E4129 v3 THE GOVERNMENT OF KENYA MINISTRY OF WATER AND IRRIGATION WATER SECURITY AND CLIMATE RESILIENCE PROJECT (WSCRP) FINAL INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK (IPMF) (P117635) February 3rd 2013 Prepared by: Tito Kodiaga Senior Environmental Specialist Water Security and Climate Resilience Project (WSCRP) Project Preparation Team (PPT) Nairobi, Kenya. Cell: +254-722-579272 Email: tito@emconsultants.org URL: http://www.emconsultants.org Updated by Lydia Achieng’ Pest Management Specialist Water Security and Climate Resilience Project (WSCRP) Email: lydia.olambo@gmail.com Cell: +254-0722-718134 Page | 1 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. 2 ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................ 6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 8 2 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 16 2.1 Irrigation Agriculture under WSCRP................................................................................... 16 2.2 Purpose of the IPMF ............................................................................................................ 17 2.3 Rationale for the IPMF ........................................................................................................ 17 2.4 Approach for the preparation of IPMF................................................................................. 17 2.5 Project Description............................................................................................................... 18 2.5.1 Agriculture Sector in Kenya ........................................................................................ 18 2.5.2 Water Sector context/Kenya......................................................................................... 19 2.6 Sectoral and Institutional Context ........................................................................................ 20 2.6.1 Relationship to Country Partnership Strategy (CPS) .................................................. 21 2.6.2 Proposed Development Objectives (PDOs) ................................................................. 22 2.6.3 Objectives of the Project .............................................................................................. 23 2.7 WSCRP ................................................................................................................................ 23 2.7.1 WSCRP Project Components: ..................................................................................... 24 2.8 Project Institutional and Implementation Arrangements...................................................... 29 2.8.1 Implementation Arrangements ..................................................................................... 31 2.9 Alternative Considerations ................................................................................................... 33 2.9.1 No Project Scenario ..................................................................................................... 33 2.10 Requirements for Public Disclosure..................................................................................... 33 3 METHODOLOGY AND CONSULTATION .............................................................. 34 3.1 Detailed & In-depth Literature Review................................................................................ 34 3.2 Interactive Discussions ........................................................................................................ 34 3.3 Preparation of IPMF............................................................................................................. 34 4 Integrated pest management ....................................................................................... 35 4.1 History of IPM ..................................................................................................................... 35 4.2 IPMF in WSCRP Sub Project Investments .......................................................................... 36 5 POLICY AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK for implementing the ipmf ............ 39 5.1 The Legal, Regulatory and Policy Framework .................................................................... 39 5.1.1 Environment Management and Coordination Act (No. 8 of 1999), EMCA ................. 39 5.1.2 Chapter 324 – Plant Protection Act ............................................................................ 40 5.1.3 Chapter 326 – Seeds and Plants Variety Act ............................................................... 40 5.1.4 Chapter 347 on Irrigation............................................................................................ 40 5.1.5 Chapter 346: Pest Control Products Act ..................................................................... 41 5.2 Relevant Sector Policies and Reforms ................................................................................. 41 5.3 Autonomous and Semi-Autonomous Government Agencies (SAGAs) Related to Pest Management within the WSCRP ..................................................................................................... 41 5.3.1 Agricultural sector ministries ...................................................................................... 42 5.3.2 Agriculture Research, Finance and Marketing Institutions......................................... 42 5.3.3 Pest Management Institutions ...................................................................................... 42 5.4 International Pest Management Requirements ..................................................................... 43 5.4.1 Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) ................................................................. 43 5.4.2 World Bank Operational Policy on Pest Management, OP 4.09................................. 43 5.4.3 International plant Protection Convention of FAO (1952) ......................................... 43 6 KEY PESTS & WEEDS OF MAJOR IRRIGATION CROPS AND CONTROL MEASURES IN KENYA ......................................................................................................... 44 6.1 Food Crops ........................................................................................................................... 46 6.2 Irrigation and Drainage Sub-sector ...................................................................................... 49 6.3 Common Irrigated Crop Pests and Common Control Measures .......................................... 51 Page | 2 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 6.3.1 Agro-ecological zones ................................................................................................. 52 6.4 Common Weeds and Common Control Measures ............................................................... 55 6.4.1 Annual weeds ............................................................................................................... 55 6.4.2 Perennial weeds ........................................................................................................... 56 6.4.3 Control of annual weeds .............................................................................................. 56 6.4.4 Control of perennial weeds .......................................................................................... 57 6.5 Current pest management approaches and IPM experience in Kenya. ................................ 57 6.6 Pesticides usage in Agriculture Sector Kenya...................................................................... 59 Pests and diseases are responsible for 30-40% loss in agricultural produce in the tropics. The most conventional and common way of pest and disease control is through the use of pesticides. These pesticides are largely synthetic compounds which kill or deter the destructive activity of the target organism. Unfortunately, these compounds possess inherent toxicities that endanger the health of the farm operator, consumer and the environment. .......................................................................... 59 6.6.1 Pesticide imports and exports ...................................................................................... 59 6.6.2 Fertilizers..................................................................................................................... 60 6.7 General Pesticides Agriculture Application Methods in Kenya........................................... 61 6.8 Pesticide Transportation and Storage in Kenya ................................................................... 62 6.8.1 Storage of Pesticides.................................................................................................... 62 6.8.2 Conditions of Warehouses ........................................................................................... 62 6.8.3 Storage on the Farm .................................................................................................... 62 6.8.4 Transportation of Pesticides ........................................................................................ 63 6.8.5 Determination of Risks to Farmers and General Public ............................................. 64 7 METHODOLOGIES FOR IPM PLANNING, DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION OF investments TO BE FINANCED UNDER wscrp................................................................. 65 7.1 Kenya’s Agro Ecological Zones .......................................................................................... 65 7.2 Designing an IPMP .............................................................................................................. 67 7.2.1 Setting up an IPM Program ......................................................................................... 67 7.2.2 Proper identification of problems ................................................................................ 68 7.2.3 Sampling to determine the extent of the problem......................................................... 68 7.2.4 Analysis to assess problem importance ....................................................................... 69 7.2.5 Selection of appropriate management alternative ....................................................... 69 7.2.6 Consider Economic Factors ........................................................................................ 69 7.2.7 Evaluate IPM Program................................................................................................ 70 7.3 Implementation of IPMPs .................................................................................................... 70 7.3.1 Identify the implementation team................................................................................. 70 7.3.2 Monitoring IPM Success.............................................................................................. 70 7.3.3 Develop worker training plans and policies ................................................................ 71 8 pOTENTIAL economic, ENVIRONMENTal AND SOCIAL IMPACTS of pest managment activities ............................................................................................................ 72 8.1 Chemical Control Method .................................................................................................... 72 8.1.1 Impact on Environment................................................................................................ 74 8.1.1 Contamination of surface water courses and underground water............................... 75 8.1.2 Contamination of surface water .................................................................................. 76 8.1.3 Impact on Health and safety ........................................................................................ 76 8.1.4 Worker/Human Exposure Pathway ............................................................................. 77 8.1.5 Impacts on Non-Target Organisms.............................................................................. 78 8.1.6 Impacts to Birds, Fishes, and other organisms from pesticides: ................................. 80 8.2 Use of Biological method .................................................................................................... 81 8.2.1 Impact on Environment................................................................................................ 81 8.2.2 Impact on Health and safety ........................................................................................ 82 8.3 Use of Mechanical method................................................................................................... 82 8.3.1 Impact on Environment................................................................................................ 82 8.3.2 Impact on Health and safety ........................................................................................ 82 Page | 3 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 8.4 Use of Manual method ......................................................................................................... 82 8.4.1 Impact on Environment................................................................................................ 82 8.4.2 Impact on Health and safety ........................................................................................ 82 8.5 Use of Quarantine ................................................................................................................ 82 8.5.1 Impact on Environment................................................................................................ 83 8.5.2 Impact on Health and safety ........................................................................................ 83 8.6 Economic Impact on Production .......................................................................................... 83 8.7 Impacts on food security ...................................................................................................... 84 9 MITIGATION MEASURES AGAINST ADVERSE IMPACTS OF CROP PROTECTION MEASURES .................................................................................................. 85 9.1.1 Measures to Reduce Exposure Risks during Pesticide Transport ............................... 85 9.1.2 Mitigating Foetal Exposure ......................................................................................... 85 9.1.3 Mitigating Pesticide Applicator Exposure ................................................................... 85 9.1.4 Mitigating Pesticide Exposure through Treatment ...................................................... 87 9.1.5 Mitigation Measures against Warehouse/Storage Exposure ....................................... 88 9.1.6 Mitigating Exposure Impacts through Container Re-use ............................................ 89 9.1.7 Inventory of empty pesticide containers ...................................................................... 89 9.1.8 Disposal of Pesticide wastes and Containers .............................................................. 89 9.1.9 On Going Efforts in Disposing Pesticide Containers .................................................. 90 9.1.10 Obsolete Pesticides Dilemma ...................................................................................... 90 9.1.11 Public Awareness Campaigns ..................................................................................... 90 9.1.12 Institutional and Financial Capacity in Pesticide Destruction.................................... 91 9.1.13 Supervision .................................................................................................................. 92 9.2 Pre and Post-Harvest Pest Control ....................................................................................... 93 9.3 Institutional Structures for Implementing Mitigation Measures .......................................... 93 9.3.1 Executing Agency......................................................................................................... 93 9.3.2 WSCRP/PMU............................................................................................................... 94 9.3.3 Farmer Groups/Water Users Association ................................................................... 94 9.3.4 Agrochemical Association of Kenya/Distributors/Agro-Vet Proprietors .................... 94 9.3.5 Ministry of Agriculture ................................................................................................ 94 9.3.6 Pest Control and Products Board ................................................................................ 94 9.3.7 National Environment Management Authority ............................................................ 94 10 INTEGRATED PESTICIDE Mitigation & Monitoring Plan ........................................ 95 10.1.1 Protective clothing not used by farmers ...................................................................... 95 10.1.2 Pesticide usage should be in the context of IPM programs ......................................... 95 10.1.3 Pesticide disposal of containers and obsolete product needs to be strengthened ....... 96 10.1.4 Rotate pesticide chemical groups to minimize pesticide resistance............................. 96 10.1.5 Protecting biological reserves from pesticide incursion ............................................. 97 10.2 MONITORING AND EVALUATION FOR THE VARIOUS PEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF THE PEST MANAGEMENT PLANS (PMPs) ................................................... 97 10.2.1 Proposed Pests Monitoring and Evaluation Regime ................................................... 98 10.2.2 Participatory Impact Monitoring (PIM) ...................................................................... 99 10.2.3 Integrated Pest Management Monitoring Framework .............................................. 100 11 PROJECT REVIEW, COORDINATION & IMPLEMENTATION ARRANGEMENTS 107 11.1 Sub Project Investment Review ................................................................................. 107 11.1.1 Screening and sub project investment preparation............................................ 107 11.1.2 Who undertakes screening? ................................................................................... 107 11.1.3 Preparation of IPMP.............................................................................................. 107 12 CAPACITY BUILDING, TRAINING AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE –wscrp . 108 12.1 Institutional Capacity for IPMF Implementation ............................................................... 108 12.1.1 Pesticide Distributors ................................................................................................ 108 12.1.2 The programme beneficiary farmers: ........................................................................ 108 Page | 4 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 12.1.3 Agricultural sector ministry ....................................................................................... 108 12.1.4 Agrochemical Association of Kenya .......................................................................... 109 12.1.5 Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation .................................................................. 109 12.1.6 Distributors/Agro Vets Proprietors ........................................................................... 109 12.1.7 National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA): ....................................... 109 12.2 Technical Capacity Enhancement ...................................................................................... 110 12.3 IPMF Implementation Budget............................................................................................ 113 13 REFERENCE................................................................................................................. 115 13.1 Annex 1: Questionnaire on Pest Management ................................................................... 116 13.2 Annex 2: POPs pesticides in Kenya ................................................................................... 122 13.3 Annex 3: Common Pests in Kenya and Control Masures Questionnaire on Pest Management ................................................................................................................................... 123 Page | 5 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS AAK Agro Chemical Association of Kenya ADC Agricultural Development Corporation AFC Agricultural Finance Corporation APR Adaptable Program Loan APR Agricultural Policy Review ASALs Arid and Semi-Arid Lands ASDC Agricultural Sector Development Strategy BMP Best Management Practices CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program CAGR Compound Average Growth Rate CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBK Coffee Board of Kenya CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre CIP International Potato Centre CLSM Cotton Lint and Seed Marketing Board, CMMV Cowpea Mild Mottle Virus CPM Commission on Phytosanitary Measures CPS Country Partnership Strategy DLCO Desert Locust Control Organization ED Economic Damage EIA Environmental impact assessments EIL Economic Injury Level EMCA Environment Management and Coordination Act ET Economic Threshold FAO Food Agricultural Organization FIFO First In/First Out GAP Good Agricultural Practices GDP Gross Domestic Product GoK Government of Kenya HCDA Horticultural Crops Development Authority HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus ICIPE International Centre for Insect Physiology and Entomology ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics IDA International Development Association IDA International Development Association IEC Information Education and Communication IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture ILRI International Livestock Research Institute IMOC Inter-Ministerial Oversight Committee IPM Integrated Pest Management IPMPs Integrated Pest Management Plans IPMPs Integrated Pest Management Plans IPPC International plant Protection Convention of FAO IRF Incident Report Forms ISPM Standards for Phytosanitary Measures KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KEPHIS Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service KFS Kenya Forest Service Page | 6 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF KFS Kenya Forest Services KNAP Kenya’s National Adaptation Plan KPIA Kenya Poverty and Inequality Assessment KPIA Kenya Poverty and Inequality Assessment KSB Kenya Sisal Board KSB Kenya Sugar Board KSC Kenya Seed Company LIRSSU Legal and Institutional Reforms Support Sub-Unit MOA Ministry of Agriculture MOF Ministry of Finance MOPH Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation MORDA Ministry of Regional Development Authorities MTP Medium-Term Plans, MTPs Medium-Term Plans MWI Ministry of Water and Irrigation NCPB National Cereals and Produce Board NEMA National Environment Management Authority NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations NIB National Irrigation Board NRM Natural Resources Management NTZTDC Nyayo Tea Zones Development Corporation OP Operational Policy PBK Pyrethrum Board of Kenya PCPB Pest Control Products Board PCPB Pesticides Control Product Board PCU Project Coordination Unit PCU Project Coordination Unit PDO Proposed Development Objectives PIC Public Information Center PIM Participatory Impact Monitoring PMF Integrated Pest Management Framework PMP Pest Management Policy PMPS Pest Management Plans PPA Project Preparation Advance PPB Pharmacy and Poisons Board PPE Personal Protective Equipment PPE Personal Protective Equipment PRS Poverty Reduction Strategies RDA Regional Development Authorities, SAGA Semi-Autonomous Government Agencies SRA Strategy for Revitalizing Agriculture SRA Strategy for Revitalizing Agriculture TBK Tea Board of Kenya WHO World Health Organization WSB Water Services Board WSCRP Water Security and Climate Resilience Project Page | 7 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Government of Kenya (GoK) has requested the World Bank’s support to prioritize, prepare, and finance water resources development opportunities in the country. The proposed Water Security and Climate Resilience Project (WSCRP) – which was agreed between the World Bank and GoK in the Country Partnership Strategy (CPS) 2010-2013 responds to this request. Kenya has limited freshwater endowments and is projected to face rapid increases in water demand, driven by growth and urbanization. The country faces the additional challenge of high inter-annual and intra-annual rainfall variability that results in frequent and severe droughts and floods and could be exacerbated under a changing climate. Kenya has yet to adequately manage its ‘difficult’ hydrology, as evidenced in decades - long underinvestment in water storage that has not kept pace with growing needs or reigned in water’s most destructive forces. GoK is planning a large scale water investment program to address these challenges, as well as new reforms to align the sector to the 2010 Constitution of Kenya. Brief Project Description Transforming Kenya’s water sector to achieve water security and climate resilience for economic growth and development requires a dedicated, long-term commitment, but also a practical approach that addresses the needs in a realistic manner and at several stages where critical limitations have been identified. Further, the enormous challenges related to reversing the massive water sector investment gap and transitioning through a potentially complex reform process require a comprehensive, multi-pronged approach that addresses key infrastructure, institutional and information/analytical limitations in order to support Kenya’s growth and development agenda. The design of the project reflects these needs by financing critical investments and supporting the progressive enhancement of the water investment program, while at the same time building an enabling legal and institutional foundation for the water sector. The objective of the proposed project will be to support the institutionalization of processes and water-related investments to strengthen climate-resilient water resources development and management in Kenya. The Project is expected to have three components: (i) Investments in water resources development; (ii) water sector reforms planning and management; and (iii) Support to Project Implementation. Eligible investment projects must fall in at least in at least one of the below categories: o Infrastructure for bulk water supply – single or multipurpose; surface water or groundwater development; o Water services/productive uses – irrigation, water supply, or hydropower; o Infrastructure for flood management or drought mitigation including upstream activities to ensure the sustainability of investments (e.g., catchment management for selected sites, community outreach, etc.) Page | 8 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF An Investment Framework will be developed and will be based upon current state of the art engineering, economic, financial, social, environmental and institutional standards, most of which the World Bank applies in its operations. Investments would be considered within a catchment based approach and may be accompanied by site-specific measures to increase resilience to natural hazards and allow for adequate disaster preparedness. The Project will be a “framework operation’’ that will establish eligibility criteria and preparation guidelines that must be met in order for sub-projects/investments to be funded under the project. The framework is intended to set the ‘rules of the game’ by establishing a rigorous evidence-based investment selection and preparation process, including specifying the technical, economic, financial, environmental, social, institutional, etc. requirements for sub-project funding. The Project is expected to be on the order of about US$ 700 million and will be implemented in two to three phases over a period of approximately eight to ten years. The first phase of the Project is expected to be in the order of US$350 million, over a period of approximately five years. Investment in Water Resources Development (Component 1) This component will support climate resilience and water security for economic growth and development by financing water resources development investments/sub-projects that are prepared in line with an Investment Framework. The Investment Framework establishes the ‘rules of the game’ by making transparent the decision-making process on sub-project selection and ensuring that selected sub-projects are well-prepared, amongst the most effective for realizing the objectives, and implemented in a sustainable manner. The requirements of the Investment Framework must be met in order for a proposed sub- project investment to receive project financing. The advantage of the framework approach is that it provides GoK and the World Bank the opportunity to invest early in priority schemes provided that they are well-prepared, while establishing guidelines and principles for selecting and preparing subsequent investments. Component 1 (water resources development) which is described above will entail investments geared towards water services/productive uses including water supply for irrigation agriculture and hence triggers the OP 4.09 due to the potential use of pesticides as part of the irrigation developments in crop protection. Objective of IPMF In bank financed projects, whenever the use of pesticides is envisaged then a critical requirement that of developing Integrated Pest Management Plans (IPMPs) for each investment is mandatory. In Bank-financed agriculture operations, pest populations are normally controlled through IPM approaches, such as biological control, cultural practices, and the development and use of crop varieties that are resistant or tolerant to the pest. The Bank may finance the purchase of pesticides when their use is justified under an IPM approach. Page | 9 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Justification for the IPMF An Integrated Pest Management Framework (IPMF) is the principal tool and instrument to ensure initial project safeguards as regards pesticide use at this stage principally because the exact locations, scope, designs and nature of the proposed investments remains unknown. This IPMF is aimed at ensuring that implementing institutions in this project use it in order to ensure that the WB’s pest management safeguard policies as outlined in Operational Policy (OP) 4.09 are adequately complied with. The purpose of this document is to provide a strategic framework for the integration of pest management considerations in the planning and implementation of the activities to be implemented within the Water Security and Climate Resilience Project (WSCRP) specifically on investments that will involve use of water for agricultural production like irrigation agriculture for instance. Use of pesticides in agriculture can constitute increased risks to human health and environment for reasons including the following: 1. Absence of effective pesticide regulation and enforcement; 2. Scarcity of, and or lack of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE); 3. Failure to implement good plant health, soil health, and water management practices; 4. Little or no understanding of IPM theory or principles; 5. Inability to read or comprehend pesticide labels and safety warnings due to illiteracy; 6. Inability to properly identify pests, their population levels, and economic thresholds; 7. Inadequate knowledge about pesticides and their dangers; 8. Porous national borders likely to encourage illegal entry and trade in pesticides These are among the reasons that World Bank requires preparation of and compliance with an IPMF containing restrictions on the pesticides procured or facilitated recommendations for Integrated Pest Management, and specific recommendations for safety training and use of safety equipment. The primary goals are to reduce risk and to change attitudes and behaviours toward a more comprehensive approach to Good Agricultural Practices (GAP). Kenya has a developed legislative framework necessary for safe importation, storage, distribution, use and disposal of pesticides for agricultural purposes, and has a government compiled a list of approved pesticides as well as a list of reputable and registered pesticide manufacturers. The purpose of the IPMF is:  Establish clear procedures and methodologies for IPM planning, design and implementation of investment to be financed under WSCRP Page | 10 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF  Develop monitoring and evaluation systems for the various pest management practices of the pest management plans (PMPs)  To assess the potential economic, environmental and social impacts of the pest management activities within the proposed investment  To mitigate against negative impacts of crop protection measures  To identify capacity needs and technical assistance for successful implementation of the IPMF  To identify IPM research areas in WSCRP  To propose a budget required to implement the IPMF This IPMF was developed through a combination of literature review of relevant documents including previous IPMFs developed for similar bank projects in Kenya, as well as consultation and engagement of stakeholders specifically Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI). This IPMF as is the requirement with all WB safeguard documents will be locally disclosed and also forwarded to the Bank for disclosure at its Public Information Center (PIC) of the country and at the Bank’s Infoshop. Policy, Legal and Institutional Issues The following legal instruments were reviewed in view of the fact that they provide guidance and regulations when implementing programs or projects that are likely to use pesticides.  Environmental Management and Coordination Act (1999)  Water Act  Public Health Act  Agriculture Act  Pharmacy and Poisons Board Act  Wildlife Act  Occupation Health and Safety Act  Pesticide Control and Product Act  Plant Protection Act  Seed and Varieties Act  Suppression of Noxious Weeds Act  Constitution of Kenya Environmental and Social-Economic Impacts of Pesticides Potential Adverse Impacts The potential adverse effects of pesticide use within the agricultural related investments under the WSCRP will include among others; -  Pollution and contamination of surface and underground water bodies  Pollution and contamination of soil  Impact on aquatic life due to pollution of water resources  Impact on terrestrial fauna due to contamination  Human and animal health related hazards due to indiscriminate exposure to pesticides Page | 11 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF No pesticides other than those registered by the Pesticides Control Product Board (PCPB), of Kenya, Pharmacy and Poisons Board (PPB) may be used by the WSCRP. All the pesticides banned or under restriction will not be used in the WSCRP. Wherever possible, non-chemical means of pest control will be exercised, in keeping with the policy of the bank to promote Integrated Pest Management (IPM). IPM can in some cases facilitate seed crop pest protection without the application of chemical based pesticides. Some IPM tactics that could be considered by WSCRP sub projects that reduce pest risk are relatively simple agriculture best management practices (BMPs), such as:  Selection of pest-resistant seed varieties,  Pest avoidance through early/late planting,  Biological control methods including Neem oil, vegetable oil,  Natural physical methods, such as application of sand or ash  Use of bio-pesticides for seed treatment  Early harvesting  Mechanical/Manual control of pests  Crop rotation Recommendations The WSCRP executing agencies who will implement water related sub projects with agricultural related components like irrigation should work closely with the Ministry of Agriculture and other relevant national agencies including KARI, PCPB to access and promote relevant country level authorization, support, or consent it may need to implement the program. Key components include: a) Ensure compliance with national and international regulations and guidelines on pesticide procurement and importation. In the event that national regulations are less stringent than WB regulations, then WB regulations will take precedence. b) Establish quality assurance for commodity procurement (seeds, application equipment, and PPE) to minimize risks to human health and the environment. This will include ensuring legitimate procurement sources and verifiable chain of custody for commodities, as well as inspection of packaging and labelling upon receipt. c) Provide adequate storage facilities compliant with FAO standards to minimize pilferage and contamination and ensure that the storage facilities are not poorly sited. Ensure strict controls and inventory of all pesticide stock purchased, with records kept of all related transactions (purchase, distribution, issue, use, return, and disposal). d) Train relevant categories of workers involved in the WSCRP agriculture related operations from the executing agencies (e.g. program managers/coordinators, storekeepers, pesticide transporters, and supervisors) on best practices in accordance with recommendations and regulations from the WB and World Health Organisation (WHO) as well as the conditions imposed by this IPMF. Criteria will be established Page | 12 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF for corrective action if recommended practices are not used in the field, including relieving from duty workers who intentionally or repeatedly violate regulations and/or fail to follow recommendations. e) Treated seeds contain chemicals and are likely to poison animals or even human beings in the event that they consume them. Some parts of Kenya especially the ASALs are plagued with food shortages, and seed consumption is common place. For this reason seeds must be labelled and treated as pesticides according to specific guidelines, with safeguards against consumption by birds and other non-target animals. Wherever possible, seed should be stained after treatment to serve as a warning that it is not for consumption. f) Undertake Information Education and Communication (IEC) activities for targeted communities to reduce adverse exposure related incidents. g) Enforce protection of pregnant and breast feeding women against exposure. Pregnant women and breast-feeding mothers will be excluded from any handling of pesticides (e.g. seed planting, PPE washing, store room operations). h) Ensure use of appropriate personal protective equipment and best practices, including effective supervision of operations, for adequate protection of operators and other handlers of pesticides. i) Establish strict practices to reduce environmental contamination. This will include comprehensive auditing of pesticide stocks and usage, appropriate planting techniques, and enforcing best practices related to the washing of clothing and equipment, such as progressive use of contaminated/wash water, and ultimate disposal of waste and leftover pesticides. j) Train health workers in the pesticide-specific treatment of poisoning, and provide the required medical supplies. This will include designation of district hospitals within the target areas for appropriate treatment of insecticide poisoning, guidelines on recognition of symptoms and required response, and pesticide-specific treatment of known or suspected exposures. k) Perform effective compliance inspections of agricultural related investments that use pesticides within the WSCRP in the field. Reporting and Performance Review Requirements The MWI through the WSCRP/Project Management Unit (PMU) that will be set up will prepare project specific quarterly progress reports on pesticide use for all sub projects for submission to the Bank. The executing agencies and other related ministries e.g. Ministry of Regional Development Authorities (MORDA), National Irrigation Board (NIB) among others will prepare project (through consultants) specific Integrated Pesticide Management Plans (IPMPs) for identified investments during the feasibility study phase of the project following detailed screening. Page | 13 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Environmental and Social Safeguards Technical Assistance to the WSCRP executing agencies in regard to pesticide use and application will be provided by the WSCRP/PMU’s Social and Environmental specialists who will screen all sub projects to determine if they trigger the need for IPMPs and prepare ToRs when such determinations are made. These reports will be submitted to the PMU/WSCRP and the World Bank’s implementation support mission. Capacity Building and Training World Bank recognizes that safety training is an essential component in programs involving the use of pesticides. The need for thorough training is particularly acute in developing countries and Kenya is no exception. In this regard, training of pesticide users and applicators will be a vital component of capacity building in this program. The program will, using the resources available from the WSCRP prepare a comprehensive training manual on pesticide use and management, targeting different actors within the program, ranging from extension service providers, actual farmers, loaders, mixers, transporters, government staff among others. The water related sub project investments with agriculture related components under WSCRP should also run extensive training programs for farmers, farmer leaders, extension workers, and stockists. These training programs should if possible be further amplified by training that is being undertaken by other institutions such as MOA, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Agrochemical Association of Kenya (AAK), various Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), pesticide wholesalers, etc. For farmers, farmer leaders, and district extension workers, the training should be crop based with farmers being organized into groups led by a farmer leader. The method for training farmers and farmer leaders is the on-farm demonstration where farmer groups are led, step by step in growing the crop during the season from planting to harvest and increasingly into post-harvest activities and even marketing. The WSCRP should adopt a strategy where extension services stress usage of a few basic pieces of protective clothing and then working into more complete coverage after the first few have been adopted. Communities could be encouraged to form professional spray teams that would be certified and hired to apply pesticides after training. These could be more efficiently trained to wear protective equipment. The estimated cost of capacity building and other support to implement the IPMF is given as $1,815,000 and the breakdown is summarized as follows: 1. Training workshops/ seminars 2. Public awareness creation/ communication plans 3. Monitoring and evaluation exercises 4. Coordination Page | 14 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Project Implementation Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) is the principal implementing institution for this project and a senior official in the Ministry will be the overall Project Coordinator. MWI will also be responsible for day-to-day implementation (project management, financial management, procurement, disbursement, monitoring, including pesticide management aspects of the project etc.) for all agriculture related sub project components that are likely to utilise pesticides. Due to the planned restructuring of key ministries, the Project will be managed by a Project Management Unit (PMU) initially housed in the Ministry of Water and Irrigation and then, if necessary, transferred to the successor Ministry responsible for water resources management and development. Specific arrangements for administering project activities by the PMU at other levels will be established during project design. The PMU will be a transitional entity. One of its important roles would be to develop within MWI and successor implementing agencies – which would typically implement most of the WSCRP investments – the required capacities for procurement, financial management, monitoring and evaluation, safeguards implementation, and sub-project and activity execution. In the interim, the PMU will undertake these roles on behalf of those agencies through the services of consulting firms (Component 1), or by procuring an appropriate implementation support consultancy that is embedded within each respective implementing agency (Component 2). At mid-term, the project will assess the extent to which these activities are adequately implemented and make needed adjustments. The executing agencies of this project will report periodically to the WSCRP/PMU/MWI on all issues and aspects related to this project including pesticide related safeguards. Cost implication of this IPMF An estimated USD 1,815 Million is considered the amount that will be necessary for implementing the activities in this IPMF. Page | 15 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 2 INTRODUCTION Kenya has limited freshwater endowments and is projected to face rapid increases in water demand, driven by growth and urbanization. The country faces the additional challenge of high inter-annual and intra-annual rainfall variability that results in frequent and severe droughts and floods and could be exacerbated under a changing climate. Kenya has yet to adequately manage its ‘difficult’ hydrology, as evidenced in decades- long underinvestment in water storage that has not kept pace with growing needs or reigned in water’s most destructive forces. Government of Kenya (GoK) is planning a large scale water investment program to address these challenges, as well as new reforms to align the sector to the 2010 Constitution of Kenya. GoK has requested the World Bank’s support to prioritize, prepare, and finance these water resources development opportunities. The proposed Water Security and Climate Resilience Project – which was agreed between the World Bank and GoK in the Country Partnership Strategy (2010-2013) responds to this request. The objective of the proposed Project will be to support the institutionalization of processes and water-related investments to strengthen climate-resilient water resources development and management in Kenya. The Project is expected to have three components: (i) water resources development; (ii) water resources planning and management; and (iii) support to water sector institutional reforms associated with the new Constitution. The proposed Project is currently expected to be in the order of about US$ 700 million and will be implemented in two to three phases over a period of approximately eight years. The budget envelope reflects the vast water investment needs in Kenya, which the project aims to support, and the precise amount will be agreed during project preparation. The longer-term and phased approach demonstrates the Bank’s commitment to the sector, while providing the necessary flexibility for activity/investment identification and implementation, given the evolving institutional and reform process over the coming years in Kenya. 2.1 Irrigation Agriculture under WSCRP Some of the Water Resources Development Component (1) activities may include multi- purpose dams with irrigation investments component for agriculture and will utilise pesticides and thus trigger the Pest Management Policy (OP 4.09). The appropriate instrument at this point in time for the WSCRP is an IPMF because the specific project investments are still evolving. The WSCRP irrigation related investments envisions the use of pesticides for control of a diverse array of pests normally associated with damage to seeds that will be procured and the crops that will be grown. Tables 1-24 in annex 3 outlines the crops that may be targeted under the WSCRP agriculture related investments and the ensuing damage caused by the pests as well as the common chemical and non-chemical control measures likely to be used by the program for control. Crops that are likely to be grown include Page | 16 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF maize, beans, cabbages, rice, potatoes, kales, pulses, tomatoes, sorghum, millet, cassava, peas, sunflower, groundnuts, greengram, onions,capsicums,pineapples, soyabeans, bananas, avacadoes, seedmaize, pawpaw, passion fruits among others. 2.2 Purpose of the IPMF The WB OP 4.09 indicate that when a project includes assistance via use of pesticides then an IPMF and Integrated Pest Management Plans (IPMPs) should be prepared and used in evaluating the economic, social and environmental risks and benefits of the planned pesticides to be used to determine whether the use may result in significant environmental and social impacts. Crops are generally infested, attacked and damaged by pests and weeds to varying degrees, often causing economic loss. The damage from pests and weeds is potentially serious to all crops that will be grown under irrigation. Arthropods and other plant diseases and nematodes can be particularly injurious to among other crops maize, rice, cassava, grain legumes, banana, irish potato, and sweet potato. If uncontrolled, or not controlled effectively, economic crop loss can occur, posing serious obstacles to the achievement of the objectives of the WSCRP. It is expected that pesticide usage would be imbedded within Integrated Pest Management (IPMPs) which stress alternative practices to pesticides as well as safety and decision guidelines for their effective usage. This IPMF is expected to provide guidelines for safer pesticide use to reduce damage, in both field and storage, caused by weeds, arthropod and vertebrate pests, diseases, nematodes, and snails. The term ‘pest’ in this document is generic, referring not just to insects. Likewise, ‘pesticides’ is a generic term. 2.3 Rationale for the IPMF Specific sub project investments that may include use of pesticides have not been clearly identified at this stage; hence an IPMF which provides a general impact identification framework to assist WSCRP executing agencies to institute measures to address adverse pesticide use related environmental and social impacts. The specific information on country-wide sub project locations, project types and whether pesticides will be used, bio- physical features etc. when known at a later stage will trigger the preparation of IPMPs for each sub project investment. 2.4 Approach for the preparation of IPMF This IPMF has been prepared in accordance with applicable World Bank safeguard policies related to pest management, and which involved the following activities, among others:  Literature/ Data Gathering and Review;  Public consultations and discussions with relevant sector institutions;  Data collation and analysis, consisting of literature reviews; Determination of potential impacts; Identification of impact mitigation measures; Preparation of a Pesticide Management Plan; and Preparation of sub-project guidelines.  Review of comments from stakeholders; and Page | 17 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 2.5 Project Description 2.5.1 Agriculture Sector in Kenya Despite steady growth in the immediate post-independence period, Kenya’s economy has performed considerably below its potential in recent years. For the past two decades productivity has declined, competitiveness eroded and international financial support diminished. Poverty and food insecurity have increased. Average GDP growth declined from about 7% in the 1970s to 3.5% in 1980s to about 2% during 1990s. Underlying factors include persistent and pervasive governance problems, poorly implemented reforms, and low, ill targeted investments in social services, infrastructure and economic services including agricultural sector. In addition, external factors such as declining global agricultural commodity prices and vulnerability to climatic shocks explains partly, the decline. Domestic policy shortcomings created distortions in input and output markets. Inadequacies in the legal and regulatory framework raised costs of business. Poor infrastructure, increased costs of marketing, high incidence of HIV/AIDS contributed to reduced labour productivity. Dysfunctional public support services slowed the renewal of agricultural technology. The end result has been increased rural poverty and food insecurity, decline in competitiveness, and virtual cessation of both private and public investment in the agricultural sector. The agriculture sector is the main contributor to the Kenyan economy, with a share of 24% of GDP. Besides the GDP, the sector is a major contributor to poverty alleviation and employment creation in the rural Kenya and also provides major raw materials for the agro-industries. Agriculture remains the mainstay of the Kenyan economy and contributes directly 24 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). Sector performance greatly affects the poor, as 67 percent of the population and 80 percent of the poor live in rural areas and depend on agricultural activities for their livelihoods. Agriculture grew at an average annual rate of 3.5 percent in the 1980s, but declined to 1.3 percent in the 1990s. Recent Government efforts focused on reversing poor sector performance have started to bear fruit, with the compound average growth rate (CAGR) in the agricultural sector increasing annually by 5.0 percent between 2001 and 2007, with even a higher export growth of 8 percent. Overall agricultural productivity has also increased in the last five years. Setting aside the unusual circumstances (post-election crisis) of the first quarter of 2008, indications are that the recent dynamism will be maintained into the short and medium-term future. Unpredictable weather patterns, exacerbated by global climate change and the effects of high volatility of fuel and input prices as well as the current global financial crisis, may complicate growth as they affect agricultural productivity. In May 2008, the Government launched “Vision 2030,� whose aim is to transform Kenya into “a newly-industrialized, middle income country, providing a high quality of life to all its citizens in a clean and secure environment�. The Vision will be implemented through five-year rolling Medium-Term Plans (MTPs), starting with one which will cover Page | 18 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF the period 2008-2012. The agricultural sector is identified as one of the key sectors of the economic pillar in the Vision 2030 and the first MTP, with an annual growth projection of 5 to 7 percent. The sector priorities were articulated in the “Strategy for Revitalizing Agriculture (SRA) 2004–2014�, which aims to “provide a policy and institutional environment conducive to increasing agricultural productivity, promoting investments, and encouraging private sector involvement in agricultural enterprises�. In light of progress achieved and the recent global developments, and in response to the goals of the Kenya Vision 2030, the SRA has been updated into the Agricultural Sector Development Strategy (ASDS). According to the findings of an Agricultural Policy Review (APR) conducted by the Bank, agriculture remains a vital development tool in Kenya. This finding confirms the 2008 World Development Report’s main message. The APR also re-affirms the fact that agriculture-led growth in Kenya is more than twice as effective in reducing poverty as compared to industry-led growth. In addition, the just concluded Kenya Poverty and Inequality Assessment (KPIA) indicate that inequality is a critical issue in the country, especially in rural areas. The APR points out that the key to better performance in agriculture is rapid increases in small-holder productivity. This requires not only increases in physical production volumes and values (through technology - the supply side), but also better linkages of farmers to diversifying consumer markets (the demand side). These reviews identified areas that need to be addressed, including land policy and land use, diversification into higher-return activities and value addition, the need for focusing on the policy and regulatory environment, and the need to support farmer organizations. The global food crisis has brought into sharp focus the centrality of enhancing agricultural productivity as a key developmental challenge. The Water Security and Climate Resilience Project (WSCRP) will contribute to the revitalization of the agricultural sector through: (i) provision of water for irrigation agriculture in various parts of the country which will lead to increase agricultural productions especially through irrigation agriculture. This in effect may indirectly lead to facilitating empowerment of farmers to access and apply profitable and sustainable technologies; (ii) laying the groundwork for a pluralistic agricultural extension and learning systems; (iii) integrating and rationalizing the national agricultural research systems; and (iv) supporting analytical work to inform policy and institutional reforms. 2.5.2 Water Sector context/Kenya Kenya has limited freshwater endowments and is projected to face rapid increases in water demand, driven by growth and urbanization. The country faces the additional challenge of high inter-annual and intra-annual rainfall variability that results in frequent and severe droughts and floods and could be exacerbated under a changing climate. Kenya has yet to adequately manage its ‘difficult’ hydrology, as evidenced in decades - long underinvestment in water storage that has not kept pace with growing needs or reigned in water’s most destructive forces. GoK is planning a large scale water investment program to address these challenges, as well as new reforms to align the sector to the 2010 Constitution of Kenya. GoK has requested the World Bank’s support to prioritize, prepare, and finance these water resources development opportunities. The proposed Kenya Water Security and Climate Resilience Project – which was agreed Page | 19 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF between the World Bank and GoK in the Country Partnership Strategy (2010-2013) responds to this request. The proposed Project is currently expected to be in the order of about US$ 700 million and will be implemented in two to three phases over a period of approximately eight years. The budget envelope reflects the vast water investment needs in Kenya, which the project aims to support, and the precise amount will be agreed during project preparation. The longer-term and phased approach demonstrates the Bank’s commitment to the sector, while providing the necessary flexibility for activity/investment identification and implementation, given the evolving institutional and reform process over the coming years in Kenya. The Project will be a “framework operation’’ that will establish eligibility criteria and preparation guidelines that must be met in order for sub-projects/investments to be funded under the project. The framework is intended to set the ‘rules of the game’ by establishing a rigorous evidence-based investment selection and preparation process, including specifying the technical, economic, financial, environmental, social, institutional, etc. requirements for sub-project funding. 2.6 Sectoral and Institutional Context Kenya’s low freshwater endowment of 526 m3 per capita per year puts it in the bottom eight percent of countries globally. The country is characterized by significant geographical disparities in water availability and use. Over 80 percent of Kenya’s area is arid or semi-arid where a reliable supply of water is the limiting factor for economic development. Rapid increases in water demand are driven by population growth, economic growth, and urbanization. The increasing water stress also results in growing competition and conflicts over available water, as outlined in the Government of Kenya’s (GOK) economic development and poverty reduction plan, Vision 2030. Lack of water security causes economic losses and constrains growth potential. Water is a prerequisite for economic production and human development. Securing a reliable supply of water for key economic areas will be critical to achieving Kenya’s development plans under Vision 2030. In 2004, the World Bank estimated that losses from climate variability average about 2.4 percent of GDP per year with a further 0.5 percent loss from water resources degradation, seriously impacting the country’s competitiveness. Water security is therefore critical for Kenya’s two economic engines, Nairobi and Mombasa, and for the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs) and western provinces; all of which experience significant water stress. A number of opportunities exist in ASALs and western provinces to increase the productive use of water through multipurpose water resource development. The productivity and resilience of the agricultural sector could be increased through a reliable supply of water; significant opportunities exist to increase both large-scale and small-scale irrigation. Kenya’s limited water storage capacity leaves the country vulnerable to climate and hydrologic variability. Current water storage in Kenya is estimated at 103 m3 per capita, of which 100 m3 per capita is single-purpose storage for hydropower production only. Page | 20 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF This means that only 3 m3 per capita of storage is available for water supply and other uses such as irrigated agriculture and livestock. Kenya also experiences significant hydrologic variability throughout and between years. Without sufficient water storage to lessen the effects of variability, frequent and severe floods and droughts have devastating economic and livelihood consequences. As noted in the World Bank Country Partnership Strategy (2010-2013), under investment in water storage leaves Kenya’s economy highly dependent on favorable rainfall – which it cannot control – for agricultural production, electricity, and water supply. Increased water storage will increase the reliability of water supply and enable Kenya to harness its water resources in support of its economic growth agenda. Inadequate water resources infrastructure development leads to low water supply reliability and limited access to water. Inadequate storage capacity to even out natural hydrologic variability, characteristic of Kenya, results in low water supply reliability. In other areas where sufficient water is available, it can often not be accessed due to low levels of water treatment and water distribution system infrastructure development. Water resources development through storage creation can help to increase water supply reliability, while improved water services infrastructure can help increase access. Sustainable groundwater development is also important, especially in the Ewaso Ng’iro Basin where surface water resources are very limited. Catchment degradation compounds these challenges by increasing the intensity of flooding and reducing water storage capacity through reservoir sedimentation. Kenya’s “water towers,� which generate most of the country’s runoff, are degraded due to poor land use practices, deforestation, encroachment on recharge areas, and pollution. Catchment degradation increases Kenya’s vulnerability to hydrologic variability. Investments in storage must be accompanied by improvements in water service delivery and catchment protection. 2.6.1 Relationship to Country Partnership Strategy (CPS) The proposed WSCRP is closely related to the goals outlined in the 2010-2013 CPS for Kenya (March 2010-2012). The World Bank Country Partnership Strategy (2010-2013), underinvestment in water storage leaves Kenya’s economy highly dependent on favorable rainfall – which it cannot control – for agricultural production, electricity, and water supply. One of the key structural issues identified in the CPS is that “increased water storage will increase the reliability of water supply and enable Kenya to harness its water resources in support of its economic growth agenda�. The CPS specifically cites the identification of a pipeline of PPPs as important steps in this effort. The CPS also mentions potential PPPs in the transport, electricity, water supply and irrigation sectors as key steps toward the goal of “unleashing Kenya’s growth potential,� one of the three main objectives of the CPS. The proposed project is directly aligned with Kenya’s commitment to the adaptation to climate change agenda, including b y supporting the mainstreaming of Kenya’s National Adaptation Plan (under preparation) by water sector institutions. By financing water Page | 21 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF investments that not only build resilience to climate variability and change, but also enhance agricultural productivity and food security, the project supports Kenya’s development aspirations as enshrined in Vision 2030 and the continent’s Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP). The project is also aligned with the World Bank’s Africa Regional Strategy, and particularly Pillar Two – Vulnerability and Resilience. Reducing vulnerability and building resilience in the water sector is the central purpose of the proposed project. To this end, the project will support establishing the minimal water infrastructural platform (including water storage) required to buffer against the most severe hydrologic shocks including floods and droughts and to lift Kenya out of a history of food insecurity, low productivity and constrained growth. Beyond infrastructure investments, the project will support the enabling institutional and information base to ensure that water investments are sustainably planned, developed and maintained for long term prosperity. The project will build on other on-going activities in Kenya’s water program. Its design has been informed by and it will complement the World Bank Water and Sanitation Service Improvement Project’s (WaSSIP’s) detailed water master plan studies for Nairobi and the Coast. In particular, the project is coordinating with WaSSIP on the possibility of financing Mwache dam, which is a part of the coast water master plan, and there is potential for other investments identified through the master planning process to be picked up by the WSCRP. The World Bank Natural Resources Management (NRM) Project and Western Kenya Community Driven Development and Flood Mitigation Project are providing support for watershed management, irrigation, and flood control, and on-going experience has strengthened the water resources and climate risk management investments under the project. 2.6.2 Proposed Development Objectives (PDOs) With its focus on achieving water security and resilience to climate variability and change, the WSCRP will support the higher level objectives of inclusive green growth as a pathway to sustainable development. In particular, the WSCRP will foster growth that is efficient in its use of natural resources, clean in that it minimizes environmental impacts, and resilient in that it reduces social vulnerabilities and accounts for natural hazards and the role of environmental management and natural capital in preventing physical disasters. Water-related investments that (i) strengthen climate resilient growth; and (ii) The project results–increased water storage for productive use (i.e. water supply, irrigation, hydropower), enhanced performance of water investments, and increased resilience to floods and droughts within project impact area(s). The project is designed as an Adaptable Program Loan (APL), with three phases over a period of 18 years through 2030. The long-term and phased approach demonstrates the Bank's commitment to Kenya’s water sector, including contributing to the Vision 2030, while providing necessary flexibility and opportunities for reframing the subsequent Page | 22 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF phases, as needed and if conditions on the ground change substantially (particularly in light of the evolving institutional and legal reform process). The expected total amount of the APL is in the range of US$ 1.0 – 1.2 billion, with a first phase (APL-1) of US$ 350 million, implemented over seven years. 2.6.3 Objectives of the Project The project development objectives of the first phase (APL-1) are to: (i) increase productive uses of water; (ii) improve the quality of investment planning and preparation for water security and climate resilience; and (iii) reform key water sector institutions in accordance with the Water Sector Transition Plan. The project development objectives of the second and third phases (APL-2 and APL-3) will be to further increase water storage and/or productive uses of water, including on the basis of enhanced water investment planning and preparation achieved in the first phase. The Project will be a ‘’framework operation’’ that will establish eligibility criteria and preparation guidelines that must be met in order for sub-projects/investments to be funded under the project. The Framework is intended to set the ‘rules of the game’ by establishing a rigorous evidence-based investment selection and preparation process, including specifying the technical, economic, financial, environmental, social, institutional, etc. requirements for sub-project funding. To demonstrate the robustness of the investment framework, three sub-projects under component 1 will be appraised prior to project approval, with the expectation that at least one sub-project will be financed. 2.7 WSCRP The achievement of Kenya’s development objectives on food security, poverty reduction, and economic growth depends on the ability of the country to efficiently use and manage its available water resources. Water is a productive input into priority economic sectors under Kenya’s Vision 2030 such as agriculture, industry, energy and tourism, and lack of water security causes economic losses and constrains growth potential. In 2004, the World Bank estimated that losses from climate variability average about 2.4 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per year with a further 0.5 percent loss from water resources degradation, seriously impacting the country’s economic growth and competitiveness. With annual freshwater availability of approximately 526 m³ per capita, Kenya is already classified as water scarce country. Over 80 percent of Kenya’s area is arid or semi-arid where a reliable supply of water is a limiting factor for economic development. Rapid increases in water demand are driven by population growth, economic growth, and urbanization. Underinvestment in water infrastructure in Kenya for the last two decades has resulted in a total water supply storage capacity of 3.1 m3 per capita, one of the lowest levels in the world, which leaves the country vulnerable to climate and hydrologic variability. The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) is currently increasing water storage to 16 m3 per capita by 2012 through the construction of new water supply reservoirs, though much more is needed in order to achieve water security. Catchment degradation compounds these challenges by increasing the intensity of flooding and reducing water storage capacity through reservoir sedimentation. Page | 23 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF In response to these challenges, the Kenya Water Security and Climate Resilience Project (“the Project�), financed through a credit by the International Development Association (IDA), is planned to be implemented by MWI from 2013-2020. The project is scheduled for approval in FY13, and is expected to include the following activities: (i) water resources development investments, including storage for all purposes; (ii) climate resilience and climate risk management investments; and (iii) water resources management investments, including institutional support. The exact amount and scope of the project will be agreed during preparation. An Investment Framework will be developed that will establish the eligibility and preparation criteria and procedures that are required to be met in order for sub-projects/investments to be funded under the Project. The Project is expected to be submitted to the Bank Board for consideration around mid- 2013. In this regard, the World Bank and MWI have committed to advance project preparation in order to meet this schedule. A Project Preparation Advance (PPA) in the amount of US$ 2.96 million has been approved to assist in preparing the Project. 2.7.1 WSCRP Project Components: Component 1: Investments in Water Resources Development This component supports climate resilience and water security for economic growth by financing the preparation of water resources development investments/sub-projects that meets the requirements of an Investment Framework (IF). The IF establishes the ‘rules of the game’ by making transparent the decision-making process on sub-project selection and ensuring that selected sub-projects are well-prepared, effectively contribute to realizing the objectives of building water security and climate resilience, and are implemented in a sustainable manner. The advantage of the framework approach is that it provides GoK, the World Bank and Development Partners the opportunity to invest early in ‘low hanging’ infrastructure and related activities provided that they are well- prepared, while establishing principles for selecting and preparing subsequent investments. In this regard, the IF serves as a short-term tool that provides quality control as the full-fledged investment planning process is established. However, the IF will have a longer term life, in that it will eventually guide future decisions on investments in the sector. The IF consists of two parts: (i) sub-project selection/eligibility criteria and (ii) technical, economic, financial, social, environmental, and institutional guidelines for preparing investments at the feasibility level. Both parts of the IF must be met in order for a proposed sub-project to receive project financing. Sub-projects that could be considered for financing under the project include infrastructure and related activities for one or more of the following purposes:  Bulk water supply, including storage for surface water use and flow regulation, and groundwater development;  Water for productive and consumptive use;  Flood management or drought mitigation; and Page | 24 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF  Watershed management. It should be highlighted here that during project preparation, this initial IF has been developed and tested on investment proposals at various stages of development, in particular, the Lower Nzoia Irrigation Project. This initial IF has been reviewed in order to ensure that it is robust and reflects the country’s capacity to prepare investments in accordance with it. During project implementation, the initial IF will be gradually refined (e.g., guidelines specific to each of the sub-project types will be developed) and capacity will be built to ensure the effective application of the IF. The Investment Framework is an essential component of the Water Security and Climate Resilience Program and as such, formal adoption of the IF by GoK will be one of the milestones for moving from phase 1 (APL-1) to phase 2 (APL-2) of the program. Component 1 includes two sub-components: (i) Water Sector Investments and (ii) Water Investment Pipeline Facility. Each sub-component is described below. Component 2: Water Sector Reforms and Planning and Management Instruments Component 2 will support the current sector institutions, as well as the preparation, implementation and full functioning of the new legal and institutional framework resulting from alignments with the new Constitution of Kenya. It will also support the development of integrated and participatory water investment planning that leads to the development of a preliminary pipeline of investment proposals. The overall objective of this component will be to strengthen the enabling institutional and legal framework to sustainably advance Kenya’s vast water sector investment program in order to achieve water security and climate resilience. To this end, Component 2 includes two sub- components: (i) support for water sector reforms and (ii) strengthening water management and investment planning. Each sub-component is described below. Sub-Component 2.1: Support for Water Sector Reforms This sub-component will support the current sector institutions, as well as the preparation, implementation and full functioning of the new legal and institutional framework. The objective of this support is to enhance the capacity of water sector institutions to fulfil their mandates, policies and strategies specifically related to the sustainability of the water sector investment program. Thus, the emphasis of this sub- component is on institutional and legal issues that contribute most directly to meeting project objectives and furthering the investment program. Targeted support will also be provided on an as need basis to the broader water sector reforms that could indirectly impact on project objectives. As and when the need arises, such additional areas will be proposed to the project’s governance structure (e.g., IMOC) for possible support under the project. Support will be provided during the three stages of the reforms: (i) pre reforms, including the finalization of legal and institutional instruments and provisions for their implementation, including the water sector transitional plan; (ii) the transition period; and (iii) post reforms, in order to sustain operations and to support fully functional institutions. Given the focus of support under this sub-component, activities will target Page | 25 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF those institutions (and their successors) that are considered most critical to meeting project objectives. The activities under this sub-component are outlined below. Contingency support to key water sector institutions; - This activity will provide expert, rapid response to resolve or mitigate critical legal and institutional challenges that may emerge and could cause significant risk to meeting project objectives. Contingency support could be provided in areas related to migrating and adapting institutional mandates; transferring staff and assets; adapting organizations, structures, policies and strategies; and establishing procedures to enhance performance of key entities. Contingency response will be provided throughout all stages of legal and institutional reforms, described above. Complementarily, this activity will also provide for rapid response to support the broader water sector when the reform process poses significant risks or threats to meeting project objectives. Building the capacity of water sector institutions;-This activity will build and enhance the capacity of key entities to fulfil their core mandates and functions, as well as support non-core (yet critical) functions. This support will target those water sector institutions that are critical for meeting project objectives. The specific activities could include: assessing and mapping capacity needs for existing and new water sector institutions and developing staffing plans; supporting the capacity building of key entities so that they are able to develop and implement strategies, plans and core functions; supporting non-core but critical functions, including procurement and financial management; safeguards due diligence; strengthening critical procedures; and developing human capacity, including assistance for research needs, training to enhance staff capacity, development of guidance manuals, etc. This activity would also support PMU capacity building activities to support transfer of its responsibility to agencies involved in the project. Supporting institutional and legal reforms;- This activity will build the enabling legal and institutional foundation for the water sector by providing support for the implementation of legal and institutional reforms, as well as the identification of legal and/or institutional issues and necessary modifications. The specific activities will be undertaken throughout the three stages of reforms, discussed above, and will target those institutional and legal reforms that are critical for meeting project objectives. Specific activities could include: developing time-bound and costed plans to implement the new legal obligations of existing and new water sector institutions; developing and/or enhancing legislatively mandated strategies and implementation plans with stakeholder participation; supporting the development of strategies and plans required to mainstream key policies (including the Climate Policy, National Adaptation Plan, and Disaster Management Policy); developing a financing policy and strategy for the water sector; and facilitating public participation and consultations with water sector stakeholders. Supporting the legal and institutional transition process; - This activity will support the constitutionally mandated water sector transition. The specific activities will focus on those entities and areas that most directly contribute to meeting project objectives and could include the following: supporting the rationalization and implementation of the water sector transition plan (including the migration and adaption of mandates, policies, Page | 26 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF strategies, programs and activities from existing to new entities resulting from the reform); supporting the Transition Authority to strengthen the water sector component of the national transitional plan; supporting key water sector institutions to implement the transition plans; and supporting aspects of the irrigation reform implementation strategy. Sub-Component 2.2: Strengthening Water Management and Investment Planning The specific objective of sub-component 2.2 is to develop, test and install a new system for integrated, multi-sector water investment planning, and support use of this system to develop a preliminary pipeline of investments (activity1). The water investment planning process will aim to generate well-defined, coordinated, and sustainable investment options that increase water available for productive, economic and social uses, strengthen livelihoods, and reduce climate risks. Both enhancing stakeholder participation and modernizing and improving the water knowledge base and monitoring system are central to the investment planning process and will be supported by activities 2 and 3 under this sub-component. Catchment or basin vulnerability assessments and the preparation of basin disaster risk management plans could also be supported. The activities under this sub-component are outlined below. Developing and Applying a Water Investment Planning System. This activity will support the development, testing and implementation of a multi-sector and multi- stakeholder planning system that can be utilized at the sub-catchment or catchment (basin) level, and support using this planning system to develop a preliminary investment pipeline whose preparation activities can be financed under Sub-component 1.2. Drawing from experiences elsewhere (e.g., Brazil, Uganda, etc.), the planning system will be initially piloted in two to three catchments or basins and scaled up based on lessons learned. The investment planning system may include state of the art instruments and systems such as: a decision support system, water system simulation model, Geographical Information System (GIS) based water information system linked to the Decision Support System (DSS) and model that includes hydrological and socio- economic data and a sub-catchment based hydrologic model. In catchments where flood and/or drought risks are a substantial problem, models would be developed to determine the frequency and magnitude of flood and drought risks and to map vulnerabilities so as to facilitate the development of sub-catchment (basin) flood and drought risk management plans. This activity would also support upgrading and filling of data gaps in the catchment (basin) knowledge base, strategic assessments of social and environmental issues in the catchment (basin), and mapping of natural habitats and biodiversity hotspots within the catchment (basin) so that environmental services can be modelled. To this end, this activity would finance acquisition of data sets, including satellite imagery; surveys and mapping exercises; acquisition of models and analytical tools; consultants for special studies and surveys; and the actual preparation of catchment and sub-catchment water allocation, water management and investment plans. The activity will also support preparation of a strategic environmental and social assessment (SESA) that will look at the linkages between the proposed investment plan and the likely or potential impacts on Page | 27 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF the ground. The SESA will identify appropriate criteria to be included in the planning system and ensure that the environmental and social dimensions at the strategic/sectoral level are embedded in the overall approach, including, in particular, the cumulative impacts aspects. This activity will also support application of this planning system towards development of a preliminary investment pipeline based on and consistent with the catchment and sub- catchment water allocation, water management and investment plan. This will include support to the relevant sponsor agencies to carry out the work required for building the pipeline. Investment proposals that could feed into the preliminary investment pipeline will be selected by the Project Management Unit (PMU), in close collaboration with relevant sponsor agencies, using the Investment Framework. Pre-feasibility level investment proposals (developed under Component 1) will be incorporated in the catchment planning process to develop catchment water allocation, water management and investment plans. The sub-project investments recommended in the investment plan will be screened by the PMU for addition to the preliminary investment pipeline for FS under Component 1. Developing a System for Stakeholder Participation;- This activity will support the development of a system for stakeholder participation at the national, regional and catchment levels in order to: (i) raise awareness and promote greater understanding and appreciation of the catchment water resource system, its potential and its limits; (ii) facilitate greater “buy-in� or commitment on the part of catchment stakeholders to the plans for water management, water allocation, and investment in the catchment; (iii) reduce stakeholder vulnerability by improving access to information, including on drought and flood risks; and (iv) create continuing mechanisms and processes that are accepted by water users and other key stakeholders and institutionalized within the catchment for conflict resolution, water regulation and enforcement, and other water management measures. This activity will finance specialized consultancies to develop a system, processes and procedures for stakeholder identification and mapping, stakeholder organization and mobilization, stakeholder training, and communications. These consultancies will also provide training and capacity building to support the implementation of this system of enhanced stakeholder participation in the selected two to three pilot catchments or basins. Strengthening Water Information System; - This activity will finance the improvement and modernization of the Water Resources Information System (WIS). The enhanced WIS would support improved planning, regulation and enforcement; water resource assessments using hydrologic models; water system models and the DSS; and disaster risk (flood and drought) management plans. The WIS would include the hydro- meteorological monitoring network, measurement, data transmission, data storage, and data analysis and data dissemination. The system will monitor water flows and discharges, water quality and sediment loads, and groundwater availability/levels and quality using real-time, low cost modern communications. The features and details of the WIS design and implementation will be Page | 28 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF need-based and utilize current and projected information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure in Kenya, including provision for future upgrading and expansion. Lessons from previous initiatives will be taken into account in systems design. As a first step, this activity will finance a consultancy to upgrade the design and modernize the WIS. Component 3: Support to Project Implementation In the uncertain and dynamic environment arising from the alignment of the water sector to the new Constitution of Kenya, it is essential that implementation of project is based on an overall design and approach that ensures continuity, avoids unnecessary delays and cost increases, and mitigates against the potentially harmful effects of gaps and issues that will inevitably emerge during the transition period and as the new institutional, legal and policy framework of the sector is put in place. For these reasons, a Project Management Unit (PMU) will be established. The PMU’s design, including its roles and functions, are summarized below. This component will support the establishment of the PMU to provide for effective project implementation throughout the reform period (that is, prior to the launch of the reforms, during the transition period, and beyond, to the extent needed). Specifically, this component will finance the required office space, goods (e.g., vehicles), equipment (e.g., computers), staff, consultant services, travel, training and operating costs that will allow the PMU to carry out its responsibilities for project implementation. These responsibilities include project management and coordination, procurement and financial management, project monitoring and evaluation (including impact evaluation), social and environmental safeguards management and oversight, strategic project communications and outreach, investment sub-project selection and execution (for component 1), and other activity execution (for component 2). 2.8 Project Institutional and Implementation Arrangements Under Component 3 of the project, a Project Management Unit (PMU) will be established within the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) or its successor resulting from the reforms. The PMU will report to the Permanent Secretary (PS) of MWI and will be granted a high degree of autonomy to ensure efficient and timely implementation of the project. The PS may delegate his authority to a senior officer (director level), to whom the PMU will directly report. The PMU will be granted operational autonomy to apply rules, criteria, and procedures agreed with the World Bank. The PS, as the accounting officer of MWI, will delegate financial management, procurement, tender evaluation, selection and contracting responsibilities to the PMU. Notwithstanding these provisions, the PMU’s actions will be accountable to the MWI and subject to review by Kenya Auditor General. The PMU is a transitional entity. One of its important roles will be to support development within the current and successor agencies – which would typically implement most of the project’s investment sub-projects and activities – the required capacities for procurement, financial management, monitoring and evaluation, safeguards implementation, and sub-project and activity execution. In the interim, the PMU will Page | 29 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF undertake these roles on behalf of those agencies through the services of consulting firms (e.g., Engineer, refer below), or by procuring an appropriate Implementation Support Consultancy that would be embedded within each agency. The core roles of the PMU are fiduciary (procurement and financial management), management and coordination, reporting, monitoring and evaluation, the application of the Investment Framework (including safeguards frameworks), and monitoring of and technical support to the institutional and legal reform process. It will review the results and recommendations of each pre-feasibility and feasibility study, apply the Investment Framework and make recommendations on investment ready sub-projects. The PMU will ensure the application of social and environmental frameworks (ESMF, IPMF, VMGF and RPF) by assessing the capacity of sponsor agencies to prepare safeguards instruments and to implement safeguards requirements (as the case may be). In the event that sponsor agencies are found to have insufficient capacity in these areas, it will work with the agency to prepare a support plan and TORs, as well as procure the additional required services. The PMU will monitor the activities of all agencies involved in the project and their consultants, evaluate performance, propose measures to enhance performance and ensure timely implementation, and provide regular reporting to the World Bank. For works under Component 1, the PMU will procure and contract the services of an Engineering Firm (The “Engineer�) based on a TOR prepared in collaboration with the relevant executing agency. The Engineer will be responsible for reviewing or preparing detailed designs and bidding documents (in case they would not be ready), completing the tender documents and selecting the contractor (s) in collaboration with the PMU. The role of the Engineer is to provide expert advice and represent the PMU when administrating the construction contract, to make certain decisions that become binding on the parties to the construction contract(s), and to provide direction to the contractor, including for example, issuing certificates, ordering variations and payment schedules, etc. A specific sub-unit of the PMU, the Legal and Institutional Reforms Support Sub-Unit (LIRSSU), will be established to support the legal and institutional reforms associated with aligning the water sector to the new Constitution of Kenya (sub-component 2.1). The LIRSSU will be responsible for providing strategic and technical input and oversight to support the institutional and legal reform process, including by directly executing specific activities on behalf of relevant agencies and/or by managing and supervising consultancies that provide specialized support. To this end, the LIRSSU will undertake the requisite work to stay fully abreast of the status of the evolving institutional and legal reforms, as well as any issues and challenges that may arise. It will work pro-actively to identify needs and recommend areas of targeted support to mitigate issues associated with the reform process. It will also accept proposals for support on a demand basis to provide “just in time� analytical support for the process. The PMU Director will have a core staff of professionals with the necessary expertise and experience to undertake the PMU’s core functions. These could include civil service staff on secondment (in accordance with current civil service rules) or those from the Page | 30 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF private sector. The PMU will be empowered to undertake autonomous and competitive staff selection, based on criteria agreed with the World Bank. An Inter-Ministerial Oversight Committee (IMOC) will be established, primarily as a consultative group and to provide high level, strategic guidance on project activities. It will be comprised of the permanent secretaries (PSs) of ministries with a relevant role in the water sector (including Ministry of Regional Development Authorities, Ministry of Agriculture, and Ministry of Environment and Mineral Resources or their successors), as well as the Ministry of Finance. The IMOC will be chaired by the PS, MWI (or its successor), who will make all final decisions related to the project. Membership can be extended beyond this core group to other agencies on an as need basis. Figure 1: Proposed WSCRP-PCU Design 2.8.1 Implementation Arrangements Screening and sub-project selection. There are three points in the process of developing the investment ready pipeline (refer Figure 2). The PMU will collaborate with sponsor agencies to develop the preliminary pipeline of projects proposed for feasibility study (Component 2.2), and it will review the results of feasibility studies (Component 1). In the latter case, the PMU will apply the Investment Framework (IF) to identify and select viable investment ready sub-projects; in the Figure 1 - Screening and selection of sub-projects and former case, to select sub-projects for pre- consultation with the IMOC and with PS approval feasibility work and the preliminary investment pipeline, a short form of the IF will be developed under the project and applied by the PMU. As shown in Figure 2, the screening results and recommendations of the PMU will be reviewed by the IMOC. With the IMOC’s advice and suggestions, the PMU will make appropriate revisions and present its recommendations to the PS. The PS will approve the PMU’s proposals –sub-projects for which pre-feasibility studies and feasibility studies will be undertaken and sub-projects to add to the pipeline of investment ready sub-projects – and authorize the PMU to proceed with the next steps. Page | 31 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Sub-project preparation; - The next step in the process of pipeline development is to undertake the appropriate preparation studies for each of the agreed sub-projects. In the case of the preliminary investment pipeline (Component 2.2), the PMU will assist the sponsor agency or its successor to prepare the TOR using a generic or standard pre- feasibility study TOR approved by the Bank and will procure the services of a consulting firm to undertake the study. The PMU may bundle several pre-feasibility TORs into a single procurement, particularly when the sub-projects are clustered in a single or adjacent sub-basins. Cost estimating factors and assumptions will be developed in consultation with MWI and the World Bank. A similar approach will be used for sub- projects selected from the preliminary pipeline for feasibility study (Component 1.2), except that they will not be bundled unless they could or should be (for example, a storage dam and the irrigated area served by the associated reservoir). Work;- Typically, a PMU would not be directly involved in the execution of works, but none of the agencies that are likely to sponsor a sub-project for implementation (refer Figure 3) have sufficient capacity to undertake the responsibilities and functions of executing agency for Component 1 investment ready projects. The approach in these cases will be as shown in the Figure 3 above. The PMU will procure and contract the services of the Engineer based on a TOR prepared in collaboration with the sponsor agency. The Engineer will be responsible for reviewing or preparing detailed designs and bidding documents (if they were not prepared by the feasibility study consultant), completing the tender documents and selecting the contractor(s) in collaboration with the PMU. The role of the Engineer is to provide expert advice and represent the PMU when administrating the construction contract, to make certain decisions that become binding on the parties to the construction contract(s), and to provide direction to the contractor, including for example, issuing certificates, ordering variations and payment. Page | 32 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 2.9 Alternative Considerations 2.9.1 No Project Scenario The no-project scenario means that the status-quo is maintained and the funding gap of approximately several billions Kenya Shillings per year for the water sector especially in regard to security and climate resilience may remain. Under investment in water infrastructure in Kenya for the last two decades will persist and result in decreased water supply storage capacity per capita in a country which already has one of the lowest levels in the world, which leaves the country vulnerable to climate and hydrologic variability. Similarly agricultural growth will decline due to increased over reliance to rain fed agricultural approach which is greatly impacted on the climate change phenomenon. 2.10 Requirements for Public Disclosure This IPMF will be disclosed in line with the World Bank requirements through posting on the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) website: www.water.go.ke and on the World Bank’s external website. The final version will be publicly disclosed through the Bank’s Infoshop. Page | 33 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 3 METHODOLOGY AND CONSULTATION 3.1 Detailed & In-depth Literature Review Review on the existing baseline information and literature material was undertaken and helped in gaining a further and deeper understanding of the proposed project. A desk review of the Kenyan legal framework and policies related to pesticide use was also conducted in order to the relevant legislations and policy documents that should be considered during project implementation. Among the documents that were reviewed in order to familiarise and further understand the project included: World Bank Related Documents  World Bank Project documentation for WSCRP  Aide Memoire for the WSCRP  World Bank WSCRP Draft Project Appraisal Document (PAD)  World Bank Safeguards Policy OP 4.09  World Bank IPMF documents for other agricultural projects Kenyan Legislative Documents  Environmental Management and Coordination Act (1999)  Water Act  Public Health Act  Agriculture Act  Pharmacy and Poisons Board Act  Occupation Health and Safety Act  Pesticide Control and Product Act  Plant Protection Act  Seed and Varieties Act  Suppression of Noxious Weeds Act  Constitution of Kenya 3.2 Interactive Discussions Stakeholder consultation formed part of the methodology in preparing this IPMF where a list of all the project interested and affected stakeholders was prepared and stakeholder engagement was undertaken through interviews (face-to face) and a workshop will be held with these key stakeholders in February 18th, 2013. The stakeholder consultation was significant to the preparation of this IPMF and formed the basis for the determination of potential project impacts and design of viable mitigation measures. 3.3 Preparation of IPMF Preparation of the IPMF included the following stages:  Collation of baseline data on agriculture and pesticide use in Kenya in general;  Identification of positive and negative economic and environmental and social impacts of pesticide use under WSCRP;  Identification of environmental and social mitigation measures; Page | 34 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 4 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT This section describes in brief the IPM approach specifically the historical background and then links the strategic issues under the WSCRP that have implications for pests and pesticides management with the IPM approach. 4.1 History of IPM In the early years of the last century, different crop protection practices were integral parts of any cropping system. However, with increased world human population, the demand for more food was eminent. This also coincided with increased pest problem and advent of pesticides. From the 1940’s to the 1970’s, a spectacular increase in yield was obtained with the aid of an intensive development of technology, including the development of a variety of agro-pesticides. In many countries this advancement was coupled with the development of education of farmers and efficient extension services. However, in many developing countries, pesticides were used without adequate support systems. Agro-pesticides were often used injudiciously. Misuse and over-use was stimulated by heavy subsidies on agro-chemicals. Crop protection measures were often reduced to easy-to-use pesticide application recipes, aimed at immediate elimination of the causal organism. In places where the use of improved varieties was propagated, packages of high-yielding varieties with high inputs of agro-pesticides and fertilizers made farmers dependent on high external inputs. Since then, it has been realized that this conventional approach has the following drawbacks: a) Human toxicity; poisoning and residue problems b) Destruction of natural enemies and other non-target organisms c) Development of resistance in target organisms d) Environmental pollution and degradation e) Pesticides are expensive and good management of their use requires skills and knowledge Because of the drawbacks of reliance on pesticides, a crop protection approach is needed that is centred on local farmer needs that are sustainable, appropriate, environmentally safe and economic to use. Such approach is called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). There are many different definitions that have been fronted over the years to describe IPM. In 1967, FAO defined IPM as “a pest management system that in the context of the associated environment and the population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible manner as possible, and maintains the pest population at levels below those causing economic injury�. The requirement for adoption of IPM in farming systems is even emphasized in the WB OP 4.09, which supports safe, effective, and environmentally sound pest management aspects, such as the use of biological and environmental friendly control methods. Page | 35 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF The following are key preconditions for an IPM approach which will be adopted by all the sub projects within WSCRP that will be screened and found to require pesticide use: a) Understanding of the ecological relationships within a farming system (crop, plant, pests organisms and factors influencing their development b) Understanding of economic factors within a production system (infestation: loss) Understanding of socio-cultural decision-making behavior of the farmers (traditional preferences, risk behavior) c) Involvement of the farmers in the analysis of the pest problems and their management d) Successive creation of a legislative and agricultural policy framework conducive to a sustainable IPM strategy (plant quarantine legislation, pesticides legislation, pesticide registration, price policy) This IPMF for WSCRP has been developed by following and applying the key elements of an IPM program namely: 1. Ensuring that sub project investments under WSCRP use of available, suitable, and compatible methods which includes resistant varieties, cultural methods (planting time, intercropping and crop rotation), biological control, safe pesticides etc. to maintain pests below levels that cause economic damage and loss 2. Ensuring that sub project investments under WSCRP conserve the ecosystem to enhance and support natural enemies and pollinators 3. Ensuring that sub project investments under WSCRP integrate the pest management strategies in the farming system 4. Ensuring that sub project investments under WSCRP conduct analysis based on pests and crop loss assessments 4.2 IPMF in WSCRP Sub Project Investments This Integrated Pest Management Framework (IPMF) addresses the WSCRP’s need to promote ecosystem approach in pest management where sub project investments will entail the use of pesticides. The WSCRP sub project investments that are likely to use pesticides are specifically those that will include irrigation as part of water harnessing for productive use. For example one of the pipeline sub project investment under the WSCRP is the Lower Nzoia Irrigation Development Project (LNIDP) which intends to grow rice and other High Value Crops and is expected to apply pesticides to control the common pests and weeds that attack these crops. Page | 36 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Therefore, this IMPF will ensure that this sub project and others yet to be identified apply the elements of IPM as described above and the preconditions for the same in order to minimise the adverse impacts associated with pesticide use in the agriculture sector. It is for this reason, that every sub project investment that is screened and found that pesticides use is certain, an Integrated Pest Management Plan (IPMP) will be developed as a mandatory requirement. This approach will benefit the WSCRP sub projects in terms of enhancing good human and environmental health, and improving economic well-being of the farmer. Finally the IPMF has been designed with focus on the general principles of IPM and every sub project investment in water that will have components of pesticide use will be required through enforcement, monitoring and review to follow these principles namely;- 1. The prevention and/or suppression of harmful organisms should be achieved or supported among other options especially by:  Crop rotation,  Use of adequate cultivation techniques (e.g. stale seedbed technique, sowing dates and densities, under-sowing, conservation tillage, pruning and direct sowing)  Use, where appropriate, of resistant/tolerant cultivars and standard/certified seed and planting material  Use of balanced fertilisation, liming and irrigation/drainage practices  Preventing the spreading of harmful organisms by hygiene measures (e.g. by regular cleansing of machinery and equipment)  Protection and enhancement of important beneficial organisms, e.g. by adequate plant  Protection measures or the utilisation of ecological infrastructures inside and outside production sites. 2. Harmful organisms must be monitored by adequate methods and tools, where available. Such adequate tools should include observations in the field as well as scientifically sound warning, forecasting and early diagnosis systems, where feasible, as well as the use of advice from professionally qualified advisors. 3. Based on the results of the monitoring, the users have to decide whether and when to apply plant protection measures. Robust and scientifically sound threshold values are essential components for decision making. For harmful organisms, threshold levels defined for the region, specific areas, crops and particular climatic conditions must be taken into account before treatment, where feasible. 4. Sustainable biological, physical and other non-chemical methods must be preferred to chemical methods if they provide satisfactory pest control. Page | 37 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 5. The pesticides applied shall be as specific as possible for the target and shall have the least side effects on human health, non-target organisms and the environment. 6. The professional user should keep the use of pesticides and other forms of intervention to levels that are necessary, e.g. by reduced doses, reduced application frequency or partial applications, considering that the level of risk in vegetation is acceptable and they do not increase the risk for development of resistance in populations of harmful organisms. 7. Where the risk of resistance against a plant protection measure is known and where the level of harmful organisms requires repeated application of pesticides to the crops, available anti-resistance strategies should be applied to maintain the effectiveness of the products. This may include the use of multiple pesticides with different modes of action. 8. Based on the records on the use of pesticides and on the monitoring of harmful organisms, the professional user should check the success of the applied plant protection measures. Page | 38 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 5 POLICY AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR IMPLEMENTING THE IPMF This chapter outlines and highlights the relevant institutional and legal as well as policy framework in Kenya which has a direct bearing on the WSCRP in regard to implementing the IPMF. 5.1 The Legal, Regulatory and Policy Framework 5.1.1 Environment Management and Coordination Act (No. 8 of 1999), EMCA This is an Act of Parliament providing for the establishment of an appropriate legal and institutional framework for the management of the environment and for matters connected therewith and incidental thereto. This Act is divided into 13 Parts, covering main areas of environmental concern as follows: Preliminary (I); General principles (II); Administration (III); Environmental planning (IV); Protection and Conservation of the Environment (V), Environmental impact assessments (EIA), audits and monitoring (VI); Environmental audit and monitoring (VII); Environmental quality standards (VIII); Environmental Restoration orders, Environmental Easements (IX); Inspection, analysis and records (IX); Inspection Analysis and Records (X); International Treaties, Conventions and Agreements (XI) National Environment Tribunal (XII); Environmental Offences (XIII). The Act provides for the setting up of the various ESIA Regulations and Guidelines which are discussed below: Environmental (Impact Assessment and Audit) Regulations 2003 The Environmental (Impact Assessment and Audit) Regulations 2003 state in Regulation 3 that “the Regulations should apply to all policies, plans, programmes, projects and activities specified in Part III and V of the Regulations� basically lists the guidelines of undertaking, submission and approval of the ESIA Reports a key requirement for projects that will use pesticides. Environmental Management and Co-ordination (Waste Management) Regulations 2006 These are described in Legal Notice No. 121 of the Kenya Gazette Supplement No. 69 of September 2006. These Regulations apply to all categories of waste as provided in the Regulations. These include:  Industrial wastes;  Hazardous and toxic wastes;  Pesticides and toxic substances;  Biomedical wastes;  Radio-active substances. The proposed Project will have to abide by these regulations in dealing with waste management especially the provisions of wastes which may be generated during their construction and operation phases of the sub project investments. Page | 39 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Environmental Management and Coordination, (Water Quality) Regulations 2006 These are described in Legal Notice No. 120 of the Kenya Gazette Supplement No. 68 of September 2006. These regulations apply to drinking water, water used for agricultural purposes, water used for recreational purposes, water used for fisheries and wildlife and water used for any other purposes. This includes the following:  Protection of sources of water for domestic use;  Water for industrial use and effluent discharge;  Water for agricultural use. These regulations outline: a) Quality standards for sources of domestic water; b) Quality monitoring for sources of domestic water; c) Standards for effluent discharge into the environment; d) Monitoring guide for discharge into the environment; e) Standards for effluent discharge into public sewers; f) Monitoring for discharge of treated effluent into the environment. In fulfilling the requirements of the regulations the project proponent will have to undertake monitoring of irrigation water and ensure compliance with the acceptable discharge standards in terms of pesticide use. 5.1.2 Chapter 324 – Plant Protection Act This Act makes a provision for the prevention of the introduction and spread of diseases that are destructive to plants. The most applicable parts of this Act to Integrated Pest Management are specified in Sec. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. The act creates specific rules to support plant protection in various crops. These includes: Sugarcane (L.N.294/1962. Rule 3, Sch. 2), Maize and Sorghum (L.N.216/1956. Schedule (rr.7 and 8), Sisal (L.N.522/1957, L.N.365/1964, L.N.153/1958, L.N.177/1959, L.N.558/1960) and Banana (Cap.178 (1948), Sub. Leg. L.N.365/1964). 5.1.3 Chapter 326 – Seeds and Plants Variety Act This Act regulates transactions in seeds, including provision for the testing and certification of seeds; for the establishment of an index of names of plant varieties; to empower the imposition of restriction on the introduction of new varieties; to control the importation of seeds; to authorize measures to prevent injurious cross-pollination; to provide for the grant of proprietary rights to persons breeding or discovering new varieties. The Act includes subsidiary legislation on seeds and plant varieties (seeds) regulations, registration of seed growers, seed certification and seed importation and exportation. 5.1.4 Chapter 347 on Irrigation The Act makes regulations for the administration and day-to-day control of national irrigation schemes and standards of good husbandry and the control of pests and diseases in national irrigation schemes. Page | 40 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 5.1.5 Chapter 346: Pest Control Products Act This Act covers the use, application, importation and trade in pest products. It includes regulation on:  Prescribing for the purposes of this Act the nomenclature of pests, pest control products and classes and kinds of pests and pest control products;  Prescribing the form in which applications for registration shall be made and the information to be furnished therewith;  Respecting the registration of pest control products and establishments in which any pest control products are and led by manufacturers or dealers and prescribing the fees therefore, and respecting the procedures to be followed for the review of cases involving the refusal, suspension or cancellation of the registration of any such product or establishment;  Prescribing the form, composition, and all other standards relating to the safe use of pest control products, including toxic residue effects;  Respecting the manufacture or treatment of any pest control product to facilitate its recognition by change in colouration or other means;  Respecting the standards for efficacy and safety of any pest control product;  Respecting the manufacture, storage, distribution, display and use of any pest control product;  Respecting the packaging, labelling and advertising of pest control products;  Respecting the taking of samples and the making of analyses for the purposes and provisions of this Act;  Prescribing the information to be supplied and the form of such information in respect of any pest control product that is to be imported into Kenya; Chapter 325 - Suppression of Noxious Weeds The Act regulates declaration of plants as noxious weed (G.N.1721/1955, L.N.173/1960) and to eradicate it. The Local Authorities have powers under Cap. 265 (L.N.256/1963) to eradicate any noxious weed from land within its area and for compelling owners or occupiers of land to cause any such weed to be eradicated from their land, and for such purposes by-laws may appoint or provide for the appointment of inspectors. 5.2 Relevant Sector Policies and Reforms There are several policies that have been developed in the country that have impact on crop production and IPM implementation. Some of these policies are:  Agricultural Sector Development Strategy  National Agricultural Sector Extension Policy  National food and nutrition policy  National seed industry policy 5.3 Autonomous and Semi-Autonomous Government Agencies (SAGAs) Related to Pest Management within the WSCRP There are several different institutions and stakeholders are involved in pest management in Kenya and directly or indirectly and influence adoption of IPM programs. These include: Page | 41 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 5.3.1 Agricultural sector ministries The functions of various agricultural ministries are hinged on various policy documents, guidelines and institutional structures. Some of the services provided by the sector ministries include the provision of National direction on agriculture and livestock development, husbandry and management through Agricultural Policy and Services. The lead ministries are also instrumental in guaranteeing national food security through the National Food Policy. Many of the food security policies in Kenya are closely linked to Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRS) and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Both the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Livestock Development provide Extension Services to the lowest administrative levels in the country though it is constrained by various economic, human resource and geographical factors. Many extension services do not only include the development of these natural resources but a high level of pest management; even though, there are institutions charged with express mandate of crop and animal pest management in Kenya. 5.3.2 Agriculture Research, Finance and Marketing Institutions Various research institutions are involved in applied research in both crop and animal production. The main focus has been on high yielding varieties of crops and animals as well as development of early maturing and disease resistant varieties. Institutions of particular interest include: Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Kenya Sugar Research Foundation (KESREF), Coffee Research Foundation (CRF), Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), and Kenya Seed Company (KSC). There are also government financial institutions that support farmers such as Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC) and Agricultural Finance Corporation (AFC). The key public institutions that support production and marketing are:- Nyayo Tea Zones Development Corporation (NTZDC), Kenya Sugar Board (KSB), Coffee Board of Kenya (CBK), National Cereals and Produce Board (NCPB), Horticultural Crops Development Authority (HCDA). Pyrethrum Board of Kenya (PBK), Tea Board of Kenya (TBK), Cotton Lint and Seed Marketing Board, Kenya Sisal Board (KSB), Kenya Forest Services (KFS). 5.3.3 Pest Management Institutions There are several public and private institutions that play a major role in pest management in Kenya. They include among others; - Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service (KEPHIS), Pest Control Products Board (PCPB) and National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), Agro Chemical Association of Kenya (AAK). Several commercially oriented institutions, parastatals and companies have been created to address specific enterprises. These include sugar companies, agro-chemical industries, NGOs and farmer organizations (e.g., FPEAK, KENFAP, and Kenya Flower Council) There are international and regional institutions that are involved in pest management of crops and animals which includes;-  International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)  International Centre for Insect Physiology and Entomology(ICIPE)  International Potato Centre (CIP)  World Agro forestry Centre (ICRAF) Page | 42 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF  International Institute of Tropical Agriculture(IITA)  International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT)  International Institute of Tropical Agriculture  International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)  Desert Locust Control Organisation (DLCO) 5.4 International Pest Management Requirements 5.4.1 Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) The Convention on Biological Diversity adopts a broad approach to conservation (Alistsi 2002). It requires Parties to the Convention to adopt national strategies, plans and programs for the conservation of biological diversity, and to integrate the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral and cross-sectoral plans, programs and policies. The proposed programme is expected to conserve biodiversity, especially the rare and endangered species in the project area and its environs. 5.4.2 World Bank Operational Policy on Pest Management, OP 4.09 The Bank uses various means to assess pest management in the country and support integrated pest management (IPM) and the safe use of agricultural pesticides, economic and sector work, sectoral or project-specific environmental assessments, participatory IPM assessments, and adjustment or investment projects and components aimed specifically at supporting the adoption and use of IPM. In the Bank-financed agriculture operations, it advocates pest populations reduction through IPM approaches such as biological control, cultural practices, and the development and use of crop varieties that are resistant or tolerant to the pest. 5.4.3 International plant Protection Convention of FAO (1952) The IPPC is an international treaty to secure action to prevent the spread and introduction of pests of plants and plant products, and to promote appropriate measures for their control. It is governed by the Commission on Phytosanitary Measures (CPM) which adopts International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs). Page | 43 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 6 KEY PESTS & WEEDS OF MAJOR IRRIGATION CROPS AND CONTROL MEASURES IN KENYA The Republic of Kenya, with its predominantly rural population, relies heavily on the agricultural sector for achieving a steady economic growth for its people. The sector accounts for over 65% of total Kenya exports, provides 18% of formal employment and more than 70% of informal employment in the rural areas. Over 60% of the national income is also from this sector. During the past several years, the sector has consistently registered the highest contribution to economic growth when compared to other sectors and is expected to continue carrying the burden of ensuring sustainable economic growth in the country for the foreseeable future. This role is demonstrated by the corresponding growth of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) which has been on a growth path since 2002. The GDP was 5.8% in 2005, 6.1 % in 2006, and 7% in 2007 1.5% in 2008, 2.6% in 2009 and 5.6% in 2010 (Source: 2011 Economic Survey Report). Due to the recent disturbances in the country, the GDP is projected to reduce to 4.5%. Further, it has been established that there is a strong correlation between growth in the agricultural sector and that in GDP. Since independence in 1963, the sector has witnessed varied levels of contribution to the GDP with a high of 36.6% between 1964 and 1973, a minimum of 2.2% in the late 1990's and picking up again to 24.2% in 2005. Currently the sector contributes 26% of the GDP directly and another 25% indirectly. In appreciation of the role played by the agricultural sector in the country's economy, the Government classified the Agriculture and Rural Development sector as the top ranked national priority sector in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper for the period 2001¬2004 and similarly in the Economic Recovery Strategy for 2003-2008 and the Vision 2030, which identifies agriculture as one of the key sectors to deliver the 10% projected annual economic growth. The rehabilitation and strengthening of existing irrigation schemes has also been identified in all these documents as a priority within the agriculture and rural development sector alongside the Agriculture Sector Development Strategy 2010-2020 (ASDS). Food Crops, which is a major outcome of irrigated agriculture in Kenya, accounts for over 32% of the Agricultural GDP. The ASDS further proposes the reclamation of more land for agricultural production through irrigation and drainage. The Government of Kenya’s policy documents identify over-reliance on rain-fed agriculture as one of the contributors to frequent food shortages and insecurity in the country. Therefore, in order to overcome food shortage and achieve food security, the Government intends to increase funding of irrigation related development activities so as to carry out the following:  Rehabilitate and extend existing large and small scale irrigation schemes.  Develop new irrigation schemes through optimum utilization of available resources.  Develop water storage facilities so as to harness excess rain water thereby reducing negative impacts related to floods. Page | 44 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF This commitment has been accentuated in the country’s annual development target of 32,000ha of irrigation per annum up to the year 2030. This is the long term development agenda of the Government of Kenya as espoused in the Vision 2030. To achieve this development target, the Government is addressing the main constraints, which have been identified as:  Lack of comprehensive National Irrigation Policy and Master Plan,  Inadequate coordination within the irrigation sub-sector,  Inadequate funding for irrigation and related infrastructure development,  Application of inappropriate technologies in irrigation practices, and  Enhancement of stakeholder and private sector participation, among others. The major food crops are beans, rice and bananas while sorghum, millet and root crops, such as cassava and sweet potato are considered to be important food security crops. In Kenya, maize is one of the most important cereal crop and accounts for 80% of the national production of cereals (CIMMYT, 1994). It is a significant source of carbohydrates for Kenyans who consume more than 100 kg of maize per person each year. The importance of maize in Kenya is indicated by the intensity of its cultivation in many parts of the country during the long rainy season for 1989. Industrial crops include tea, sugarcane, cotton, coffee and tobacco. Important horticultural crops include kales, tomatoes and onion while the fruit trees include avocado and pawpaw. Rice is the third most important staple food in Kenya after maize and wheat. It forms part of the larger diet for urban population. The magnitude of existing and proposed rice irrigation in Kenya is enormous. Consequently Kenya is one of the areas in the country with the greatest potential for irrigation. About 95% of the rice in Kenya is grown under irrigation in paddy schemes managed by the National Irrigation Board (NIB). The remaining 5% of the rice is rain fed. If properly utilized, Kenya has the potential to feed the East and Central Africa region. Tea is the single largest export commodity in Kenya and is a major foreign exchange earner, accounting for 17-20% of Kenya’s total export earnings (Wachira, 2002). In the year 2005, Kenya was the fourth largest tea producer after India, China and Sri Lanka and is contributing 10% of the global tea. Tea production in Kenya is divided into two categories, privately owned large plantations which account for about 40% of the total tea production in the county and the smallholder tea farmers who produce the remaining 60% of Kenyan tea. Sugarcane production is also largely carried out in Western Kenya which is within Western Kenya in three zones namely; the Nyanza sugar belt which is the oldest producing zone; Western Kenya, a small-scale production zone and the South Nyanza belt. The sugar industry supports several other industries including: beverage, confectionery, pharmaceutical, and wine, spirit, alcohol, animal feeds, and electricity, chemical and fertilizer firms. Currently, the industry is experiencing problems related to Page | 45 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF low production and capacity utilization. Sugar factories are running inefficiently and/or operate below capacity. Cotton used to be a major cash crop and performed quite well in the marginal areas of the country especially after it attained independence in the 1960s. However, problems within the industry discouraged farmers from engaging in this enterprise. According to the Cotton Board of Kenya, about 350,000 hectares in the country are suitable for cotton production and have the potential to yield an estimated 260,000 bales of lint annually. However, cotton is only being cultivated on 25,000 hectares at present, with an annual lint production of 20,000 bales. Root crops remain important food security crops especially in the semi-arid areas. In Kenya, the main cassava producing areas are western and coastal regions, below 1500 m.a.s.l (Acland, 1973). In 1988, the area estimated to be under cassava cultivation in Kenya was 53,500 ha and the projected production was 450,000 tonnes. This gives an average yield of 8 tonnes/ha. Sweet potato was cultivated on an area of 57,000 ha in 1990. Fifty five percent of the production area was concentrated in the Nyanza and Eastern regions with South Nyanza, in southwestern Kenya. Bananas have played and continue to play a major role in the diets of the people and economy of Kenya. The area under banana and plantain cultivation in Kenya was 115,500 ha in 1989 and increased to 125,000 ha in 1997 with a corresponding production of 520,000 and 595,000 metric tonnes respectively (Reddy et al., 1999). 6.1 Food Crops The major food crops shown in preceding tables are grown in the target project areas and include maize, rice, sorghum, millet, beans, cassava, sweet potato, banana, grain legumes (green gram, pigeon peas, cowpeas, soybeans, groundnuts) and wheat. The importance of each crop varies from one area to another and the priority list varies depending on the source of information. However, maize is the most popular staple of many Kenyans. This is followed by rice, sorghum, millet, bananas, beans, and cassava, sweet potato, wheat and grain legumes. Some of these crops such as rice, maize, beans, sorghum and millet are regarded as food and cash crops depending on area. The tables 1 and 2 below show the food crop production statistics in Kenya by province from 2005-2009. Page | 46 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Page | 47 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Page | 48 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 6.2 Irrigation and Drainage Sub-sector The main objectives of investing in irrigation and drainage development in the country can be summarized as creating opportunities for economic growth and boosting agricultural production, food security and poverty reduction. This would be achieved through increased optimal utilization of national irrigation potential thereby creating employment opportunities, an environment conducive for investment in industry and stable agricultural production for income generation and wealth creation. This is further informed by the fact that although irrigation accounts for only about 2% of the land under agriculture, it accounts for 18% of the value of agricultural production and contributes over 3% of the national GDP. This especially so because irrigation has the potential of increasing land productivity by up to four (4) times, assuming all other factors remain the same. The estimated irrigation potential of Kenya, at about 1.3 million ha, can have a profound impact on the country’s overall agricultural production, especially in the current agriculturally and economically marginal areas especially the Arid and semi-Arid lands (ASALs). Of the available irrigation potential, about 540,000ha can be developed with available water resources while the rest require water harvesting and storage to be realized. Out of the total potential, only about 8% has been developed. It is instructive to note that several small- holder projects have since ceased operation due to various challenges related to economies of the farming enterprise and management capacity. Over the years, it has been suspected that there is a relationship between the status of water resources development and the social and economic well-being of a country. Since irrigation has successfully been used in many countries and continents as a tool for achieving national social and economic objectives, it is envisaged that the same will happen in Kenya as soon as the constraints stipulated in the 9th National Development Plan and briefly explained above are clearly addressed and effective remedial measures taken. Opportunities, therefore, exist to undertake the interventions necessary for the effective enhancement of the ability of the sub-sector to play its vital role as a major contributor to agricultural production, national economic growth, regional and rural development and equitable distribution of national resources and wealth through investment in and prudent use of land and water resources. As a first step, the existing smallholder public and small scale irrigation schemes will need to be brought back into profitable production by way of rehabilitating the irrigation and drainage infrastructure, improving production and marketing systems and expanding the command areas to achieve economies of scale. The second step will entail putting more land under irrigation through construction of new infrastructure, including water harvesting facilities for agricultural use. Some of the interventions being carried by the government include:  Formulating the National Irrigation Policy and Legal Framework;  Rehabilitating and reviving existing and collapsed irrigation systems  Intensifying and expanding irrigation; Page | 49 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF  Improving and developing water storage systems;  Rehabilitating water catchment zones; and  Implementing irrigation flagship projects. In order to ensure long term sustainability of developed irrigation schemes, the Government is already putting in place Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) mechanisms, which involve transfer of specific management responsibilities and infrastructure to farmers through organized groups. This measure is geared towards ensuring the following:  Food for self-sufficiency or security at local and national levels;  Creation of employment and income generation at local and national levels;  Sustainable supply of raw materials for agro-based industries; and  Foreign exchange generation through export of surplus agricultural produce and resultant processed or manufactured products from agro- industries. According to the World Bank report, 2008, Kenya’s irrigated land as a percentage of Cropland is quite low and has stagnated at 1.6% since the year 2000 and rising marginally to 1.8% in 2003. The main irrigated crops are rice, maize, sugarcane, vegetables, bananas, citrus, coffee, tea, cotton and flowers. Some of these crops like maize, sugarcane, coffee, tea and cotton, technically, require large scales of operation for economic returns to be realized. Figure 4. Location and size of existing public schemes and irrigation potential in Kenya Page | 50 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Source; Irrigation Master Plan, Kenya 2011 6.3 Common Irrigated Crop Pests and Common Control Measures About 25-35% loss in agricultural produce is caused by pests and diseases which can be controlled by use of pesticides. These pesticides kill or deter the destructive activity of the target organism and they posses’ inherent toxicities that endanger the health of the farmers, consumers and the environment. The WSCRP sub project investments that will involve use of pesticides are going to be irrigation projects and this section highlights the type of crops that can be grown under irrigation agriculture in Kenya and the different agro-ecological zones as well as the common pest and weeds. Types of crops and production system vary from one ecological zone to the other in Kenya. Consequently pest control practices vary with respect to the type of pesticides and rates to be used. Page | 51 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 6.3.1 Agro-ecological zones Kenya’s agricultural productivity is determined by factors such as climate, hydrology and terrain (Jaetzold et al 2009). These agro-ecological factors also determine the suitability of an area for a particular land use and these should ultimately inform the zoning processes that the land use law entrenched in Article 66 of the Constitution would provide for. Land’s agricultural potential can be classified as high, medium or low. The high to medium potential land comprises about 20 percent of the country’s total land area. Because these areas consistently receive more than 1 200 mm of rainfall annually and the soils are fertile, they are used for the intensive cultivation of a large variety of crops such as tea, coffee, sugarcane, maize and wheat. Nevertheless, agricultural productivity is curtailed by a shortage of rainfall with only 17 percent of the country receiving average rainfall of more than 800 mm per annum, the minimum required for rain-fed agriculture. Figure 5 shows the country’s agro-ecological zones while Table 3 highlights crop suitability for each of these zones. The ASALs largely occupy northern and eastern Kenya as well as the southern margins of the central Kenya highlands. The semi-arid area covers about 20 percent of the entire land area while the arid area, which is characterized by true desert conditions, covers around 60 percent of the total landmass. Because incidences of crop failure in the ASALs are high, the predominant land-use systems are ranching, wildlife conservation and pastoralism although some perennial cash crops are cultivated. Figure 5 Agro-ecological zones in Kenya Page | 52 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Table 3 is presents the agricultural zones in Kenya, common crops and the major pests and weeds. The annex 4 highlights in summary all the common crops that are likely to be cultivated under irrigation within the WSCRP and regular pests and weeds as well as chemical and non-chemical control measures. Table 3: General characteristics and crop suitability of the Agro-ecological zones AEO Ratio of rainfall to AEO Principal crops Major Pest/Weeds potential evaporation (r/Eo I > 1.20 Per humid Forest zone II 0.80-1.20 Humid Tea (Crops Not Part of WSCRP) III 0.65- 0.79 Sub-Humid Wheat, Maize, Beans, Grass and broad leaf Irish Potatoes weeds, Perennial weeds, Soil insect pests, (millipedes, white grubs) Cutworms/armyworms, Termite Aphids/ thrips, Leafhopper, leaf streak Leaf beetles, African armyworm, Stalk borers Earworm, Maize streak virus, Grey leaf spot, Leaf blight Leaf rust Downy mildew Sweet potato weevils, Hornworms, Armyworm, Whitefly, Bemesia, Sweet potato virus, Late blight, Bacterial wilt, Virus complex of diseases Nematodes, Potato tuber moth IV 0.50-0.64 Sub-humid Beans and other pulses, Grass and broad leaf Maize, Wheat, Cotton , weeds, Perennial weeds, Cassava, Soil insect pests, (millipedes, white grubs) Cutworms/armyworms, Termite Aphids/ thrips, Leafhopper, leaf streak Leaf beetles, African armyworm, Stalk borers Earworm, Maize streak virus, Grey leaf spot, Leaf blight Leaf rust Downy mildew Sweet potato weevils, Hornworms, Armyworm, Whitefly, Bemesia, Sweet potato virus, Late blight, Bacterial wilt, Virus complex of diseases Nematodes, Potato tuber moth, Sweet potato weevils, Hornworms, Armyworm, Whitefly, Bemesia, Sweet potato virus, Late blight, Bacterial wilt, Page | 53 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Virus complex of diseases Nematodes, Potato tuber moth V 0.40-0.49 Transitional Barley, Cotton, Maize Grass and broad leaf Groundnut, Sorghum weeds, Perennial weeds, Soil insect pests, (millipedes, white grubs) Cutworms/armyworms, Termite Aphids/ thrips, Leafhopper, leaf streak Leaf beetles, African armyworm, Stalk borers Earworm, Maize streak virus, Grey leaf spot, Leaf blight Leaf rust Downy mildew Sweet potato weevils, Hornworms, Armyworm, Whitefly, Bemesia, Sweet potato virus, Late blight, Bacterial wilt, Virus complex of diseases Nematodes, Potato tuber moth, Damping off, Bacterial wilt, Rosette virus disease, Peanut clump virus, Verticillium wilt, Dry rot, Leaf miner, Millipedes VI 0.25-0.39 Sub-humid Beans Perennial grassy weeds, pigeon peas, S. Potatoes Damping off, seedling Sorghum, Millet Blight, Bean fly, Defoliating worms, Leaf beetles, White fly Bollworm, Pod borer, Blister beetles, Seed bugs, Bean common mosaic, necrosis Floury leaf spot, Bean rust, Powdery mildew, White mold, Bacterial blight, VII 0.10-0.24 Semi-Arid Ranching and cropping Grass and broad leaf only under irrigation weeds, Perennial weeds, Soil insect pests, (millipedes, white grubs) Cutworms/armyworms, Termite Aphids/ thrips, Leafhopper, leaf streak Leaf beetles, African armyworm, Stalk borers Earworm, Maize streak virus, Grey leaf spot, Leaf blight Leaf rust Downy mildew Sweet potato weevils, Hornworms, Armyworm, Page | 54 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Whitefly, Bemesia, Sweet potato virus, Late blight, Bacterial wilt, Virus complex of diseases Nematodes, Potato tuber moth, Weeds (grasses, sedges, broadleaves African, mole, Cricket Termites, Crazy ant, Grape colaspis, Beetle, Leaf miner fly, Stem borers, Green grasshopper, Stink bug, Rice blast, Smut, Birds, Rats Black-rot, Ring Spot, Dark Leaf Spot, Cabbage, Yellows, Diamondback Moth, Cabbage Sawfly, Red Spider Mite, Purple Blotch, VIII <0.10 Per Arid Range land Source: Jaetzold et al 2009 6.4 Common Weeds and Common Control Measures According to CABI's (2005) definition, a weed is a plant which grows where it is not wanted. In conventional agriculture all the plants germinating in the field, which are not specifically planted by the farmer, are often called weeds. This definition of weeds have led to "weeds" being rigorously weeded out or killed by herbicides as an integral part of what is currently known as conventional farming. Another definition is that a weed is a plant, the use of which has not yet been discovered. This definition fits in better with the natural law of Biodiversity, nature striving to create balances in vegetation/soil and fauna (creatures living off plants). Farmers in Kenya are often observed to be leaving edible weeds in the fields when weeding, not enough to threaten the main crop but just enough to have early maturing vegetables to eat until the main crop is ready. Notorious (troublesome) weeds are generally divided into two major categories:  Annual weeds (e.g. purple witch weed/Striga)  Perennial weeds (e.g. couch grass and sedges) 6.4.1 Annual weeds These are all the weeds germinating from seed along with every crop and going through a full lifecycle from germination to flowering to setting and dropping seeds in one season. All healthy top soils have myriads of different types of weed seed, and every time the soil Page | 55 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF is disturbed a new lot germinates, in order for the ground to keep itself covered. If we leave these weeds to grow unchecked, the crop we are trying to cultivate will not do well as there is too much competition. 6.4.2 Perennial weeds These are weeds with a root system that survives the dry seasons and stay alive for two or more seasons. If not controlled, perennials can completely crowd out crops in some cases by sending a dense network of underground roots and stolons in all directions. They are very difficult to control as the roots go deep and a very small piece of root or stem can regrow after weeding and create new networks. Perennials such as couch grass and sedges have a function though: they help the soil restore aeration and natural life in the patch of ground where they grow. They also protect the soil from soil erosion, being carried away by water or wind and the grasses provide fodder for livestock. . If these perennial weeds cover unproductive corners of the farm or steep hillsides they are not harmful, so far they do not invade the crop area. Management practices depend on which type is predominant in the field. 6.4.3 Control of annual weeds Many methods have been devised to combat annual weeds at an early stage to get optimum yield of food crops: 1. Digging or pulling the weeds and removing them from the field (in small gardens). The weeds can be composted. 2. Shallow cultivation at an early stage and leaving the weeds to dry on top of the soil either by hand or by animal or tractor mounted equipment. Tools include row cultivators, small grain seed spring harrows and hard brushes for row treatment. 3. Slashing weeds at ground level when 10 to 15 cm tall and definitely before flowering, then leaving them on the ground as mulch, reduces the weeding work substantially. It is much lighter work to slash than to dig with a hoe (jembe) and intervals between slashing can be longer than between traditional weeding/digging. This method can also be using either hand slashing or animal/tractor drawn equipment such as mowers or the knife rollers developed by Conservation agriculture studies in Kenya (IIRR 2005). 4. Planting of ground cover plants especially legumes to crowd out further "weed" germination. This not only provides ground cover but also enriches the soil, and will eliminate further weeding operations. The legumes will often continue growing after the main crop is harvested, providing soil protection until the next crop is planted. They can also become useful for feeding livestock or for incorporating into the soil as green manure. 5. Burning. Mechanised farming can choose between a variety of equipment for weed control by burning, both back pack types and tractor mounted equipment. This method will not improve soil fertility, but instead burn off badly needed humus in the top layer of the soil. Page | 56 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 6. Herbicide spraying is not allowed in organic farming. This method uses various plant poisons to kill the weeds, all of which are harmful to natural systems and some of which can stay in the soil for a very long time and become part of the food we eat. There have been many examples in Kenya especially from flower companies renting land from small farmers, returning that land poisoned to an extent that attempts at selling export food crops from this land has been rejected from the export markets due to too high levels of herbicide contamination. 6.4.4 Control of perennial weeds  Ground covering legume plants and mulches can play a very important role in both improving the soil fertility and combat perennial weeds. Leafy and other strongly growing legumes planted in weed infested land will both overpower the sedges and enrich the soil.  Solarisation. Covering weed infested land with black polythene after wetting it, and leaving for some days with hot sunshine, will completely eliminate any of the sedge species. However plastic is expensive, so if it cannot be afforded try the first option: ground cover with legumes.  Mulching-weeds have been successfully controlled with heavy mulching. Initially the weeds grow prolifically, but after a wet period they are easy to remove by careful hand pulling making sure the "nut" does not stay in the soil. This does not work on hard un-mulched soils.  Hand digging. Very careful hand digging with a knife ensuring all the little underground bulbs are removed can give a small reduction in oxalis populations (annual or perennial), but is very time consuming and bound to leave a few bulbs here and there which will waste no time in germinating. 6.5 Current pest management approaches and IPM experience in Kenya. Integrated Pest Management is an approach embraced by the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). This is an activity coordinated by the Crop Protection Division of MOA. It Involves training of extension service personnel on minimal use of pesticides to control plant and animal pests and diseases and maximum use biological agents as natural enemies of pests to control them. They are trained to recognize and appreciate the dangers inherent in over-use of pesticides which include harmful effect on beneficial insects and biodiversity. This information is then passed down the line to the local farmers through farmer’s field days or during in-house training at Farmer Training Centers. The Crop Protection Division has a vision of being the leading agent in the reduction of plant losses through sound plant protection practices. The mission of the Division is to promote sustainable Plant Protection practises that are ecologically safe for increased agricultural production. Page | 57 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF The principle objective of this division is to reduce pre and post-harvest crop losses through effective control of pests, toxins and diseases. Its functions include; 1. To develop and expand facilities and capabilities of the Division required in assisting farmers in crop pests, weeds and diseases control both in the field and in stores. 2. To organize and execute pests, weeds and diseases control operations when pest occur in outbreak proportions beyond the capabilities of individual farmers such as quelea, armyworms, rodents and locusts outbreak. 3. To monitor and evaluate crop pests, weeds and disease control operations in the field and on the farms. 4. To advise farmers on the methods and techniques of detecting, reporting and controlling crop pests, weeds and diseases both in the field and on the farms. 5. To train extension staff on the technical and financial aspects of integrated crop protection in specific farming systems. 6. To test under field operational conditions, the practically of any new techniques, new equipment or new pesticides for crop pests, diseases and weed control, emanating from National or Regional Research Institutions before releasing them to the districts. 7. To continue to investigate the environmental impact of crop protection techniques with emphasis on minimizing the amount of pesticides used, evaluating contamination of water and grazing, reducing damages to vegetation species. 8. Planning and implementation of crop protection programmes, projects and strategies which aim at reducing crop losses caused by pest weeds and diseases. 9. To strengthen or where appropriate, establish district crop protection advisory Units to a level which they can handle most of the local crop protection problems with up-to-date advice to farmers. 10. To co-operate with other relevant institutions such as KARI, ICIPE, Department of Defence, Universities, DLCO-EA, IRLCO-CSA, CABI, KEPHIS, PCPB etc. in matters related to Plant Protection and to the enforcement of Plant Protection act Cap.324 and Pest Control Products Act Cap 346. The Government of Kenya recognition of the importance of managing risks posed by chemicals is reflected in several sector policies and legal instruments. The Page | 58 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA), 1999 provides for sustainable management of the environment, it provides detailed considerations for toxic chemicals. It also provides for coordination and regulation of activities on sound management of chemicals. The Sessional Paper on Environment and Development of 1999, created the overarching policy framework that informed on development of subsequent legislations governing chemicals regulations, guidelines, management tools, data, information, illegal grade and commitment to abide to international agreements. 6.6 Pesticides usage in Agriculture Sector Kenya Pests and diseases are responsible for 30-40% loss in agricultural produce in the tropics. The most conventional and common way of pest and disease control is through the use of pesticides. These pesticides are largely synthetic compounds which kill or deter the destructive activity of the target organism. Unfortunately, these compounds possess inherent toxicities that endanger the health of the farm operator, consumer and the environment. Agriculture accounts for about 24% of Kenya’s GDP with an estimated 75% of the population depending on the sector either directly or indirectly. Much of the intermittent strength and overall weakness in GDP and income growth in Kenya can be attributed to changes in agricultural performance. The horticulture sub-sector of agriculture has grown in the last decade to become a major foreign exchange earner, employer and contributor to food needs in the country. Currently the horticulture industry is the fastest growing agricultural subsector in the country and is ranked third in terms of foreign exchange earnings from exports after tourism and tea. Fruits, vegetable and cut flower production are the main aspects of horticultural production in Kenya (Export processing zones authority, 2005). As an agricultural economy, Kenya’s demand for pesticides is relatively high. The import demand is further fuelled by regional consumption in land locked countries like Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi. Indeed the development of horticultural farming in Kenya equally increased the demand in the late 1990’s (Paul, 2005). Kenya imports approximately 7,000 metric tones of pesticides worth billions of Kenya shillings (US$ 50 million). These pesticides are an assortment of insecticides, fungicides, herbicides fumigants, rodenticides, growth regulators, defoliators, proteins, surfactants and wetting agents. Of the total pesticide imports, insecticides account for about 40% in terms of volume (2,900 metric tones) and 50% of the total cost of pesticide imports (Ngaruiya, 2004). 6.6.1 Pesticide imports and exports Approximately 7047 metric tonnes of the pesticides with a value of US$ 50 million (4.0 billion Kenya shillings) were imported into the country in 2005 (PCPB, 2005). The major active substances imported during the year were glyphosate, Mancozeb, Amitraz, Copper oxycholide, 1, 3-dichloropropene, 2, 4-D Amine, Sulphur, Dimethoate and Methyl bromide in order of decreasing volume. In the year, more insecticides were imported in comparison to the other pesticide groups. The pesticides value contributed to more than 50% of the total value of pesticides imported during the year. Page | 59 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF In 2005, approximately 63 metric tonnes of pesticides worth US$ 700,000 (Kshs. 55 million) were exported from Kenya to the neighbouring countries (mainly Seychelles, Burundi, Uganda and Tanzania) (PCPB, 2005). The pesticides exported were mainly cypermethrin, chorofenvinphos and permethrin + pirimiphos. These are mainly synthetic pyrethroid. These figures exclude exports of crude pyrethrin done by the pyrethrum board of Kenya which amount to 6000 tonnes annually. The export figure may be more because some dealers may be exporting pesticides without the board’s knowledge. The large majority of pesticides are imported into Kenya by private sector distributors and retailers, reflecting major change since the 1990s when pesticides were also imported by the Government and its agencies through commodity aid that often led to oversupply. Direct pesticide imports by the state are now virtually non-existent, and state-funded imports appear to be limited to pesticides bought by the Ministry of Health through donor funds. A large part of pesticide distribution to end-users is also done by private sector distributors and retailers, although exact figures are not available. Furthermore, private distributors deliver the pesticides they import to commodity companies which in turn will distribute the products to end-user farmers. The private sector may also deliver pesticides to government structures who then distribute them to end users. 6.6.2 Fertilizers In 2009, Kenya had one plant fertilizer (KEL Chemicals Ltd) which has an annual production capacity of 40,000 tonnes (the local market demand) of super-phosphate. The rest of the chemical fertilizers, whose demand is about 344,000 tonnes per year, are imported. Other sources of fertilizer imports are normally in the form of aid from the US, Gulf States, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. The imports for 2008 are given in Table 4. Table 4. Fertilizer imports in 2008 Manufactured fertilizers: Tonnes Nitrogenous 129,057 Phosphatic 14,716 Other 331,932 Current annual consumption is considerably below the level required for a growing agricultural sector, estimated at 400,000 tonnes. Donor-aid fertilizer has constituted about 40 per cent of phosphate (DAP) for planting and Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) for top-dressing. Also large amounts of NPK 25:5:5 + 5S are imported and used mainly for use in tea plantations. The main concern about fertilizer industries is that most farmers are not familiar with the chemical nature of fertilizers or the soils to which they apply the fertilizer. There have been cases of misuse of fertilizers. In addition, run-off from agricultural fields with heavy fertilizer uses contributes to nutrients enrichment of the rivers and lakes with nutrients accelerating eutrophication. For instance the growth of savinia molesta in Lake Naivasha and of the proliferation of Page | 60 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF water hyacinth in Lake Victoria often cost Kenya Millions of shillings due to reduced fish catch for export. The high toxicity levels encountered in these environments is attributed to high rate of discharge of nitrates and phosphates from sewage treatment works. Discharges into rivers and lakes are regulated by Water Quality Standards and guidelines. 6.7 General Pesticides Agriculture Application Methods in Kenya Pesticides have been used extensively in Kenya for agricultural and public health purposes for over 50 years (De Lima, 1976). For example according to a survey that was carried out in Rift Valley and Central provinces of Kenya between October 2009 and January 2010 on horticultural farms producing either kales, french beans, cabbage, eryngium, morbydick and arabicum, the results indicated that pesticides are readily available and widely used in farms and the main herbicides in use were identified as linurex 50 wp and diurex 80wp while insecticides included diazol 60EC and methomex 90S, fungicides included folicur EW and dithane M45. The most common application methods in Kenya are spraying with liquid formulations and dusting with powders. Common spray equipment is either carried by hand or backpacks or mounted on a tractor or aircraft. Other pesticide delivery systems include seed dressings, baits, granules or liquid drenches applied to the soil, vaporization (outdoor fogging or indoor fumigation), and controlled release formulations. Liquid pesticides are commonly sold as concentrates that need to be diluted. Mixing and loading are usually the most hazardous steps in pesticide handling. Inaccurate dilution can reduce pesticide effectiveness, increase residues or accelerate the development of pesticide resistance. Low-concentration granular, seed dressing, and bait formulations generally present lower levels of hazard to users and the environment, but they may be harmful to domestic animals and wildlife, particularly granivorous birds. Erroneous consumption of treated seed is a cause of human poisoning. Fumigation is used to protect farm products in stores and during transport. Use of fumigants at farm level has been facilitated by the availability of phosphide tablets that release toxic gas. Use of these tablets requires special equipment, air-tight storage containers, training, and post treatment caution. Fumigation also involves residue risks. Therefore, this option can present a serious hazard if users are untrained and poorly equipped, as often is the case. Air-tight storage of farm product may be a safer and cheaper alternative. Trapping techniques that combine pest attractants with pesticides can be a very efficient in controlling pests with very small quantities of pesticides. Such techniques also avoid residue problems, environmental contamination and exposure of non-target organisms. Spot applications, where pesticides are sprayed only on affected plants, are preferred over blanket applications, where the whole field is sprayed. Page | 61 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 6.8 Pesticide Transportation and Storage in Kenya The Pest Control Products Board is a Statutory organization of Kenya Government established under an Act of parliament, the Pest Control Products Act, Cap 346, Laws of Kenya of 1982 to regulate the importation and exportation, manufacture, distribution and use of pest control products. 6.8.1 Storage of Pesticides A significant proportion of pesticide stores in Kenya like in many sub-Sahara African countries does not meet minimum requirements for such stores: location at safe distance from water and human dwellings; compound fenced and access limited to authorized staff; floors of impermeable concrete; ramps to contain leaking liquids; adequate ventilation; doors under lock; store keepers trained in handling pesticides; emergency shower facilities; adequate quantities of materials and protective gear to deal with emergencies. Storage of pesticides in Kenya is primarily the domain of the licenced agro-vet institutions that have a licence from PCPB Kenya to importation and exportation, manufacture, distribution and use of pest control products. Majority of farmers in Kenya purchase their pesticides from licensed agro-vet who must be registered dealers and must possess a permit to store and distribute pesticides. 6.8.2 Conditions of Warehouses The mandate of the Pest Control Products Board as prescribed in the Pest Control Products Act and also in line with its vision and mission statement includes the following activities: 1. Assessing suitability of premises used for manufacture/formulation, re-packing, storage and distribution of pest control products for purposes of licensing them for those functions. 2. Creating awareness of the general public on all aspects of safety, storage, handling, disposal and use of pest control products. Every year, the PCPB is mandated to inspect the licensed warehouses in the country to determine if they meet the requirements storage for pesticides. Majority of the warehouses that are inspected on annual basis do not meet the threshold recommended for best practise in warehouses for pesticide storage thus reinforcing the need for the WSCRP to ensure that when using pesticides, storage facilities used are vetted extensively to ensure that they comply. 6.8.3 Storage on the Farm The PCBP guidelines on pesticide storage on the farm require that all farmers;-  Ensure the pesticide store is properly secured i.e. locked and out of reach of unauthorised people, children and animals.  Keep food and feed stuffs well away from pesticides.  The store should be well sited to minimise deterioration due to climatic conditions. Page | 62 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF  The pesticide stocks should be properly managed - correctly placed, properly marked, upright, placed on intact shelves or pallets, appropriate height.  Proper stock controls: orderly stock arrangement, segregation of different pesticide types, “first-in, first-out� stock control, controlled receiving and issuing of stocks.  Regular store and stock inspections: checking if pesticide is still fit for use.  No re-packing on the farm should be done except in emergency, because of the dangers associated with unsuitable packing material and inadequate labelling.  Have emergency procedures for fires: avoid smoking; safe electrical systems; danger warning signs; fire fighting equipment - water, sand, fire extinguishers; equipment must have easy access; protective clothing; regular equipment checks.  Have emergency procedures for spills and leaks: sawdust-lime mix, sand, broom, spade, buckets or strong plastic bags.  Have emergency procedures and facilities for personnel contamination: protective clothing, showers. A survey conducted by Agrochemical Association of Kenya (AAK) in 2009 revealed that most farmers in Kenya do not procure large quantities of pesticides that would warrant storage over a long time. The trend by many farmers especially small scale farmers is to procure only the quantities they expect to use for that planting season. Only the large scale farmers procure large quantities of pesticides and fertilisers and store over a long period of time. This cadre of farmers however, possess adequate storage facilities that meet the FAO standards and guidelines for pesticide storage. 6.8.4 Transportation of Pesticides The PCPB has developed guidelines (see annex 3) for the transportation of pesticides and these guidelines expressly disallow the transportation of pesticides near people, their belongings or food. The guidelines specify that where farmers have to collect pesticides from distributors such as retailers, the following guidelines should be followed: 1. Seal small containers in plastic bags: as an added precaution, any small containers should be sealed inside a strong plastic bag. 2. Do not carry pesticides inside the passenger compartment: pesticides should be placed on the back of the truck or boot of a car, in an outsize container, or in a trailer. 3. Inform drivers: drivers collecting pesticides must understand the danger of pesticides, what the containers hold and what to do in the case of an emergency. 4. Care in loading and unloading: special care must be taken during loading and unloading to prevent container damage and spills. 5. Do not push containers off the back of the vehicle. Load in a controlled way - forklift truck, hoist or suitable ramp, such as planks and old tyres to stop containers at the ground. 6. Vehicles transporting pesticides should carry spill equipment including, Lime- sawdust mix, sand, broom, spade, buckets Page | 63 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 6.8.5 Determination of Risks to Farmers and General Public Poor storage and transport of pesticides is a potential risk to farmers and the general population. There have been several cases where pesticide stores burnt down as a result of poor management. These accidents caused severe environmental contamination. On- farm storage practices for pesticides are very often not safe. Risks associated with the transportation and storage of pesticides should be addressed will be addressed in the sub project specific Integrated Pest Management Plans. Auditing of storage facilities will be necessary as part of project preparation if procurement of large volumes is envisaged. Page | 64 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 7 METHODOLOGIES FOR IPM PLANNING, DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION OF INVESTMENTS TO BE FINANCED UNDER WSCRP This chapter describes the typical methodologies that should be used by executing agencies when preparing sub project Integrated Pest Management Plans (IPMPs) for investments under WSCRP when screening determines that pesticides will be utilized in the specific sub project. The Water Security and Climate Resilience Project (WSCRP) is expected to invest in water related sub project investments that will involve water supply for productive use including irrigation infrastructure. The Lower Nzoia Irrigation Development Project is one such sub project that has been earmarked as a potential investment aimed at harnessing water from the Nzoia River Basin for use in irrigating crops in the project area. This example as well as others in the pipeline will use pesticides in order to as part of boosting productivity by reducing pests and weed infestation. The likelihood and potential for application of pesticides in the WSCRP sub project investments triggers the OP 4.09 which requires the preparation of an IPMF and consequently sub project specific IPMPs. 7.1 Kenya’s Agro Ecological Zones Kenya has several agro-ecological zones and in order to design an effective IPM full understanding of these zones where potential irrigated agricultural activities may occur is vital. The water resources development component may support irrigation investments in different agro-ecological zones of Kenya and the IPM elements will in a great way rely on the location of specific project investments. Figure 6 below provides the description of these agro-ecologies in Kenya which is a critical and very first step when developing an IPMP while Figure 7 shows the productive areas or systems in Kenya. In addition to the agro-ecologies, IPM planning involves consideration of the inputs required in the production processes of the target enterprise. For example, what support does the project provide to the target farmers in terms of acquiring key farm inputs? Are the inputs used by farmers complementary and do they empower the farmer economically? Are there simple and cheap methods that farmers can adopt in their production systems? Some of the key inputs likely to be provided by WSCRP through the executing agencies include seeds, fertilizers and pesticides. Page | 65 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Figure 6: Agro-ecological zones Page | 66 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Figure 7. Production/livelihood systems in Kenya 7.2 Designing an IPMP Integrated Pest Management is a sustainable approach to managing pests by combining cultural, physical/mechanical, biological, and chemical tools in a way that keep pests below their economic injury levels and minimizes economic, health and environmental risks. Fundamentally, IPM aims to maximise the use of biological control; other control measures especially chemicals play a supportive rather than a disruptive role. Every sub project investment under the WSCRP that triggers OP 4.09 will require the preparation of an IPMP and the sections below outlines the proposed approach in developing IPMPs. The WSCRP executing agencies will recruit consultants with expertise in crops science and pest management to prepare these IPMPs. 7.2.1 Setting up an IPM Program Planning is at the core of any IPM program. Every crop has pests that need to be considered. Waiting until problems arise during a growing season will end up increasing reliance on pesticides more and more. A good Integrated Pest Management program has four parts and all the IPMPs that will be prepared under WSCRP will have to follow these parts: a) Identifying problems; Page | 67 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF b) Selecting tactics; c) Considering economic and environmental factors; and d) Evaluating the program. 7.2.2 Proper identification of problems The correct IPM approach promotes “proactive� rather than “reactive� management. Correct identification is the first and most important step in controlling a field problem. This first step is critical to future success, since an incorrect diagnosis leads to mismanagement. What is causing the problem? A pest? An environmental stress? A nutritional deficiency? Or some another factor or combination of factors. Scouting is, in fact, the key feature of any IPM program. By scouting, the ability to detect potential problems early is increased. The earlier a problem is discovered, the better you chances are of avoiding economic losses. Farmers implementing WSCRP using pesticides will be trained on scouting techniques to identify pests early to promote the proactive approach in pest management as described above. To scout effectively farmers will be encouraged and trained to:  Know the crop’s growth characteristics to recognize abnormal or damaged plants.  Identify the cause of the problem to know what kind of pest you are dealing with.  Contact agricultural extension officers if they encounter something that they cannot identify.  Determine the stage of growth of the pest and the crop. This is essential for proper timing of control methods.  Decide whether the infestation is increasing or decreasing.  Assess the condition of the crop.  Map out problem areas. It may be possible to limit the area that needs treatment.  Use the right scouting method for the specific pest. Select Tactics  Once the problem has been identified, considerations on how to control it will have to be made. The goal in selecting control tactics is to use methods that are effective, practical, economical, and environmentally sound. To select the best control tactics, there will be need to:  Understand the life cycle and habits of the pest. Some control methods will work only if they are used at the right time.  Decide whether the infestation is serious in terms of economic loss.  Compare the costs and benefits of various control methods.  Make plans for the future. Not every part of an IPM program can be put into effect immediately. Some tactics, such as planting resistant varieties or rotating crops, require long-range planning. 7.2.3 Sampling to determine the extent of the problem Once the pest is correctly identified, the next question which that will need to be answered will be; Is there a risk of significant loss? Is the problem occasionally seen? Localized? Or commonly found throughout the field? What is the extent of the damage? Is the problem a growing threat? Page | 68 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Correct sampling will help to eliminate the guesswork in pest control by providing a means to quantify an old problem or discover a new one. Sampling knowledge and information on pest and crop biology should be used to make better management decisions. 7.2.4 Analysis to assess problem importance This step in the pest management process will entail analysing the identification and sampling information and evaluating the need for a pest control action to make a determination on how bad the problem really is. There will be need to assess whether the potential control measure are more costly than the damage potential? There is need to weigh economic, environmental, and times concerns and assess the impact of the current pest control decision on future crop management decisions? 7.2.5 Selection of appropriate management alternative The pest management action plan needed must entail a strategy that fits with the short- and long-term plans, labor force, capital, equipment, and finances of the farm. Therefore an evaluation of the costs, benefits, and risks of employing various management options. Opportunities to integrate different pest control strategies must be considered. Choosing controls There is no such thing as a completely safe and natural pesticide. Pesticides can vary greatly in their level of toxicity to non-target organisms such as people, pets or beneficial insects. Even organically approved pesticides can pose a danger to people and the environment if they are not used properly. Pesticides are grouped into various types or categories. For example, there are fungicides, insecticides, herbicides (for weeds), nematicides (for nematodes) and miticides (for mites). While many pesticides control specific problems, there are still some broad spectrum controls. In addition, there are many products that are only effective if they are used at a specific growth stage of the pest, so timing is critical. The following are examples of management tactics which the WSCRP should consider employing in sub projects using pesticides;  Biological - Parasites, predators, pest  Chemical - Pesticides, pheromones, baits, attractants  Cultural - Rotation, planting date, site selection, fertility, pH, plant populations, sanitation  Host Resistance - Resistant Varieties, Transgenic Crops  Mechanical - Cultivation, Tillage, Rotary Hoe, Fly Swatter, Traps, Screen, Fence  Physical - Rain, Freezing, Solar Radiation 7.2.6 Consider Economic Factors Despite efforts to avoid using chemicals, there are times when only pesticides can control the damage. Even so, it may not pay to use them. Pesticides will be used the WSCRP Page | 69 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF IPM programs only when the benefits (yield, quality, aesthetic value) exceed the costs of control in order to avoid wastage of time and money. There will be need to consider the following variable when deciding to use pesticides namely: the pest population, variety, and crop growth stage, value of the crop, weather, and cost of the control. 7.2.7 Evaluate IPM Program Evaluation means deciding how effective a program is and whether any changes are needed. All sub projects that will prepare IPMPs will have to evaluate the IPMPs and should:  Monitor fields and keep records. Each time field visits are made, a note of crop and pest conditions—record crop yields and quality and record any counts on pest populations.  Record control measures. Records should include dates, weather conditions, pest levels, application rates and timing, and costs. Good records are a guide if the same problem occurs.  Compare effectiveness. Whatever control tactics are chosen, use a different method on some strips. That way comparison are able to be made; which worked better, taking into account costs and environmental impacts 7.3 Implementation of IPMPs 7.3.1 Identify the implementation team As with any successful initiative, the transition to an IPM program requires a diverse, action-oriented team. Each sub project investment that will use pesticides and which will prepare an IPM will establish a committee to spearhead the implementation of the IPMP. The committee will comprise of the following;-  Executing Agency Representative-e.g. National Irrigation Board (agronomist)  District Environment Officer-National Environment Management Authority-to address environmental related issues in regard to pesticides  District Agricultural Officer  Representatives of Farmers Organisation or Integrated Water Use Association member  Representative of NGOs/CBOs active in the area in field of agricultural support  Representative of Agro Vet Distributors in the district  Representative of Kenya Agricultural Research Institute in the district 7.3.2 Monitoring IPM Success Every IPMP will have mechanisms in place to monitor the success or otherwise of the plan. Every sub project investment that utilises pesticides will require as part of its IPMP an evaluation and monitoring plan and a system in place to measure the program’s achievements. The following elements should comprise the monitoring scheme Efficacy: Since IPM is better at controlling pests, a measurable reduction in pest sightings should be observed. Page | 70 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Cost: The IPMP should evaluate the cost reductions over time as a result of the IPM gains. Safety: IPM’s ability to create a safer environment is predicated in large part on reducing pesticide use. The goal should be a downward trend over time or ideally, a specific reduction amount, with the end result a reduction to only very occasional usage of highly toxic pest control chemicals. 7.3.3 Develop worker training plans and policies The farmers who will benefit from the WSCRP sub project investment that will use pesticides need to be provided with training which is a fundamental part of any IPMP. Training includes among others routine, proactive surveillance, reporting pest sightings, which will quicken response times and help limit the scope of new infestations. Section 12 of this report describes in detail the training and capacity building approaches for this IPMF. Page | 71 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 8 POTENTIAL ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF PEST MANAGMENT ACTIVITIES This chapter analyses the potential positive (beneficial) and negative (adverse) socio- economic and environmental consequences of pesticide use under the investments envisioned within the WSCRP. 8.1 Chemical Control Method Broadly defined, a pesticide is any agent used to kill or control any pest. Pests can be insects, rodents or birds, unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, or micro-organisms such as bacteria and viruses. Though often misunderstood to refer only to insecticides, the term pesticide also applies to herbicides, fungicides, micro biocides, rodenticides and various other substances used to control pests. Pesticides are by their nature poisons, and their use entails a degree of risk to humans, birds, fish, bees, and other living things, as well as to the environment. To deal with and minimize these risks within bank funded projects, the bank has developed instituted OP. 4.09 that require an examination of the proposed use of pesticides and the alternatives that are available, and the establishment of a framework to govern the choice of specific pesticides, as well as the manner in which they will be used. Figure 8 below shows the fertiliser consumption in Kenya from 1990-2007 and projection of 2008. Figure 8: Trends in fertilizer consumption, commercial imports, and donor imports, 1990- 2007, with projections for 2008. Source: Ministry of Agriculture, 1990-2007; 2008 projections from interviews of fertilizer importers. Page | 72 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Figure 9. Main Fertilizer Types in Kenya Source: Ministry of agriculture, Farm Inputs Division Figure 10. Fertilizer consumption trends in Kenya Source: Ministry of agriculture, Farm Inputs Division Page | 73 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Table 5. Pesticide and Fertilizer imports/exports/manufacturing Chemical Type Production/manufacturing Imports/year Exports (tonnes/year) 1,000 (tonnes/year) tonness Pesticides* Nil 9,972 0 Fertilizers* Nil 475,705 0 Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009, *Pest Control Products Board Annual Report (2007) 8.1.1 Impact on Environment All campaigns against invasive species of pests and disease tend to occur over large areas, thereby affecting a significant amount of territory and people. The use of pesticides in an effort to control pests, both introduced and indigenous, can lead to serious health effects. High levels of these chemicals become harmful to man and aquatic community as the chemicals are eventually washed as run offs to the water bodies. The use of pesticides becomes injurious particularly for example as evidenced by the spray drift if the spraying is not well done it affects non-target plants or animals. The table 6 below shows the list of agrochemicals that are banned or restricted in the country. The danger is that some of these chemicals which are banned are still being used in Kenya including DDT and dieldrin, amongst others. Table 6. Banned Pesticides in Kenya BANNED PESTICIDES IN KENYA Common name Use Date Banned 1. 2,4,5 T (2,4,5 – Trichloro- Herbicide 1986 phenoxybutyric acid) 2. Chlordane Insecticide 1986 3. Chlordimeform Insecticide 1986 4. DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl Agriculture 1986 Trichloroethane) 5. Dibromochloropropane Soil Fumigant 1986 6. Endrin Insecticide 1986 7. Ethylene dibromide Soil Fumigant 1986 8. Heptachlor Insecticide 1986 9. Toxaphene (Camphechlor) Insecticide 1986 10. 5 Isomers of Hexachlorocyclo- Fungicide 1986 hexane (HCH) 11. Ethyl Parathion Insecticide ; All formulations banned except for capsule 1988 suspensions 12. Methyl Parathion Insecticide ; All formulations banned except for capsule 1988 suspensions 13. Captafol Fungicide 1989 14. Aldrin Insecticide 2004 15. Benomyl, Carbofuran, Thiram Dustable powder formulations containing a combination 2004 combinations of Benomyl above 7%, Carbofuran above 10% and Thiram above 15% 16. Binapacryl Miticide/Fumigant 2004 17. Chlorobenzilate Miticide 2004 18. Dieldrin Insecticide 2004 19. Dinoseb and Dinoseb salts Herbicide 2004 20. DNOC and its salts (such as Insecticide, Fungicide, Herbicide 2004 Ammonium Salt, Potassium salt & Sodium Salt) 21. Ethylene Dichloride Fumigant 2004 22. Ethylene Oxide Fumigant 2004 23. Fluoroacetamide Rodenticide 2004 Page | 74 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 24. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) Fungicide 2004 25. Mercury Compounds Fungicides, seed treatment 2004 26. Pentachlorophenol Herbicide 2004 Phosphamidon Insecticide, Soluble liquid formulations of the substance 2004 that exceed 1000g active ingredient/L 27. Monocrotophos Insecticide/Acaricide 2009 28. All Tributylin Compounds All compounds including tributyltin oxide, tributyltin 2009 benzoate, trybutyltin fluoride, trybutyltin lineoleate, tributyltin methacrylate, tributyltin naphthenate, tributylin chloride 29. Alachlor Herbicide. 2011 30. Aldicarb Nematicide/Insecticide/Acaricide. 2011 Endosulfan Insecticide. 2011 31. Lindane Insecticide. 2011 Source: PCPB Kenya Table 7. Restricted Pesticides in Kenya RESTRICTED PESTICIDES IN KENYA Common name Remarks Benomyl, Carbofuran/Thiram Dustable powder formulations containing a combination of Benomyl below 7%, combinations Carbofuran below 10% and Thiram below 15%. DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl Insecticide, restricted use to Public Health only for mosquito control for indoor trichloroethane) residual spray by Ministry of Health. Banned for agricultural use. Ethyl Parathion Insecticide, capsule suspension formulations allowed in 1998. Methyl parathion Insecticide, capsule suspension formulations allowed in 1998. Phosphamidon Insecticide, Soluble liquid formulations of the substance that is below1000g active ingredient/L. Source: PCPB Kenya 8.1.1 Contamination of surface water courses and underground water Spills in water bodies (surface) are a key concern in pesticide procurement, transport, and application because it could not only lead to contamination of water routinely used for domestic purposes but because of the toxicity to fish and other aquatic organisms. Thus the primary concern for the WSCRP would be the possible release of the pesticides into the existing water bodies from accidental spills during the transportation of the pesticides, application of pesticides to seeds and crops, clean-up of PPE and used pesticide equipment (mixers), or the disposal of pesticide wastes (sachets, containers, packaging materials etc.). Contamination of underground water resources is also possible during the disposal of containers through leaching, burying, and accidental spills. In the context of seed treatment, the risks are likely to be insignificant, especially if the risk mitigation measures are utilized, because pesticide application will be moderate in quantity. Pesticide application will be done at the procurement level, i.e., most of the seeds will be treated with pesticides prior to purchase. Application of pesticides on the seeds by project personnel is expected to occur in a controlled environment in the seed storage locations, and minimal pesticide application on seeds at the field level is anticipated. However, bulk procurement of pesticides for treating seeds prior to storage carries the potential for surface and ground water pollution. Risks include pilferage and subsequent Page | 75 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF unauthorized usage, and poor siting of the pesticide stores that expose pesticides to floods and run-off, potentially winding up in surface and ground water sources. Other risks include inappropriate planting of seeds leading to consumption by birds or other animals (even possibly human consumption), and failure to respect the re-entry restriction interval after seeding. Application of pesticides on crops already planted is likely to cause a risk to surface and underground water resources, sensitive environments like wetlands and to inherent wildlife in the project areas and a level of detail in terms of mitigation measures which are described in the Monitoring and Mitigation Plan (MMP). 8.1.2 Contamination of surface water Pesticide application in irrigation agriculture is a risk to surface water sources which are numerous in Kenya and contamination of surface water sources is a threat to human health through the contamination of water that the general public depend on for domestic and industrial use. Surface water contamination is also a risk to the aquatic life forms (flora and fauna) all which inhabit water bodies in Kenya. The main pathways for surface contamination include blanket coverage and spray drift through aerial spray to cover large areas that lead to unnecessary use, environmental contamination, impact on non-target organisms, and human exposure through the spray drift effect. Moreover, aerial application is often carried out by contractors who are paid by the volume sprayed or ground area covered a practice that can provide an incentive for carelessness and haste. Drainage or windblown dusts from agricultural/irrigated fields is also a typical source for contaminating surface water. 8.1.3 Impact on Health and safety It is understood that pesticide use can be dangerous to farmers, nearby exposed populations and the affected environment. It is estimated that there are almost 5 million cases of pesticide poisoning in developing countries each year. World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that there are 3 million severe human pesticide poisonings in the world each year, with approximately 220,000 deaths. While developed countries use about 80 percent of the world's pesticides, they have less than half of this number of deaths. It is not known how many of these poisonings should be attributed to control measures against plant pests. The use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides may lead to water pollution, given that water is used for drinking and other domestic purposes. Concerns remain about worker exposure, residues on food and harm to domestic and non- target wild animals. Fish and invertebrates are frequently vulnerable, especially aquatic arthropods. Stocks of obsolete pesticides have also become a serious health and environmental problem in many countries including Kenya. Since pest outbreaks are erratic and difficult to predict, there is a danger that more pesticides than needed may be ordered leading to stockpiles. Page | 76 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF The pesticide stockpiles pose a very important problem that requires urgent attention, especially for stocks near urban areas where there is a risk of the pesticides contaminating drinking-water, food or the air. The table 8 below shows the number of pesticide related deaths officially recorded in 2008 in Kenya. Table 8. Deaths attributable to Pesticide Poisoning Cyhalothrin 18 Chlorpyrifos 10 Carbofuran 17 Diazinon 17 Chlorfenvinphos 4 Propoxur 3 Methomyl 2 Amitraz 4 Carbaryl 5 Unidentified OC 3 Unidentified OP Ethion Total 87 Source: Situation Analysis on Sound Management of Pesticides in Kenya. 2008 8.1.4 Worker/Human Exposure Pathway Throughout the pesticide application process, all applicators, including loaders, mixers, applicators, transporters are at risk of un-intentional or deliberate exposure through accidents or poor and improper handling of the spray chemical. Worker exposure to the chemical could arise prior to and/or during the actual pesticide application phase of operations. Pre Application Exposure Pathway Preparing pesticide solutions will involve in some cases pouring and mixing the pesticide in cans or other equipment to ensure ample mix with the water or other soluble matters. The process of mixing the pesticide can lead to exposures via inhalation, dermal contact, and incidental ingestion, mostly from releases of pesticide vapors, and solutions. Vapor releases can occur when liquid concentrated emulsions are diluted. Workers can inhale the vapors or the particulates or be exposed through dermal contact. Spills could also pose significant risk, especially for children who ingest the resulting residues that are left on surfaces such as floors. Figure 11 below shows the possible modes of exposure during preparation of pesticides. Page | 77 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Figure 11. Conceptual Model for Possible Exposure Pathways from Preparation of Pesticide Process Accidental Release Media Exposure Pathway Receptor Mixing Air emissions Inhalation (dry) Worker Stirring Splashing Dermal Pouring Spillage Soil Ingestion Resident Application Exposure Pathway Inhalation of aerosol vapors during spraying is the main process for worker exposure during pesticide application. Farmers or pesticide handlers are mainly exposed through dermal contact with sprayed surfaces and incidental ingestion of pesticides. Leaky equipment can also lead to pesticide exposure through dermal contact and incidental ingestion by children who may come in contact with the spills before they are cleaned up. Exposure during Disposal Disposal is a key issue in any intervention that utilizes pesticides, especially during the decontamination process and disposal of the liquid effluent that will arise from washing and progressive rinse. Both burying and dumping can lead to dermal exposure to residents who come in contact with the soil or water in which the pesticide was disposed. Ingestion exposure can occur from drinking contaminated surface water. Once the excess formulation gets into the soil, the pesticide can reach the groundwater, which may be used as a water supply via household wells. Residents may then be exposed to this contaminated water by ingestion or by dermal contact when it is used for cleaning or drinking purposes. Process Media Exposure Pathway Receptor Burying Groundwater Ingestion Soil Resident Dermal Rain event Dumping Surface water Figure 12. Conceptual Model for Possible Exposure Pathways from Disposal of Pesticide Formulations 8.1.5 Impacts on Non-Target Organisms This section examines the potential effect of the pesticide on organisms other than the target pest (for example, the effect on bee colonies kept in the area). Non-target species of concern also include birds and fish. The potential for negative impact on non-target Page | 78 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF species should be assessed and appropriate steps should be identified to mitigate adverse impacts. Pesticides are by their nature bio-poisons and whereas they are beneficial against pests (targets) their use may inadvertently harm other organisms (non-targets) leading to significant biodiversity losses. Loss of biodiversity makes ecosystems more vulnerable to changes in the environment, with lower genetic diversity and fewer species to support fundamental ecosystem functions such as pollination. All but the biologically based pesticides being recommended are broad spectrum in effect, thus will have negative impacts on beneficial arthropods in the case of insect and mite pests. Fungicides directed at plant diseases will reduce densities of beneficial pathogens that kill insects and mites as well as weeds. Insecticides can also kill herbivorous arthropods feeding on weeds. A number of crops are pollinated by bees that are not only sensitive when flying but also can carry contaminated pollen and nectar to the hive potentially killing off the whole colony. Rodenticide baits can also be eaten by domestic and wild animals with serious repercussions as they affect all mammals. This is why rodenticides are highly toxic to man. Ways of placing the bait in the field can minimize the negative effects. Seed treatment pesticides are safer in the environment when covered by soil, thus the need for proper planting techniques. Seed treatments such as clothinidin if broadcast onto the soil constitute a significant hazard to birds that will feed on the treated seed, and therefore the seeds must be covered after dispersal. Broadcasting treated seed carelessly or in sub-optimal conditions has been shown to have the potential for disastrous effects on bee colonies. The hazard to non-target organisms is dependent upon a pesticide’s acute and chronic toxicity, and is also a function of the rate at which the pesticide breaks down (half-life) under various scenarios (aqueous or in-soil, UV exposure, etc.) in the environment. In addition, many pesticides break down to toxic daughter products that have their own half- life. Impacts to fish and other aquatic animals may be reduced through prevention of contamination to waterways and bodies. Care must be exercised with raw material, formulated product, wash waters, and used containers or other wastes. Properly located, constructed and maintained soak pits should be utilized for washing down PPE and application equipment in order to avoid runoff to water bodies. Choice of toxicity class III and IV pesticides will pose less danger than class I and II, which are not being recommended. The potential WSCRP program pesticides’ toxicity details are discussed below and indicate known toxicity to fish and bees. Impacts to fish and other aquatic animals may be reduced through prevention of contamination to ponds, waterways, and drains with raw material, formulated product, wash waters, or used containers. Page | 79 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Summary of Toxicity of pesticides to Avifauna, Aquatic life, mammals and insects by Class;- Pyrethroids  All pyrethroids are highly toxic to bees and highly toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms, except Deltamethrin which has low toxicity to other aquatic organisms.  Birds are least affected by bifenthrin (low to medium toxicity). All other pyrethroids have very low toxicity to birds.  Pyrethroids are highly toxic to mammals. bifenthrin, has low to medium toxicity.  In terms of persistency in the environment, only bifenthrin is persistent. The rest of the pyrethroids have low to medium persistency.  Bifenthrin does not accumulate in the environment. There is potential for bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms for other pyrethroids. Carbamates  Carbamates are highly toxic to bees.  In addition to other aquatic organisms they are also highly toxic to mammals and birds. Acute symptoms of propoxur poisoning in birds include eye tearing, salivation, muscle in coordination, diarrhoea, and trembling. Depending on the type of bird, poisoning signs can appear within 5 minutes of exposure, with deaths occurring between 5 and 45 minutes, or overnight. On the other hand, this insecticide has very low toxic properties on fish.  In general, carbamates have low to medium indications for persistency in the environment and bioaccumulation in organisms Organophosphates  Organophosphates have different characteristics and impacts on different organisms depending on the type of insecticide.  Fenitrothion has low toxicity on mammals and fish and is not persistent in the environment. However it is highly toxic to bees, birds and other aquatic organisms, like crustaceans and aquatic insects and has a medium toxicity to aquatic worms. It has moderate to medium potential to bioaccumulate in organisms.  Malathion is only highly toxic to bees. It has very low impacts on fish and other aquatic organism and has very low potential to persist in the environment or bio-accumulate in organisms. It shows low to medium toxicity on mammals and birds.  Pirimiphos-methyl is highly toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms and has a high potential to persist in the environment. It has low to medium toxic effects on mammals and bees. It does not bio-accumulate in organisms. 8.1.6 Impacts to Birds, Fishes, and other organisms from pesticides: Indiscriminate application of pesticides is a threat to avifauna for example bird poisoning was witnessed in Bunyala, Ahero and Mwea irrigation scheme in June 2009 where witnesses say there was on going poisoning of birds using Furadan which is a Page | 80 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF restricted/banned pesticide. One of the pipeline sub project investments is going to be in Bunyala area. In Mwea and Ahero, the species of birds poisoned were the White-faced Whistling Ducks and Fulvous Whistling Ducks in addition to doves in Ahero. In all the sites the birds were intentionally poisoned for human consumption using pesticides. Table 9 below illustrates the degree of toxicity of selected pesticide classes to birdlife, aquatic life and bees, and includes the degree of persistence in the environment and potential for bio-accumulation. Table 9. Pesticide Toxicity Other Pesticide Mammal Bird Fish Aquatic Bee Persistence Bioaccumulate1 Pyrethroids Carbamates Organophosphates Source: IVM PEA 1 Bioaccumulation in the environment, not in mammalian bodies (mammalian detoxification produces different results). 2 Low toxicity, but high chronic or bioaccumulation effect on raptors, pelicans. Key High Toxicity  Medium to High Toxicity  Medium Toxicity  Low to Medium Toxicity  Low Toxicity  Data Not Found  8.2 Use of Biological method The biological control of pests and diseases entail the use of insects, bacteria or fungi on the host to eliminate the pest or disease. 8.2.1 Impact on Environment This is one of the known environmentally friendly control methods as compared to other control methods. Unlike other methods biological control is applied carefully and selectively and since no chemicals are used it has no adverse effect on the environment. In comparison to other methods it is cost effective since its application may entail community participation and can be integrated in other control methods. The only criticisms is that the control agents are slow in action and take a longer period to generate results and therefore cannot be used in emergency situations. The danger comes in when the host is eliminated if the pest is not host specific then they may attack other plants (crops) or insects and therefore create an imbalance in the ecosystem. The use of resistant clones in the control of diseases and adoption of a fast method of propagating plantings has numerous environmental benefits. For example providing a Page | 81 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF reliable supply of improved tree seedlings will have important benefits for the environment. By increasing and sustaining the supply of timber, pressure on forests will be reduced on natural forests, helping to preserve valuable natural biodiversity and rare habitats. The tissue culture technology also has the potential to increase biodiversity by replacing the stocks of rare and endangered tree species. The wider environmental benefits of increasing tree cover include improving soil stability, reducing erosion, preventing desertification and stabilizing global climate. 8.2.2 Impact on Health and safety Since no chemicals are used there are no dangers and thus the method is generally/fairly safe. 8.3 Use of Mechanical method This method involves the use of automated machines and may also be expensive depending what machines are used. For example inter-cultivation in is done using a tractor mounted inter-cultivator to control weeds in crops. 8.3.1 Impact on Environment This may be friendly or unfriendly to the environment depending on the operation carried out and the disposal technique of the weeds or the wastes. 8.3.2 Impact on Health and safety The wise operation of the machines and the supporting labour becomes important in the safety and handling. 8.4 Use of Manual method The manual control basically consists of the use of labour with simple implements/tools. The major concern is often the high cost involved. For example weeding is particularly expensive before the certain crops matures and covers the ground completely 8.4.1 Impact on Environment It is friendly to the environment as there is no pollution of land, water or air when the method is applied. An example would be the control of mole rats using traps. In the coffee sector, it is safe to ensure that the uprooted weeds are not placed on the tree stumps as this may introduce soil borne diseases into the tree, while in the sugar sector, when smutted stools of sugarcane are uprooted and not buried in the ground they cause more infection on the cane. 8.4.2 Impact on Health and safety The danger involved in the manual control includes the risk of bilharzias, snake bites, hippo or crocodile attacks, depending on which plant and where the operation is carried out. 8.5 Use of Quarantine Quarantine refers to a period when an animal or person that has or may have a disease is kept away from others in order to prevent the disease from spreading. For plants it is a Page | 82 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF situation which ensures safe movement, treatment, introduction and destruction of diseased/infected plants materials to reduce the risk of exposure of the country’s plant resources (environment) to foreign pests, diseases and noxious weeds. 8.5.1 Impact on Environment This method is fairly safe to the environment as it allows for the control and management of pests and diseases through isolation. 8.5.2 Impact on Health and safety Quarantines ensure safe passage of plants by reducing contamination or spread of diseases. 8.6 Economic Impact on Production Estimates of potential crop damage from pests in the absence of control have been made by measuring damage as a proportion of total feasible output. Generally, estimates of damage during outbreaks and plagues range from 100 percent of the planted crop to insignificant losses, depending on the year, region and pest species. Weeds are reported to generally cause up-to 70% of yield losses on susceptible crops. However, in some areas such as the Lake Victoria Basin, Striga is the number one ranked weed causing severe damage to crops like maize, sugarcane and sorghum. Documented literature indicates that it causes between 42-100% yield losses. Other notorious weeds are grasses and broad leaved weeds that cause 30-70% yield loss. Some studies may overestimate the potential crop losses caused by pests. They rarely account for farmers' response to mitigate the effects of pests and are often based on calculations of optimal production conditions. In both ways, they may overstate the losses caused by the pests. Studies of pests have been carried out by focusing on estimated damage in the absence of control and comparing them with direct costs of control operations. Thus, these studies have the same drawbacks. In all likelihood, they give an incomplete picture of the true net benefits of pest control. There are numerous diseases of crops reported in Kenya that are causing havoc to crop production. Among the leading diseases are those caused by viruses and bacteria. Although the impacts are not well, the major diseases identified include: a) Mosaic virus causing up to 19 % loss on maize and sugarcane b) Cassava mosaic virus seriously affected the crop causing significant losses in production. Experiments carried estimated losses of crop at 36%, although the impact seems to be declining in view of the control measures that have been undertaken by KARI through introduction of resistant cassava varieties. c) Sugarcane ratoon stunting disease which cause up to 19% yield loss in the basin. d) Coffee berry disease is a major disease which causes heavy crop losses which reach 90% with heavy infestation. Page | 83 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF e) Other diseases causing heavy losses include sugarcane smut and rice blast. 8.7 Impacts on food security Where there are major pest damages there is significant losses in production and hence the food supply such as in maize. A case in point is that of the Cassava mosaic virus which razed the whole of the lake basin in Kenya extending to the Uganda side, thereby causing serious reduction in the crop supply. During severe attacks of these diseases the supply of the affected crops is inhibited hence causing shortages in the availability and hence high prices in the market thus the consumers are exposed to high prices making the crop unaffordable. Page | 84 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 9 MITIGATION MEASURES AGAINST ADVERSE IMPACTS OF CROP PROTECTION MEASURES This section outlines the various measures proposed to mitigate against any of the potential adverse impacts likely to occur as outlined above. The primary mitigation measures include training in safe and judicious pesticide use and management; delivery of a mix of Information Education and Communication (IEC) approaches targeting the farmers, resident, pesticide operators and teams; include provision of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and training to spray personnel, and thorough and consistent supervision and monitoring. Also important are the identification of appropriate pesticide storage facilities and training and equipping health facilities with adequate exposure treatment drugs. 9.1.1 Measures to Reduce Exposure Risks during Pesticide Transport Prior to long-distance transport of the pesticides from the customs warehouse/central storage facility to the agricultural project areas, drivers will be informed about general issues surrounding the pesticides and how to handle emergency situations (e.g. road accidents). Training for long-distance transport from the distributorship to the storage facilities will include the following information:  Purpose of the pesticides  Toxicity of the pesticides  Security issues, including implications of the pesticides getting into the public  Steps to take in case of an accident or emergency (according to FAO standards)  Combustibility and combustion by-products of insecticide  Handling vehicle contamination 9.1.2 Mitigating Foetal Exposure All the potential females expected to handle pesticides should be tested for pregnancy before being engaged in the pesticide application process. Female persons found to be pregnant should be re-assigned to positions that require less exposure to pesticides. 9.1.3 Mitigating Pesticide Applicator Exposure Each operator handling pesticides (loaders, transporters, mixers, applicators) will be provided with the following Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and other safety equipment, in accordance with WHO and FAO specifications for pesticide handling. These PPEs will be replaced frequently whenever wear and tear is identified or reported. However, the respirators will be replaced every day after use. See Table 10 below for a reference guide to PPE.  Broad-rimmed hat/helmet  Face shield or goggles (face shield preferable)  Respirators-disposable and replaced on a daily basis  2 sets of cotton overalls per spray operator  Nitrile rubber, neoprene, PVC or butyl rubber gloves, without inside lining, long enough to cover forearm and replaced if torn or if wear and tear is noticed Page | 85 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF  Rubber boots Table 10. Protective Clothing and Equipment Guide Signal Words on Caution Warning Danger Pesticide Label Formulations Dry Long-legged trousers and Long-legged trousers and Long-legged trousers and long-sleeved shirt; shoes long-sleeved shirt; shoes long-sleeved shirt; shoes and socks and socks; wide-brimmed and socks; wide-brimmed hat; gloves hat; gloves; cartridge or canister respirator if dust is in air or if precautionary statement on label says: “Poisonous or fatal if inhaled� Liquid Long-legged trousers and Long-legged trousers and Long-legged trousers and long-sleeved shirt; shoes long-sleeved shirt; shoes long-sleeved shirt; rubber and socks; wide-brimmed and socks; wide-brimmed boots, wide-brimmed hat; hat hat; rubber gloves. rubber gloves, goggles or Goggles if required by face shield. Canister label precautionary respirator if label’s statement; cartridge or precautionary statement canister respirator if label’s says: “Do not breathe precautionary statement vapors or spray mists� or says: “Do not breathe “Poisonous if inhaled� vapors or spray mists� or “Poisonous if inhaled� Liquid (when mixing) Long-legged trousers; Long-legged trousers and Long-legged trousers and long-sleeved shirt; shoes long-sleeved shirt; shoes long-sleeved shirt, rubber and socks; wide-brimmed and socks; wide-brimmed boots, wide-brimmed hat, hat; gloves; rubber apron hat; rubber gloves; goggles rubber gloves, goggles or or face shield; rubber face shield. Canister apron. Respirator if label’s respirator if label’s precautionary statement precautionary statement says: “Do not breathe says: “Do not breathe vapors or spray mist� or vapors or spray mists� or “Poisonous [or fatal or “Poisonous if inhaled� harmful] if inhaled� Liquid (when mixing the Long-legged trousers; Water-repellent, long- Waterproof suit, rubber most toxic concentrates) long-sleeved shirt; boots, legged trousers and long- gloves, and waterproof rubber gloves, waterproof sleeved shirt; rubber boots, hood or wide-brimmed hat. wide-brimmed hat rubber gloves, rubber apron; waterproof wide- brimmed hat; face shield; cartridge or canister respirator Workers should be closely monitored for symptoms of acute pesticide exposure, because there will always be some level of exposure. In addition, work-day duration should be monitored to limit exposure as required by safety recommendations (Najera and Zaim, 2002). Monitoring and reporting of acute exposure of the pesticide applicators should be undertaken by reviewing Incident Report Forms (IRF) that are made available to every pesticide applicator. Any exposure incident should be normally recorded as a form of best practice, and guidelines established for the action to be taken, e.g., immediate treatment and/or referral to the health facilities for further treatment. In addition, IRFs Page | 86 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF will be reviewed by the Monitoring and Evaluation Officer in each sub project executing agency to determine if corrective action is required. Similarly, human exposure will be monitored using the reported cases of exposure or those reported in the health centres. The individual or group farmers or those expected to handle pesticides will receive intensive training on the use, operation, calibration and repair of the sprayer and practical exercises prior to the beginning of the pesticide application. They will also receive training to understand proper hygiene, to recognize the signs and symptoms of poisoning, and to understand the referral procedure for any incidents involving poisoning. 9.1.4 Mitigating Pesticide Exposure through Treatment The following drugs are recommended for use in case of exposure to the pesticides. The project should try and reach out to Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation and ensure that all the health facilities around the project sites are stocked with these recommended drugs and that all the staff responsible receives training on emergency treatment to pesticide exposure. Table 11. Drugs Recommended for Treatment of exposure Name of drug Active ingredients Promethazine Promethazine Hydrocloride Panadol Paracetamol Diazepam Benzodiazapine/Diazapam Lorazepam Lorazepam Calamine cream Calamine, zinc oxide, glycerol, phenol, purified water, sodium citrate, betonite, Vit E Tocopherol, fragrance, mineral oil, deionized water, sodium hydroxide, stearic acid Hydrocortisone cream 1% hydrocortisone Salbutamol Salbutamol 100 mcg, suspended inert aerosol Salbutamol tablets Salbutamol sulphate 4 mg Activated Charcoal Activated Charcoal All the pesticide applicators will receive detailed training on the emergency steps to take if accidental exposure of the chemical occurs through ingestion, eye or dermal contact with the chemical. This training will be conducted by WSCRP sub project executing partners implementing the particular investment and in collaboration with existing health officers and will include of drills to test knowledge of the operators. The following are basic first aid procedure for which the WSCRP executing partners will train all the pesticide applicators as part of handling pesticide poisoning. Follow the first aid instructions on the pesticide label. Take the pesticide can or label to the doctor or medical practitioner if seeking medical assistance. For poison on skin:  Remove contaminated clothing and drench skin with water  Cleanse skin and hair thoroughly with detergent and water  Dry victim and wrap in blanket Page | 87 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF For chemical burns:  Remove contaminated clothing  Wash with large amounts of running water  Cover burned area immediately with loose, clean soft cloth  Do NOT apply ointments, greases, powders or other medications to burn Poison in Eye:  Wash eye quickly but gently  Hold eyelid open and wash with gentle stream of clean running water for 15 minutes or more  Do NOT use chemicals or medicines in the water; they may worsen the injury Inhaled Poison:  Carry victim to fresh air immediately  Open all windows and doors  Loosen tight clothing  Apply artificial respiration if the victim is not breathing or victim’s skin is grey or blue. If the victim is in an enclosed area, do not enter without proper protective clothing and equipment. If proper protection is not available, call for emergency equipment from your fire department. Poison in mouth or swallowed:  Rinse mouth with plenty of water.  Give victim large amounts (up to 1 litre) of milk or water to drink.  Induce vomiting only if the pesticide label instructs you to do so. 9.1.5 Mitigation Measures against Warehouse/Storage Exposure In order to mitigate risks associated with pesticide storage, the following key points will serve as key mitigation steps:  All primary pesticide storage facilities will be double-padlocked and guarded  All the storage facilities will be located away from nearby water courses, domestic wells, markets, schools, hospitals etc.  Soap and clean water will be available at all times in all the facilities  A trained storekeeper will be hired to manage each facility  Recommended pesticide stacking position and height in the warehouse as provided in the FAO Storage and Stock Control Manual will be followed  All the warehouses will have at least two exit access routes in case of fire outbreak  A fire extinguisher will be available in the storage facilities and all workers will be trained on how to use this device.  Warning notices will be placed outside of the store in the local language(s) with a skull and crossbones sign to caution against unauthorized entry  All pesticides will be used and any remnants will be stored under lock and key until the next round of application.  Application of First In/First Out (FIFO) approach in pesticide distribution will be practiced to avoid accumulation of expired pesticide Page | 88 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Warehouse/Store Keeping Training All the store keepers and managers will be trained on sound store keeping practices and procedures in order to ensure that all the stock coming in and out of the storage facilities can be traced accordingly. This is a mechanism aimed at preventing pilferage of pesticides. The trainings will be organised through the auspices of the PCPB and Agrochemicals Association of Kenya. 9.1.6 Mitigating Exposure Impacts through Container Re-use Best practices emphasize that no matter how many times a container is cleaned; it should never be used to carry anything other than pesticides. Any container once used to contain potentially harmful chemicals should never be used to hold household items or food stuffs, especially water. 9.1.7 Inventory of empty pesticide containers Kenya was the first country in Africa to start a project branded as CleanFarms to manage obsolete pesticides stocks. The objectives of the project are to take inventory of all obsolete pesticides and empty containers in the private and public sector and eventually to safeguard those that pose a hazard. 9.1.8 Disposal of Pesticide wastes and Containers Pest Control and Product Board of Kenya has developed guidelines focus on on-farm disposal of pesticide wastes and containers. They provide information on what Kenyan farmers should do in the management of pesticide wastes on the farm including containers. Pesticides and pesticide wastes are also a common phenomenon. The guidelines outline the sources of pesticide wastes as being: Sources of Pesticide Wastes  Caking due to poor methods of storage.  Unidentifiable products due to lack of label.  Banned products.  Expired products.  Pesticide spillages and leakages.  Contaminated items (soils, clothing etc.).  Rinsate from pesticides applicators. Avoidance of Pesticide Wastes A number of preventive steps can be taken to avoid the difficult problems and costly solutions of pesticide waste disposal. These include the judicious purchase, collection, transport, storage and use of pesticides. Purchasing Pesticides When purchasing pesticides, the following precautions should be observed:  Only purchase what you need: calculate carefully the amount needed and try to avoid being left with a surplus. For example, do not buy a large container if only a small portion of its contents is likely to be used by the end of the season. Page | 89 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 9.1.9 On Going Efforts in Disposing Pesticide Containers Collection of empty pesticide containers from farmers which is one of the pesticide container management approaches by MOA has been a major challenge as only large scale growers have the capacity to collect and deliver for disposal to the facility at Kitengela. Plastic sheets, empty plastic containers and spraying equipment are recycled by making fencing poles. 9.1.10 Obsolete Pesticides Dilemma So far, 120 tonnes of obsolete pesticides have been safeguarded, including over 30 tonnes of WHO Class 1a products. After training extension officers, an inventory of private and public sector was made. A total of 200 tonnes and more than 25,000 empty containers were identified. The first 30 tonnes were shipped to Europe for incineration in March 2012. At the moment the safeguarding of the identified obsolete pesticides is on-going. A temporary storage facility has been constructed in a secured compound of the Ministry of Agriculture. Staff from the industry and the ministry of agriculture was trained to record activities and stock during safeguarding while a local waste company, ECCL, has been prepared by international experts to do the actual safeguarding. Special equipment such as UN-approved drums, have been sourced locally or shipped from South Africa. The Government of Kenya has requested the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) for financial assistance to dispose the remaining safeguarded materials. In addition, a pilot container collection scheme is underway. Farmers can dump empty pesticide containers in collection bins that are strategically placed within communities. The local waste company ECCL will collect the containers. Because most containers are not triple rinsed, they will be cut and shipped to Europe for incineration. The project has put in a lot of effort to create awareness among farmers and plantations to triple rinse containers. It is expected that more and more containers will be triple rinsed. In the future, triple rinsed containers will be recycled in Nairobi. The main challenge is to collect all obsolete pesticides that are located in different areas of the country and also meet the costs of transport and eventual destruction at Kitengela which is a commercial hazardous waste destruction facility. 9.1.11 Public Awareness Campaigns Problems related to pesticides are mainly found in the rural areas in Kenya, since most pesticides are crop specific and therefore used in specific regions/zones. In addition the comparatively lower levels of education and hence understanding of risks posed by improper usage of pesticides. In close collaboration with CropLife Kenya and the Ministry of Agriculture a strategy was agreed to extend an outreach campaign to identify previously unknown potential stocks of obsolete pesticides held in the private sector. The first step was an indemnity published by the Ministry to declare a period in which everyone could register obsolete pesticides without being fined. The project designed an awareness creation campaign on general safety procedures when handling pesticides. In addition, radio spots were used to announce the registration and collection process. Page | 90 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Outreach visits have been organised by MOA and CropLife Kenya on obsolete pesticides as well as other general pesticide wastes. During these visits, explanations have been provided about the organization of the outreach campaign, the collaboration with and role of the Ministry of Agriculture, the use of the inventory forms, the entry of data into a database, safeguarding and other activities. There are no specific environmental awareness projects or programs underway in Kenya for farmers on the risk of hazardous air emissions from burning empty pesticide paper bags (e.g. dioxin and furan emissions from burning of pesticides containing chlorine). 9.1.12 Institutional and Financial Capacity in Pesticide Destruction The technology to dispose of pesticides including pesticide containers in an environmentally safe manner is very limited in Kenya. Currently, there are two known companies with incinerators. These are Bayer East Africa (Private) and Environmental Combustion Consultants (ECC) located at Kitengela 40 Km from Nairobi. The empty metallic containers are sometimes disposed by smelting in steel milling plants. The following are Ministerial responsibilities with regard to chemicals.  Ministry of Public and Sanitation (Malaria Control Division): The Ministry provides policy guidelines on human health in Kenya.  Ministry of Trade and Industry (MT&I). The Ministry regulates and enforces trade regulations both local and international.  Ministry of Agriculture (MOA).The Ministry is mandated to oversee sustainable agricultural practices and use of agrochemicals.  Ministry of Labor. The Ministry handles matters related to workers health and exposure to Chemicals and related issues.  Ministry of Local Government Authorities. The Ministry regulates the functioning of all city councils, municipal councils and town councils in the country and especially waste treatment and disinfections. The table 12 below highlights the institutional and financial capacity of Government agencies/entities for effective control of the destruction and use of pesticides as cited in the Kenya National Profile to Assess the Chemical Management, 2011. Table 12. Enforcement, institutional capacity Legal Responsible Chemical Objective of Resources Enforcement Instruments ministries use legislation allocated ranking categories Environmental NEMA Industrial Chemicals legal and Inadequate Inadequate management institutional and Co framework for ordination the Act,(EMCA) management No.8 of 1999 of the environment Occupational (DOHSS) Chemical To ensure Inadequate Fair Health and Concentration safety at Work Safety Act LN. in Work places for 60 of 2007 Places workers Pest Control PCPB Agricultural To regulate the Inadequate Effective Products Act, Chemicals importation, Cap 346 exportation, Page | 91 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF manufacture, distribution Public Health MOLG Human and , Securing Inadequate Effective Act, Cap 242 Veterinary and Chemicals maintaining health Food, Drugs and MHLG Pesticides to make Inadequate Inadequate Chemical and other provision for Substances Act, Industrial the prevention Cap 254 Chemicals of adulteration of food, drugs and chemical substances Fertilizers and MoA Veterinary To regulate the Inadequate Inadequate Animal Food and importation, stuffs Act, Cap agricultural manufacture 345 and sale of agricultural fertilizers and animal Foodstuffs. The Agriculture MoA Agricultural Inadequate Inadequate Act, Effectiveness in enforcement of different pieces of legislation The enforcement of laws is often inadequate. Many provisions of the law have not been utilized largely on account of limited enforcement capacity. An additional problem relates to limitations in the nature and content of the data required for enforcement purposes. The combination of these factors has meant that the enforcement of the laws has been limited. As stated the national laws have had only limited effect in addressing national priorities on chemicals. This is on account of limitations in capacity arising from technical, financial and human resource constraints. 9.1.13 Supervision Supervisors will be necessary for ensuring quality control and overseeing pesticide application at all levels. Every sub project executing agency will recruit supervisors (agronomist/crop protection specialists) who will observe applicators undertaking pesticide preparation, application technique, and clean up procedures after pesticide application. Scrupulous attention to personal hygiene is an essential component of the safe use of pesticides. For operators, safety precautions will depend largely on personal hygiene, including washing and changing clothes. A schedule for carrying out and supervising personal hygiene, regular washing of protective clothes and cleaning of equipment will be organized along the following lines (WHO 2006):  Pesticide applicants will be provided with sets of overalls to allow for daily changes.  Washing facilities with sufficient water and soap will be made available in the field at appropriate locations.  All working clothes must be removed at the end of each day’s operations and a shower or bath taken—in circumstances where a full-body shower or bath is not feasible, face/neck and hands must be washed with soap and water.  Working clothes must be washed regularly. Page | 92 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF  Particular attention will be given to washing gloves, as wearing contaminated gloves can be more dangerous than not wearing gloves at all.  Eating, drinking and smoking during work will be strictly forbidden.  Pesticide applicators will never wash themselves, their overalls, or their PPE in any water bodies, or where wash water will drain to water bodies. 9.2 Pre and Post-Harvest Pest Control Seeds for planting may be procured for farmers by the WSCRP sub project executing agencies. These seeds require protection from pests that normally attack seeds known as storage pests. If seeds are attacked at storage prior to distribution to farmers for planting the sole aim of the WSCRP program which is to boost agricultural productivity and enhance food security and markets will not be realised. For that matter, seed protection will be extremely vital and in effect will require application of pesticides. After harvesting of crops, it is expected that seeds for the next planting season will be stored a situation that will certainly attract storage pests hence requiring the need to ensure pest control at this level. The control of the seeds pre-planting and after harvesting (post-harvest) and targeted for planting again will be both chemical and non- chemical. The WSCRP program will not exclusively focus on chemical control of seed pests, but will pursue an integrated approach to pest management as advocated by World Bank. Complete reliance on a single approach presents challenges related to costs, time constraints, training requirements, development of resistance/accommodation by pests, unavailability of natural plants to repel pests etc. 9.3 Institutional Structures for Implementing Mitigation Measures The proposed mitigation and monitoring measures require a clear and adequate institutional framework that will be used for each sub project investments where pesticides will be used. Mitigation and monitoring measures will occur at different levels and undertaken by different institutions as described below. 9.3.1 Executing Agency The specific agency undertaking the pesticide related sub project within WSCRP will be the principal institution responsible for overall monitoring and mitigation of the adverse impacts of the pesticides including ensuring that the IPMP is followed. The executing agency will be expected to recruit consultant (in the event that they lack specialist) agronomists, crops specialists who will prepare the IPMPs for sub projects in line with the requirements of this IPMF. The IPMPs will be submitted to the WSCRP/PMU for review before they are subsequently sent to the World Bank for approval. No financial disbursement for pesticide related sub project will be undertaken until the bank approves the IPMP. Page | 93 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 9.3.2 WSCRP/PMU The MWI will establish a Project Management Unit (PMU) which will undertake screening of all sub projects to determine if they intend to use pesticides and hence trigger the need to prepare an IPMP. If a project is screened and found that it will use pesticides, the PMU will prepare Terms of Reference for the preparation of an IPMP. The PMU will also provide overall technical support in monitoring of proposed mitigation measures and indicators on a period basis including the review of the monitoring reports submitted by the executing agency. 9.3.3 Farmer Groups/Water Users Association The sub project investments will use farmer groups and associations like Irrigation Water Users Association (IWUA) who are the project beneficiaries to undertake monitoring for instance in observing the pests in the farms, identifying weeds, and reporting as part of the surveillance to inform what sort of control measure to adopt. The farmer groups and associations will be trained on surveillance and best management practises in pesticide application and use. 9.3.4 Agrochemical Association of Kenya/Distributors/Agro-Vet Proprietors Members of the Agrochemical Association of Kenya and distributors or wholesalers of pesticides will also be used to mitigate and monitor the adverse impacts. For instance, the agro-vet distributors will be trained to provide education and awareness to farmers on judicious pesticide use and application for the benefit of the environment and human health since they have constant contact with the farmers. 9.3.5 Ministry of Agriculture The MoA is the lead agency responsible for policy formulation and guidance on all agricultural related issue in Kenya. The MoA has a specific division for Crop Protection that advocates and promotes IPM including training and awareness as well as extension services to farmers. The MoA will play a vital role in offering the related pest management services following the IPM approach. 9.3.6 Pest Control and Products Board The Pest Control and Product Board will remain significant in conducting annual reviews and inspection of all pesticide storage where the WSCRP sub project investments are under implementation; ensure that only registered pesticides are used in the WSCRP sub project investments and enforce the guidelines for transportation and disposal of pesticide wastes including containers as required by law. 9.3.7 National Environment Management Authority National Environment Management Authority will ensure that there is enforcement including monitoring of the guidelines and regulations for waste disposal including pesticide wastes and will undertake this jointly with the PCPB. NEMA has County offices as well as district offices and will be best placed to ensure the monitoring of pesticide use as well as disposal of the same. Page | 94 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 10 INTEGRATED PESTICIDE MITIGATION & MONITORING PLAN The Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Plan (EMMP) presents a program by which should be used by WSCRP executing agencies to assure initial and on-going compliance with environmental requirements and guidelines for pesticide use. The plan also includes activities proposed for mitigating environmental and social impacts of pesticides. The sections below are summaries of the adverse impacts as well as mitigation measures proposed followed by a full plan that highlight the monitoring aspects. 10.1.1 Protective clothing not used by farmers Few farmers normally use even the bare minimum of appropriate pesticide protection clothing and equipment; Use of PPE by farmers is still a remote phenomenon in Kenya. Farmers in Kenya still generally mix chemicals (where the pesticide is most toxic) without rubber gloves, a bucket of water to wash off spills, or goggles and spray while walking through the spray path without rubber boots, goggles, rubber gloves, a plastic sheet between the sprayer and the back, and with only every-day clothing. This behavior is common with Kenyan farmers especially small scale farmers even though they generally believe that pesticides pose danger to their health. Recommendations The key danger times are during mixing and when walking through the spray path. Eye and feet protection are the greatest priority. Goggles, long pants, and rubber boots are most needed. The WSCRP sub project investments that will use pesticides should provide the necessary PPEs for all the farmers as recommended. Those that apply pesticides should be encouraged to wash their clothes after each day’s spraying. 10.1.2 Pesticide usage should be in the context of IPM programs Pesticides are often seen as a first choice in pest control whereas following IPM their use should be the last choice when all else fails. In addition the decision to use pesticide is based on the presence of the pest and not on decision protocols such as action thresholds. As it is now for most crops, recommendations imply that as soon as the pest is seen, s pesticide should be used. As a result more applications are probably given than would be necessary if decision guides were developed based on field verification or trials. Pest control recommendations include many non-pesticide practices and pesticide usage should also be seen as a last resort. Recommendations Monitoring programs need to be developed along with action thresholds as methods to quantify pest abundance as a guideline to initiate pesticide usage for more crops. Pest control recommendations should include many non-pesticide practices first and pesticide usage only as a last resort. Page | 95 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 10.1.3 Pesticide disposal of containers and obsolete product needs to be strengthened Concern that pesticide containers will be poorly disposed and probably scattered around fields or near farmers’ homes will remain a key concern in the implementation of sub projects within WSCRP that will entail use of pesticides. Sometimes containers are reused by the farmers. Both unsound disposal and reuse of containers pose hazardous situations. If the containers are burned, products from burning can be more hazardous than the pesticide itself. Recommendations Pesticide containers will be disposed following the PCBP guidelines for disposal of pesticides wastes and containers. The WSCRP program must develop a robust Pesticide Waste Disposal Plan for use by the farmers in its areas of operations that will include the disposal of pesticide containers. The consultant is expected to prepare the following components of an Integrated Pest Management Plan;- a) Description all the crops that will be under the irrigation component of the sub project b) Description of the type of pests that are commonly associated with the crops to be grown under the sub project investment c) Description of the acceptable control methods (chemical and non-chemical) commonly used to control the pests d) Description of the chemical composition and toxicity of the selected pesticides used to control the pests e) Description of the wastes that will emanate from the pesticides used f) Description of the waste mitigation and disposal g) Description of the cost implication for management of the pesticide wastes h) Description of the responsibilities of stakeholders in disposal i) Monitoring and evaluation plan for the disposal measures including indicators 10.1.4 Rotate pesticide chemical groups to minimize pesticide resistance Repeated pesticide use presents risks for development of pesticide resistance where mortality rates decline. When this occurs it is often difficult to find substitutes. The danger is greatest in areas where year-round cultivation of vegetables, rice, or Irish potatoes occurs. Technicians need to match pest abundance within a season with pesticide response for each location. Under heavy pest pressure and in the absence of genetically resistant varieties, repeated spraying often is necessary. As cross resistance is common, fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, need to be rotated by chemical family to reduce the risk of pesticide resistance. Farmers need to have knowledge of the general families of pesticides for rotation must occur between families and not just brand names. Farmers generally do not know that different brand names are often the same chemical. Fungicides, insecticides, and herbicides such as glyphosate may require calendar-based schedules both to improve the degree of control as well as lower the risk of crop failure. Page | 96 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Recommendations In order to work, a strict rotational schedule needs to be followed by all farmers in an area for each growing season. 10.1.5 Protecting biological reserves from pesticide incursion It has been observed that due to the pressure to expand agricultural lands, crops where pesticides are used are being grown along the borders of national parks, rivers, and other protected areas. Nearness of these fields poses hazards to the wild nature of these biodiversity centres. According to a study by Wildlife Works in 2010, Kenyans are using furadan and other pesticides in hunting birds and fish for human consumption. This is not just about the dying birds, fish and other animals; it is a Public Health concern. Pesticide can enter protected areas by a number of means with drift posing the most imminent threat. As well, insecticides and fungicides bind with soil in the treated field upon contact from drift or washing off of plants. Herbicides, being more water soluble, have a history of leaching into underground aquifers particularly in sandy soils. They are carried downward by rainwater seeping into the soil. Farmers may improperly dispose of pesticide containers and rainwater can leach pesticides into groundwater. The same can be said when farmers wash their sprayers and throw rinsate onto the ground or worse directly into bodies of water. 10.2 MONITORING AND EVALUATION FOR THE VARIOUS PEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF THE PEST MANAGEMENT PLANS (PMPs) Successful implementation of the agricultural related investments under WSCRP in the districts will require regular monitoring and evaluation of activities undertaken by the Farmer Groups. The focus of monitoring and evaluation will be to assess the build-up of IPM capacity in the Farmer Groups and the extent to which IPM techniques are being adopted in agricultural production, and the economic benefits that farmers derive by adopting IPM. It is also crucial to evaluate the prevailing trends in the benefits of reducing pesticide distribution, application and misuse. Indicators that require regular monitoring and evaluation during the programme implementation include the following:   The IPM capacity building in membership of Farmer Groups: Number of farmers who have successfully received IPM training in IPM methods; evaluation the training content, methodology and trainee response to training through feedback  Numbers of Farmer Organizations that nominated members for IPM training; emphasize the number of women trained; assess Farmer Groups understanding of the importance of IPM for sustainable crop production  Numbers of farmers who have adopted IPM practices as crop protection strategy in their crop production efforts; evaluate the rate of IPM adoption Page | 97 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF  In how many crop production systems is applied IPM? Are the numbers increased and at what rate  How has the adoption of IPM improved the production derive by adopting IPM  Economic benefits: increased in crop productivity due to adoption of IPM practices; increase in farm revenue resulting from adoption of IPM practices, compared with farmer conventional practices;  Social benefits: improvement in the health status of farmers  Numbers of IPM networks operational and types of activities undertaken  Extent to which pesticides are used for crop production  Efficiency of pesticide use and handling and reduction in pesticide poisoning and environmental contamination  Levels of reduction of pesticide use and handling and reduction in pesticide poisoning and environmental contamination  Number of IPM participatory research project completed  Influence of the results of IPM participatory research on implementation of IPM and crop production  Overall assessment of: activities that are going according to plans; activities that need improvements; and remedial actions required. The following indicators will be incorporated into a participatory monitoring and evaluation plan:  Types and number of participatory learning methods (PLM) delivered; category and number of extension agents and farmers trained and reached with each PLM; practical skills/techniques most frequently demanded by districts and farmers, and food, cash and horticultural crops and livestock management practices preferred by farmers.  Category and number of farmers who correctly apply the skills they had learnt; new management practices adopted by most farmers; types of farmer-innovations implemented; level of pest damage and losses; rate of adoption of IPM practices; impact of the adoption of IPM on production performance of farmers  Increase in food, cash and horticultural production systems/livestock production; increase in farm revenue; social benefits: e.g. improvement in the health status of farmers, reduction in pesticide purchase and use; and number of community families using preventive mechanisms against diseases. 10.2.1 Proposed Pests Monitoring and Evaluation Regime The participatory M&E system for IPM should also be enterprise-based so as to deal with a group of diseases and pests affecting any single crop. The approaches being proposed here therefore does not handle single pest to otherwise the issue of different agronomic practices for different crops would have to be taken into consideration. Since pest problem is an existing problem and a major constraint to several enterprises in Kenya, it is obvious that there are already existing pest management programmes within the country. In view of these efforts, it will be advisable to use the Participatory Impact Monitoring (PIM) approach. Page | 98 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Monitoring of pesticide use will also be vital in order to detect health and environmental impacts, and to provide advice on reducing risks. Depending on the circumstances, this may include monitoring of:  appropriate use of protective gear  incidence of poisoning  pesticide residues in food crops and drinking water  contamination of surface water and ground water  environmental impact (impact on non-target organisms, ranging from beneficial insects to wildlife)  efficacy The steps involved in participatory M&E should include:  Stakeholder Analysis and identification of M&E team  Setting up objectives and expectations for monitoring  Selection of Impacts to be monitored (Variables/Indicators)  Develop Indicator sheets  Develop and test the tools to be used in data collection (Usually Participatory Rural Appraisal tools are used)  Collect the data from as many sources of stakeholders as possible  Assessment of the data and discussion for a arranged on regular basis 10.2.2 Participatory Impact Monitoring (PIM) Participatory Impact Monitoring (PIM) should be employed for continuous observation, systematic documentation and critical reflection of impacts of IPM, followed by corrective action (plan adjustments, strategy changes). It should be done by project staff and target groups, using self-generated survey results. The stakeholder analysis and selection of participatory M&E team is therefore very important in implementing an effective impact monitoring. Once an agreement on the objectives of PIM is reached among the stakeholders (development partners, implementing agency, target groups etc.), their expectations and fears regarding project impact are identified, e.g. in brainstorming sessions. The more participatory the activities have been planned the more these views will overlap each other. Having examined already existing M&E data regarding the selected impacts, the task is to develop indicator sheets which contain all important information for impact measurement: definitions of terms, indicators and their rationale, survey units and respondents, instructions for data collection, statements on limitations of the methods used. The factsheet assumes that political, legal, agro-ecological and other framework conditions are almost the same for a single enterprise; any observed differences regarding selected impacts will be largely due to the (additional) input towards IPM. After the selection of impacts to be monitored, impact hypotheses are established in order to obtain a clearer picture of the IPM and the environment in which it acts. In impact diagrams, project activities/outputs that are supposed to lead to a certain impact can be arranged below, external factors above the impact in the centre of the diagram. Page | 99 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Once questionnaires and other tools (e.g. PRA instruments) have been pre-tested, and a decision on sample size and composition has been taken, impact-related information and data is collected and processed. Interviews are held with randomly selected individuals (e.g. female farmers), key persons (e.g. village elders, teachers) or groups (e.g. Saving and Credit Groups, Development agencies, Institutions etc.). Joint reflection workshops with project staff, target group representatives and other stakeholders are conducted in order to (a) consolidate impact monitoring results by combining the views of various actors and (b) ensure that necessary plan adjustments and strategy changes are in line with the target groups’ demands and capacities. 10.2.3 Integrated Pest Management Monitoring Framework The Participatory M&E Framework for IPM should follow a feedback principle in which results or impact of any interventions can be traced to the activities/inputs. Either by using conventional pest management method or IPM, the feedback should allow for evaluation of the methods used and adjustment or incorporation of additional control methods. The results of the activities form the basis of the factsheets to be used in monitoring. Page | 100 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Environmental Monitoring and Mitigation Plan (EMMP). Pesticide Pre-Application Phase-Control of Pests Impact Mitigation Measure Monitoring Indicator Responsibility Accidental Spills of pesticides Ensure that the drivers identified to Number of Road Accidents and WSCRP/Ministry of Agriculture/ Executing during road transportation to haul the pesticides to the sites are well spills reported Agency warehouse and field application trained on the FAO standards and sites guidelines for the storage, transport Records showing Drivers (Human Health and and stock control for pesticides. Training Environmental impacts) Damaged packaging will not be accepted, and loads will be tied down to vehicle bed or side walls. Possible environmental Ensure the selected warehouse is sited Storage facility located outside WSCRP/Ministry of contamination (soil, water, away from a flood plain area, water of floodplain, away from nearby Agriculture/PCPB/Executing Agency biodiversity) caused by course, wells, schools, markets etc. schools, hospitals, water courses warehouse exposure due to poor siting of warehouses, pilferage Secure the selected warehouse and Storage facilities secured as per WSCRP/Ministry of Agriculture/ Executing or vermin attack of the stored apply all the guidelines for Storage the FAO Storage and Stock Agency treated seed and pesticides and Stock Control manual by FAO. Control Manual before use. Accidental Fires and injuries in All warehouses must be equipped with Presence of fire fighting WSCRP/Ministry of Agriculture/ Executing the warehouses a fire extinguisher, thermometer, exit equipment, warning signs and at Agency doors and warning signs, and proper least 3 exits access in the stacking position and height as warehouse stipulated in the FAO Storage and Stock Control Manual. All the workers handling pesticides or Availability of PPE to all the WSCRP/Ministry of Agriculture/ Executing other products and equipment in the workers. Agency storage facilities must all have PPE including goggles, gloves, boots, overall, dust masks etc. Page | 101 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF All operators and store managers must Training in fire prevention and WSCRP/Ministry of Agriculture/ Executing be trained on how to operate the fire fighting Agency extinguishers and what to do in case of fire outbreaks. Existence of an Emergency Develop an Emergency Response Plan Response Plan Pesticide Pilferage –including Ensure all the pesticide storage Presence of security personnel WSCRP/Ministry of Agriculture/ Executing pilferage of treated seeds from facilities are secure, with double locks, Double locked access doors Agency storage facilities;; full time security and routine stock Adequate inventory and stock Potentially cause human and control audits conducted to determine control records environmental impacts related to stock quantities exposure Pesticide Application Phase Potential Impacts Mitigation Monitoring Impact/Issue Monitoring Frequency Responsibility Measure(s) Indicator(s) Foetal exposure caused Pregnancy tests to ensure Percentage female operators Once before application begin Ministry of Health/ by using pregnant pregnant women are not on who took pregnancy tests and then after every 30 days for WSCRP/Ministry of Agriculture/ female operators in the the teams that apply repeat purposes. Executing Agency application of pesticides pesticides; prohibition of breastfeeding women on pesticide application teams Percentage female operators who indicated they were not breastfeeding Percentage of female Education of women operators who have signed regarding risk and consent forms presentation of consent forms Page | 102 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Reassign women operators Number of expectant females Periodically re-assignment as the WSCRP/Ministry of Agriculture/ who become pregnant reassigned to storekeeping cases are identified Executing Agency during the application to work etc tasks that minimize Reported cases of pesticide occupational exposure to inhalation insecticides Operators, drivers and Provide PPEs to all the Record indicating training Training to be undertaken once WSCRP/Ministry of Agriculture/ storekeepers exposure workers, farmers and store has been conducted during the overall ToT Executing Agency due to negligence or managers. Ability to respond as lack of PPEs, or un- Train on emergency required when exposure intentional exposure Daily monitoring of operators by procedures to take if incidents are encountered. caused by accidents team leaders to ensure full use of exposure occurs Availability of PPE for all PPE accidentally i.e. dermal, eye operators including store or ingestion emergencies. keepers, drivers Ensure that effective monitoring of operations diligently and take action to correct any non-compliance issues noted right away. Procurement of sprayers or application equipment manufactured according to WHO specifications; procurement and proper use of PPE by spray operators, team leaders and supervisors (cotton overalls, face shield, dust mask, broad-rimmed hat, rubber gloves, gum boots) procurement of PPE for wash persons. Page | 103 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Prohibition of eating, drinking and smoking during work; Acute Effects of Ensuring treatment Availability of exposure Once before spraying begins and WSCRP/Ministry of Agriculture; Pesticide Exposure medicines for insecticide treatment medicine in the then periodically to check if the Ministry of Health/ Executing exposure are available at the hospitals medicines are finished in the Agency County and District and health centers and if the first aid Percentage of treatment Village level. kits require replacement. medicines available at health facilities Ensure first Aid kits are available in the storage Availability of first aid kits facilities and the transport in storage facilities and hired vehicles vehicles Contamination of Create buffer zones in areas Presence of buffer zones in Daily monitoring during pesticide Contractor/ Executing Agency biodiversity (water and where pesticide application critical areas application soil) from pesticide is close to critical Periodic sampling of water from releases during biodiversity natural water bodies to determine application Avoid over application of the presence of pesticide residue pesticides that could lead to increased run off Page | 104 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Pesticide Post Application Phase Impact Mitigation Measure Monitoring Indicator Monitoring Frequency Responsibility Pilferage and Keep storage facilities up to Presence of a dedicated and trained Daily accounting of insecticide WSCRP, Ministry of Community Exposure, standards described in FAO storekeeper and tally of used sachets Agriculture, Executing Environmental Pesticide storage and stock Agency Contamination from control manual; Storage of Insecticide stored separately any remaining all insecticides, empty Periodic monitoring of the pesticides not used packaging, barrels and tubs Stock records up-to-date warehouse to ensure that it does in storage facilities not have structural problems. Facility double-padlocked and guarded Facility physically secure Cases of theft or pilferage reported Operator exposure due Ensure all operators are Reported cases of operator exposure Whenever pesticides are applied WSCRP, Ministry of to lack of washing provided with PPE and Agriculture/ Executing Soap and clean water available at all after spraying adequate water and soap for Agency times (previously mentioned) washing Exposure (human and Ensure that all the pesticide Availability of Pesticide Waste Routine collection (daily) of WSCRP, Ministry of animal) from Pesticide containers, sachets etc. are Disposal Plan pesticide containers from Agriculture/ Executing Containers through re- treated as hazardous wastes farmers Agency Strict inventory of all the pesticide use or poor disposal and hence disposed in an containers and sachets that must be Routine awareness creation environmentally sound returned to the WSCRP project for campaigns manner including NO custody before disposal REUSE. Absence of pesticide containers used Ensure that all pesticide by residents containers and sachets are collected back from the Number of awareness and farmers in order to avoid sensitization campaigns conducted re-use or poor disposal by the program Page | 105 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Conduct training and awareness campaigns among farmers and residents on the hazards of re-using pesticide containers and sachets Exposure and Procure pesticides with Shelf life of pesticides procured WSCRP, Ministry of contamination from long shelf life preferably 2- Agriculture/ Executing Comparison of quantity of stock Expired Pesticides 3 years to avoid expiration Agency procured and needs assessment Do not procure excess report pesticide stock that will eventually expire; Only procure pesticides that will be used based on quantification following a strict pesticide needs assessment. Page | 106 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 11 PROJECT REVIEW, COORDINATION & IMPLEMENTATION ARRANGEMENTS 11.1 Sub Project Investment Review Each investment will need to be reviewed independently for potential pesticide related environmental and social impacts. In cases where an IPMP is required, it will be paramount that one is prepared in order to ensure that proposed mitigation measures are proposed in the sub project design. The IPMP will be submitted to the World Bank and if the bank for approval. 11.1.1 Screening and sub project investment preparation Screening of investments will commence right at the project inception phase as soon as the specific sub project details are known including nature and scope, proposed location and area among other parameters. Screening is expected to happen concurrently with the project specific feasibility studies so that any potential impacts identified. The screening process could result in any of the following determination;- 1. Need for an IPMP if pesticide use will be required as part of the sub component related to agriculture 2. No further pesticide evaluation study needed if the sub project does not involve pesticide usage 11.1.2 Who undertakes screening? The project/screening report will be prepared by WSCRP/PMU on behalf of the executing agencies of the WSCRP in the individual institutions. The Bank also requires that sub project investments are screened in order to make a determination as to whether an IPMP is needed or no further pesticide related studies are needed for the investments. In order to blend the requirements of the bank, the screening will be done and submitted to the bank. 11.1.3 Preparation of IPMP A consultant will be recruited by each WSCRP executing agency that is poised to implement a pesticide related project which will be prepared in accordance with the specific Terms of Reference (ToR) which will be followed in development of IPMP. Page | 107 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 12 CAPACITY BUILDING, TRAINING AND TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE –WSCRP 12.1 Institutional Capacity for IPMF Implementation IPM is a knowledge intensive and interactive methodology. The need to accurately identify and diagnose pests and pest problems and understand ecosystem interactions could enable farmers with biological and ecological control opportunities and in making pragmatic pest control decisions. Thus the success of IPM depends largely on developing and sustaining institutional and human capacity to facilitate experiential learning for making informed decisions in integrating scientific and indigenous knowledge to solve specific problems. Poor communication between farmers, extension has often led to poorly-targeted research or to poor adoption of promising options generated by research. Capacity building will be achieved through farmer-based collaborative management mechanisms where all key stakeholders shall be regarded as equal partners. Beneficiary farmers shall be the principal actors facilitated by other actor such as from research institutes, academic institutions, sector ministries, NGOs, etc. as partners whose role will be to facilitate the process and provide technical direction and any other support necessary for the implementation of IPMPs. The major actors and partners will include the following: 12.1.1 Pesticide Distributors In many cases, farmers' primary sources of information and advice on pest management and pesticide use are pesticide distributors or sales staff who represent a special interest and are not likely to advice on non-chemical alternatives or cultural techniques to prevent the pest problem in the first place. Extension workers should be prepared to advise farmers on alternative pest management approaches, cost aspects of various control options, and, where chemical control remains desirable, on the proper selection, handling and use of pesticides and their hazards. To avoid conflicts of interest, extension services should not receive income from selling pesticides. 12.1.2 The programme beneficiary farmers: As the principal beneficiaries they will be organized into Farmer Groups for training and adoption of IPM practices. The farmers will be facilitated to set up Community IPM Action Committees to coordinate IPM activities in their areas. 12.1.3 Agricultural sector ministry Has the national mandate in implementation of crop protection and pest management research. WSCRP executing agencies will provide logistical and technical support to the extension staff of MOA in each sub project area to be trained as IPM trainers and to exploit their experiences in the implementation of IPM and management of outbreak and migratory pest. The extension staff from the MoA will undertake to build the capacities of farmers and community leaders in promoting IPM activities. These in turn will facilitate information sharing with Farmers Field Schools (FFS). Page | 108 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 12.1.4 Agrochemical Association of Kenya Agro-chemical companies, and their associations, have been running safe-use training programs. Motivation for providing such training has included: response to pressure for regulatory action against products that cause a high incidence of farmer intoxication; product promotion; product stewardship. Several reports published in 1999-2000 questioned the effectiveness of such training. Proper use is not only determined by user knowledge but also by availability and use of affordable protective gear, appropriate application equipment and appropriate storage facilities. Training does not solve absence of these pre-requisites for proper use. Training should therefore be seen as additional to regulatory use restrictions aimed at protecting farmers from intoxication, and not as a replacement of such restrictions. 12.1.5 Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation The district hospital or clinics in the WSCRP project investment areas should set up databases on incidence of data on poisoning, effect of pesticides on human health and environmental contamination. This data will then be used to measure and validate the ameliorating effects of IPM adoption and implementation that is expected to reduce risks to pesticides exposure. Training of medical staff at rural health clinics in recognition and treatment of poisoning symptoms may be required alongside with the provision of antidotes. 12.1.6 Distributors/Agro Vets Proprietors Training and information may also be required for retailers and farmer groups or cooperatives involved in the sale or distribution of pesticides. Ideally, pesticide retailers should be licensed, with appropriate training as a prerequisite. 12.1.7 National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA): Partners will include the following: a) Research and training institutions: to formulate proposals for research and training programmes for the development of IPM protocols, and training modules for participating WSCRP- commodity IPM team and programme staff. b) World Bank, FAO and Global IPM facility: to be a valuable sources of technical information and to provide technical support for training, planning and field implementation of IPM in Farmer Groups. The WSCRP program will also build on the knowledge, structures, facilities, and lessons learnt in other related projects in Africa and elsewhere. c) c) Agriculture Service Providers and NGOs that are working on providing services to farmers and improving agricultural productivity, environmental management and rural health matters will be identified to provide services and technical support to the field implementation of IPM and other pilot PMP. Page | 109 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 12.2 Technical Capacity Enhancement World Bank recognizes that safety training is an essential component in programs involving the use of pesticides. The need for thorough training is particularly acute in developing countries, where the level of education of applicators may typically be lower than in developed countries. In this regard, training of pesticide users and applicators will be a vital component of capacity building in this program. The program will, using the extensive resources available from the WSCRP prepare a comprehensive training manual on pesticide use and management, targeting different actors within the program, ranging from extension service providers, actual farmers, loaders, mixers, transporters, government staff among others. The training manual or guides to be developed for use must be simplified and easy to understand and participatory in nature with in-built and demonstration/practical sessions as much as possible. The agricultural related investments under WSCRP should run extensive training programs for farmers, farmer leaders, extension workers, and stockists. These training programs should if possible be further amplified by training that is being undertaken by other institutions such as MOA, KARI, other NGOs, pesticide wholesalers, etc. For farmers, farmer leaders, and district extension workers, the training should be crop based with farmers being organized into groups led by a farmer leader. The method for training farmers and farmer leaders is the on-farm demonstration where farmer groups are led, step by step in growing the crop during the season from planting to harvest and increasingly into post-harvest activities and even marketing. There are two types of knowledge that farmers must assimilate and which the WSCRP sub project executing agencies must adopt in order to rise above their current level. One is that knowledge of practical skills that can be learned by seeing someone do it or by observation. This would be to learn how to plant in rows, measuring distances between rows, make a planting rope, how to recognize a pest in the field, and how to conduct scouting based on a pegboard. More difficult to learn however is the set of knowledge that requires analysis and decision making and what to do if conditions changed in the field different from what occurred during the demonstrations. On-farm demonstration is adequate for the former if repeated over several sessions but not good on the latter. The FAO farmer field school method teaches farmers how to make decisions and gives them skills to develop their own technologies when new pests appear. Part of the farmer field school method teaches farmers how to conduct their own applied research and analyze data. In addition partners should introduce farmer driven research into trained farmer groups. This not only can be used as a learning tool but also can increase our knowledge of the performance of IPM technologies. These could be testing various pesticides, action thresholds, monitoring and scouting schemes, fertilizer rates, varieties, etc. Page | 110 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF It will require that the WSCRP undertake periodic evaluations of the on-farm demonstration methods in terms of adoption surveys. An outside consultant with a background in agricultural extension theory and practice should be engaged to make a review of the on-farm demonstration programs and make recommendations on improving training skills and conducting evaluations. Data should be taken on attendance and published in project reports as should results of quizzes and adoption evaluations. Commonly used evaluations are short quizzes before and after training sessions. This would tell the trainers immediately if their training session were successful. If not, the presentation should be changed and more time spent on less understood concepts. Concepts are best presented with analogies or short exercises conducted by the farmers. The trainer should act as a facilitator as farmers learn best from other farmers thus discussions should be undertaken where farmers themselves come up with the answers. If they are merely told or just see it done by others it does not stick in their mind as well. The WSCRP IPM program will be obliged to focus on Farm Chemical Safety (FCS) and worker protection practices by creating awareness among farm workers about the potential hazards of misuse of farm chemicals through farm training programs and seminars. Key training and awareness creation topics will include but not limited to among others 1. Chemical knowledge: registration, correct use, application procedures and label specifications. This training includes an in-depth review of label information, as well as a discussion of chemical concentrations, application rates, equipment calibration and maintenance, application intervals, re-entry and pre-harvest intervals and demonstrations of proper equipment use. 2. Pest knowledge: farmers will be trained to recognize crop and animal pests and damaging threshold levels, as well as key cultural practices to promote seed health, and when pesticide use is necessary and appropriate. 3. Storage: proper storage of chemicals in relation to other structures on the property. The need for a separate, clearly marked and locked facility will be emphasized for exclusive storage of farm chemicals. Pesticides should be kept away from food for human or animal consumption or sources of drinking water. Pesticides should always be stored in their original containers. 4. Transport: safe transport of pesticides will be discussed (i.e. not using public transportation if possible, keeping chemicals in a closed environment, how to avoid punctures and torn bags, etc). 5. Worker protection: Types of personal protective equipment (PPE), when they should be worn and why, and how they should be cared for. The basic PPE recommended for all pesticide applications includes long-sleeved shirts, long pants, shoes and socks. According to the toxicity and label directions of Page | 111 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF spinosad, chemical-resistant gloves, aprons, and masks may be required, and will be provided. 6. Safety practices: proper mixing techniques, the importance of reusing rinse water for mixing, and the importance of not contaminating water sources. The types of containers used in chemical preparation, their proper use, cleaning and storage will be addressed. Applicators will be taught not to eat, drink or smoke while applying pesticides. 7. First aid and medical facilities: first aid materials must be made available (soap, clean water and a towel) especially in case of spills. Participants will be taught to identify the primary symptoms of chemical exposure and what do to in an emergency. 8. Waste Management: how to clean up and safely dispose of any chemical not used. For liquids, empty containers will be rinsed 3 times, and emptied into the spray tank as part of the application mixture. When the product is used completely, chemical containers should be triple-rinsed and punctured before being buried. Containers should NEVER be reused. 9. Protection of drinking water: Training will emphasize the importance of protecting potable water sources and avoiding contamination of ground and surface waters. Participants will be trained to identify their drinking water source, and to keep all pesticides away from that source. Characteristics of the water source and mitigation measures to avoid contamination will be addressed. 10. Environmental safety: the importance of protecting natural resources and the proper use of pesticides to avoid environmental contamination and impacts on non-target organisms will be addressed. An additional training phase will be targeted towards women and children who may come into the production fields or who may be exposed to residues on the clothing of their spouses at home. Basic training materials in local languages, with illustrations will be developed for this purpose. Training for those exposed to treated seed may be somewhat limited in scope, but should include the following: 1. Wear the appropriate PPE! Do not allow pesticide-treated seed to contact skin, eyes, hair, or any other part of the body. Do not allow untrained or unprotected people in the field where seed is being distributed and planted. (Especially women, children, and other sensitive receptors). Wash the PPE and equipment immediately after use, and only at designated sites. Do not bring contaminated clothing home. Page | 112 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 2. Follow label directions when handling treated seed. These products are potentially poisonous if mishandled or misused. Extreme caution must be used when handling treated seed: some are toxic, others may be irritating. 3. Ensure that any tools used to handle treated seed will not be used to handle grain for food or feed. 4. Treated seed may not be used for food or feed. Wherever possible, treated seed should be coloured to aid in recognition, and all those with access to seed should be trained not to eat it. The WSCRP will adopt a strategy where extension services stress usage of a few basic pieces of protective clothing and then working into more complete coverage after the first few have been adopted. Communities could be encouraged to form professional spray teams that would be hired. These could be more efficiently trained to wear protective equipment. 12.3 IPMF Implementation Budget The estimated total cost for IPMF implementation is indicated in the table 13 below and included the resettlement implementation costs. The programme management team of WSCRP and the executing agencies will be responsible in the implementation of this IPMF and estimated costs for the various activities under this program will be built in the budget. The core activities will be as follows: Coordination a) Development of IPM packages for the WSCRP investments b) IPM orientation workshops c) Training of trainers and Farmer groups training d) Public awareness and promoting the adoption of IPM practices e) Field guides/training materials for production, purchase and distribution f) Farmers field days g) Field visits and study tours h) Database for human-health and environmental contamination i) Crop pest surveillance and updating pest/disease database at KEPHIS j) Annual workshops on progress and lesson learnt k) Participatory IPM research and development l) Monitoring and evaluation Table 13. A tentative cost estimates of budgetary requirements (USD) Line item Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Total Capacity Building IPM orientation 25,000 25,000 25,000 25,000 100,000 TOT 150,000 150,000 50,000 50,000 400,000 FG training 150,000 150,000 100,000 100,000 500,000 Database 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 20,000 Surveillance 45,000 40,000 40,000 40,000 165,000 Workshop 60,000 40,000 40,000 40,000 180,000 1,365,000 Research & Development Participatory IPM 30,000 10,000 5,000 5,000 50,000 Page | 113 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Field days 40,000 20,000 5,000 5,000 70,000 120,000 Advisory Services Field guides/IPM 150,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 450,000 materials Public awareness 50,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 200,000 Pest specialist 125,000 125,000 125,000 125,000 500,000 M&E 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 120,000 Coordination 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 60,000 1,330,000 Page | 114 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 13 REFERENCE 1. A survey on safe use of pesticides by Kenyan tea growers in east and west of rift valley By e. R. Cheramgoi, c. Mutai and j. Maritim 2. Government of Kenya Agriculture Act 3. Government of Kenya Constitution 4. Government of Kenya Environmental Management and Coordination Act 1999 5. Government of Kenya National Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene Policy-July 2007 6. Government of Kenya Occupational Health and Safety Act 7. Government of Kenya Pesticide Control Product Act 8. Government of Kenya Public Health Act 9. Government of Kenya Statistical Annex to the Budget Speech for the Fiscal Year 2009/2010 10. Government of Kenya The Employment Act 11. Government of Kenya The Lakes and Rivers Act Chapter 409 Laws of 12. Government of Kenya Vision 2030 13. Government of Kenya Water Act 2002 14. Government of Kenya Wildlife Conservation and Management Act 15. Kenya Government (1), Situation Analysis on Sound Management of Pesticides in Kenya, 2008 16. Kenya national profile to assess the chemicals management 2011 17. MEMR2007: National Implementation Plan for the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 18. PCPB Annual Report 2008-2009 19. Project Documentation for WSCRP 20. Statistical Abstracts (Central Bureau of Statistics) 2007 21. World Bank Aide Memoire for WSCRP 22. World Bank OP 4.09 Page | 115 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 13.1 Annex 1: Questionnaire on Pest Management 1) Pest Control practices a) Do you use any pesticides to control pests (Insects, diseases, weeds) of crops? Yes__ Name of pesticide Name of pest, disease, weed Number of Times applied/season When did you apply (growth stage or month) controlled No__ Quantity purchased each season each season If No, WHY? If Yes, name them _________________________________________________________________ b) If you use any of the above pesticide types, do you keep records of the: Application location  Yes………….  No …………. Date of application  Yes………….  No …………. Pesticide product trade name  Yes………….  No …………. Operator name  Yes………….  No …………. If No, WHY? c) How do you decide when to use the pesticides (tick all that apply)?  We use pesticides at regular intervals throughout the season (calendar) Page | 116 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF  We use pesticides when we see pests in the field (control)  We use pesticides after field sampling and finding a certain number of pests or a certain level of damage scouting  Told by someone to apply (specify who)_______________________   Other (specify)_________________________________________________ d) Do you use a knapsack sprayer? Yes___ No ___  If yes, do you own it Yes___ No ___  Do you rent it Yes___ No ___  Do you borrow it Yes___ No ___ e) From your experience, are there any negative/harmful effects of using pesticides? Yes………. No …………. f) If yes, list the negative effects: 1. ……………………………………………………………… 2................................................................................................. 3. ……………………………………………………………… 4. ……………………………………………………………… 5. ……………………………………………………………… g) Do you use any kind of protective clothing while applying or handling pesticides? Yes _____ No ______. Why? ____________________________________________ h) If YES, what kind? ___________________________________________________ 2. Knowledge of pesticide handling and storage (tick one in each row) a) Do you read labels on the pesticide container before using?  Sometimes___  Always___ Page | 117 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF  Never___ b) How often do you wear protective clothing and other accessories like nasal mask, eye goggles, and boots when applying the pesticides?  Sometimes___  Always___  Never ___ c) Do you mix pesticides with your hands?  Sometimes___  Always___  Never ___ d) Do you observe the pre-harvest waiting periods after applying the pesticides?  Sometimes___  Always___  Never ___ e) After spraying, do you wait 12 hours before entering the field?  Sometimes___  Always___  Never ___ f) Do you store pesticides in a secure, sound and well-ventilated location?  Sometimes___  Always___  Never ___ g) Do you make a cocktail before applying the pesticides? (i.e., mix more than one chemical and apply them at once?)  Sometimes___  Always___  Never ___ h) Where do you store your pesticides? ______________________________________ Why do you store them there? Page | 118 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF _____________________________________________ i) What do you do with your pesticide containers after they are empty? _____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ j) Do you know of any beneficial insects (insects that eat harmful insects)?  Yes………….  No …………. k) If yes, name them: i) _______________________ ii) _______________________ iii) _______________________ 3. Pesticides and Health a) Do you find that pesticide application is affecting the health of? Persons regularly applying pesticides  Sometimes___  Always___  Never ___ Persons working in fields sprayed with pesticides  Sometimes___  Always___  Never ___ Persons harvesting the produce  Sometimes___  Always___  Never ___ 4. Options to Pesticides a) From your experience, are you aware of other methods for controlling insects diseases and/or weeds besides pesticides? Yes……….. No ………… Page | 119 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF b) If yes, describe these practices: i) ________________________________________________________________ ii) _______________________________________________________________ iii) _______________________________________________________________ iv) _______________________________________________________________ 5. Information a) What information do you think you need for improving your crop production and marketing? ________________________________________________________________ 6. Training a) Have you ever received any training on any of the following topics related to crop production? Integrated Pest Management  Yes………….  No ………….  No. of times/past yr. …………. Pesticide Usage  Yes………….  No ………….  No. of times/past yr. …………. Pesticide Safety  Yes………….  No ………….  No. of times/past yr. …………. Insect Identification  Yes………….  No ………….  No. of times/past yr. …………. Disease Identification  Yes…………. Page | 120 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF  No ………….  No. of times/past yr. …………. Quality aspects of production  Yes………….  No ………….  No. of times/past yr.…………. 7) Is there anything else that you want us to know about your crop production? _______________________________________________________________ Thank you for your time Page | 121 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 13.2 Annex 2: POPs pesticides in Kenya Page | 122 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF 13.3 Annex 3: Common Pests in Kenya and Control Masures Questionnaire on Pest Management Table1 . Maize Pests, Damages, and control measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Grass and broad leaf weeds (pre- Compete for water and Thorough land preparation, Metolachlor, emergent nutrients hand weeding, pre-emergent (Dual) control) spray if previous crop was Diuron weedy (Diurex) Grass and broad leaf Compete for water and Thorough land preparation, Diuron weeds (post-emergent nutrients hand weeding, post-emergent (Diurex) control) spray if previous crop was weedy Perennial weeds Compete for water and Pre-plant or pre-emergent spray Glyphosate acid nutrients or post plant weed wipe (Roundup) Soil insect pests (millipedes, Damage roots, cause Deep ploughing, insecticide Imidacloprid white grubs) plants to lodge seed treatment (Gaucho) Cutworms/ armyworms Sever seedlings, defoliate Early planting, deep ploughing, Carbaryl (Sevin) and reduce photosynthetic apply insecticide poisoned bait surface when larvae first seen in Area economic numbers Termites Attack roots and stems of Deep ploughing, dig out queen, Imidacloprid Pseudacan-thotermes young seedlings and grinding fish bones and placing (Gaucho) Macrotermes, mature plants, Plants dry meal underground to attract Microtermes lodge ants that reduce termites, Odontotermes insecticide seed treatment Aphids/ thrips Remove plant sap to Rainfall as physical control, Imidacloprid stunt the plant early planting can avoid (Gaucho) population build-up, fertility management to ensure Malathion tolerance, apply insecticide (Malathion) when 25% of plants (in silk or heads) Leafhopper vector of Transmits maize leaf Resistant/ tolerant variety maize leaf streak Cicadulina streak virus Leaf beetles Defoliation to decrease management, scout field edges, Carbaryl WP Photosynthesis Fertility apply if incidence of damage (Sevin) exceeds 30% plants African armyworm Occasional outbreaks Insecticide when necessary Carbaryl WP Spodoptera exempta occur to cause severe (Sevin) defoliation Stalk borers Tunnel stalks to inhibit Early planting, fertility Carbaryl Granules Chilo partellus Sesamia nutrient and water flow, management, insecticide at first (Sevin) calamistis feeding causes ears to sign of feeding injury, spot Eldana saccharina break off treat infected plant and its Chlorpyrifos Busseola fusca neighbours only (not the whole (Dursban) field) Earworm Feed on grains in ear Early planting None Heliocoverpa armigera Damping off, seedling Cause seedling to Wither Certified seed, crop residue Thiram Blight Rhizoctonia thoroughly decomposed, purchased seeds come with a fungicide seed treatment Maize streak virus Reduce photosynthetic Resistant/ tolerant variety None area Intercrop Grey leaf spot Reduce photosynthetic Resistant/ tolerant variety None Cercospora zeaemaydis area Page | 123 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Northern leaf blight Exserohilum Reduce photosynthetic Resistant/ tolerant variety None turcicum area Leaf rust Puccinia sp. Reduce photosynthetic Resistant/ tolerant variety None area Leaf blight Stenocarpella Reduce photosynthetic Resistant/ tolerant variety None macrospora area Downymildew Stunting, narrow leaves, Resistant/ tolerant variety None Perenoschleros-pora sorghi death Table 2. Rice Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Weeds (grasses, Compete for nutrients Thorough land preparation, post- Propanil + sedges, emergence herbicide usage (at 2- thiobencarb (Rical broadleaves) leaf stage) preferably on moist or soil, followed by hand weeding Satunil 34%EC) African mole Remove roots Increase seeding rate, wood ash Cypermethrin Cricket Gryllotalpa (20 kg mixed with 30 kg seed) (Ambush CY) Termites Remove roots Increase seeding rate, wood Cypermethrin Macrotermes ash (20 kg mixed with 30 kg seed) (Ambush CY) Crazy ant Remove roots during Increase seeding rate, wood Cypermethrin first 15 d during ash (20 kg mixed with 30 (Ambush CY) drought period kg seed) Grape colaspis Larvae feed on roots Increase seeding rate Cypermethrin Beetle Colaspis brunnea destroying nutrient (Ambush CY 6% uptake and causing EC) seedling death Leaf miner fly Defoliates and Insecticide spray Cypermethrin removes (Ambush CY) photosynthetic area Stem borers Wilt tillers by Insecticide spray Cypermethrin Chilo partellus, tunnelling or wilt (Ambush CY) Sesamia, Busseola panicle Green grasshopper Causes unfilled grains Insecticide spray Cypermethrin (Ambush CY) Grasshopper Defoliates Hand collected as food Insecticide spray Cypermethrin (Ambush CY 6% EC) Stink bug Unfilled or damaged Insecticide spray Cypermethrin Nezara grains (Ambush CY 6% EC) Rice blast Removes Resistant variety Gold None Pyricularia oryzae photosynthetic tissue, infects grains Smut Resistant variety Gold None Ustilago Infects grains Birds Swarm into crop at Family labor at the time of Repellent (Bird grain filling and grain filling stay in field to Shield)(3 remove grains scare off birds, trap cropping with applications maize or sorghum, bird repellent 5 days apart) Rats Cut tillers, feed on Remove brush and weedy grains areas that are nesting sites around field, rodenticide mixed with rice grain bait Page | 124 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Table 3. Sorghum Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Weeds Compete for nutrients Crop rotation, thorough land Glyphosate and water preparation, hand weeding, acid inter-row cultivation, herbicide (Roundup) Striga Parasitic on crop roots Crop rotation, intercrop Celosia argentia or leguminous crop Shootfly Larvae tunnel in tillers Early planting, increase seeding Atherigona soccata of seedlings causing rate, inorganic fertilizer deadhearts Armyworm Occasional outbreaks Insecticide Carbaryl WP Spodoptera exempta occur to cause severe (Sevin) defoliation Stalk borers Larvae tunnel into the Early planting, fertility Carbaryl G Chilo partellus stalk hindering management, treat at first sign of (Sevin) Sesamia calamistis movement of nutrients feeding injury, spot treat Chlorpyrifos Eldana saccharina infected plant and its neighbours (Dursban) Busseola fusca only (not the whole field) beta Cyfluthrin (Bulldock 25 EC) Aphid Melanaphis Remove sap and sooty Early planting Soap spray sacchari mold Sorghum midge Larvae feed within Early planting, insecticide Spinosad Contarinia sorghi grain treatments when 20 to 30 (Tracer) percent of the field has begun to bloom and a mean of 1 midge per head is found Downy mildew, Stunting, narrow Resistant/ tolerant variety, Mancozeb Perono-sclerospora leaves, death fungicide (Dithane) sorghi Table 4. Finger Millet Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Weeds Compete for nutrients Crop rotation, thorough land Glyphosate acid and water preparation, hand weeding, (Roundup) inter-row cultivation herbicide Shootfly Larvae tunnel in tillers Early planting, increase Atherigona soccata of seedlings causing seeding rate, inorganic dead hearts fertilizer Armyworm Occasional outbreaks Insecticide spray Carbaryl WP Spodoptera occur to cause severe (Sevin) exempta defoliation Sorghum midge Larvae feed within Early planting, insecticide Spinosad Contarinia sorghi seed spray (Tracer) Stalk borers Larvae tunnel into the Early planting, fertility Carbaryl G Page | 125 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Chilo partellus stalk destroying management, treat at first (Sevin) Sesamia movement of nutrients sign of feeding injury, spot Chlorpyrifos calamistis treat infected plant and its (Dursban) Eldana saccharina neighbours only (not the beta Cyfluthrin Busseola fusca whole field) (Bulldock 25 EC) Damping off Cause death of Over seeding, fungicide Sclerotium rolfsii seedlings seed treatment Bacterial blight Attack the roots, wilt Crop rotation, seed Acidovorax avenae ssp. plant, eventual death sterilization, rogueing avenae Blast Pyricularia Reduce photosynthetic Resistant/ tolerant variety, Mancozeb grisea area fungicide (Dithane WP) leaf spot Reduce photosynthetic Resistant/ tolerant variety, Mancozeb Cylindrosporium area fungicide (Dithane WP) Tar spot Phyllachora Reduce photosynthetic Resistant/ tolerant variety, Mancozeb eleusine area fungicide (Dithane WP) Birds Remove grains Early planting, bird repellent (3 applications 5 days apart) Table 5. Sunflower Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Weeds Compete with crop Through ploughing, followed by Glyphosate for nutrients and two hand weeding 2-3 and 4-5 spray on weed water weeks after emergence re-growth Cutworms Spodoptera, Feed at base of Poison bait of rice bran Carbaryl(Sevin Agrotis seedlings severing SP) them Bollworm Larvae do not feed None Heliocoverpa on seeds but cause Armigera entry for soft rot diseases Stem rot Kill seedlings Crop rotation, removal of crop Sclerotium (damping off) residue, seed treatment Rhizoctonia Sclerotinia head rot Flower head None undergoes necrosis Birds Feed on seed Scare tactics, tying bright reflector streamers, do not plant 400 m within marshes, plant a buffer strip between wooded areas Rats, squirrels Remove seed during None planting Table 6. Sesame Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Weeds (broadleaves Compete for nutrients Crop rotation, Good land Glyphosate and perennial grasses) and water preparation, Post emergent (Roundup) herbicide, Hand weeding Page | 126 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Gall midge Feed on flower Insecticide spray Dimethoate Asphondylia sesami (Tafgor 40% EC) Webworm Antigastra Feed on capsule Insecticide spray Carbaryl catalaunalis (Sevin SP) Leaf miner Defoliation Insecticide spray Dimethoate (Tafgor EC) Verticilium wilt Kills plant None Cercospora leaf spot Reduce photosynthetic Fungicide spray Mancozeb area (Dithane M45) Virus Distorts flowers and Rouging leaves Table 7. Sweet Potato Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Sweet potato weevils Larvae tunnel into the Select a planting site free of Carbaryl Cylas brunneus, C. stems to block nutrient sweet potato for a 1 km radius, (Sevin) Puncticollis flow and eventually select planting slips from the Striped sweet potato enter the tubers tips <30 cm from the ends, weevil Blosyrus sp. destroying them and soak the slips in insecticide rendering them unmarketable Butterfly Defoliation Early planting, hand picking, Carbaryl Acraea acerata (Sevin) Hornworms Defoliation Early planting, hand picking, Carbaryl Herse convolvuli (Sevin) Hippotion celerio Armyworm Defoliation Early planting, hand picking, Carbaryl Spodoptera (Sevin) Cutworm Feeds at the base of the Poison bait of rice bran Carbaryl(Sevin) Agrotis plant Whitefly Bemesia Removes plant sap, Tolerant/ resistant variety tabaci vectors virus disease Aphid Removes plant sap, Tolerant/ resistant variety vectors virus disease Millipedes Feed on the tubers Cutworm poisoned bait Carbaryl (Sevin) Rats Ratus Feed on tubers Clean culture Sweet potato virus Vectored by whitefly. Tolerant/ resistant varieties Chlorotic stunt Causes stunting of crinivirus plant Sweet potato virus Vectored by aphid Tolerant/ resistant varieties Feathery mottle potyvirus Alternaria disease Causes black lesions Tolerant/ resistant varieties on the stems and can kill the vines Table 8. Irish Potato Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Weeds Compete with crop for Hand weeding Glyphosate Page | 127 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF nutrients Late blight Reduces Early planting, Mancozeb Phytophthora photosynthesis tolerant/resistant variety (Dithane M-45) infestans in leaves, eventually fungicides, rotate chemical Metalaxyl + can cause death of family to prevent resistance mancozeb plant (Ridomil MZ) Copper oxychloride (Cupravit) Sulfur (Thiovit) Propineb 58%+ cymoxanil 4.8% (Milraz) Bacterial wilt Constricts the base of Resistant variety Cruza, None Ralstonia plant at ground level crop rotation, use organic solanacearum blocking nutrient matter uptake causing death of plant Virus complex of Reduce photosynthesis, Rogue, control aphid vector Dimethoate diseases (leaf roll) kill plant with insecticide (Tafgor EC) Soap (Omo) Nematodes Reduce nutrient uptake Crop rotation, use organic None in roots matter Potato tuber moth Attack stored potato Insecticide dust Pirimiphos seed methyl (Actellic) Storage disease, seed Transmit late blight Soak seed pieces in Mancozeb pieces and wilt fungicide before storage and (Dithane M-45) before planting, construct Metalaxyl + storage area that is aerated mancozeb (Ridomil MZ) Aphids Remove plant sap Soap Dimethoate Dimethoate (Tafgor 40% EC) Cutworms Sever sprouts below Rice bran bait laced with Carbaryl ground level carbaryl (Sevin SP) Millipede Feed on the tubers Cutworm poisoned bait Carbaryl (Sevin SP) Snails Remove leaf area Molluscicide bait Metaldehyde pellets Table 9. Cassava Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Weeds Compete for nutrients Thorough land Glyphosate preparation, hand (Roundup) weeding, herbicide Nematodos Injures roots to reduce Crop rotation Meloidogyne nutrient uptake, reduces arenaria, M. hapla, sprouting on planting M. incognita M. pieces javanica Page | 128 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Termite Macrotermes Feed on tubers Dig up nest and kill queen underground Green mite Suck plant sap drying up Typhlodromus aripo Mononychellus tanajoa plant predator Mealybug Removes plant sap Epidinocarsis lopezi Phenacoccus manihoti parasitoid Whitefly Bemesia Transmits mosaic virus, Resistant/ tolerant variety tabaci direct damage by removing plant sap Millipedes Feed on tubers, causing None economical entry points for secondary infections African cassava Twisted leaves, reduced Resistant variety TME mosaic virus plant growth, small tubers 14, Nase 1-12 Cercospora leaf spot Brown lesions that dry up Tolerant/ resistant variety Bacterial wilt Putrifies the base of the Rogueing Xanthomonas plant which dries and wilts campestris Anthracnose Angular spots on leaves Resistant/ tolerant Colletotrichum reduce photosynthetic gloesporioides f sp. surface area manihotis Table 10. Groundnut Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Damping off Death of seedlings Crop rotation, fungicide Scerotium rolfsii seed treatment Bacterial wilt Death of plants Resistant/ tolerant variety Ralstonia solacearum Rosette virus disease Severe stunting, Early planting, close reduced pod density spacing, high plant density, rouging, Resistant/ tolerant variety Peanut clump virus Severe stunting, Resistant/ tolerant variety (PCV) Peanut mottle reduced pod density virus (PMV) Verticillium wilt V. Stunting, reduced pod Resistant/ tolerant variety dahliae density Cercospora leaf spot Reduces Tolerant variety Mancozeb Cercospora photosynthetic surface Fungicide (Dithane M45 arachidicola area Cercosporidium personatum Rust Puccinia Reduces Resistant/ tolerant variety Mancozeb arachidis photosynthetic surface (Dithane) area Pod rot Pythium Putrifies nuts in pods Fungicide seed treatment myriotylum, Fusarium solani Dry rot Putrifies nuts in pods Page | 129 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Macrosphomina phaseolina Cowpea aphid Vector of rosette Resistant variety Aphis craccivora Thrips M. sjostedti Reduces flower Insecticide Sulfur (Thiovit) Thrips palmi formation Neem Caliothrips indicus Petroleum Oil Frankliniella schultzi Leaf miner Reduces Insecticide Neem Aproanema modicella photosynthetic surface Methoxychlor area Millipedes Feed on pods and nuts 5 species underground Table 11. Soybeans Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Nematodes Injures roots Crop rotation, increase crop Meliodyne incognita preventing tolerance by good nutrient uptake management and fertility Insect defoliators Removes Insecticide Carbaryl (Sevin) photosynthetic tissue Thrips Prevents flower and Insecticide Petroleum oil Megalurothrips pod Sulfur sjosetedti formation (Thiovit) Pod borers Reduces bean Insecticide Acephate Maruca production, reduces (Lancer) Heliocoverpa bean quality Stink bug Feeds on seed Insecticide Carbaryl (Sevin) Nezara viridula introducing fungi to degrade quality Soybean rust Reduces Tolerant/resistant varieties Mancozeb Phakopsora photosynthesis, kills foliar fungicide (Dithane) pachyrhizi leaves Tebuconazole (Folicur), Leaf spots Cercospora Reduces Tolerant/resistant varieties Mancozeb photosynthesis foliar fungicide Dithane) Table 12. Barley Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Broadleaved Compete for water Crop rotation thorough land Iodosulfuronmethyl- weeds and nutrients preparation, post- Sodium (Hussar) emergence herbicide Leaf rust Reduce Tolerant/resistant varieties Tebuconazole photosynthesis Fungicide (Folicur) Table 13. Beans Pests, Damages and Control Measures (chemical and non-chemical) Pest Damage Control measure Pesticide Perennial grassy weeds Compete for nutrients Thorough land Glyphosate Page | 130 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF preparation, hand (Roundup) weeding, herbicide if weeds dense in previous crop Damping off, seedling Kill off seedlings Certified seed, crop blight residue thoroughly Rhizoctonia decomposed, fungicide seed treatment Cutworms Agrotis Larvae feed on roots Early planting, deep Carbaryl (Sevin) segetum and base of stem plowing, apply insecticide killing poisoned bait when larvae seedlings first seen in economic numbers. Beanfly Ophiomyia Larvae tunnel into Hilling up, early planting, Imidacloprid phaseoli leaves and down Seed treatment on late (Gaucho) petiole to the stem, cut plantings flow of nutrients Aphids Aphis fabae Remove plant sap, Early planting, fertility Liquid soap or vector virus disease management, insecticide if OMO® > 20% plants infested and Summer petroleum at least 1 in 10 plants oil heavily infested Thrips Megalurothrips Feed on developing Early planting, fertility Sulfur (Thiovit) Sjosetedti flowers to prevent management, inspect pod formation flowers and insecticide only when 10 seen/flower Defoliating worms Remove photosynthetic Early planting, fertility Carbaryl (Sevin) tissue management, insecticide Bt (Xentari) only if >30% leaf loss until flowering stage, during flowering stage treat when > 3 worms per plant seen Leaf beetles Remove photosynthetic Early planting, fertility Carbaryl (Sevin) Ootheca bennigseni tissue management, insecticide only if >30% leaf loss until flowering stage, during flowering stage treat when > 3 beetles per plant seen White fly Bemesia Remove plant sap Not economically tabaci important Pod borer Maruca Feed on developing Insecticide when 3 Acephate (Lancer) testulalis flowers and seeds larvae/20 plants Spinosad (Tracer) Bollworm Feed on flowers and Insecticide Heliocoverpa armigera young pods and seeds in pods Blister beetles Feed on flowers Collect with nets when Mylabris seen Seed bugs Nezara Feed directly on seed, Insecticide when 2 Carbaryl (Sevin) viridula Clavigralla introduce secondary bugs/20 plants tomentosicollis infestions C. horida Riptortus Page | 131 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF dentipes Anoplocnemis curvipes Bean common mosaic Reduce plant growth Resistant/ tolerant variety necrosis potyvirus or rouging (BCMNV) Floury leaf spot Reduce photosythentic Resistant/ tolerant variety Mancozeb (Dithane Mycosphaerella areas or rouging M-45) Phaseoli Angular leaf spot Reduce photosythentic Resistant/ tolerant variety Phaseoisariopsis areas Griseola Bean rust Reduce photosythentic Resistant/ tolerant variety Mancozeb (Dithane Uromyces areas M-45) Appendiculatus Powdery mildew Reduce photosythentic Resistant/ tolerant variety Mancozeb (Dithane areas M-45) Benomyl (Benlate) White mold Ramularia Reduce photosythentic Resistant/ tolerant variety phaseoli areas Bacterial blight Cause whole plant to Resistant/ tolerant variety Xanthomonas wilt campestris pv. Phaseoli Fusarium wilt F. Cause whole plant Resistant/ tolerant variety oxysporum f.sp. to wilt phaseoli Rats Feed on stems Remove brushy areas Warfarin around the field, Ready-to-use bait Table 14. Pest and Diseases for Brinjals or Egg Plant Disease Symptoms Control Shoot & Fruit These are caterpillar which attack the plant Remove infected shoots and destroy Borer from the nursery and continues the attack Ratoon crops are to be avoided and as long as the crop remains in the field. suitable crop rotations is to be The caterpillars bore into the young shoots followed and fruits. The fruits become unfit for consumption and in severe cases for Spray with dimethoate 40 at the rate consumption and in severe cases even rot. of 30 ml/20 lts of water. Ensure 15 days lapse before harvesting after spraying note that although insecticides is effective there is worry over the residual effect which takes 3 months to disappear at a time when the crop is already being harvested. Red spider mite These are tiny insects difficult to see with Spraying with Dimethoate 40 at the the naked eye. They suck the sap from the rate of 30 ml per 20 lts of water leaves. In severe case the whole plant allow two weeks before harvest. looks yellow and cobwebs are seen on the Moracide and mitac are also leaves. In severe cases the whole plant effective against these mites but Page | 132 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF look yellow and cobwebs are seen on the fruits are stained up to harvest leaves. hence reducing or rendering them unmarketable. There are other effective miticides like metaystox (30ml/20 litres) and folimat (30ml/20 litres) but these requires more time before harvesting (21-28 days respectively) and are thus undesirable. Karate is too expensive to use. Striped blister A black beetle, about 2 cm long with As for Epilachna beetle below beetles longitudinal white stripes. The beetles eat irregular holes in leaves Epilachna beetles These are small beetles 0.5 cm long and Spray with dimethoate 40 or roxin black in colour with yellow stripes on or rogor E at 30m/20 litres for back. They make small holes on leaves attacks occurring in nursery or soon which become centre for leaf necrosis. after transplanting. If flowers are These beetles attack in fairly large emerging in the young plants, numbers and can cause heavy damage. Malathion art rate of 60 ml./20lt They can come from an unsprayed nursery water should be sprayed. Observe a to the field where the population builds up. 7 days pre-harvest period. Decis at the rate pf 10m/20 lt water can be used as a substitute to malathion. During harvest time it is recommended to control this beetle by use of Sumicidin at the rate of 50ml/20. Cotton Aphids Vectors of virus diseases Control is done by an organophosphate like Anthio malathion at the rate of 60ml 20 litres of water or dimethoate 40 as above. Wilt Starts by yellowing of leaves affected Use resistant varieties along with plant becomes stunted and die crop rotation Destroy infected debris Use certified seeds Table 15. Pest and Diseases and control measures for broccoli Disease Symptoms Control Black rot The disease infection occurs at any stage Crop rotation (Xanthomonas of growth and dwarfing may occur at the Using healthy certified seeds cam pestris) cotyledon stage, yellowing brown dry leaf Resistant varieties margins are observed in infected plants. In severe cases, heading may be hindered. Infected heads rot to give a characteristic offensive smell. Ring Spot The disease is seed borne and is spread by Two year crop rotation (Mycosphaerella wind or compost made from infected plant Use of healthy seeds brassicicola) materials. Affected plants have brown Foliar sprays with dithiocarbamates spots on the leaves which are often bordered by a green margin. Page | 133 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Downey The disease is severe at high altitudes Two year crop rotation Mildew where conditions are cool and wet. Nursery hygiene Affected plants show a fluffy fungal Foliar sprays with dithiocarbamates growth on the underside of leaves which later produce brown to black spots on the upper leaf surface. Harvesting Broccoli is ready for harvesting 80-90 days from germination depending on variety. The plants should be harvested into clean containers. Table 16. Crops and Diseases and Control Measures for Cabbages Disease Symptoms Control Black-rot This is a serious cabbage disease in Kenya Destroy infected crop residues and is caused by the bacteria Xanthomonas Crop rotation with non-brassic as campestris. It can cause a total crop loss. for at least 2 years Disease development is favoured by high humidity rainfall and high temperatures (20- Use of healthy seed seedlings Use 300C). of resistance or tolerant crop varieties Infection occurs at all stages and may cause dwarfing. At an early stage, yellowish brown Seed treatment with hot water dry leaf margins are observed in affected (500C for30 minutes) plants. If such lesions are held against the light blackened veins are visible. When cut crosswise, affected stems have a charact- eristic black ring. In later stages, affected heads turn black and soft. in extreme cases, heading may be hindered or completely prevented. Infected cabbage heads rot to give a characteristic offensive odour. Black Leg This disease is caused by the seed-borne Control is mainly through cultural (Dry Rot fungus Phoma lingam. The earliest visible practices hence, the need for Canker) sign of the disease appears as brown to black observing hygiene and good spots on the seedlings while in the seed beds. agricultural practices. Old spots are ashy grey and often have pustules on them. These includes: Crop rotation with other crops other than The stem has dark cankers extending below brassicas for at least three years. the soil level and kills the roots. The disease also affects seed pods Use of healthy seeds/seedlings Destruction of infected crop debris Ring Spot The disease is caused by the seed-borne The disease is controlled by use fungus Mycosphaerella brasskola. The of chemical and cultural methods. disease affects other members of the cabbage These includes: family such as kales, brussels sprouts, cauliflower. It is mainly spread by wind or Crop rotation programme for at compost made from infected e crop residues. least two years All aerial parts are affected. The symptoms Planting healthy seeds/seedlings of this disease appear as circular brown grey spots on the leaves which are often bordered Chemical control - sprays with Page | 134 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF by a green margin and with black-speckled, dithiocarbamate fungicides or concentric zones. In stored cabbage, the copper based fungicides disease can penetrate deep into the heats requiring trimming before marketing. Dark Leaf Spot The disease is caused by Altemaria As in ring spot above brassicicola. The disease is more severe under humid hot conditions. The fungus is seed- borne and is mainly spread through water, wind and infected farm implements Symptoms of the disease range from small necrotic spots on cotyledons to damping -off of seedling if the disease is severe. Mature attacked leaves shows circular brown to dark spots 1.2-2.0 cm in diameter. Old lesions/spots become black, coalesce and a hole is eventually formed. Leaves dry up if infection is severe. Downey Mildews The disease is caused by the fungus The disease is controlled by both Peronospora parasitica. The disease is chemical and cultural practices severe at high elevations where conditions through the use of good are cool and wet and is mainly spread by agricultural practices. wind, rain and overhead -soil Affected plants show fluffy fungal growth on the underside These includes: of produce brown to black upper surface. Crop rotation - at least two years The Gum crop at the seedlings flap -other with non-brassicas brassicas. Good nursery and field hygiene Control using Dithane M 45 at 2 tablespoonfuls in a debe (20 litres) of water. This should be started immediately after seed germination. Bacterial sort rot The disease is caused by Erwinia carotovora Crop rotation with legumes, subsp. The bacteria has a wide host includes cereals cruciferous, so and liliaceous crops. The Foliar sprays with copper based disease is soil-borne with a high temperate fungicides (32-330C) requirement for development. It is spread by rain splash on lower leaves very rapidly. The head become has a watery rot which develop an offensive smell. Bacterial leaf rot The disease occurs in most production areas The margin of the lesions is black and is caused -bacteria Pseudomonas with a slightly sunken centre. All syringae pv maculicola. The optimum the leaves eventually become temperate development of 250C, hence the yellow and dry. On stems and rarely occurs in the lowlands. The affects petioles, black spindle shaped or stems, leaves and petiole bacteria is seed- short linear lesions are formed. borne and survives in soil for over a year. It is spread by splash, wind and affects only Crop rotation programme vegetables. Symptoms first appear brown spots on the leaves. The spots coalesce to Destruction of infected crop form irregular necrotic (blackish to brown to debris greyish brown) lesions. Use of certified seeds Page | 135 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Foliar spray using copper based fungicides Cabbage Yellows The disease is caused by the fungus Crop rotation Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. Conglutinans. It is soil-bone and occurs worldwide. The disease Destruction of infected crop occurs at all stages of crop growth and debris among the brassicas, it affects cabbage, cauliflower and turnips. The fungus survives Use of resistant varieties in the soil tr a long time. In young plants, one side of the lower leaves becomes yellow. The yellow-spreads to the upper leaves which falls leaving only the corn leaves and the plant dies. On older plants, yellowing first appears on one side of the leaf veins which gradually spreads to the whole leaf which dries and falls. Infected leaves are malformed and bend to the yellowing side. In severely infected plants, only core leaves remain. Diamondback These are pale green caterpillars whose first Currently, this insect pest is Moth larval eats the lower side of the leaving a controlled through chemical (Plutella macull- transparent tissue. This is referred to as means but trials are going-on to penis) "windowing". The later larval instar bore establish biological control of the through the leaf making holes. Under heavy pest. infestation, the leaves appear skeletonized especially when the holes merge. infestation However; a single pesticide in cabbages leads to taut of head formation. should not be used continuously However; developing heads are damaged by to minimise pest resistance build- late attacks. The adult is a small grew moth up. measuring 7-8 mm in length, and when its wings are folded the marks on the back form Foliar sprays of Ambush, a diamond pattern and, hence, the common Malathion, Thuridde (B.t), Karate name diamondback moth. The female moth and Regent 50% EC are effective. lives up to 20 days laying 60-150 eggs. Cabbage Aphids There are three different species of aphids which attack cabbage and other brassicas. Although the control methods are the same, their appearance and host range differs. These are: Cabbage Aphid The aphids are pale green lice like insects Control methods are mainly (Brevkoryne which are covered with a light dust of mealy chemical especially during dry brass/cat CL) powder. They suck plant sap from the central weather when infestation is part of the plant and near the base of leaves. heavy. Naturally, aphid levels are This aphid can transmit over viral disease in kept low by natural predators cruciferous vegetables such as ladybird beetles and parasitic wasps. Spray with Malathion at 40m1 per of water. Spray with Dimethoate (Rogor) 40% EC at 20 ml per 20 Its (debe) of water Other effective insecticides are Brigade, Ambush and Karate False Cabbage These are pale green aphids normally found Page | 136 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Aphid (Lipphis mixed with colonies of the cabbage aphid erysmi (Kalt,) but has no mealy powder. This aphid is a minor pest of crucifers. Green Peach This is a tight green to yellowish or reddish Aphid (Myzus aphid which is polyphagous and widespread. persicae (SuIz) It is an important vector of several plant diseases. lt damages the crop through direct feeding which is shown by the distortion of leaves. Cabbage Sawfly These are oily, black green caterpillars up to As for Diamondback moth but (Athalia spp.) 2.5 cm long with a black head and more than other chemicals like Malathion six pairs of legs. They eat the leaves often and Diazinon will help to control. leaving only the mid-rib. Cutworms These are grey to black caterpillars that feed Control methods are based on (Agrotis spp) at night. They bite outthe side of the stem at chemical means. These includes: ground level causing the plant to fall over, or may cut it off completely. They are often Dust lightly with 5% Malathion found hidden in the soil near the cut dust around the plant after seedlings. transplanting Dichlorphon (Dipterex) added to baits (e.g. Bran mixed with Sugar) Surface spray of pyrethroid insecticides will control cutworms just before seedlings are transplanted. Oriental These are creamy white, brown striped As in Diamondback moth. Cabbage worm caterpillars of about 15 mm when fully (Hellula undalis) grown. The head capsule is black. The caterpillars’ feed, mining and boring on leaves, petioles, stalks, growing points and roots. Attacked leaves are spun together by a web of silk. Young plants frequently die after infestation, while older plants are entirely destroyed. Table 17. Cauliflower pest and diseases and control measures Disease Symptoms Control Black-rot Presently, this is a serious cauliflower Control measure include disease that can cause total crop loss practicing rotation and use of especially in overhead irrigated fields. It is healthy seeds caused by a fungus called Xanthomonas campestris The infection takes place at all stages of growth and dwarfing may occur. At cotyledon stage yellowish brown dry leaf margins are observable in affected plants. If such lesions are held against light blackened veins are visible. In extreme cases heading may be hindered or completely prevented. Infected heads rot to give a characteristic offensive odour. Dry-Rot canker Dry rot canker or black leg is caused by a Practice a three year crop Page | 137 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF or Black leg seed borne fungus. It is a recent introduction rotation, (Phoma Lingam) in Kenya and observations indicate that the disease is on the increase. The earliest visible Destroy infected material. symptoms of this disease are brow to black spots on the seedlings while in the seed-bed. Old spots are ash-grey and often have postules on them. Also dark-stem cankerform extending before the soil level killing the fibrous root system. Mature plants thus affected wither abruptly and die. Ring Spot This is a seed-borne caused by a fungus. It is Practice at least a two year crop mainly Mycosphaerella brassicicola. Spread rotation by wind or compost made from infested material. The symptoms include brown spots Plant healthy seedlings or on the leaves often bordered by a green spraying with dithiocarbamate margin. fungicides. Dark leaf spot The symptoms range from necrotic spots on The control is as for ring spot. (Alternaris spp) cotyledons to damping off of seedlings if the disease is too severe. Dark to brown circular spats 1.0 - 2.0 mm in diameter appear on mature leaves which eventually dry-up. The disease is seed-borne and it is spread within the field mainly by wind~ water or contam- inated tools. Downey Mildew This disease is severe at high elevations At least two year crop rotation (Peronospora where conditions are cool and wet although parasitica) it could also occur in over shaded seed-beds Nursery hygiene if these are over-watered. Affected plant show a fluffy fungal growth on the underside Spraying of dithiocarbamate of leaves which later produce brown to black fungicides. spots on the upper surface. The disease is mainly spread by wind, rain and other mobile objects. White Rust This is caused by a fungus Cystopus Crop rotation and destruction of candidus. Affected plants show white infected plant material blisterlike postules on the leaves, stems1 flowers and sometimes on the seed pods. The disease is mainly spread by soil-borne spores on plant debris. Diamond back There are green caterpillars up to 13 mm Chemical control methods  moth (Plutella long. Pupae in silken cocoons may be found Spray with Endosulfan (Thiodan) macculipenis) on underside of the leaves. The attacked 35% E.C 40ml in 2olitres (a debe) leaves have many small round holes of water. This will be 1.5 litres of (windows). This pest is common in all Endosulfan in 600 litres of water cabbage growing areas. per hectare. Pre-harvest periods is 10 days Spray with carbaryl (sevin) 85% W.R 409m in 2Olitres of water. This will be 700-1400 gm in 600 litres of water per hectare as a high volume full cover spray. Pre- harvest period is 7 days. Page | 138 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Cabbage saw-fly These are oily black green caterpillars of up Control as for the Diamond-black (Athalia spp) to 2.5cm long with black head and more than moth (Carbryl is more effective). six pairs of legs. Cabbage Aphid These are masses of plant lice found in the Spray with either: (Brevicoryne central area of the plant and near the base of Dimethoate 40 (Rogor 40) at the brassicae) leaves. rate of 20m1 per debe of water. This will be 600-900m1 in 600 litres of water per hectare. Or Malathion 50% EC at 30ml in 20 litres of water (a debe). This will be 900-1400 ml of Malathion in 600 litres of water per hectare. Harvest period is 7 days Cut-worms These are black caterpillars approximately Control by dusting the plant (Agrotis spp) 25mm long, often found hidden in the soil lightly with 5% Malation dust near the seedlings. They cut the stem of the after transplanting preferably in seedling at the base and eat at night the afternoon. Table 18. Green Peas Pest and Diseases and control measures Disease Symptoms Control Powdery Mildew The disease is caused by the fungus Early maturing varieties Erysiphe polygonii and is a serious disease in warm weather. The fungus is not soil-borne; Foliar sprays using Triadimefon, hence, plant residues can be incorporated Dinocap into the soil. The disease can be recognised by the white mycelia all over the plant. Pea Aphids These attack young vines and suck sap Foliar sprays using Dimethoate, (Marcrosiphum resulting to distorted growth. Dichionros pisi) American These caterpillars feed on flowers,buds, Strict crop rotation ballworms seeds and pods. Burning of crop residues (Heliothis Spraying using Endolsulfan, armigera) Cabaryl, Trichlophon Pea Weevil The pest is of importance in dry peas. The Insecticides (Brochus adult lays eggs on pods and they hatch into pisorum) larva which burrows into the seeds. Nematdes These attack the plants resulting to reduced Strict crop rotation (Meloidogyne growth and yields. The roots develop galls Fallowing in dry weather ssp) (root knots). Soil treatment using nematicides Table 19. Pest and Diseases for Kales Disease Symptoms Control Black rot This is a serious bacterial disease of sales in The control methods are mainly (Xanthomonas Kenya and can cause a total crop loss. cultural and includes the camoestris) Disease development is favoured by high following: humidity/rainfall and high temperatures (20-30oC). Infection ours at all stages for at Destruction of infected crop least 2 years and may cause dwarfing. At an residues. early stage, yellowish brown dry leaf margins are observed in affect9d plants. If Crop rotation with non-brassicas Page | 139 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF such varieties lesions are held against the Use of healthy seeds/seedlings light blackened veins are visible. On the Use of resistant or tolerant crop margins of mature leaves, the veins become Seed treatment with hot water distinctly black while in fusarium yellow, the 500C for 30 minutes veins are brown. When cut crosswise, affected stems have a characteristic black ring. Dry Rot Canker This disease is caused by the seed-borne Control is mainly through cultural or Black Leg fungus Phoma lingam. The earliest visible practices, hence, the need for (Phoma Lingam) sign of the disease appears as brown to black observing clean field hygiene. spots on the seedlings while in the seed beds. Old spots are ashy grey and often have The practices includes: pustules on them. The stem has dark Crop rotation with other crops cankers extending below soil level and kills than brassicas for at least three the roots. Affected plant parts wilt abruptly years. and die. The disease also affects seed pods. Use of healthy seed/seedlings Destruction of infected crop debris Ring Spot The disease is caused by the fungus Destruction of infected plant (Mycosphaerella Mycosphaerella brassicola which is seed- debris brassiocola) borne and affects other brassicas. The disease is mainly spread by wind or compost Crop rotation of at least two made from infected crop residues. All aerial years. parts of the plant are affected but usually, order and lower foliage is most affected and Use healthy planting materials premature defoliation can result. On leaves, circular brown grey spots of delimited, back- The seed beds should be sited specked concentric zones of up to 2cm are away from mature plants observed. On the stems and leaf midribs, the spots are oval or rectangular in shape. Chemical sprays using Dithiocarbamates or Benomyl. Use a wetter (at 4 times the recommended dose) since brassica leaves are waxy. Dark Leaf Spot The fungus is seed-borne and is spread by As ring spot above. (Alternara spp) wind, water or contaminated tools. The symptoms range from small necrotic spots on cotyledons or damping off of seedlings if the disease is severe. On mature leaves, attacked leaves show a circular brown to dark spots 1-2cm in diameter; Severely attacked leaves dry up. Downey Mildews The disease is caused by the fungus The disease is controlled by both (Peronospora Peronospora parasitica. The disease is chemical and cultural practices parasitica) severe at high elevations where conditions through the use of good are cool and wet and is mainly spread by agricultural practices. These wind, rain and other mobile objects. Affected includes: plants show fluffy fungal growth on the underside of leaves which later produce Crop rotation - at least two years brown to black spots on the upper surface. with non-brassicas Page | 140 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Good nursery and field hygiene Chemical control using dithane M-45 at 2 tablespoonfuls in a debe (20 litres) of water; This should be started immediately after seed germination. White rust The disease is spread by wind or soil-borne A two year crop rotation spores on plant debris. Affected plants show white blister like pustules on leaves, stems, Destruction of infected plant flowers and sometimes, on seed pods. debris Diamondback These are pale green caterpillars whose first Currently, pest is controlled Moth (Plutella larval instars eats the lower side of the leaf through chemical means but there maculipenis) leaving a transparent tissue. This is referred are on-going trials to identify a to as "windowing". The later larval instars suitable predator for biological feed through the leaf making holes. Under control of the pest. heavy infestation, the leaves continuously to minimize pest resistance appear skeletonized However a single pesticide should especially when the holes merge. not be used continuously to minimize pest resistance build up Early infestation in cabbages leads to failure foliar sprays of Ambush, of hed are damaged by late attacks, the adult malathion, thuricide (B.t) karate, is a small grey moth measuring 7-8 mm in regent 50% EC, endosulfan length, and when its wings are folded the (thiodan 35% EC at 1.5 lts/ 600 marks on the back forms a diamond pattern lts of water per hectare, brigade at and hence the common name diamondback 1 lt/ha in 600 lts of water. Allow moth. for 10 days pre-harvest interval. The female moth lives for 20 days and lays Carbaryl (sevin) 85% WP at 60-150 eggs. 40gm (2 tablespoonfuls) in a debe of water. Allow for 14 days pre- harvest interval. Cabbage These are black green caterpillars up to 2.5 As for diamondback moth but Sawfly cm long with a black head and more than six Carbaryl is more effective (Anthalia spp) pairs of legs. They eat the leaves often leaving only the mid-rib. Aphids There are three different species of aphids which attack cabbage and other brassicas. Although the control methods are the s-mi their appearance and host range differs. These are indicated below. Cabbage Aphid The aphids are pale greep lice like insects Control methods are mainly (Brevicoryne which are covered with a light dust of mealy chemical especially during dry brassicae L) power; They suck plant sap from the central weather when infestation is part of the plant and near the base of leaves. heavy. This aphid can transmit over 20 viral diseases in cruciferous vegetables. Naturally aphid levels are kept False Cabbage These are pale green aphids normally found low by natural predators such as Aphid mixed with colonies of the cabbage aphid ladybird beetles and parasitic (Lipaphis erysimi but has no mealy powder; This aphid is a wasps. Kalt.) minor pest of crucifers. Green Peach This is a light green or yellowish green or Spray with Malathion at 40m1 Aphid reddish aphid which is polyphagous and per debe of water (Myzus persicae widespread. It is an important vector of Page | 141 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF (Sulz) several plant diseases. It damages the crop Dimethoate (Rogor) 40%EC at 20 through direct feeding which is shown by the ml per debe of water distortion of leaves. Other effective insecticides includes Bflgade, Ambush and Karate Cutworms These are grey to black caterpillars Dust lightly with 5% malathion (Agrutis Spp) approximately 24 mm long that feed at night. dust around the plant after They bite out the side of the stem at ground transplanting Dichlorphon level causing the plant t9 fall over; or may cut (dipterex) added to baits (e.g. it off completely. They are often found Bran mixed with Sugar) hidden in the soil near the cut seedlings. Surface spray of pyrethroid insecticides just before transplanting seedlings Table 20. Okra Crop Pests and Diseases and control measures Disease Symptoms Control Black leaf The most common disease is the Black Control is by regular spray with leaf mould. This is a fungal disease Kocide 101 at 100g of water or characterized by a dark sooty mould on Dithane M45 at 80 gm 120lt. water; It both leaf surfaces which causes foliage is important to ensure that the injury. Leaves wilt and fall to the undersides of leaves are sprayed. ground. Yellow Vein This is a vein clearing viral disease. Vector white fly is controlled by Mosaic Ambush CV (100 ml/201t.) or In several cases, leaves and fruits Sumidin (50m1/201t.) or Actellic 25 become yellow and fruiting is reduced. (50m1/201t.). This disease is transmitted by the insect vector white fly. There is no resistant Commercial variety. Powdery Mildew This is evident as white powdery There are a multitude of fungicides coating seen on lower surface of the which can control this problem. leaves. The severely infected leaves Benlate, Benoymi, Bayleton and turn yellow and drop off. Nuster 40 E.C. are some of the systemic fungicides which can be used at rates of 0.05kg/ha (12.5g/201t.water) for Benlate, Benomyl and Bayleton. Nuster E.C. is a liquid and is used at a rate of 75-100mI/ha or 7.5-10 ml / 100It. water; Leaf spot Brown spots are seen on the leaves. Control is by spraying Dithane M 45 (1.5-2.5 kg/ha: 80g/201t.) Polyram D.F. (1.5-2kg/ha: 30-40g/201t), Kocide 101(2kglha:50-100 gm/2Olts.). Antracol (2-2.5 kg/ha: 100-125g/20 It. and Ridomil 3-3.5 kg/ha.60- 70g/20litre) among others. Melon Fly These are brown flies that feed on the Spray using fenithion, malathion (Dacus) fruit causing scars. The damage fruits trichlorphon or a bait of e.g. Fenithion start rotting around the scars or protein hydrolysate Page | 142 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Melon Ladybird Beetles feed on leaves leaving a By using chemicals like fenithion skeleton of veins malathion or trichlorphon Aphids Manifested as masses of lice under Use of Dimethoate or Fenithion (Aphis gossypii leaves and on stems Myfus persicae) Table 21. Tomatoes Pests and Diseases control measures Disease Symptoms Control Late Blight The fungus also affects potatoes, and at Spraying with Ridomil or Antracol. (Phytophthora times, brinjals. However, it has not been Start spraying several days after infestans) reported to affect capsicums. emergence at intervals of every 4 days in wet weather while in dry It does not persist for very long in plant weather, spray once a fortnight debris and can cause a total crop loss if not controlled. The disease occurs under cool and high humidity conditions especially in the wet season and spreads rapidly after the initial occurrence. It is characterised by rapid drying of leaves and brownish dry rot of fruit, often destroying the whole crop. Brown streaks or patches may appear on stems. Under damp conditions white mycelia appears on affected parts of the leaves, stems and petioles. Young fruits are very susceptible to the disease. The disease pathogens travels a considerable distance, hence, field sanitation is of little value. Early Blight In tomatoes, this disease is of economic Field sanitation (Alternaria importance due to the reduction of yields Crop rotation solani) and quality if infected tomatoes and is Foliar sprays as for late blight more serious during hot weather; It causes stem cankers on seedlings and small irregular dark brown spots on older leaves. As they enlarge, the spots often show a concentric pattern which distinguishes the spots from those of late blight. This results in partial defoliation of the crop. It also attacks fruits occasionally causing premature fruit drop and low quality fruits. The fungus usually survives on plant debris. Seedling infection usually originates from soils containing the infected debris and its spread is favoured by heavy rains or high humidity and temperatures about 250C. Septoria Leaf The disease is potentially very damaging Sprays of benlate are effective Spot (Septoria and occurs at all stages of the plant. It lycopersici) attacks other solanaceous plants and Removal of solanaceous weeds survives on plant debris and other weed hosts. Disease development is favoured Removal and/or deep burying of by wet weather; The disease is infected plant debris Page | 143 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF characterised by the presence of tiny brown black angular leaf spots on leaves Crop rotation and can be confused with early blight. The spots can increase to an extent of causing defoliation which then exposes fruits to sun scald. In severe attacks, lesions appear on stems and fruit stalks. Bacterial Canker This disease is one of the most important No effective chemical control has (Clavibacter tomato diseases in Kenya. The disease in been found for bacterial canker; The michiganensis) seed-borne and its symptoms are not control methods are mainly based on apparent until the disease is well good agricultural practices and established in the field. It can reduce includes: yields by up to 90% or more especially in determinate tomatoes which require Planting healthy certified seeds pruning and staking. The bacteria can survive in cracks on sticks used Crop rotation repeatedly for staking. The symptoms include the wilting and curling of the Removal and burning infected plant leaflets of the lower leaves. Dried, whole debris leaves curls upwards, turns brown, wither Disinfect pruning knife if pruning an but still remain attached to the stems. The already affected crop stems may split open and the pith is often discoloured. If affected stem is cut open Planting resistant/tolerant varieties lengthwise, a discoloured line is visible just inside the woody tissue and is easily Avoid over fertilizing the crop with separated from the wood along this line. nitrogen If affected, young fruits show slight discolouration of the vascular system, deformation and stunting of fruit and seed abortion. On mature fruits, "birds eye" spots are visible which distinguishes it from bacterial spot. The disease is favoured by high soil nitrate levels. Bacterial Wilt The disease causes wilting of tomato and Control is mainly by cultural (Pseudomonas potato plants. In tomatoes, it is mainly practices. scalana cearum) seed borne. These include: Strict crop rotation; Removal and burning infected plant debris; Planting certified seeds Furarium Wilt The disease is widespread in fields where Avoid continuous cropping on the (Fusarium tomatoes have been grown continuously. same plot Oxysporium The fungus affects only tomatoes and it F SP lycopersici) survives in infected plant debris and is Use of resistant varieties; also soil-borne. The disease development Application of a large quantity of is favoured by high temperatures (280), lime; Soil fumigation with low humidity and nutrient deficiencies. cloropicrin The early disease symptoms include yellowing and wilting of the lower leaves slightly drooping at high temperatures. Later, the upper leaves show yellowing and whole plants eventually dies. Page | 144 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF In affected plants, the vascular vessels in the stems appear brown. In cool conditions, however, the fungus affects the root area only causing tomato root rot wilt. Also, yellowing begins at the lower leaves and the disease develops slowly and only a few at the affected plants die. Browning of the vascular vessels is restricted to the stem near the soil level but roots show a severe browning and decay. Bacterial Spot The disease is seed-borne; hence, Avoid infected fields (Xanthomonas infection can start in the nursery. The vesicatora) disease is spread by rain splash or Foliar sprays using copper based sprinkler irrigation. The disease attacks fungicides foliage but is most conspicuous on fruits. Irregular, dark green spots appear on foliage which eventually dry and tissues often tears. In severe cases, defoliation may result and if flowers are affected, blossoms may drop. On fruits, the initial spot is very small and water soaked, and eventually enlarges and becomes slightly raised. Blossom End Rot This is one of the most well known Application of CAN or any other physiological' diseases of tomato in fertilizer containing Calcium, Folia Kenya as a result of calcium deficiency. spray with Calcium chloride at The early sign of the disease is a water 15 kg/1000L. Higher concentrations soaked spot near the blossom end of the may damage foliage. fruit. This turns brown and enlarges to cover almost half of the fruits. The Liming calcium deficient soils surface of the spot becomes dark and leathery, but no soft rot develops unless Low application of nitrogen to the spot is invaded by bacteria or fungi. calcium deficient soils This disease is normally caused by: Too fast growth during the early stages followed by sudden drought especially if the fruits are too small. Excessive nitrogen and infrequent watering Calcium deficiency especially in young fruits. Root Knot These induce galls or swellings on the Chemical control methods for and Nematodes roots causing stunting of the plants nernatodes are expensive, hence, (Meloidogyne eventual wilting. They are widely spread control methods are based on good Spp) in all tomato growing areas. Heavy agricultural practices such as;- nematode infestation leads to loss of yields and poor quality tomatoes. A Crop rotation programme that wide range of crop plants and weeds act includes cereals or other non-host as hosts. plants Page | 145 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Leaving the land fallow during dry weather Planting nematode free seedlings through application of furadan, mocap, or nemacur in the nursery. However, these persist for 6 to 7 weeks in the soil; Weeding as many weeds harbour nematodes. American The caterpillars bore into fruit and feed Spray with organo phosphates such Boliworms on the inner part of the fruit releasing as Malathion, Lebaycid at 2 weeks (Helico vera plenty of excreta (frass) which is before fruit set and then pyrethroids Armigera) noticeable on damaged fruits. The such as Ambush, Karate, Decis feeding holes by the caterpillars are an during and after fruit set especially entry point for bacteria and fungi which during fruit set when the caterpillars may result to rotting of the attacked parts. are seen. The pest attacks a wide range of crops including sweet pepper, tobacco, corn, Trap crops such as tasseling maize sorghum but shows preference for fruits for ovi positing adult females and floral buds. Tobacco These are small, white, moth like flies This pest is easily controlled by the Whitefly which fly from foliage when plants are same chemicals used to control the (Bemisia Tabaci) disturbed. The nymphs suck plant sap American bollworm but spraying has from the underside of the leaf. They to be done thoroughly to cover the transmit plant viruses such as cowpea underside of the leaves. Other mild mottle virus (CMMV), cassava insecticides used to control white mosaic, cotton leaf curl1 tobacco leaf curl flies includes Dimethoate (Rogor), and sweet potato virus B. They also cause Sumithion or Brigade. leaf distortion and stunting if attack is very early and can be a serious problem Resistant variety especially in hot areas. The pest has a very wide host range including legumes, curcubits1 solanaceous plants and flowers. Affected fruits have abnormal colour of the pulp and poor taste. Red Spider Mite The minute, spider like animals are Mites are easily controlled by a T: Cinnabarinus barely visible with the naked eye and foliar spray with the following:- T Telarius T feed on sap from the underside of the Lomardin) leaves. They cause speckling and Brigade at 24m1/20L of water. A tarnishing of the leaves turning yellowish pre-harvest interval of 7 days. to whitish. Severe infestation causes stunted growth1 the leaves dries up and Dimethoate at 15ml/20 l of water;2 falls off, resulting to yields reduction. weeks pre-harvest period should be The problem is more acute in dry areas or observed. irrigated crops. The pest has a wide host range including wild and cultivated Metasystox 15 ml/20 l and observe a plants. pre-harvest period of 3 weeks. Keithane - Observe a pre-harvest period of 2 weeks Leaf Hoppers These are green to yellowish green, Chemicals recommended for Empoasca Spp) wedge shaped insects which jump off bollworms and white flies may be Page | 146 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF from foliage when disturbed. This is a used to spray against this pest. minor pest in most cases but in dry Others include lebaycid and weather; numerous hoppers feed on holstathion both with a pre-harvest leaves, leaving a mosaic of white specks period of 2 weeks. and stunted growth. They are possible vectors of virus diseases. Aphids These are plant lice that suck sap from Spray with dimethoate 40% E.C at (Aphis leaves causing leaf distortion especially 15m 1 20L water or fenitrothion Macrosiphium, during dry spells. Aphids prefer young 50% E.C at I Sml/20L of water. Aphids Gossypii) leaves, stems or flowers. They are also important in transmitting virus diseases. The secretions of the aphids called honey dew are sugarly and cause sooty mould. Aphis gossypii vectors cucumber mosaic virus and soybean mosaic virus. Table 22 . Onion Pests and Diseases control measures Disease Symptoms Control Onion Thrips These are brown insects found between the Inspect the crop regularly and (Thrips tabaci) leaf sheath and stem which causes silvery spray with marathon 50% M.L at streaks on leaves. The tip of affected leaves the rate of 20 ml in 10 liters of wither and die. water when the problem is detected. Repeat the dose after every 2 weeks when necessary do not spray within 3 days of harvest Disease Symptoms Control Purple Blotch This disease is caused by a fungus Alternaria Routine spraying using Dithane porri. Oval grey lesions with purple centres M 45 at the rate of 2 table form on the leaves causing leaf girdling and spoonful in 20 liters (a debe) of die back water. Ridomil or other thio-cabarmates. Plant resistant varieties such as red creole Cultural methods Downey Mildew This is caused by a fungus Peronospora Destroy crop residue destructer. The leaves become pale brown. Practicing Spray with copper fungicides of crop rotation and necrotic. such as Dithane-m-45. Rust (Puccinia Longitudinal postules first appear on leaves. Plant resistant varieties alli) Heavily infected leaves turn yellow and die Cultural method / Chemical prematurely. Sprays Fusarium Rot Rotting of bulbs, yellowing and root wilting. Use certified seeds (Fusarium spp.) Pests The only pest known to attack onion is: Onion Thrips These are tiny brown insects found between Inspect the crop regularly and the leaf sheaths and stem which cause silvery spray with Malathion 50% M.L. streaks on leaves. The tips of affected leaves at the rate of 1200 cc. in every wither and die. 600 litres of water per hectare when the problem is detected. Repeat after every 2 weeks whenever necessary Page | 147 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Caution: Do not spray within 3 days of harvest Table 23. Pumpkin Pests and Diseases and control measures Disease Symptoms Control Melon fly These are brown flies with bright Spray the crop with trichlorphon 95% yellow markings. Shiny maggots’ up to SP at 20 gm in a debe of water or 600 8mm long are found feeding under fruit gm per hectare scars. Affected fruits are damaged around the scars and start rotting from Caution: Pre-harvest period is 4 days the pointed injury Powdery mildew This disease is caused by a fungus. Pale Spray with karathane at the rate of (Erysiphe spots form on the upper side of leaves 5090 gm per hectare, or anvil at a rate cichoracearum) with a while mildew (mould) easily of 20 ml per 20 litres water seen on the leaves Bananas Bananas are grown in association with various other crops, such as coffee, beans, maize, and fruit trees. Farmers apply no chemical control measures to protect the crop. The major disease to bananas is Panama wilt (Fusarium), while Black Sigatoka or Black leaf streak disease is of lesser importance. Both diseases are caused by fungi and can destroy all susceptible varieties within a large area. Panama disease are caused is soil borne and spreads through soil and infected planting materials. Black Sigatoka is soil borne and spreads by wind, water dripping or splashing, but also by infected planting materials. Farmers’ control of both diseases is limited to removal of diseased plants, application of large quantities of farmyard manure and avoidance of planting susceptible varieties. Options for their control by IPM include field sanitation (such as rotation), use of clean suckers and planting of resistant varieties. Application of farmyard manure reduces the damaging effect of the two diseases. Two important pests causing great loss of harvest are banana weevils and nematodes. The latter cause toppling of the plants because the rooting system is seriously weakened. Weevils cause snapping at ground level of the bananas. Both pests may be present in planting materials and hence infect new fields. The extent of damage by weevils and nematodes is further enhanced by poor soil fertility management. Weevils can be trapped and removed by using split pseudo stems and corns, but application of botanicals, such as Tephrosia, tobacco and Mexican marigold can also be tried. Table 24. Banana Pests and Diseases and control Banana weevil (Cosmopolites Practice crop rotation Intercropping with legume sordidus) (Temnoschoita delumbrata) which reduce weevil movement Sanitation/crop hygiene, Use healthy planting material (use a combination of corm paring and hot water (at 550C for 20 minutes or solarisation ) treatment, Sequential planting to avoid nematode infested areas Rational use of weevil trapping with using bate (split pseudostems or discs and corns), Use of repellent botanicals, such as Tephrosia, tobacco, Page | 148 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Mexican marigold, Neem and Iboza multiflora, Improved soil fertility management and crop husbandry, Mulching, Deep planting to discourage egg-laying Application of high quantities of manure to improve soil fertility Harvest hygiene Ants Trapping Panama disease or Fusarium wilt (Fusarium Grow banana cultivars with resistance to pest and oxysporum f.sp. cubense) Kiswahili name: disease Mnyauko panama Fallow or rotation Sanitation/crop hygiene, Planting of clean suckers Establish new crop on disease free sites Mulching, Application of high quantities of manure Destroy debris of wilted plants by burning Black and yellow sigatoka (Mycosphaerella Resistant cultivars fijiensis) Uproot and burn the affected parts Use of large quantities of farmyard manure Plant and field sanitation, Use disease free seeds Prune, remove suckers and weed frequently Avoid close spacing, Avoid transfer of seeds from affected areas to unaffected areas Burrowing nematodes, e.g. Pratylenchus goodeyi, Improved farm management, including sequential Radophilus similis, Meloidogyne spp. and replanting and soil fertility Practice crop rotation Helichotylenchus multicintus Sanitation/crop hygiene; Farmer training in disease identification and control measures; Use healthy planting material Establish new crop on disease free sites; Mulching to enhance beneficial soil organisms to suppress nematodes; Treatment of infested suckers with hot water; Application of high quantities of manure; Sterilise planting material through solarization and/or the hot water method as for weevil control Rodents Trapping by using local methods Cleanliness of the farm Table 25. Mangoes Pests and Diseases and control Fruit flies (Ceratitis spp) Harvest as much fruit as possible; sort out the edible fruit and bury all those that are infested, Apply chlorpyrifos when necessary, Use toxic bait sprays e.g. yeast products mixed with malathion or fenthion around the tree base, Removal of infested fruits and proper disposal (collect and bury at least 10 feet deep) Mango weevils (Sternochetus mangifera) Removal of infested fruits at least twice a week and proper disposal (collect and bury at least 10 feet deep), Selected less susceptible varieties , such as Ngowe, Boribo, Maintain field sanitation at the end of the season by clearing all seeds Page | 149 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF under the tree canopy Mango mealy bug Spray contact/systemic insecticides, Control of attendant ants to reduce spread of the pest Mango anthracnose (Colletratrichum Apply available registered fungicides, Proper gloesporiodes) pruning to reduce excessive and minimise disease build-up, Use the recommended post-harvesting treatment Powdery mildew (Oidium spp) Apply recommended fungicides Table 26. Citrus Pests and Diseases and control Scale Normally ants protect aphids against natural enemies Mealybugs (Planococus citri- Risso) Trees with dead brown leaves should be uprooted and replaced Aphids (Toxptera citricidus) Normally ants protect aphids against natural enemies False codling moth (Cryptophlebia leucotrata) Field sanitation (collect all fallen fruits and bury them at least 50 cm deep), Remove wild castor (“Mbarika�) around the orchard Orange dog (Pappilio demodercus) Regular scouting and hand picking of caterpillars, Apply contact insecticides in case of a severe attack The wooly white fly (Aleurothrixus flocossus) Biological control using imported parasitic wasps, Management of attendant ants to reduce spread and facilitate the efficacy of natural bio-control agents Black flies (Aleurocanthus sp) Management of attendant ants to reduce spread and facilitate the efficacy of natural bio-control agents Giant coreid bug (Anoplenemis curvipes) New pest but farmers are encouraged to introduce and enhance the activity of weaver ants (refer to cashew & coconut approach) Citrus leaf miner Crop sanitation and mulching, Apply recommended systemic insecticides when necessary Greening disease (Liberobacter africana) Propagation of disease free planting materials, Eliminate all infested trees, Strict quarantine measures, Natural enemies Hymenopterous chalcids such as Tetrastichus spp and Diaphorencytrus aligarhenses , Use clean planting material, Good plant nutrition Gummosis (Phytophthora spp) Budded at least 20cm from ground should be chosen, Cut infected trees, Affected orchards should not be excessively irrigated Tristeza (Virus localized in phlorm tissue) Use disease free budwood Green moulds (Pencillium italicum) Handle fruit carefully to reduce skin injury, Treat braches, graders, Use the recommended post harvesting Table 27. Pineapples Pests and Diseases and control Mealybugs (Pseodococcus brevipes) Use clean planting materials, Trees with dead brown leaves should be uprooted and replaced Page | 150 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF Top and root rot (Phytophthora spp) Use well-drained soils from pineapple growing, Plant on raised beds at least 23 cm high after settling, Provide drainage system to get rid of excess water without causing soil erosion, Deep- trip down the slope before hilling if subsurface soil compaction is evident Rodents Rodents, particularly the multi-mammate shamba rat, (Mastomys natalensis), are major pests of food crops. The most affected crops are maize, millets, paddy and cassava. Maize is the most susceptible of all the crops. At the pre-harvest stage, maize is attacked at planting (the rodents retrieve sown seeds from the soil causing spatial germination). In some cases, as much as 100% of the seeds are destroyed, this forcing farmers to replant. Farmers in outbreak areas are strongly advised to do the following to reduce potential damage to crops and the environment:  Regular surveillance. The earlier the presence of rodents is observed, the cheaper and simpler any subsequent action will be and losses will remain negligible  Sanitation. It is much easier to notice the presence of rodents if the store is clean and tidy  Proofing i.e. making the store rat-proof in order to discourage rodents from entering  Trapping. Place the traps in strategic positions  Use recommended rodenticide. However, bait poisons should be used only if rats are present. In stores or buildings, use single-dose anticoagulant poisons, preferably as ready-made baits.  Encourage team approach for effectiveness. The larger the area managed or controlled with poison, the more effective the impact Birds (Quelea quelea spp) Birds are serious migratory pests of cereal crops, namely wheat, rice, sorghum and millet across the country. The quelea birds, which in Kenya occur are swarms ranging from thousands to a few millions, have been responsible for famines of varying proportions in some areas. Bird pest problems in agriculture have proved difficult to resolve due in large part to the behavioural versatility associated with flocking. The array of food choices available to birds is also complex, hence forth; necessary information is needed for successful control strategies. The total damaged per bird per day, if the bird is exclusively feeding on cereal crops, has been estimated at 8 g (Winkfield, 1989) and 10 g (Elloitt, 1989). Several techniques have been tried to reduce bird populations to levels where crop damage is minimal. Traditional methods, slings, bird scares, and scarecrows, are still being used in many parts. Modern techniques of frightening devices, chemical repellents, less preferred crop varieties and alternative cultural practices have been evaluated. Page | 151 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF All the methods have minimal value in situations where bird pressure is high and where habitation is likely to develop through repetitive repellent use and other methods, which may alleviate damage in small plots or in large fields for a short time. The aerial spraying of chemical (parathion and later fenitrothion) on nesting and roosting sites, the most widely used technique to date. Currently, only fenitrothion 60%ULV aerial formulation is being used. The pesticide is recommended to be used at the rate of 2.0l/ha. The concerns over possible human health problems and environmental damage resulting from the large-scale application of chemical pesticide for quelea control have led to a proposal for alternative non-lethal control strategy. Chemical pesticide applied for quelea control represent a risk for human, terrestrial, non-target fauna and aquatic ecosystems. The chemical pose risk by directly poisoning or by food contamination/depletion. Among the terrestrial non-target invertebrates, there are beneficial species. Some are responsible for organic matter cycling; others are predators, and parasitoids of crop pests. Some assure pollination of crops and wild plants, while others again produce honey and silk. The fact that non-target birds and, occasionally, other vertebrates may be killed by quelea control operations is well-established. The risk of human health problems and environmental damage can be mitigated considerably by development of integrated environmentally sound control strategies including Net-Catching. These methods will educate farmers become custodians of the environment. A new emphasis is the possibility of harvesting quelea for food. Since quelea is a good source of protein and preferred by many people. This method offers more rapid prospects for implementation which enable farmers to continue making their own decisions important for the control of quelea in their area. While present indications are that harvesting is probably not an option as a crop protection technique, it offers the possibility of providing income to rural populations in compensation for crop losses. In respect of quelea birds, FAO is currently encouraging the use of IPM approaches to the problem of bird attacks on cereal crops. This means working with farmers in examining all aspects of farming practice in relation to quelea damage, and seeking to minimize external inputs, especially pesticides. In includes modifying crop husbandry, planting time, week reduction, crop substitution, bird scaring, exclusion neeting, etc. and only using lethal control for birds directly threatening crops when the other methods have failed. It is also important for farmers to be aware of the costs of control using pesticides, and in the case of commercial farmers, for them to bear some or all of the costs. A major likely benefit of IPM is reduced environmental side-effects resulting from decreased pesticide use. Although some elements of IPM have been tried in bird pest management, a major effort has yet to be made, for quelea, to focus on farmers in all aspects of the problem. Locust Locusts live and breed in numerous grassland plains, the best ecologically favourable ones are known as outbreak areas. During periods with favourable weather, locusts Page | 152 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF multiply rapidly and form large swarms which escape and may result into a plague. There are eight known locusts outbreak in East and Central Africa. The strategy for red locust control combines regular monitoring of breeding sites followed by aerial application of fenitrothion 96.8% ULV to eliminate potential threatening hopper populations. Page | 153 WSCRP Integrated Pest Management Framework - IPMF