Natural Resources Division, Asia ologist, Social Policy and Resettlement Technical Department, World Bank Division, Environment Department, World Speakers: Bachir Souhlal, Task Manager, Matruh Bank Natural Resource Management Project, Agri- Summary: Whaimutu Dewes, Attorney, Fletcher culture Operations Division, Middle East and Challenge Ltd., New Zealand North Africa Country Department, World Mamadou Dia, Chief, Capacity Building and Bank Implementation Division, Africa Technical Peter Klemann, German Team Leader, Qasr Department, World Bank Rural Development Project, GTZ, Egypt Salima Abd El Rehim Mohamed, Officer for Concluding Remarks the Women's Affairs Program, Qasr Rural Development Project, Egypt Ismail Serageldin, Vice President, Environ- Theodore Van der Pluijm, Director, Latin mentally Sustainable Development, World America and Caribbean Division, Interna- Bank Appendix 2 Participants Invited Participants P.O. Box 8108 Causeway Fifth Street Extension Janis B. Alcorn Harare, Zimbabwe Program Manager for Asia/Pacific Biodiversity Support Program Cindy Gilday World Wildlife Fund Special Adviser 1250 24th St., N.W. Department of Renewable Resources Washington, D.C. 20037, U.S.A. Government of Northwest Territories Box 1320 Arturo Argueta Sixth Floor, Scotia Center Ethnobiologist Yellowknife, NWT, Canada, X1A 2L9 Advisor to General Director Instituto Nacional Indigenista Roberto Haudry (de Soucy) Av. Revolucion No. 1279, 2o. Piso Project Official Col. Tlacopac Latin America and Caribbean Division 01010 Mexico 20, DF, Mexico International Fund for Agricultural Development Whaimutu Dewes 107, Via Del Serafico Attorney 00142 Rome, Italy Fletcher Challenge, Ltd. 810 Great South Road, Penrose Maurice Iwu Private Bag 92114 Visiting Senior Research Associate Auckland, New Zealand Division of Experimental Therapeutics Walter Reed Army Institute of Research Mohamed T. El-Ashry Washington, D.C. 20307-5100, U.S.A.; and Chief Executive Officer and Chairman Professor of Pharmacognosy Global Environment Facility Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences 1818 H Street, N.W. University of Nigeria Room G 6-005 Nsukka, Nigeria Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Moelagi Jackson Ntombie Gata President Deputy Director Faasao Savaii Society Department of Research and Specialist Services P.O. Box 5002 Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and c/o Salelologa Post Office Water Development Savaii, Western Samoa 47 48 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development Moses Kiggundu Theodore Van der Pluijm Professor Director School of Business Latin America and Caribbean Division Carleton University International Fund for Agricultural Development BENDAS 107 Via Del Serafico 174 Cobourg Street 00142 Rome, Italy Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1V 8H5 World Bank Staff Participants Peter Klemann German Team Leader Unless otherwise noted, all World Bank staff can Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische be reached at: Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Qasr Rural Development Project (QRDP) 1818 H. Street, N.W. Directorate of Agriculture Bldg. Washington, D.C., 20433, U.S.A. P.O. Box 18 Marsa Matruh, Egypt Emmanuel Asibey Senior Ecologist Salima Abd El Rehim Mohamed Agriculture and Environment Division Officer for the Women Affairs Program Southern Africa Country Department Qasr Rural Development Project (QRDP) Room J 4-171 Directorate of Agriculture Bldg. P.O. Box 18 Shelton H. Davis Marsa Matruh, Egypt Principal Sociologist Social Policy and Resettlement Division Nana Oduro Numapau II Environment Department Efssumejaheme Room S 5-033 President, National House of Chiefs State House of Accra Mamadou Dia P.O. Box 4148 Chief Kumasi, Ashanti Region, Ghana Capacity Building and Implementation Division Africa Technical Department Bernard Ledea Ouedraogo Room J 2-131 President Association Internationale, Six-"S" Paula Donnelly-Roark Se Servir de la Saison Seche en Savane et au Sahel Public Sector Management Specialist B.P. 100 Capacity Building and Implementation Division Ouahigouya, Burkina Faso Africa Technical Department Room J 2-151 Mario Ramos Senior Environment Specialist Maritta Koch-Weser Global Environment Facility Chief 1818 H Street, N.W. Environment and Natural Resource Division Room G-6024 Asia Technical Department Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Room MC 8-427 Jorge Terena Pierre Landell-Mills Quadra 07 Conjunto "A" Casa 10 Chief 73035-070 - Sobradinho Resident Mission Brasilia, D.P., Brazil World Bank (continued) Participants 49 G.P.O. 97 Bachir Souhlal Dhaka, Bangladesh Task Manager Matruh Natural Management Project Ismail Serageldin Agriculture Operations Division Vice President Middle East and North Africa Country Environmentally Sustainable Development Department Room S 7-031 Room H 9-013 Appendix 3 Indigenous Knowledge Resource Centers Established Centers PIKA, International Institute of Rural Recon- struction (IIRR), Silang, Cavite, Philippines Global Indigenous Knowledge Resource Centers (Tel: 0969-9451, Fax: 632 522-2494) 1. Centre for International Research and National Indigenous Knowledge Resource Centers Advisory Networks (CIRAN): Drs. G. W. von Liebenstein, Director; Nuffic/CIRAN, POB 6. Ghana Resource Centre for Indigenous 29777, 2502 LT, The Hague, The Netherlands; Knowledge (GHARCIK): Mensah Bonsu, (Tel: 31-70-426-0321), Fax: 31-70-426-0329; Director: GHARCIK, School of Agriculture, EMail: Lieb@nufficcs.nl) University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana 2. Centre for Indigenous Knowledge for Agricul- (Tlx: 2552 UCC GH) ture and Rural Development (CIKARD); Dr. D. 7. Indonesian Resource Centre for Indigenous Michael Warren, Director, CIKARD, 318 Curtiss Knowledge (INRIK): Prof. Dr. Kusnaka Hall, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 Adimihardja, Director; INRIK, Department of U.S.A. (Tel: 515-294-0938, Fax: 515-294-1708; Anthropology, University of Padjadjaran, EMail: BITNET S2.DMW@ISUMVS) Bandung, 40132 Indonesia (Fax: 022-431-938) 3. Leiden Ethonosystems and Development 8. Mexican Research, Teaching and Service Programme (LEAD): Dr. L. Jan Slikkerveer, Network on Indigenous Knowledge (RIDSCA Director; LEAD Institute of Cultural and Social - Red de Investigacion, Docencia y Servicio en Studies, University of Leiden, POB 9555, 2300 Conocimientos Autoctonos): Dr. Antonio RB Leiden, The Netherlands (Tel: 31-71-273-469, Macias-Lopez, Director; Colegio de Post- Fax: 31-71-273-619) graduados, CEICADAR, Apartado Postal L 12, C.P. 72130, Col. La Libertad, Puebla, Pue., Regional Indigenous Knowledge Resource Centers Mexico (Tel: 48-00-88, 48-09-78, 48-05-42; Fax: 22-493-995) 4. African Resource Centre for Indigenous 9. Philippine Resource Centre for Sustainable Knowledge (ARCIK): Prof. Adedotun Development and Indigenous Knowledge Phillips, Director and Dr. Tunji Titilola, (PhiRCSDIK): Dr. Rogelio C. Serrano, Research Coordinator; ARCIK, Nigerian National Coordinator; Philippine Council for Institute of Social and Economic Research Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources (NISER); PMB 5 - UI Post Office, Ibadan, Research and Development (PCAARD), Los Nigeria (Fax: 022-416-129 or 01-614-397) Bafios, Laguna, Philippines (Fax: 63-094- 5. Regional Program for the Promotion of Indig- 50016; Tlx: 40860 PARRS PM) enous Knowledge in Asia (REPPIKA): Dr. 10. Kenya Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowl- Evelyn Mathias-Mundy, Coordinator; REP- edge (KENRIK): Dr. Mohamed Isahakia, Act- 50 Indigenous Knowledge Resource Centers 51 ing Director; The National Museums of Kenya, Research, Ahmadu Bello University, PMB P.O. Box 40658, Nairobi, Kenya (Tel: 254-2-742- 1044, Zaria, Nigeria (Tel: 234-69-50571-4 Ext. 161; Fax: 245-2-741-424) 4322; Fax: 234-69-50891 or 234-69-50563; Tlx: 11. Sri Lanka Resource Centre for Indigenous 75248 NITEZ NG) Knowledge (SLARCIK): Dr. Rohana 17. Uruguay Resource Centre for Indigenous Ulluwishewa, Director; Department of Geo- Knowledge (URURCIK): Pedro de Hegedus, graphy, University of Sri Jayawardenepura, Coordinator; Centro de Estudios para el Nugegoda, Sri Lanka (Tel: 55-2695/2696/ Desarrollo-Uruguay/Centre for Develop- 3191/3192) ment Studies-Uruguay (CEDESUR), Casilla 12. Venezuelan Secretariat for Indigenous Knowl- Correo 20.201-Codigo Postal 12.900, Sayago, edge and Sustainable Development (VER- Montevideo, Uruguay (Tel: 5-982-350634; Fax: SIK): Dr. Consuelo Quiroz, Coordinator; 5-982-913780; EMail: cedesur@csnet.chasque. Center for Tropical Alternative Agriculture apc.org) and Sustainable Development, Agrarian 18. Cameroon Indigenous Knowledge Organiza- Science Department, Nucleo "Rafael Rangel", tion (CIKO): Professor C.N. Ngwasiri, Direc- Universidad de los Andes, Trujillo-Estado tor; Private Sector Research Institution, P.O. Trujillo, Venezuela (Fax: 58-072-33667) Box 170, Buea, Southwest Province, 13. Burkina Faso Resource Centre for Indigenous Cameroon (Tel: 237-32-2690; Fax: 237-32-2514 Knowledge (Centre Burkinabe de Recherche or 43-0813) sur les Pratiques et Savoirs Paysans) (BUR- 19. Madagascar Resource Centre for Indigenous CIK): Dr. Bagsa E. Dialla, Director; IRSSH, B.P. Knowledge (MARCIK): Ms. Juliette 7047, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (Tel: 226- Ratsimandrava, Director; Centre d'Informa- 362835; Fax: 226-336517) tion et de Documentation Scientifique et Tech- 14. South African Resource Centre for Indigenous nique, Ministere de la Recherche Appliqu6e Knowledge (SARCIK): Dr. Morris H. Cohen, au Developpement, 21 rue Fernand Kasanga, Co-Director; The Institute for Indigenous B.P. 6224, Antananarivo 101, Madagascar Theory and Practice, 110 Long Street, 8001 Cape Town, South Africa (Tel: 27-21-242012; Centers Being Established Fax: 27-21-262466) 15. Brasil Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowl- 1. Regional/Sub-Regional Centers: European edge (BRARCIK): Dr. Antonio Joao Cancian, Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge, Director; Depto. de Biologia - UNESP, Trans-Andean Resource Centre for Indige- 14870.000, Jaboticabal - SP, Brasil (Fax: 55-163- nous Knowledge 22-4275; EMail: uejab@brfapesp.bitnet) 2. National Centers: Australia, Benin, Bolivia, 16. Nigerian Resource Centre for Indigenous Colombia, Costa Rica, India, Mali, Namibia, Knowledge (NIRCIK): Dr. James 0. Olukosi, Nepal, Peru, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Coordinator; Institute for Agricultural Viet Nam, and Zimbabwe Appendix 4 The World Bank Operational Manual Operational Directive (OD) 4.20: Indigenous Peoples Introduction the term that will be used to refer to these groups. 4. Within their national constitutions, statutes, 1. This directive describes Bank' policies and and relevant legislation, many of the Bank's processing procedures for projects that affect borrower countries include specific definitional indigenous peoples. It sets out basic definitions, clauses and legal frameworks that provide a policy objectives, guidelines for the design and preliminary basis for identifying indigenous implementation of project provisions or compo- peoples. nents for indigenous peoples, and processing and documentation requirements. 5. Because of the varied and changing contexts in which indigenous peoples are found, no single 2. The directive provides policy guidance to (a) definition can capture their diversity. Indigenous ensure that indigenous people benefit from people are commonly among the poorest seg- development projects, and (b) avoid or mitigate ments of a population. They engage in economic potentially adverse effects on indigenous people activities that range from shifting agriculture in caused by Bank-assisted activities. Special action or near forests to wage labor or even small-scale is required where Bank investments affect indige- market-oriented activities. Indigenous peoples nous peoples, tribes, ethnic minorities, or other can be identified in particular geographical areas groups whose social and economic status by the presence in varying degrees of the follow- restricts their capacity to assert their interests and ing characteristics: rights in land and other productive resources. (a) a close attachment to ancestral territories Definitions and to the natural resources in these areas; (b) self-identification and identification by 3. The terms "indigenous peoples," "indigenous others as members of a distinct cultural ethnic minorities," "tribal groups," and "sched- group; uled tribes" describe social groups with a social (c) an indigenous language, often different and cultural identity distinct from the dominant from the national language; society that makes them vulnerable to being dis- (d) presence of customary social and political advantaged in the development process. For the institutions; and purposes of this directive, "indigenous peoples" is (e) primarily subsistence-oriented production. This directive was preparedfor the guidance of staff of the World Bank and is not necessarily a complete treatment of the sub- jects covered. [Editor's note: Issued in 1991, this directive is being revised; the revised OD 4.20 is expected by the end of 1995.] 52 Operational Directive (OD) 4.20: Indigenous Peoples 53 Task managers (TMs) must exercise judgment in are unavoidable and adequate mitigation plans determining the populations to which this direc- have not been developed. In such situations, the tive applies and should make use of specialized Bank will not appraise projects until suitable anthropological and sociological experts through- plans are developed by the borrower and out the project cycle. reviewed by the Bank. In other cases, indigenous people may wish to be and can be incorporated Objective and Policy into the development process. In sum, a full range of positive actions by the borrower must ensure 6. The Bank's broad objective towards indige- that indigenous people benefit from develop- nous people, as for all the people in its member ment investments. countries, is to ensure that the development process fosters full respect for their dignity, Bank Role human rights, and cultural uniqueness. More specifically, the objective at the center of this 10. The Bank addresses issues on indigenous peo- directive is to ensure that indigenous peoples do ples through (a) country economic and sector not suffer adverse effects during the develop- work, (b) technical assistance, and (c) investment ment process, particularly from Bank-financed project components or provisions. Issues concern- projects, and that they receive culturally compat- ing indigenous peoples can arise in a variety of sec- ible social and economic benefits. tors that concern the Bank; those involving, for example, agriculture, road construction, forestry, 7. How to approach indigenous peoples affected hydropower, mining, tourism, education, and the by development projects is a controversial issue. environment should be carefully screened.2 Issues Debate is often phrased as a choice between two related to indigenous peoples are commonly iden- opposed positions. One pole is to insulate indige- tified through the environmental assessment or nous populations whose cultural and economic social impact assessment processes, and appropri- practices make it difficult for them to deal with ate measures should be taken under environmen- powerful outside groups. The advantages of this tal mitigation actions (see OD 4.01, Environmental approach are the special protections that are pro- Assessment). vided and the preservation of cultural distinc- tiveness; the costs are the benefits foregone from 11. Country Economic and Sector Work. Country development programs. The other pole argues departments should maintain information on that indigenous people must be acculturated to trends in government policies and institutions dominant society values and economic activities that deal with indigenous peoples. Issues con- so that they can participate in national develop- cerning indigenous peoples should be addressed ment. Here the benefits can include improved explicitly in sector and subsector work and social and economic opportunities, but the cost is brought into the Bank-country dialogue. often the gradual loss of cultural differences. National development policy frameworks and institutions for indigenous peoples often need to 8. The Bank's policy is that the strategy for be strengthened in order to create a stronger basis addressing the issues pertaining to indigenous for designing and processing projects with com- peoples must be based on the informed participation ponents dealing with indigenous peoples. of the indigenous people themselves. Thus, iden- tifying local preferences through direct consulta- 12. Techlnical Assistance. Technical assistance to tion, incorporation of indigenous knowledge into develop the borrower's abilities to address issues project approaches, and appropriate early use of on indigenous people can be provided by the experienced specialists are core activities for any Bank. Technical assistance is normally given project that affects indigenous peoples and their within the context of project preparation, but rights to natural and economic resources. technical assistance may also be needed to strengthen the relevant government institutions 9. Cases will occur, especially when dealing with or to support development initiatives taken by the most isolated groups, where adverse impacts indigenous people themselves. 54 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development 13. Investment Projects. For an investment project agement to local people. As needed, the that affects indigenous peoples, the borrower plan should include general education and should prepare an indigenous peoples develop- training in management skills for indige- ment plan that is consistent with the Bank's pol- nous people from the onset of the project. icy. Any project that affects indigenous peoples is (g) Successful planning for indigenous peo- expected to include components or provisions ples frequently requires long lead times, as that incorporate such a plan. When the bulk of the well as arrangement for extended follow- direct project beneficiaries are indigenous peo- up. Remote or neglected areas where little ple, the Bank's concerns would be addressed by previous experience is available often the project itself and the provisions of this OD require additional research and pilot pro- would thus apply to the project in its entirety. grams to fine-tune development proposals. (h) Where effective programs are already func- Indigenous Peoples Development Plan3 tioning, Bank support can take the form of incremental funding to strengthen them Prerequisites rather than the development of entirely new programs. 14. Prerequisites of a successful development plan for indigenous peoples are as follows: Contents (a) The key step in project design is the prepa- 15. The development plan should be prepared in ration of a culturally appropriate develop- tandem with the preparation of the main invest- ment plan based on full consideration of ment. In many cases, proper protection of the the options preferred by the indigenous rights of indigenous people will require the people affected by the project. implementation of special project components (b) Studies should make all efforts to anticipate that may lie outside the primary project's objec- adverse trends likely to be induced by the tives. These components can include activities project and develop the means to avoid or related to health and nutrition, productive infra- mitigate harm.4 structure, linguistic and cultural preservation, (c) The institutions responsible for govern- entitlement to natural resources, and education. ment interaction with indigenous peoples The project component for indigenous peoples should possess the social, technical, and development should include the following ele- legal skills needed for carrying out the pro- ments, as needed: posed development activities. Implemen- tation arrangements should be kept simple. (a) Legal Framework. The plan should contain They should normally involve appropriate an assessment of (i) the legal status of the existing institutions, local organizations, groups covered by this OD, as reflected in and nongovernmental organizations the country's constitution, legislation, and (NGOs) with expertise in matters relating subsidiary legislation (regulations, admin- to indigenous peoples. istrative orders, etc.); and (ii) the ability of (d) Local patterns of social organization, reli- such groups to obtain access to and effec- gious beliefs, and resource use should be tively use the legal system to defend their taken into account in the plan's design. rights. Particular attention should be given (e) Development activities should support pro- to the rights of indigenous peoples to use duction systems that are well adapted to the and develop the lands that they occupy, to needs and environment of indigenous peo- be protected against illegal intruders, and ples, and should help production systems to have access to natural resources (such as under stress to attain sustainable levels. forests, wildlife, and water) vital to their (Q The plan should avoid creating or aggra- subsistence and reproduction. vating the dependency of indigenous peo- (b) Baseline Data. Baseline data should include ple on project entities. Planning should (i) accurate, up-to-date maps and aerial encourage early handover of project man- photographs of the area of project influ- Operational Directive (OD) 4.20: Indigenous Peoples 55 ence and the areas inhabited by indige- (e) Technical Identification of Development or nous peoples; (ii) analysis of the social Mitigation Activities. Technical proposals structure and income sources of the popu- should proceed from on-site research by lation; (iii) inventories of the resources qualified professionals acceptable to the that indigenous people use and technical Bank. Detailed descriptions should be pre- data on their production systems; and (iv) pared and appraised for such proposed the relationship of indigenous peoples to services as education, training, health, other local and national groups. It is par- credit, and legal assistance. Technical ticularly important that baseline studies descriptions should be included for the capture the full range of production and planned investments in productive infra- marketing activities in which indigenous structure. Plans that draw upon indige- people are engaged. Site visits by qualified nous knowledge are often more successful social and technical experts should verify than those introducing entirely new prin- and update secondary sources. ciples and institutions. For example, the (c) Land Tenure. When local legislation needs potential contribution of traditional health strengthening, the Bank should offer to providers should be considered in plan- advise and assist the borrower in estab- ning delivery systems for health care. lishing legal recognition of the customary (f) Institutional Capacity. The government or traditional land tenure systems of institutions assigned responsibility for indigenous peoples. Where the traditional indigenous peoples are often weak. lands of indigenous peoples have been Assessing the track record, capabilities, and brought by law into the domain of the state needs of those institutions is a fundamen- and where it is inappropriate to convert tal requirement. Organizational issues that traditional rights into those of legal own- need to be addressed through Bank assis- ership, alternative arrangements should tance are the (i) availability of funds for be implemented to grant long-term, investments and field operations; (ii) ade- renewable rights of custodianship and use quacy of experienced professional staff; (iii) to indigenous peoples. These steps should ability of indigenous peoples' own organi- be taken before the initiation of other plan- zations, local administration authorities, ning steps that may be contingent on rec- and local NGOs to interact with specialized ognized land titles. government institutions; (iv) ability of the (d) Strategyfor Local Participation. Mechanisms executing agency to mobilize other agen- should be devised and maintained for par- cies involved in the plan's implementation; ticipation by indigenous people in decision and (v) adequacy of field presence. making throughout project planning, (g) Implementation Schedule. Components implementation, and evaluation. Many of should include an implementation sched- the larger groups of indigenous people ule with benchmarks by which progress have their own representative organiza- can be measured at appropriate intervals. tions that provide effective channels for Pilot programs are often needed to provide communicating local preferences. Tradi- planning information for phasing the pro- tional leaders occupy pivotal positions for ject component for indigenous peoples mobilizing people and should be brought with the main investment. The plan should into the planning process, with due concern pursue the long-term sustainability of pro- for ensuring genuine representation of the ject activities subsequent to completion of indigenous population.5 No foolproof disbursement. methods exist, however, to guarantee full (h) Monitoring and Evaluation.6 Independent local-level participation. Sociological and monitoring capacities are usually needed technical advice provided through the when the institutions responsible for Regional environment divisions (REDs) is indigenous populations have weak man- often needed to develop mechanisms agement histories. Monitoring by repre- appropriate for the project area. sentatives of indigenous peoples' own 56 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development organizations can be an efficient way for Preparation the project management to absorb the per- spectives of indigenous beneficiaries and 17. If it is agreed in the IEPS meeting that special is encouraged by the Bank. Monitoring action is needed, the indigenous peoples devel- units should be staffed by experienced opment plan or project component should be social science professionals, and reporting developed during project preparation. As neces- formats and schedules appropriate to the sary, the Bank should assist the borrower in project's needs should be established. preparing terms of reference and should provide Monitoring and evaluation reports should specialized technical assistance (see para. 12). be reviewed jointly by the senior manage- Early involvement of anthropologists and local ment of the implementing agency and by NGOs with expertise in matters related to the Bank. The evaluation reports should be indigenous peoples is a useful way to identify made available to the public. mechanisms for effective participation and local (i) Cost Estimates and Financing Plan. The plan development opportunities. In a project that should include detailed cost estimates for involves the land rights of indigenous peoples, planned activities and investments. The the Bank should work with the borrower to clar- estimates should be broken down into ify the steps needed for putting land tenure on a unit costs by project year and linked to a regular footing as early as possible, since land financing plan. Such programs as revolv- disputes frequently lead to delays in executing ing credit funds that provide indigenous measures that are contingent on proper land people with investment pools should indi- titles (see para. 15(c)). cate their accounting procedures and mechanisms for financial transfer and Appraisal replenishment. It is usually helpful to have as high a share as possible of direct 18. The plan for the development component for financial participation by the Bank in pro- indigenous peoples should be submitted to the ject components dealing with indigenous Bank along with the project's overall feasibility peoples. report, prior to project appraisal. Appraisal should assess the adequacy of the plan, the suitability of Project Processing and Documentation policies and legal frameworks, the capabilities of the agencies charged with implementing the plan, Identification and the adequacy of the allocated technical, finan- cial, and social resources. Appraisal teams should 16. During project identification, the borrower be satisfied that indigenous people have partici- should be informed of the Bank's policy for pated meaningfully in the development of the indigenous peoples. The approximate number of plan as described in para. 14(a) (also see para. potentially affected people and their location 15(d)). It is particularly important to appraise pro- should be determined and shown on maps of the posals for regularizing land access and use. project area. The legal status of any affected groups should also be discussed. TMs should Implementation and Supervision ascertain the relevant government agencies, and their policies, procedures, programs, and plans 19. Supervision planning should make provi- for indigenous peoples affected by the proposed sions for including the appropriate anthropolog- project (see paras. 11 and 15(a)). TMs should also ical, legal, and technical skills in Bank initiate anthropological studies necessary to supervision missions during project implementa- identify local needs and preferences (see para. tion (see para. 15(g) and (h), and OD 13.05, Project 15(b)). TMs, in consultation with the REDs, Supervision). Site visits by TMs and specialists are should signal indigenous peoples issues and the essential. Midterm and final evaluations should overall project strategy in the Initial Executive assess progress and recommend corrective Project Summary (IEPS). actions when necessary. Operational Directive (OD) 4.20: Indigenous Peoples 57 Documentation avoid it. See OD 4.30, Involuntary Resettlement, for addi- tional policy guidance on resettlement issues involving 20. The borrower's commitments for implement- indigenous people. 3. Regionally specific technical guidelines for pre- ing the indigenous peoples development plan paring indigenous peoples components, and case stud- should be reflected in the loan documents; legal ies of best practices, are available from the [World Bank] provisions should provide Bank staff with clear Regional environment divisions (REDs). benchmarks that can be monitored during super- 4. For guidance on indigenous peoples and environ- vision. The Staff Appraisal Report and the Memo- mental assessment procedures, see OD 4.01, Environ- randum and Recommendation of the President mental Assessment, and Chapter 7 of World Bank, Environmental Assessment Sourcebook, Technical Paper should summarize the plan or project provisions. No. 139 (Washington, D.C., 1991). 5. See also "Community Involvement and the Role Notes of Nongovernmental Organizations in Environmental Assessment" in World Bank, Environmental [Assessmentl 1. "Bank" includes IDA, and "loans" include credits. Sourcebook, Technical Paper No. 139 (Washington, D.C., 2. Displacement of indigenous people can be partic- 1991). ularly damaging, and special efforts should be made to 6. See OD 10.70, Project Monitoring and Evaluation. Appendix 5 Selected Bibliography Bannerman, R., and others. Traditional Medicine. Geneva: Iwu, Maurice, M. African Ethnomedicine. 2d ed. Nsukka, World Health Organization. 1983. Nigeria: UPS Press. 1986. Beauclerk, John, and Jeremy Narby with Janet Townsend. . Handbook of African Medicinal Plants. Boca Raton, Indigenous Peoples: A Fieldguide for Development. Fla.: CRC Press. 1993. Oxford: Oxfam. 1988. Jodha, N. S. Common Property Resources: A Missing Bhatnagar, Bhuvan, and Aubrey Williams, eds. Participa- Dimension of Development Strategies. World Bank tory Development and the World Bank. World Bank Discussion Paper no. 169. Washington, D.C.: World Discussion Paper no. 183. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 1992. Bank. 1992. Linden, Eugene. "Lost Tribes, Lost Knowledge." Time Bodeker, Gerald. "Traditional Health Knowledge and 138 (12) (September 23, 1991): 46-56. Public Policy." Nature and Resources 30(2)(1994): 5-16. Serageldin, Ismail, and June Taboroff, eds. Culture and Brascoupe, Simon. "Indigenous Perspectives on Interna- Development in Africa: Proceedings of an International tional Development." In Indigenous Economics: Toward Conference. Environmentally Sustainable Development a Natural World Order. Special Issue of American Proceedings Series no. 1. Washington, D.C.: World Indian Program. Akwe: Kon Journal 9(2). Ithaca: Bank. 1994. Cornell University. 1992. United Nations Development Programme. Conserving Burger, Julian. The Gaia Atlas of First Peoples: A Futurefor Indigenous Knowledge: Integrating Two Systems of Inno- the Indigenous World. New York: Anchor Books, 1990. vation. An Independent Study by the Rural Advance- Cernea, Michael M., ed. Putting People First: Sociological ment Foundation International. New York: Bureau for Variables in Development. 2d ed. New York and London: Policy and Programme Support, United Nations Oxford University Press. 1991. (Originally published Development Programme. 1994. in 1985.) Van de Fliert, Lydia, ed. Indigenous Peoples and Inter- Davis, Shelton H. Indigenous Peoples, Environmental national Organizations. Nottingham: Spokesman. 1994. Protection and Sustainable Development. Sustainable Verhelst, Thierry G. No Life without Roots: Culture and Development Occasional Paper Series. Geneva: Inter- Development. London: Zed Books, 1990. (Originally national Union for the Conservation of Nature and published in French by Editions Duculot, Paris, Natural Resources. 1988. 1987.) , ed. Indigenous Views of Land and the Environment. Warren, D. Michael. Using Indigenous Knowledge in World Bank Discussion Paper no. 188. Washington, Agricultural Development. World Bank Discussion D.C.: World Bank. 1993. Paper no. 127. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 1991. Goodland, Robert. Tribal Peoples and Economic Develop- Warren, D. Michael, David Brokensha, and L. Jan ment: Human Ecological Considerations. Washington, Slikkerveer, eds. Indigenous Knowledge Systems: The D.C.: World Bank. 1982. Cultural Dimension of Development. London: Kegan Henry, P. M., and Basile T. Kossou. La dimension culturelle Paul Intemational. 1991. du doeveloppement. Coll. "Nouvelles Editions Africaines." Warren, D. Michael, L. Jan Slikkerveer, and S. Oguntunji Paris: UNESCO. 1985. Titilola, eds. Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Implications International Institute for Environment and Development. for Agriculture and International Development. Studies in Beyond Farmer First: Rural People's Knowledge, Agri- Technology and Social Change no. 11. Ames, Iowa: cultural Research and Extension Practice. Research Series Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State of the Sustainable Agriculture Programme. Vol. 1. University. 1989. London: Intemational Institute for Environment and World Bank, World Development Report 1993: Investing in Development. 1993. Health. New York: Oxford University Press. 1993. 58 Distributors of World Bank Publications ARGENTINA The Middle East Observer KENYA SINGAPORE, TAIWAN, Carlos Hirsch. SRL 41, Sherif Street Africa Book Service (E.A) Ltd. MYANMAR,BRUNEI Galeria Guemes Cairo Quaran House, Mfangano Street Gower Asia Pacific Pte Ltd. Florida 165,4th Floor-Ofc. 453/465 P.O. 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