42852 Thailand Social MoniTor on YouTh: D ev e l o p m e n t a n D t h en ex tG en e r a t i o n January 2008 II Table of conTenTs Figures III Tables IV Boxes V Acknowledgements VI Abbreviations VII ExecutiveSummary VIII Chapter1:OverviewandFrameworkforAnalysis 1 I. Why focus on youth in Thailand and why now? 1 II. The youth development model 7 Analyzing youth issues and challenges: the youth transitions 7 Policy implications: the three policy lenses 10 Chapter2:GrowingUpHealthy 15 I. Symptoms: Health trends and challenges among Thai youth 15 Youth mortality and morbidity 15 Risky behaviors of youth 20 II. Diagnostics: What makes youth vulnerable? 25 Health behavior, habit formation and irreversibility 25 Health behavior, imperfect information and inequality 27 III. Prescriptions: Policy responses for promoting youth health 28 Strengthening youth capacity to practice healthy behaviors 28 Expanding opportunities to make healthy choices 33 Providing second chances: Helping young people deal with the adverse consequences of poor health behavior or misfortune 35 Chapter3:LearningforWorkandLife 39 I. Symptoms: Education trends and challenges 39 Enrollment in secondary and tertiary education 39 Equity in access to education in Thailand 46 Quality of education for work and life in Thailand 48 II. Diagnostics: What makes youth vulnerable? 50 Demand-side factors 50 Supply-side factors 53 III. Prescriptions: Policy responses for supporting youth learning 54 Expanding youth opportunities for quality education 54 Improving capacity to make better education choices 56 Providing second chances: helping those who dropped out and the underprivileged to reintegrate 58 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon III Chapter4:MovingfromSchooltoWork 65 I. Symptoms: Employment trends and challenges among youth 65 Youth entry into the labor market 67 Youth in the labor market: how do they fare? 71 II. Diagnostics: What makes youth vulnerable? 74 Misalignment of existing skills and market demand 74 Employment conditions and access to credit and information 75 III. Prescriptions: Policy responses for supporting the move to work 76 Expanding youth employment opportunities 76 Improving the capacity of young Thai people 80 Providing second chances for the most vulnerable 81 Chapter5:YouthPolicyandInstitutionalFramework 85 I. The World Development Report approach 85 II. Youth national policy and institutional framework in Thailand 86 III. Challenges facing the youth policy and institutional framework in Thailand 90 IV. Youth civic participation and involvement 92 V. Conclusions 95 References 99 figures Figure 1.1: Population Projection and Youth Population Ratio in Thailand 2 Figure 1.2: Number of Migrants by Age Group, 2006 4 Figure 1.3: Structure of the Youth Institutional Framework after Enactment of Act B.E. 2545 5 Figure 1.4: Youth Development Model 10 Figure 1.5: Youth Lenses to Evaluate Policies 11 Figure 2.1: Youth Mortality Rates in Thailand, 1964-2002 15 Figure 2.2: Mortality Rates in Thailand by Age Group and Gender, 2004 15 Figure 2.3: Causes of Deaths among Young Male Aged 15-29, 2004 16 Figure 2.4: Causes of Deaths among Young Female Aged 15-29, 2004 17 Figure 2.5: Age and Gender Distribution of New HIV Incidence, 2004 17 Figure 2.6: Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) Lost by Age and Disease Categories, 2004 18 Figure 2.7: Hospitalization Rate of Patients with Heart Diseases, Cancer and Diabetes, 1985-2003 18 Figure 2.8: Obesity in Asia, 2006 19 Figure 2.9: Nutritional Status of Children Aged 6-14 Years, 2003-2004 19 Figure 2.10: Prevalence Rate of Obesity by Age and Gender, 1986 ­ 2004 19 Figure 2.11: Percentage of Young People Aged 15 ­ 18 Having Standard Weight and Deviating from Standard Weight, 2003 19 Figure 2.12: Percentage of Young People Aged 19 ­ 29 by Body Mass Index (BMI), 2003 19 Figure 2.13: Initiation of Risky Behaviors in Thailand 20 Figure 2.14: Projection of Prevalence of COPD, 2001-2010 21 Figure 2.15: Mortality Rate due to Emphysema, 1989-2003 21 Figure 2.16: Mortality Rate from Liver Disease and Cirrhosis, 1977-2003 22 Figure 2.17: Helmet Use by Males 15-24 Years Old 22 Iv Figure 2.18: Number of Reported Events from Drug Use 1983-2003 23 Figure 2.19: Students with Sexual Experience, 2004 23 Figure 2.20: Percentage of Smokers and Drinkers Aged above 15 by Educational Attainment Level, 2004 27 Figure 2.21: Categorization of 17,000 New HIV Infections, 2005 28 Figure 3.1: Educational Attainment 40 Figure 3.2: Secondary Education Gross Enrollment Rates 1996-2005 42 Figure 3.3: Percentage of Upper Secondary Graduates to the Population, 2003 42 Figure 3.4: Ratio of Public and Private Enrollment 43 Figure 3.5: Gross Enrollment in Upper Secondary Education as Percentage of Age Group Population 43 Figure 3.6: Higher Education Enrollment Rate, 1994-2005 44 Figure 3.7: Tertiary Gross Enrollment Rate in OECD Countries and Thailand, 2004 45 Figure 3.8: Real Monthly Wages by Education of Wage Earners, Labor Force Survey 1991-2004 46 Figure 3.9: Grade Completion by Urban/Rural Location between 1994 and 2002 47 Figure 3.10: Incidence of Public Expenditure across Income Quintiles by Education Level, 2002 47 Figure 3.11: PISA Test Scores Results in Mathematics Literacy, 2006 49 Figure 3.12: PISA Test Scores in Reading Literacy, 2006 49 Figure 3.13: Percentage of Children and Youth Who are Attending Schools and Reported "Not to Continue to Study," by Reason and School Type 50 Figure 3.14: Household Education Expenditure across Education Levels, 2002 50 Figure 4.1: Proportion of Working Children Aged less than 15 Years Old, 1990-2000 65 Figure 4.2: Share of Children at School or Work, 2002 66 Figure 4.3: Youth Labor Force Participation Rate in Thailand,1985-2005 67 Figure 4.4: Proportion of Youth in the Labor Force in Thailand, 2005 67 Figure 4.5: Secondary Education Net Enrollment Rate by Gender, 1994-2006 68 Figure 4.6: Unemployment Rates and Share of Youth Unemployed to the Total in Thailand, 2005 68 Figure 4.7: Unemployment Rates by Age Group in Thailand, 1995-2005 69 Figure 4.8: Share of Unemployed by Education Level in Thailand, 1987-2004 69 Figure 4.9: Proportion of Employed Men and Women in Formal and Informal Sectors by Age in Thailand 2006 71 Figure 4.10: Proportion of Workers by Type of Industry and Age Group in 2005 72 Figure 4.11: Youth's Work Status from 1985 to 2005 72 Figure 4.12: Monthly Wage Distribution According to Age Group in 2005 73 Tables Table 2.1: Proportion of Smokers by Age and Gender in 1999, 2001 and 2003 (percent) 20 Table 2.2: Percentage of People Who Drink Alcohol, 1991-2003 21 Table 2.3: The Main Reasons for Starting Smoking by Age 26 Table 2.4: Summary of Growing Up Healthy Policy Recommendations and International Experience 37 Table 3.1: Average Years of Education Attainment, 1999 ­ 2003 39 Table 3.2: Direct Costs of Education as Percentage of per Capita Household Expenditure 51 Table 3.3: Private Expenditure Estimates on Education by Income Quintile 1994-2002, Real Baht 52 Table 3.4: Number of Educational Institutions 53 Table 3.5: Completion of Non-Formal Education, 2005 62 Table 3.6: Summary of Learning for Work and Life Policy Recommendations and International Experience 63 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon v Table 4.1: Labour Participation Rates of Children Aged 10-14 66 Table 4.2: Youth Labor Force Status by Region in Thailand 2005 69 Table 4.3: Level of Education of Youth Unemployed in 2005 70 Table 4.4: Proportion of Workers according to Type of Occupation and Age Group in 2005 72 Table 4.5: Youth Living in Poverty in 2002 (millions) 73 Table 4.6: Channels of Information for First Employment 76 Table 4.7: Summary of Transition to Work Policy Recommendations and International Experience 83 Table 5.1: The Oscillations of Politics and the Youth Policy and Institutional Framework 88 Table 5.2: Potential Directions for Youth Policy in Thailand 96 boxes Box 2.1: The Thai Health Promotion Foundation 29 Box 2.2: The Role of Mass Media in Preventing Risky Health Behaviors among Youth 31 Box 3.1: The Thai Education System 41 Box 3.2: Dual Vocational Education and Training in Germany 44 Box 3.3: Evaluating Students Performance: PISA 48 Box 3.4: Rajabhat Universities 55 Box 3.5: Policy Options to Address Demand-Side Constraints: the Plan de Ampliación de Cobertura de la Educación Secundaria (PACES) Vouchers' Program in Colombia 57 Box 3.6: An Unanswered Question 59 Box 3.7: Non-Formal Education in Thailand 60 Box 4.1: Addressing the Needs of Young People through Conditional Cash Transfer Programs 78 Box 4.2: Second Chances Programs for Youth Employment 82 Box 5.1: Three Reasons Why Youth Policy often Fails Young People 87 Box 5.2: World Bank Youth Open Space ­ Incorporating Voices of the Young 93 Box 5.3: Coordinating Youth Interventions: Roles for Every Actor in the Process 94 vI acknowledgemenTs The Thailand Social Monitor series was conceived as a tool to reflect on current situations about selected issues in Thailand's health, education and social protection sectors. The first Social Monitor, Challenge for Social Reform, was launched in 1999 in response to the 1997 economic crisis. To date, six Social Monitors have been issued. This Social Monitor was managed by Luis Benveniste under the overall guidance of Ian Porter (Country Director), Ana Revenga (Lead Economist) and Emmanuel Jimenez (Sector Director). The task team wishes to especially thank Kanda Vajrabhaya (Deputy Permanent Secretary) and the Ministry of Social Development and Human Security staff for their inputs and invaluable comments. Minna Hahn, Carmen de Paz Nieves and Kwanpadh Suddhi-Dhamakit were responsible for preparing this Social Monitor and their extensive contributions are gratefully acknowledged. The task team benefited from a background paper prepared by Suguru Mizunoya (Columbia University) as well as helpful comments from Usanee Kangwanjit (Director, Bureau of Youth Promotion and Prevention), Khunying Kasama Varavarn (Secretary ­ General, Office of the Basic Education Commission), Dr. Pichet Durongkaveroj (Executive Director, Knowledge Network Institute of Thailand), Benjamaporn Jhantarapat (Director, Health Development System Section, Thai Health Promotion Foundation), Srisak Thaiarry (Director, National Council for Child and Youth Development), Saknarin Khueanon (Member of Thailand's Constitution Drafting Assembly) and Chalongkwan Tavarayuth (Youth, Development and Peace) during a seminar at Chulalongkorn University in March 2007. In addition, two Youth Open Space seminars allowed a broad spectrum of Thai youth to share their views and we thank Pichaya Fitts, Alix Lebec and Tinnakorn Sareenun for providing the opportunity for their voices to be heard. The team would also like to extend its appreciation to peer reviewers Wendy Cunningham, Linda McGinnis and Mamta Murthi, as well as to Achariya Kohtbantau, Christopher Thomas, Jennica Larrison, Laura Orgaz Jimenez, Myriam Caro Catedra, Omporn Regel and Toomas Palu for their insights and recommendations to strengthen this study. Finally, the team would like to thank Rachadawan Pasugswad and A. Juliana Williams for excellent design and administrative assistance. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon vII abbreviaTions AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome ONFEC Office of Non-Formal Education BAAC Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Commission Cooperatives OPP Office of Welfare Promotion, Protection CCT Conditional Cash Transfer and Empowerment of Vulnerable Groups CDP-H Country Development Partnership in OPPC Bureau of Child Promotion and Health Protection COPD Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease OPPY Bureau of Youth Promotion and CWDs Children with Disabilities Protection DALY Disability Adjusted Life Year OVEC Office of Vocational Education DVT Dual Vocational Training Commission GDP Gross Domestic Product OYP Office of Youth Promotion HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus PACES Plan de Ampliación de Cobertura de la ICL Income Contingent Loan Educación Secundaria ICT Information and Communication PETI Program to Eradicate Child Labor Technology PATH Program for Appropriate Technology in IHPP International Health Policy Program Health ILO International Labor Organization PISA Programme for International Student IQA Internal Quality Assurance Assessment LAC Latin America and Caribbean RTG Royal Thai Government LMIS Labor Market Information System SES Socio-Economic Survey M&E Monitoring and Evaluation SEU Subjective Expected Utility MOE Ministry of Education SLS Student Loan Scheme MOPH Ministry of Public Health STI Sexually Transmitted Infection MSDHS Ministry of Social Development and TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Human Security Science Study MSM Men Who Have Sex with Men UN United Nations NCYD National Council for Child and Youth UNAIDS Joint United Nations Program Development on HIV/AIDS NEA National Education Act UNDP United Nations Development Program NER Net Enrollment Rate UNESCAP United Nations Economic and NYB National Youth Bureau Social Commission for Asia and the NYO National Youth Office Pacific NYP National Youth Plan UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund OEC Office of Education Council VET Vocational Education and Training OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation WDR World Development Report and Development ONEC Office of National Education Commission ONESQA Office of National Education Standards and Quality Assessment vIII execuTive summary YoungThaipeople,asthenextgenerationofworkers,parentsand citizens,representthefutureoftheircountry. This stage of life is when personality, habits, lifestyles and skills are shaped and when previous investments in education and health can be reaped. Therefore, an inadequate transition into adulthood can have very negative long-term impacts that will be costly to mitigate later in life. Ensuring that young people become healthy, educated and productive workers, citizens and parents needs to be regarded at the center of the country's development strategy. This need is acute in the case of Thailand, which has been experiencing dramatic social and economic changes that have given its young people a much broader range of choices, while also giving rise to new risks that could threaten their development. Thailand'scurrentdemographicprofilepointstotherelevanceofyouth issuesandtheurgencyofaddressinghumandevelopmentchallenges. The youth population ratio has been declining steadily since peaking at 22 percent around 1990, mainly due to delayed marriages and declining fertility rates. The projected youth population ratio for 2050 is 11.7 percent. This trend suggests that the abundant young labor on which Thailand has relied for economic growth will be soon in shortage. To maintain its future growth and competitiveness, Thailand will need to place renewed emphasis on strengthening the capabilities of its young people and boosting productive opportunities for them. It will also need to help youth avoid risky behaviors as well as provide second chances to those youth who may be suffering the consequences of poor decisions. ThisThailandSocialMonitorprovidesanoverviewofthechallenges facingThaiyouthtoday,identifyingthefactorsthatmakethemvulnerable andoutliningpossiblepolicydirectionsinmovingforward.This Social Monitor studies three key transitions faced by Thai youth, using the youth development model proposed by the World Development Report 2007. This model helps provide an understanding of the interactions among the various factors that affect youth development and how they influence in three important life transitions, namely: growing up healthy, learning for work and life and moving from school to work. In this model, the role of public policy is to help youth succeed in the transition to adulthood by broadening their opportunities, expanding their capacity and providing them with second chances to overcome negative outcomes. These areas are the three youth policy lenses through which policy priorities are assessed throughout this report. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Ix growing up Healthy Changingculturalvaluesandbehaviors,togetherwiththe epidemiologicalshiftthecountryisundergoing,havepresentednew health-relatedchallengesforyouth. Traffic accidents and HIV/AIDS have become the leading causes of death among youth, while chronic diseases developed from unhealthy habits formed during youth have become one of the major causes of death for adults. Evidence indicates that smoking, alcohol consumption and drug use have been rising among youth in Thailand in recent years. In addition, a large percentage of Thai youth reports engaging in unsafe sexual relationships and at younger ages, which has led to increased prevalence of early pregnancies. Influencing health habits and lifestyle formation during youth is critical for avoiding the loss of productive human capital and increases in future health care expenditures. Using the three policy lenses of the youth development model, this report highlights the need to promote youth health in the following areas: Expanding opportunities ­ Creating an environment for the young to practice healthful behaviors, making risky behaviors costly and limiting the opportunities for them. Policies that could help expand youth opportunities to make healthy decisions include: enforcing bans on advertisement of tobacco and alcohol and restrictions to their consumption by age and in public places; providing the means required to practice healthy behaviors, such as condom provision; and subsidies and taxation policies to decrease the cost of healthy options and increase that of unhealthy ones. Evidence in high-and middle- income countries shows that an increase in the price of tobacco products through taxation reduces the demand significantly, particularly among young people and the poor. Improving young people's capacity ­ Providing young people with the knowledge to make informed choices and with the skills to negotiate safe behaviors with peers and partners. Mechanisms or programs to reach youth could include school-based tailored programs, peer education and mass media programs, innovative campaigns making use of new technologies and popular public personalities and sponsorships of youth events. Programs should be x comprehensive and diverse in terms of both the risks to be prevented-given that most risky behaviors tend to reinforce each other-and the tools used to reach youth. Providing second chances ­ For young people harmed by poor health decisions or environments, adequate youth-friendly treatment and rehabilitation services are needed. Young people consulted have highlighted the importance of drug treatment and rehabilitation services that are provided on a voluntary basis and are accompanied by follow-up services. Health services for the treatment of sexually transmitted infections are also essential. It has been estimated that less than 5 percent of young people are being reached by adequate HIV/AIDS prevention services in Thailand learning for work and life DespiteThailand'sgreatprogressinextendingprimaryandlower secondaryeducationduringrecentdecades,furtherchallengesremain. Despite recent progress, it appears that Thailand's education system is not producing enough qualified graduates to meet the rapidly evolving demands of the labor market. One of the main challenges is to encourage students to stay in school beyond lower secondary school since upper secondary education enrollment rates are still low, particularly in the vocational track. The quality and equity of secondary education, the efficiency of public expenditures and the provision of second chances for children who drop out of school early are additional areas for further improvement Public interventions to provide young people with the skills and knowledge necessary to be productive workers and to become committed parents and citizens could focus on the following areas: Expanding opportunities­ Improving the quality and relevance of education to prepare youth to meet the demands of the labor market. Recent efforts to improve the quality of secondary education to prepare young people for higher levels in Thailand need to be strengthened and complemented. Very few Thai students score in the top proficiency levels for mathematics or reading according to international assessments, while a very large proportion are performing at or below the most basic level of mathematics, science and language ability. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon xI Improving young people's capacity ­ Addressing financial constraints to enable young people to pursue upper secondary or higher education. The direct and opportunity costs of education beyond the lower secondary level deter Thai parents from sending children to school after the compulsory level. Different student loan programs/schemes need to be developed and tested to ensure that young people have the means to stay in school, regardless of their social and economic background. Providing second chances ­Providing second chances so underprivileged youth can integrate or reintegrate into the education system. Non-formal education has the potential to play a stronger role in providing second chances or alternatives to out-of-school youth, given its flexible nature. moving from school to work Makingthesuccessfultransitionfromschooltoworkisachallenge formanyyoungpeopleinThailand. Although the incidence of child labor has fallen in recent years, some youth drop out of school and start to work too early, which can affect future productivity and income. At the same time, youth with higher levels of education face difficulty finding employment in high-skilled sectors and occupations because they lack the qualifications sought by employers. Thailand will therefore need to focus on human capital development, emphasizing innovation and the development of skills and technological capabilities. Key policy areas to help youth enter the labor market successfully include the following: Expanding opportunities ­ Generating more positive employment opportunities for youth. Mainly through demand-driven mechanisms, measures could include such as Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) programs, which provide financial assistance for in-need households to send children to school; strengthening the labor market information system to provide timely information that would help match supplyanddemandforlabor;promotingruraloff-farmworkopportunities;facilitating thesuccessfulintegrationofyoungmigrantworkers;andfacilitatingself-employment through the provision of financing and other support. As a complementary measure, a continued focus on eliminating child work is also needed. xII Improving young people's capacity - Improving the capabilities of the young people to meet market needs. Schools need to become a bridge between education and employment. To ease the transition between the school and the workplace, more programs involving on-the-job training are needed. Additionally, the diversification of education and training options to accommodate varied student needs/capabilities as well as market needs should be considered. Providing second chances ­ Helping those who have dropped out of the labor market to reintegrate into it. The main second chance program offered by the Ministry of Education is the Non-Formal Education system. Other innovative approaches used in other countries should be explored to complement this effort. youth Policy and institutional framework Boththepoliciesandtheagenciesinchargeofyouthhavechanged numeroustimes,underminingtheireffectiveness. Young people today will be the leaders of tomorrow. A nurturing environment can support the realization of their full potential-a society that invests in education and its children and provides them with an equal chance to learn and to be; a society that promotes better and healthier quality of life, both physically and mentally; a society that kindles more and better jobs for shared economic growth and well-being; and a society where good governance prevails and is guided by high ethical and moral principles. Thailand has had many policies and plans related to youth development over the past few decades. Currently, the responsibility for youth policy formulation and coordination lies within the recently established Ministry of Social Development and Human Security. However, the responsible Bureaus do not have the required capacity to undertake such a paramount task, particularly in terms of coordinating the efforts of several different Ministries and agencies involved in youth-related issues. Key areas for improving the Thai youth policy and institutional framework include: ensuring that youth policy is a long-term policy commitment of the State and not merely of a given government; providing effective coordination ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon xIII of all policies that directly or indirectly affect youth; ensuring that youth policies and plans are better translated into agencies' programs and activities and establishing adequate mechanisms of accountability for youth outcomes; developing tools to measure both the quantitative and qualitative aspects of youth policy initiatives; and institutionalizing consultation mechanisms that allow youth groups and civil society organizations to participate in policy formulation as well as implementation. Building the next generation of Thailand human capital requires a concerted effort. The four main ministries responsible for promoting the country's youth development agenda-Ministry of Social Development and Human Security, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Public Health and Ministry of Justice-must work towards ensuring that every stakeholder-including other governmental departments, NGOs and the private sector-come together to bring about an enabling environment for youth of all walks to thrive and realize their full potential. Moreover, policymaking must also be in tune with reality. It needs to listen, understand and incorporate the voices and vision of youth, the central stakeholder in this process, in order to be grounded on the will and aspirations of the next generation. Chapter 1: Overview and FramewOrk FOr analysis ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon cHaPTer 1: overview and framework for analysis Young Thai people, as the next generation, represent the future of Thailand. Their development is a function of multiple factors and involves many stakeholders, not least the national government. The interaction among these factors and stakeholders will determine the outcomes of youth development and the future roles of youth as they become adults in society. Ensuring a smooth, productive transition to adulthood requires first and foremost an understanding of the environment in which these young people live and the effects it has on them. As they grow up, young people will encounter a range of opportunities and risks and it is a question of how well existing and new opportunities can be maximized and promoted and how well the capacity of young people can be improved to enable them to make positive decisions regarding their education, health, family or employment situations. This chapter describes the urgency of addressing youth issues, pointing to recent demographic changes and social trends that pose new challenges for Thailand. It also provides a brief overview of the interactions among the various factors affecting youth development and the conceptual framework used to analyze youth transitions in this report. i. why focus on youth in health outcomes, lowering crime rates and Thailand and why now? boosting participation in public affairs. At the same time, the consequences of poor decisions Youth1areimportantactorsinThailand's during youth may be very costly and difficult to nationaldevelopment.As the next generation correct later in life. Building the capabilities of of workers, parents and leaders, young people young people and helping them manage their represent the future of Thailand. The future of transitions to adulthood successfully are therefore these youth-as well as the futures of their families key development priorities for Thailand. and country-depends heavily on how they manage the key transitions of their lives, namely growing Thailand's demographic profile up healthy, learning for work and life and moving underscorestheurgencyofaddressingyouth from school to work. Their decisions at this stage issuestosupportitsfuturegrowthstrategy. in life can have a large impact on economic The opportunity to reap the demographic development and poverty reduction since they dividend of a "youth bulge," in which countries determine how human capital is safeguarded, can capitalize on a large number of new workforce developed and deployed. Improved access to entrants to boost economic growth, has passed in education and employment have shown to bring Thailand. The youth population ratio in Thailand positive social returns, particularly in improving has been on a steady decline after peaking at 1Different national governments and international organizations have used different age brackets to define "youth" and "young people." For example, the World Development Report 2007 uses the 12-24 age group, while the United Nations General Assembly defines youth as those between 15-24 years of age. Thailand's own National Youth Policy refers to youth as those between 18-25 years. For the purposes of this study, "youth" is defined as those in the 15-24 age bracket (unless otherwise specified). In Thailand, decisions about whether to pursue further education or seek employment are most relevant for those between the ages of 15-24, particularly since the 1999 National Education Act raised the level of compulsory education to nine years and the passage of the Labor Protection Act B.E. 2541 raised the minimum working age from 13 to 15 years of age in 1998. Figure 1.1: Population Projection and Youth Population Ratio in Thailand Source: UN, 2005 22 percent around 1990 (Figure 1.1). One of the champion of the world, where headcount poverty driving forces behind the falling youth population (at US$ 2 a day) has fallen by about 250 million ratio is the decreasing total fertility rate,2 which people since 1999. While the region as a whole dropped from 6.4 between 1960 and 1965 to is doing remarkably well, individual East Asian 1.95 between 1995 and 2000. The fertility rate countries have experienced different degrees in Thailand is now below the replacement level.3 of development. Korea and Taiwan (China) This pattern can be explained by the increasing have emerged as regional technology leaders. delay in marriages, postponed childbirth and the China's spectacular economic boom has driven trend toward fewer children, as seen in many not only the regional economy but its influence other middle-and high-income countries. has been felt worldwide. Vietnam's economic expansion has also contributed significantly to Thailandhasintegrateditselfwellinto East Asian growth. Vietnam's per capita income regionalaswellasglobaleconomies.Inorderto will likely reach US$1,000 by 2010, becoming a remaincompetitive,maintainingproductivity middle-income country such as China, Indonesia, gainswillbecritical.As highlighted in An East Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand.5 Asian Renaissance: Ideas for Economic Growth,4 Inarapidlyevolvingandincreasinglysophisticated growth records of emerging East Asian economies economic environment, Thailand and its policy during the past decades have been impressive. makers must continue to enable the foundations Over the last quarter century, East Asia has for sustainable growth, regionally and globally grown more rapidly than any other region in and foster progress towards higher levels of terms of GDP. It is also the poverty reduction development. 2The average number of children born to mothers during productive life who lives beyond her childbearing years, worldwide on average between ages 15 and 49. 3Replacement fertility is the total fertility rate at which women would have only enough children to replace themselves and their partner. By definition, replacement is only considered to have occurred when the offspring reach 15 years of age. If all offspring survived to the age of 15 the replacement rate would be exactly 2, but in practice it is affected by childhood mortality. The replacement fertility rate is roughly 2.1 births per woman for most industrialized countries and has not been evaluated for poorer countries. 4Gill and Kharas, 2007. 5The World Bank classifies countries by income per capita as follows: below US$825 as low income; between US$826 and US$3,255 as lower middle income; between US$3,256 and US$10,065 as upper middle income; and over US$10,066 as high income. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon To maintain its competitiveness, last decade. The age of sexual initiation has Thailandmustfocusonstrengtheningthe decreased for females and a greater proportion capabilitiesofitsyouthcohortandboosting of teenagers report having sexual relationships. productiveopportunities. The youth labor force "I got money from an older man is expected to shrink by around 10 percent in the whom I had sex with several times. next decade,6 and the cheaper abundant young He gave me cheques for 20,000 baht, labor from which economic growth in Thailand sometimes 30,000 baht. When I slept has benefited in the past will soon be in shortage. with him, I felt very disgusted--you At the same time, Thailand is facing increased know, he wasn't my boyfriend whom competition in labor-intensive industries from I love. The money I earned, I spent on its neighbors and from other countries that are frivolous things. It's a very bad habit, benefiting from their own youth bulges. To stay but too bad--I'm already addicted competitive, Thailand will need to focus on to this habit." Gip, a 15-year-old sex developing the human capital of its 10.6 million worker, Bangkok Post, April 11, 2001 youth and providing young labor force entrants with better opportunities.7 However, it appears The number of young people practicing unsafe that the higher education system has not yet sex in non-commercial sexual relationships has equipped these youth with the enhanced skills been on the rise, along with the numbers of those necessary to help Thailand move up toward more engaging in other unhealthy behaviors. A study knowledge-intensive products. Improving the conducted in 2005 found that the median ages quality of education and labor, ensuring that the for starting consuming alcohol are as early as existing skills match the market's demand and 11 years of age for boys and 15 years for girls.8 investing in skills development, technology and These types of risky behaviors can have serious innovation are therefore pressing challenges. health consequences over the long term and undermine the productive potential of youth. Anumberofsocialproblems,which Violence among Thai youth is also worrisome as revealtheincreasingrisks,facedbyyouth it has steadily increased over the past few years, today,alsopointtothecriticalneedtosupport given the growing number of delinquents serving positiveyouthdevelopment.For example, time at correction centers. suicide is the third leading cause for death among young men and women. Teenage pregnancy Another major concern that has has increased from 10.8 percent in 2002 to emergedinrecentyearsisrisingconsumerism 13.9 percent in 2004, partly due to changes amongThaiyouth,alongwiththenegative in sexual practices among Thai youth over the behaviorstheymayengageintohelpfuel 6ILO, 2006b 7"Human capital" refers to a broad range of knowledge, skills and capabilities that people need for life and work. The traditional definition of human capital refers to the education and health levels of people as they affect economic productivity. The World Bank World Development Report 2007 also highlights skills and capabilities required for successful living as part of human capital. 8Dr.Suriyadeo Tripathi, quoted in Matichon, September 14, 2005. suchconsumption.Although globalization soccer and other gambling, or stealing from and the Internet have helped open up a world their parents.9 Survey results also suggest that of information and possibilities for youth, the number of youth engaging in commercial sex they have also fueled expectations that can, activity has increased, citing financial need as a if left unfulfilled, lead to frustration and motivating factor.10 disillusionment. In Thailand as in many other countries, consumerist images and messages Althoughyoutharebecomingexposed conveyed through the popular media have togreaterrisks,thetraditionalsupport shaped the lifestyle expectations of young people providedbyfamiliesappearstobeweakening. and led to a heightened focus on materialism. Longer working hours and migration of parents However, these expectations may go unsatisfied and young people to cities have led to a since many youth do not have the education and declining influence of parents and family. A work opportunities that would allow them to survey of 1,066 households in Bangkok found grow professionally and earn enough income to that 43 percent of parents feel distant from their achieve their desired lifestyle. Non-consumption children since they only spend an average of 1-3 can lead to feelings of exclusion, withdrawal, lack hours together each day.11 Another survey found of control and relative deprivation, prompting that 40 percent of youth in secondary and higher youth to search for wealth even through illegal education have not gone out with their parents conduct. Around 8.9 percent of youth use in the past month.12 In addition, increasing rural- proceeds from the Government's education loans to-urban migration among parents has left 37.3 for shopping and almost 1 percent of youth percent of children in rural areas to be reared reported seeking additional financing for their by their grandparents. Migration among youth lifestyles from "adult sponsors," loan sharks, themselves also places them outside the reach of Figure 1.2: Number of Migrants by Age Group, 2006 Source: Migration Survey, 2006 9 Ramajitti Institute, 2005 10See, for example, results from the ABAC poll of young people aged 11-26 in 29 provinces, cited in "When 500,000 youth are about to engage in commercial sex," Manager Online (25 July 2004). 11Family Network Foundation and Ramkhamhaeng University, 2003. 12Thailand Research Fund Regional Office, 2003 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon parental influence at an earlier age than in the in their relatively small budgets; whereas that of past. According to the 2006 Thailand Migration the NYB was around Baht 200 million per year, Survey, among all age groups, 816,373 youth the combined annual budget of the two Bureaus age 15 ­ 24 comprise the largest proportion of is approximately Baht 40 million.14 Coordination migrants (37.4 percent). And from around 10.6 capacity is also limited, given the position of million youth population, 7.7 percent of them the Bureaus within the MSDHS and the fact that are migrants. (see Figure 1.2) the MSDHS has no representation at the district, sub-district and community levels. Even before Governmentinstitutionsforyouth the 2002 reforms, the coordination of youth havealsoweakenedinrecentyears,lowering policies was already a formidable challenge, since capacitytosupportyouthdevelopmentissues. it entailed working with approximately fourteen Since the inception of youth development agencies involved in youth education, seven in work in Thailand in 1965, the national youth youth health, seven in youth employment, three policy and supporting institutional framework in youth participation and seven in cross-cutting have undergone numerous changes, mostly as areas related to youth.15 byproducts of political change. The National Figure 1.3: Structure of the Youth Youth Commission has primary responsibility for Institutional Framework after Enactment proposing overall youth policies and plans, while of Act B.E. 2545 the National Youth Bureau has historically been charged with implementation and coordination. However, the latest reform, brought about through the Bureaucratic Reform Act B.E. 2545 (2002), downgraded the departmental status conferred on the National Youth Bureau (NYB)-previously under the Prime Minister's Office-to the Office of Welfare Promotion, Protection and Empowerment of Vulnerable Groups (OPP) in the recently established Ministry of SocialDevelopment and Human Security (MSDHS) (see Figure 1.3).13 Under this office, the Bureau of Child Promotion and Protection (OPPC) and the Bureau of Youth Promotion and Protection (OPPY) are mandated to promote and protect the welfare and rights of children and youth as well as to develop policies and programs to pursue their goals. The more limited responsibilities of the Bureaus are reflected 13The Ministry was established by combining a number of agencies from different ministries, including the Department of Public Welfare (formerly under the Ministry of Labor), the Office of Accelerated Rural Development, the Community Development Department (both formerly under the Ministry of Interior) and the National Youth Bureau. 14These budgets are estimates and were obtained from discussions with government officials. 15UNESCAP, 2005 However, the Children and Youth Thedevelopmentofnewplansforyouth Development Act aims to restore an developmentalsooffersanimportantwindow institutionalstructurethatwouldenable ofopportunityforshapingfutureyouthpolicy. Thailandtoaddressyouthchallengesmore The Royal Thai Government (RTG)'s approach to effectively.Since the bureaucratic reform, youth is laid out in the Fifth National Youth Plan policymakers and officials have been struggling (NYP) and the Long-Term Strategy (2002-2011), to obtain cross-ministerial/sectoral support and which were translated into a five-year Plan of mobilize sufficient resources for youth-related Action (2005-2009) to support the work of the policies and programs. In response, the new youth agency and other responsible ministries/ Children and Youth Development Act includes agencies. Now a long-term National Strategy and the following elements: five-year Plan of Action for youth development in accordance with the United Nations (UN) ˇ Local Administrations must devise children framework on "A World Fit for Children" have and youth development plans in line been completed. The Plan covers the following with the national children and youth areas: development plans and set aside sufficient 1. Family and children budgets for children and youth development 2. Health and mental health of children programs/activities. The role of the private 3. Safe environment for children and sector and Non-Government Organizations prevention of injuries and accidents (NGOs) in children and youth development 4. Children and impact from HIV/AIDS is also acknowledged. 5. Education ˇ A Children and Youth Development 6. Recreational activities Commission will be established to replace 7. Media and children the National Youth Commission. The 8. Culture and religion Commission will be chaired by the Prime 9. Participation and involvement Minister and will include representatives 10.Safeguard for children requiring special from social and economic ministries as well protection16 as experts on youth development issues. 11.Laws and regulations relating to children ˇ The Office of National Children and Youth Development will receive Departmental- Themonitoringandevaluationframeworkfor status within the MSDHS, with broader the Plan implementation is under preparation. and more comprehensive roles and responsibilities. 16"Children requiring special protection" includes 16 groups ranging from children suffering from orphanages, abuse (sexual and substances), exploitation, trafficking, displacement deprivation and social disadvantage. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon ThisSocialMonitoraimstoinform following section describes the youth development the development of a comprehensive model underlying the analysis in greater detail. youthdevelopmentstrategy,seizingthe opportunitytohelpThailandcraftpoliciesand ii. The youth development programsresponsivetotheneedsoftoday's model youth. Youth development in Thailand is at a critical juncture, as Thai youth face a host of analyzing youth issues and unprecedented opportunities and risks. With the challenges: the youth transitions anticipated establishment of stronger institutional arrangements for youth, the RTG will be in a better Theoutcomesofyouthdevelopmentare position to execute youth-related policies and determinedbytheinterplayofvariousfactors programs. The key issue now is how to develop andthekindofsupportdirectedoravailableto policies that respond effectively to the country's youth.While it is true that negative outcomes may youth challenges, expanding opportunities and be the result of misjudgments by young people who building the capabilities of its young people are inexperienced in decision making, they may be while discouraging negative risk-taking behaviors also a legacy of family and community structures. that may prevent them from reaching their full Policies that fail to deliver basic services can also potential. The information and analysis presented have an impact on the formation of structural in this Social Monitor is expected to help inform foundations for better youth outcomes.The the public discourse on youth issues as well as interplay of numerous factors influences the future policymaking, particularly the formulation pathway from youth to adulthood and affects its of the new National Strategy and Plan of Action ultimate direction at various levels: for youth. ˇ At the micro level: family socio-economic background, health and home life; Thereportadoptsamulti-dimensional ˇ Atthemesolevel:communitycharacteristics, approachtoyouthissues,usingtheframework school and workplace conditions; and developedintheWorldBank'sWorldDevelopment ˇ At the macro level: socio-economic factors, Report(WDR)2007. Numerous studies have been macroeconomic stability, labor market conducted on youth issues in Thailand, but most regulations, public health services and are narrowly focused on a specific issue or on environmental policies. a particular city or region. Few studies provide a larger picture of the situation of youth in Theyouthdevelopmentmodelused Thailand which would give a sense of priorities forthisanalysisaimsathelpingtoidentify across the major areas-taking into account the themostrelevantfactorsinfluencingyouth inter-connectedness of many of the issues-and developmentoutcomes. The model outlined facilitate coordination among the many agencies below attempts to portray a holistic view of youth and partners involved in youth. The approach development and promote a better understanding developed in the WDR 2007 allows for a systematic of how various factors interact. It focuses on three analysis of youth issues and identification of key pivotal transitions of life, namely growing up policy priorities, which can be used as a basis for healthy, learning and working. future policy making and coordination efforts. The In this model, the main factors affecting youth development include: Peer group Friends' behaviors Genetic and non- Friends' attitudes genetic biological Physical and Mental factors Maturation It is often assumed that during adolescence, At the most basic level, people are born the role of the family in socialization declines with certain genetic and non-genetic traits, which in importance, while the role of the peer group are key determinants in the maturation process increases. Included under the peer group are of an individual. the values and attitudes of peers and their Maturation is also affected by a major actual behaviors, as well as the extent to which mechanism usually coined as "learning," through individuals' beliefs match friends' behavior and which influences of other factors interact and are attitudes. assimilated by the individual. Society Socialization Development City, region, neighborhood, religion, media, Expectations, norms, technologies, schools, work places, culture values Cognitive and moral Furthermore, society/culture/subculture, The two basic components of this including characteristics and values of the mechanisminclude:SocializationandDevelopment. larger society, may affect individuals through Socialization emphasizes the interpersonal membership or residence in certain cities, content of learning; Development emphasizes regions, communities and neighborhoods. School, the individual context of learning. the media and availability of/exposure to new These two aspects are formed and changed technologies also have an influence on youth. over the years as well as influenced by family, peer groups, society and government policies. Government Economy-wide policies and institutions, macro Family stability, investment climate, governance, labor Socio-economic status, number of siblings, market regulations, education and training, family structure, parent-child relationship health, welfare and family services, infrastructure Family is probably the most important Finally, government policies can affect the influence on young people. The education, lives of young people-from determining the broad occupation and socio-economic status of parents, economic context in which they live and work to parents' family background and parents' age at providing education and setting laws about early marriage and first birth can all influence youth marriage, voting and child labor. outcomes. The number of children, presence of other family members, family experience (such as Access to Opportunities, Alternatives and Information divorce or separation), interactions among family members and the attitudes, values and norms of In this model, the influences of family, family are all determinants in this context. peer groups, society and government policy and institutions are shown to affect youth through the Socialization and Development mechanism as ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon well as through providing Access to Opportunities, capabilities-is expectation-based and influenced Alternatives and Information on which youth by other surrounding factors at the time of the decisions are based. activity/transition. Personality, knowledge, intelligence, values, attitudes, "tastes" When entering each transition/activity, youth carry this SEU with them. The youth's SEU, An important premise of the model is that will either complement (a match) or conflict (a individuals incorporate their own experiences and mismatch) with the situation they are facing, learning, as well as the experiences conveyed by possibly due to lack of access to information, families, peer groups, societies, governments and opportunities and alternatives. For young institutions, into their development through the people with a match, their transitions will be Socialization and Development mechanism. This smoother and tend to produce a positive final mechanism further interacts with the Physical outcome. However, some youth may be deprived and Mental Maturation process, forming young of opportunities and alternatives or struggling persons' expectations and capabilities. The to find opportunities and alternatives that will outcomes of these processes then form young allow their capabilities to flourish. For these persons' personality, knowledge, intelligence, youth, the outcomes experienced during each values, attitudes and tastes, which ultimately transition/activity could be disappointing. lead to their subjective expected utility as described below. Second Chances Capabilities Young persons bearing the burden of negative outcomes should be provided with At the age of 15, all the factors mentioned Second Chances to enable them to fully capitalize above will have already influenced a young person on past experience and fulfill their potential. to a certain extent and will have (i) determined an individual's likelihood to engage in any activity, The outcome from each transition/ or Capabilities and (ii) formed a basis for the activity will feed back into the Socialization individual's evaluation of the expected positive and Development mechanism to create new and negative outcomes of his or her behavior, expectations, norms, values, cognitive described by the term Subjective Expected Utility experiences, knowledge and so on for that (SEU). Youth's SEU and capabilities are closely individual, which will ultimately generate a new related. Capabilities are developed and stay set of capabilities and SEU for future activities within youth, but the SEU-though built upon and transitions. Family, peer groups and society will also react to particular outcomes, influencing the new Capabilities and SEU of youth. Emergingfromthemodelarethefactors andlinkagesaffectingwhoyouthareand whotheywillbecome. The basic premise of this model is that youth personality, knowledge, intelligence, values, attitudes, tastes and so on- 0 Figure 1.4: Youth Development Model Source: Adapted from Hofferth, 1987 and World Bank, 2007b which are influenced, in turn, by other factors-will capabilities and full understanding to be provided determine a young person's likelihood/perception with second chances. in succeeding/engaging in a particular activity. As illustrated by Figure 1.4 below, the SEU plays Thethreeelementsofopportunities, a significant part in determining the outcome of capabilitiesandsecondchancesprovide"youth each activity or transition. lenses"throughwhichpolicyprioritiescanbe evaluated.Applying a youth lens to policies can Policy implications: the three policy help determine whether resource allocations and lenses service provision in various areas are sufficient or even appropriate. The lenses can focus on policies Themodelillustratesthebroadnature as well as magnify their impact. As described in ofyouthdevelopmentandtheimportanceof the WDR 2007, these lenses suggest three broad findingthecorrectpolicyfocus. The model directions for youth policy: serves two purposes: (i) to broaden the areas i) broadening opportunities to develop skills to be explored for policy interventions that can and use them productively, for example by ultimately improve the situation of youth and (ii) improving the quality of education and to highlight critical entry points and mechanisms health services and facilitating their entry for enhancing opportunities and mitigating into the labor force; risks for youth. Of particular importance is ii) helping them acquire the capabilities to how to ensure that all youth have full access make good decisions in pursuing those to opportunities, full support to develop their opportunities, for example by giving ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Figure 1.5: Youth Lenses to Evaluate Policies Source: World Bank, 2007b them access to sound information and ThisSocialMonitorappliesthepolicy equipping them with analytical skills to lensestothreekeytransitionsofThaiyouth make well-informed decisions; and tohelpinformfuturepolicies. This Report looks iii)offering them second chances to mitigate across the major youth transitions of leading a the negative effects of past policies and healthy life, learning for work and moving into behaviors through targeted programs such the labor force, describing the current situation as drug rehabilitation and retraining. of Thai youth in these transitions and the factors that make youth vulnerable. For each transition, Theemphasisofthispolicyframeworkis the Monitor assesses whether government policies onstrengtheningthepositiveaspectsofyouth are effective and sufficient in trying to broaden development.This approach emphasizes the idea opportunities, strengthen capabilities and that youth development policies need to help provide second chances to help youth successfully young people acquire the skills and knowledge manage these major transitional stages. While necessary to make a successful transition to the three transitions are examined individually, adulthood. The framework therefore takes a health, education and work behaviors are all positive approach to youth development, moving co-dependent. beyond the notion that youth development is simply the prevention of risky or bad behaviors. TheMonitorfollowsthispolicyframework It extends the human capital model by treating asitappliestoyouthage15-24;however young people, as well as families and governments, theearlyyearsofone'slifeareextremely as potential investors in their future. importantindefiningwhoapersonwill become. The most effective way to ensure the success of youth tomorrow is to invest in children today. Effective programs improve environmental conditions, as well as impact individuals directly. Early childhood development programs for children under-five can help build cognitive skills, improve nutrition and teach parents effective parenting skills. Programs that ensure children remain in school up to the secondary level can also reduce the risks to which children are exposed. While this report does not specifically address the issues facing children 0-14, youth do not arrive at age 15 without a past that has shaped their growth. It is important to recognize that programs providing opportunities, capabilities and second chances are as important for the youth population prior to their reaching 15, as the programs are during their youth years. Low investment in the young often requires high investment in adults who cannot care for themselves. Thereportisorganizedasfollows:Using the three lenses framework, Chapter 2 studies the transition to Growing Up Healthy. The transition of Learning for Work and Life is studied in Chapter 3, while Chapter 4 focuses on the transition of Moving from School to Work. Finally, Chapter 5provides an overview of the institutional framework for youth development in Thailand and suggests directions for future policy. The Report investigates what the current institutional arrangements in Thailand are and how they can be strengthened to improve the effectiveness of support delivery and opportunities for youth, allowing Thailand to help maximize the potential of its young generation. The Social Monitor concludes with a brief summary of recommendations for future policy directions. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Chapter 2: GrowinG Up healthy ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon cHaPTer 2: growing uP HealTHy Health and physical well-being during the transition from childhood to adulthood can deeply affect the rest of people's lives. Although young people normally experience lower mortality rates and better health status than adults, they develop habits and behaviors at this stage in life that are key determinants of health outcomes as they grow older. The 15-24 age range is usually when people tend to engage for the first time in risky behaviors such as smoking, alcohol and drug consumption and unsafe sexual relationships. During this age range, people also start having more control over their diet and physical activities. This trend is particularly worrisome since unhealthy habits and behaviors developed at a young age can cause serious health problems during adulthood, affecting productivity and even leading to early death. In Thailand, the proportion of youth engaging in these risky behaviors has been rising in recent years. i. symptoms: Health trends overall improvement in health status of the Thai and challenges among Thai population. In particular, mortality rates for the youth younger age group (15-19 years old) and for women in the 15-19 and 20-24 age groups have youth mortality and morbidity been falling steadily (Figure 2.1). As of 2004, mortality among Thai youth was significantly MortalityamongThaiyouthhasbeen lower compared to adult age groups (Figure 2.2). onaconstantdeclineoverthepastfew Risky behaviors and habits developed in younger decades.Mortality rates of young people have years, however, normally show their negative been decreasing since the 1960s as part of the impacts on health later in life. Figure 2.1: Youth Mortality Rates in Thailand, Figure 2.2: Mortality Rates in Thailand 1964-2002 by Age Group and Gender, 2004 Source: Ministry of Public Health, 2002 Source: Ministry of Public Health, 2004 Figure 2.3: Causes of Deaths among Young Male Aged 15-29, 2004 Source: International Health Policy Program, 2004 Mortalityisdisproportionatelyhigher is present in a high proportion of traffic accidents foryoungmenthanforyoungwomen. In 2004, in Thailand. An estimated 50 percent of deaths around 76 percent of deceased youth in Thailand from traffic accidents in Thailand were due to were male, compared to 23 percent who were alcohol consumption.19 female.17 Deaths among male youth are primarily due to traffic accidents, whereas the first cause HIV/AIDSisalsoamajorcauseof of death for young women is HIV/AIDS; the mortalityamongyouthinThailand,particularly second factor is HIV/AIDS for male and traffic foryoungwomen.Although the number of accidents for women; and the third is suicide for young people deceased as a result of HIV/AIDS both. Injuries and deaths caused by road traffic has been falling, AIDS remains a leading cause accidents have become a major public health of death among youth, as noted above. It has issue in Thailand while the number of motor been estimated that around half of new annual vehicles has increased as well. Over the past HIV infections in Thailand occur among people decade, the number and percentage of young aged between 15-24.20 Figure 2.5 shows that 29.3 people dead as a result of traffic accidents has percent of new HIV infections in 2004 were young been increasing constantly. Around 43.5 percent women aged between 15-24 years old while of serious traffic accidents occurred among people young men in the same age bracket accounted in the 15-24 age group in 2003.18 Various studies for 26 percent. Another estimate suggests that estimate that the risk of traffic accidents is prevalence of the disease among people aged between four to five times higher for Thai men 22 or younger rose from 13 percent in 2003 to than women, which may be explained in part 22 percent in 2005.21 Additional evidence shows by the alcohol consumption habits of men and a large increase in the prevalence rate among women. Alcohol consumption is a habit normally young men who have sex with other men (MSM). associated with men in Thai society and alcohol HIV prevalence among MSM in Bangkok increased 17National Statistical Office, 2006c 18National Statistical Office, 2003b 19Don't Drive Drunk Foundation, http://www.ddd.or.th 20UNESCAP, 2006 21UNAIDS, 2006 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Figure 2.4: Causes of Deaths among Young Female Aged 15-29, 2004 Source: International Health Policy Program, 2004 from 17 percent in 2003 to 28 percent in 2005 and Althoughnon-communicablechronic it tripled among MSM under age 21 in the same diseaseincidenceislowamongyouth,Thailand period.22 Thus, concerns have been growing over isundergoingachangingdiseasepatternin the possible re-emergence of HIV/AIDS spread whichnon-communicablechronicdiseasesare among young people in Thailand. The main causes overtakinginfectiousonesasthemaincauseof appear to be the changing sexual behaviors death.Theincidenceofnon-communicablechronic among youth and their lack of awareness about diseases and their death toll are already on the the consequences of engaging in unsafe sexual rise throughout the world and in Thailand. Young intercourse. In the case of MSM, the increase in people generally do not experience high rates incidence is largely explained by stigma issues of morbidity due to non-communicable chronic and the previous exclusion of this group from diseases, given that such diseases are usually HIV/AIDS prevention strategies.23 generated by unhealthy habits maintained over long periods of time. However, the incidence of Figure 2.5: Age and Gender Distribution of New HIV Incidence, 2004 chronic diseases among young people in Thailand is expected to increase in the coming years due to changing dietary habits, environmental pollution, increased alcohol and tobacco consumption and substance abuse. Thailand, like many other Asian countries, is undergoing an epidemiological shift in which non-communicable chronic diseases are overtaking infectious ones as the main cause of death and morbidity among both youth and adults Source: Thai Working Group, 2004 (Figure 2.6). For instance, the rate of admissions per 100,000 people due to heart disease rose 22United Press International, 2006 23Van Griensven and others, 2005 Figure 2.6: Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs)25 Lost by Age and Disease Categories, 2004 Source: International Health Policy Program, 2007 Figure 2.7: Hospitalization Rate of Patients with Heart Diseases, Cancer and Diabetes, 1985-2003 Source: Ministry of Public Health, 2004 sharply from 109.4 in 1994 to 397 in 2003. Over increasinglyhavingahealthimpactonyouth the same period, the rate of admissions for cancer andadults.Like most middle-income countries, increased from 34.7 to 89.4.24 The incidence Thailand is undergoing a nutritional transition. of diabetes is also rising (Figure 2.7). Among The diet in Thailand increasingly includes added Thai youth, the most common chronic diseases sugar and fat, food from animal origin and alcohol. today are allergic conditions and diseases of the Changing dietary habits, cultural perceptions of respiratory and nervous system. fat children being healthy and sedentary lifestyles have also contributed to an increase in obesity. Theproblemsofobesityandbeing In 2006, the prevalence of obesity and being overweightareoccurringatanearlyageand overweight was high in Thailand compared to 24Herald Tribune, 2005 25The Disability Adjusted Life Year or DALY is a health gap measure that extends the concept of Potential Years of Life Lost (PYLL) due to premature death to include equivalent years of `healthy' life lost by virtue of being in states of poor health or disability. The DALY combines in one measure the time lived with disability and the time lost due to premature mortality. One DALY can be thought of as one lost year of `healthy' life and the burden of disease as a measurement of the gap between current health status and an ideal situation where everyone lives into old age free of disease and disability (Health Statistics and Health Information System ­ WHO) ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon other Asian countries, particularly for women Figure 2.10: Prevalence Rate of Obesity (Figure 2.8). The concern is relevant to both by Age and Gender, 1986 ­ 2004 children and youth. The percentage of obese children aged 5-12 years old rose from 12.2 to 15 percent between the years 2000-2003,26 whereas obesity of young people aged 20­29 years old increased from 3 to 22 percent during 1986- 2003. Overweight children are 3-5 times more common in Bangkok and the Central region than in other parts of Thailand (see Figure 2.9). This regional difference can partly be explained by Source: Ministry of Public Health, Thailand Nutrition Survey, 2003 Figure 2.8: Obesity in Asia, 2006 Figure 2.11 : Percentage of Young People Aged 15 ­ 18 Having Standard Weight and Deviating from Standard Weight, 2003 Source: WHO Global Database on Body Mass Index Source: Ministry of Public Health, Thailand Nutrition Survey, 2003 Figure 2.9: Nutritional Status of Children Figure 2.12: Percentage of Young People Aged 6-14 Years, 2003-2004 Aged 19 ­ 29 by Body Mass Index (BMI), 2003 Source: Ministry of Public Health, Thailand Nutrition Source: Ministry of Public Health, Thailand Nutrition Survey, 2003 Survey, 2003 26UNICEF, 2006 0 the relatively high consumption of fast food and Theincreasingengagementofyouthin soft drinks in these localities.27 It is also evident riskybehaviorshasbecomeamajorconcernin that the prevalence of being overweight among Thailand. The numbers of young people smoking, men aged 15-18 years old is higher than that of drinking alcohol, experimenting with drugs and women (Figure 2.11). However, for the 19-29 age having unsafe sexual relationships have been group, the prevalence is higher among women rising in Thailand in recent years. Evidence shows than men (Figure 2.10). Obesity during childhood that these kinds of behaviors start at an early and youth can be perpetuated as people get older age. According to the Thai Health Promotion and lead to chronic diseases such as diabetes and Foundation, in 2007 Thai male youth started circulatory diseases. drinking as early as 11 years old, while females started at 15 years old. Another study conducted risky behaviors of youth in 2005 shows that the median ages for starting smoking, alcohol consumption, amphetamine use Riskybehaviorsdevelopedatayoung and sexual relationships were between 12 and 15 agecanhavenegativeimpactsonhealthstatus years old in the selected sample (Figure 2.13). duringadulthood. As noted above, young people Figure 2.13: Initiation of Risky Behaviors generally have better health status than adults. in Thailand However, it has been estimated that around one- third of the total disease burden in adults is related or e to behaviors or conditions developed during behavi agg youth.28 Thus, preventing youth engagement riskyfot startin in risky behaviors that could compromise their by health status is critical for preventing negative cenerP health outcomes later in life. Source: Ruangkanchanasetr and others, 2005 Table 2.1: Proportion of Smokers by Age and Gender in 1999, 2001 and 2003 (percent) Age group 1999 2001 2003 (years) Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female 11-14 0.2 0.5 - 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 15-24 12.3 24.0 0.3 13.5 26.0 0.6 15.2 32.1 0.9 25-59 26.3 49.8 3.0 26.2 49.9 2.6 25.3 51.8 3.4 60+ 23.3 45.1 4.8 21.1 40.9 4.3 21.5 43.3 4.6 Total 20.5 38.9 2.4 20.6 39.3 2.2 21.6 44.1 2.9 Age at first smoking 18.2 17.9 22.2 18.5 18.3 21.9 18.4 18.2 21.5 Source: Ministry of Public Health, 2004 27Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 2006 28World Bank, 2007b ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Figure 2.14: Projection of Prevalence of COPD, Theproportionofyouthwhosmokehas 2001-2010 increasedsignificantlyinrecentyears. Just between 2001 and 2003, the percentage of young males who smoked increased from 26 percent to 32 percent (Table 2.1). Smoking is much more prevalent among young males. In 2003, less than 1 percent of young women were smokers. Theincreasedprevalenceofchronic respiratoryandcirculatorydiseasesinThailand hasbeenattributedtorisingsmokingrates. Abundant evidence shows the relationship Figure 2.15: Mortality Rate due to Emphysema, between tobacco consumption and emphysema, 1989-2003 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), coronary atherosclerosis and lung cancer, which have been on the rise in Thailand. It has been estimated that by 2010, the prevalence of COPD will be 7,035 per 100,000 population over age 15, compared with 143 per 100,000 population over age of 20 in 1991.29 The mortality rate due to emphysema has also risen from 0.07 percent in 1989 to 6.3 percent Source: Ministry of Public Health, 2004 in 2003.30 Table 2.2: Percentage of People Who Drink Alcohol, 1991-2003 Age group 1991 1996 2001 2003 (years) Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 11-14 - - 0.2 0.05 - - 0.5 0.4 15-19 21.7 2.1 20.8 1.0 19.9 1.9 33.5 5.6 20-24 59.5 5.4 56.0 5.7 55.8 7.2 70.4 11.8 25-29 66.7 9.2 67.6 6.9 68.1 10.2 75.7 16.8 30-34 68.6 11.9 67.7 9.5 67.0 12.3 76.5 20.0 Total 53.7 9.5 50.1 7.4 55.9 9.8 60.8 14.5 Source: Ministry of Public Health, 2004 29Chitanondh, 1991 30Ministry of Public Health, 2004 Therateofalcoholconsumptionamong Alcoholconsumptioncanposeamajor youthisalsorising. Most people who drink healthhazardduringyouthandoverthe alcohol in Thailand started at an early age. As longerterm. As noted above, a clear correlation mentioned earlier, Thai youth start drinking as can be seen between alcohol consumption and early as 11 years old for males and 15 years old mortal or serious traffic accidents in Thailand. for females. Around half of the Thai population It has been reported that around 50 percent of who drinks alcohol started when they were under Thai youth drink alcohol sometimeswhenthey 20 years old and around 80 percent of drinkers havetodrive.32 The Ministry of Public Health were familiar with drinking before they were 24 (MOPH) estimates that around 50,000 people are years old. Male and female drinkers differ in this seriously injured or disabled a year as a result regard: not only do more males drink compared to of driving after drinking alcohol, with drinking females, but males also tend to begin drinking at contributing to 73 percent of the total number of severe cases.33 Alcohol consumption can also Figure 2.16: Mortality Rate from Liver Disease and Cirrhosis, 1977-2003 have serious health consequences when excessive and maintained over a long period of time, for example, in contributing to liver disease and cirrhosis. More specifically, alcoholism can lead to a 20 percent higher rate of liver cirrhosis.34 Between 1977 and 2003, the mortality rates from liver diseases and chronic cirrhosis increased for both males and females, while the trend Source: Burean of Policy and Strategy, in cirrhosis resulting from hepatitis B virus is Ministry of Public Health declining (see Figure 2.14).35 younger ages.31 The share of young people, both Figure 2.17: Helmet Use by Males female and male, who report drinking alcohol, 15-24 Years Old has increased significantly in recent years. For the youngest group (15-19), while only 21.7 percent of males and 2.1 percent of females drank alcohol in 1991, 33.5 percent and 5.6 percent reported drinking alcohol in 2003. This pattern is even more pronounced among youth between 20 and 24 years old. In 1991, 59.5 percent of males and 5.4 percent of females in this age Source: National Statistical Office, Health and Welfare Survey, 2003 group reported drinking alcohol. By 2003, these shares rose to 70.4 percent for males and 11.8 Withregardtotrafficaccidents,young percent for females. people'suseofhelmetswhileridinga 31Podhisita, Xenos, Juntarodjana and Varangrat, 2001 32Report of 2003 Health and Welfare Survey, quoted in Thai Health 2005 33UNESCAP, UN Focus, Vol. 24, 2006 34Thailand's Permanent Secretary for Ministry of Public Health was quoted in the Nation, July 10, 2006, Thailand is 40th in World Alcohol Drinking. 35Ministry of Public Health, 2004 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon motorbikeislow. In Thailand, around 80 percent Figure 2.18: Number of Reported Events all accidents causing death involve motorcycles.36 from Drug Use 1983-2003 In the Health and Welfare Survey 2003, the number of young people who reported using a helmet sometimes increased significantly from 20 percent in 1991 to over 60 percent (Figure 2.17). However, the survey also showed that only around 18 percent of young motorcycle riders used a helmet every time they rode. Source: Division of Planning and Technical Administration, Thailand's Food and Drug Administration Asinthecaseofalcoholconsumption, of the young people surveyed had experience evidencefromvarioussourcesshowsincreasing using methamphetamines.39 The 2001 survey on incidenceofdrugabuseinThailand. The youth in Bangkok found that 37.8 percent of number of reported adverse events from drug adolescents had used at least one illegal drug use has risen from 2,303 in 1993 to 20,287 in their life.40 A study conducted in 2002 in in 2003 (Figure 2.18). Moreover, about18-30 Chiang Rai province revealed that 29 percent of percent of all patients hospitalized have had the young people surveyed had experience using problems related to drug use and this proportion methamphetamines.41 Despite major efforts to appears to be on the rise.37 In addition, the disincentivize consumption and prevent drug number of new drug-dependence cases of all trade, the supply and varieties of drugs have ages reported increased from 19,162 in 1992 to expanded. Heroin is the predominant substance 35,851 in 2002. The number of students as new used, as well as marijuana, opium and inhalants. drug-dependence cases rose from 1,119 in 1992 The increase in the supply of amphetamine, to 5,903 in 2002.38 A study conducted in 2002 cocaine and ecstasy could indicate a rise on the in Chiang Rai province revealed that 29 percent demand for these substances.42 Figure 2.19: Students with Sexual Experience, 2004 Source: ABAC Poll, cited in Thai Health 2004 36Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 2006 37Ministry of Public Health, 2004 38Ibid. 39Sattah, Martin., Somsak Supawitkul and others, 2002 40Ruangkanchanasetr and others, 2005 41Sattah, Martin., Somsak Supawitkul and others, 2002 42Podhisita, Xenos, Juntarodjana and Varangrat., 2001 Thaiyoutharealsoengaginginunsafe of the participants used condoms every time they sexandatanearlierage.According to one had sex at the beginning of a relationship,47 and estimate,the average age at which Thai youth the rate seems to be equally low for young men have their first sexual experience is 14-18 years who have sex with men.48 A study in four cities old.43 The Durex Global Sex survey estimates (including Bangkok and Chiang Mai) also found that the average first sexual encounter for Thais that sex workers reported using condoms only 51 is 18.3, while the global average is 17.3 years percent of the time, mostly with foreigners and old. Figure 2.19 shows that around 37.3 percent only about one in four Thai clients was likely to of male students and 13.5 percent of female use a condom.49 In addition, it is estimated that students were already sexually experienced. 15.8 percent of married men aged 20-24 pay a Among these, students attending vocational visit to a commercial sex worker and so do 26.2 schools and living alone in Bangkok are the most percent of single men in the same age cohort.50 likely to have had a sexual encounter.44 Evidence also suggests that Thai youth are now having The use of contraception methods among sex earlier: The cohort of age above 45 had on young women in Thailand also tends to be low. average their first sexual experience at age 18.2 In 2006, only about 1.5 percent of sexually while it is 17.5 and 16.5 for the 21-24 and 16-20 active females aged 13-14 used at least one kind age cohorts respectively. of contraception. The share increases with age: 51.1 percent of females between 15-19 years of Although youth engagement in sexual age and 43.0 percent between 20-24 years of relationships is becoming more common, condom age used contraception. Oral pills are the most usage in non-commercial sexual relationships popular method.51 remains low in Thailand.45 Different surveys show Asaresult,earlypregnanciesare ``Youngsters have sex in order becomingmoreprevalentandHIV/AIDS to forget something they don't want to infectionratesamongThaiyoutharerelatively remember and they have drugs high. The number of pregnancies among female to make them smile, a smile that will children and adolescents has risen in recent cover up the distress in their lives." years. The ratio of pregnant women between 15 A psychiatrist at the Institute of Child and 19 years old per 1,000 female population has and Adolescent Mental Health risen from 31.8 in 1999 to 47.3 in 2004. Although as quoted in the Bangkok Post, no national data are available on abortion rates May 4, 2002 since abortion is illegal in Thailand, a study that only between 10-30 percent of sexually conducted on women seeking illegal abortions active young people use condoms.46 Another reported that 64 percent of clients were young study of Thai youth found that only 6.3 percent women under the age of 25 years.52 In addition, 43Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 2002 47Thato, Sathja and others, 2003 44ABAC Poll, cited in Thai Health 2004 48World Bank, 2006 45Durex Global Sex Survey, quoted in Ramajitti Institute 2005, Thai Children 49UNAIDS, 2005 in Cultural Dimensions, 2003 50Thai Working Group on HIV/AIDS Projections, 2001 46UNAIDS, 2006; Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol 51National Statistical Office, 2006 University, 2005; and Ramajitti Institute, 2005 52UNESCAP, 2000 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon youth represent around half of new HIV/AIDS the long time spell between the risky behavior infections in Thailand and are increasingly and its negative impact, young people tend to considered a group at risk, as discussed above. focus on the perceived short-term benefits rather than the longer-term costs. As described in the ViolenceamongThaiyouthhasbecome previous section, most deaths among young males anemergingconcern. A study by Ramajitti are caused by traffic accidents-often involving Institute shows a steady increase in the number of motorcycles and alcohol consumption-and HIV/ juvenile delinquents who serve time at correction AIDS infection, both of which are related to centers over the past few years. Between 2004 avoidable risky behaviors. The incidence of non- and 2006, the number of teenagers under 18 communicable chronic diseases related to alcohol years old who were sent to correction institutions and tobacco consumption and to unhealthy increased more than 10 percent a year on average. nutritional habits could also be avoided. Among top offences, burglary is listed first, followed by physical assault. Each year, there are Despitetheavailabilityofinformation roughly 40,000 cases of assault being reported to onpotentialconsequencesofsuchrisky the police, or more than 100 cases a day. Given behaviors,youthengagementinsuchactivities that physical assault cases could be conciliated issometimesdrivenbyotherfactors. As among the two parties without going through influence from peers gains more influence than legal processes, the actual number is expected to parental guidance, young people become more be much higher than reported. According to the vulnerable to external elements. Since youth is study, violent behaviors are usually associated a period of life in which identity is built and with disadvantaged upbringing. the eagerness and possibilities to experience and learn are greater, youth are particularly ii. diagnostics: what makes prone to engaging in risky behaviors that can youth vulnerable? negatively affect their health later in life. Other influences can reinforce these decisions. Health behavior, habit formation and According to a 2001 study on youth in Bangkok, irreversibility factors determining youth engagement in unhealthy behaviors and habits include: broken Youngpeopleoftentimesengagein families; poor relationships with parent, due riskybehaviorsbecausetheybelievethatthe to financial problems in the household or due short-termbenefitsoutweighthelong-term to parents' lack of time for taking care of their costs. Habit formation, particularly in the case of children; parental addiction; low self-esteem; addictive substances such as tobacco or alcohol, early school abandonment; being in a gang; or normally occurs during this period of life and its feeling lonely.53 consequences are often hard to overcome. Given 53Ruangkanchanasetr and others, 2005 Table 2.3: The Main Reasons for Starting Smoking by Age Age of starting smoking (Years) Reason Total <15 yrs. 15-19 20-24 25-29 >30 Total 100.0 11.5 55.9 24.8 4.6 3.2 Want to try 37.5 68.4 39.7 35.7 34.0 55.9 To socialize 7.1 4.0 6.1 9.7 12.6 26.4 Having nothing to do 3.4 7.5 2.1 4.7 4.6 39.3 Follow, or persuaded by friends 34.8 55.2 38.2 32.7 25.1 43.6 Stress and anxiety 3.9 5.2 2.3 5.6 10 56.8 To be smart 3.2 6.7 3.6 3.0 0.8 3.2 To be mature 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.4 2.3 5.3 Follow the family members 3.5 23.1 2.7 3.1 3.4 19.5 Follow other adults 0.6 1.4 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.1 Follow celebrities 2.9 17.7 2.5 2.0 3.3 22.8 Caused by the job 1.3 5.9 0.5 1.5 3.5 27 Others 0.3 - 0.3 0.2 - 0.1 Source: National Statistical Office, Survey on Smoking Behavior of Thai Population, 1999 Thebehaviorof"rolemodels"and youth is on the rise.While numerous factors peersappearstohaveasignificantinfluence make youth vulnerable to excessive alcohol onyouthdecisionstoengageinriskyhealth consumption-such as alcoholic parents as role behaviors.For example, most of the reported models, social mores involving drinking as a reasons among Thai youth for starting smoking means of socialization and the availability of and fit a "role model" pattern. For all age groups, youth accessibility to cheap alcoholic beverages- the main reason reported for starting smoking alcohol advertising can also contribute to this was `wanted to try' (Table 2.3). For the youngest trend. Marketing is a powerful mechanism for groups, following or being persuaded by friends, attracting young consumers and the alcohol family members and celebrities were also major industry is an innovative industry able to use reasons. Clearly, social factors have had a a wide variety of marketing tools. In Thailand, significant impact on the spread of smoking it is estimated that Baht 2 billion (or US$60 habits in Thailand. million) is spent annually on alcohol advertising. Reports suggest that the marketing activities of Mediaandmarketingmayalsoinfluence the alcohol industry are becoming increasingly youthdecisionstoengageinriskybehavior. youth-targeted.54 As described above, alcohol consumption among 54Ramajitti Institute, 2005 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Health behavior, imperfect 85 percent of young people in Thailand are not information and inequality concerned about HIV/AIDS, even when most new cases occur among this age group.57 Inadequateinformationorunderstanding oftherisksfacedcanleadtounhealthyorrisky Incountriesthroughouttheworld, behaviorsamongyouth.Although individuals lowerincomeandeducationlevelsappear might understand health risks over time, they can toberelatedtopoorhealthoutcomes. For lack adequate information on the risks they face example, evidence illustrates that despite today for different reasons. Information on HIV China's spectacular economic growth, disparities status, for example, can be easily withheld from in health outcomes between urban and rural partners and during the early stages of infection, populations have widened during the post-reform the infected person might not be even aware of period. Large inequalities in health care coverage it.55 Many misconceptions regarding HIV/AIDS and thus in health outcomes are evident between can also mislead youth and hamper prevention the rich and the poor.58 Although the extent to efforts. It has been estimated that less than which income inequality and health interact and 5 percent of young people are being reached the significance of that interaction are not always by adequate HIV/AIDS prevention services in clear, evidence suggests that low incomes can Thailand.56 The lack of mass prevention campaigns affect health through the increased likelihood over the past decade in Thailand resulted in and frequency of unhealthy behaviors such as decreased awareness of the disease and its smoking and alcohol consumption.59 A stronger transmission. Lack of awareness is particularly sense of being able to have a prosperous future evident among youth, who do not remember the can encourage individuals to make good health campaigns carried out during the 1990s. Around more likely. Evidence from different countries also Figure 2.20: Percentage of Smokers and Drinkers Aged above 15 by Educational Attainment Level, 2004 Source: National Statistical Office, Cigarette Smoking and Alcohol Drinking Behavior Survey, 2004 55World Bank, 2007b 56World Health Organization, 2005 57IRINnews, Increased HIV/AIDS awareness needed ­ UNAIDS, May 2006 58Asian Development Bank, 2007 59Li and Zhu., 2006 Figure 2.21: Categorization of 17,000 New HIV Infections, 2005 Source: Thai Working Group on HIV/AIDS Projections, 2005 reveals a strong correlation between schooling that over 40 percent of Thai women surveyed and youth health behaviors and habits. Education had been physically and/or sexually abused by increases the private returns of being healthy, a partner and condom use was non-existent in helps young people process health information those cases.60 and provides them with the prospect of a better life, giving them greater incentive to engage in iii. Prescriptions: healthy behavior. Schooling is also considered a Policy responses for way to protect young people from engaging in promoting youth health risky behaviors. Therefore, individuals with lower levels of education may have a higher likelihood strengthening youth capacity to of deciding to engage in risky behaviors. practice healthy behaviors Insomecases,engagementinrisky Informationandeducationarecentral behaviorscanalsobeexplainedbyunequal topromotinghealthybehaviorsamongyouth. relationships,particularlyinthecaseofunsafe For example, adequate knowledge on how HIV sex. Most new HIV/AIDS infections affect women is transmitted and can be prevented is essential in Thailand and most Thai women are infected for reducing its incidence. UNAIDS studies have by their husbands or boyfriends (Figure 2.21). found that when young people are provided with Gender inequality and violence are key factors information on sex and HIV/AIDS, they tend to explaining the higher risk faced by women. A delay sexual activity and use condoms.61 Correct customary Thai belief that women do not have information is therefore the first step toward any sexual knowledge places them in a vulnerable raising awareness and giving young people the position, since they are not expected to require tools to protect them from infection. Evidence the use of condoms. A study in 2000 also found indicates that adequate and culturally tailored 60United Nations Development Program, 2004 61UNICEF, 2007 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon health education programs can improve the due to this information gathering and sharing capacity of young people to make informed at the school level. Some opposition to sex decisions and adopt healthier behaviors.Health education has been expressed by Thai parents education can cover varied areas, from sanitation and educational institution administrators on the and nutrition to sexual and reproductive health. basis that it could increase promiscuity, although And it should not be limited to responsibilities evidence from countries in which it has been of Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health introduced suggests otherwise. or Ministry of Social Development and Human Security only. Concerted efforts should come from EffortstointegrateHIV/AIDS,sexual all related Ministries, private organizations and healthinformationandlifeskillstraining related functions of NGOs. intoschoolcurriculaappeartohavehada positiveinfluenceonyouthbehaviors. Since MostyoungThaipeoplefirstlearnabout the 1990s, Thai schools and non-formal education riskyhealthbehaviorsatschool. School-based centers have been expected to provide students health education programs are believed to be with information on HIV/AIDS in the classroom. particularly effective in countries where primary However, the extent to which educational and secondary enrollment rates are high, as in institutions have introduced life skills programs Thailand. According to a 2001 youth survey and the degree to which efforts have been in Bangkok, adolescents had most frequently sustained over time are unclear. Some evidence acquired their knowledge about substance suggests that life skills training programs have abuse, sex and HIV from school. Evidence from been effective in reducing tobacco and drug around the world illustrates that the longer consumption among Thai youth. A study carried children remain in school, the less likely they out in 2006 concluded that life skills training are to engage in risky health behaviors, partly had a positive impact on reducing tobacco and box 2.1: The Thai Health Promotion foundation The Thai Health Promotion Foundation (ThaiHealth) is an independent organization that was founded in 2001 following the success of Thailand's nationwide anti-smoking movement. The government decision to create the foundation was based on several studies by the Health System Research Institute and through policy advocacy and efforts by civil society groups. The foundation funds, amounting to around USD 50 million per year, come from a 2 percent tax on alcohol and tobacco. ThaiHealth's goal is to play a facilitating role and support activities that reduce risk factors and promote healthy behavior in a sustainable way. The organization has fostered health promotion alliances and networks and expanded its activities to reach as many people as possible. The "open grants" program allows community-based and other organizations to secure funding for their heath promotion activities and proactive grants support projects according to specific objectives such as model health-promoting schools. ThaiHealth has played a leading role in the movement against tobacco use, prevent drunk driving and reduce alcohol consumption, as well as opportunities to promote physical activity. 0 drug use among Thai high school students.62 and community with an emphasis on highly The study found a statistically significant difference vulnerable populations. Interventions will be in between the knowledge level, attitudes and the form of school programs, condom vending decision-making and problem-solving skills of machines, peer and community programs, as well students who took part in the program and those as peer education. The strategies also encourage who did not. youth to participate in HIV prevention activities and will call for local organizations to participate Provision of comprehensive sex education in HIV prevention and control activities. in school has long been controversial, but recently gained supports. Traditionally, discussing or Health-relatedcommunityinformation learning about sexuality is uncommon, if not andskillstraininginitiativesalsoseemtobe unacceptable, in the Thai culture. However, with effectiveinempoweringyoungpeople.For global influence and increasing sexually-related example, the Thai Youth AIDS Prevention Project risky behaviors if not well informed, young Thais started in 1995 to prevent HIV/AIDS infection are in greater need for sex education earlier. A among young people in northern Thailand poll conducted in 200763 revealed that more than and increase their involvement in prevention 70 percent of responders support the provision of activities. The project's main goal was to create comprehensive sex education (such as the use of opportunities for young people to develop the birth-control facilities, how to use condoms, not skills and power to diminish the impact of having premarital sex) and do not think that sex HIV/AIDS. Findings show that young people's education will promote promiscuity among youth. involvement as HIV/AIDS educators helped them gain credibility and respect and many TheThaiGovernmentrecentlyapproved of them progressed to positions of leadership. astrategicplanforaddressingtheincreasein Additionally, the project showed that bringing HIV/AIDScasesamongThaiyouth,focusing together children from families affected by oneducation.The three-year plan has been HIV/AIDS with children from non-affected approved by the National AIDS Prevention and families can have a positive impact on reducing Control Committee. Financed with an initial discrimination.64 The Thai Health Promotion budget of USD 15,550 from the Thai National Foundation, a public institution financed by the Health Insurance Office, the plan will focus mainly Thai Government, provides grants to communities on educating youth about HIV prevention and for similar types of health promotion initiatives promoting social values. Furthermore, 10 percent (Box 2.1). of the total budget for National AIDS Strategies in order to reduce new infections by half by 2008 Similarly,peereducationprogramscan has also been earmarked for youth. The National beeffectivemeansofcommunicationand AIDS Strategies target youth at school, workplace education.Most literature considers the role 62Seal, 2006 63"Love, Lust and Learning" campaign by the Programme for Appropriate Technology in Health (Path), quoted in The Nation, October 4, 2007 64Reproductive health outlook, www.rho.org ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon of family and peers as the most significant in include: a strong identification with the social terms of influencing adolescents' habits and and cultural environment of the target group, behaviors. Peer education programs respond the promotion of values supportive of positive to young people's preferences to interact with attitudes and healthy behaviors and involvement people who are like them, whom they tend to of the young people in programs designed for choose as sources of information rather than them. The impact of this kind of program has teachers or family members. Peer education not yet been evaluated extensively. programs train a group of young people to become models and provide information and Massmediaprograms,whichhavethe referral to services to their peers. Some typical potentialtoreachamuchwiderpoolofyouth, elements incorporated into these programs shouldcomplementschool-basededucation box 2.2: The role of mass media in Preventing risky Health behaviors among youth The mass media has the potential to reach large numbers of young people. A 23-country study among 12-year-old school children found that over 90 percent watched television three hours per day on average. Reproductive health groups are increasingly working with the mass media and entertainment industries to reach youth. For example, the Safer Sex or AIDS Campaign in Uganda, which encouraged young people to make responsible decisions about HIV/AIDS, reached 92 percent of its intended audience. In Zimbabwe, a similar communication campaign reached 97 percent of youth surveyed. In Botswana, Tsa Banana, a mass media campaign to improve adolescent reproductive health, reached about 70 percent of adolescents. Mass media initiatives can also prove to be cost-efficient. The estimated cost of reaching each young person for a call-radio program in Kenya was just 3 U.S. cents and the estimated cost of getting one young person to take action to improve reproductive health-for example, visiting a health clinic-was 12 cents. Mass media communication programs can positively influence health behaviors among young people. In Zimbabwe, young people reached by a communication campaign to encourage "saying no" to sex were 2.5 times more likely than those not reached to make healthy choices. In Zambia, adolescents exposed to a television campaign promoting abstinence and condom use were 87 percent more likely to use condoms. In addition, viewers were 46 percent more likely to be abstinent or to have resumed abstinence. Self-reported condom use among sexually active young men in Uganda rose from 33 percent to 70 percent following the Safer Sex or AIDS Campaign and from 58 percent to 73 percent among young women. In South Africa, 38 percent of young people who watched the television program Soul City reported always using condoms, compared with 26 percent of those who did not watch it. However, mass media programs are not able to address all aspects of HIV prevention. Experience shows that the most effective communication programs involve both mass media and face-to-face communication, such as peer education in small groups. Different communication channels reach different audiences and messages are most effective when reinforced by various means. Source: Kiragu, 2001 andlifeskillstrainingprograms. School-based young people about the risks of unsafe sex. At programs exclude those youth out of school the beginning of 2006, the Thai Government and since they are mostly implemented at the also launched the first HIV/AIDS prevention secondary school level, they fail to reach the large program targeting MSM, called Sex Alert. The proportion of young people who drop out after program utilized communication tools such as lower secondary school and may be more likely magazine and radio advertisements, cellphone to engage in sexual relationships. Education and text messages, the Internet and posters. Flyers, communication programs broadcasted through postcards and condoms with lubricant were also the mass media have the potential to reach all distributed.65 The Smokebusters Caravan provides youth. Given that the second most common youth appropriate on-site education where young source from which youth in Bangkok learn about people congregate, such as shopping areas, risky behaviors is mass media, it could also sports fields, youth centers, village centers and serve as a channel for conveying knowledge and festival grounds.66 The Royal Thai Government influencing the behavior of young people in a (RTG) has also assigned a number of agencies, positive way (Box 2.2). including the Department of Disease Control of MOPH, the Directing Centre on Road Safety Otherinnovativeinformationand of the Department of Disaster Prevention and communicationtoolsfortheprevention Mitigation and the Ministry of Transport, to carry ofriskybehaviorsamongyouthshouldbe out a number of activities and campaigns relating exploredfurther.Around the world, education to helmet-use, safe motorcycle-riding, driving and communication programs aimed at reaching licenses and speed limits. A "drive safely, turn young people increasingly make use of new head-light and wear a helmet" campaign and a information channels. One group of youth live television program on road safety, a national consulted during the preparation of the WDR seminar on road traffic injuries, have been part 2007 suggested both cultural and content- of the government's efforts.67 specific ways in which information on HIV/ AIDS and reproductive health could be made Initiativestopreventunsafehealth more effective and attractive to youth. These behaviors and habit formation among included making the content short and specific, youthneedtofocusoninfluencingyoung keeping the message "real, close to daily people'spreferences,notonlyoninformation life," integrating the messages into television dissemination.Interventions to change behavior programs and advertisements and asking pop normally work on the assumption that young stars to perform specific HIV/AIDS songs. In people would make better health choices when this regard, as part of the nationwide HIV/AIDS provided with better information. However, the prevention campaign, the Thai Government asked formation of preferences and decision making local singers to promote condom use and inform capabilities are also very relevant, as evidenced 65Medical News, February 2006 66World Health Organization, 2002 67World Health Organization, Thailand, http://w3.whothai.org/en/index.htm accessed June 18, 2007 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon by the fact that even young people with adequate obesity, or drug addiction-would thus minimize information on health risks faced often make the long-term consequences of risky behaviors poor health decisions. As noted above, youth and lead to better health. At the same time, respond to the short-term benefits to smoking, restricting the opportunities of youth to make drinking alcohol and having unprotected sex. poor decisions, for example through tobacco A notable time lag oftentimes exists between and alcohol advertisement restrictions and bans risky behaviors and negative outcomes. Low or the establishment of tobacco-free zones, can value of the future relative to the present and also provide a positive environment for helping perceptions of invulnerability at a young age youth to make healthy choices.68 might influence a young person's willingness to apply their knowledge in practice. At the same Allowingthespaceforyouthtoconnect time, in many cases, the reported reasons for withparentsreducesriskybehavior.Young undertaking risky behaviors are following the adults who are connected emotionally with their role of peers or famous people and wanting to parents are likely to make healthier decisions, increase `social acceptance.' In other words, such as minimizing drug, alcohol and tobacco young people oftentimes tend to behave in line intake. These youth also tend to engage in sexual with what is considered the `preference' of their activities at a later age and use precautionary reference social groups. Therefore, portraying a measures. Policies that encourage the role negative image attached to unhealthy behaviors families play in the development of children can and promoting the image of healthier ones facilitate in reducing harmful behaviors.69 through mass media programs, pop or television stars' messages and peer education initiatives Supplyanddemandcontrolpoliciescan could help prevent youth engagement in risky beeffectiveinlimitingyouth'sriskybehaviors. health behaviors. Since young people are generally more sensitive to changes in prices than adults, taxation and expanding opportunities to make subsidies policies can be especially effective healthy choices in reducing tobacco and alcohol consumption among youth. Price increases encourage youth to Providingyouthwithanadequate stop using tobacco products, prevent others from environmentformakinghealthydecisions starting and reduce the number of ex-tobacco isnecessarytoensuretheiravoidanceof users who resume the habit. It is suggested that riskybehaviors. Facilitating the access of price and income elasticity of tobacco demand young people to preventive and curative health vary across income categories and between urban services is believed to encourage healthier habits and rural areas. The overall price elasticity in of youth. Broadening access to these services- Thailand is estimated to be-0.39 and income whether dealing with unwanted pregnancies, elasticity is-0.70, similar to estimates for many 68World Bank, 2007 69World Bank, 2007a other middle-income countries.70 Likewise, areas). A state-run National Quitline will be set up taxation of tobacco products is also very cost- and a toll-free number provided on all cigarette effective. Food and drink taxes also have the packs sold in Thailand. In general, comprehensive potential to generate revenue that can be bans on tobacco advertisement are believed to earmarked for dieting, exercising and obesity- be extremely effective as prevention measures.73 prevention initiatives. Alternatively, subsidies or Cigarette prices have also been increased for cash transfers can be used to encourage healthier one to two Bath per pack, due to a one percent choices. excise tax increase. TheThaiGovernmenthasbeenactivein In 2005-2006, the cabinet and MOPH adoptingcontrolmeasurestopreventyoung continued to implement measures to combat the peoplefromengaginginriskybehaviors. Since abuse of alcohol. As part of these measures, the 1992, a ban on tobacco advertisement has been alcohol tax was raised (e.g. the maximum possible effective in Thailand. Although enforcement rates are 50 percent for spirits); times and appears to have been weak in certain cases and places for alcohol sales are restricted (retailers non-compliance is extensive, Thailand is cited are now only allowed to sell alcohol between as the best practice example in this regard. For 11am and 2pm and 5pm and midnight); and example, it was the only Asian country that did most importantly, a ban on all forms of alcohol not allow tobacco indirect advertisements in advertising in all media was announced.74 several international sports events.71 As a result of continued Government efforts, commercial Thepromotionofsafesexstartswith displays of tobacco are prohibited and cigarette theadequateprovisionofthemeansto packets must now carry vivid pictorial warnings- practiceit. These means would include not only 21 percent of smokers who saw the warnings quit access to family planning and HIV testing and smoking, 57 percent reduced their consumption counseling services but also to condoms as the while 21 percent continued as before.72 After main means to prevent transmission of HIV. As the implementation of the Government's anti- part of the nation-wide HIV/AIDS prevention smoking campaign, the Thailand Tobacco campaign, the Thai Government installed more Monopoly reported a decrease of 23 percent in condom vending machines throughout the sales volume for the first eight months of the country, especially near secondary schools, 2006 fiscal year compared to the first eight offering condoms for one-tenth the price of months of the previous fiscal year. In December condoms sold at drug and convenience stores. 2007, the Government announced the prohibition Views of such policies are mixed, as some argue of smoking in non-air-conditioned areas in that increasing the availability of condoms-like markets and restaurants (in addition to the providing sex education-might encourage young existing smoking prohibition in air-conditioned people to engage in pre-marital relationships 70Sarntisart, 2003 71Chitanondh, 2002 72Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, 2006 73World Health Organization, 2007 74Ibid. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon at an earlier age. However, evidence from other themselves, they could behave more carelessly. countries worldwide shows that these campaigns In the case of the provision of contraception, no normally result in a delay in sexual relationships evidence of this association has been found and and increased condom use. Social marketing of it is not clear that unsafe sex would increase as condoms can improve young people's uptake a result. However, some evidence indicates that of condoms through pharmacies and retailers. the provision of anti-retroviral treatment for Condom promotion policies need to target all HIV/AIDS could increase risky sexual behaviors.75 youth, married and non-married, homosexual and Nonetheless, the provision of second chances heterosexual. Young married women are normally remains necessary to help youth cope with the less likely to use condoms and therefore more results of unhealthy behaviors and habits. likely to be infected by their husbands. Youngpeopleneedadequateand Providing second chances: friendlyhealthservicestohelpthemovercome Helping young people deal with addictions. Treating tobacco dependence the adverse consequences of poor should be part of any tobacco control policy. health behavior or misfortune For instance, young addicts could benefit from nicotine replacement interventions to address Secondchanceprogramsareneeded the physiological aspects when trying to quit. tohelpyoungpeopleminimizetheadverse Similarly, services that help young people deal consequencesofpoorhealthdecisions.As with alcohol dependencies, offering counseling described in the WDR 2007, despite having and psychological support, should be provided. In good information on health risks, young people addition, strong evidence shows the benefits of often make poor health decisions that lead to treatment for drug abuse, including significantly negative health outcomes.Sometimes people can fewer drug-related health and social problems. be victim to the effects of others' decisions or to Young Asian people consulted on the subject the lack of adequate response by the state. Youth highlighted the relevance of services provision health services need to adequately help young for drug addiction rehabilitation and treatment people who suffer negative health outcomes to and emphasized the need for creating supportive overcome these problems. Young people who are environments, given that young dependent addicted to tobacco, alcohol, or drugs, or have people tend to be resentful and distrust service been infected by HIV/AIDS need programs and providers. Thai youth, in particular, suggested services that help them stop the harmful behavior that treatment services should be provided on a and recover. Concerns have been expressed over voluntary basis to ensure effectiveness and that the potential negative effects of these services follow-up services would be essential to avoid on risk-taking behaviors, since if the costs of the relapse.76 risky behavior are not born by the individuals 75World Bank, 2007b 76UNICEF, 2003 Healthservicesforthetreatment to the risks of illegal abortion, given that they ofSexuallyTransmittedInfections(STIs) cannot normally afford the high fees charged by arealsoessential,particularlysincethey private clinics operating in the country. Induced heightenvulnerabilitytoHIV/AIDS.Over 100 abortion is widely rejected in Buddhist-majority million STIs affect people under 25 years old Thailand as immoral. Preventive measures every year worldwide and most of them could and emergency contraception may be other be easily treated if diagnosed early. Treating means of dealing with unwanted pregnancy. STIs prevents HIV/AIDS transmission, since STIs Emergency contraception is available in Thailand, such as syphilis, chancroid and genital herpes but according to one study conducted in facilitate the sexual transmission of HIV. Many 2000, both users and providers of emergency of these infections are not noticeable, especially contraception showed significant lack of adequate in the case of girls and women. Making clinics information on how to use it.79 youth-friendly may encourage young people to use health services for treatment, although The policy recommendations in this evaluations have not shown any conclusive Chapter are promising, but have been successful evidence yet. to varying degrees across the world. International experience can provide Thailand with valuable Toreducetheriskofhealthproblems lessons in framing, prioritizing and coordinating relatedtounplannedpregnancy,healthcare these "growing up healthy" interventions. servicesthatprovideaccesstocontraception Table 2.4 documents countries which have andotherreproductivehealthcareservicesfor implemented similar policies and the degree to girlsarerequired.Induced abortion is illegal in which these policies have been effective. Thailand, except in the cases where it is necessary to preserve woman's life and when pregnancy is a result of rape or incest. However, 33 percent of pregnancies each year are unintended and women who do not want to get pregnant are 16 times more likely to have an abortion than women who want to get pregnant.77 At the same time, the practice of illegal abortion is evident throughout the country, particularly in rural areas, and appears to be increasing. Illegal abortions are mostly carried out by non-medical personnel and often in unsanitary conditions, leading to complications that put women's lives at risk.78 Girls and poor women are particularly exposed 77Institute for Population and Social Research, 2006 78Boonthai, 1998 79Naravage and Yongpanichkul, 2003 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Table 2.4: Summary of Growing Up Healthy Policy Recommendations and International Experience PolicyRecommendations Evidence CountryExamples NotesforSuccess Expanding Opportunities 1 Effectively implement and enforce bans on advertisement Proven Thailand, Russia, Enforcement of of tobacco and alcohol and restrictions on their United States salespeople consumption by age and in public places essential 2 Provision of the means required to practice healthy Unproven, Chile, Mexico Strong political behaviors-i.e. condom provision but support is needed Promising 3 Subsidies and taxation policies to decrease the costs of Proven Kenya, Mexico, United Ensure enforcement and healthy options and increase the costs of unhealthy ones States sanctions on violators Enhancing Capacity 1 Develop and implement information and habit formation Proven Peru and Cameroon Mass media programs programs: Paraguay and S. Africa often increase -school and community based New Zealand knowledge but do -peer education not necessarily alter -mass media behavior -innovative campaigns making use of new technology Providing Second Chances 1 Provide youth-friendly health treatment Proven Developing countries More youth-accessible and rehabilitation services in all regions pharmacies and clinics Source: Adapted from World Bank 2007a and World Bank 2007b Chapter 3: Learning for working and Life ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon cHaPTer 3: learning for work and life In its first national Millennium Development Goals report, the RTG set a target of achieving universal lower secondary education by 2006 and universal upper secondary education by 2015. During the last two decades, Thailand's efforts in this area have resulted in the universalization of primary education and in a significant increase in secondary and tertiary education enrollment rates. Despite these important gains, some significant challenges remain. Enrollment in upper secondary education and higher levels is far from universal and access to education remains unequal. Other critical issues include poor quality of service delivery, relatively high drop out rates between educational cycles-particularly in rural areas-and low student achievement levels. These issues must be addressed for Thailand to fulfill its national aspirations. i. symptoms: education in only the four years between 1999 and 2003, trends and challenges the average years of education increased from 7.1 to 7.8 in Thailand. For the population aged enrollment in secondary and tertiary 15-21, the average number of years of education education rose from 9.4 to 9.8 over the same period, suggesting that more young people have access The average number of years of to secondary and tertiary education in Thailand educationalattainmentoftheThaipopulation than ever before. Furthermore, the growth of over15yearsoldhasconsistentlyincreasedin educational attainment of the youngest cohort recentyears. The 1999 National Education Act (15-19 years old) has been significantly higher (NEA) and the 2002-2016 National Education Plan than that of the 20-29 year age group in recent have respectively raised compulsory education years (Figure 3.1). from six to nine years. As shown in Table 3.1, Table 3.1: Average Years of Education Attainment, 1999 ­ 2003 Age 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 15 and over 7.1 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 15-21 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 15-59 7.7 7.8 7.7 7.8 7.9 60 and over 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Source: Office of the Education Council, 2006 0 Figure 3.1: Educational Attainment Source: Household Socio-Economic Survey 1994, 1998, 2002 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon box 3.1: The Thai education system Thai education can be classified into three types: (i) formal education, (ii) non-formal education and (iii) informal education. Formal education services are provided through both public and private bodies to those inside the school system. Formal education consists of basic education and higher education. Basic education includes pre-primary education, primary education, lower and upper secondary education. Formal education also include vocational education, which is provided at the upper secondary level, diploma level (two years study after secondary education) and university level (four or more years of study after secondary education). The table below provides an overview of the Thai education system. Non-formal education services are provided by both public and private bodies to those outside the school system, such as the early childhood population, school-age population who have missed formal schooling and the over-school-age population (see Box 3.7). Informal education enables learners to learn by themselves according to their interests, potential, readiness and opportunities available from individuals, society, environment, media, or other sources of knowledge. Special and welfare education is provided both in special and inclusive schools for children who are hearing-impaired, visually-impaired, physically-impaired and children with intellectual disabilities. Source: Office of the Education Council, 2004 Figure 3.2: Secondary Education Gross Figure 3.3: Percentage of Upper Secondary Enrollment Rates 1996-2005 Graduates to the Population, 2003 Source: Office of the Education Council, 2006 and Office of the National Education Commission, 1998 Source: OECD, 2005 Grossandnetenrollmentrateshave relativetoneighboringcountries. Thailand increasedsubstantiallyinthelasttwo performs better than other countries in the decades. The RTG's efforts during the 1980s region, such as Indonesia, China and India in to expand primary education resulted in the terms of the proportion of upper secondary achievement of near-universal primary education. graduates. Furthermore, Thailand's share of Further efforts to expand access at the secondary secondary school graduates was largely at par level have also produced dramatic growth with countries with higher gross domestic product in secondary enrollment (Figure3.2).Lower per capita such as the Philippines, Argentina or secondary education gross enrollment rates Mexico ( Figure 3.3). increased from 72 percent in 1997 to around 90 percent in 2004. Over the same period, the Despitetherecentprogressinsecondary percentage of the labor force with more than educationenrollment,roomforimprovement primary education rose from 30 percent to stillexists. Over 40 percent of young people who 40 percent. Upper secondary education gross could be enrolled in upper secondary education enrollment rates have also increased recently, are not actually enrolled and enrollment rates in albeit more modestly. The gross enrollment rate secondary education have risen at a decreasing in upper secondary education grew from around rate in recent years. The challenge of maintaining 57 percent in 1998 to 69 percent in 2005. As a constant growth rate over time is common of 2005, Thailand had about 3.2 million young among countries as they approach universal students aged 15-21 years old. Around 1.7 million access to schooling and out-of-school populations students were enrolled in the upper secondary become increasingly harder to reach. level, of which 1.0 million students were in the general track and around 0.7 million in the Vocational education provides vocational track. Students enrolled in higher analternativetoThaiyouthforcareer education accounted for 10.4 percent of the total development. In 1995, Thailand adopted the student population. German dual vocational education and training model, which is described in Box 3.2. The Dual Theratioofuppersecondarygraduates Vocational Training (DVT) is offered at both the tothetotalpopulationinThailandishigh upper secondary and diploma levels. At present, ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Figure 3.4: Ratio of Public and Private Enrollment General upper secondary level Vocational upper secondary level Vocational diploma level Source: www.moe.go.th/data_stat/, accessed February 20, 2007 vocational education courses cover nine fields could be due to a number of factors. First, the and can be regarded as a transitional option curriculum may not be responsive to industry from basic to higher education.80 Trainees enroll needs, resulting in graduates not finding jobs in with technical or vocational institutions, where their fields of activity. Second, school equipment they are usually taught vocational subjects two is insufficient for teachers to teach and for days a week and spend three days at enterprises students to practice. Third, the educational path to practice on-the-job training. Enterprises pay in the vocational track is rather limited. Although for trainees' allowances. As Figure 3.4 shows, graduates at diploma level can continue studying the private sector contributes a great deal in for two years for a Bachelor's vocational degree, vocational education in both upper secondary or transfer to an academic track, enrollment has and diploma levels compared to the general track, Figure 3.5: Gross Enrollment in Upper where private institutions only provided around Secondary Education as Percentage of Age 9 percent of educational services in 2005. Group Population However,participationratesintheDVT systemhaveremainedlowinThailand.Despite the growing need for skilled labor, vocational education has been undersubscribed. Figure 3.5 shows that the increase in gross enrollment in upper secondary vocational education from 1994 to 2005 amounted to only 5 percent. In the same period, gross enrollment in general upper secondary education increased by nearly Source: Office of the Education Council, 1994-2003 and Office of the National Education Commission, 2004 four times that percentage. Low enrollment 80(i) Trade and Industry, (ii) Arts and Crafts, (iii) Home Economics, (iv) Commerce and Business Administration, (v) Tourism Industry, (vi) Agriculture, (vii) Fishery, (viii) Textile Industry and (ix) Information Technology and Communication remained very low (less than 1,000 enrollees a Figure 3.6: Higher Education Enrollment Rate, year on average), mainly due to the fact that 1994-2005 Bachelor's vocational degree graduates have had difficulty finding suitable jobs upon graduation. Finally, public perceptions convey that vocational education is inferior to the general stream and is not a passport to upward mobility. Better-scoring students and better-off families tend to pursue the academic track up to the tertiary level to access skilled jobs as government officials, state Source: Office of the Education Council, 1994-2003 enterprise employees or office workers, not in and Office of the National Education Commission, labor-intensive industries. 2004-2005 Thailand has grown over time and by 2005, more HighereducationinThailandhasbeen than one-third of youth between 18-21 years expandingcontinuouslyintermsofnumber old were enrolled (Figure 3.6). Enrollment rates ofinstitutionsandenrollment.In 2005, are higher than those of neighboring countries Thailand had 1,055 higher education institutions such as Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Lao throughout the country, of which 973 were in the PDR and Cambodia. Notably, enrollment rates formal system. Enrollment in higher education in for females are higher than those for their male box 3.2: dual vocational education and Training in germany The German dual system of vocational education and on-the-job training has gained acceptance worldwide. The system promotes opportunities for the young generation to have vocational classes and in-company training simultaneously so that students can gain practical experience. Four key stakeholders are strongly involved: Representatives of the Federal Government (Federal Ministries of Education and Research, Labor and Economics, Interior), Representatives of the States (State Ministries of Education, Economics, Labor and Interior), Representatives of the Employers' Associations (Organizations of Employers, Industries, Chambers) and Representatives of Trade Unions. These stakeholders develop qualification profiles/Vocational Education and Training (VET) standards, examination requirements, the duration and contents of training programs, level of qualifications and criteria for quality assurance. The dual structured VET has several benefits. First, for enterprises, a pool of skilled workers can be assured. It therefore helps minimize the costs of recruiting new employees. Firms can also influence the contents and organization of vocational training according to their needs. Second, trainees receive labor market-relevant training. As a result, they have better employability after the completion of training and will acquire social and interpersonal skills from working in teams in real life situations. They are also motivated by studying and earning money at the same time. Third, private sector contributions help ease the burden on public budgets. It also involves a public-private partnership in developing competitive national training standards. Source: Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training, http://www.bibb.de, accessed February 21, 2007 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon counterparts, with female students accounting cycles. Lack of relevance or poor school quality for 53 percent of tertiary enrollment on average can also play an important role in a household from 1999 to 2005. On the other hand, Thailand decision to pull their children out of school. still lags behind OECD countries in tertiary education enrollment ratios (Figure 3.7). Higherlevelsofeducationareassociated withhighereconomicreturnsinThailand. Thepatternofschoolparticipationin Figure 3.8 shows the average wages associated Thailandrevealsthatthemajorityofschool with different levels of educational attainment abandonmentisoccurringbetweencycles. In in February and August of 1991 through to 2005, transition rate to lower secondary level was 2004. Among all levels of education, university 93.2 percent and to upper secondary level was education clearly yields the highest returns, 87.2 percent. Discontinuations between cycles followed by vocational education. The high tend to be sharper in rural areas than in urban returns to vocational education coupled with its areas, although this gap has diminished over time. low enrollment rates, suggests that employability Possible explanations for higher discontinuation after vocational school may be low and suggests of education between cycles may relate to basic that the quality of vocational education is supply constraints: students simply do not generally low. As the returns to completing have access to the next education cycle and secondary education in Thailand are especially are forced to drop out of school. Between-cycle low and wage premiums to education attainment abandonment may also be due to low perceptions only accrue for those with a university degree, of the benefits of the subsequent education cycle. choosing to work to gain experience and skills Low real or perceived returns to education, high may be perceived as more efficient in Thailand private costs, or high opportunity costs may than staying extra years in secondary school.81 induce students not to enter higher education Notably, no substantial difference is seen in Figure 3.7: Tertiary Gross Enrollment Rate in OECD Countries and Thailand, 2004 ea e k y e o g USA alia taliyI UK ia inlandF orK land yek ealandZ edenwS yaw our orN eecrG xice enmarD ustrA elandIc painS elgiumB olandP lands elandIr tugal Japan Hungar orP ancrF ustrA er epublicR hailandT epublicR urT M ewN etherN witzS eczC akvloS usembL Source: World Bank, Edstats, http://devdata.worldbank.org/edstats/ accessed May 23, 2007 81World Bank, 2006a Figure 3.8: Real Monthly Wages by Education of Wage Earners, Labor Force Survey 1991-2004 Source: Richter, 2006 the average wages gained by those with lower represent a greater share of enrollment in tertiary and upper secondary education. The return to education. In terms of geographic location, upper secondary vocational education is only substantial differences in education returns 5.3 percent, increasing to around 12 percent in can be seen. Returns are higher in municipal the case of diploma vocational education and areas relative to non-municipal areas and in then reaching nearly 35 percent in the case of Bangkok relative to other regions, especially for a university level degree. Premia for tertiary higher levels of education. These differences are education graduates in Thailand have been high primarily due to the fact that skills are in higher for the past 10 years, indicating high levels of demand in urban areas.84 excess demand for the most skilled labor in the Thai economy and the value that employers place equity in access to education in on skilled workers.82 Thailand Returnstoeducationandexperience Althoughequityinaccesstosecondary arehigherforfemalesthanformalesacross educationhasimprovedinrecentyears,areas alllevelsofeducationandvarywidelyby forimprovementremain.Following the massive geographiclocation.Higher returns for females increase in rural schools in the 1980s, the gap in are partly a reflection of the lower stocks of net enrollment and school participation between female human capital in the labor market and rural and urban areas has diminished. In some therefore higher associated marginal product from cases, enrollment rates in rural areas even exceed females. The gender gap in education typical of those in urban areas. Most provinces achieved developing countries is not as evident in the secondary gross enrollment rates of around 60-70 case of Thailand, especially at the tertiary level.83 percent by 2002. Similarly, the urban-rural gap for As mentioned in Chapter 1, females continue to grade completion has decreased from 25 percent 82World Bank, 2006a 83Blunch, 2004 84Ibid ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Figure 3.9: Grade Completion by Urban/Rural Location between 1994 and 2002 Note: Graphs examine children aged 13 to 19 only Source: Household Socio-Economic Surveys, 1994 and 2002 in 1994 to only 8 percent in 2002 (Figure 3.9). disproportionately.Despite the fact that some However, the provinces in the wealthiest quintile institutions, particularly limited admission public show higher rates than those in the bottom universities, have stricter acceptance criteria, Thai quintiles across all age groups. Furthermore, higher education institutions are relatively open. discontinuation between education cycles is more Two open admission universities, Ramkhamhaeng frequent in poor quintiles, although the gap has University and Sukhothai Thammathirat Open narrowed in the last decade. University, hold a large number of students enrolling each year. Nonetheless, overall public Thereversegendergapinaccessto spending in higher education is clearly regressive, secondaryschoolinghascontinuedtogrow. favoring the economically better-off groups. Thailand is facing a different equity problem Figure 3.10: Incidence of Public than most developing countries: keeping boys in Expenditure across Income Quintiles school. Although enrollment rates for both boys by Education Level, 2002 and girls are increasing, girls outperform boys in secondary school participation and completion. The net enrollment rate (NER) for girls was 83.1 percent in 2006, compared to 76.6 percent for boys.85 Female completion rates at grade 9 have also surpassed that of males. Althoughgeographicallyeveryregion offerstertiaryeducationoptionsanddegree levels,thehighestincomegroupsbenefit Source: Household Socio-Economic Surveys, 2002 frompublicexpenditureontertiaryeducation 85UNICEF, 2006 Figure 3.10 shows that the wealthiest 20 percent in mathematics. This contrasts greatly with of the population receives 53 percent of total upper income countries, where only around 10 spending at the tertiary level, suggesting an percent of students score at or below level one. inequitable distribution of resources among As Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12 suggest, a vast income groups. proportion of students are functioning below the most basic level of language, mathematics Quality of education for work and and science ability. life in Thailand Arecentexternalqualityevaluation Thaisecondarystudentsperformwell conductedbyOfficeofNationalEducation academicallyrelativetocountriesatsimilar StandardsandQualityAssessment(ONESQA) incomelevels,butahighproportionof indicatesthatvocationaleducationinThailand childrenscoresbelowaminimumacceptable alsorequiresurgentattention. Students and level. The Program for International Student teachers themselves are not satisfied with Assessment (PISA) and the Trends in International their learning and teaching inputs. Educational Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) results equipment is of low quality, with the exception suggest that Thailand's performance is acceptable of some private vocational schools. A shortage of given its income level and knowledge is rather teachers is prevalent, particularly in agricultural fairly distributed across socio-economic levels. schools and private vocational schools and However, Thailand had roughly 45 percent of teachers are not sufficiently qualified. Oftentimes, students performing at or below PISA level their qualifications are not related to the one in literacy and over 50 percent of students subjects they teach. Research and innovation by performing at or below the PISA level one vocational teachers are at a minimum level, less box 3.3: evaluating students Performance: Pisa The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) is an international assessment that measures 15-year-olds' capabilities in reading, mathematics and scientific literacy every three years. PISA was first implemented in 2000 and is carried out by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). PISA 2006 used six performance levels, one through six, with Level 6 being the highest level of proficiency for mathematics and science literacy and five performance levels for assessing reading literacy skills. At Level 1, students can answer questions involving familiar contexts where all relevant information is present and the questions are clearly defined. They can carry out routine procedures according to direct instructions in explicit situations. They can perform actions that are obvious and follow immediately from a given stimuli. At Level 6, students can conceptualize, generalize and utilize information based on their investigations and modeling of complex problem situations. They can link different information sources and flexibly translate among them. They can formulate and precisely communicate their actions and reflections regarding their findings, interpretation, argument and the appropriateness of these to the original situations. Source: PISA, http://www.pisa.oecd.org, accessed January 16, 2008 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Figure 3.11: PISA Test Scores Results in Figure 3.12: PISA Test Scores in Reading Mathematics Literacy, 2006 Literacy, 2006 Source: PISA 2006 than one research project per teacher per year. ofeducationofThaiuniversitygraduates. Employers or business operations are moderately No universal definition of quality in tertiary satisfied with the overall quality of vocational education or agreement on general principles of graduates. Satisfaction on quality is also reflected good practice is available, given the heterogeneity in the training that employers need to give to of institutions, programs and degrees at the newly hired graduates to compensate for the tertiary level. Although there is no comprehensive unsatisfactory quality of the education outputs. scientific study on overall quality of tertiary Training in Thai manufacturing establishments is education in Thailand, concerns have been extensive, indicating that educational institutions raised over the unsatisfactory quality of the are not providing the skills needed by employers.86 young generation's educational background ONESQA's assessment also points to the large and their lack of comprehensive knowledge proportion of vocational education graduates not and skills. Universities offer narrowly-specified entering the labor market directly as a failure of fields of study, equipping youth with single the education system. Only 12.5 percent of total tasking skills and making them unable to adapt students with a technical vocational certificate or relate their knowledge to broader contexts.87 and 26.5 percent of those with higher vocational The poor command of English language is certificates found jobs. Most graduates sought another constraint for Thai youth to acquire to complete bachelor's degrees at university further knowledge outside their classrooms and instead. to perform satisfactorily in their jobs, especially those related to international markets and clients. Thequalityoftertiaryeducationis At the same time, research on university mapping difficulttomeasure,butdifferentacademics indicates that Thailand has an oversupply of andstakeholdershavecriticizedthequality social science graduates while lacking graduates 86World Bank, 2006a 87Vasi, 2002 and Tangnamo, 2003 0 in the fields of science, technology and health percent of responses and the answer "have to sciences.88 As a result, those in oversupplied earn livelihood" accounted for between 6 and 36 fields have had more difficulty finding jobs and percent. Lack of financial support and the need to oftentimes end up working in jobs unrelated to earn a livelihood accounted for over 80 percent their areas of study. of dropouts for all school types (Figure 3.13). ii. diagnostics: what makes Figure 3.14: Household Education youth vulnerable? Expenditure across Education Levels, 2002 demand-side factors Directandopportunitycostsarethe maindemand-sideconstraintstocontinuing education. The 2002 Thai Children and Youth survey identifies the major constraints for children and youth not intending to proceed to Source: Children and Youth Survey, 2002 the next educational level. The survey results indicate that direct and opportunity costs act Youngpeopleandtheirfamilieswho as major constraints for children and youth choosetoinvestinskillsdevelopmentincur educational opportunities. Across the different substantialcostsfromtuitionandother levels of education, the answer "no financial relatedexpenses. Tuition is not the major support" accounted for between 44 and 80 direct cost of education. It accounts only for Figure 3.13: Percentage of Children and Youth 8.5 percent and 14.6 percent of public secondary Who are Attending Schools and Reported school expenditures in the general and vocational "Not to Continue to Study," tracks, respectively and 25.4 percent for public by Reason and School Type higher education ( Figure 3.14). Tuition shares are much larger for private schools, representing around 30-50 percent of total direct costs. These figures suggest that other costs must be considered when analyzing the financial burden that households have to bear to provide education to their children. Direct expenditures on education, which include various costs such as tuition, meals, transportation and school uniforms, can be significant. For example, Source: Children and Youth Survey, 2002 transportation costs at lower educational levels 88Suwan, 2001 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon are as high as tuition costs and represent over schools are higher than those of public schools 10 percent of direct costs. across all education levels, increasing at higher educational levels. Directeducationcostsasashareof percapitahouseholdexpenditureincrease Opportunitycostsalsodeterhouseholds sharplyathigherlevelsofeducation. While fromsendingchildrentoschool. Rural children, direct education costs represent about 21 particularly those in poor families, normally percent of per capita household expenditure in contribute to household income through their public lower secondary school, they increase to work. By sending these children to school, about 29 percent in general upper secondary, households forego the financial benefits generated 42 percent in vocational school and 98 percent by children and youth work. In Thailand, this at the bachelor level. The direct costs of public is apparently a problem for only a very small "I hope to have more financial fraction of children at the lower secondary level. support, such as scholarships, in According to the Children and Youth Survey, order to continue my studies and only a small minority of out-of-school youth hopefully obtain a higher education." consider having to work as a reason not to enter World Bank "Thailand Street Children lower secondary education. As expected, work Open Space" in Chiang Rai on begins to compete with schooling by precluding November 18-19, 2006 school attendance at a higher rate in the upper secondary level. The issue of entry into the labor schooling increase by 45 percent for a child who force is further explored in Chapter 4. pursues public general upper secondary school and by 110 percent for public vocational upper "I would like to have a job so that secondary school. The direct costs of public I can help my mom." World Bank tertiary education also increase significantly. The "Thailand Street Children Open Space" average direct cost of public tertiary education in Chiang Rai on November 18-19, 2006 is about 106 percent higher than the average direct cost of public upper secondary school Thegapbetweenexpenditureson and the cost of private university is about twice secondaryandtertiaryeducationbytherich the cost of private upper secondary education andthepooriswidening. Average household (see Table 3.2). The average costs of private spending on education was Baht 3,449 per year in Table 3.2: Direct Costs of Education as Percentage of per Capita Household Expenditure Upper secondary Higher education Primary Lower Lower Teacher sec. Gen. Voc. than Diploma Academic Voc. BA training Master diploma BA BA degree Whole 14.8% 23.4% 31.0% 49.9% 66.7% 54.7% 97.7% 66.5% 70.4% 146.8% country Public 10.6% 20.9% 28.8% 41.5% 41.8% 47.5% 77.7% 63.5% 67.8% 141.5% Private 47.9% 56.7% 59.6% 72.8% 100.4% 71.7% 147.8% 92.8% 103.0% 203.4% Source: Calculated from Socio-Economic Survey 2004 and Children and Youth Survey 2002 2002, with vast differences across quintiles-from in 2002, compared to Baht 9,403 for the second Baht 840 in the poorest quintile to over Baht highest quintile and Baht 1,864 for the poorest. 7,870 in the richest quintile-and across regions- The expenditure on tertiary education for the from about Baht 1,750 in the Northeast to over poorest quintile registered a decrease of around Baht 9,585 in Bangkok. The gap between richest 28 percent between 1994 and 2002, whereas the and poorest quintiles in terms of secondary estimated expenditure on tertiary education for education expenditures has widened over time. the highest income quintile increased by around Between 1994 and 2002, spending on secondary 94 percent in the same period (Table 3.3). Poor education in real terms by the poorest quintile families may be unable to afford sending their decreased, while spending by the other four children to universities, resulting in subsequent quintiles increased. Similar variation across decrease in private spending on tertiary education income quintiles can also be seen in estimated in this income group. Meanwhile, children from expenditures on tertiary education. The estimated better-off families can get into universities and private expenditure per capita on tertiary their families are willing to spend more on their education was Baht 22,821 for the richest quintile children's future. Table 3.3: Private Expenditure Estimates on Education by Income Quintile 1994-2002, Real Baht 1994 1996 1998 1999 2000 2002 Overall Primary 1,308 1,233 1,447 1,631 1,569 1,701 Secondary 2,053 2,16 1,909 2,202 2,194 2,353 Tertiary 9,465 13,429 15,839 17,010 17,344 18,203 Poorest quintile Primary 414 502 477 500 471 469 Secondary 967 1,175 1,175 1,053 1,081 864 Tertiary 2,583 2,417 2,392 3,303 3,143 1,864 Quintile 2 Primary 658 721 646 676 733 717 Secondary 1,425 1,501 1,551 1,682 1,599 1,490 Tertiary 3,467 3,058 4,237 3,549 3,231 5,888 Quintile 3 Primary 898 1,081 1,176 1,291 1,064 1,318 Secondary 2,032 2,143 1,929 1,935 2,242 2,18 Tertiary 4,117 3,908 4,35 5,731 4,795 6,044 Quintile 4 Primary 1,772 1,915 2,240 2,588 2,541 2,876 Secondary 2,399 2,898 2,874 2,864 2,908 2,963 Tertiary 5,866 6,233 7,142 7,082 8,095 9,403 Richest quintile Primary 5,604 4,850 6,735 8,702 7,144 8,380 Secondary 4,330 4,394 5,244 6,500 5,087 6,889 Tertiary 11,759 18,560 21,584 22,698 22,615 22,821 Source: Household Socio-Economic Surveys, 1994-2002 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon supply-side factors Table 3.4: Number of Educational Institutions TheRTGspendsmorethanone-fifthof Total Public Private itstotalbudgetoneducationannually.Over the Total 92,939 87,104 5,835 past decade the Thai Government allocated more Pre-primary 44,760 42,075 2,685 than 20 percent of its total budget to education, Primary 33,043 31,426 1,617 accounting for 4 to 5 percent of the country's Lower-secondary 10,490 9903 587 GDP.This level of allocation was maintained even Upper-secondary (general) 2,837 2,666 171 through the economic crisis in the late 1990s Upper-secondary 889 540 349 (vocational) although it has experienced a slightly declining Below bachelor degree 646 324 322 trend in recent years. Bachelor degree 206 131 77 Postgraduate degree 66 39 27 Inordertoachieveuniversalsecondary Source: Ministry of Education, 2004 education,sufficientsupplyofeducational servicesisneeded. While secondary schools three years, schools in the country's Muslim seats have grown over time, a simple analysis majority south have been specifically targeted shows that there may still be room for expansion. by a local insurgency. From 2004 to 2007, 23 Comparing the number of students in the official percent of government schools in the South secondary level age group between 12-17 years old have been torched-252 schools of the region's and the number of secondary classrooms available 1,094 schools-while 92 teachers and education by province, it becomes evident that more personnel have been killed and 88 injured in classrooms are needed. The student-to-classroom shooting and bomb attacks.89 Although a school average ratio ranges from 27:1 in Pattani to reconstruction budget has been allocated, it has 42:1 in Nontaburi and Samutprakarn. For many not been easy to find local suppliers and more provinces, if all students in the respective age importantly to maintain morale of teachers and group decided to attend secondary school, there education personnel in the area. would not be enough classrooms to hold them. In the case of vocational education, statistics from HighereducationinThailandlacksa the Office of Vocational Education Commission coherentplanandeffectivemanagement. (OVEC) in 2003 showed that institutions can only Research shows that the existing number of accept approximately 80 percent of applicants. institutions throughout the country has the potential to meet the targeted number of higher Thailand'ssouthernmostprovinces education graduates,90 yet 75 percent of places ofYala,Pattani,NarathiwatandSongkhla available at tertiary education institutions arefacingspecificchallengeswithregards remained unoccupied in 2006.91 The problem is tothesupplyofeducation. During the past not on quantity but how to effectively manage 89Coordination and Education Management Center for Southernmost Provinces, http:www.coad3.org, accessed February 6, 2008. According to UNICEF, only 60 percent of the population in these Southernmost provinces attends government schools. Many of the remainder attends Pondok, Islamic schools, or private schools that include both the government curriculum and religious instruction. Hence, steps towards universal secondary education will need to take these facts into account. 90Suwan, 2001 91Krissanapong Kirtikara, Secretary-General, Commission on Higher Education, quoted in Matichon, March 15, 2007. existing institutions. The establishment of instructional materials were significantly below new universities is driven by political as well the international average in mathematics or as community interests rather than by a clear science achievement. rationale or alignment with the country's development strategy. In addition, repetition in iii. Prescriptions: Policy disciplines offered by universities has resulted in responses for supporting oversupply of graduates in some fields. youth learning TheeducationalresourcesofThai expanding youth opportunities schoolsareratedwellbelowtheOECDmean for quality education andvarywidelybasedonthesocio-economic backgroundofstudents. PISA 2006 collected Thepost-primaryeducationsystem extensive data on principals' perceptions about shouldservetheneedsofyoungpeople the adequacy of school resources. School aslearnersandfutureworkers.To ensure a principals perceived the quality of educational successful transition into the workforce, the resources to be a more important obstacle education system must equip students with the to student achievement than school physical skills and knowledge demanded by the labor infrastructure. School educational resources market, which can evolve rapidly. Evidence were rated more than two-thirds of a standard indicates that Thai employers already perceive a deviation below the OECD mean (-0.67). need for enhanced skills. A recent survey revealed Thailand is also in the lowest quintile among that future Thai workers will be required to have all PISA participating countries with regard to a multiple set of skills including vocational, the difference in the quality of school resources communication and computer-related skills. between the top and bottom quarters of schools, About 95 percent of employers interviewed as characterized by a proxy of the schools' reported that greater skills will be needed in socioeconomic backgrounds. A statistically the future, such as occupational/job/technical significant performance difference can be skills, computer skills, the ability to learn new seen between schools in the top and bottom occupations/machines and English language quarters of this educational resources index. skills.92 Currently, the Thai education system According to TIMSS, less than 40 percent of does not adequately provide students with this eighth grade students in Thailand had access to range of skills. a calculator in mathematics class compared to an international average of 73 percent and around Vocationaleducationshouldbepromoted 85 percent of Thai students had never used a asamorecompetitivechoice.Given social computer in class. Unsurprisingly, countries that perceptions of vocational education as inferior tended to report shortages in the availability of to university degrees-resulting in a steady 92Abelmann, Chang and Tinakorn Na Ayudhaya, 2000 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon box 3.4: rajabhat universities Recognizing the difficulties experienced by untrained teachers and a need to continuously upgrade teacher competencies while at the same time producing more new teachers, the Government of Thailand established Rajabhat Institutes in 1995, some of which have been teacher training colleges. Rajabhat Institutes have a strong community orientation. Specifically, the aim of Rajabhat Instititues is to support local development through providing academic and advanced vocational education, conducting research, offering services to communities, developing and transferring technologies, nurturing cultural customs and providing pre-service and in-service teacher training. Rajabhat Institutes became universities in 2003 and since then have been under supervision of the Commission on Higher Education, MOE. Currently, there are 41 Rajabhat Universities strategically located all over the Kingdom to serve their respective communities. They offer courses from diploma level up to Doctorate degrees. decline of entrants to vocational schools-the Toimprovethequalityofeducation, Commission on Higher Education is planning theThaiGovernmentispilotingasystemthat to promote vocational education as a more adaptstodifferentstudents'profiles.Thai attractive option. One way is to declare an schools have varied degrees of readiness and "open door" policy in which vocational students resources to provide quality education and the can enter universities at any point in time suitable capacity of students is diverse. The Government to their schedules as long as they are qualified has therefore concentrated on ensuring minimum for admission. In so doing, it will offer life-long quality standards while establishing a fast track higher education as well as skills advancement for those students who can cope with a more opportunities according to learners' or labor challenging program. The `five new school designs market needs rather than through a traditional program' began in late 2003 in a small number 4-year higher education system. of pilot schools. Under the program, autonomous schools have decentralized authority in academic, Improvingthequalityandrelevanceof financial, personnel and general administrative educationisthereforeimperative.Given the matters, while a participatory approach is low levels of academic achievement in absolute promoted through school committees. Buddhist terms, policies to improve the performance and Way Schools seek to apply the teachings of competencies of Thai students are necessary. To morality, meditative concentration and wisdom. boost the quality of education, it will be critical Strategic Plans for Gifted Children emphasize to improve the availability of learning resources science, music, sports and Thai arts for high- as well as enhance teacher quality, for example performing children. Bilingual schools administer through Rajabhat Universities described in Box English Programs and Mini English Programs 3.4. Key measures would include enhancing through a language immersion curriculum. The teacher preparedness and practice, providing Information and Communication Technology adequate instructional materials, promoting (ICT) Schools integrate computers to teaching performance incentives for school staff and and learning, distance education and university encouraging greater accountability for results. school linkages. Internalandexternalqualityassurance youth. Concerns are being raised over whether mechanismsarebeingappliedtotertiary the education system sufficiently addresses education.As required by the National Education these issues and teaches youth how to become Act, every tertiary institution has adopted responsible and productive citizens. Education the Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) system could play a more active role in equipping youth whereby 9 quality aspects are reviewed.93 with necessary life skills, both through the school An institution will perform an annual internal curricula and extracurricular activities. quality assessment, submitting the assessment report to its parent organizations and/or improving capacity to make better concerned entities, as well as making this education choices report available to the public. Thailand has also made its first attempt to administer university TheGovernment'sfocusonsupply- rankings on two main functions, research and sideconstraintstoexpandeducationhas teaching. Although it has been the subject of appropriately shifted to demand-side some controversy, it provides a good start for constraints. One of the greatest barriers to the quality measurement in addition to the internal opportunity for educational choices is lack of and external quality assurance mechanisms that financial resources. The MOE has introduced a are already in place. Indicators will need to be variety of financial incentives to tackle the cost reviewed carefully to ensure the inclusiveness barriers associated with schooling participation of all university functions, with feedback from and reduce the cost burden on families. Recent universities and other stakeholders. initiatives include a school lunch program, a scholarship program for poor children, the "one Theprovisionoflifeskillsisequally district one scholarship" program and the bicycle importantforyouthdevelopmentandtheir lending project. The development of innovative transitionintoadulthood.Life skills refer to "a financial solutions needs to be encouraged and large group of psycho-social and interpersonal new programs designed and tested, particularly skills which can help people make informed at the tertiary level. Thailand can also learn decisions, communicate effectively and develop from the experiences of other countries in coping and self-management skills that may implementing demand-side programs, such as the help them lead a healthy and productive life."94 Plan de Ampliación de Cobertura de la Educación For example, decision making involves critical Secundaria (PACES) Vouchers program in Colombia thinking (what are the options available?) and (Box 3.5). values clarification (what is important?). Ethics and morals are also becoming the center of The Student Loan Scheme (SLS) attention in Thai society where a number of social targetingdisadvantagedstudentsinupper problems are reportedly on the increase among secondaryandtertiaryeducationhasnot 931) philosophy, mission, objectives and implementation plan; 2) teaching learning provision; 3) student development activities; 4) research; 5) academic service to community; 6) preservation of art and culture; 7) administration and management; 8) finance and budgeting; 9) QA system and mechanisms. 94http://www.unicef.org/life skills/index_7308.html, accessed on March 28, 2007 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon beensuccessful. Although considered a leading among loan applicants. Second, procedural example of social targeting when it was put delays, especially for new loan recipients or those in place in 1996, its original design was not transferred to another school, caused financial effective in reaching targeted groups.Education difficulties to poor families who could not find institutions were allocated a budget for loans on other temporary financing sources. In some the basis of enrollment numbers rather than low- cases, students had to leave schools because they income student estimates. The autonomy given could not pay for expenses in the first semester, "I want money from the education which may partially explain why supply of places loan fund. I've told them my needs in university far exceeds the number of new but I've never been able to get a loan." entrants. Low repayment rates and high costs Bangkok Post, June 12, 2001. of legal enforcement on unpaid loans also raise questions about financial sustainability of the SLS to institutions in fixing loan amounts resulted in the absence of Government subsidies. in inequities and inadequately sized loans. In addition, the program heightened risks for TheIncomeContingentLoan(ICL) students in a number of respects. First, students Schemeintroducedin2006intendedto had to be accepted to schools prior to applying expandaccesstouppersecondaryandhigher for loans. However, they had no guarantee of education. Criticism of the SLS led the RTG to receiving financing due to high competition adopt the new ICL scheme. Implemented in 2006, box 3.5: Policy options to address demand-side constraints: the Plan de ampliación de cobertura de la educación secundaria (Paces) vouchers' Program in colombia To deal with low enrollment rates among the poorest in Colombia (around 55 percent) and the lack of sufficient public educational supply in the early 1990s, the Colombian Government adopted the PACES program. PACES was a unique partnership between the public and private sectors, with the objective of using excess capacity in the private sector to cover the excess demand for education. The Colombian government issued private school vouchers for students entering grade six, the start of secondary school. The vouchers targeted the poorest third of the population and were renewable as long as the recipient made adequate progress towards secondary school graduation. By 1997, PACES had grown into one of the world's largest private school voucher programs. Over 125,000 PACES vouchers had been awarded. The voucher program in Colombia proved to be very successful for students who were able to participate. Not only did their academic outcomes improve, but so did many of their non-academic outcomes. After three years, students winning a voucher had higher test scores, less grade repetition and more years of schooling completed than students who had lost the voucher lottery. Additionally, voucher winners were more likely to attend private school, less likely to be working and less likely to be married or cohabiting. By the end of high school, voucher winners were more likely than voucher lottery losers to have taken the college entrance exam and voucher winners had higher college entrance exam scores. Source: Bettinger, 2005 it focused on easing the heavy burden on the Providing second chances: helping Government to fund tertiary education. A massive those who dropped out and the reduction in direct budgetary allocations to underprivileged to reintegrate institutions, a substantial increase in university tuition fees and considerably greater cost DespiteThailand'ssuccessinthe recovery are envisaged. Loans were available to expansionofprimaryandlowersecondary all members of the student population but were education,manychildrenandyouthdropout restricted to covering tuition fees; alternatively, ofschoolearlyandtherearelimitedchannels students may pay tuition fees up front, at a forthemtoreturntotheformalsystem. discount. Loans for living expenses were no Children and youth who have dropped out, longer available, but a special fund was to be especially from the academic stream, may have set up to provide grants to poor students with difficulty returning to school. Although schools the amount of support depending on family are not prohibited from accepting over-aged income. However, this grant mechanism did students, students themselves may find difficulty little to attempt to raise the proportion of poor in adjusting to a classroom environment and young people enrolling in tertiary education, socializing with peers again, especially if they as grantees are considered on a yearly basis. are older than their counterparts. In addition, More importantly, disadvantaged households over-aged youth may not be motivated to return would still face financial difficulties since the to school due to the rising opportunity costs of ICL only covers tuition fees. In addition, given forgone income. that the ICL does not have interest rates and is subject to inflation, the estimated costs of its Greatereffortsareneededtoprovide implementation are rather high. The repayment secondchancesforthesedisadvantagedyoung mechanism, which is tied to the income levels people. In the Education Provision Policy for of loan recipients and their tax payments, poses Disadvantaged Children, the Thai Government another challenge. Loan recipients would repay has outlined its vision to include traditionally only when they earn Baht 16,000 a month, but disenfranchised groups in formal education Thailand does not have an effective tax system to through specifically-targeted programs. However, track workers in the informal sector in place. With this policy has not yet translated into a practical many implementation concerns in May 2007 the implementation plan. Key leading agencies have Cabinet agreed to abolish the ICL and revitalize not been identified and required resources have the SLS. Loans under the SLS include tuition not been allocated. Better data collection and fees, education expenses and living expenses. analysis are also necessary to enhance resource The revitalized SLS has been in effect since the targeting and enable the design of suitable 2007 academic year. It still suffers nonetheless programs. The Thai education management from very poor repayment rates. information system has limited information on out-of-school children. Statistics about school dropouts from various organizations vary widely. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Childrenwithdisabilities(CWDs)have beenagrouplargelyneglectedfromefforts "I want to study further, yet I dropped touniversalizebasiceducation.Thailand has out of school in the middle of the 41 specialized basic education schools for CWDs course because I cannot afford the serving approximately 13,000 students. The MOE tuition fee anymore. Besides, getting has adopted an inclusive policy of mainstreaming in the Thai educational system CWDs within the regular system, but this policy requires having a Thai nationality. This has not been clearly articulated. As a result, is the very thing that I lack." Arporn children with disabilities have remained largely Khara from Baan Namlad, Chiang Rai excluded from the regular education system. In the majority of young people outside the formal 2004, only 175,000 children with disabilities were system. Currently, approximately 45,000 non- enrolled in pre-primary through upper secondary Thai children and youth are reported to be in school, comprising approximately 1.3 percent of school and benefiting from per capita budget total children enrolled. In other middle-income allocations from the RTG. However, the out-of- countries, the share of children with disabilities school population is estimated to be considerably tends to be around 4-5 percent, suggesting that higher. Demand-side constraints keep a large Thailand likely has a few hundred thousand CWDs share of non-Thai youth out of school. Language outside the school system. of instruction has also been a problem, as these young people may not be fluent in Thai. Efforts Anothergroupthathasremainedat to reach immigrant out-of-school youth have themarginsofinclusiveeducationpoliciesis been small in scope and mostly led by specialized childrenofnon-ThaicitizenslivinginThailand. non-governmental organizations. Although non-Thai children and youth is one of disadvantaged groups who can potentially benefit Non-formaleducationrepresentsaunique from existing education provision policies, opportunitytoprovideyoungpeopleoutof actual practice is complex and unable to reach theformalsystemwithskillsforworkandlife. box 3.6: an unanswered Question ˇ "I want to be a police man." answered a 16 year-old when asked what he wants to be in the future. ˇ "This school can offer him up to grade 9, which is compulsory education only. He doesn't have Thai citizenship. It will be difficult for him to continue upper secondary level in town, let alone going to a police school as he wants," said his teacher. Cases like this are not rare, especially in remote schools along the Thai border. According to Thai law, non-Thai citizens have the right to access to basic education. Their education completion will be certified, but not their citizenship. As a result, they cannot work legally in Thailand. ˇ "Where this kid can go and work I really don't know," his teacher concluded. Source: Interview, Mae Hong Son 0 box 3.7: non-formal education in Thailand Thailand has four types of non-formal education: Pre-school(2-6years)non-formaleducationcan take place at centers established by local communities, be family-based or be organized by the Council of Early Childhood and Youth Development Organization. Educationforliteracyis provided to promote literacy among adults, ages 14 years and over and covers a wide range of activities and programs. Generalnon-formaleducationprovides continuing education programs for those having no chance to study in the formal system. It covers primary to higher levels and is normally organized in public schools, official premises, factories, or other organizations. Learners are awarded the same certifications as those within the formal system. Non-formaltechnicalandvocationaleducationandtrainingis offered through polytechnics, industrial and community colleges under the supervision of the Office of Vocational Education Commission and the Office of Non-Formal Education Commission. Other ministries include Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives and Ministry of Labor who provide non-formal education through regional institutions and provincial skills training centers. Non-formal and skills training can be divided as follows: 1) Vocationalcertificatesnormally require at least three years of learning, by which non-formal activities are provided to lower secondary graduates through distance learning. The unemployed and those working in private companies and public organizations are targeted. 2) Short-coursevocationaltrainingis provided by both public and private institutions and agencies. They range between 6 to 225 hours. Pre-employment training and training for skills upgrading are also offered. At present, these courses are designed with self-employment in mind and are articulated with formal programs to serve lifelong learning needs. 2.1) An occupational certificate (225 hours) is designed for primary graduates who have no chance to study at higher levels. It aims to provide opportunities for training in vocational skills and quality of life promotion. It targets rural populations and provides a certificate equivalent to a general lower secondary education. 2.2) Interest group programs are organized according to individuals' needs and interests. Those with the same interests can form groups of between 5 and 15 people and receive training for up to 30 hours. 2.3) Agricultural short courses are provided to local farmers according to their needs. 3) Aspecialvocationaleducationprogramforyoungfarmers targets youth between 15-25 years of age who have completed compulsory education to further their study at colleges of agriculture and technology. Upon completion, they are awarded a special certificate equivalent to a vocational certificate. Source: Ministry of Education, 2006 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Greater flexibility in terms of learning sites, Creating opportunities, building class schedules and curriculum can provide a capabilitiesandprovidingsecondchances more suitable environment to fit the needs of arecriticaltolearningforworkandlife.The children who cannot participate in traditional policy recommendations given in this chapter school settings, such as rural migrant workers. seek to meet these goals and are portrayed in Increasing the role of alternative education Table 3.6, along with available evidence from service delivery programs may provide further international experience. Proven programs from opportunities for rural and poor students. Latin America and promising programs in China, According to the Office of Education Council, Australia, Senegal, Ghana and Germany offer about 4.8 million individuals were participating opportunities for Thailand to further develop the in non-formal education programs in 2004 (Box learning for work and life agenda. 3.6). However, existing programs are small and do not seem to satisfy the potential demand. The Thai Children and Youth Survey found that out of about 7.0 million youth who do not attend school, only 3.8 percent received non-formal education. Completionofnon-formaleducationis low,particularlyatthebasiclevel.Only around 14 percent of the total number of enrollees in basic non-formal education complete it (Table 3.5), compared to completion rates of nearly 95 percent for vocational education and skills training programs.95 The long duration of programs-three years-could be a factor contributing to low completion rates in primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education. Education for occupational improvement and education for life skills improvement are relatively in high demand and seem to respond to the needs of learners, as shown by high completion rates. Both programs require shorter time commitments. The knowledge gained can be applied directly to learners' current work and their everyday life. 95Office of Non-Formal Education Commission (ONFEC) is the main provider of non-formal education. It solely provides education for literacy and academic stream non-formal education. It also holds a significant share of technical and vocational non-formal education and training. Table 3.5: Completion of Non-Formal Education, 2005 TypeofEducation No.ofStudents No.ofStudent Percentageof Enrolled Completed Completion 1.BasicEducation 1,855,686 253,565 13.66 Functional Literacy 96,002 40,949 42.65 Primary 176,715 19,303 10.92 Lower Secondary 607,105 67,511 11.12 Upper Secondary 905,441 118,237 13.06 Hill Area Education 70,423 7,565 10.74 2.VocationalEducation/SkillsTraining 2,054,708 1,943,303 94.58 Occupational Certificate (=Lower Secondary Level) 17,467 561 3.21 Upper Secondary Vocational Certificate 15,210 5,779 37.99 Education for Occupational Improvement 1,282,363 1,230,051 95.92 Education for Life Skill Improvement 739,668 706,912 95.57 Total 3,910,394 2,196,868 56.18 Source: Office of the Non-Formal Education Commission, Permanent Secretary Office, Ministry of Education, 2005 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Table 3.6: Summary of Learning for Work and Life Policy Recommendations and International Experience PolicyRecommendations Evidence CountryExamples NotesforSuccess Expanding Opportunities 1 Improve the quality and relevance of Unproven but China, Chile, Germany Build connection academic and vocational education promising between education and as a bridge to the labor market economy; programs should provide occupational skills and knowledge of social skills Enhancing Capacity 1 Help alleviate the direct and Proven México Oportunidades Conditional Cash opportunity costs of pursuing and Colombia Familias Transfers and Vouchers; education at the upper secondary en Acción and PACES and tertiary levels Unproven Australia and Thailand Income Contingent but promising Loans Providing Second Chances 1 Continue monitoring and Proven Jóvenes Argentina Combines vocational strengthening non-formal education and Entra 21 in Latin training with life skills; as a way to reintegrate youth who America; dropped out of the education system Promising Senegal and Ghana Combines literacy programs with skills training Source: Adapted from World Bank 2007a and 2007b Chapter 4: Moving froM SChool to Work ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon cHaPTer 4: moving from scHool To work An adequate transition from school to work is essential for youth to move successfully into adult life. Once young people enter the labor market, they and their countries can start reaping the benefits of previous investments in education and health. Lack of adequate employment opportunities for youth not only affects individual prospects, but it also has an impact on overall economic development. The economic and social costs of negative youth labor market outcomes are multiplied by the fact that young people are the future of their societies. Young people who do not have access to labor markets do not actively participate in the economy as consumers and generators of wealth-on the contrary, they represent a loss of investment and a future cost for society. Additionally, youth unemployment can lead to costly social tensions. Inadequate transitions for youth from school to work could therefore compromise the long-term development of their countries.96 i. symptoms: employment engaged in productive work (excluding young trends and challenges among persons who are attending school and working youth at the same time) and 14 percent of children in Grade 9 (aged 14-15) cited work as a reason starting work too early to stop their education at the lower secondary level.98 Analysis by the Ministry of Labor suggests Anumberofyouthstartworkingat that around 300,000 children aged 15-17 years 15yearsoldinThailand. According to Socio- were legally employed in Thailand in 2005. Economic Survey data, most working youth in However, this official figure does not include Thailand start to become involved in productive illegal work by children under 15.99 work at around 15 years of age.97 The proportion Figure 4.1: Proportion of Working Children of working children under age 15 fell significantly Aged less than 15 Years Old, 1990-2000 during the last decade, from 20-30 percent in the 1990s to 5-8 percent today (Figure 4.1). This decrease can be attributed to high economic growth rates, an increase in the minimum legal working age from 13 to 15 years old and legislative measures to expandand extend compulsoryschooling, which brought an increase in the proportion of children in school (Figure 4.2). In 2002, 17 percent of 16-year-olds were Source: National Statistical Office, 2003b 96World Bank, 2007b 97World Bank, 2006b 98World Bank, 2006b 99Unofficial estimates that include the informal sector point to a much higher number of 1.7 million working children between 15-19 years. See Lisborg Anders and Paul Buckley, 2006. Figure 4.2: Share of Children The aftermath of the 1997 financial crisis and at School or Work, 2002 subsequent political changes brought new constitutional decrees into play, stating that the State must protect children and youth from violence and unfair treatment as well as that all children are entitled to free basic education up to 12 years. Furthermore, the Thai government ratified the International Labor Organization (ILO) Convention No. 182 (Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor) Source: National Statistical Office, 2003b and No. 138 (Convention concerning Minimum Althoughitisillegal,somechildren Age for Admission to Employment ­ minimum undertheageof15continuetobeemployed, age is set at 15 years old) in 2001 and 2004 especiallyinsmall-scalefactoriesand respectively. These measures have contributed unregulatedsectors.In the 1980s and 1990s, to a significant reduction in employment of Thailand's labor market participation rates of children aged below 15. However, child labor100 children aged 10-14 years were high compared still exists in Thailand's large unregulated with other Asian countries (see Table 4.1). sectors, such as in small-scale factories, fisheries, Table 4.1: Labour Participation Rates of construction, agriculture, the service sector Children Aged 10-14 (including domestic work), forced begging and commercial sex. Of more than 2,600 child laborers Per capita GNP 1980 1999 surveyed in five provinces, 35 percent were below Nepal 1,219 56 43 the legal minimum age of 15 years; 63 percent Bangladesh 1,475 35 29 worked more than 8 hours per day; 41 percent Cambodia 1,286 27 24 had to do evening or night work; and a large PNG 2,263 28 18 Thailand 5,599 25 14 proportion of all child laborers were exposed to India 2,149 21 13 hazardous working conditions: 40 percent were China 3,291 30 9 exposed to dust and smoke; 26 percent to noise; Indonesia 2,439 13 9 and 15 percent to "moral harms." Nonetheless, Vietnam 1,755 22 7 the participation of child labor (aged 11-14) has Philippines 3,815 14 6 shown a decreasing trend and it is estimated to Malaysia 7,963 8 3 be at the rates of 1.08-1.37 percent.101 Mongolia 1,496 4 2 Note: at PPP (1999 USD) Source: Ray, 2004 and World Bank 2001 100Thailand's Ministry of Labor regards workers aged between 15-18 years old as child labor. However, in this report, child labor is defined as working children aged less than 15, which is the minimum legal working age. 101Ptanawanit and Boribanbanpotkate, 2006 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Inaddition,useofchildrenand Figure 4.4: Proportion of Youth in the Labor youngpersonsindrugtraffickingisalso Force in Thailand, 2005 evident.It was reported that 4,232 juveniles, ages 7-18 years, committed a crime relating to narcotic drugs; 1,441 were found guilty of drug trafficking; and 12 were convicted ``Kids under seven are getting involved in drug trafficking since the legal penalties are much less severe.'' Bangkok Post, January 23, 2002. Source: Labor Force Surveys, 2005 of drug production in 2002.102 Also 80,000 to commit illegal activities. They gradually students were estimated to use at least one became drug addicts and eventually turned type of drug when surveyed during May-June to drug pushing when they had no money 2001.103 A recent ILO assessment of children to buy drugs for themselves. Persuasion by and illicit drug trade in Thailand reports that friends was also an important factor inducing these children were typically brought up in these children into drug circles.106 broken families; drop out of school early and experience a serious lack of opportunities;104 youth entry into the labor market and the groups most susceptible to child work are children of migrants, ethnic minorities Youthlaborforceparticipationrates and poor children.105The social environment havedecreasedsharplysincethe1980sin was also a crucial factor in pushing them Thailand,particularlyamongwomen. Figure Figure 4.3: Youth Labor Force Participation 4.3 shows a notable decline in youth labor force Rate in Thailand,1985-2005 participation rates over the period. This trend is particularly pronounced for 15-19 years old. The relatively smaller decline for older youth is mainly a result of the progressive extension of education beyond the compulsory levels.107 Female labor participation decreased at a faster pace since the 1990s, particularly for the age group between 15 and 19 years old.Participation rates of male youth between 20 and 24 years old have been consistently higher than those Source: Labor Force Surveys, 1985, 1990, 1995 and 2005 of females and the gap in participation rates 102Department of Juvenile Observation and Protection, quoted in Ptanawanit and Boribanbanpotkate, 2006 103Results from ABAC Poll survey cited in Sunthornkajit, Vittawan and others, 2002 104ILO, 2006c 105Lisborg Anders and Paul Buckley, 2006 106Ptanawanit and Boribanbanpotkate, 2006 107Arya, 2002 between males and females has widened from mostly explained by the ongoing change in the 6.2 percent in 1985 to 14.9 percent in 2005. role of women toward increased economic and In 2005, a significant 13 percent of 24-year- political participation in Thai society. old youth were out of the labor force and out of school (Figure 4.4). Although this indicator AsintherestofAsia,youngpeople can be used as a proxy for "discouraged youth" inThailandaredisproportionatelybearing withdrawing from the labor force, it likely masks theburdenofunemploymentinThailand. a large share of youth working in the informal While young people comprised 20.5 percent of sector as mentioned above. Asia's labor force in 2005, unemployed youth represented 47.7 percent of the region's total Figure 4.5: Secondary Education Net Enrollment Rate by Gender, 1994-2006 jobless population. The youth unemployment rate is highest in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, at 16.9 percent compared to 7.8 percent in East Asia and 11.3 percent in South Asia. Although Thailand's youth unemployment rate is relatively low at 5 percent, the share of youth to the total unemployed is among the highest in the region at almost 50 percent (Figure 4.6).110 As Figure 4.6 illustrates,younger age groups' unemployment Source: World Bank, 2006c and UNICEF, 2006 rates in Thailand were consistently two to three times higher than those of adults during 1995- Thefasterdecreasingtrendinfemale 2005. In addition, the youth unemployment rate laborforceparticipationismainlyattributed is around three times more sensitive to economic tohigherenrollmentratesinuppersecondary shocks than that of adults.111 This sensitivity andtertiaryeducationamongfemales.Girls Figure 4.6: Unemployment Rates and Share have particularly benefited from the application of Youth Unemployed to the Total of compulsory education policies, to the point in Thailand, 2005 in which an inverse gender gap has arisen in secondary education. As Figure 4.5 shows, girls outperform boys in secondary school participation and completion. In 2006, net enrollment was 83 percent for girls, compared to 76 percent for boys.108 In addition, women's enrollment in tertiary education has increased to the point where gender ratios have been over 1 during the last 10 years (1.17 in 2005).109 This trend is Source: ILO, 2006b 108World Bank, 2006c 109Millennium Development Goals, UN 110ILO, 2006b 111Arya, 2002 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon is reflected in Figure 4.7, which shows how unemployment for young people and higher the unemployment rates for young people rose migration rates of the young to other regions. significantly during the years leading up to the Bangkok, which has the second lowest overall Asian economic crisis and thereafter. unemployment rate at 2.5 percent, is the region where the proportion of unemployed youth is Figure 4.7: Unemployment Rates by Age also lowest at 9.1 percent (Table 4.2). Group in Thailand, 1995-2005 Figure 4.8: Share of Unemployed by Education Level in Thailand, 1987-2004 Source: Labor Force Suyveys 4th quarter, 2005 Source: Labor Force Surveys, 1985, 1990, 1995 The incidence and size of youth and 2005 unemploymentvariesamongregions.In the Northeast, which is the poorest region in InThailand,theinverserelationship Thailand, the low overall unemployment rate of betweenthelevelofeducationandtherate 1.8 percent hides a large number of unemployed ofunemploymentisnotevident. A number of youth. Around 63,797 or 23.8 percent of youth studies based on the "human capital theory" claim in this region are unemployed. The higher that the level of education is inversely related to unemployment rate for youth in the Northeast the unemployment rate, using the rationale that might be explained by lower affordability of workers with higher human capital would have Table 4.2: Youth Labor Force Status by Region in Thailand 2005 BKK Central North Northeast South Total(%) Total(No.) Total Labor Force 47.5% 54.9% 48.0% 49.5% 50.4% 50.5% 5,339,112 Employed 45.0% 52.0% 44.9% 47.5% 47.1% 47.8% 5,058,136 Unemployed 2.5% 2.8% 3.0% 1.8% 3.4% 2.5% 267,697 Seasonal inactive workers 0.0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.2% 0.0% 0.1% 13,279 Not in Labor Force 52.5% 45.1% 52.0% 50.5% 49.6% 49.5% 5,232,212 Student 47.4% 35.7% 42.5% 37.8% 38.4% 39.1% 4,134,169 Others 5.1% 9.4% 9.4% 12.6% 11.2% 10.4% 1,098,043 Youth population share 9.4% 24.2% 17.2% 34.2% 15.0% 100.0% --- # of youth unemployed 24,488 71,526 54,308 63,797 53,578 --- 267,697 % of youth unemployed 9.1% 26.7% 20.3% 23.8% 20.0% 100.0% --- Source: Labor Force Survey 4th quarter, 2005 0 a greater number of job opportunities, which in abundant. However, the unemployment shares turn would reduce unemployment.112 ILO data of university graduates and those with higher shows that in advanced industrialized countries, vocational education are generally increasing, in general, the higher the level of education, particularly in the case of women. Therefore, the lower the rate of unemployment.113 However, the inverse relationship between education level this statement assumes that there is sufficient and unemployment rates as predicted by "human demand for educated youth, which might not be capital theory" does not hold true for Thailand the case in many countries.114 The transformation (Figure 4.8). This phenomenon may be due to a of the Thai economy has led to a decline in the mismatch between the skills demanded by the share of primary (or lower)-educated workers labor market and those provided by universities in total employment from 84 percent in 1987 or tertiary education institutions, as discussed to 61 percent in 2004, while workers with in greater detail below. higher education are taking over larger shares in total employment-from 8 percent in 1987 Youngeducatedwomenfacehigher to 22 percent in 2004. The 9-year compulsory unemploymentrates. The exact reasons for education policy has decreased the return rates higher unemployment among young females are of lower secondary education, since primary-and unknown. It might be explained by discrimination secondary-educated workers have become more based on cultural stereotypes regarding the Table 4.3: Level of Education of Youth Unemployed in 2005 Urban Rural Male Female Total(%) Total(no.) None 0.0% 5.3% 2.9% 5.0% 3.8% 10,046 Less than primary 3.2% 3.7% 4.9% 1.7% 3.5% 9,432 Primary 17.8% 24.3% 29.2% 13.2% 22.4% 60,025 Lower secondary 31.1% 27.0% 31.2% 24.1% 28.2% 75,423 Upper secondary-General/Academic 15.1% 14.0% 12.6% 16.7% 14.3% 38,401 Upper secondary-Vocational 4.1% 5.3% 5.2% 4.6% 5.0% 13,314 Diploma level-Higher Tech Education 8.0% 5.6% 6.5% 6.1% 6.3% 16,955 Diploma level-Teacher Training 0.0% 0.1% 0.0% 0.2% 0.1% 260 University ­ Academic 17.6% 13.1% 6.3% 25.4% 14.4% 38,565 University-Higher Technical Education 1.6% 1.2% 0.8% 2.1% 1.3% 3,553 University-Teacher Training 1.4% 0.2% 0.3% 0.8% 0.5% 1,433 Unknown 0.0% 0.2% 0.2% 0.0% 0.1% 288 Total (%) 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% --- Total (no.) 78,391 189,304 154,571 113,124 --- 267,695 Source: Labor Force Survey 4th quarter, 2005 112Filer, Hamermesh and Rees, 1996 113Weisberg and Meltz, 1999 114ILO, 2006a ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon kinds of jobs suitable for women. Another seems to be due to the fact that those who possible explanation would be related to the join the labor market at an older age are more concentration of girls in "traditional" areas of likely to have been studying for longer and thus studyand the social sciences as opposed to the to be more qualified to find jobs in the formal "hard" sciences and engineering, which may not sector.116 Employment in the informal sector is meet the rapidly evolving needs of the Thai labor often low-skilled and requires lower educational market. Young women may also be more likely qualifications. It is also often characterized to be willing to wait for a certain level or type by low levels of productivity, low or irregular of job than young men. More in-depth research incomes, long working hours, small or undefined would be required to determine the reasons for workplaces and lack of access to information, this gap. markets, finance, training and technology. Young informal workers, especially those from Figure 4.9: Proportion of Employed Men and Women in Formal and Informal disadvantaged backgrounds, can get caught up Sectors by Age in Thailand 2006 in a vicious cycle in which they must work in the informal sector to earn their livelihoods and cannot access formal sector jobs due to lack of necessary experience. Youthparticipationinagriculture hasdecreasedbutremainssignificant.The "industrialization" process since the 1980s has been accompanied by the expansion of non- Source: Internal Sector Survey, 2006 agricultural sectors and the growth in their Growth Domestic Product (GDP) per capita youth in the labor market: how do (from 1:7.8 in the late 1970s to 1:13.3 in the they fare? late 1990s).117 Hence, in the past two decades, the percentage of young workers engaged in Thailand'slabormarketcontinuestobe agriculture has fallen from around 42.7 percent of heavilyinformal,whichaffectsyoungworkers. working youthin 1997 to 35.2 percent in 2005.118 Despite the increasing "formalization" of the Participation in agriculture is much higher for Thai labor market since 1988, 67 percent of total older age groups, particularly for those over 55 employment is still categorized as informal.115 years old (Figure 4.10). Nonetheless, agriculture Of the 1.5 million young workers aged 15-19, is still the sector that accounts for the largest at least two-thirds are engaged in the informal proportion of employed youth, followed by sector (Figure 4.9). The high level of informal manufacturing at 22.2 percent and wholesale sector engagement among these younger workers and retail trade at 17.4 percent. 115Informal workers include own account workers, unpaid family workers, 117Reunglertpanyakul, 2001 employers and employees of enterprises with less than 10 employees. 118The figures for 1997 and 2004 are not directly comparable, since available See Deolalikar, 2005. statistics for 1997 (when the legal working age was 13 years old) are for 116Multivariate analysis by Deolalikar, 2005 shows that the probability 13-24 year olds while the available statistics for 2004 (when the legal of being an informal-sector worker declines with schooling: secondary working age was 15 years old) are for 15-24 year olds. education being 3 percent less likely; vocational education being 16 percent less likely and university education being 42 percent less likely to be in the informal sector (relative to those with no formal education). Figure 4.10: Proportion of Workers Figure 4.11: Youth's Work Status by Type of Industry and Age Group in 2005 from 1985 to 2005 Source: Labor Force Surveys 1985, 1990, 1995 and 2005 Source: Labor Force Suyveys 4th quarter, 2005 Atthesametime,theshareofyouth share of youth who are "unpaid family workers" employedintheprivatesectorhasincreased. decreased significantly from 42.9 percent in 1985 Young workers are increasingly being employed in to 21.6 percent in 2005. The decrease of youth the private sector, the work status category that as "unpaid family workers" could be attributed accounts for most youth, particularly in urban to the fall of youth in agriculture. As in the case areas (Figure 4.11).119 The share of youth who are of unemployment, the Northeast region has the "private sector employees" increased from 19.2 highest share of youth engaged in unpaid family percent in 1985 to 35.2 percent in 2005, while the work at 49.7 percent.120 Table 4.4: Proportion of Workers according to Type of Occupation and Age Group in 2005 Age Occupationalcategory Total 15-24 25-54 55+ Higher-skilled occupations Legislators, senior officials and managers 0.8% 7.6% 11.2% 7.1% Professionals 1.5% 4.7% 1.6% 3.8% Technicians and associate professionals 4.3% 4.5% 1.3% 4.0% Clerks 4.9% 3.7% 0.8% 3.5% Lower-skilled occupations Service workers and shop and market sales workers 16.9% 13.2% 12.7% 13.6% Skilled agricultural and fishery workers 30.7% 33.8% 52.3% 35.8% Craft and related trade workers 14.2% 10.4% 6.8% 10.5% Plant and machine operators and assemblers 11.3% 8.8% 2.4% 8.3% Elementary occupations in sales and services 15.5% 13.3% 10.9% 13.3% Number of Current Labor Force (`000) 5,325.8 26,488.8 4,723.7 36,538.3 Source: Labor Force Survey 4th quarter, 2005 119The NSO considers six categories in "type of employment" regarding the status of the employees, including "employer", "government employee", "private employee", "own-account worker (self-employed)", "unpaid family worker" and "member of co-operative." 120National Statistics Office, Labor Force Survey, 2005 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Figure 4.12: Monthly Wage Distribution have higher levels of education and therefore can According to Age Group in 2005 find better rewarded jobs. Asignificantproportionofyouthare workingforlessthantheminimumwage. In 2005, between 18-38 percent of total youth were working below the minimum wage level (Baht 2,800-3,680 per month, depending on the province), compared to 8.5-18 percent for adults aged 24-54 years. The ages of youth earning less than the minimum wage ranged between 15-18 Source: Labor Force Suyveys 4th quarter, 2005 years and they were mostly concentrated in the MostyoungThaipeople,regardless North and Northeast regions, which have the ofgender,areengagedinmid/low-skilled highest poverty and probably informality. The occupations. As shown in Table 4.4, the proportion of youth in rural areas receiving a wage occupation with the highest share of youth was below minimum wage was more than twice that "skilled agricultural and fishery workers" (30.7 in urban areas, which is also likely to be related percent) in 2005, followed by "service workers and to higher informality that allows non-compliance shop and market sales workers" (16.9 percent) and Table 4.5: Youth Living in Poverty "elementary occupations in sales and services" in 2002 (millions) (15.5 percent). Older age groups also have similar Pop 15-24 Pop 15-24 distributions among occupational categories. less than US$1/day less than US $2/day China 33.1 93.3 AveragewagesforyoungThaipeople Indonesia 3.1 22.2 arehalfthoseofadultsandaregenerally Vietnam 2.9 10.4 higherforfemalesthanmalesaboveage21. Philippines 2.4 7.6 Myanmar 2.6 7.1 The average monthly wage for young private Thailand 0.3 3.8 employees was Baht 4,585 per month, whereas Korea DR 0.7 2.1 that of the employed between 25-54 years old was Cambodia 0.9 2 Baht 8,005 and that of the total workforce was Lao PDR 0.3 0.8 Baht 7,400 a month (Figure 4.12). The Bangkok PNG 0.08 0.5 area offers the highest average wages, whereas Malaysia 0.09 4.2 the wages in the North and Northeast regions are Source: World Bank, 2004 the lowest.Females over age 21 earn consistently with regulation in rural areas. Around 3 percent higher wages than males, which could reflect the more young men than women were below the fact that females in this age bracket, on average, minimum wage threshold in 2005.121 121National Statistics Office, Labor Force Survey 4th quarter, 2005 Around3.8millionyoungpeople 25 years old. This trend could be caused between15-24yearsoldwerelivingonless by insufficient job opportunities for better- thanUS$2perdayin2002. In addition, around educated youth, but it is likely to be related 300,000 young people were living in extreme to disconnection between labor demand and poverty below the US$2 per day threshold (see supply of skills. Table 4.5).122 The extent to which people in this group are engaged in economic activities ThestructureoftheyoungThailabor is unknown. forceisexpectedtochangeinthecoming years. The composition of the youth labor force Youthrepresentahighproportion has suited the needs of economic growth in oftotalunderemployedinThailand.123 Thailand since 1999, based on the employment of Data from Labor Force Surveys indicate that large reserves of rural labor in the urban sectors. the youngest groups are the most affected However, as competition from neighboring by underemployment in terms of hours countries in low-skilled manufacturing increases worked.124 However, Labor Force Survey and the nature of growth in Thailand evolves, the data split workers working less than 35 future demand for unskilled labor in Thailand is hours into 2 groups: i) having additional likely to decrease. According to the 2006 Thailand spare time and willing to work more and Investment Climate, Firm Competitiveness and ii) having no additional spare time and not Growth, the new growth strategy for Thailand will willing to work more and it is suggested that need to be based on the increased contribution youth might fall into the latter category. of total productivity factors, including labor and Research on underemployment in Thailand the emphasis should be on skills development, finds that the average age of a person technological capabilities and innovation.127 underemployed in terms of hours worked is 37-40 years old. It also shows that age does ii. diagnostics: what makes not influence the likelihood of time-related youth vulnerable? underemployment.125 Underemployment in terms of education level­i.e. working in misalignment of existing skills and jobs that require lower qualification levels-is market demand particularly high among young workers below 25 years old. The same study found that Skillsshortageremainsoneofthe the education-related underemployed as a mainproblemsoftheThailaborforce. percentage of the total labor force increased The 2006 Thailand Investment Climate, Firm from 9.2 percent in 1996 to 14.8 percent Competitiveness and Growth identifies skills in 2000.126 Among the education-related shortages and mismatch as major obstacles for underemployed, 31-40 percent were below the competitiveness of Thai companies. Thai 122Curtain, 2004 123The Thai National Statistical Office considers those who work less than 35 hours a week to be underemployed. 124The group between 13-19 years old accounted for around 35 percent of the total underemployed in 2000, whereas the group between 20-29 years old represented around 15 percent of the total underemployed between 1996 and 2000. 125Tirasawat and others, 2003 126Tirasawat and others, 2003-using survey data of 3rd quarters, 2003 127World Bank, 2006b ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon companies pay large wage premia to employees than standard long-term contracts, reducing with tertiary education or technical skills training, worker bargaining power and limiting investment indicating excess demand for and/or short supply by firms in skills development and training. of the highest skilled labor in Thailand. As Increased use of subcontracting and outsourcing described in Chapter 3, a wide gap still exists has also created more employment in the informal between returns to secondary and tertiary sector, making it more difficult to systematically education, which disincentivizes enrollment in upgrade the skills of the young workforce. secondary education if continuation through tertiary is not an option. Althoughoverallaccesstocreditand financialmarketshasrapidlyimproved Inparticular,relativelyfewThaiworkers duringthelastfiveyears,youthgenerally havetheinformationtechnologyandEnglish havelessaccesstocredit.According to the languageskillsneededtofillhighlyskilledor Doing Business 2007: How to Reform report, professionalpositions. The Thailand Investment one of the biggest improvements made by Climate, Firm Competitiveness and Growth Thailand is increasing accessibility of credit for highlights the incidence and intensity of hard- entrepreneurs. Thailand's Credit Information to-fill vacancies as being very high in Thailand Index ranks at 5.0 on a 0-6 scale, at the same compared to neighboring countries such as average level as OECD countries, while the Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines. In average for regional competitors was only 1.9. Thailand, it takes more than six weeks-longer However, youth are still considered a high-risk than in any other benchmark country-to fill a group by financial institutions due to their lack vacancy for a skilled production worker or a of collateral and/or experience. In some respects, professional. Over 80 percent of managers cited youth share the problems common to most micro the applicants' lack of appropriate basic and and small entrepreneurs. Age works against young technical skills as a reason.Employers in Thailand people in terms of greater difficulty in getting particularly rate the information technology access to credit and their lack of networks. and English skills of their employees as poor, especially among skills production workers. Ahighproportionofyoungjobseekers dependonfamilyandpersonalconnections employment conditions and access to foremploymentinformation. As in many credit and information countries in South Asia and South East Asia, the large majority of youth in Thailand rely on The1997financialcrisishascaused informal networks and contacts to search for firmstobemorecautiousaboutproviding jobs (Table 4.6). Employment prospects of youth stableemploymentcontracts,makingworkers- therefore depend to a large extent on the types of especiallyyoungworkers-morevulnerable. networks they have been able to develop. Public Following the crisis, many firms prefer to hire employment services, education and training workers on more flexible terms of employment, institutions and job fairs play a very small role such as fixed-term contracts, temporary work in assisting young people in the search for jobs. and part-time jobs. Terms and conditions of such In addition, the lack of experience of young contracts are usually less favorable for workers people relative to adults generally places them Table 4.6: Channels of Information for First However, many governments normally give little Employment attention to developing and implementing youth employment strategies. An adequate strategy Internal family 64.4% (parents and relatives) should take into account the growth sectors Close networks (people in same village, 22.5% in the local and global economies. Clear youth friends, teachers) employment targets, including employment in External 13.0% (employer, announcements, walk-in) the informal sector, should also be incorporated into medium-term plans and strategies. Source: Thailand Development Research Institute, 2001 in a disadvantaged position, as it does the more Eliminatingtheremainingconstraints pronounced lack of labor market information and forThaicompetitivenesscanhaveapositive job search expertise among young people.128 impactonyouthemploymentopportunities. As a result, many young workers enter the labor Improving the conditions for private investment market unprepared, experience long spells of in a country can boost economic growth and unemployment when they look for their first job employment creation through foreign investment and often feel discouraged and end up in the and the development of the private sector. informal sector after unsuccessful attempts to Generally, an increase in the demand for labor find employment in the formal sector. has a positive impact on youth employment, whereas youth unemployment declines. The Doing iii. Prescriptions: Policy Business 2007: How to Reform report identifies responses for supporting the Thailand as one of the world's top economies move to work for doing business. Thailand's place in the ease of doing business rankings moved up to the expanding youth employment 18th position out of 175 countries. However, opportunities according to the Thailand Investment Climate, Firm Competitiveness and Growth report, Thai firms Aneffectivestrategyforgenerating confirmed that three major constraints remain: youthemploymentshouldbepartofanoverall heavy regulatory burden, shortages of skills employmentstrategyatboththemacroand and deficient infrastructure, especially outside sectorallevels. Overall, employment growth has Bangkok. Making progress in these areas should the strongest influence on the ease or difficulty be the focus of policy efforts in the short to with which young people eventually make the medium term in order to provide the foundations transition to employment. Despite higher levels for sustained productivity improvements and of formal education than earlier generations, growth into the future, which will help generate young people are often at the end of the hiring productive employment among young workers. queue when limited job opportunities exist. 128ILO, 2006a ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Giventheimportanceofeducationfor is that workers in this age group who cannot employmentprospects,acontinuedfocus afford further education and have to enter the isneededoneliminatingchildwork.Law labor market face difficulties finding employment enforcement and legal prosecution are required, opportunities. They may be forced to settle with but that alone would simply force the use of employment in the informal sector, where labor children work underground. Policies to end child inspection and labor law compliance are less labor would ideally include both supply-and effective. Around 65 percent of workers ages demand-side mechanisms for keeping children 15-19 work in the informal sector, while less in school.Supply-side mechanisms focused on than half of those ages 20-24 do. The former improving the accessibility and quality/suitability group's more limited access to quality productive of education services can help promote school jobs also prevents them from realizing their full enrollment. Evidence suggests that parents potential, compromising their long-term career generally withdraw their children from work prospects. Hence, a review of the child labor as soon as they can afford it, as children from regulations and their implementation might be wealthy families are not engaged in work even in needed to ensure that they do not pose a major least developed countries.129 In the Thai context, stumbling block for young workers, since the the perceived opportunity cost in terms of the demand and supply of workers in this age group household's foregone income mainly hinders still remain very much a part of the Thai labor the continuation of education above lower market structure. secondary level. This suggests that demand-side mechanisms such as conditional cash transfers Youthcanparticularlybenefitfrom might be effective in reducing child labor. The use improvednon-farmopportunitiesinrural of conditional cash transfer programs has proved areas. As noted above, evidence reveals that to be successful in increasing school attendance, youth in rural areas of Thailand experience higher although to a lesser extent in decreasing child informality and underemployment. The proportion labor (Box 4.1). of youth receiving a wage below minimum wage in rural areas was twice that in urban areas; Atthesametime,theemployment and youth represent a high share of rural-to- needsofyoungprotectedpeoplebetween15- urban migrants, motivated to find improved job 18yearsoldshouldbeconsidered.Thai labor opportunities. Few employment opportunities market regulations on work for young people outside agriculture are available in rural areas, between 15-18 years old might be generating although improved wages and productivity in undesirable outcomes for them. While it is legal rural areas would have a significant overall for children ages 15-18 to work, the Labor Act has impact on the Thai economy and the young made it very cumbersome for enterprises to hire labor force. To date, Thailand's strategy for these young workers. One possible consequence promoting rural opportunities has centered on 129Basu and Van, 1998 box 4.1: addressing the needs of young People through conditional cash Transfer Programs Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT) programs offer a promising way to reduce the incidence of child work. CCTs are incentive schemes that provide cash to poor young individuals conditional on school attendance or certain health and nutritional behaviors. CCTs started in the late 1990s, particularly in Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries and are quickly becoming popular worldwide. The initial wave of evaluations of these programs in LAC reveals significant impacts on school enrollment. The best documented program is Oportunidades, in Mexico, which has shown to increase secondary school attendance rates by 8.4 percent, transition to secondary school by nearly 20 percent and grade attainment by 10 percent, with significantly larger effects for girls than for boys. Maluccio and Flores (2004) report an enrollment increase of about 18 percentage points in Nicaragua as a result of CCTs programs, while Schady and Araujo (2006) report effects on enrollment of between 10 and 13 percentage points in Ecuador. Smaller CCT program effects on enrollment, generally around 3 percentage points, are reported for Honduras, Colombia and Brazil. Part of the positive impact of CCTs on school enrollment comes from reductions in work. In Oportunidades, the decline in work participation for boys was roughly in balance with the rise in school enrollment, except among 16-17 year olds for whom there was no effect on work participation. A similar program in Nicaragua was also found to decrease the incidence of work among 12-13 year olds. Ravallion and Wodon (2002) found that the Food for Education program in Bangladesh did reduce child labor. The evaluation of the Progresa program in Mexico showed significant increases in education enrollment of girls and boys, accompanied by also significant reductions in child work. The impact was however more pronounced on school attendance than on child work displacement. The program also translated in a large reduction of domestic work in the case of girls, suggesting that the time spent in school competes with that spent on household work. However, CCTs alone do not appear to be enough for reducing work significantly. Oportunidades did not have any significant effect on schooling time, particularly in the case of girls. The evidence from the Program to Eradicate Child Labor (PETI) in rural Brazil suggests that after-school programs may be a good complement to the conditionality on school attendance. Sparrow (2004) found that a scholarship program in Indonesia had a significantly effect on work participation that was even larger than the effect on enrollment. Sources: Rawlings and Rubio, 2005; Morley and Coady, 2003; Schultz, 2001; Skoufias and Parker, 2001; Glewwe and Olinto, 2004.; Attanasio, Fitzsimons and Gomez, 2005; Cardoso and Souza, 2004; de la Bričre and Rawlings, 2006. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon community-based microfinance/revolving funds. However, success rates often hinge on high levels "I want to own a motorcycle repair of cooperation among community members and shop in my village because it is a self- strong leadership. Efforts to generate non-farm reliant business." Along from Chalom employment in rural areas have also included House, Chiang Rai. tourism promotion and schemes for silk and families' gains from remittances, while potential cotton weaving and handicrafts. The impact, negative effects include social problems due to coverage and targeting of these programs are increased population pressure on urban labor not youth-specific. Therefore, options should be markets and the receiving provinces. Rural-to- explored to: i) identify and create employment urban migrants can face poor working conditions opportunities for youth in emerging sectors and limited access to social services as well as lack such as tourism, mass media, health and information on required skills in the labor market. education, environmental conservation, ICT To maximize the benefits of migration, policies product and service industries and agro industry should aim to facilitate the assimilation of young and ii) reinvigorate rural development and migrants into their new communities and minimize attract investment in rural areas through non- potential stress on the host populations. farm skills development programs, infrastructure development and policies to promote private Althoughentrepreneurshipandself- sector involvement. employmentofyouthhaveseveraldirect positiveimpacts,theyhavenotincreasedin Ifproperlymanaged,migrationcan thelasttwodecades.The potential benefits alsohelpexpandopportunitiesforyouth. In of such entrepreneurship include reducing recent decades, rural­urban flows in Thailand youth unemployment and creating a tier of have increased as the chances of acquiring more young start-ups, as well as increasing the farmland have decreased and few other means employability of youth. However, youth face many of earning are available in rural areas. At the obstacles when starting up a business. Despite the same time, the urban labor market has grown in Government's policy to promote self-employment Bangkok and in adjacent peripheral areas of the and small entrepreneurship in successive National Central region, where new industrial facilities are Economic and Social Development Plans, self- emerging.130 According to the 2005 Migration employment of youth has remained constant Survey, about 2.8 million people or 4.3 percent of at 30 percent during the last two decades. The the total population migrated in Thailand between official figure may underestimate the real size 2004 and 2005 and youth comprised around 36 of youth self-employment in Thailand given percent of all migrants surveyed, the highest share that informality, particularly in rural areas, is of any age group. Positive effects of migration widespread. Nonetheless, financial constraints can include household income support and rural and start-up costs play an important role in 130Osaki, 2003 0 shaping the patterns of entrepreneurship.Using wrong skills mix. Firms in all surveyed industries survey sampling in the rural Northeast and semi- are operating with a ratio of skilled workers to the urban Central regions in Thailand, Paulson and total number of workers lower than the optimal Townsend (2004) found that households rely for their industry. heavily on savings to fund initial investments in their businesses. Approximately 60 percent Schoolsshouldbeviewednotonlyas of the total initial investment in household educationalinstitutionsbutalsoasbridges businesses comes from savings, while loans from tothelabormarketandbroadersociety.The commercial banks account for about 9 percent world of work is constantly changing and Thai of total business investment and those from the youth have to be trained to keep up with the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives job market as it evolves. Therefore, the "can-do- (BAAC) account for another 7 percent. Youth from abilities" that private enterprises are looking wealthier households are therefore more likely to for must be identified. The "competency-based" start businesses if they so desire. Further efforts framework, which countries like Korea have are needed to improve the availability of adequate started to adopt, is one attempt to address this business education; provide start-up grants for need. Schools can also help young people align sound business proposals and facilitate access their aspirations with the realities of the labor to low-or no-interest "soft loans" for young market by providing proper career guidance and entrepreneurs, particularly those from more counseling, truly preparing the young for their disadvantaged backgrounds. first job. improving the capacity of young Thai Diversificationofeducationoptions people wouldhelpaccommodatediversestudent needsandcapabilitiesaswellaseasethe Thedevelopmentofadequateskills transitionbetweenschoolandtheworkplace. tomeetlabormarketdemandiscriticalfor Young people looking for their first job lack promotingyouthemploymentandoverall experience in the labor market, while employers economicgrowthinThailand.As seen above, are oftentimes not prepared to give them that one of the main obstacles young Thai people face chance. Secondary education, both lower and when searching for their first job is inadequate upper, in Thailand is heavily concentrated on the education and skills to meet the needs of the academic path, whereas the size of the vocational labor market. Skills upgrading in Thailand has education sector in Thailand is small relative to been slow and until recently, the main focus in that in OECD countries. The "Dual System" in education was on expanding coverage rather than Thailand, combining educational programs at improving quality. The recent Thailand Investment higher-level vocational schools and on-the-job Climate, Firm Competitiveness and Growth report training at companies, has approximately 45,000 showed a clear need to upgrade the skills of the students. The internship program, another type of labor force in Thailand, particularly in the fields vocational training program which provides actual of IT and English language. It has been estimated work experience for university graduates, should that Thai firms are losing nearly 15 percent of become more widely available as the number of their output as a result of operating with the university students continues to grow. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon employment interventions.131 The Government has Variousmeans/modesofproviding been pursuing efforts to improve the Labor Market trainingshouldbeexplored,withcoordinated Information System (LMIS) in recent years. For effortsbetweenthepublicandprivatesectors. example, the LMIS piloted a project to develop As a source of skills for youth, employers are often provincial labor market centers. overlooked in favor of public training programs. It could be argued that training by enterprises Providing second chances for the does not ensure access for all, hence, public most vulnerable interventions are needed. In the public sector, responsibilities for training are spread over several Secondchanceinterventionsareneeded ministries, with lack of national coordination in togivedisadvantagedyouthachanceto policy design as well as limited coordination reintegrateintotheworkforce. Vulnerable or between public and private suppliers, limited disadvantaged young people include youth who participation of industry in policy and planning started working too early, ended up in dead-end and an absence of national standards and jobs, or were unable to find a job at all. Inactivity recognition. Going forward, public and private of youth not only wastes potential but also poses partnerships could help move the current training a risk to society, as a young person who is unable system beyond meeting enterprises' "operational to integrate into the labor market successfully needs" and towards upgrading skills or providing can be susceptible to poverty and dissatisfaction. new technologies, while not forgetting particular Therefore, although policies for second chances support for the poor and marginalized youthwho can be costly and have yielded mixed results, they are excluded from the job market due to technical, are necessary.The WDR 2007 reviewed 19 of these geographical and socio-cultural divides. second-chance programs worldwide and found that programs offering training rarely improve the Thelaborinformationsystemmust employment and earnings of young participants. alsobestrengthenedtohelpyounglabor However, experience in some countries shows forceentrantsfindsuitablejobs,aswellas that programs can be cost-effective if well- informthedevelopmentofaneffectiveyouth designed, while the costs of not implementing employmentstrategy. The National Statistical second chance programs can be overwhelming.132 Office and the Ministry of Labor cooperate in In Thailand, training services have generally gathering and disseminating provincial labor been limited to meeting enterprises' "operational market information. Several technical issues, needs" rather than contributing to upgraded skills such as the time lag between data collection or providing new technologies.133 Improving their and data dissemination or sample sizes in the chances of success will require clearly defined Labor Force Survey, could hinder policymakers targets, systematic monitoring and evaluation from devising appropriate and timely youth and political commitment. 131According to Mizunoya and others, 2006, the Labor Force Survey collects about 210,000 data points per quarter, which is large enough to estimate the national and regional level market data. However, once the data is divided into provincial cells (76 provinces), sex (2 cells), location of residence (urban and rural: 2 cells) and age (90 cells by single age, or seven cells by categorizing), then the available sample size of each cell becomes quite small. If one's focus is on development of employment policy for youth, then the sample size is no longer sufficient 132World Bank, 2007b 133Lall, 1999 box 4.2: second chances Programs for youth employment The Entra 21 and Jovenes job training programs in Latin America provide technical training and life-skills training to disadvantaged young people on a massive scale. They also cooperate with both the public and private sectors to providing internship opportunities to young people to help facilitate their later employment. The keys to the success of these programs are the high quality of the training providers, frequent feedback from employers and strong institutions managing the programs. Evidence from both programs shows that job training programs need to be part of a larger package of services to maximize their impact. Other programs in a number of countries have also shown successful implementation and results. Experiences in the United States and Latin America suggest that a successful second chances program should offer bundled or comprehensive services which include not just training but also placement and mentoring. Public works programs in low-income countries targeted to low-skilled and unemployed youth and the Proempleo program in Argentina, which combines public works and wage subsidies, have also proven successful. Given the high cost of second-chance programs, it is important to direct them to those young people who are most in need and design them in ways that meet their needs. Geographical targeting may be a better option where poverty is clustered in specific poor regions and in remote rural areas. Source: World Bank, 2007b Themainsecondchanceprogramoffered the Department of Skills Development and the bytheMinistryofEducationistheNon-Formal Department of Employment under the Ministry of Educationsystem. The mandate of the Office Labor offer some skills upgrading, training and of Non-Formal Education Commission (ONFEC) retraining programs. includes providing basic education opportunities to the underprivileged. The main target group Policy recommendations for the third was initially the out-of-school population in youth transition, moving from school to work rural areas who missed the opportunity to incorporate all three lenses-opportunities, participate in the formal schooling system. capabilities and second chances-but largely These services have been expanded to cover focus on creating opportunities and building the more target groups, including children, women, capacity of youth. Many promising programs exist people with disabilities, conscripts, workers in across the world; and Thailand can benefit greatly the agriculture sector, hill tribes, slum dwellers from its own experience in this regard, as well as and people having no opportunity to continue the experience of other nations, both near and far. their studies in formal schooling after compulsory Table 4.7 records international experience gained education. In 2005, around 4 million people with the policy recommendations catalogued in across all ages registered with and graduated this chapter. from such programs; 95 percent of these students were outside Bangkok and 57 percent enrolled in vocational education, while 43 percent enrolled in the academic track. In addition, ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Table 4.7: Summary of Transition to Work Policy Recommendations and International Experience PolicyRecommendations Evidence CountryExamples NotesforSuccess Expanding Opportunities 1 Strengthen labor market Proven United States and Europe Increase capacity to collect and information systems analyze data on youth and labor markets 2 Eliminate child work, e.g. Proven Brazil PETI, Mexico Progresa, Provide incentives to young through demand-side Ecuador BDH people, rather than parents mechanisms 3 Facilitate self-employment Unproven, but South Africa, Brazil, Argentina, Provide financial/technical through the provision of promising Chile assistance to young financing alternatives for youth entrepreneurs 4 Promote rural off-farm work Proven Taiwan, China Promotion of rural opportunities for young people manufacturing Enhancing Capacity 1 Ensure that schools operate as a Proven Germany, Korea Dual tracking bridge to the labor market 2 Explore various modes of Proven Germany, Kenya, Ghana Traditional apprenticeships and training programs, including enterprise programs on-the-job training Unproven, but Sri Lanka, United Kingdom, Matching agencies, new service promising Australia, Mauritius sector apprenticeships and reforming training institutes 3 Diversify education options to Unproven, but Pakistan Empowering youth with accommodate various student promising disabilities needs/capabilities as well as market needs Providing Second Chances 1 Continue monitoring and Proven Jóvenes Argentina and Entra 21 Combining vocational training strengthening non-formal in Latin America; with life skills education Unproven, but Senegal and Ghana Combining literacy programs promising with skills training 2 Explore new programs based Proven United States, Argentina, Chile, Comprehensive programs on international experiences to Peru providing training, job help reintegrate young people placement, mentoring, etc. who dropped out of the labor market Unproven, but Hungary Reintegrating youth with promising disabilities Korea, Thailand, Philippines Public employment services Source: Adapted from World Bank, 2007a and 2007b Chapter 5: Youth poliCY and institutional Framework ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon cHaPTer 5: youTH Policy and insTiTuTional framework The previous Chapters outline the main challenges and difficulties facing Thai youth across three major transitions to adulthood. The ways in which these challenges are addressed through youth policy will not only shape the present but also profoundly determine the future of the next generation and, hence, the future of the country. Given that youth development cuts across many areas and involves diverse segments of society and various government agencies, youth policies must be integrated and cross-sectoral to be effective. This Chapter outlines the parameters of a youth policy framework, using the approach developed in the WDR 2007 and reviews the institutional arrangements for youth policy in Thailand. Building on the analysis of the previous Chapters, it then provides recommendations for future policy directions to help Thailand's young people seize opportunities and successfully manage risks they might encounter as they move into their next phase of life. i. The world development ratios (ratio of the sum of the population report approach aged 0-14 and that aged 65+ to the population aged 15-64) are presented No"one-size-fits-all"approachis with a window of opportunity to invest availableforyouthdevelopmentpolicy. A more of their resources in young people. If country's national youth policy must be tailored the investment is sufficient and effective, based on a rigorous assessment of the country's the increased productivity of youth from youth situation. There are four important earlier investments can help maintain dimensions: which priorities to focus; how urgent country growth rates when, in the future, the country action should be; whom to target; the population starts to age and fewer and the type of intervention required. Specifically, workers are available to realize economic key areas of consideration include: growth. ˇ Country income can be a determinant of ˇ Levels of young people's skills and capabilities young people and their families' ability (their human capital)-indicating whether to pay for human capital investments priorities should be to expand quality basic themselves and also a proxy for the country's education; ensure quality and relevance administrative capacity to implement of higher/tertiary education systems; policies and programs-indicating the type address new health threats; provide second of intervention required. Taking education chance programs; reform labor markets as an example, the priority for low-income to better accommodate new entrants; countries would be to provide quality basic and/or encourage entrepreneurship among education, whereas for middle-income youth. and high growth countries, the challenge ˇ Stage of the demographic transition- would be to develop upper secondary indicating the urgency of country action. and tertiary education systems. In both Countries with declining dependency cases, financial incentives are often an important component for encouraging Inaddition,manynationalyouth students to attend schools and/or pursue policiesoftentimesfailtocoordinateaction post-compulsory or higher education toimplementanddelivertheintendedresults. since students and their families must Although many national youth policies clearly lay handle their direct and indirect private out their vision and priorities, they prove to be costs. The forms of intervention to provide unsuccessful in implementation. The WDR 2007 financial incentives for education range highlights a number of reasons why youth policies from grants and scholarships to loans, often fail young people: (i) poor coordination income-contingent loans, vouchers, among policies and sectors, (ii) weak voice of conditional cash transfers and saving young people in quality of policy and service schemes. However, which combination delivery and (iii) the paucity of proven successes of these interventions is best suited for (Box 5.1). The International Council on National each country depends on its capacity Youth Policy analyzed actions to implement and constraints to implementing such national youth policies and estimated that programs.134 For instance, income- about 30 percent of the United Nations member contingent loans may be a realistic countries had formulated national youth policies. option for middle-income countries, while Of these, about one-third had active youth conditional cash transfers can be effective participation in the national youth policy process, in a wide range of contexts.135 while the other two-thirds were mostly controlled ˇ Autonomy of youth in decision making- and dominated by respective Governments with indicating which groups should be the no space for youth participation.137 target of public interventions. A survey in Pakistan found conflicting views among ii. youth national policy and adults, male and female youth when institutional framework in asked about their role in the decision Thailand to drop out of school.136 Research in Thailand found that the youth decision Youthdevelopmentemergesasakeyarea to enter the labor market early is greatly inNationalEconomicandSocialDevelopment influenced by families and that families Plans. Thailand's five-year National Economic and are important as a source of information Social Development Plan provides the framework for youth employment, as described in for overall national development. The current Chapter 4. Youth development policies national plan is the tenth in the country's and interventions may thus not simply history. The primary focus of the First to Fourth target youth as beneficiaries but should plans was stimulating economic growth through also consider societal decision-making industrial development. It was not until the Fifth structures. Plan (1982-1986) that policymakers incorporated 134Constraints to interventions can be at different levels: community and household level, service delivery level (e.g. shortage of qualified staff or poor access), sector policy and strategic management level (e.g. ill-capacitated bureaucracy), environmental and contextual characteristics (e.g. corruption, weak institutions, social and geographical conditions). 135World Bank, 2007b 136Ibid. 137International Council on National Youth Policy (ICNYP) and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), 2005 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon box 5.1: Three reasons why youth Policy often fails young People Poor coordination among policies and sectors that affect youth and limit accountability. Challenges in youth transitions tend to overlap, requiring cross-sectoral work to develop policies and outcomes. For example, addressing the difficulties in going to work requires looking beyond the labor market to macroeconomic policy, the investment climate and the quality of education and training. Likewise, making secondary education universal will require physical access to schools through improvements in roads or other infrastructure. Sector ministries are responsible for the bulk of policies that affect youth, while ministries or departments of youth are responsible for youth outcomes. This arrangement has weak lines of accountability and youth outcomes suffer as a result. Weak voice of young people in monitoring and providing feedback on quality of policy and service delivery. About two-third of countries with national youth councils, bodies intended to reflect the views of different stakeholders, do not listen to youth non-governmental organizations.138 Service delivery is another area in which youth are not visible. As direct clients, they can be crucial to improving the quality of service delivery. Yet many health services project an unfriendly image to young people, while many school systems do not recognize youth as stakeholders in improving the quality of education. The paucity of proven successes. Many youth programs in developing countries lack critical monitoring and evaluation (M&E).139 They often ambiguously identify the causality from policy to program to effect, giving youth policy the impression of being soft and lacking in rigor. Without a strong M&E component, it is difficult to understand what affects outcomes in youth development and to extract lessons learned for future activities and programs. The absence of stock on lessons learned and "best practices," especially in developing countries, limits the ability for countries to share what works and does not work. Although a body of developed-country literature is available, the very different circumstances of developed-country youth vis-ŕ-vis their counterparts in developing countries and differences in capacity for implementation constrain the applicability of these studies. Source: World Bank, 2007b human resource development and youth issues fetus stage to later growth. to the framework for overall development. In the Ninth Plan (2002-2006), which has just ended, Sincetheinceptionofyouthdevelopment a specific focus was on human rights and human workinThailandin1965,thenationalyouth development while the Tenth Plan aims to devote policyandsupportinginstitutionalframework children and youth development efforts towards haveundergoneanumberofchanges.The instilling moral values and virtues along with work on youth development in Thailand started mental and emotional development from the when the National Youth Office was established 138World Bank, 2007b 139Lloyd, 2005 and Knowles and Behrman, 2005 in 1965 under the National Research Council, subsequent promulgation of new constitutions. Office of the Prime Minister.140 The first national These political changes not only signified youth policy only came into effect in 1973. In regime changes but also institutional changes the late 1990s continuing into the early 2000s, which affected youth development policy and Thailand experienced successive military coups the institutional framework for youth work and changes of government as well as the (Table 5.1). Table 5.1: The Oscillations of Politics and the Youth Policy and Institutional Framework Politicalchanges Changesonyouthpolicyandinstitutionalframework 1965 National Youth Office (NYO) was first established under the Prime Minister (PM)'s Office 1969 NYO was renamed and moved to Office of Youth Promotion (OYP) under the PM Office 1973 Military regimes were toppled by student 1973 OYP was upgraded to departmental status and became demonstrations/revolution "National Youth Bureau (NYB)" under the PM Office First National Youth Policy (1973-1977) was issued 1974 NYB became Office of Youth Promotion (OYP) under the Ministry of Education (MOE) 1976 Military rule being re-imposed after 1976 OYP was renamed the Commission of the Promotion and military coup and 1976 Constitution was Development of Youth under the MOE. promulgated 1977 The army staged another coup and 1977 Second National Youth Policy (1977-1979) was issued (October) appointed a new Prime Minister 1978 New constitution was promulgated TheNationalYouthPromotionandCoordinationActB.E. 2521(1978) was passed and the National Youth Commission (coordination body) and National Youth Bureau (secretariat) were established. 1979 Third National Youth Policy (1979-1994) was issued 1991 New constitution was promulgated 1992 Military staged a coup against a civilian government, a new government was democratically elected 1994 Fourth National Youth Policy (1994-2002) was issued 1997 Financial crisis and new constitution promulgated 2001 Prime Minister wins largest popular mandate in history 2002 The Bureaucratic Reform Act B.E. 2545 2002 Fifth National Youth Policy (2002-present) was issued instigated the largest reorganization of in January 2002. The Bureaucratic Reform Act B.E. 2545 Thai Bureaucracy in 110 years (October) moved the National Youth Bureau (NYB) to the Office of Welfare Promotion, Protection and Empowerment of Vulnerable Groups (OPP) in the new Ministry of Social Development and Human Security (MSDHS). 2006 Military staged a coup and put in place a 2006 The Children and Youth Development Actwas approved. transitional civilian government 140UNESCAP, 2000. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Thelatestreform,broughtaboutbythe is expected to help Thailand address youth BureaucraticReformActB.E.2545(2002), challenges more effectively. downgradedthestatusoftheNationalYouth Bureau(NYB).As described in Chapter 1, the Thailand'scurrentNationalYouthPlan Government moved responsibility for the youth (NYP)endeavorstoguideGovernmentand agenda from the NYB under the Prime Minister's stakeholderactionstodealwiththese Office to the Office of Welfare Promotion, challenges. In January 2002, the Fifth NYP Protection and Empowerment of Vulnerable and the Long-Term Strategy for Development of Groups (OPP) in the recently established Ministry Children and Youth (2002-2011) were approved of Social Development and Human Security by the Council of Ministers. Compared to previous (MSDHS).141 Within this office, the Bureau of NYPs, the Fifth NYP provides a broader framework Child Promotion and Protection (OPPC) and for youth development. The NYP and Strategy, the Bureau of Youth Promotion and Protection which have also been translated into a Plan of (OPPY) handle children and youth policies. The Action as described in Chapter 1, aim to promote relatively small budgets of the bureaus and the following: their placement within a line Ministry, which 1. Encouraging and supporting family hinders their ability to fulfill their coordination institutions to have major roles in bringing functions, are indicative of their more limited up children and youth to help them fulfill responsibilities. their potential; 2. Encouraging other important social ThenewChildrenandYouthDevelopment institutions in different fields (e.g., Actcouldhelpstrengthentheinstitutional education, religion, professional structureforyouthdevelopmentpolicy.As development, politics, all levels of described in Chapter 1, the new Act contains a governance-in particular the local number of elements in response to difficulties administrative organizations-private encountered under the current arrangement in sector and mass media) to play active roles terms of cross-sectoral support and resource and undertake joint efforts to develop and mobilization. Under the new Act, Local provide creative life skills to youth; Administrations will play an active role in 3. Encouraging the provision of youth formulating and financing children and youth services, by both the Government and development plans. A Children and Youth non-government sectors, to effectively Development Committee, chaired by the Prime carry out their responsibilities without Minister, will be established and the Office of discrimination and with transparency and National Children and Youth Development will be full accountability; established within the MSDHS with departmental status. The passage of the new legislation 141See Figure 1.3 in Chapter 1 for a diagram of the institutional arrangements for children and youth. 0 4. Supporting timely legislation and law by 180 United Nations member governments, enforcement as demanded by the situations is being drafted by the OPP. In addition to and changes affecting youth; this strategic planning, a number of positive 5. Supporting monitoring and evaluation initiatives have been undertaken recently. For of youth development with systematic example, the MSDHS issues an annual Youth indicators for assessment; Situation Update, which generally covers all 6. Encouraging all youth at appropriate topics relating to youth and contains useful ages to receive services in accordance information for policymakers. These updates have with their basic rights and needs as helped inform the design of several projects, demanded by international standards, both including campaigns and activities to promote quantitatively and qualitatively; and rebuild family structure and values, provision 7. Encouraging youth to learn how to analyze of creative space for children in provinces to aid data, to think, to be responsible and able the process of their identity formation and the to make decisions based on rationale, successful establishment of youth parliaments conscience and moral values and be in all provinces. The most recent initiative is capable of self-adjustment to social the launch of a joint project with quasi-public changes; organizations to develop a social monitoring and 8. Supporting youth to apply advanced warning mechanism to tackle youth problems at knowledge based on local wisdom, religious the provincial level. The Thai Health Promotion principles and those of the self-sufficient Foundation, the Thailand Research Fund and the economy, which will be most useful to Ramajitti Institute overseeing the Child Watch them in their daily life and future careers; project, signed an agreement to cooperate and and support MSDHS efforts. 9. Supporting all youth at appropriate ages to contribute constructively to community iii. challenges facing the development and strengthening of friendly youth policy and institutional relations at the international level.142 framework in Thailand TheGovernmentisalsodevelopingand Strongcommitmentandcoordinationis implementingnewpoliciesandinitiativesfor neededtofurtherenhanceyouthdevelopment youthdevelopment.One of the most significant policiesandinterventionsinThailand.Apart policy developments is the preparation of a new from the relatively long, uninterrupted spell National Strategy and Plan of Action for Youth in the 1980s, youth development work in Development. The Strategy and Plan of Action, Thailand has suffered a great deal of disruption which are being developed in accordance with in policies and implementation. This lack of the "A World Fit for Children" framework adopted continuity has created confusion and affected 142National Youth Bureau, 2002 ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon the direction of youth development work. With areas-each with lists of activities, budgets and the new legislation, the government needs responsible agencies for a multi-year period-will to ensure that the National Youth Plan and be devised. In the past, such Plans of Action supporting framework and structure will move simply collated existing activities of different beyond a symbolic state. Political will and strong agencies, so programs were often piecemeal and commitment across diverse segments will be uncoordinated. A set of concrete priority areas for required to push the youth development agenda intervention, based on careful analysis of how the forward. More specifically, particular efforts are overall set of activities will help produce youth needed in the following areas: outcomes, should be developed up front to inform the design of programs.Given the wide-ranging ˇ To provide overarching coordination and nature of youth issues, youth development plans direction to all policies that directly and can appear overwhelming and be diluted if clear indirectly affect youth; priorities are not established. ˇ To ensure that youth policy is a long-term policy commitment of the State and not Monitoringandevaluationmechanisms merely of a given Government; arecriticalforinformingprogramdesignand ˇ To avoid conceiving youth policy out of determiningtheeffectivenessofinterventions. short-term political expediency but instead The major challenge for monitoring and evaluation as a long-term strategic instrument; and is the development of tools to measure both the ˇ To create a national youth NGO platform quantitative and qualitative aspects of youth and institutionalize informal and formal policy initiatives. Although Thailand has national consultation mechanisms between this surveys such as the five-yearly Children and Youth platform and national youth policy Survey and situational reports such as MSDHS's stakeholders. Youth Situational Report and the Child Watch campaign by the Ramajitti Institute, a stronger Beyondstrategicplanning,greater system for assessing the impacts of youth- emphasisshouldbeplacedonensuringthat related laws, policies and programs is required.143 youthpoliciesandplansarebettertranslated The system should have mechanisms that link intoagencies'programsandactivities.In directly to the policy planning process to allow Thailand, the real challenge does not lie in for mid-term adjustments as needed. the formulation of policy and plans but in how to ensure that youth policies and plans are integrated into agencies' programs and provide for adequate accountability. Typically, once youth policy and plans have been developed, a Plan of Action specifying key strategic 143UN, 2006 and NCCYD, 2005 iv. youth civic participation participation is often a composite of complex and and involvement culturally differentiated identities, attitudes and behaviors. In Thailand, the concept of child and Giventhatyoutharecentralstakeholders, youth voice is considered to be Western and is policymakersshouldencourageyoungmen not fully appreciated by Thai adults, especially andwomentoparticipateindialogueand parents, older family members, teachers and collectiveactiononpolicyresponses. The policymakers due to the cultural characteristics of common operating principle among policy makers Thai society and the demand for obedience that and the public at large is that youth are passive children are expected to show toward adults.145 beings and passive clients of government services. However, evidence shows that consensual, Nonetheless,effortshavebeenmade participatory and transparent processes involving toencourageandincorporateyouthvoices youth can achieve more effective outcomes.144 intopolicyandprogramdevelopment.The Such processes will help policymakers understand Government has adopted an increasingly youth perspectives, which are critical in the participatory process to policy development. rapidly changing economic and social context of However, the forms of participation that exist Thailand. This approach will also empower young may often be adult-led, token, or event-oriented people themselves to develop and implement key rather than integrated into the social system.146 aspects of the strategy. Moreover, only selected groups of children and young people have the opportunity to "What can we-as young people-do participate and express themselves through these to change things? There may not be participation mechanisms. an answer to this question since we are simply children and cannot solve Efforts by Government in the past aimed to everything alone. This event opened promote the establishment and activities of youth our eyes to various issues and concerns NGOs and groups. One example is the National and has shined a light on the areas and Council for Child and Youth Development (NCYD) things we-as youth-can improve and under the patronage of Princess Sirindhorn. The fight for." Mr. Surin Sinthas, Burirum, NCYD has received some budget support directly World Bank Youth Open Space from the Government to network NGOs and youth Arecentstudypointstothefactthat groups and enhance the importance of their childandyouthparticipationisconsideredto roles in the country's youth development work. beaWesternconceptinThailand.Progressive Furthermore, the Children and Youth Council which youth development work requires traditional were established in all 76 provinces of Thailand in decision-makers to work not only for young people 2006 aim to become the main channel for youth but also with them.However,the level of youth voices to inform policymaking. 144World Bank, 2000 145National Council for Child and Youth Development, 2005 146Ibid. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon Assessmentofyouthinvolvementinthe Theschoolenvironment,voluntarywork formalpoliticalarenaisdifficultduetolack andcommunityservicecanplayanimportant ofdata.Different generations of young people roleinimprovingtherecognitionandrelevance have played major roles in political, economic and ofactiveyouthparticipation. During their social development of Thailand. Student groups have sparked movements for significant political "I think organizing these kinds of reforms and changes in power at various points meetings will help gather youth in Thai history. Young workers have also made from all over the country and create important contributions to the country's recent partnerships as well as collaboration decades of rapid economic growth. However, lack between the youth themselves and the of data or surveys makes it difficult to determine organizations they work with, as well the extent to which youth are interested and as push youth to be courageous and confident in mainstream political institutions. voice their opinions." Ms. Patchara Sonsa, Mahasarakham, World Bank "Youth Open Space". box 5.2: world bank youth open space ­ incorporating voices of the young As part of the preparation of this Social Monitor, The World Bank held a series of Open Space dialogues across Thailand to listen to the concerns and needs of youth and disadvantaged children from diverse backgrounds. In the Open Space dialogue format, participants themselves set the own agenda and topics of discussion. With the help of professional facilitators and teachers, youth were invited to stand up and write on a piece of paper an issue or topic they liked to discuss. They then formed groups with other participants who shared an interest in the same topic. Suggestions were posted on a wall and Open Space facilitators and volunteers facilitated a broader discussion and compiled these results into a report. The overall goal was to give young people and children the opportunity to voice their opinions and perspectives on key issues which affect their every day life and could potentially shape their future. In September 2006, a "Youth Open Space Dialogue" was held at Siam University involving more than 160 youth participants from all over the country. Developing the workshop's overarching theme, "Challenges and Opportunities-How to Create a Brighter Future for Thai Youth," the participants broke out into groups and engaged in heated debates on topics ranging from improving sex education and enhancing understanding of HIV/AIDS among youth to tackling corruption issues or engaging in educational reforms. The Bank also organized a "Street Children Open Space Dialogue" in Chiang Rai in November 2006. During this workshop, volunteer teachers as well as representatives from local NGOs, government agencies and youth groups learned about the lives of street children living in Thailand from their perspectives, describing some of the daily concerns and harsh realities they face each day along with the dreams and goals they hope to achieve. More specifically, children discussed issues such as how to obtain better education; how to become a teacher, doctor, or nurse to help other children and adults in difficult situations; how to ensure disadvantaged children are provided with more opportunities; and how to ensure migrants from neighboring countries, such as Myanmar, have chances of obtaining Thai nationality and accessing social services. box 5.3: coordinating youth interventions: roles for every actor in the Process International experience has shown that several sectors of society have a role to play and a comparative advantage in youth policy initiatives, from the National Government to civil society to youth, themselves. As discussed extensively in this Monitor, National Governments hold several comparative advantages for identifying and coordinating youth interventions. The National Government maintains: 1) access to survey data to identify and target youth; 2) technical expertise across line ministries relating to youth issues and monitoring and evaluation; 3) ability to develop national laws and place the agenda on the national front; and 4) financial resources to further this agenda. These comparative advantages allow for broad priorities to be set in the area of investing in youth. In particular, incentives can be provided for cross-sectoral collaboration to target youth and for impact evaluations of youth programs. Common targeting mechanisms can be established and budgets can be a reflection of the priorities established. Furthermore, basic guidelines, principles and frameworks for policy can be developed at the local level to ensure implementation. Sub-national governments, utilizing their close relationship with local organizations and knowledge of local needs are ideally suited to develop initiatives tailored to youth in their area, but within the principles established by the National Government. Meanwhile civil society can assist by creating and implementing programs for and by youth. Civil society has the ability to provide personalized support and often possesses information about the types of support services needed and who should be targeted. Working together with sub-national governments and by extension, the National Government, the potential exists to implement programs using public resources and technical advice within strategic frameworks at the national, provincial and district levels. As mentioned throughout the Monitor, families and communities influence youth tremendously and international experience illustrates that this is their greatest advantage with regards to youth policy design and implementation. With this power, families and communities have the potential to create a positive environment for youth, participating in programs to strengthen their positive influence, providing feedback to NGOs and local governments on the needs of youth and the quality of services and encourage youth to participate in programs provided. The final key to bringing all of these groups together for successful youth policies is youth themselves. As the clients for whom the programs are intended, youth can be active participants in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of youth programs. Source: Adapted from World Bank, 2007b ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon youth, people start to participate in social and new educational challenges include ensuring political life independently and develop their access to education beyond compulsory levels, sense of social responsibilities. Because of its improving the quality of education and the dominant role in young people's lives, the school efficiency of public expenditure and making the environment should provide training in youth educational system more responsive to labor participation and non-formal learning. Volunteer market demands. The new employment challenges work and community service are also central involve the need to focus on skills development of to the development of young people's sense of the labor force and on the improvement of labor responsibility and autonomy in becoming social market information systems. In addition, the actors. The NCYD also suggests that children expansion of employment opportunities for young and youth groups or organizations should be people, for example through self-employment encouraged with active and continuous support and creation of off-farm rural opportunities, is from adults. In addition, society and families an area that requires further effort. In all three should be sensitized to value the participation areas of youth health, education and employment, and potential of young people as citizens. the provision of second chances to overcome negative outcomes is also key for the adequate v. conclusions development of youth and thus for overall country development. Youth,beingthenextgenerationof workers,parentsandcitizens,arekeytothe TheThaiGovernmentnowfacesthe long-termdevelopmentofacountry. Inadequate challengeofaddressingtheseissuesthrough health, education and employment outcomes can newpoliciesandinstitutionalarrangements. have very negative impacts on overall economic Previous efforts to implement youth-specific and social progress and be extremely costly to policies have had mixed results, mainly due to lack mitigate. In Thailand, youth issues and challenges of coordination, insufficient financial resources are becoming increasingly relevant, given the or changes in Government. Coordination among tremendous social and economic changes that the many agencies involved in youth-related the country is undergoing. issues will be critical and special emphasis must be placed on ensuring that the extensive A s i n o t h e r m i d d l e - i n c o m e youth policies are effectively translated into economies,Thailand'sepidemiological programs. Youth participation in the design of shift,universalizationofbasiceducation such policies and programs will be important not andmovementtowardamoreskilledand only to help make them more effective but also technology-basedlabormarketaregenerating to engage young people in actively exercising newchallengesthatparticularlyaffectyouth. their citizenship. Table 5.2 provides a summary The new health-related problems for Thai youth of possible policy directions for the future, using are now more similar to those of other developed the perspective of the three policy lenses of economies, including traffic accidents and expanding opportunities, improving capacity and unhealthy habits-smoking, alcohol and drug abuse providing second chances, across the three youth and poor dietary habits-that in turn generate transitions of growing up healthy, learning for work negative health outcomes during adulthood. The and life and moving from school to work. Building the next generation of Thailand about an enabling environment for youth of all human capital requires a concerted effort. The walks to thrive and realize their full potential. four main ministries responsible for promoting Moreover, policymaking must also be in tune the country's youth development agenda-MSDHS, with reality. It needs to listen, understand and MOE, MOPH and Ministry of Justice-must work incorporate the voices and vision of youth, the towards ensuring that every stakeholder- central stakeholder in this process, in order to including other governmental departments, NGOs be grounded on the will and aspirations of the and the private sector-come together to bring next generation. Table 5.2: Potential Directions for Youth Policy in Thailand Expandingopportunities Enhancingcapacity Providingsecondchances Growing up healthy -Effectively implement -Develop and implement -Provide youth-friendly and enforce bans information and habit health treatment and on advertisement of formation programs: rehabilitation services tobacco and alcohol -school and community- and restrictions on their based programs consumption by age and -peer education programs in public places -mass media programs -Provision of the means -innovative campaigns required to practice making use of new healthy behaviors-e.g. technologies condom provision -Subsidies and taxation policies to decrease the costs of healthy options and increase the costs of unhealthy ones Learningforworkandlife -Ensure equitable access -Help alleviate the direct -Continue monitoring and to upper secondary and and opportunity costs strengthening non- tertiary education of pursuing education at formal education as a -Improve the quality and the upper secondary and way to reintegrate youth relevance of academic and tertiary levels who dropped out of the vocational education as a education system bridge to the labor market Movingfromschooltowork -Strengthen the labor -Ensure that schools -Continue monitoring and market information operate as a bridge to the strengthening non-formal system labor market education -Eliminate child work, e.g. -Explore various modes -Explore new programs through demand-side of training programs, based on international mechanisms such as CCTs; including on-the-job experiences to help -Facilitate self-employment training reintegrate young people through the provision of -Diversify education options who dropped out of the financing alternatives for to accommodate various labor market youth student needs/capabilities -Promote rural off-farm as well as labor market work opportunities for needs young people ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon RefeRences ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon references Abelmann, Charles, Lee Chang and Pinchuda Tinakorn Na Ayudhaya. 2000. Changing Workplaces, Changing Skills: Views from the Thai Private Sector on Work- Organization, Employee recruitment and Selection, Thailand Secondary Education For Employment Background paper. Bangkok: Word Bank. Arya, Gosah. 2002. Wage and Youth Employment in Thailand. Prepared for ILO/Japan Tripartite Regional Meeting on Youth Employment in Asia and the Pacific, February 27 ­ March 1, 2002, Bangkok. Attanasio, Orazio, Emla Fitzsimons and Ana Gomez. 2005. The Impact of a Conditional Education Subsidy on School Enrollment in Colombia. London: The Institute for Fiscal Studies. Basu, Kaushik and Pham Hoang Van. 1998. "The Economics of Child Labor." Journal of American Economic Review 88(3): 412 ­ 427. Bettinger, Eric. 2005. Private School Vouchers in Colombia. Prepared for the conference: "Mobilizing the Private Sector for Public Education." Harvard University, 5-6 October 2005. Blunch, Niels-Hugo. 2004. Returns to Education in Thailand 1994-2002. Unpublished manuscript. Boonthai, Nongluk. 1998. "Abortion in Thailand, a Feminist Perspective." Journal of Buddhist Ethics 5: 22-48. Cardoso, Eliana and Andre Portela Souza. 2004. The Impact of Cash Transfers on Child Labor and School Attendance in Brazil. Nashville: Department of Economics, Vanderbilt University. Chitanondh, Hathai. 2002. Thailand Report on Tobacco Advertising and Promotion Bans. http://www.who.int/tobacco/training/success_stories/en/best_ practices_thailand_adv_ban.pdf. (accessed October 2, 2007). _______. 1991. Tobacco Use: An Update-April 1991. Bangkok: National Committee for Control of Tobacco Use, Ministry of Public Health. Curtain, Richard. 2004. Youth in Extreme Poverty: Dimentions and Policy Implications with Particular Focus on South East Asia. Melbourne: National Institute for Governance, Curtain Consulting. Deolalikar, Anil. 2005. Social Risks and Responses in Thailand: Analysis of Household and Individual Survey Information. World Bank's Country Development Partnership in Social Protection for Thailand 00 di Gropello, Emanuela. 2006. Meeting the Challenges of Secondary Education in Latin America and East Asia: Improving Efficiency and Resource Mobilization. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. de la Bričre, Bénédicte and Laura Rawlings. 2006. Examining Conditional Cash Transfer Programs: A Role for Increased Social Inclusion? Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Edstats, http://devdata.worldbank.org/edstats/ (accessed May 10, 2007). Filer, Randal, Daniel Hamermesh and Albert Rees. 1996. The Economics of Work and Pay. New York: Harper-Collins. Gill, Indermit and Homi Kharas. 2007. An East Asian Renaissance: Ideas for Economic Growth. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Glewwe, Paul and Pedro Olinto. 2004. Evaluating the Impact of Conditional Cash Transfers on Schooling: An Experimental Analysis of Honduras PRAF Program. Final Report for USAID. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute. Hofferth, Sandra. 1987. "Influences on Early Sexual and Fertility Behavior." Risking the Future: Adolescence Sexuality, Pregnancy and Childbearing Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: National Academic Press. Institute for Population and Social Research (IPSR), Mahidol University. 2006. Thai Health 2006. Bangkok: IPSR. International Council on National Youth Policy (ICNYP) and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). 2005. Comparative Analysis of National Youth Policies. Eschborn, Germany: GTZ. International Health Policy Program. 2007. Healthcare Financing in Thailand, presentation at the launch of Ministry of Public Health/World Bank Country Development Program in Health (CDP-H). International Labor Organization (ILO). 2006a. Global Employment Trends for Youth. Geneva: ILO. _______. 2006b. Labor and Social Trends in Asia and the Pacific 2006: Progress towards Decent Work. Bangkok: ILO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. _______. 2006c. Out of Work and Into School: Our Development Challenge. Bangkok: ILO. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon 0 Kanchanachitra, Churnrurthai, Chai Pdhisita, Kritaya Archavanitkul, Wassana Im-em, Kullawee Siriratmongkon, Hathairat Seangdung and Suporn Jarassit. 2006. Thai Health 2006: Facing the Challenge of Bird Flu. Bangkok: Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University. Kiragu, Karusa. 2001. "Youth and HIV/AIDS: Can We Avoid Catastrophe?" Population Reports, Series L, No. 12. Knowles, James and Jere Behrman. 2005. The Economic Returns to Investing in Youth in Developing Countries: A Review of the Literature. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Lall, Sanjaya. 1999. Raising Competitiveness in the Thai Economy. Paper prepared for ILO's Country Employment Policy Review. Li, Hongbin and Yi Zhu. 2006. "Income, Income Inequality and Health: Evidence from China." Journal of Comparative Economics 34:668 ­ 693. Lisborg anders and Paul Buckley. 2006. "Child Labor in Thailand." ILO AP Issues (volum)5:6-7. Lloyd, Cynthia. ed. 2005. Growing Up Global: The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. Ministry of Education (MOE). 2004. Thailand Report. Bangkok: MOE. Ministry of Public Health (MOPH). 2004. Thailand Health Profile 2001-2004. Bangkok: MOPH. _______. 2003. Thailand Nutrition Survey. Bangkok: MOHP. Mizunoya, Suguru, Kyoko Sugita, Yoona Yuam and Byunghoon Kim. 2006. Estimation of Provincial Youth Unemployment Rates in Thailand via Multi-level Model. New York: Unpublished manuscript. Morley, Samuel and David Coady. 2003. From Social Assistance to Social Development: Targeted Education Subsidies in Developing Countries. Washington, D.C.: Center for Global Development (CGD) and International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Naravage, Wanapa and Siriporn Yongpanichkul. 2003. "Situation Analysis of Emergency Contraceptive Use Among Young People in Thailand." Towards adulthood: Exploring sexual and reproductive health of adolescents in South Asia. Geneva: World Health Organization. 0 National Council for Child and Youth Development (NCCYD). 2005. Thailand NGO Report: The Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child 2000- 2004. Bangkok: NCCYD. National Statistical Office (NSO). 2006. Informal Sector Survey. Bangkok: NSO. _______. 2006. Migration Survey. Bangkok: NSO. _______. 2006. Report on Population Characteristics: the 2005-2006 Survey of Population Change. Bangkok: NSO. _______. 2006. Thailand Statistical Yearbook. Bangkok: NSO. _______. 2004. The Cigarette Smoking and Alcohol Drinking Behavior Survey. Bangkok: NSO. _______. 2003. Thailand's Key Statistics for Development. Bangkok: NSO. _______. 2003. Health and Welfare Survey. Bangkok: NSO. _______. 2002. Children and Youth Survey. Bangkok: NSO. _______. 1999. The Survey on Smoking Behavior of Thai Population. Bangkok: NSO. _______. 1994. Household Socio-Economic Survey. Bangkok: NSO. _______. 1985, 1991, 2000 and 2005. Labor Force Surveys. Bangkok: NSO. Office of the Education Council (OEC). 2006. Education in Thailand 2005/2006. Bangkok: OEC. _______. 2004. Education in Thailand 2004. Bangkok: OEC. _______. 2004, 2005. Thailand Education Statistics. Bangkok: OEC. Office of the National Education Commission (ONEC). 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003. Thailand Education Statistics. Bangkok: ONEC. _______. 1998. Education in Thailand. Bangkok: ONEC. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2005. "Education at a Glance." Education and Training: Statistics. http://www.oecd.org. _______. 2007. Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). http://www. pisa.oecd.org (accessed January 16, 2008). Osaki, Keiko. 2003. "Migrant Remittances in Thailand: Economic Necessities or Social Norm?" Journal of Population Research 20(2): 203-222. ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon 0 Podhisita, Chai, Peter Xenos, Jittinee Juntarodjana and Anchalee Varangrat. 2001. "Drinking, Smoking and Drug Use among Thai Youth: Effects of Family and Individual Factors." East-West Center Working Papers No.108-6. Ptanawanit, Surapone and Saksri Boribanbanpotkate. 2006. Assessing the Worst Forms of Child Labor in the Selected Five Provinces of Thailand: Chiang Rai, Tak, Udon Thani, Songkla and Pattani. Bangkok: the International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor, the International Labor Organization (ILO/IPEC) Ramajitti Institute. 2005. Child Watch Project: Thai Children in Cultural Dimensions. Bangkok: Ramajitti Institute. Rawlings, Laura and Gloria Rubio. Evaluating the Impact of Conditional Cash Transfer Program. Washington, D.C.:World Bank. Ray, Ranjan. 2004. "Child Labor: a Survey of Selected Asian Countries." Journal of Asia-Pacific Economic Literature 18: 1-18. Reunglertpanyakul, Vitoon. 2001. National Study: Thailand The Role of Agriculture and Rural Development in Thailand.Regional Workshop on "Exploring the Potential of Organic Agriculture for Rural Poverty Alleviation in Asia and the Pacific." Chiang Mai, Thailand. Richter, Kasper. 2006. Thailand's Growth Path: From Recovery to Prosperity. Washington, D.C.: East Asia Poverty Reduction and Economic Management, World Bank. Ruangkanchanasetr, Suwanna, Adisak Plitponkarnpim, Priyasuda Hetrakul and Ronnachai Kongsakon. 2005. "Youth Risk Behavior Survey: Bangkok, Thailand" Journal of Adolescent Health 36(3):227-235. Sarntisart, Isra. 2003. An Economic Analysis of Tobacco Control in Thailand. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Sattah, Martin, Somsak Supawitkul, Timothy J. Dondero, Peter H. Kilmarx, Nancy L. Young, Timothy D. Mastro, Supaporn Chaikummao, Chomnad Manopaiboon and Frits van Griensven. 2002. "Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Methamphetamine Use in Northern Thai Youth: Results of an Audio-Computer Assisted Self-Interviewing Survey with Urine Testing." Addiction 97(7):801 ­ 8. Schultz, Paul. 2001. School Subsidies for the Poor: Evaluating the Mexican Progresa Poverty Program. Yale University. Seal,Nuananong.2006."PreventingTobaccoandDrugUseamongThaiHighSchool StudentsthroughLifeSkillsTraining."NursingandHealthSciences8(3):164­168. 0 Skoufias, Emmanuel and Susan Parker. 2001. Conditional Cash Transfers and their Impact on Child Work and Schooling: Evidence from the Progresa Program in Mexico. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute. Sparrow, Robert. 2004. Protecting Education for the Poor in Times of Crisis: An Evaluation of a Scholarship Program in Indonesia. SMERU Research Institute: Amsterdam. Sunthornkajit, Vittawan, Thanakorn Kaiyanunta, Pornvisid Varavarn and Somrouy Varatechakongka. 2002. Thailand: Child Labor in Illicit Drug Activities: A Rapid Assessment. Geneva: International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor, ILO. Suwan, Manus and others. 2001. University Mapping. Bangkok: Office of the Education Council. Tangnamo, Somkiat. 2003. "Thai Universities are Virus Infected." http://www. midnightuniv.org (accessed May 14, 2007). Thai Working Group on HIV/AIDS Projections. 2005. The Risk Behavior Surveillance and the Projection of New HIV Infections. Bangkok: MOPH. _______. 2001. Projections for HIV/AIDS in Thailand: 2000-2020. Bangkok: MOPH. Thailand Development Research Institute (TDRI). 2001. Problems and Trends of Child Labor in Thailand and the Impact on Future of Child Laborers. Bangkok: TDRI. Thailand Research Fund (TRF) Regional Office. 2003. Child Watch Project: The Report of Thai Children See through a Trick. Chiang Mai: TRF Regional Office. Thato, Sathja, Denise Charron-Prochownik, Lorah Dorn, Susan Albrech and Clement Stone. 2003. "Predictors of Condom Use among Adolescent Thai Vocational Students." Journal of Nursing Scholarship 35(2): 157. Tirasawat, Penporn, Pattanawadee Xuto, Rossarin Gray and Rungratana Kowantanakul. 2003. Underemployment in Thailand. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University. UNAIDS. 2006. Asia Fact Sheet, Epidemic Update, November 2006. _______. 2005. Asia Fact Sheet, Epidemic Update 2005. United Nations (Committee on the Rights of the Child). 2006. Concluding observations: Thailand. http://tb.ohchr.org/default.aspx?country=th (accessed January 18, 2008). ThaIland SocIal MonITor on YouTh: developMenT and The nexT GeneraTIon 0 United Nations. 2005. World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision. New York: Population Division, Department of Social and Economic Affairs, United Nations. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2006. Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women: Thailand Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) December 2005 ­ February 2006. Bangkok: UNICEF. _______. 2003. UNICEF Country Consultation on Young People, Drugs and Substances. Bangkok: UNICEF. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). 2006. "Turning the Tide Against HIV/AIDS: Targeting Youth." Socio-Economic Policy Brief 5:1-4. _______. 2000. Youth in Thailand: A Review of the Youth Situation and National Policies and Programmes. New York: United Nations. Van Griensven, Frits, Sombat Thanprasertsuk, Rapeepun Jommaroeng, Gordon Mansergh, Sathapana Naorat, Richard Jenkins, Kumnuan Ungchusak, Praphan Phanuphak and Jordan Tappero. 2005. Evidence of a previously undocumented epidemic of HIV infection among men who have sex with men in Bangkok, Thailand, Journal of the International AIDS Society, Vol. 19, No.5. Vasi, Praves. 2002. "Higher Education Choices for Sovereignty." http://www. midnightuniv.org. (accessed May 14, 2007). Weisberg, Jacob and Noah Meltz. 1999. "Education and Unemployment in Israel, 1976- 1994: reducing the anomaly." Relations Industrielles 54(4): 673 ­ 692. World Bank. 2007a. The Promise of Youth: Policy for Youth at Risk in Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington D.C.: World Bank. _______. 2007b. World Development Report 2007: Development and the Next Generation. Washington D.C.: World Bank. _______. 2006a. Doing Business 2007: How to Reform. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. _______. 2006b. Thailand Investment Climate, Firm Competitiveness and Growth. Washington D.C.: Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region, World Bank. _______. 2006c. Thailand Social Monitor: Improving Secondary Education. Bangkok: World Bank. 0 _______. 2004. World Development Indicators. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. _______. 2001. World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. _______. 2000. World Development Report: Entering the 21st Century. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. World Health Organization. 2002. "Youth Tobacco Rapid Assessment and Response Guide." http://www.who.int/hpr/youth/html/yt-rar/Contents.html (accessed October 2, 2007). Ngandee Creation Co.,Ltd. Tel. 081.551.7462