ICT IN AGRICULTURE
Updated Edition
e-SOURCEBOOK
ICT IN AGRICULTURE
Connecting Smallholders to
Knowledge, Networks,
and Institutions
Updated Edition
KWPF
KOREA-WORLD BANK
PARTNERSHIP FACILITY
© 2017 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank
1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433
Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org
Some rights reserved
1 2 3 4 20 19 18 17
This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and
conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors,
or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The
boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the
part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
Nothing herein shall constitute or be considered to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of The
World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved.
Rights and Permissions
This work is available under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (CC BY 3.0 IGO) http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/3.0/igo. Under the Creative Commons Attribution license, you are free to copy, distribute, transmit, and
adapt this work, including for commercial purposes, under the following conditions:
Attribution—Please cite the work as follows: World Bank 2017. ICT in Agriculture: Connecting Smallholders to Knowledge,
Networks, and Institutions. Updated Edition. Washington, DC: World Bank.
doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-1002-2. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO
Translations—If you create a translation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution: This
translation was not created by The World Bank and should not be considered an official World Bank translation.
The World Bank shall not be liable for any content or error in this translation.
Adaptations—If you create an adaptation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution:
This is an adaptation of an original work by The World Bank. Views and opinions expressed in the adaptation are the sole
responsibility of the author or authors of the adaptation and are not endorsed by The World Bank.
Third-party content—The World Bank does not necessarily own each component of the content contained within the work.
The World Bank therefore does not warrant that the use of any third-party-owned individual component or part contained
in the work will not infringe on the rights of those third parties. The risk of claims resulting from such infringement rests
solely with you. If you wish to re-use a component of the work, it is your responsibility to determine whether permission is
needed for that re-use and to obtain permission from the copyright owner. Examples of components can include, but are
not limited to, tables, figures, or images.
All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street
NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org.
ISBN (paper): 978-1-4648-1002-2
ISBN (electronic): 978-1-4648-1023-7
DOI: 10.1596/978-1-4648-1002-2
Cover photo:
© Ami Vitale / Panos Pictures. Used with the permission of Ami Vitale / Panos Pictures. Further permission required for reuse.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been requested.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
C O NT E NT S V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
OVERVIEW OF ICT IN AGRICULTURE: OPPORTUNITIES, ACCESS, AND CROSSCUTTING THEMES
Module 1 Introduction: ICT in Agricultural Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Module 2 Making ICT Infrastructure, Appliances, and Services More
Accessible and Affordable in Rural Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Topic Note 2.1: Making ICT Affordable in Rural Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Topic Note 2.2: Public Innovations in Universal Access to Telecommunications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Passive Infrastructure Sharing in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Turkey’s Oligopolistic Infrastructure Sharing Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Dabba’s Experience with Unlicensed Wireless Services in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Bhutan’s Community Information Centers Adapt to the Geographical and Consumer Context. . . . . . . . 34
Topic Note 2.3: Mobile Money Moves to Rural Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
M-PESA’s Pioneering Money Transfer Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Zain Zap Promotes Borderless Mobile Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Pakistan’s Tameer Microfinance Bank for the Economically Active Poor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Txteagle Taps a Vast, Underused Workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Topic Note 2.4: Delivering Content for Mobile Agricultural Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
First-Mover Advantage Benefits Reuters Market Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Long Experience in Farm Communities Benefits IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Farmer’s Friend Offers Information on Demand, One Query at a Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Module 3 Anytime, Anywhere: Mobile Devices and Services and Their Impact on
Agriculture and Rural Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Topic Note 3.1: Key Benefits and Challenges Related to Mobile Phones and Agricultural Livelihoods . . . . . . 52
Weather Forecasting Reduces Agricultural Risk in Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Mobile Phones Are the Heart of Esoko’s Virtual Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Topic Note 3.2: Two Typologies and General Principles for Using Mobile Phones in Agricultural Projects. . . . . 61
Mobile Service Gives Local and Global Edge to Chilean Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
For Reuters Market Light, the Wider Network of People Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Nokia Life Tools Uses Simple Technologies to Deliver New Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Module 4 Extending the Benefits—Gender-Equitable, ICT-Enabled
Agricultural Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Topic Note 4.1: Mobile Finance and Gender in Rural Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Designing Mobile Finance Products for Rural Women in Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Topic Note 4.2: Mobile Learning, Gender, and Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Dimitra Clubs: Rural Communities Learn and Mobilize for Change with Participatory
Communication Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Participatory Community Video Highlights Local Agriculture-Nutrition Links and Best Practices for Health . . . . 92
Talking Books Deliver Valuable Advice, No Reading Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
VI C ONTENTS
ENHANCING PRODUCTIVITY ON THE FARM
Module 5 Increasing Crop, Livestock, and Fishery Productivity Through ICT . . . . . . . . . . 99
Topic Note 5.1: Achieving Good Farming Practices through Improved Soil, Nutrient, and Land Management . . . 105
Seeing-Is-Believing Project Improves Precision Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Improving Nitrogen Fertilization in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Monitoring Livestock to Prevent Pasture Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Topic Note 5.2: Preventing Yield Losses through Proper Planning and Early Warning Systems . . . . . . . . . . 117
Radio Frequency Identification to Prevent and Treat Cattle Disease in Botswana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Digital Orthophoto Quads Form a Database for the Dominican Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Using Landsat to Assess Irrigation Systems in Mali. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Module 6 ICTs, Digital Tools, and Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems . . . . . 127
Topic Note 6.1: ICT, Digital Tools, and Agricultural Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Fujitsu “Akisai” Cloud Initiative for the Food and Agricultural Industries and Research . . . . . . . . . . . 142
KAINet Kenya Knowledge Network Anchored in Partnerships and Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Topic Note 6.2: ICT, Digital Tools, and Extension and Advisory Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
E-Extension with a Business Orientation in Jamaica’s Rural Agricultural Development Authority (RADA) . . . 152
Videos on Rice Seed Production Bring Multiple Benefits to Bangladeshi Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Participatory Video and Internet Complement Extension in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Topic Note 6.3: ICT, Digital Tools, and E-Learning and Education in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Lifelong Learning for Farmers in Tamil Nadu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Innovative E-Learning for Farmers through Collaboration and Multimodal Outreach . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Module 7 Broadening Smallholders’ Access to financial Services through ICT . . . . . . . . 165
Topic Note 7.1: The Use of ICT-enabled Financial Services in the Rural Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Linking Conditional Cash Transfers and Rural Finance in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
RFID Facilitates Insurance and Credit for India’s Livestock Producers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Topic Note 7.2: Policy Strategies and Regulatory Issues for ICT-enabled Rural Financial Services . . . . . . . . 177
Kenya’s DrumNet Links Farmers, Markets, and Financial Service Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
A Common Platform Delivers Financial Services to Rural India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Module 8 Farmer Organizations Work Better With ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Topic Note 8.1: Finding Better Markets and Sharing Technical Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Zambia’s National Farmer Organization Develops a Text-Based Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
The Sounong Search Engine for Farmer Organizations in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Field Data Collection Tool for Certified Farmer Groups in Sustainable Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Topic Note 8.2: Dairy Cooperatives Lead the Way with Computerized Systems to Improve Accounting,
Administration, and Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
IT Tools for India’s Dairy Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
CoopWorks Dairy and Coffee, Open Source Software Launched in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
ICT Improves Marketing and Governance for a Malian Cooperative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Topic Note 8.3: Giving Farmers a Voice and Sharing Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Community Listeners’ Clubs Empower Social Networks in Rural Niger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Through Social Media, a Women’s Producer Network in Caribbean Small Island States Improves Its
Communication Capacity, Outreach, and Knowledge Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
The Case of the Pan-African Farmers’ Organization (PAFO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
C O NT E NT S V II
ASSESSING MARKETS AND VALUE CHAINS
Module 9 Strengthening Agricultural Market Access with ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Module 10 ICT Applications for Agricultural Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Topic Note 10.1: ICT Applications for Mitigating Agricultural Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Through mKRISHI, Farmers Translate Information into Action to Mitigate Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Topic Note 10.2: ICT Applications to Transfer Agricultural Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
ICT Enables Innovative Index-Based Livestock Insurance in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Kilimo Salama Delivers Index-Based Input Insurance in Kenya through ICT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Topic Note 10.3: ICT Applications for Coping with Agricultural Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Electronic Vouchers Are a Targeted, Traceable Lifeline for Zambian Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Community Knowledge Workers in Uganda Link Farmers and Experts to Cope with Risk . . . . . . . . . . 277
Module 11 Global Markets, Global Challenges: Improving Food Safety and Traceability
while Empowering Smallholders through ICT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Topic Note 11.1: The Importance of Standard Setting and Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Mango Traceability System Links Malian Smallholders and Exporters to Global Consumers . . . . . . . . . 299
Topic Note 11.2: Traceability Technologies, Solutions, and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
ShellCatch in Chile Guarantees Origin of the Catch from Artisanal Fishers and Divers . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
IMPROVING PUBLIC SERVICE PROVISION
Module 12 Strengthening Rural Governance, Institutions, and Citizen
Participation Using ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Topic Note 12.1: Public Agencies and the Provision of E-Government. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Building Public Service Provision through Internet Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Agricultural and Rural Information through Ministerial Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Using Biometrics to Provide Rural Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
E-Government to Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
E-Government to Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Topic Note 12.2: Civil Society and the Provision of E-services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Providing ‘Hubs’ for ICT Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
E-Learning through the Web and SMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Collecting Data to Protect Local Knowledge and Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Topic Note 12.3: Increasing Citizen Participation through E-democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Information Kiosks in India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Virtual Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Government Responsiveness through Citizen Participation in Digitized Political Processes . . . . . . . . . 334
Digital Media Forums in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Module 13 ICT for Land Administration and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Topic Note 13.1: Supporting Land Markets with ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
ICT-Based Property Value Estimate Information Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
European Land Information Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
VIII C ONTENTS
Topic Note 13.2: ICT Support for Land Management, Planning, Development, and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
E-Planning Portal in Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Virtual Landscape Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Topic Note 13.3: ICT Support for Land Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Sweden’s Large-Scale Land Consolidation Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Turkey Land Consolidation Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Topic Note 13.4: ICT Support FOR Good Governance in Land Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
ICT and the Land Governance Assessment Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Improving Public Access to Land Administration Services in Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Topic Note 13.5: Public sector Information Policy Supporting Effective ICT-based Information Services . . . . . 362
A Policy Framework to Support the Lao PDR’s National Land and Natural Resource Information System . . . 363
Vietnam’s One-Stop Shop for E-Government Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Topic Note 13.6: Sustainable Funding of ICT in Land Administration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
ICT-Derived Efficiencies in the Kyrgyz Republic Benefit Land Office Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
The Philippines: A Public-Private Approach to ICT Financing and Risk Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Topic Note 13.7: Designing Scalable and Interoperable Land Information Infrastructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Combining Open Source Solutions with Open Geospatial Consortium Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
The Kyrgyz Republic’s Open Source Strategy and GIS Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Social Tenure Domain Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Module 14 Using ICT to Improve Forest Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Topic Note 14.1: Pillar 1—Transparency, Accountability, and Public Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Participatory Mapping in Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
The Central Vigilance Commission Website in India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
PoiMapper in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Topic Note 14.2: Pillar 2—Quality of Forest Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Fire Alert Systems Integrating Remote Sensing and GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Kenya: Solving Human/Elephant Conflicts with Mobile Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Topic Note 14.3: Pillar 3—Coherence of Forest Legislation and THE Rule of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Ghana’s National Wood Tracking System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Liberia: LiberFor Chain of Custody. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Topic Note 14.4: Pillar 4—Economic Efficiency, Equity, and Incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
RFID Chips for Efficient Wood Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Module 15 Using ICT for Remote Sensing, Crowdsourcing, and Big Data to
Unlock the Potential of Agricultural Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Topic Note 15.1: Remote Sensing for Sustainable Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Using Multispectral Satellite Images and Energy Surface Balance Models to Calculate Crop and Water
Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Topic Note 15.2: Crowdsourcing and Crowdmapping: The Power of Volunteers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Crowdsourcing Supplier Data via Mobile Phone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Combining Gaming and Crowdsourcing to Identify and Monitor Cropland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
C O NT E NT S IX
Topic Note 15.3: Big Data for Analytics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Generating Open Access, Spatially Explicit Data Sets, and Analyses for More Productive Farming
and Better Livelihoods in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
The ILSI Crop Composition Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Using Big Data to Provide Localized Weather and Agronomic Information to Producers . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
X FIGUR ES
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. Percentage of the World’s Population Covered by a Mobile Cellular Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Figure 1.2. African Undersea Cables, Those Working and Those in Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Figure 1.3. Global ICT Development, 2000–10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 2.1. Access to ICT Infrastructure, Appliances, in Services and the Access Rainbow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 2.2. Access to ICT by Level of Development, Based on the ICT Development Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 2.3. ICT Price Subbaskets by Level of Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 2.4. Telecommunications, IT, and Media Industry Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 3.1. Global Mobile Cellular Subscriptions, Total and per 100 Inhabitants, 2000–10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figure 3.2. Information Search Cost by Stage of Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Figure 4.1. Mobile Phone Ownership in Low- and Middle-Income Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Figure 4.2. Women Predominate among Illiterate Adults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Figure 5.1. Defining the Relationship Between Types of ICT and Yield Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Figure 5.2. Organic Carbon, Share in Subsoils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Figure 5.3. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), Distributed Collection Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Figure 5.4. Akvasmart Doppler Pellet Sensor Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 5.5. Precision Farming through Satellite Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Figure 6.1. Knowledge Sharing and Collaboration Tools in the Research Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Figure 7.1. Smallholder Farmers Are the Largest Group of Working-Age Poor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Figure 7.2. Low Access to Financial Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 7.3. Low Utilization of Financial Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 7.4. Access Is Worse for Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 7.5. Commercial Banks Are Main Players . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 7.6. ICT and the Rural Finance Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Figure 7.7. Channels for Financial Inclusion for Bolsa Família Beneficiaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Figure 7.8. Benefits to Stakeholders in DrumNet’s Sunflower Supply Chain Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Figure 7.9. Flow of Goods, Information, and Money in DrumNet’s Sunflower Supply Chain Partnerships . . . . . . . . 180
Figure 7.10. Other Types of ICT Used by Financial Inclusion Network and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Figure 7.11. Cost Structure of Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Figure 7.12. Financiers of Financial Inclusion Network and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Figure 8.1. Conceptual Technological Framework for the SOUNONG Search Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Figure 9.1. Percentage of Farmers in India Relying on a Given Information Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 9.2. Farmers’ Differing Information Priorities and Sources of Market Information in Indonesia,
India, and Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 9.3. Commercial Farmers’ Information Needs and Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Figure 9.4. Market Information Affects Farmers’ Profits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Figure 9.5. ICT Input for Marketing along the Agricultural Value Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Figure 10.1. Ownership of Radios and Mobile Phones in Ghana, Kenya, and Zambia, 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
FI G U R E S XI
Figure 10.2. The mKRISHI Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Figure 10.3. Value and Quantity of Electronic Voucher Transactions in Zambia, 2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Figure 11.1. Coffee: Attributes of Interest and Depth of Traceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Figure 11.2. Mobile Technology as a Key Enabler of Information Counterflow from Farmers to Markets . . . . . . . . . 289
Figure 11.3. Soybean Traceability System in Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Figure 11.4. Scottish Borders TAG Cattle Tracing System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Figure 11.5. Incentives for Investment in Traceability Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Figure 11.6. Peanut Corporation of America Recall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Figure 11.7. Fresh Food Trace Web Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Figure 11.8. ICT Enables Information Flow from Farmers to Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Figure 11.9. Embayment Management and Shellfish Traceability in Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Figure 12.1. Relationships Between Key Stakeholders in the Agrarian Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Figure 12.2. Singular Infrastructure versus Centralized Infrastructure in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Figure 13.1. Benefits of Good Land Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Figure 13.2. Evolution of ICT in Land Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Figure 13.3. Sustainable Development Needs Both Urban and Rural Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Figure 13.4. Influences on the Land Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Figure 13.5. A Property Information Service in the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Figure 13.6. Example of E-Planning Portal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Figure 13.7. Parcels Before and After Land Consolidation with New Irrigation Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Figure 15.1. Example of a Big Data Analytics Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Figure 15.2. Life Cycle of Digital Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Figure 15.3. Big Data Maturity Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
XI I IM AGES
LIST OF IMAGES
Image 1.1. Soil Data Can Be Collected and Disseminated Using Various Types of ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Image 1.2. Google Map of Kampala, Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Image 1.3. Public-Private Partnerships Often Lead to More Sustainable Services for Rural People. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Image 1.4. Determining Levels of Inclusiveness Is a Critical Factor in ICT Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Image 1.5. A Collaborative Effort Among Many Actors Is Important for ICT in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Image 2.1. Cell Services in Rural South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Image 2.2. Ghana’s Telecommunications Infrastructure Expands the Use of Mobile Money . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Image 2.3. Girl Uses Phone in Community Meeting in India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Image 3.1. Mobile Phones Can Help Fishermen Sell Their Catch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Image 3.2. Other Challenges, Like Inadequate Transportation, Affect Mobile Phone Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Image 3.3. The Reuters Market Light Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Image 3.4. The Agriculture Package in Nokia Life Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Image 4.1. Population of Unconnected Women in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Image 5.1. Nitrogen-Sensor Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Image 5.2. WSN Can Help Monitor the Quality of Pastures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Image 5.3. Farmers Learn to Use Images of Their Farms to Improve Productivity and Resource Management . . . . . 115
Image 5.4. Infrared Sensor Technology Increases the Cost-Efficiency of Nitrogen Fertilizer Applications
in the Yaqui Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Image 5.5. Mobile Applications Help to Monitor and Protect Fishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Image 5.6. Satellite Image of Vegetation Changes from 1998 to 2004 (Red Indicates Decreasing
Vegetation and Green Indicates an Increase) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Image 5.7. Two Examples of Digital Orthophoto Quads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Image 6.1. Specialized Knowledge on Farm Practices Can Result in Profitable Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Image 6.2. ICT must be Complemented by Other Inputs, Such as Improved Seedlings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Image 6.3. Accessing Private Sector Research Could Have Wide Impacts on Poor Agriculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Image 6.4. Matching ICT to the Diverse Needs of Farmers Is Critical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Image 6.5. Timely Advisory Services Improve the Effectiveness of Other Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Image 6.6. New Technologies Have Allowed for More Innovative Radio Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Image 6.7. Farmer-Led Documentation Processes Can Use Digital Tools in Place of Paper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Image 6.8. Women Who Saw Instructional Videos Produced Healthier Seeds, Earned More, and
Gained Confidence in Seeking and Sharing New Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Image 6.9. Increased Household Rice Stocks in a Video Village in Northwestern Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Image 6.10. E-Learning Creates Opportunities for Rural Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Image 6.11. Women Use Mobile Phones to Learn Better Goat Production Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Image 7.1. RFID Can Be Used to Track Cattle and Manage Herds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Image 8.1. Women’s Cooperative Processing Shea Butter in Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Image 8.2. ICT Programs Like SOUNONG Help Cooperatives Identify Livestock Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
I M AG E S X III
Image 8.3. Many Enablers Are Needed to Ensure Cooperatives Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Image 8.4. Clara Moita, Broadcaster with Radio 5 in Arusha, Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Image 9.1. Market Information Tools Used by Smallholder Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Image 9.2. Schematic Presentation of TruTrade Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Image 9.3. Billboard for Zero-Cost EAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Image 9.4. Timely and Efficient Data Collection by Farmforce Frees Time for Farmer Training . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Image 9.5. Steps of the Farmbook Business Support Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Image 10.1. Unexpected Changes in Climate Contribute to Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Image 10.2. The mKRISHI Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Image 10.3. Pastoralism in Africa Is a Critical Means to Rural Livelihoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Image 10.4. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, Marsabit District, Kenya, February 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Image 10.5. Weather Station in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Image 10.6. Map of Flood Reports, Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Image 10.7. Transactions Using Mobile Phones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Image 10.8. Community Knowledge Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Image 11.1. Mango Growers in Mali Use Mobile Devices to Log Traceability Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Image 12.1. Online Access to Public Data, Such as the Ghana Living Standards Surveys, Can Stimulate
Research and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Image 12.2. Biometric Identification Can Replace Traditional Forms of Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Image 12.3. One-Stop Shops Using ICT Can Increase Efficiencies in SME Start-Ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Image 12.4. mLab in East Africa Assists Agricultural Entrepreneurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Image 12.5. CyberTracker Gives Users Icon and Word Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Image 12.6. Rural Kiosks Can Lead to Information Sharing Between Agrarian Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
image 12.7. ICT Can Support Well Water Infrastructure Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Image 13.1. Women Use GIS Instruments to Map Land and Measure Soil Qualities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Image 13.2. LARASITA: A Mobile Land Office in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Image 14.1. Scanning Barcodes in Forests Enhances Forest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Image 14.2. Long-Term Investments Are Critical to Scaling Up Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Image 14.3. User-Friendly Tools Allow Local Participation in Forest Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Image 14.4. POIMapping in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Image 14.5. Satellite Imagery Can Map Levels of Vegetation, Forest Cover, and Forest Degradation . . . . . . . . . 390
Image 14.6. Tracking through Barcodes, RFID, GPS, and Other Technologies Improves the Chain of Custody . . . . 396
Image 14.7. Online Timber Sales in the UK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Image 15.1. Different Spectral Bands for Satellite Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Image 15.2. Examples of Low- and High-Resolution Pimapping Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Image 15.3. Screenshot of Cropland Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Image B15.10.1. HarvestChoice’s Mappr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Image B15.10.2. HarvestChoice’s grid-based multi-disciplinary indicator database (CELL5M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Image 15.4. Screenshot of aWhere’s Online Dashboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
XI V TA B LES
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1. Themes Treated in Sourcebook Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Table 2.1. Characteristics of Universal Access and Universal Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Table 2.2. Key Enabling Factors for Innovations in Rural ICT Provision in Nigeria, Turkey, South Africa, and Bhutan . . . . 35
Table 2.3. Lessons Learned from Rural ICT Provision in Nigeria, Turkey, South Africa, and Bhutan . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Table 2.4. Key Enabling Factors for Innovations in Mobile Financial and Income Services Worldwide . . . . . . . . . . 42
Table 2.5. Lessons Learned from Mobile Financial and Income Services in Rural Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Table 2.6. Key Enabling Factors for Delivering Agricultural Information to Farmers in India and Uganda. . . . . . . . . 46
Table 2.7. Lessons Learned in Delivering Agricultural Information to Farmers in India and Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Table 3.1. The Impact of Mobile-Based Livelihood Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Table 3.2. Various Roles for Mobile Phones in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Table 6.1. Objectives and Achievements of ICT to Support RADA Extension Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Table 8.1. Specific Types of ICT Discussed in This Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Table 9.1. Summary of ICT’s Impact on Farmers’ Prices and Incomes, Traders’ Margins, and Prices to Consumers. . . . 228
Table 9.2. Current and Future Roles of ICT in Agricultural Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Table 9.3. Agricultural Interventions Made through e-Choupal Kiosks and Their Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Table 9.4. Information Priorities of Farmers Using Mobile Phone in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Table 9.5. TruTrade Transactions and Payments to White Sorghum Producers, Uganda, 2015/16. . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Table 10.1. Farmers’ Information Needs in Relation to the Crop Cycle and Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Table 11.1. Examples of Food Safety Outbreaks, 1971–2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Table 11.2. Traceability Systems Adopted in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Table 11.3. Examples of Food Traceability–Related Regulations and Standards, with Particular Application
in Food Safety and Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Table 11.4. Traceability Applications in Agriculture and Agrifood Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Table 12.1. Examples of ICT in E-Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Table 12.2. E-Government Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Table 12.3. ICT-Enabled Agriculture Interventions and Their Impact on Rural Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Table 12.4. Comparing Costs for Electronic Toll Collection, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Table 13.1. Where Registering Property Is Easy and Where It Is Not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Table 14.1. Pillars of Forest Governance and ICT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Table 14.2. Summary of Field Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
IC T IN AGR IC ULTUR E
B OX E S XV
LIST OF BOXES
Box 1.1. Globalizing Food Markets and New Challenges for Smallholder Farmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Box 2.1. The Risks of Picking Winners in the Rapidly Evolving IT Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Box 2.2. Singapore’s Simplified Licenses Encourage Innovative, Cost-Effective ICT Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . 20
Box 2.3. Balancing Quality and Service in Reaching Rural Areas: Fixed-Line versus Wireless Backhaul. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Box 2.4. Chile’s ICT Policies for Connectivity and Economic Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Box 2.5. Lessons from South Africa’s Experience in Migrating to Digital Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Box 2.6. CDMA450 Technology Connects Rural Kazakhstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Box 2.7. Mobile Phones with Features Attract Rural Users in China and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Box 2.8. MXit Blends Entertainments and Practical Content in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Box 2.9. India Exemplifies Evolution in the Public Provision of Low-Cost Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Box 3.1. What Is a Mobile Application? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Box 3.2. Mobile Phones Enable Kerala Fishers to Identify Better Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Box 3.3. One Device, Many Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Box 3.4. Mobile Phones, Agriculture, and Gender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Box 3.5. An Esoko Transaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Box 3.6. Kilimo Salama Demonstrates the Convergence of Mobile Phones and Sophisticated Mobile Services . . . . 63
Box 4.1. Seven Critical Factors for the Success of ICT in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Box 4.2. The Gender Divide in Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Box 4.3. Remote Control for Irrigation Alleviates Time and Mobility Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Box 4.4. A Step-by-Step Guide to Introducing ICT-Based Solutions with a Gender Focus on Agricultural Projects . . . 77
Box 4.5. Esoko’s Mobile Market Information Service Reaches Farmers in 16 African Countries,
but Finds a Gender Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Box 4.6. Women Advancing Agriculture Promotes Equal Access to Information through Voice Messaging . . . . . . 81
Box 4.7. Mobile Finance Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Box 4.8. Evidence of Positive impacts of Mobile Financial Services on Women’s Finance and
Business Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Box 4.9. Positive Impacts from M-Pesa in East Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Box 4.10. Mobile Learning Expands Women’s Livestock Rearing and Business Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Box 4.11. Mobile Learning in Local Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Box 4.12. Videos Easily Adapt to Local Audiences to Build Women’s Knowledge of Maternal and Child Nutrition . . . 89
Box 4.13. Adapting Mobile Phone Use to Sociocultural Norms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Box 4.14. Women and the Web Alliance—Training That Empowers Women and Girls Online. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Box 4.15. An Open Course on Digital and Mobile Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Box 5.1. The Food Security Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Box 5.2. Gender in Agricultural Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Box 5.3. Using Remote Sensors and Similar Tools to Measure Soil Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Box 5.4. Collecting African Soil Data over Time to Understand Soil Degradation Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
XV I B OX ES
Box 5.5. Rewarding Farmers for Carbon Sequestration in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Box 5.6. Web-Based GIS for Paddy Precision Farming, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Box 5.7. Crowdsourcing Prevents Cassava Losses in Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Box 5.8. Modeling India’s Groundnut Yield through Climate Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Box 6.1. Cloud Computing Improves Open Access and Open Data in Agriculture while Integrating
New Technologies for New Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Box 6.2. Agricultural Research Center Facilitates Open Access and Global Platform for Sharing Knowledge . . . . . 129
Box 6.3. Key Elements of ICT Systems for Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Box 6.4. ICT Engages Stakeholders in Formulating an Ambitious Research Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Box 6.5. Rural Tanzanians Update Researchers on Spreading Cassava Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Box 6.6. Open Applications for Mobile Digital Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Box 6.7. Dataverse: An Open Application for Storing and Analyzing Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Box 6.8. Reference Management Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Box 6.9. Driving Developing-Country Access to Research Results: CIARDRING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Box 6.10. AgriProfiles, a Global Search Portal of Profiles of Experts and Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Box 6.11. Interactive Radio Programs Perform Governance Roles and Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Box 6.12. Access Agriculture’s Web and Social Media Platforms for Sharing Training Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Box 6.13. Mobile Phones as Tools for Farmer Surveys and Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Box 7.1. Farmers Require Four Kinds of Financial Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Box 7.2. ICT Increases the Availability of Rural Finance in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Box 7.3. In Rural Kenya and South Africa, ICT Applications Reduce the Cost of Financial Services . . . . . . . . . . 171
Box 7.4. Increased Operational Efficiency in Africa through ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Box 7.5. Financial Service Providers in the United States and Mozambique Use ICT to Improve Risk Management . . . 172
Box 7.6. Using ICT to Identify Financial Service Clients in Africa and South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Box 8.1. Factors That Can Hamper Women’s Uptake of ICT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Box 8.2. The Market-Led, User-Owned ICT4Ag-Enabled Information Service (MUIIS), Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Box 8.3. Using ICT to Access Market Information: Agricultural Commodity Exchange for Africa (ACE), Malawi . . . . 195
Box 8.4. Farmerline’s Voice Messaging Service Empowers Female Smallholders in Northern Ghana . . . . . . . . . 196
Box 8.5. India’s IKSL: Potential to Reach a Vast Farmer Base with Interactive Ago-Advisory Services . . . . . . . . . 196
Box 8.6. Chile’s Coopeumo and the Mobile Information Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Box 8.7. The e-Granary Platform of the Eastern Africa Farmers Federation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Box 8.8. A Checklist of Considerations for Designing an Effective, Sustainable, ICT-Based Project to Support
Farmer Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Box 8.9. Considerations for Effectively, Sustainably Computerizing Farmer Organizations and Cooperatives . . . . . 208
Box 8.10. What Is ERP?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Box 8.11. Considerations for Effectively, Sustainably Enabling Farmers to Share Information and Gain
a Greater Voice in the Agricultural Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Box 10.1. Reuters Market Light Disseminates Early Warnings to Mitigate Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Box 10.2. How Does Insurance Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Box 10.3. What Is Index Insurance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Box 10.4. Commodity Futures Markets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Box 10.5. Information Services Used by Community Knowledge Workers in Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Box 13.1. Outcomes of Automating Land Registration in Andhra Pradesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Box 13.2. Augmented Reality in Real Estate Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Box 13.3. Reducing Corruption in Land Offices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
B OX E S X V II
Box 13.4. Creative Commons Supports Open Government Licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Box 14.1. The Building Blocks of Forest Governance and Their Principal Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Box 14.2. Vietnam: Management Information System for the Forestry Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Box 14.3. Website of the Forestry Commission, United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Box 14.4. Advocacy and Awareness Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Box 14.5. Uganda—Environment Alert: Civil Society Organizations Use ICT in Advocacy Campaigns . . . . . . . . . . 382
Box 14.6. How Can Community Radio Benefit Forest Governance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Box 14.7. Public Participation and Crowdsourcing of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Box 14.8. Citizen-Powered Urban Forest Map of San Francisco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Box 14.9. MESTA: Participatory Forest Management Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Box 14.10. UNODC’s “Go” Family of Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Box 15.1. The Intersection of Remote Sensing, Crowdsourcing, and Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Box 15.2. Visualizing Data Sets for Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Box 15.3. Separating the Hype from Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Box 15.4. Monitoring and Evaluating Investments in Remote Sensing, Crowdsourcing, and Big Data for Analytics . . . 406
Box 15.5. Key Terms Used in This Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Box 15.6. The Future of Drones for Smallholders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Box 15.7. Advances in Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Box 15.8. Big Data for Agriculture in Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Box 15.9. Suggestions for Unleashing the Power of Data for Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Box 15.10. Aggregating and Visualizing Data in Mappr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
XVIII FOR EWOR D
FOREWORD
While many societies are transforming through migration to cities, most poor people still live in rural areas and depend
largely on agriculture for their livelihood. We have a historic opportunity to reduce poverty and boost shared prosperity while
transforming the global food and agriculture sector. Today’s fast-evolving information and communication technology (ICT)
represents a tremendous opportunity for rural populations to improve productivity, to enhance food and nutrition security, to
access markets, and to find employment opportunities in a revitalized sector.
However, realizing this promise requires a long-term commitment to mobilizing timely and relevant resources and expertise,
particularly in the face of climate change and food price fluctuations. For this reason, we are pleased to share an updated
publication of the popular ICT in Agriculture e-Sourcebook, first launched in 2011.
This resource is designed to support practitioners, decision makers, and development partners who work at the intersection
of ICT and agriculture. In this revised e-Sourcebook you will find updated modules on ICT in the work of producer organiza-
tions; in research, extension and innovation; and in value chains and markets. The module on gender as a crosscutting theme
has also been updated, and a new module on Big Data has been added.
Our hope is that the updated ICT in Agriculture e-Sourcebook will continue to be a practical guide in understanding current
trends, implementing appropriate interventions, and evaluating the impact of ICT interventions in agricultural programs. The
publication marries cutting-edge expert knowledge in ICT with empirical knowledge on a wide range of agriculture topics,
from governance to supply chain management.
The original e-Sourcebook was an endeavor carried out by InfoDev and the Agriculture and Rural Development Department of
the World Bank. The update of the ICT in Agriculture e-Sourcebook was led by the World Bank Group’s Food and Agriculture
Global Practice, with significant contributions from external partners and experts. This effort was funded jointly by the
Government of Finland, the Korea¬--World Bank Partnership Facility, and the World Bank Group. We are grateful for their
contributions and we look forward to continuing work that assists countries in meeting their Sustainable Development Goals.
Juergen Voegele
Senior Director
Food and Agriculture Global Practice
The World Bank Group
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
AC K N OW L E D G E ME NT S X IX
GLOSSARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The ICT in Agriculture e-Sourcebook, Updated Edition, is made possible by a number of key individuals, donors and
partner organizations. The original ICT in Agriculture e-Sourcebook was published in 2011, and financed by the Ministry for
Foreign Affairs of Finland under the Finland / infoDev / Nokia program on Creating Sustainable Businesses in the Knowledge
Economy, whose generous contributions and ideas served as a foundation for its production.
The updated edition was managed by a core team led by Eija Pehu (World Bank Group) and Tim Kelly (infoDev), which
included Cory Belden (World Bank), Kevin Donovan (infoDev), Terhi Elisa Havimo (World Bank Group), and Aira Htenas (World
Bank Group). In 2016, four of the original modules (namely, Module 4: Extending the benefits: Gender-equitable, ICT-enabled
agricultural development, Module 6: ICTs, Digital Tools, and Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems (new title),
Module 8: Farmer organizations work better with ICT, and Module 9: Strengthening agricultural market access and Value
Chains with ICT) were updated, and a new module was written (Module 15: Using ICTs for Remote Sensing, Crowdsourcing,
and Big Data to Unlock the Potential of Agricultural Data). The Korea–World Bank Partnership Facility generously supported
this updated edition.
We thank the following authors and contributors of the revised modules; the authors were Alice van der Elstraeten (FAO),
Shane Hamill (Consultant), Jeehye Kim (World Bank Group), David Nielson (World Bank Group), Worlali Senyo (Consultant),
Sophie Treinen (FAO), and Josh Woodard (FHI 360). The contributing authors include Benjamin Kwasi Addom (CTA), Mechteld
Andriessen (eLEAF), Pietro Aldobrandini (FAO), Courtney Cohen (aWhere), Cindy Cox (IFPRI), Steffen Fritz (IIASA), Drew
Johnson (TechnoServe), Jawoo Koo (IFPRI), Morven McLean (ILSI Research Foundation), Christiane Monsieur (FAO), Clare
Pedrick (FAO), Gerard Sylvester (FAO); Linda See (IIASA), Tarah Speck (aWhere), and Tobias Sturn (IIASA).
The updated e-Sourcebook was refined and improved by a large number of peer reviewers, whose work we grate-
fully recognize. Those reviewers include Benjamin Kwasi Addom (CTA), Lyudmila Bujoreanu (World Bank Group), Vikas
Choudhary (World Bank Group), Terhi Elisa Havimo (World Bank Group), Sophia Huyer (CIAT-CCAFS), Pekka Jämsén
(AgroBIG), Timothy Kelly (World Bank Group), Holger Kray (World Bank Group), Trevor Monroe (World Bank Group), David
Nielson (World Bank Group), Judith Payne (USAID), Eija Pehu (World Bank Group), David Spielman (IFPRI) and Sanna-Liisa
Taivalmaa (World Bank Group).
Very special thanks also goes to our editor, Kelly Cassaday (consultant). The team is grateful to Susan Graham and
Jewel McFadden who led the publication process, as well as to the organizations and individuals who contributed photos and
other media.
This publication benefited from collaboration with the “Innovations in Big Data Analytics” program in the Global Operations
Knowledge Management department of the World Bank. The big data program works with teams across the World Bank
Group to accelerate the use of big data innovation for development effectiveness.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
XX AC K NOWLE D GEM ENTS
Acknowledgements for authors, contributors, and reviewers of the original modules
of the Sourcebook, published in 2011
Acknowledgement is due to members of the Steering Committee for the Creating Sustainable Businesses in the Knowledge
Economy program, including Pertti Ikonen (Nokia) and Amb. Markku Kauppinen (Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Finland), Ilkka
Lakaniemi (Nokia), Valerie D’Costa (infoDev) and Janamitra Devan (World Bank Group), Ilari Lindy (World Bank Group), Philippe
Dongier (World Bank Group), and Riikka Rajalahti (World Bank Group).
We would also like to recognize and thank the original authors of each module, who contributed their expertise and knowl-
edge to this project. These authors include Henry Bagazonzya (World Bank Group), Peter Ballantyne (International Livestock
Research Institute), Michael Barrett (University of Cambridge), Cory Belden (World Bank Group), Regina Birner (University
of Hohenheim), Riccardo del Castello (FAO), Tuukka Castrén (World Bank Group), Vikas Choudhary (World Bank Group),
Grahame Dixie (World Bank Group), Kevin Donovan (infoDev), Philip Edge (consultant), Tina George (World Bank Group), May
Hani (FAO), Julie Harrod (consultant), Pekka Jamsen (AgriCord), Teemu Jantunen (FM-International Oy FINNMAP), Nithya
Jayaraman (consultant), Ajit Maru (Global Forum on Agriculture Research [GFAR]), Suvranil Majumdar (World Bank Group),
Cristina Manfre (Cultural Practice, LLC), Robin McLaren (Know Edge Ltd), Kerry McNamara (American University), Estibalitz
Morras (FAO), Karin Nichterlein (FAO), Eija Pehu (World Bank), Madhavi Pillai (World Bank), Enrica Porcari (Consultative Group
on International Agriculture Research [CGIAR]), Luz Diaz Rios (World Bank Group), Stephen Rudgard (FAO), Zaid Safdar (World
Bank), Soham Sen (World Bank Group), Mira Slavova (International Food Policy Research Institute [IFPRI]), Lara Srivastava
(Webster University), Victoria Stanley (World Bank), and Sophie Treinen (FAO).
The e-Sourcebook was refined and improved by a large number of peer reviewers, whose work is gratefully recognized.
These reviewers include Gavin Adlington (World Bank Group), Maria Amelina (World Bank Group), Simon Batchelor (Gamos
Ltd), Brian Bedard (World Bank Group), Deepak Bhatia (World Bank Group), Fritz Brugger (Syngenta Foundation), Mark Cackler
(World Bank Group), Tuukka Castrén (World Bank Group), Maria Collion (World Bank Group), Kristin Davis (Global Forum on
Research and Advisory Services), Grahame Dixie (World Bank Group), Kevin Donavan (infoDev), Fionna Douglas, (World Bank
Group), Shaun Ferris (Catholic Relief Services), Alexander Flor (University of the Phillippines), Steve Froggett (United States
Department of Agriculture), Aparajita Goyal (World Bank Group), Guillaume Gruere (IFPRI), Willem Heemskerk (Royal Tropical
Institute), Peter Jaegar (ACCORD), Teemu Jantunen (FM-International Oy FINNMAP), Mercy Karanja (Gates Foundation),
Renate Kloeppinger (World Bank Group), Donald Larson (World Bank), Ilari Lindy (World Bank Group), Calvin Miller (FAO), Ken
Lohento (Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA)), Bart Minten (IFPRI), Jorge A. Muñoz (World Bank),
Clare O’Farrell (FAO), Rodo Ortiz (World Bank), Kevin Painting (CTA), Andrea Pape-Christiansen (World Bank Group), Judith
Payne (US Agency for International Development (USAID)), Eija Pehu (World Bank), Karl Prince (Iceni Mobile), Riikka Rajalahti
(World Bank), Eva Rathgeber (consultant), Lal Rattan (Ohio State University), Mike Robson (FAO), Deborah Rubin (Cultural
Practice, LLC), Sandra Sargent (World Bank Group), Andrew Shepard (FAO), and William Zijp (consultant).
Very special thanks also goes to our editorial support team, which included Kelly Cassaday (consultant) and Mike Donaldson
(consultant). The team is grateful to Kaisa Antikainen (World Bank Group) who led the publication process, as well as to the
organizations and individuals who contributed photos and other media.
Finally, we would like to thank Kimberly and Ritesh Sanan (both of the World Bank Group) who provided substantial techni-
cal web expertise. The team is also grateful to the organizers of infoDev’s 4th Global Forum on Innovation & Technology
Entrepreneurship, where the e-Sourcebook was featured and previewed, on May 31, 2011 in Helsinki, Finland.
IC T IN AGR IC ULTUR E
AC R O N Y MS A N D A BBRE VIAT IONS XXI
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
2G, 3G, 4G second-, third-, and fourth-generation [developments in mobile wireless technology]
ACDI/VICA Agricultural Cooperative Development International/Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Assistance
AGRIS International System for Agricultural Science and Technology
AIS agricultural innovation system
B2B business-to-business
BSE bovine spongiform encephalopathy
C Celsius
CaFAN Caribbean Farmers Network
CARENAS Communication and Training Centre for Natural Resources Management and Sustainable Agriculture
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (International Center for Tropical Agriculture)
CIC community information center (Bhutan)
CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center)
CKW community knowledge worker
DIT Department of Information Technology (Bhutan)
DFID Department for International Development (UK)
DNE Dairy Network Enterprise
DOQ digital orthophoto quad
e- electronic
EAFF Eastern Africa Farmers Federation
EAP East Asia and Pacific
EARS Environmental Analysis and Remote Sensing
ECA Europe and Central Asia
ERP enterprise resource planning
EU European Union
FAPRI Food and Agricultural Policy Research Institute
FEPASSI Fédération Provinciale des Professionnels Agricoles de la Sissili (Federation of Agricultural Producers of Sissili
Province)
FINO Financial Inclusion Network and Operations
G2P government-to-person (cash transfer)
GAP good agricultural practice
Gbps gigabit per second
GDP gross domestic product
Ghz gigahertz
GigE gigabit Ethernet
GIS geographical information systems
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
XXI I ACR ONY MS A ND A BB R EV IATIONS
GLN global location number
GM genetically modified
GNSS global navigation satellite systems
GPRS general packet radio service
GPS global positioning system
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
GTIN global trade item number
HACCP hazard analysis and critical control point
HIC high-income countries
IBLI index-based livestock insurance
ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
ICT information and communication technology
ICTs information and communication technologies
IDI ICT Development Index
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFC International Finance Corporation
IFFCO Indian Farmer’s Fertilizer Cooperative Limited
IFMR Institute for Financial Management and Research (India)
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
IICD International Institute for Communication and Development
IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
IKSL IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
IP Internet Protocol
IPS Innovative Practice Summary
IRRI International Rice Research Institute
IT information technology
ITU International Telecommunications Union
LAC Latin America and Caribbean
Lao PDR Lao People’s Democratic Republic
LiDAR light detection and ranging
m- mobile
Mbps megabit per second
MENA Middle East and North Africa
MFI microfinance institution
Mhz megahertz
MNO mobile network operator
NAIP National Agricultural Innovation Project (India)
NARO National Agricultural Research Organisation (Uganda)
NGN next-generation network
NGO non-governmental organization
NSDI national spatial data infrastructure
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
AC R O N Y MS A N D A BBRE VIAT IONS X X III
OS operating system
PDA personal digital assistant
PIN personal identification number
PKGFS Pudhuaaru Kshetriya Gramin Financial Services
PSTNs public switched digital telecommunication networks
RFID radio-frequency identification
RML Reuters Market Light
Rs rupees
SA South Asia
SCM supply-chain management
SDI spatial data infrastructure
SIM subscriber identification module
SMS short messaging service
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
U Sh Uganda shillings
UA universal access [to communication networks for ICTs]
UA/USFs univeral access/universal service funds
UK United Kingdom
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
US universal service [from communication networks for ICTs]
USA United States
VANS value added network services
VAT value-added tax
VHRI very high resolution image
VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol
VSAT very small aperture terminal
WFP World Food Programme
WG-DSM International Working Group on Digital Soil Mapping
WHO World Health Organization
WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
Y Yuan
ZNFU Zambia National Farmers Union
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
SECTION 1
Overview of ICT in Agriculture:
Opportunities, Access, and
Crosscutting Themes
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 3
Module 1 INTRODUCTION: ICT IN AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT
KERRY MCNAMARA (American University), CORY BELDEN (World Bank), TIM KELLY (Infodev, World
Bank Group), EIJA PEHU (World Bank), and KEVIN DONOVAN (Infodev, World Bank Group)
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION the most promise for pro-poor economic growth. In fact, agri-
TECHNOLOGY: FINDING A PLACE IN THE culture is around four times more effective at raising incomes
AGRICULTURE SECTOR among the poor than other sectors (World Bank 2008). No
Information and communication have always mattered in less important, improved agriculture also has a direct impact
agriculture. Ever since people have grown crops, raised live- on hunger and malnutrition, decreasing the occurrence of
stock, and caught fish, they have sought information from famine, child stunting, and maternal infirmity.
one another. What is the most effective planting strategy on
steep slopes? Where can I buy the improved seed or feed this Given these challenges, the arrival of information and com-
year? How can I acquire a land title? Who is paying the high- munication technology (ICT) is well timed. The benefits of
est price at the market? How can I participate in the govern- the Green Revolution greatly improved agricultural produc-
ment’s credit program? Producers rarely find it easy to obtain tivity. However, there is a demonstrable need for a new
answers to such questions, even if similar ones arise sea- revolution that will bring lower prices for consumers (through
son after season. Farmers in a village may have planted the reduced waste and more-efficient supply chain manage-
“same” crop for centuries; but over time, weather patterns ment), contribute to “smart” agriculture, and incentivize
and soil conditions change and epidemics of pests and dis- farmers (for example, through higher income) to increase
eases come and go. Updated information allows farmers to their production. Public and private sector actors have long
cope with and even benefit from these changes. Providing been searching for effective solutions to address both the
such knowledge can be challenging, however, because the long- and short-term challenges in agriculture, including how
highly localized nature of agriculture means that information to answer the abundant information needs of farmers. ICT is
must be tailored specifically to distinct conditions. one of these solutions, and has recently unleashed incred-
ible potential to improve agriculture in developing countries
Agriculture is facing new and severe challenges in its own specifically. Technology has taken an enormous leap beyond
right (see box 1.1). With rising food prices that have pushed the costly, bulky, energy-consuming equipment once avail-
over 40 million people into poverty since 2010, more effective able to the very few to store and analyze agricultural and
interventions are essential in agriculture (World Bank 2011). scientific data. With the booming mobile, wireless, and
The growing global population, expected to hit 9 billion by Internet industries, ICT has found a foothold even in poor
2050, has heightened the demand for food and placed pres- smallholder farms and in their activities. The ability of ICT
sure on already-fragile resources. Feeding that population will to bring refreshed momentum to agriculture appears even
require a 70 percent increase in food production (FAO 2009). more compelling in light of rising investments in agricultural
research, the private sector’s strong interest in the develop-
Filling the stomachs of the growing population is only one rea- ment and spread of ICT, and the upsurge of organizations
son agriculture is critical to global stability and development. committed to the agricultural development agenda.
It is also critical because one of the most effective ways of
reducing poverty is to invest in and make improvements in But what exactly is ICT? And can it really be useful and cost-
the agricultural sector. Even after years of industrialization effective for poor farmers with restricted access to capital,
and growth in services, agriculture still accounts for one-third electricity, and infrastructure? First, ICT includes any device,
of the gross domestic product (GDP) and three-quarters tool, or application that permits the exchange or collection of
of employment in Sub-Saharan Africa. Over 40 percent of data through interaction or transmission. ICT is an umbrella
the labor force in countries with per capita incomes in the term that includes anything ranging from radio to satellite imag-
range of US$400–1,800 works in agriculture (World Bank ery to mobile phones or electronic money transfers. Second,
2008). Because agriculture accounts for the vast majority of these and other types of ICT have gained traction even in
the poor’s livelihood activities, it is also the sector that holds impoverished regions. The increases in their affordability,
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
4 MOD ULE 1 — INTROD UC TION: IC T IN AGRICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
accessibility, and adaptability have resulted in their use, even and adapt to weather conditions) can now be answered faster,
within rural homesteads relying on agriculture. New, small with greater ease and increased accuracy. Many of the ques-
devices (such as multifunctional mobile phones and nano- tions can also be answered with a dialogue—where farmers,
technology for food safety), infrastructure (such as mobile experts, and government can select the best solutions based
telecommunications networks and cloud computing facilities), on diverse expertise and experience.
and especially applications (for example, those that transfer
money or track an item moving through a global supply chain) The types of ICT-enabled services that are useful for improv-
have proliferated. Many of the questions asked by farmers ing the capacity and livelihoods of poor smallholders are
(including questions on how to increase yields, access markets, growing quickly. One of the best examples of these services
BOX 1.1. Globalizing Food Markets and New Challenges for Smallholder Farmers
Understanding and addressing global agriculture developments—both advantageous and not—are critical to improving
smallholder livelihoods, in which ICT can play a major role. The continued increase in globalization and integration of
food markets has intensified competition and efficacy in the agriculture sector, and has brought unique opportunities
to include more smallholders in supply chains. Yet in the same vein, agriculture faces a range of modern and serious
challenges, particularly in developing countries exposed to price shocks, climate change, and continued deficiencies in
infrastructure in rural areas.
When commodity prices rise quickly and steeply, they precipitate concerns about food insecurity, widespread poverty,
and conflict—more so in countries that import high volumes of staple foods. Globalized food markets also increase the
risk that some countries and many smallholders will remain marginalized from the expanding and more profitable agricul-
tural value chains (such as premium foods, which have seen an increase in demand due to an expanding middle class)
that rely on technical sophistication to ensure speed, scale, and customization.
Climate change has also played an acute role in keeping smallholders in the underbelly of value chains. Farmers can
no longer rely on timeworn coping strategies when all of their familiar benchmarks for making agricultural decisions—
the timing of rains for planting and pasture, the probability of frost, the duration of dry intervals that spare crops from
disease—are increasingly less reliable. Severe and unexpected weather is shrinking already-limited yields and promoting
migration from rural areas and rural jobs. Weather-related events leave developing-country governments, which lack the
resources and the private sector investment to provide risk management instruments, to cope with major crop failures
and the displaced victims only after the fact.
It is in the context of globalizing agriculture where the need for information becomes most vivid. Smallholders, who still
provide a significant portion of the world’s food, need information to advance their work just as much as industrial-scale
producers. Comparing the two types of farmers—industrial and small-scale—exemplifies the latter’s disadvantages.
Wealthy industrial producers can use the Internet, phone, weather forecasts, other digital tools, and technologies as
simple as vehicles and infrastructure as basic as electricity to glean information on prices, markets, varieties, production
techniques, services, storage, or processing; but smallholders remain dependent primarily on word of mouth, previous
experience, and local leadership.
The smallholder disadvantage does not stop there. Financial and insurance services are often out of reach and poorly
understood. Key intermediaries like producer organizations and rural institutions (including local government) could help
alleviate the disadvantage, but in many places, the former are just emerging and the latter are inefficient and nontranspar-
ent. Both require a variety of technical and financial support to grow and become inclusive and effective. Many of these
challenges and others can be addressed by using ICT effectively.
Source: Authors.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 5
IMAGE 1.1. Soil Data Can Be Collected and so that they can prepare for weather-related events. In
Disseminated Using Various Types of ICT resource-constrained environments especially, providers
use satellites or remote sensors (to gather temperature
data), the Internet (to store large amounts of data), and
mobile phones (to disseminate temperature information to
remote farmers cheaply)—to prevent crop losses and miti-
gate the effects of natural adversities.
Other, more-specialized applications, such as software used
for supply chain or financial management, are also becom-
ing more relevant in smallholder farming. Simple accounting
software has allowed cooperatives to manage production,
aggregation, and sales with increased accuracy. The Malian
Coprokazan, involved in shea butter production, began using
solar-powered computers with keyboards adapted to the local
language to file members’ records electronically. Along with
electronic administration, the coop plans to invest in global
positioning system (GPS) technology to obtain certifications
and use cameras and video as training materials to raise the
quality of production. From 2006 to 2010 alone, the coop’s
membership grew from 400 to 1,000 producers (http://www
.coprokazan.org/).
These examples represent only a minute subset of the
information and communication services that can be
provided to the agricultural sector through increasingly
Source: Neil Palmer, CIAT. affordable and accessible ICT. Hundreds of agriculture-
specific applications are now emerging and are showing
great promise for smallholders, as illustrated in the more
than 200 project-based case studies and examples in this
is the use of mobile phones as a platform for exchanging Sourcebook. In order to exploit the possibilities, countries
information through short messaging services (SMS). Reuters have two tasks:
Market Light, for example, services over 200,000 smallholder
subscribers in 10 different states in India for a cost of US$1.50 (A) To empower poor farmers with information and
per month. The farmers receive four to five messages per day communication assets and services that will increase
on prices, commodities, and advisory services from a database their productivity and incomes as well as protect their
with information on 150 crops and more than 1,000 markets. food security and livelihoods, and
Preliminary evidence suggests that collectively, the service
may have generated US$2–3 billion in income for farmers (B) to harness ICT effectively to compete in complex,
(Mehra 2010), while over 50 percent of them have reduced rapidly changing global markets (avoiding falling
their spending on agriculture inputs.1 behind the technology curve).
ICT-enabled services often use multiple technologies to Accomplishing these tasks requires the implementation
provide information (image 1.1). This model is being used of a complex set of policy, investment, innovation, and
to provide rural farmers with localized (nonurban) forecasts capacity-building measures, in concert with beneficiaries
and other partners, which will encourage the growth of
locally appropriate, affordable, and sustainable ICT infra-
structure, tools, applications, and services for the rural
1 See Topic Note 9.4 in Module 9. economy.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
6 MOD ULE 1 — INTROD UC TION: IC T IN AGRICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
Of particular importance, ICT is not an end to agricultural more accurately, subscriber identity module (SIM) cards—
development. The excitement generated by ICT as it spreads were expected to be in use worldwide (Wireless Intelligence
throughout developing countries has often masked the fact 2011). Mobile phone penetration in the developing world
that its contributions to agriculture are both rapidly evolving now exceeds two subscriptions for every three people,
and poorly understood. It is too early to have a clear idea, driven by expanding networks in Asia and in Africa. The abil-
supported by rigorous analysis, of how ICT supports agricul- ity to purchase a low-cost mobile phone is complemented
tural development, and under what conditions. While there by the expansion of telecommunications infrastructure;
is credible evidence of a positive impact, questions remain most countries now have more than 90 percent of their
about how to make these innovations replicable, scalable, population served by a cell phone signal, including coverage
and sustainable for a larger and more diverse population. A in rural areas (see figure 1.1). This rapid expansion results
central goal of this Sourcebook is to analyze and disseminate from enabling regulations that ensure competition in the
evidence of ICT’s impact on agricultural development and telecommunications sector as well as from high demand for
rural poverty reduction, exploring opportunities for long-term mobile phone subscriptions.
and expansive efforts.
The reach and affordability of broadband Internet is also
improving dramatically—though somewhat more slowly—in
THE WAY FORWARD: UNDERSTANDING THE WHY developing regions. In 2010, the number of Internet users
AND THE HOW surpassed 2 billion and over half of these users are now in
Each module in this Sourcebook discusses the key chal- developing countries. Internet connectivity around the world
lenges, enablers, and lessons related to using ICT in a spe- has grown exponentially since 2000, by over 480 percent
cific subsector of agriculture. These are derived from a range (Internet World Statistics, 2011).The price of bandwidth has
of experiences, and summarize the knowledge gained dur- continued to drop as well, driving down the costs of extend-
ing pilot projects and wider initiatives. While different in type ing connections to isolated communities. In Sub-Saharan
of intervention and approach, a string of themes emerges Africa, which lags other regions in ICT accessibility, a recent
from the modules. These themes—namely, the why and surge of investments in international undersea cables and
how of using ICT in agricultural development—demonstrate inland infrastructure to complete those connections is mak-
the great potential of ICT and help to clarify the way forward. ing ICT services substantially more accessible and affordable
across Africa (figure 1.2). By 2010, 12.3 terabits per second
of backbone capacity were operational in Africa, up from
The Why: Drivers of ICT in Agriculture
less than 1 gigabit per second at the start of the decade
Five main trends have been the key drivers of the use of (TeleGeography 2011).
ICT in agriculture, particularly for poor producers: (1) low-cost
and pervasive connectivity, (2) adaptable and more affordable Telecenters or other community-based facilities can provide
tools, (3) advances in data storage and exchange, (4) innova- Internet access in locations where broadband is too expensive
tive business models and partnerships, and (5) the democra-
tization of information, including the open access movement
and social media. These drivers are expected to continue
FIGURE 1.1. Percentage of the World’s Population
shaping the prospects for using ICT effectively in developing-
Covered by a Mobile Cellular Signal
country agriculture.
2003 2009
Low-Cost and Pervasive Connectivity
The pervasiveness of connectivity—to mobile phones, the 10% not
covered
Internet, and other wireless devices—is due to a number of fac-
tors, including decreases in costs, increases in competition, and 39% not
covered 61%
expansion of last-mile infrastructure. Several trends, working in covered
tandem, are making ICT devices and services more affordable 90% covered
in ways that also extend access to small-scale producers.
Mobile phones are in the vanguard of ICT use in agriculture. By
the end of 2011, over 6 billion mobile phone subscriptions—or Source: International Telecommunications Union.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 7
FIGURE 1.2. African Undersea Cables, Those Working and Those in Development
This map was produced by the Map Design Unit of The World Bank. IBRD 38933
The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information
shown on this map do not imply, on the part of The World Bank ESTONIA NOVEMBER 2011
Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any
endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
Mediterranean Undersea Cables RUSSIAN FEDERATION
RUSSIAN LATVIA 320 gigabits
DENMARK FED. Atlas Offshore Active
UNITED LITHUANIA
KINGDOM THE 1280 gigabits
IRELAND NETH. BELARUS SAS-1 Active
GERMANY POLAND
Highbridge
Bude BELGIUM 3840 gigabits
LUX. CZECH REP. UKRAINE SEA-ME-WE 4 Active
SLOVAK REP.
Penmarc'h FRANCE AUSTRIA HUNGARY MOLDOVA 3840 gigabits
SWITZ.
SLOVENIA ROMANIA I-ME-WE Active
CROATIA BOSNIA SERBIA
Marseille Monaco
Vigo
ITALY & HERZ.KOSOVO BULGARIA 3840 gigabits
MONTENEGRO FYR KYRGYZ REP.
PORTUGAL SPAIN ALBANIA MACEDONIA EIG Active
Lisbon
Seixal
MONACO
Palermo TURKEY TURKMENISTAN
Sesimbra
Chipiona Catania GREECE TAJIKISTAN
Portimão
Annaba Bizerte
CHINA
Gibraltar (UK) CYPRUS SYRIAN
Asilah ARAB REP.
TUNISIA LEBANON
Tripoli ISLAMIC REP.
Casablanca
OF IRAN AFGHANISTAN
Tripoli IRAQ
ISRAEL West Bank
MOROCCO Alexandria and Gaza KUWAIT
Cairo Suez JORDAN PAKISTAN
Buena Vista BAHRAIN
ALGERIA NEPAL
Alta Vista QATAR
LIBYA ARAB REP.
Former Fujairah
Spanish OF EGYPT Karachi
Sahara SAUDI U.A.E.
ARABIA Muscat
Jeddah INDIA
MAURITANIA Port Sudan OMAN Mumbai
Nouakchott
CAPE
VERDE MALI NIGER
Praia
SUDAN ERITREA REP. OF YEMEN
Dakar To
SENEGAL CHAD Malaysia,
Banjul Chennai Thailand,
BURKINA Singapore
THE GAMBIA Bissau FASO Djibouti DJIBOUTI
GUINEA BENIN Kochi
Conakry NIGERIA
GUINEA-BISSAU TOGO
SIERRA LEONE CÔTE GHANA ETHIOPIA SRI
Freetown D’IVOIRE Cotonou
Lagos CENTRAL SOUTH LANKA
Lomé Colombo
Monrovia Abidjan Accra CAMEROON AFRICAN REP. SUDAN
LIBERIA Limbé SOMALIA
Douala
Kribi MALDIVES To
Bata Mogadishu
UGANDA Penang
Santana Libreville CONGO
GABON KENYA
DEM. REP. RWANDA
EQU. GUINEA OF SEYCHELLES
SÃO TOMÉ AND Pointe-Noire CONGO BURUNDI Mombasa Victoria
To PRÍNCIPE
Fortaleza, Muanda TANZANIA
Brazil Dar Es Salaam
Cacuaco
Luanda
COMOROS
Moroni
ANGOLA Kaouéni
MALAWI
West Coast ZAMBIA Mayotte
(Fr.)
340 gigabits
SAT3/SAFE Active
MOZAMBIQUE Toamasina
1920 gigabits ZIMBABWE Terre- MAURITIUS
Rouge
MaIN OnE Active NAMIBIA
MADAGASCAR Savanne
Saint-Paul
2500 gigabits BOTSWANA Réunion
Swakopmund
GLO-1 Active Toliary (Fr.) East Coast
320 gigabits
5120 gigabits Maputo SEAS Q3 2012
SWAZILAND
WACS Q4 2011 1280 gigabits
SOUTH Mtunzini TEAMs Active
AFRICA LESOTHO
5120 gigabits 1280 gigabits
Seacom Active
ACE Q3 2012 Yzerfontein Melkbosstrand
Cape Town
1280 gigabits
Lion2 Q2 2012
12800 gigabits
1300 gigabits
Lion Active
SAex Q2 2013 4720 gigabits
EASSy Active
Source: Adapted from Steve Song, http://manypossibilities.net and TeleGeography.
for individuals to use on their own. Internet access is also Adaptable and More Affordable Tools
expected to increase through the continued rollout of third- and The proliferation of adaptable and more affordable tech-
fourth-generation (3G and 4G) mobile networks that greatly nologies and devices has also increased ICT’s relevance to
improve the capacity for carrying data. Smartphones, such smallholder agriculture. Innovation has steadily reduced the
as iPhones, which include 3G mobile services with remote purchase price of phones, laptops, scientific instruments, and
Internet connection, will increase access to information even specialized software. Agricultural innovation in developed
to poor farmers. The International Telecommunication Union countries has become more applicable to developing-country
(2010) reports that at the end of 2010, 143 countries offered needs. The intuitive design of many technologies and their
commercial 3G services, providing at least 256 kilobits per sec- capacity to convey information visually or audibly make them
ond of bandwidth and supplying voice and data simultaneously useful for people with limited formal education or exposure
(figure 1.3 shows the slow, but increasing, rate of uptake for to technology.
mobile broadband) and other ICT tools.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
8 MOD ULE 1 — INTROD UC TION: IC T IN AGRICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
FIGURE 1.3. Global ICT Development, 2000–10
100
90 Mobile cellular telephone subscriptions
Internet users
80
Fixed telephone lines
70
Per 100 inhabitants
Active mobile broadband subscriptions
60
Fixed (wired) broadband subscriptions
50
40
30
20
10
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Source: International Telecommunications Union’s World Telecommunication / ICT Indicators database.
Mobile-based applications are also becoming more suitable who are most likely to benefit from using e-vouchers to
for poor and isolated communities, especially though feature purchase fertilizer).
phones. Drawing on simple, available technologies such as
SMS, service providers can offer mobile banking, other trans- Advances in Data Storage and Exchange
actional services (selling inputs, for example), and information Greatly increased data storage capacity and the ability to
services (market price alerts). Other publicly and privately access data remotely and share it easily have improved the
provided services, such as extension and advisory services, use of ICT in agriculture. Sharing knowledge and exchanging
are delivered over mobiles, which are increasingly not just data have created opportunities to involve more stakehold-
“phones” but are actually multifunctional wireless devices. ers in agricultural research—involvement facilitated by an
Geospatial information is also becoming easier to access
and use as mapping tools, such as Microsoft Earth or Google
Maps (image 1.2), bring geographical data information to
IMAGE 1.2. Google Map of Kampala, Uganda
nonspecialist users. Scientists and development organiza-
tions have created substantial sets of georeferenced data
on population, poverty, transportation, and any number
of other public goods and variables through more afford-
able, usable geographic information systems available on
standard PCs and mobile devices using Web-based tools.
Satellite images and similar representations have improved
exponentially in quality and detail. These tools and remote
sensors use less energy and require less human attention
than in previous years. The capacity to overlay geospatial
information with climate and socioeconomic data opens
many options for analyzing biophysical trends (such as ero-
sion or the movement of pathogens), making projections
(about the effects of climate change or the best location of
wholesale markets in relation to transportation infrastruc-
ture), and selecting particular groups to test new technolo-
gies or farming practices (for instance, identifying farmers Source: Google Maps.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 9
improved e-learning environment and networking capacity. because they often lead to increased efficiency and revenue
Advances in data storage and sharing have improved the abil- as well as extensions to client bases like isolated farmers.
ity to exchange information—for instance, between depart-
ments and levels of government—and avoid costs associ- New forms of business incubation and knowledge brokering
ated with data transmission charges. are also contributing to ICT in agriculture. The private sector
has a keen interest in investing in firms that come out of
Improvements in data storage and sharing have underlying such incubation schemes, speculating on the ability of an
causes. The capacity of hard drives and the speed of micro- innovative idea to expand into a highly profitable enterprise.
processors have continued to rise, making it dramatically Incubators identify additional investors and other suitable
cheaper to store data. Cloud computing offers access to partners, including technical experts. In many instances,
numerous shared computing resources through the Internet, they develop enterprises through which private and public
including sharable tools, applications, and intelligently linked providers of agricultural services collaborate to deliver prod-
content and data. These advances address some of the ucts more efficiently to farmers; in developing, sharing, and
information and communication constraints of agricultural capitalizing on innovations for agricultural development, they
research institutions, government offices, cooperatives, almost always use ICT and often develop new ICT tools.
and development organizations. Benefits of enhanced data
capacity range from more accurate targeting of agricultural
IMAGE 1.3. Public-Private Partnerships Often Lead to
development programs to better preparation for handling
More Sustainable Services for Rural People
surpluses or scarcities at the farm level.
New Business Models and Public-Private Partnerships
The development and use of many types of ICT originated in
the public sector but were quickly dominated by the private
sector when their profit potential became clear. The public
sector maintains great interest in ICT as a means of provid-
ing better public services that affect agriculture (for instance,
land registration, forest management, and agricultural exten-
sion services), as well as for connecting with citizens and
managing internal affairs. Private sector involvement in some
of these efforts has enhanced ICT’s access, affordability,
and adaptability for development. Unlike other development
strategies, which often struggle to survive or be scaled up Source: Nokia.
because the public sector cannot fund them, development
strategies featuring ICT have benefited from growing private
Knowledge brokering, whereby a private enterprise provides
sector interest and public demand (image 1.3).
information for a fee (for example, farmers obtain market,
ICT’s entrepreneurial nature attracts new partnerships and price, crop, and weather information via their mobile phones),
forms of investment. Mobile phone applications, software is also gaining traction. This business model reduces the
design, local language customization, and remote transac- burden on the public sector while increasing the abilities of
tion services represent only a fraction of the opportunities brokers and farmers to profit from information sharing.
for continued innovation. Private companies that have
invested in technology and applications are often inter- Democratization of Information, the Open Access
ested in working with the public sector to provide their Movement, and Social Media
products and services to smallholders. Mobile network The democratization of information and science facilitated by
operators, for example, can invest by providing large text ICT is also contributing to agriculture and rural development
packages at a lower price, collecting premiums, distributing more broadly. Vast quantities of information held by institu-
payments, or participating in extending networks to rural tions and individuals are becoming visible, publicly accessi-
areas. Commercial enterprises such as processors, input ble, and reusable through the open access movement. Many
suppliers, and exporters are also motivated to invest in ICT governments and organizations—such as the World Bank,
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
10 MOD ULE 1 — INTROD UC TION: IC T IN AGRICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the Consultative Concentrate on the Demand, Not on the Technology
Group on International Agricultural Research—are aiming to The versatility and near-constant innovation that characterize
make data, such as national surveys and research findings, ICT can be a distraction: They can cause interventions to focus
publicly available. These actions have not only improved more on the technology than on the priorities of the intended
transparency and accountability but have also invited the clients and the trade-offs imposed by resource-constrained
public, private, and research sectors to participate in solv- environments. It is important to begin any ICT-in-agriculture
ing long-term economic and social problems, including those intervention by focusing on the need that the intervention is
involving agriculture. purposed to address—not the need for ICT—but the need
for better and more timely market information, better access
The expansion of open access software also enables grass- to financial services, timely and appropriate crop and disease
roots community organizations to share knowledge with one management advice, stronger links to agricultural value
another. Social media, once used purely for entertainment, chains, and so forth. In some cases, ICT will not be an effec-
has great potential to be used for knowledge sharing and tive means to meet these needs at all.
collaboration, even in agriculture. Although penetration of the
most popular social medium, Facebook, was estimated at Years of agricultural development experience show that proj-
just 3 percent in Africa and almost 4 percent in Asia in 2010, ects that involve new technologies require farmers’ engage-
compared to 10.3 percent (over half a billion users) globally ment, right from the start. Interventions that make meager
(Internet World Statistics 2011), recent geopolitical events efforts to involve farmers in planning and design result in low
highlight the effectiveness of social media for sharing infor- uptake, trust, and interest. The same is true for programs
mation and motivating collective action—two key features of or strategies involving ICT for development. A weak focus
agriculture development. on farmers’ needs at the expense of ICT will ignore ancillary
needs for investment in human capacity, community partici-
Finally, crowdsourcing—in which scientists, governments, pation, or infrastructure.
and development organizations request feedback from farm-
ers and consumers through devices like mobile phones—is Use Appropriate Technologies
also facilitating agriculture development. Farmers can use
The attractiveness of the newest types of ICT can lead to a
SMS to send critical local agricultural information like inci-
preference for the latest technologies at the expense of older
dences of pests or crop yields that was previously difficult to
technologies (such as radio), yet the newest, most elaborate,
obtain without expensive surveys by researchers. Using the
or most innovative technology is not automatically the most
digital tools available, consumers can also provide informa-
appropriate one. Moreover, an innovative mix of technologies
tion related to changing consumption patterns and tastes to
(for instance, radio programs with a call-in or SMS facility for
private enterprise.
feedback) can be the most cost-effective solution. A well-
reasoned assessment of the trade-offs between the added
The How: Lessons Learned So Far cost of a technology or service and benefits relative to other
A number of key lessons related to ICT-in-agriculture poli- options (technological and other) is important.
cies and projects were gleaned during the research for this
The wide coverage of mobile devices reduces but does not
e-sourcebook. Using ICT to achieve agricultural develop-
eliminate these trade-offs. In considering the appropriate-
ment goals requires supplementary investments, resources,
ness of technology, assessing the human capital available for
and strategies. Flexible but strongly supportive policies and
developing and disseminating the ICT device or application is
regulations, complementary investments in physical infra-
critical. The more complex the technology, the more training
structure, support for men and women farmers of different
and (qualified) extension support it will require. In environ-
age groups, technological appropriateness, and enabling
ments where infrastructure is not conducive to a particular
environments for innovation and new businesses will
instrument, other means should be used.
determine the long-term impact and sustainability of these
efforts. These lessons are not conclusive—much remains Finally, it is important to recognize that these newer technol-
to be learned—but they serve as sound considerations as ogies do not automatically replace the more traditional forms
investments are made in future interventions. of communication, knowledge sharing, and collective action
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 11
that have evolved within a given community or region. In family income can prevent women from owning or even using
designing ICT interventions, it is necessary to research and phones. However, the growing availability and lower cost of
understand local information and communication practices, mobile phones, as well as other contributing factors, have the
barriers to ICT-enabled empowerment, and the priority infor- potential to meet women’s agricultural needs (image 1.4).
mation and communication needs of end users. Using con-
ventional information and communication tools to address
IMAGE 1.4. Determining Levels of Inclusiveness Is a
the needs of those who cannot access the ICT because of
Critical Factor in ICT Interventions
limitations related to literacy, isolation, and social norms is
often required.
Focus on Affordable Access and Use, Not Ownership
In designing ICT-in-agriculture interventions, it is vital to bear
in mind that “access” refers not only to the physical proxim-
ity and accessibility of ICT infrastructure, tools, and services
but also to their affordability, use, and usage models that are
appropriate for the local physical, environmental, and cultural
constraints. The specific mix of individual-user and shared-
use/public-access models that is most appropriate and locally
sustainable will vary depending on local needs and resources,
and will change over time as devices and services diversify
further and become even more affordable. As the costs of Source: Nokia.
ICT ownership have come down, the affordability and acces-
sibility divide has improved, especially for individual user Social access issues extend beyond gender. A full under-
services. However, it also may be that in some cases, learn- standing of the local, national, and regional agricultural
ing is better facilitated through shared access than individual economy is important for ensuring that ICT interventions do
access facilities. not restrict poor producers’ participation to the low end of
agricultural value chains, as other technologies have done.
Actual use of the technology should also be monitored, ICT in itself does not guarantee full participation by all social
as a supplied technology does not necessarily imply that groups. Efforts to be inclusive must focus on the full range
it is being used for economic means. Many times, mobile of capacities and resources that small-scale producers will
phones and other devices function strictly as a tool for basic need to benefit from an intervention. Questions of social
communication or entertainment. This is often a result of access should be raised consistently when using ICT to
participants’ low exposure to ideas or methods on how ICT improve rural livelihoods. Do sociocultural norms or divi-
can be used to achieve agriculture or other economic goals. sions prevent certain groups from using the technology?
Will better-off groups benefit more than poor groups? Will
Be Aware of Differential Effects, Including Gender floods of entertainment and spurious information dilute the
and Social Differences in Access and Use knowledge needed for sustainable agricultural and rural
Under certain conditions, ICT interventions can worsen development? Broad-based rural development depends on
rather than alleviate underlying economic, social, and political monitoring and evaluating outcomes and making adjust-
inequalities, including those between women and men. Rural ments along the way.
women face significant disadvantages in accessing informa-
tion and communication assets and services. Many of the Create an Enabling Environment for Innovation in
fixed-location ICT projects designed to enhance rural access Infrastructure Investment, Business Models, Services,
to information assets and services were or are owned or man- and Applications
aged by men. Cultural attitudes and women’s multiple roles Effective design and consistent, transparent implementation
and heavy domestic responsibilities often exclude them from of appropriate policies and regulations guiding a country’s
these services. The same attitudes and lack of control over investment in and provision of ICT infrastructure, tools, and
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
12 MOD ULE 1 — INTROD UC TION: IC T IN AGRICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
services is key to enabling ICT interventions. In creating a Promote Leadership and Find Champions
supportive environment for ICT innovation and service provi- Last, but not certainly not least, ICT interventions require
sion, effective policies and regulations in a number of other leadership. Champions are needed to push projects for-
key areas are equally important, such as public and private ward in the development agenda and make them visible
financing of infrastructure, the business environment, sup- and interesting to the stakeholders—farmers, businesses,
port for innovation, and intellectual property. ICT-in-agriculture and others—that need them. These leaders must operate at
interventions require a strong, but flexible, regulatory envi- the national level, where budgetary and strategic decisions
ronment; the policy environment is further strengthened by are made. They must also operate at local levels, modeling
incentives for the private sector to make investments. the effective use of a technology and building farmers’ trust
in its efficacy. Leaders build public confidence in an interven-
Develop Sustainable Business and Investment Models
tion. Uptake is typically low if confidence in the chosen ICT
through Partnerships
and its potential impact are minimal. Leaders are needed for
Public-private partnerships are now considered essential to the long haul, as interventions that require new infrastructure
the long-term viability of most interventions that use ICT or policy and institutional reforms take years to complete.
in agriculture. The public sector in developing countries
particularly may need guidance in providing technological
USING THIS E-SOURCEBOOK
services; a lack of human and financial resources as well as
the overwhelming needs of the agrarian population weaken The 2011 ICT for Agriculture e-Sourcebook was devel-
its ability to provide widespread services of acceptable oped jointly by the World Bank’s Agricultural and Rural
quality. Development Sector and infoDev, and benefited from
generous funding from the Government of Finland under
With private investment, public service provision can be
the Finland/infoDev/Nokia program Creating Sustainable
more sustainable. Other partnerships also appear important
Businesses in the Knowledge Economy. The updated edition
to sustainability (image 1.5). Technical experts with experi-
was developed jointly with the Bank’s Food and Agriculture
ence in various subsectors; information technology (IT)
Global Practice and infoDev, and benefited from the gener-
teams for technological maintenance, design, and trouble-
ous support of the Korea-World Bank Partnership Facility,
shooting; multilevel policy makers; and farmers and farmers’
as well as collaboration with the “Innovations in Big Data
organizations that can provide local know-how, are also often
Analytics” program in the Global Operations Knowledge
all needed in one way or another.
Management department of the
World Bank. It is designed to sup-
IMAGE 1.5. A Collaborative Effort Among Many Actors Is Important for
port practitioners and policy makers
ICT in Agriculture
in taking maximum advantage of
ICT’s potential for improving agri-
cultural productivity and smallholder
incomes, strengthening agricultural
markets and institutions, improv-
ing agricultural services, and build-
ing developing-country linkages to
regional and global agricultural value
chains. It focuses primarily on how
ICT can assist small-scale producers
and the intermediate institutions that
serve them, yet it also looks at how
to link smallholders to ICT-enabled
improvements in larger-scale farm-
ing, markets, and agribusiness to
stimulate the broader rural economy.
The Sourcebook provides users with
Source: Neil Palmer, CIAT. a fairly comprehensive overview of
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 13
TABLE 1.1. Themes Treated in Sourcebook Modules
OPPORTUNITIES, ACCESS, AND ENHANCING PRODUCTIVITY ACCESSING MARKETS IMPROVING PUBLIC SERVICE
CROSSCUTTING THEMES ON THE FARM AND VALUE CHAINS PROVISION
Access and affordability Increasing productivity Market and price information Rural governance
Mobile applications Agriculture innovation systems Supply chain management Land administration
Gender and ICT services Rural finance Risk management Forest governance
Farmer organizations Traceability and food safety
current and upcoming ICT-in-agriculture applications and how At the beginning of each module, an “In this Module” box
they might improve agricultural interventions or strategies. briefly describes the content in the module, including the
The Sourcebook is not a primary research product; nor does overview, Topic Notes, and innovative practice summaries.
it claim to be the definitive treatment of a sector that is evolv- The innovative practice summaries are bulleted underneath
ing so rapidly. Its modules are intended to serve as a practi- the description of the Topic Note, and can be viewed directly
cal resource for development professionals seeking a better by clicking on the title. Many of the tools, examples, and
understanding of the opportunities and existing applications projects discussed also include links to websites and other
offered by ICT as tools for agricultural development. useful resources.
Overall, each module seeks to provide guidance through real Given the still-limited evidence on how to implement ICT-
examples for development practitioners in the following areas: in-agriculture initiatives, the World Bank plans to further
Providing a landscape of existing ICT applications that develop its operational practices and country-specific techni-
assesses applications in their local context. cal assistance as evidence and analysis accumulate.
Understanding current trends in ICT as they pertain
to agriculture and the contributions that ICT can REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
make to enhance agricultural strategies and their
International Telecommunications Union. 2010. International
implementation. Telecommunications Union’s World Telecommunication / ICT
Designing, implementing, and evaluating appropri- Indicators database. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/, accessed
September 5, 2011.
ate and sustainable ICT components of agricultural
projects. Internet World Statistics. 2011. Facebook Users in the World.
June 2011. http://www.internetworldstats.com/facebook.htm,
Building effective partnerships—public and private—to
accessed September 15, 2011.
promote ICT access and innovation for agriculture.
Mehra, A. 2010. “Small Technologies Fuel Big Results in the
Including ICT in policy dialogue and planning with Developing World.” Huffington Post, September 13, 2010. http://
country counterparts on agricultural and rural develop- www.huffingtonpost.com/amit-mehra/small-technologiesfuel
ment goals and priorities. -b_b_715274.html, accessed September 2011.
TeleGeography. 2011. http://www.telegeography.com/, accessed
To facilitate learning, the Sourcebook is split into this introduc- September 23, 2011.
tory module plus 14 modules focusing on specific aspects
UNFAO. 2009. How to Feed the World 2050. http://www.fao.org
of the agricultural sector in relation to ICT (table 1.1). Each /fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_to_Feed_the
module provides: _World_in_2050.pdf, accessed September 6, 2011.
An overview of how ICT is used in each focus area,
Wireless Intelligence. 2011. Global Mobile Connections to Surpass
along with the current trends; 6 Billion by Year-End. https://www.wirelessintelligence.com
The challenges, lessons, and key enablers for using /analysis/pdf/2011-09-08-global-mobile-connections-to-surpass-6
-billion-by-year-end.pdf, accessed September 15, 2011.
ICT;
A number of Topic Notes that address subjects related World Bank. 2008. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture in
Development. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2008
to each focus area, pinpointing how ICT can be used
/Resources/2795087-1192111580172/WDROver2008-ENG.pdf,
to meet specific objectives; and accessed September 10, 2011.
Innovative practice summaries (IPS) and other
———. 2011. Food Price Watch. February. http://siteresources
examples that demonstrate success and failure in . worldbank.org/INTPREMNET/Resources/Food_Price_Watch
interventions. _Feb_2011_Final_Version.pdf, accessed September 4, 2011.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 15
Module 2 MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE,
APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE
ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN
RURAL AREAS
MICHAEL BARRETT (University of Cambridge) and MIRA SLAVOVA (International Food Policy
Research Institute)
IN THIS MODULE
Overview. What is “accessible” and “affordable” information and communication technology (ICT)? What general policy strat-
egies, infrastructure, technology, and business models mediate ICT’s accessibility and affordability? Partnerships between
organizations with different specialties, capacities, and profit motives are key to improving access and affordability. The task
of regulation policy is to keep pace with technological developments and reduce inequalities within countries while maintain-
ing sound business reasoning within the telecommunications sector. Policy interventions must consider ICT and its users as
a socio-technical system through which equitable access to ICT translates into sustainable benefits for rural residents.
Topic Note 2.1: Making ICT Affordable in Rural Areas. In developing countries, infrastructure, appliances, and services
influence the delivery of affordable ICT. What wired and wireless infrastructure can improve domestic backbone and “last
mile” connectivity in rural areas? What trade-offs exist between quality and quantity of service? What devices appear
most adaptable to the needs of rural users? Finally, how can services benefit from synergies among network infrastruc-
ture, connectivity modalities, access devices, and content?
Topic Note 2.2: Public Innovations in Universal Access to Telecommunications. It is within the domain of govern-
ment to provide innovative methods for access to ICT in rural areas. Public agencies help develop infrastructure where
incentives for private investment are insufficient; public policy encourages demand for telecommunications through such
mechanisms as universal access/universal service funds or support for low-cost devices.
Passive Infrastructure Sharing in Nigeria
Turkey’s Oligopolistic Infrastructure-Sharing Model
Dabba’s Experience with Unlicensed Wireless Services in South Africa
Bhutan’s Community Information Centers Adapt to the Geographical and Consumer Context
Topic Note 2.3: Mobile Money Moves to Rural Areas. In developing economies worldwide, companies deliver financial
services and new sources of income outside of conventional bank branches, through mobile phones and nonbank retail
agents. Mobile financial and income-generating services cost little and operate on all handsets, making them advanta-
geous on a large scale, even in more remote rural areas.
M-PESA’s Pioneering Money Transfer Service
Zain Zap Promotes Borderless Mobile Commerce
Pakistan’s Tameer Microfinance Bank for the Economically Active Poor
Txteagle Taps a Vast, Underused Workforce
Topic Note 2.4: Delivering Content for Mobile Agricultural Services. New services offer critical information for farm-
ers to improve their livelihoods. The technical aspects of delivering content and services that rural users value are influ-
enced by the partners engaged in providing the service, the regulatory environment, business model, and the networks,
infrastructure, and devices available.
First-Mover Advantage Benefits Reuters Market Light
Long Experience in Farm Communities Benefits Indian Farmer’s Fertilizer Cooperative Limited (IFFCO)
Kisan Sanchar Limited
Farmer’s Friend Offers Information on Demand, One Query at a Time
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
16 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
OVERVIEW the mobile microfinance industry to grow. Topic Note 2.4 explores
ICT has a demonstrably positive effect on income growth in efforts to build on expanding mobile networks in rural areas to
developing and developed countries (Röller and Waverman deliver value-added livelihood services to farmers (primarily infor-
2001; Waverman, Meschi, and Fuss 2005). In rural areas, ICT mation to reduce agricultural losses and increase income).
can raise incomes by increasing agricultural productivity (Lio
and Liu 2006) and introducing income channels other than “Access” in Relation to Two Broad Concepts in
traditional farm jobs. Current limited evidence from individual Telecommunications Policy: Universal Access and
farmers and fishers in India supports the conclusion that ICT Universal Service
improves incomes and quality of life among the rural poor (Goyal
Within telecommunication policy, “access” can be under-
2010; Jensen 2007). The idea that wider access to and use of
stood in relation to two broad concepts: universal service and
ICT throughout a country will reduce inequalities in income
universal access (Gasmi and Virto 2005). “Universal service”1
and quality of life between rural and urban residents is com-
(US) is a policy objective primarily used in developed countries.
pelling. Despite the scarcity of evidence to support this notion
It focuses on upgrading and extending communication net-
(Forestier, Grace, and Kenny 2002), it underlies widespread
works so that a minimum level of service is delivered to indi-
policy initiatives to ensure equitable access to ICT in all areas.
vidual households, even in the least accessible areas.
US objectives are generally pursued by imposing universal
Creating affordable ICT services in rural areas is a complex
service obligations on network operators. “Universal access,”2
challenge. In these areas, the “last mile” of telecommunica-
a policy objective more typical for developing countries, seeks
tions infrastructure is provided at a very high cost that may
to expand the geographic access to ICT for the population at
not be justified by the resulting use and effects of the tele-
large, and often for the very first time. UA obligations provide
communications network. Affordable access to ICT in rural
for a minimum coverage, especially of remote communities,
areas can be frustrated at the supply as well as the demand
thereby allowing all citizens to “use the service, regardless of
ends of the service-provision chain. To supply ICT and related
location, gender, disabilities, and other personal characteris-
services in rural areas, the main challenge is the high level of
tics” (Dymond et al. 2010). Table 2.1 outlines the characteris-
capital and operating expenses incurred by service provid-
tics of universal access and universal service in terms of their
ers. On the demand side, rural adoption of ICT in developing
availability, accessibility, and affordability.
countries is curtailed by low availability of complementary
public services, such as electricity and education, and by the
In designing policy interventions to promote equitable access
relative scarcity of locally relevant content.
to ICT, the technology and its users must be considered as
forming a socio-technical system through which improved ICT
Recognizing the equity implications of access to ICT, govern-
access translates into improved rural livelihoods and sustain-
ments have adopted regulatory policies to enable the rollout of
able benefits for rural residents. Many authors have considered
ICT infrastructure and the supply of services in rural areas, and
access to ICT holistically, with an aim of understanding different
they have addressed low rural demand by introducing locally
aspects of how access is enabled or impeded, including techno-
relevant content in the form of e-government and e-agriculture
logical, socioeconomic, and cultural aspects.3 This module uses
services. The task of regulation policy has been to keep pace
the Access Rainbow Framework (Clement and Shade 2000),
with technological developments while maintaining licens-
ing policies geared toward equity; in other words, to reduce 1 “Universal service (US) describes when every individual or
inequalities within countries while maintaining sound business household can have service, using it privately, either at home or
increasingly carried with the individual through wireless devices.
reasoning within the telecommunications sector.
For some services, a goal of full US would be too ambitious at
present in a developing country, because the services must be
This module describes what is meant by “accessible” and affordable as well as available. Goals may relate to the proportion
“affordable” ICT and discusses the more general policy strate- of the population that can afford private service (i.e., subscriber
penetration targets)” (Dymond et al. 2010).
gies that influence rural access to ICT. Topic Note 2.1 is a rela-
2 “Universal access (UA) describes when everyone can access the
tively technical review of the infrastructure, networks, devices, service somewhere, at a public place, thus also called public,
and services for delivering ICT affordably in rural areas. Topic community or shared access. . . . In general there would be at
least one point of access per settlement over a certain popula-
Note 2.2 considers the role of public innovation in achieving uni- tion size” (Dymond et al. 2010).
versal access to infrastructure and appliances. The compounded 3 For example, Benkler (2006) focuses on technological aspects
access problem, consisting of limited rural access to ICT and and proposes a model of access consisting of a content layer,
a service layer, a network layer (physical transportation and logi-
limited rural access to financial services, is discussed in Topic cal transmission), and a device layer (logical device operating
Note 2.3. The discussion focuses on business models that enable system, OS, and physical machinery).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 17
TABLE 2.1. Characteristics of Universal Access and Universal Service
ASPECT UNIVERSAL ACCESS UNIVERSAL SERVICE
Availability Focused coverage Blanket coverage
Public access (e.g., at a pay phone or telecenter) Private service on demand
Free emergency calls Free emergency calls
Accessibility Walking distance, convenient locations and hours Simple and speedy subscription
Inclusively designed premises (e.g., for wheelchair users); inclusively Inclusively designed terminals and services (e.g., for blind or deaf
designed terminals or available assistance (e.g., for the blind or deaf) people)
Assistance from an attendant Assistance through the terminal (e.g., by making calls or viewing help
pages for the Web)
Adequate quality of service (e.g., having few failed call attempts) Reasonable quality of service (e.g., having few dropped calls)
Affordability Options of cash and card payment Cost of average monthly usage is a small percentage of monthly GNI
per capita
Options of cash and card payment Options of cash, card, and electronic payment
Payment per use (e.g., for a single call or message or an hour of Flat rate, bundles of services, or low monthly subscription fee
Internet access)
Source: Dymond et al. 2010.
FIGURE 2.1. Access to ICT Infrastructure, Appliances, in Services and the Access Rainbow
Governance
Literacy/social facilitation
Access to services
Service/access provision
Content/services
Software tools
Access to appliances
Devices
Carriage facilities Access to infrastructure
Source: Authors, following Clement and Shade 2000.
depicted in figure 2.1, to understand access to ICT. The Access consisting of installed network capacity, network connectiv-
Rainbow Framework demonstrates the multifaceted nature ity, and interoperability standards. In this module, this layer is
of access to ICT and captures the socio-technical architecture interpreted as access to ICT infrastructure. Access to ICT appli-
instrumental to it. The framework goes beyond a mechanical ances is captured by the physical layer of ICT hardware devices
understanding of ICT access by including enablers of ICT such and the logical layer of software tools on these devices. With
as locally relevant content, ICT literacy, proximal ICT use,4 and its twofold (hardware and software) nature, access to ICT appli-
social mechanisms for governing ICT use. ances links the supply of ICT infrastructure with the provision
of services targeted at end users. Access to ICT services is
The Access Rainbow provides a framework for discuss- a more amorphous concept, consisting of: (1) the ready avail-
ing access to ICT infrastructure, appliances, and services. ability of content (resources), fulfilling users’ roles as citizens,
The “carriage facilities” layer is a physical technology layer producers, and consumers; (2) the ready availability (to those
who are not experts in the technology) of network access and
4 ICT use intermediated by skilled users in the rural community. appropriate support services through commercial vendors;
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
18 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
(3) the availability of formal and informal learning facilities FIGURE 2.3. ICT Price Subbaskets by Level
for developing network literacy; and (4) the ready availability of Development
of channels through which individual users can participate in 2009
decisions about telecommunications services, their social 250
Developed Developing
inclusiveness, and the public accountability of their provision. countries countries
200 190
In considering interventions to improve access to ICT, practi-
PPP$
tioners must consider the complexity of access to ICT infra- 150
structure, appliances, and services. It is important to locate
the access layer within which an intervention is anchored 100
and to assess how it relates to contingent aspects of access.
50
For public policy makers, a comprehensive understanding 28
21 16 18 15
of the processes determining ICT access is best achieved
0
within a holistic framework, but policy makers may also Fixed Mobile Fixed
find some value in quantifying ICT access within countries telephone cellular broadband
Source: ITU 2010.
and drawing comparisons across countries. To measure the Note: PPP$ = GNI per capita in current international dollars, obtained using
digital divide between countries and assess countries’ ICT purchasing power parity (PPP) conversion factors.
development potential, the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) introduced the ICT Development Index (IDI) as
an indicator of countries’ level of ICT development. The IDI “Affordability” as a Function of Pricing and Business Model
measures access by considering ICT readiness and five addi- An affordable universal service is one in which the “cost of
tional indicators: fixed telephony, mobile telephony, interna- average monthly usage is a small percentage of monthly gross
tional Internet bandwidth, households with computers, and national income (GNI) per capita” (Dymond et al. 2010). As a
households with the Internet (ITU 2010). Figure 2.2 shows concept, affordability is easier to measure than access. As a
that in recent years (2002–08) developing countries have measure of affordability, ITU uses the ICT price basket, which
exhibited considerably greater access values than developed includes price indicators for fixed telephones, mobile phones,
countries, largely owing to explosive growth in mobile tele- and fixed broadband service (ITU 2010).5 Figure 2.3 clearly
communications in developing countries. shows that by this measure, fixed-line broadband was the
single most expensive and least affordable service in develop-
FIGURE 2.2. Access to ICT by Level of Development, ing countries as of 2009. In using this means of assessing
Based on the ICT Development Index affordability, however, it is vital to determine if the contents
of the price basket are relevant to the access problem at
7
hand (for example, Topic Note 2.1 questions whether in some
6 contexts the affordability of fixed-line broadband infrastructure
Access subindex value
merits concern).
5 2002 2007 2008
The Access Rainbow Framework (introduced in the “Access
4 CAGR 2002–08 Concept” section) helps in understanding issues of afford-
5.8%
3 ability and sustainability, because it represents the layered
system of interdependencies within which technology diffu-
2
sion, business development, and regulatory policies occur.
1 CAGR 2002–08
9.4%
0
5 The fixed telephone subbasket captures the average monthly
Developed countries Developing countries
cost of a basic, local, fixed residential telephone service. The
Source: ITU 2010. mobile cellular subbasket represents low monthly mobile usage,
Note: For each year, the figures use the simple average value of the ICT
namely 25 outgoing calls per month (on-net, off-net, and to a
Development Index (IDI) access subindex over all developed or developing
countries. The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of the IDI access fixed line, and for peak, off-peak, and weekend periods) plus
subindex is computed by the formula (Pv / P0)(1/n) − 1, where Pv = present 30 SMS messages. The fixed broadband subbasket represents
value, P0 = beginning value, and n = number of periods. The result is a typical monthly offer based on a 256 kilobit connection and a
multiplied by 100 to obtain a percentage. minimum of 1 gigabyte of data.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 19
For example, the ICT layer carrying the highest value proposi- and upper bounds on the number of subscribers, which
tion for end users is the content/service layer.6 The frame- skewed the viability of fixed-line rollouts by private conces-
work makes it possible to consider the financial viability of all sion holders.
contingent layers (network capacity, availability of appliances,
customer support, and so on) and how they may affect the In addition to competition, technological neutrality is another
value derived from the content/service layer. leading regulatory policy principle for ensuring the affordabil-
ity of ICT. Technological neutrality is the principle of refraining
From a regulatory standpoint, the Rainbow approach cap- from specifying technology requirements within telecom-
tures the significance of the separation between layers, most munications licenses. Historically, specifying technology
prominently the separation between the carriage and the requirements was a means of stimulating domestic equip-
content layers. Focusing regulatory efforts within layers and ment manufacturing, but technological neutrality is advisable
enabling competition within and between layers is central within the present rapidly evolving IT industry, because regu-
to achieving quality end-user services at affordable prices. latory decisions on technology selection can be risky (box 2.1
From a regulatory policy perspective, the layered structure presents an example from the Republic of Korea).
illustrates the trend in policy to enable competition among
technologies delivering comparable functionality by follow-
BOX 2.1. The Risks of Picking Winners in the Rapidly
ing the principles of competition, technological neutrality, and
Evolving IT Industry
licensing flexibility.
In the Republic of Korea, the licensing of new technologies
Ensuring competition within each of the layers is a long-
arguably led to market growth for domestic equipment
standing policy priority, especially where economies of scale
manufacturers such as Samsung and LG, yet this strat-
are conducive to monopolistic market structure.7 Market lib-
egy may prove more risky in the IT domain. Government
eralization and free entry give incumbents incentives to pur-
support for WiBro, a Korean version of mobile WiMAX
sue a higher quality of service. For example, starting in 1992
(a telecommunications protocol that provides fixed and
Thailand sought to break up the Communication Authority of
mobile Internet access), has since been viewed as mis-
Thailand’s monopoly over international gateway services by
guided. By the end of 2008, WiBro had attracted only
introducing concessions to private companies under build-
170,000 customers for Korea Telecom and SK Telecom
transfer-operate agreements. The entry of the private sector
combined, a fraction of the government’s expected
alongside state-owned enterprises, such as the Telephone
1.4 million subscribers. Within the Korean market, LTEa
Organization of Thailand, led to a remarkable expansion of
mobile broadband services were emerging as a more
subscriptions for both fixed and mobile services. Yet the level
viable alternative to WiBro, and both Korea Telecom and
and the degree of competition in the fixed line and mobile
SK Telecom announced plans to launch commercial LTE
subsectors varied considerably because of the number of
services at the expense of languishing WiBro services.
concessions and their terms and conditions (Nikomborirak
Source: Author, based on Kim 2009a, 2009b.
and Cheevasittiyanon 2008). Competition in the mobile mar- (a) Long Term Evolution (LTE) is a preliminary mobile communication
ket yielded improved connectivity and affordability, while the standard, formally submitted as a candidate 4G system to ITU-T in late
2009. Commitment to LTE among mobile network operators has been
fixed-line subsector stagnated. growing steadily.
The lesson is that the welfare benefits of market liberaliza-
tion are achieved by implementing complementary policies
on competition that enable market pricing and restrict preda- Because no specific technology standards are designated,
tory pricing by incumbents facing new entrants throughout technological neutrality widens the scope for competition
the structural layers of the ICT sector. In Thailand, fixed-line within each layer of the Access Rainbow. Competing opera-
concessions were restricted by stipulated fixed-call rates tors choose the technology standards that allow them to
deliver services cost effectively. The regulatory policy drift
6 Layer number 4 in figure 2.1.
toward technological neutrality is supported by technology
7 International Internet gateways and local-loop or “last mile” developments that lead to increased standards of interoper-
fixed networks are examples. Local-loop networks are the fixed ability (see Rossotto et al. 2010).
networks that deliver connectivity from the local exchange to the
homes of end users. Because of the high cost of entry in devel-
oping these networks, this segment is conducive to a monopo- The main policy lever for assuring market competition and
listic market structure. technological neutrality is flexible licensing policies and the
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
20 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
enforcement of flexible spectrum rights. Strict licenses and KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS
spectrum rights can be counterproductive if they restrict ser- The challenges and enablers related to making ICT more
vices that can be provided or technologies used to provide widely and affordably available to rural people in developing
services (for example, WiMAX licenses have been issued countries are discussed in the sections that follow. Particular
limiting service provision to fixed broadband, to the exclu- attention is given to the kinds of partnerships, regulations,
sion of mobile broadband). In addition to limiting technologi- and policies needed to reach this goal.
cal possibilities, restricted licenses and spectrum rights can
also reduce the bidding incentives in spectrum auctions.
Partnerships
Technology flexibility can be achieved within each of the
Considering the multilayered nature of the problem of ensur-
interconnected layers of the ICT system through unified
ing affordable rural access to infrastructure, devices, and
licenses and simplified licenses (Rossotto et al. 2010). Box
services, partnerships between organizations with different
2.2 describes Singapore’s experience with facilities-based
specialties, capacities, and profit motives appear to be a key
and service-based operating licenses.
way to improve access and affordability. Partnerships serv-
ing as critical mechanisms for improving rural ICT access
BOX 2.2. Singapore’s Simplified Licenses Encourage can take the form of partnerships within the public sector,
Innovative, Cost-Effective ICT Infrastructure negotiated public-private partnerships, private agreements
between stakeholders in the telecommunications sector,
By ensuring that the installation and operation of any net- or informal understandings between service providers and
work infrastructure in Singapore is covered by a license, the stakeholders at the community level.
Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore ensures
Enabling such partnerships and maintaining them remains
the development of innovative and cost-effective infra-
a key government role. For example, the public sector
structure. Simplified licenses are issued to facilities-based
played a considerable role within the M-PESA collaborative
operators (FBOs) and services-based operators (SBOs) of
partnership (see IPS “M-PESA’s Pioneering Money-Transfer
telecommunications networks. FBOs include companies
Service,” in Topic Note 2.3). This role involved financially
deploying submarine cables to improve international con-
supporting the collaboration between mobile network opera-
nectivity infrastructure, companies rolling out fiber-optic
tors (MNOs) during software development. In Bhutan, part-
cables to improve domestic backhaul connectivity, and
nerships between departments within government were
companies setting up broadband Internet Protocol (IP) or
instrumental in rolling out community information centers
infrared networks. Wireless networks making demands
in remote areas (see IPS “Community Information Centers:
on scarce spectrum resources are licensed separately and
Bhutan,” in Topic Note 2.2).
subject to comparative selection or auctioning. The opera-
tions of FBOs effectively remain within the carriage layer,
A variety of motives engender private partnerships that
but FBOs have the flexibility to deploy and/or operate any
improve rural access to infrastructure and services. For
form of telecommunication networks, systems, and/or
example, in the infrastructure-sharing arrangements dis-
facilities on a technologically neutral basis.
cussed in Topic Note 2.2, explicit agreements were enacted
SBOs remain within the service/access provision layer, to share passive infrastructure costs and implement 3G
but they have full flexibility to choose their technology. technology. Agreements between commercial and nonprofit
Individual SBO licenses are intended for companies partners also make a compelling case for the significance of
that plan on leasing international connectivity capacities partnerships in implementing projects to deliver improved
installed by FBOs. Individual SBO licenses cover services rural access to ICT. For example, the Farmer’s Friend service
such as international simple resale, public Internet could be implemented only through collaboration incorporat-
access services, and store-and-forward value-added ing Grameen Foundation’s understanding of the nonprofit
services. SBO class licenses cover store-and-retrieve sector, Google’s technology expertise, MTN’s network cov-
value-added network services, Internet-based tele- erage, and the local agricultural knowledge of the Busoga
phony, the resale of public switched telecommunication Rural Open Source Development Initiative.
services, and other services.
Source: Halewood 2010. Regulation and Policy Challenges
Note: One result of this clear, flexible approach to ICT development is
Singapore’s extensive e-governance system, described in Module 12. Although ICT’s evolution in developing countries has far to
go, it has moved significantly forward in the past decade.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 21
The rapid expansion of mobile phone networks and market with pure data transmission regulations (UNCTAD 2010).
uptake of Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) In terms of competition, policies fostering the effective man-
technologies8 following liberalization and deregulation are agement of competitive markets, interconnection regimes,
the most frequently cited examples of this evolution. and mobile termination rates can provide incentives to invest
in quality of service, differentiation, and innovation.
Informed and effective regulation is necessary for creating
an enabling environment that will maximize entrepreneurs’ With the increasing adoption of ICT and growing prominence
abilities to expand market offerings and minimize the nega- of ICT-enabled services in consumers’ lives in develop-
tive effects of competition on consumers. Barriers such as a ing countries, it is worth emphasizing the significance of
monopoly operator and excessive licensing regimes in some consumer protection regulation for ensuring the effective
contexts (for example, requiring local community networks to governance of multilayered ICT access. Recurrent problems
have licenses) can negatively affect business potential. At the include gaps between advertised “headline” broadband
other end of the spectrum, a supportive fiscal and financial envi- access speeds and what subscribers actually experience,
ronment and entrepreneurs’ access to financial services can lack of transparency in the pricing of mobile voice and data
enable and increase the number of socially oriented services. services, lack of effective mobile number portability, and
excessive SMS pricing. Consumer-focused regulations
Significant regulatory issues in the telecommunications sec- should also target improvements in the legibility and ease
tor include taxes, licensing, liberalization, and competition of comprehension of transactions, made possible through
policies. Taxes on communication services strongly influence improved ICT access. Consumer protection can pursue such
ICT’s affordability in Africa, for example, given the low aver- goals through measures for mobile phone number registra-
age incomes. Import duties on IT equipment, value- added tion, identity verification, confidentiality, and privacy.
taxes (VAT) (ranging from 5 to 23 percent) on goods and
services, and excise taxes on communications services all Finally, the advent of financial services implemented on mobile
raise prices, discouraging use. Excessive licensing can also phones makes it essential to create an environment that inte-
stifle the delivery of various content-based ICT services. grates financial regulation and telecommunication regulations.
Regulations of content broadcasting should be synchronized These services are discussed in greater detail in Topic Note 2.3.
Topic Note 2.1: MAKING ICT AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
TRENDS AND ISSUES Convergence (as the name implies) blurs the distinctions
“Fixed-mobile convergence” is the increasingly seamless between the domains of Internet service providers, cable
connectivity among wired and wireless networks, devices, television media companies, fixed-line telecommunication
and applications, which permits users to send and receive companies, and operators of mobile telephony networks
data regardless of device and location. Convergence is the (figure 2.4).9 With this context in mind, the discussion that
result of converting content formats (text, images, audio, follows examines how technology trends in infrastructure,
video), devices for creating and communicating this content, appliances, and services can influence the delivery of afford-
and telecommunications infrastructure to digital standards. able ICT in developing countries.
Device convergence allows devices to support different
functionalities and different network access technologies. INFRASTRUCTURE
Service convergence means that end users are able to What are the current wired and wireless options to improve
receive comparable services via different devices and tech- domestic backbone and “last mile” connectivity? As noted,
nologies for accessing networks. Network convergence wired telecommunications infrastructure tends to reach rural
means that a single network is able to carry voice and data areas in the wake of complementary rural access infrastruc-
formats and can support access by different technologies. ture such as roads and electricity and the expansion of public
8 GSM standards for 2G cellular networks serve an estimated 9 Offers that span three out of these four services have become
80 percent of the global mobile market, according to the GSM known as “triple play” offers. (Sunderland 2007) points to such
association (http://www.gsm.org/). offers in Cape Verde and the Caribbean.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
22 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
FIGURE 2.4. Telecommunications, IT, and Media Industry Convergence
mobile networks
fibre optical
networks mobile data Mobile TV
circuit switched package switched
voice data global networks FMIC
managed network & ICT World
Telecom Industry application services VoIP
Collaborative
Internet computing
client-server web-services
technology Triple/Quadruple
main frames desk top computing (PC) enterprise integration Play
mini computers advanced planning systems
ERP, CRM, SCM & business intelligence Home
IT Industry packaged software automation
media centre
IP TV
gaming Narrow
digital audio
& video digital photography casting
radio, television & print electronic
publishing optical storage Video on
(CD/DVD) digital broadcasting
demand
Media Industry incl. Consumer Electronics flat screen technology
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Source: Caneval Ventures, “ICT and Media Industry” (http://www.caneval.com/vision/ictmediaindustry.html, accessed July 2011).
services such as education. The lag between the arrival of In considering how best to develop affordable telecommu-
complementary infrastructure and public services and the nications infrastructure in developing countries, all three
establishment of wired ICT infrastructure in rural areas can connectivity segments of the network need to be taken
be considerable, but the introduction of wireless, especially into account: (1) the international and domestic connectiv-
mobile, infrastructure is bound neither by the presence of ity that makes up the network’s backbone capacity, (2) the
roads nor by access to the electricity grid. domestic backhaul connectivity that enables the intermedi-
ate links, and (3) the local loop or “last mile” connectivity that
Rural infrastructure development needs to be considered in serves end-user access at the edges of the network. (Each
light of the different opportunities offered by wired and wire- of these networks segments is discussed in greater detail
less technologies and the fixed-mobile convergence occurring in “Domestic backbone and rural backhaul connectivity” and
throughout the ICT sector. Sunderland (2007) notes that fixed- “local loop or ‘last mile’ connectivity.”) The expansion of
mobile convergence differs in developing countries, where backhaul connectivity and the provision of “last mile” con-
fixed-line teledensity is low, from that in developed countries. nectivity pose particular challenges to extending ICT to rural
As a result, convergence in developing countries largely areas in an affordable way (box 2.3).
amounts to convergence in the delivery of Internet access and
voice telephony services over wireless networks. For example, Wireless infrastructure may be an economical option, but it
in rural Africa, where the teledensity of fixed networks is low has certain cost constraints. Buys et al. (2009) show that the
and their rollout can be prohibitively expensive, fixed-mobile probability of the presence of mobile tower base stations is
convergence enables the use of wireless “last mile” infrastruc- positively correlated with the potential demand (population
ture, while the backhaul traffic is carried on fixed fiber-optic density, per capita income), as well as with the absence of
cables because of their high capacity. In small-island develop- factors that increase operational and capital expenditures,
ing countries, fixed-mobile convergence allows for international such as elevation, slopes, lack of all-weather roads, unreli-
connectivity via satellite rather than undersea cable. able power supplies, and even insecurity. (See IPS “Passive
Infrastructure Sharing in Nigeria,” in Topic Note 2.2.)
Telecommunications networks comprise a hierarchy of links
that connect users at the “edge” of a network to its “core,” At the carriage level, network convergence is associated with
also called the “backbone” (the high-capacity links between the transformation from circuit-based public switched digital
switches on the network). The backhaul portion of a network telecommunication networks (PSTNs) to packet-switched
consists of the intermediate links between subnetworks at networks using the Internet Protocol (IP) and known as next-
the users’ end and the core network. generation networks (NGNs). Both PSTNs and NGNs are
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 23
BOX 2.3. Balancing Quality and Service in Reaching Rural and delay can mar the quality of the connection. A comparison
Areas: Fixed-Line versus Wireless Backhaul between traditional fixed-line telephone services and voice
over IP (VoIP) clearly demonstrates the difference between
Even though wireless is accepted as an economical the two types of networks. NGNs completely separate the
option for delivering “last mile” connectivity, backhaul packet-switched transportation (connectivity) layer and the
traffic is usually carried via fiber-optic networks because service layer, enabling any available fixed-line carriage infra-
of their high capacity. Connectivity is often limited by structure to be used efficiently for any service.
the limited penetration of the fixed-line backhaul that
supports it. The delivery of connectivity to rural areas
Domestic Backbone and Rural Backhaul Connectivity
lacking fixed-line backhaul involves balancing concerns
about ICT access, connection quality, and the expendi- As end users’ demand for additional bandwidth grows, insuf-
tures and delays entailed in rolling out fixed lines and ficient domestic backbone can pose a considerable challenge
supporting infrastructure. The benefits of wireless back- to the rollout of fixed-line broadband services. In the mobile
haul technology are worth considering in such cases. sector, insufficient backhaul capacity is becoming a limitation,
particularly with the increase of rural 3G data use. Government
Wireless backhaul is increasingly recognized as an interventions in support of rural backhaul solutions have
option for combating the expenditures involved in pro- included the introduction of public-private funding mechanisms
viding fixed-line rural connectivity. Wireless network (as in Korea and Chile; see box 2.4), construction subsidies
backhaul solutions can take the form of point-to-point or (as in Canada), and the rollout of fiber-optic networks connect-
point-to-multipoint wireless Ethernet bridges or wireless ing public institutions (Rossotto et al. 2010). Complementary
mesh networks. They can use licensed or unlicensed regulations can be used to ensure competitive conditions in
microwave links (see Unlicensed Wireless Use). With the provision of domestic backbone and rural backhaul. The
throughput from as low as 10 Mbps up to GigE full policy tools for supporting domestic backbone rollout and rural
duplex (with gigabit wireless), a licensed microwave backhaul connectivity include infrastructure sharing,10 func-
link or wireless bridge can provide sufficient capacity for tional separation,11 and cross-ownership restrictions, allowing
many rural applications. Because it is compatible with for interplatform competition12 (Dartey 2009).
mobile phone standards (GSM, CDMA), the WiMAX
standard offers opportunities for rolling out affordable
wireless rural backhaul. Advocates of the technology are Local Loop or “Last Mile” Connectivity
optimistic about its potential for linking wireless fixed- The delivery of network access in the “last mile” is the most
location base stations to the core network. costly and challenging element of rural deployments. The
Source: Authors. technology options for delivering wired local loop broadband
Note: Mbps = megabits per second; GigE = Gigabit Ethernet; GSM =
Global System for Mobile Communication; CMDA = Code Division Mul-
connectivity include the rollout of xDSL,13 cable, and fiber to
tiple Access (CDMA) 2000, a wireless air interface standard; WiMAX = the home infrastructure. Wireless options include the rollout
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.
of mobile (2G, 3G, 4G),14 wireless broadband (WiMAX, Wi-Fi,
made up of telephone lines, fiber-optic cables, microwave 10 “Infrastructure sharing” is a mechanism for reducing capital
expenditures and operating expenditures. Passive infrastructure
transmission links, mobile networks, communications satel- sharing consists of colocating competitors. Active infrastructure
lites, and undersea telephone cables. sharing consists of sharing the network base station controllers,
both circuit-switched and packet-oriented domains, mobile ser-
vices switching center, GPRS support node, and so on.
The difference between the two kinds of networks lies in 11 In “functional separation,” an incumbent operator is required to
their switching mechanisms. Under circuit switching, the establish separate divisions for managing fixed-line services and
providing wholesale services to retail competitors.
connection is established on a predetermined, dedicated,
12 Cross-ownership restrictions prevent operators, such as tele-
and exclusive communication path for the whole length of phony operators, from controlling competitive network infrastruc-
the communication session. Consequently, PSTN connectiv- ture, such as cable television networks. For example, restrictions
may be placed on the simultaneous control of telephony and
ity is costly. In packet-switching protocols, such as IP, the cable television network infrastructures in a specified area.
communicated data are broken into sequentially numbered 13 xDSL refers to all digital subscriber line (DSL) technologies.
packets, each of which is transmitted to the destination via 14 2G mobile wireless has basic functionality: voice and short mes-
saging service (SMS); 3G has advanced functionality: general
an independent path, and then the packets are reassembled. packet radio service; and 4G has broadband functionality: long-
In packet-switching, the potential for congestion, packet loss, term evolution (LTE).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
24 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
BOX 2.4. Chile’s ICT Policies for Connectivity and WLAN),15 and satellite very small aperture terminal (VSAT)
Economic Growth infrastructure. Within cell-based (mobile) wireless standards,
all users connect to a single base station, and the transmis-
Chile regards ICT policies as important tools for increas- sion bandwidth has to be shared among all users in the cell’s
ing the nation’s economic growth. The government has coverage area.
introduced policies addressing both the supply of and
demand for ICT. These policies go beyond infrastructure Within a short range, wireless broadband transmission is
to include programs for e-literacy, e-government, and possible at relatively high data rates—from hundreds of
ICT diffusion. megabits (Mbps) to a few gigabits (Gbps)—but services of
such high quality are not foreseeable for existing mobile
Chilean ICT policies consistently distinguish between
standards. Conversely, mobile technologies have the advan-
the domains of the private and public sectors and rely
tage of reliability within a greater access range. Point-to-
primarily on market forces to dictate the development
multipoint solutions, combining VSAT terminals with wireless
of the telecommunications sector. For example, the
broadband local access, are increasingly viable and promis-
broadband market in Chile has high levels of interplat-
ing. Unlike cell-based connectivity, satellite connectivity does
form competition: Multiple operators offer compet-
not distribute the available bandwidth among users; instead,
ing broadband services through different networks.
each user is connected independently, so satellite solutions
Government involvement is limited to cases where mar-
can offer a better quality of service. Yet the low density of
ket forces alone fail to provide incentives for growth in
wired infrastructure, combined with limited domestic fiber
the sector. Starting in 2002, for example, government
backbones in developing countries, makes wireless a practi-
investments focused on improving the connectivity of
cal option for connectivity in rural areas, despite the limita-
rural schools, developing fiber backbone infrastructure,
tions imposed on users by sharing capacity.
and training people in remote areas in computer skills.
In 2008, the government embarked on a more ambi- As this discussion implies, finding the network solution
tious project to extend at least 1 megabit per second that can ensure affordable ICT in rural areas can be an inno-
connectivity to 92 percent of the population and inten- vative, challenging, and exhausting process. The choice
sify ICT use in agriculture and tourism. Candidates for depends largely on the availability of technology, of rural
delivering this project were selected through a reverse backhaul, and of complementary infrastructure. It also
auction. The Chilean government participated by offer- depends on the flexibility and responsiveness of the regu-
ing a subsidy of US$70 million and the spectrum in the latory framework to the prevailing technology constraints
3.5 gigahertz band. and opportunities.
The Chilean Universal Access / Universal Service Fund
Polices related to the development of rural wireless infra-
has been praised for its accomplishments. Between
structure require careful study of the trade-offs between
1994 and 2002, by providing public pay phones to more
affordability and usability. Policy makers must determine
than 6,000 rural locations, the fund reduced the frac-
where the value lies (in terms of use) in developing the infra-
tion of the population living without access to basic
structure. Regulatory policy must consider the trade-offs
voice communication from 15 percent to 1 percent.
between reach, speed, frequency, and transmission. For
The subsidies required to achieve this goal cost less
example, the choice to use technology with low transmis-
than 0.3 percent of the telecommunications sector’s
sion power can lead, on the one hand, to a great increase in
revenue over the same period. The opportunity for
the available bandwidth per user; but on the other hand, it
existing and new operators to use the subsidized pay
may require a direct line of sight between the antenna and
phone infrastructure to provide individual telephone
the user. Consequently, the number of access points needed
lines and value-added services (voice mail, Internet
to cover a fixed area, and therefore the required capital
access, and so on) was one key to commercial suc-
expenditures, will rise considerably.
cess. An interconnection rate with access charges
capable of surpassing 40 percent of rural operating rev-
enues was the other key to success. 15 WiMAX (worldwide interoperability for microwave access); Wi-Fi
Sources: Mulas 2010; Wellenius 2002. (wirelessly connecting electronic device); WLAN (wireless local
area network).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 25
Several key technology parameters should be considered in BOX 2.5. Lessons from South Africa’s Experience in
decisions about the expansion of rural connectivity and the Migrating to Digital Television
choice of technological delivery mechanism. They include the
availability of spectrum frequencies, number of base stations South Africa developed a digital migration strategy
needed to cover an area of specific size given a fixed operat- to stimulate growth in its electronics manufactur-
ing frequency, achievable connection speed, data transmis- ing sector. The strategy featured a digital switch-on
sion rates, and downlink and uplink speeds. date in 2008 and an analog switch-off date at the end
of 2011. The reduced costs of simultaneous analog
Given the complexity of such decisions, the role of the regula- and digital broadcasting (€750 million for three years)
tory environment should be to expand the set of viable tech- were considered a strong advantage of the ambi-
nology options. Flexibility in allowing licensed and unlicensed tious, three-year migration plan. Other expected costs
use of operational frequencies can be advisable. Wellenius included €800 million for the digital rollout, as well
(2002) describes how Chile identified cost-effective solutions as €2.5–3.5 billion for subsidies to local manufactur-
to reduce the gap between urban and remote areas in access ers producing digital set-top boxes. In early 2011, the
to basic communications technology. South African minister of communications announced
that the switch from analog would be postponed until
The “digital dividend” has been widely hailed as the solu- December 31, 2013. Observers have raised questions
tion to urban-rural inequities in digital ICT access. The “digi- about the practicality of the plans and even the post-
tal dividend” is the reassignment of operational frequencies poned date. The lesson is that the certain costs of
that become available following the switch from analog to switchover plans need to be balanced against their
digital television broadcasting. The Geneva 2006 Agreement uncertain benefits, including the uncertain demand
sets June 17, 2015, as the final date for protecting currently for the released telecommunications spectrum and
assigned analog television transmission frequencies. The for additional digital TV services.
digital dividend spectrum is found between 200 megahertz Sources: Author, based on Pham 2009; Armstrong and Collins
(MHz) and 1 gigahertz (GHz). It offers a combination of 2011; and Government of South Africa, “Statement by Minister
of Communications,” January 14, 2011 (http://www.doc.gov.za
transmission capacity and distance coverage conducive to /index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=478:statement
the extension of wireless broadband infrastructure in rural -by-the-honorable-minister-of-communications-mr-radhakrishna-l
-padayachie-roy-on-progress-made-with-regards-to-the-digital-migration
areas. Using this spectrum, a few stations can transmit with -process&catid=88:press-releases, accessed July 2011).
high power, thereby providing Internet coverage to large
rural areas where population is low and demand sparse.
The advantage is the low capital expenditure required; the
downside is the low bandwidth available to individual users. used for this purpose in Kazakhstan; see box 2.6). CDMA450
The process is accepted as inevitable, however, and it pro- is a cellular technology based on the CDMA2000 standard,
vides opportunities for efficient spectrum management in with an operating frequency of 450 MHz. The technology
rural areas. uses the same air interface as CDMA2000 but operates at
a lower frequency and is able to offer the same basket of
How to reassign digital dividend frequencies efficiently high-speed voice and data connectivity over a greater range,
remains open to debate. Some advocate the reassignment thereby implying lower capital expenses. In rural settings,
of analog transmission frequencies to MNOs, without impos- CDMA450 has a range of up to 50 kilometers. Owing to a
ing a requirement that rural infrastructure investments be process known as “cell breathing,” however, such ranges
tied to urban infrastructure investments (Picot et al. 2010). are not achievable under cell loads approaching cell capac-
Others propose allocating the digital dividend frequencies to ity. CDMA450 appears to be best suited to mixed urban-rural
short-range communications. Countries’ experiences with deployments, in which urban deployments are capacity-
the crossover to digital television have varied and remain dif- centric and rural deployments are coverage-centric. Another
ficult to evaluate, as the process is still unfolding (box 2.5 has disadvantage of CDMA450 is the large antenna required to
an example from South Africa). allow the extended coverage for meeting low rural demand.
The major limitation of CDMA450 solutions is the scarcity
Some observers (Nedevschi et al. 2010) have considered of mobile devices that can use the 450 MHz frequency (the
CDMA450 a solution to rural connectivity problems (it is majority operate at 900–1800 MHz.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
26 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
BOX 2.6. CDMA450 Technology Connects Rural smartphones and Netbook appliances). Conversely, bulkier
Kazakhstan stationary devices such as the desktop computer have
evolved functionalities traditionally associated with more
Kazakhtelecom, the biggest telecommunications opera- portable devices, such as VoIP telephony and on-demand
tor in Kazakhstan, introduced CDMA450 technology in radio and TV broadcasts.
rural areas in the north. The CDMA450 base stations
cover 25–35 kilometers and can serve up to 1,000 sub- Among rural users in developing countries, the trend is to
scribers. The project, which began in 2008, had installed move from mobile phones with basic voice and text mes-
399 base stations by 2010, providing connectivity to sage capabilities to feature phones. Feature phones are low-
approximately 1,800 rural settlements. The project end phones that access various media formats in addition
intended to roll out 900 base stations throughout the to offering basic voice and SMS functionality, capturing the
country by 2013, enabling voice and Internet access ser- functionalities of multiple ICT devices that are also available as
vices at speeds up to 3.1 Mbps. stand-alone appliances. Rural consumers prefer the combined
Sources: Author, based on “Implementation of CDMA-450 in North devices because of their affordability. Features appreciated by
Kazakhstan,” August 5, 2009, Cellular News (http://www.cellular consumers in developing countries include the digital camera,
-news.com/story/38960.php, accessed July 2011); and “Base Stations
WLL CDMA Cover About 80% of Rural Settlements in Kyzylorda voice recorder, flashlight, radio, and MP3 player. Bluetooth and
Oblast,” Kazakhtelecom press release (http://www.telecom.kz/?muin= general packet radio service (GPRS) are the most widely avail-
1240831664&mchapter=1272548824&lang=eng&n_date=2010-04
-29&act=archive, accessed July 2011). able connectivity options, in addition to GSM. Chinese mobile
phone manufacturers tend to be at the forefront of making
devices that are particularly affordable and attuned to the
APPLIANCES needs of rural users in developing countries (box 2.7).
From a user’s perspective, device convergence has two main The demand for features tends to vary depending on the avail-
aspects. First, users can access content in different formats ability of complementary rural services. For example, radio is a
(audio, data, location data, pictures, maps, text) and with dif- feature very commonly targeted at the rural market, owing to
ferent dynamic properties,16 produced by different authors, the traditional significance of radio broadcasting in rural areas.
on the same device. Second, users can take advantage of Nonetheless, the choice of radio devices by rural residents is
different options (radio, GSM, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, satellite) for largely determined by the availability of electricity. The radio
accessing that content. feature of mobile phones tends to consume the device’s
battery fairly fast. Rural residents off the electricity grid find
The evolution of appliances in the mobile phone market illus-
this feature uneconomical, because the costs of recharging
trates these two trends. The discussion that follows focuses
services provided by local entrepreneurs are not negligible.
on portable devices that support multiple functionalities or
Rural residents at locations off the electricity grid in Ghana
multiple connectivity options, because they are vast majority
report paying 0.50 cedis per charging, comparable to the price
of ICT appliances available in the world today.
for 1 kilogram of plantains or oranges.17 In agricultural areas
such as northern Ghana, solar-powered and windup charging
Portable devices, including but not limited to mobile phones,
devices have durability and maintenance issues (although they
are starting to give users dual (or multiple) mode flexibility.
appear useful elsewhere; see IPS “Long Experience in Farm
For example, dual connectivity (Wi-Fi/GSM and Bluetooth/
Communities Benefits IFFCO,” in Topic Note 2.4).18 By com-
GSM) enables mobile phones to conduct both VoIP and
parison, traditional, battery-powered, dedicated radio receiv-
standard mobile calls. Dedicated telephone devices are
ers appear to be a more affordable choice.
able to process VoIP phone calls using Session Initiation
Protocol, as well as regular phone calls using analog signals.
Gains in processing power allow functions with higher tech-
nology requirements to work on smaller devices (high-end SERVICES
Services entail much more than access to hardware; they
16 Such as “online” and “offline” content; “online” content is encompass affordable access to locally relevant rural content
communicated but not recorded or reusable (such as a radio
broadcast),whereas “offline” content is recorded and reusable,
once it has been communicated (such as audio podcasts, SMS 17 See Esoko (http://www.esoko.com).
messages, or voice mail). 18 Details available from the authors.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 27
BOX 2.7. Mobile Phones with Features Attract Rural Users in China and Beyond
Chinese mobile phone producers are concentrated in the city of Shenzhen, Guangdong Province. They, as well as their
products, have become known as shanzhai.a At least two innovative features associated with shanzhai devices have
wider relevance to rural consumers’ use of, and preferences for, devices in developing countries.
The first feature is that they allow users to store multiple (physical) SIM cards within the device, which allows them to
switch between carriers without having to reboot the device. This feature responds to the price sensitivity of rural con-
sumers in developing countries, who switch between carriers to take advantage of preferential termination rates for the
carrier of their calling destination. Because the choice of mobile network operator can be limited in rural areas, consum-
ers have strong incentives to take advantage of cost-saving opportunities when they exist. This demand-driven innova-
tion has made no inroads into the products of popular mobile phone manufacturers, which are reluctant to undermine the
business models of mobile network operators worldwide. Consumers who cannot purchase these devices can achieve
the same results through street-level hack services offering software to configure from 6 to 16 SIM card identities on one
physical SIM card, enabling users of unlocked mobile phones to switch conveniently among carriers.
A second feature of devices from Chinese mobile phone manufacturers (relevant to convergence in the “infocom” sec-
tor) is the addition of analog television reception. This feature is found in phones with large LCD screens like those of
smartphones.
The features in these devices illustrate ways that the global mobile phone industry could choose to respond to the
demands and constraints of rural consumers—but has not. The preference of rural consumers in developing countries for
access to television over radio is well established but constrained by poor access to the electricity grid. Unlike dedicated
radio receivers, television sets have not evolved to operate on dry cell battery power alone, and mobile phone devices
with analog television functionality are the exclusive option for rural populations. Given that television remains an effec-
tive means of delivering agricultural extension messages, the lack of support for these and other innovative features
introduced by Chinese phone manufacturers represents a missed opportunity in rural communication.
Sources: Authors; Chipchase 2010; Abbey-Mensah 2001.
(a) Shanzhai signifies Chinese imitation and pirated brands and goods, particularly electronics (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanzhai, accessed July 2011).
through connectivity providers, content creators and dissemi- use time, quantity of data transferred, or communications dis-
nators, information intermediaries, social facilitators, informa- tance covered. Such models increasingly are replaced by more
tion literacy educators, and the governance channels steering flexible subscription models and models centered on realized
the performance of these services.19 Concerns with rural interactions and transactions, paid for via micropayments. In
content have traditionally been alien to public policies aimed at developing countries, where consumers are more price sensi-
universal service and universal access, but the convergence of tive and less willing to pay, the trend toward micropayments
the mass media and telecommunications sector, as well as the poses a considerable challenge to content and value-added
rise of the information society, make such concerns increas- service providers. The challenge is compounded by the mar-
ingly prominent and crucial to unleashing a virtuous cycle of ICT ginal success of government and donor efforts to provide
adoption and use in rural areas. The delivery of content-based content-driven rural services in developing countries.
agricultural services is discussed in Topic Note 2.4.
Traditionally, rural information services focused on provid-
The service layer reflects the synergies (or lack thereof) ing broadcasting (“push”) content, such as rural radio pro-
among network infrastructure, connectivity modalities, access gramming, but the ubiquity of mobile devices enables the
devices, and content. The dynamics of the worldwide content sourcing and sharing (“pull”) of rural content. The presence
marketplace point to the dying out of traditional communica- of mobile technology as an authoring tool in rural areas pres-
tions business models, which centered on tariffs anchored in ents an untapped opportunity to engage rural users in author-
ing content, thereby increasing the demand for existing rural
19 See the earlier discussion of the layered nature of access infrastructure. Mobile devices, in combination with broad-
(“Access Concept”) and the Access Rainbow Framework. casting technologies such as radio, enable rural residents to
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
28 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
participate in public discourse and influence decision making. cannot afford their own phones or are not permitted to use
In reviewing communication and media needs at the com- the personal phones of family members (Burrell 2010). The
munity level in Ghana, (Dartey 2009) points out that call-in sharing and collaborative use of personal mobile phones can
radio programs have become widely popular. Such programs enhance social ties but may also cement social inequalities.
allow Ghanaians to express their opinions on issues of local
concern. Another trend to be noted is the divergence in focus and
targets of local (especially rural) demand-driven information
The provision of rural ICT-based services in developing services relative to supply-driven services. Content-focused
countries has a few discernible characteristics. One recur- service innovations tend to respond to local needs within the
rent characteristic in successful business models is found entertainment, social networking, game, and music domains.
at the literacy / social facilitation level of the Access Rainbow If managed carefully, such services can be legitimate drivers
Framework. Successful business models manage to lever- of ICT use for demand-driven services in education, public
age social networks and social value (UNDP 2008). Engaging awareness, health, and agriculture. Introducing immediately
rural residents as individuals rather than as beneficiaries popular content is a way to attract and retain users. Once the
appears to be essential in delivering a worthwhile value prop- user base is established, there is room for introducing more
osition. Allowing rural residents to be trainers, to facilitate practical content, such as mobile banking (box 2.8).
access to content, and to provide local support and mainte-
nance appears to be a successful business strategy for the
delivery of rural services (image 2.1). BOX 2.8. MXit Blends Entertainments and Practical
Content in South Africa
IMAGE 2.1. Cell Services in Rural South Africa
Founded in 2003, MXit is a pioneering mobile media
and social networking company based in South Africa.
Initially, community issues and causes formed a strong
focus for the networking it facilitated. Subsequently, it has
expanded to cover entertainment (music downloads, mul-
tiplayer games, TV polls), dating, classifieds, education,
counseling (drugs, youth helpline), and mobile banking.
The primary MXit product is software allowing mobile
users to use instant messaging to participate in com-
munity forums on different topics. The software can be
installed for free, and there is no subscription and no
charge for messaging. By using IP-based (GPRS, 3G)
connectivity, MXit allows instant messaging at a cost
Source: John Hogg, World Bank. per character hundreds of times smaller than the cost
of an equivalent SMS message. These costs are cov-
ered by revenues from advertising (wallpapers, promo-
Even though the diffusion of personal mobile phones has
tions, brand portals) and content sales (skinz, music,
eroded the business logic behind well-documented models
classifieds).
such as the Grameen Village Phone (an owner-operated GSM
Sources: Chigona et al. 2009; Prows 2009; Ramachandran 2009.
payphone) (Futch and McIntosh 2009), the significance of
social value remains a key building block of business models
aimed at delivering rural ICT-based services. As pricing plans
have changed over the past few years, the mobile payphone Currently, prepaid subscription models appear to be the
has become less profitable as a business asset. Even so, standard operational mode for providing services in devel-
the impersonal nature of mobile payphones is instrumental oping-country markets. Yet, as Topic Note 2.4 indicates, this
to addressing concerns related to equal access. From the strategy may be impractical for rural content providers, given
standpoint of public service provision, equal access to public the risks involved in subscription renewal and the high fixed
phones continues to be significant, especially for women who costs of generating relevant rural content.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 29
Topic Note 2.2: PUBLIC INNOVATIONS IN UNIVERSAL
ACCESS TO TELECOMMUNICATIONS
TRENDS AND ISSUES Broadening Mandate of Universal Access / Universal
With technology moving toward fixed-mobile convergence, Service Funds
the provision of minimum services (other than telephony) The main vehicles for improving access to ICT in rural areas have
and public access to ICT devices has fallen within the man- been the univeral access / universal service funds (UA/USFs)
date of universal service regulations. This note examines established in the 1990s. The funds originally offered an opportu-
the public sector’s changing and recently expanding role nity for funding and access to ICT solutions in underserved areas
in providing affordable access to ICT infrastructure, appli- (Hudson 2010). Dedicated at first to increasing the penetration
ances, and services, including the growing use of universal of landline telephone services, the funds now support mobile
access / universal service funds. network development and Internet services in most countries.20
In some countries, such as Ghana and Mongolia, funds are
Changing Role of the Public Sector
disbursed to aid the provision of rural public access telephony
Public involvement in the telecommunications sector evolved
and Internet facilities. Although the expansion of mobile
in a nonlinear way (Gómez-Barroso and Feijóo 2010). An early
networks has reduced the urgency of public access to voice
monopolistic stage after the Second World War was suc-
telephony, arguments based on gender inequality and per-
ceeded by a series of crises in the 1970s as services came
ceptions of social obligation still favor the provision of public
to be considered a “public matter” demanding closer govern-
access (Burrell 2010). In allocating UA/USF funds to services
ment involvement. In the 1980s, the public sector started
other than voice telephony, some governments specify addi-
giving way to the private sector, which was considered better
tional criteria, such as the nearby presence of public-access
equipped to deliver value and efficiency.
facilities (telecenters, libraries, Internet cafes, and so on).
The public sector’s current role in telecommunications can be
Since cost-effective technologies for delivering rural access
described as promoting the information society. Governments
to ICT are evolving constantly, it is essential that UA/USFs do
act as facilitators and enablers of universal access to telecom-
not limit their technological scope and maintain technological
munications, and the public sector has reemerged as an active
neutrality. It is advisable for UA/USFs’ tender requirements to
participant in the sector. In both developed and developing
specify coverage, bandwidth, quality of service, target price,
countries, public agencies are regarded as partners in funding
and so on—but not technology. Rural areas where the profit-
infrastructure in areas where the incentives for private invest-
ability of telecommunications services is low can be of lim-
ment are insufficient; they are also regarded as partners by vir-
ited commercial interest to telecommunications companies.
tue of their role in encouraging demand for telecommunications.
Consequently, the UA/USF levy can run the risk of becoming
In developing countries, local governments and international
a simple direct tax on the operator, and a strategic approach
development partners actively facilitate access to ICT at all lev-
is needed to deliver ICT services and “unlock” the potential
els (infrastructure, appliances, and services).
of UA/USFs (especially in Africa) (UNCTAD 2010).
It is within the domain of local government and public admin-
istration to provide innovative methods for access to ICT in Public Support for Low-Cost Devices
rural areas. Effective partnerships and public support are Unlike public support for the provision of infrastructure, pub-
capable of overcoming obstacles at different access layers. lic support for the provision of low-cost devices has experi-
Until recently, the public sector was not considered an inves- enced considerable criticism. The most prominent instance
tor in telecommunications, but under the increasing pres-
sure of the recent international financial crisis, governments 20 The objectives of UA/USFs can be at very different stages of
development and maturity. Hudson (2010) reviews key lessons
looked to ICT as fiscally sound investments relative to other related to UA/USFs’ management, professional capacity, size
public stimulus options. Investments in broadband and next- of funding, and expanding mandate. Stern, Townsend, and Ste-
generation networks are proving to work as countercyclical phens (2006) recommend the accelerated, simplified, and diver-
sified use of UA/USFs. UNCTAD (2010) discusses in detail the
tools for creating jobs and as building blocks of long-term challenges and opportunities for financing ICT in rural areas of
economic recovery (Qiang 2010). developing countries through UA/USFs.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
30 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
BOX 2.9. India Exemplifies Evolution in the Public infrastructure sharing is distinguished from “active infrastruc-
Provision of Low-Cost Devices ture sharing,” which can involve the shared use of electronic
infrastructure such as network components (for example,
India’s union minister for human resource development access node switches), radio transmission equipment, and
announced that the government would continue to sup- core network software systems (Ghosh, Aggarwal, and
port development of a low-cost device with computing Marwaha 2009). Although active infrastructure sharing can
and communication capabilities. The cost of the tablet raise concerns among mobile network operators, passive
device, commonly known as the “Sakshat” (“before infrastructure sharing has become established as a reliable
your eyes”), currently stands at US$35, but it is pro- mobile network expansion strategy, particularly for expen-
jected to decline to US$10 through continuing research sive rural sites with high transmission and power costs.
and development cooperation with private manufactur-
ers. The government is committed to first provide the Nigeria has been named one of the telecommunications
technology to 110 million schoolchildren. markets with the most promising potential for growth. Even
so, the National Communications Commission has identi-
The Indian program clearly demonstrates how the
fied several issues as detrimental to this growth, including
scope of public initiatives providing access to low-cost
poor public power supply, poor security, and high operational
devices has evolved, largely as a result of the compre-
costs (Onuzuruike 2009). Gupta and Sullivan (2010) found
hensive approach of the One Laptop per Child project.
unreliable electricity and insecurity to be the main challenges
Government initiatives aimed at the development of
to operating mobile networks. These challenges were much
low-cost technology devices include the active participa-
more prominent in Nigeria compared to other West African
tion of technology development partners (for example,
countries with more reliable access to the electricity grid
the Indian Institute of Technology Rajasthan) as well as
(such as Ghana, Cameroon, and Côte d’Ivoire). Gupta and
further development and investment in communication
Sullivan (2010) calculated that costs of fuel for generators,
layers other than the appliance itself. The Indian Ministry
including a minimum of 20 percent of fuel lost to theft,
for Human Resource Development is simultaneously
amounted to 60–90 percent of the costs of running net-
tackling the problems of device/hardware affordability
work sites in Nigeria. Base station costs in Nigeria add up
and content creation by ensuring that electronic con-
to US$200,000–250,000, 3.5 times higher than in India (US$
tent for the devices is generated under the National
60,000–70,000). Some of these limitations are at last being
Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning.
overcome through passive infrastructure sharing.
Sources: Author, based on “India to Unveil £ 7 Laptop,” The Guardian,
February 2, 2009 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/feb/02
/india-computer-cheapest, accessed July 2011); “India Unveils World’s Helios Towers Nigeria (http://www.heliostowers.com
Cheapest Laptop,” The Guardian, July 23, 2010 (http://www.guardian.co /homepage) significantly decreases the impact of such issues.
.uk/world/2010/jul/23/india-unveils-cheapest-laptop, accessed July 2011);
“Low Cost Access-Cum-Computing Device Unveiled by Shri Kapil Sibal,” In 2005 Helios Towers became Africa’s first independent
The Hindu, July 23, 2010 (http://www.thehindu.com/news/resources
/article529944.ece, accessed July 2011).
mobile tower company, enabling wireless network operators
to share infrastructure. The organization buys nonelectronic
infrastructure at the cell site from telecommunications provid-
ers, such as towers and power supplies, or develops new infra-
was government involvement in the One Laptop per Child
structure where none exists. Telecommunications companies
project (Burke 2006; Hollow 2009; Kleine and Unwin 2009).
rent space at the towers and access to other elements of the
Yet government efforts to provide low-cost devices persist
communications infrastructure, sharing it with other providers.
and are evolving (box 2.9).
Helios Towers estimates that clients colocating on one of
their towers can save over US$200,000 in capital expendi-
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY tures and up to 20 percent in operating expenditures. Helios
Passive Infrastructure Sharing in Nigeria Towers also provides wireless operators with power, round-
“Passive infrastructure sharing” is the sharing of nonelec- the-clock security and access (shelters have typically been
tronic infrastructure, equipment, and services at mobile subject to vandalism), and other services such as installation
network base stations, including the site space, buildings, and maintenance. According to its website, the company’s
towers, masts, and antennas; power supply, back-up bat- large-scale and numerous sites allow it to offer a guaran-
teries, and generators; security; and maintenance. Passive tee of 99.9 percent uptime for service users, compared
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 31
to a 70 percent industry average. Network operators thus problems faced by operators in operating and managing wire-
improve the quality of service for customers and can pass less infrastructure. As Onuzuruike (2009) notes, tower manage-
the associated cost reductions on to them. ment companies usually enjoy scalable and long-term recurring
revenues with contracted annual escalations. They also benefit
The economies of scale that Helios Towers and companies from low churn rates and low operating and capital costs. Hence
like it generate enable them to provide access in areas where they are able to ensure the fair treatment of new entrants while
it would not be financially advantageous for other companies, satisfying incumbents (by purchasing their infrastructure and
such as network operators, to do so. Access is increased allowing the operators to outsource at a lower cost), at the
in rural areas, for example, or areas where power supplies same time providing more comprehensive service to end users.
previously were poor.
Helios Towers depends on wireless operators buying into its
Helios Towers’ first site went live in June 2006, and since service. The company is able to offer a basis for partnership
then the company has expanded to include over 1,000 four- that makes their proposition highly attractive to corporate
operator sites across Nigeria’s six geopolitical zones. Through clients: infrastructure sharing lowers the risk represented by
them, MTN Nigeria provides services in 223 cities and towns, investment in network expansion and upgrades. The company
more than 10,000 villages and communities, and a growing counters the rising price of site rentals by sharing this cost
number of highways across the country. In August 2004, MTN among partners; site owners, in response to the rising demand
had coverage in all 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory for provision in underserved areas, have increased their rents,
Abuja, and their signal reached 80.9 percent of Nigeria’s total and local government restrictions on new tower construction
population, living in 58.33 percent of its landmass.21 Similarly, owing to health and environmental hazards have only increased
through Helios Towers, Zain Nigeria22 (MTN Nigeria’s largest the attractiveness of passive infrastructure sharing.
competitor) currently covers over 1,500 towns and 14,000
communities across all six geopolitical zones. Zain was the To retain its many partners (aside from MTN and Zain, they
first telecom operator to serve all of the zones.23 Considerable include EMTs, Starcomms, Reliance Telecoms, and Visafone)
overlap in the coverage offered by these and other network and provide comprehensive nationwide service, Helios offers
operators provides significant advantages to end users: The services to the full range of wireless operators: GSM, CDMA,
resulting competition lowers tariffs and enhances choice. and WiMAX operators utilizing 2G, 3G, and 4G technology
platforms. It is also prepared to build towers where there
The National Communications Commission supported this are none, even when it is not financially advantageous in the
new business model and developed a regulatory framework short to medium terms, to improve its network and remain
for potential colocators. This framework suggests how to the dominant supplier. As a result, operators can expand into
share infrastructure to promote fair competition and infra- rural markets and other underserved areas while keeping
structure sharing among the telecoms’ licensees. It effec- their costs—and, crucially, their tariffs—low.
tively enables organizations such as Helios Towers to operate
with state support and gives network operators a strong
incentive to align with such a powerful ally. INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Turkey’s Oligopolistic Infrastructure
The business model developed by the growth of tower man-
Sharing Model
agement companies such as Helios Towers has helped erase
The Turkish mobile telecommunications market is dominated
by Turkcell, Vodafone Turkey, and Avea (a wholly owned
21 See http://www.mtnonline.com/index.php/about.html, accessed subsidiary of Turk Telekom, the largest telecommunications
July 2011.
22 In 2010 Bharti Airtel of India completed the acquisition of the Zain company in Turkey). Following an agreement announced by
Group in a US$10.7 billion deal (Pan 2010), which included own- Turkcell and Turk Telekom in August 2009, the two compa-
ership of Zain’s assets in Africa (network operations in Burkina
nies (and, to a lesser extent, Vodafone) have made strides to
Faso, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo,
Gabon, Kenya, Ghana, Malawi, Madagascar, Niger, Nigeria, Tan- reduce the costs of introducing 3G mobile broadband tech-
zania, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia). In these countries, nology in Turkey through passive infrastructure sharing.24
Zain operations are currently known as Bharti Airtel. This section
maintains references to Zain Nigeria.
23 Coverage information publicized online (http://www.ng.zain.com 24 “3G in Turkey: By Sharing Infrastructure?” Developing Telecoms,
/System/AboutUs/tabid/59/Default.aspx) by Zain Nigeria, prior to August 12, 2009 (http://www.developingtelecoms.com/3g-in
its acquisition by Bharti Airtel. -turkey-by-sharing-infrastructure.html), accessed July 2011.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
32 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
They have signed contracts with Huawei, ZTE, and Ericsson in the highly competitive business models of infrastructure
for this purpose. providers, which enable more and later entrants to the mar-
ket (such as ZTE). The price-competitive business model has
This highly interesting development in infrastructure also enabled customers to receive services at lower prices:
sharing involves competition from both ends of the part- Ericsson, Huawei, and ZTE must streamline their own profits
nership. Unlike in Nigeria, where Helios Towers enjoyed to offer the MNOs maximum cost savings (to gain market
unparalleled relationships with both Zain and MTN, here share); and Turkcell, Vodafone, and Telekom Turk must pass
the infrastructure managers must fight to retain convivial on a significant proportion of these savings to customers
relationships with their clients. This competitive landscape (again, to achieve greater market share).
reflects the business model promoted by Turkey’s regula-
tory framework. Although the partnership structure that has evolved in Turkey
is less convivial than that in Nigeria, it has still been key
Turkey’s ICT sector lags its European counterparts in some to implementing 3G technology. The agreement between
areas, with declining numbers of fixed telephone lines (27.3 Turkcell and Telekom Turk to jointly reduce infrastructure
percent of the population in 2000, compared with 24.6 per- costs has been particularly instrumental in avoiding another
cent in 2007) and slow penetration of the Internet market false start in bringing 3G to Turkey (Rossotto et al. 2010).
(from 2.2 percent in 2000 to 6.3 percent in 2007) but rapid
growth in mobile subscriptions (rising from 23.9 percent pen- The competition among key players in the infrastructure
etration in 2000 to 83.9 percent in 2007) (Rossotto et al. 2010, provision industry has ensured comprehensive coverage
229–30). This sector profile reflects Turkey’s young popula- of the different routes and technologies into mobile broad-
tion: 92.9 percent are under the age of 64 (Rossotto et al. band; Ericsson’s Converged Package Gateway, for example,
2010, 230). This demographic suggests the huge potential is suitable for operators “providing high performance broad-
of wireless broadband in Turkey, which is why international band LTE services, CDMA operators moving to LTE, and
players such as Vodafone, Huawei, and Ericsson are keen to operators wanting to provide mobility between LTE, 3GPP
invest heavily in the country and compete among themselves and ‘non-3GPP’ access networks such as wireless LAN or
for market dominance. Because contracts were exchanged Wimax.”26 ZTE and Huawei provide similarly encompassing
only recently (2009), it is still difficult to evaluate the impact services.
of the technology or the competitive business model under
which it is provided.25
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Regulatory reform of the Turkish telecommunications indus- Dabba’s Experience with Unlicensed
try has been a concern. Rossotto et al. (2010) report that Wireless Services in South Africa
regulators seek to promote a fully competitive market sector
One obstacle to expanding wireless technologies is the unli-
through plans modeled loosely around the EU framework.
censed use of wireless services. The main problem associ-
Although Turk Telekom (privatized in 2005) dominates the
ated with unlicensed multipoint wireless services is interfer-
telecommunications industry with its 93 percent market
ence arising from the operations of other wireless networks
share, this dominance is being most convincingly challenged
within an area. Interference often causes unlicensed wire-
in mobile communications. Turkcell and Vodafone both enjoy
less services to have much higher error rates and interrup-
greater market share in this subsector, thanks to the regula-
tions than equivalent wired or licensed wireless networks
tory efforts made to ensure fair competition.
(for example, copper telephone, coaxial cable, and mobile
Despite these efforts at promoting competition, a market networks). For these reasons, unlicensed multipoint services
share analysis demonstrates that the market is moving often grow slowly and lose customers; their operators may
toward an oligopolistic structure in terms of competition be required to rethink their business model.
among mobile network operators as well as among infra-
Interference problems have yielded several responses. An
structure managers such as Ericsson. This shift is reflected
organizational response has been to establish voluntary
25 “Ericsson to Build 3G Network for Turkcell,” Ericsson, March 11,
2009 (http://www.ericsson.com/news/1296824, accessed July 26 See http://www.ericsson.com/ourportfolio/telecom-operators,
2011). accessed July 2011.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 33
spectrum coordination organizations, entirely independent of Dabba offers free calls within the local network and pay-
government, to coordinate the actions of unlicensed wire- as-you-go cards for users who wish to place distance calls
less network operators and minimize disruptions through (avoiding subscription fees).
the maintenance of an operator frequency and sources data-
base. Cooperation with the voluntary coordination body is Initially, Dabba exploited the new regulatory freedom pro-
enforced through peer pressure by cooperative operators on vided by an August 2008 High Court Ruling, which found that
uncooperative operators.27 anyone in possession of a Value Added Network Services
(VANS) license (which Dabba held) was entitled to “self-
A technology-centered approach to the interference issue is provide” and compete in the formerly oligopolistic market
the development of adaptive and mesh network technolo- (Esselaar et al. 2010). The market grew from four players to
gies. Adaptive networking improves performance by devel- potentially hundreds overnight. Dabba took this relative free-
oping dynamic interference and fault detection and recon- dom beyond its regulatory limits, however, and was found to
figuration protocols. Mesh networking optimizes quality over be using ISM (industrial, scientific, and medical) Wi-Fi bands,
routing and the possible paths for the delivery of service to for which it was not licensed, and using equipment that was
customers. Neither technology is yet capable of delivering not type-approved.29
high-speed, low-latency, business-class, and reliable local
loop service, however.28 Such unlicensed use perhaps derived from Dabba’s business
model, with its ever-pressing need to reduce operating costs.
As partners of the Village Telco service in South Africa, the Dabba adds value for consumers by offering them the least
company Dabba and the Shuttleworth Foundation in the expensive rates (free local calls, pay-as-you-go distance calls,
Orange Farm Settlement provide telephone and mobile no subscriptions). Cheap service compensates for the lower
access through VoIP wireless routers. Founded by Rael quality of service that Dabba’s technologies sometimes pro-
Lissous in 2004, Dabba reprogrammed Wi-Fi routers as base vide. Although this model enabled Dabba to grow quickly in
stations and used open source firmware to make up the its pilot area, where customers had little to lose by joining
components of a telecommunications network. Following the network, it generated enormous pressure to operate
complaints to the Independent Communications Authority cost-effectively.
of South Africa by the incumbent operator, Telkom, that
Dabba was interfering with its licensed service provision, This pressure has abated through Dabba’s new partnership
Dabba’s equipment was seized in February 2009. Dabba has with Cisco. Cisco has provided new equipment and support
since returned to work with a new business partner, Cisco, and has provided 100,000 rand to initiate an ICT entrepreneur
the international networking and communications expert. program, enabling Dabba to expand into two new town-
ships.30 Dabba has also received additional support from
Dabba is an example of innovation to avoid the high costs the Shuttleworth Foundation, which underwrites all of their
typically associated with telecommunication service provi- work. Dabba can now pursue its original business model
sion to rural and unserved areas. Wi-Fi enables access to while remaining more firmly within South Africa’s regulatory
large areas at a low cost, as hot spots with amplifiers can framework.
cover ranges of up to 8 kilometers, allowing Dabba to serve
entire townships with minimal outgoing expenses. In the The lightweight Ubiquiti equipment employed since Cisco’s
densely populated townships, this has proved a winning involvement is inexpensive. It uses solar energy and bat-
formula for providing telecommunications to large numbers tery packs connected by locally made antitheft brackets to
of people and for passing on the low costs to the end user. reduce costs further. This setup, combined with the use
of Wi-Fi and wireless mesh networks, makes Dabba well-
suited to provide coverage for small, local groups and
27 BANC (Bay Area Network Coordination), the first voluntary
coordination body, was founded in 2003 by NextWeb, Etheric
Networks, GateSpeed, and a handful of other companies. BANC
comprised the majority of operators in California’s Bay Area and 29 “ICASA Defends Wi-Fi Equipment Confiscation in South Africa,”
used peer pressure to get uncooperative operators to conform. Balancing Act, Issue 443, February 27, 2009 (http://www
BANC was subsequently deployed in Los Angeles. Despite its .balancingact-africa.com/news/en/issue-no-443/internet/icasa
efforts, some members of BANC switched to licensed opera- -defends-wifi-e/en, accessed June 2011).
tions because of the high costs of interruptions, and the system 30 “Low-Cost Phone and Voice Operator Bounces Back with Entre-
foundered. preneur Support from Cisco,” Balancing Act, Issue 451, April 23,
28 The source for this paragraph is http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki 2009 (http://www.balancingact-africa.com/news/en/issue-no-451
/Wireless_local_loop. /top-story/low-cost-phone-and-v/en, accessed June 2011).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
34 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
townships, whereas large, centralized projects could not They also suggest that Bhutan’s relatively young population
provide services that most users could afford. Dabba is an indication of the potential impact of the telecommunica-
has renewed its operations so recently, however, that its tions sector.
impact remains unclear.
A key factor enabling development of the CICs is that they not
only receive strong government support but also are in fact
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY government led and organized and in effect self-regulating.
Bhutan’s Community Information Centers Adapt As long as local managers produce a profit and offer the ser-
to the Geographical and Consumer Context vices detailed in the government guidelines, they are free to
operate their CICs as they see fit. Running the centers is thus
Bhutan’s Department of Information Technology (DIT) has
rendered attractive to local entrepreneurs.
established a series of community information centers (CICs)
to provide sustainable, commercially viable ICT services in This business model of local autonomy underwritten by
rural areas. DIT provides all of the equipment for offering government support is crucial to the CICs’ success. Some
CIC services, and the local community provides an individual villages are so remote (in extreme cases, several days’
who is employed to promote and maintain those services. walk from the nearest road) that only locals can under-
Services available at the CICs include basic and advanced stand the market conditions.34 By international standards,
computer training, non-Internet-based games, digital repro- Bhutan’s national media (particularly its newspapers) are
duction, the Internet, telephone facilities, government infor- weak, and rural service users are likely to have higher lev-
mation and forms, and lamination and scanning. els of trust in local business managers. However, central
intervention will be necessary to subsidize the high costs
In line with the government’s ninth five-year plan, the CICs
of accessing some rural areas, which is crucial if telecom-
represent an updated effort to provide rural Bhutan (just over
munications are to reach the population at large. The part-
79 percent of the population) with some telecommunica-
nership between local and players and government strikes
tions connectivity. Bhutan’s mountainous, forested terrain
a favorable balance.
(forests occupy nearly three-quarters of its land area)31 have
made wired Internet and telephone connectivity prohibitively The Government of Bhutan plans to provide a hub-and-spokes
expensive for operators and end users. The CICs reduce the network, enabling it to overcome the difficulties associated
costs for the end user, who pays on demand only for the with placing infrastructure in mountainous and remote ter-
services required, and public access through CICs renders rain. It seeks to provide a network of broadband connection
service provision more attractive by expanding the customer through fiber-optic cables from the capital and out to the 20
base. Individuals who could never afford their own personal districts (dzongkhag) and village groups (gewog). The con-
connection to the telecommunications network may still nection from districts to village groups and on to the villages
prove a significant source of income to the CIC, especially will be provided by wireless technologies such as GSM.
when such individuals are considered in the aggregate (vil- These “spokes” lead to the CICs.35
lages average 43 households).32
The CIC initiative is still in its infancy; the decision to move LESSONS LEARNED
from government-owned facilities to commercial, locally The enabling factors and lessons surrounding regulation,
managed centers was made in late 2008. Microsoft’s base- business models, partnerships, and infrastructure for these
line surveys suggest that when access to telecommunica- initiatives in Nigeria, Turkey, South Africa, and Bhutan are
tions was available, “the population was adept at using the summarized in tables 2.2 and 2.3.
devices and their usage permeated . . . the community.”33
31 Tobgyl (n.d.,3).
32 Tobgyl (n.d.,4).
33 Bhutan Department of Information Technology, “Microsoft 34 Tobgyl (n.d.,4).
Unlimited Potential Baseline Survey on Socio-economic Demo- 35 Ministry of Information and Communications (Bhutan), “Vision
graphics and Information Needs,” (http://www.dit.gov.bt/content for Information Society” (http://www.moic.gov.bt/pdf/Vision%20
/microsoft-cic, accessed July 2011). for%20information%20Society.pdf, accessed July 2011), p. 10.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 35
TABLE 2.2. Key Enabling Factors for Innovations in Rural ICT Provision in Nigeria, Turkey, South Africa, and Bhutan
ASPECT HELIOS TOWERS, NIGERIA INFRASTRUCTURE SHARING, DABBA WIRELESS COMMUNITY INFORMATION
TURKEY SERVICES, SOUTH AFRICA CENTERS, BHUTAN
Regulation Support from Nigerian ICT Telecommunications sector Changes to VANS licensing Government-led and organized,
regulatory body recently focused on regulatory opened a formerly restrictive hence effectively self-regulating
Framework to suggest how to reform and promoting a fully telecommunications market to service
share infrastructure to promote competitive market structure new players such as Dabba, Local entrepreneurs free to act
fair competition and infrastruc- Allows companies like Vodafone allowing them to “self-provide” as they feel most appropriate,
ture sharing between telecoms’ and Turkcell to thrive; enables if they did not cause interfer- provided they make a profit and
licensees backs Helios business new companies to enter the ence to licensed networks and offer the services detailed by
model market used type-approved equipment government guidelines (within
the framework of other laws)
Business Scalable and long-term recur- Oligopolistic model has led Low-cost / lower-capabilities Local autonomy underwritten
Model ring revenues, low churn rates, to price competition, giving model: Offers customers a by government support enables
and operating costs: allow consumers connectivity at lower-commitment approach to the CICs to combat the remote
NMOs to achieve savings increasingly lower prices telecommunications nature of some locations
through outsourcing while Network managers such as Free Internetwork calls and pay- and the lack of inbuilt trust
retaining profit themselves Ericsson must pass more of as-you-go card for distance and in national communication
their own savings on to MNOs international calls systems (due to a weak national
media)
Partnerships Large numbers of corporate cli- Agreement between major Cisco has offered equipment Partnership between govern-
ents, rendering Helios dominant mobile telecommunications and financial support ment departments and villages
network: financial capability to operators to share infrastructure Has paid to initiate an entre- (gewog) to provide national
expand throughout Nigeria and costs in the implementation of preneurship scheme, enabling service in remote areas
become most comprehensive 3G technology Dabba to expand into two new Microsoft involved in planning
network On-record support for passive townships and development, bringing
infrastructure sharing from experience and expertise in
multiple players systems implementation
Network and Helios offer services to the full Comprehensive service provided Lightweight Ubiquiti equipment Hub-and-spokes network, with
Infrastructure range of wireless operators: due to network management is low cost and uses solar fiber-optic broadband connec-
GSM, CDMA, and WiMAX companies’ desire to remain energy and battery to reduce tion to the districts (dzongkhag)
operators using 2G, 3G, and 4G competitive: Variety of entries costs further passed on through wireless
platforms provided to mobile broadband Wi-Fi and wireless mesh technologies to the gewog, and
Willing to build new towers service networks well suited to provide eventually individual villages.
where there are none coverage for small, local groups combat problems of wired
and townships access in difficult terrain
Source: Authors.
TABLE 2.3. Lessons Learned from Rural ICT Provision in Nigeria, Turkey, South Africa, and Bhutan
INFRASTRUCTURE SHARING, DABBA’S WIRELESS SERVICES, COMMUNITY INFORMATION
HELIOS TOWERS, NIGERIA TURKEY SOUTH AFRICA CENTERS, BHUTAN
Outsourcing can lower costs: Companies must adapt to the Consider regulatory issues: Geography matters: Bhutan may
Economies of scale enabled Helios existing market structure: Dabba lost valuable time and equip- have to accept that nationwide con-
Towers to make a profit in difficult Attempts to produce fully competi- ment investment by working outside nectivity is not financially feasible
areas and enabled MNOs to enter tive markets have stalled in the face of regulatory approval in the short to medium terms, due to
previously unserved areas of Turkey’s dominantly oligopolistic Employ local expertise: Antitheft the remoteness of some villages and
Service provision is a vital part system brackets produced in the network’s rough terrain
of product provision: Helios has Powerful players can lead area and other locally made equip- Adapt the service to consumer
offered security assurance and to consumer savings: Turkey’s ment have helped keep costs down needs: Studies have shown that
24-hour access, alongside its towers telecommunications industry is the people of Bhutan have found
and connectivity, to assuage fears oligopolistic in multiple and vital little need for technologies such as
affecting MNOs’ own operations sectors, forcing all to use economies facsimiles; implementers should
(e.g., vandalism) of scale to provide savings to clients offer technologies in such a way
that their consumer added value is
immediately apparent
Source: Authors.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
36 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
Topic Note 2.3: MOBILE MONEY MOVES TO RURAL AREAS
TRENDS AND ISSUES IMAGE 2.2. Ghana’s Telecommunications Infrastructure
One consequence of improved access to ICT infrastructure, Expands the Use of Mobile Money
appliances, and services in rural areas may be that rural peo-
ple will gain better access to financial services and additional
sources of income (image 2.2). The telecommunications and
microfinance industries have grown rapidly in recent years
and are overcoming the traditional challenges of reaching
rural and formerly underserved areas. This topic note spe-
cifically examines the business models and enabling factors
that are making new sources of financing and income acces-
sible in rural areas.
Mobile banking is a logical consequence of the growth
of telecommunications and microfinance. In developing
economies worldwide, companies have sprung up to deliver
Source: Arne Hoel, World Bank.
financial services outside of conventional bank branches,
through mobile phones and nonbank retail agents. A particu-
larly well-known service is M-PESA. Operated by Safaricom
Such ventures are united by the goal of enabling the eco-
in Kenya, M-PESA allows users to transfer money through
nomically active poor to use telecommunications technology
their mobile phones, without having to register or qualify for
to help themselves. Mobile financial and income-generating
a bank account.
services, such as M-PESA, Zain Zap, easypaisa, and txteagle,
M-PESA does not operate in a vacuum; easypaisa in Pakistan, discussed in this note—cost little and operate on all hand-
G-Cash in the Philippines, and Bancosol in Bolivia are just a sets, making them advantageous on a large scale, even in
few enterprises that provide some form of mobile financial more remote rural areas where previous efforts made few
services to the un- and underbanked poor. One rural bank, inroads. Advances such as smartcards, fingerprint-sensitive
Green Bank, has calculated the substantial savings from ATM machines, and market kiosks equipped with electronic
using mobile technology: By switching from field-based to point-of-sale devices have also made such programs vastly
text-based collection, it reduced its interest rates from 2.5 to easier to implement (and more likely to reach the intended
2 percent and its service charges from 3 to 2.5 percent, yet beneficiaries).
profits rose by US$16 for every US$400 loan (Kumar, McKay,
and Rotman 2010).
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
The rise of mobile income sources is another trend behind M-PESA’s Pioneering Money Transfer Service
the demand for mobile financial services. In recent years Based on a pilot funded in part by public funds from the UK
conditional cash transfer programs in many countries have Department for International Development, Vodafone and
provided government payments to economically and socially Safaricom launched M-PESA in Kenya in February 2007 in
disadvantaged households, especially the economically partnership with Sagentia.36 The M-PESA pilot focused on
active poor, conditional on measurable actions (for example, microloans and repayments, but research indicated that con-
enrolling girls in school, obtaining consistent prenatal care, sumers primarily would use the service for person-to-person
or using agricultural inputs). Telcommunications technol- money transfers.
ogy is transforming governments’ capacity to deliver these
additional sources of income quickly, reliably, and at a lower Following the pilot, M-PESA launched with a person-to-
cost. It is also allowing farmers to access commercial banks person business model, whereby customers can buy e-money
and critical services—including credit, savings accounts,
and remote transfers—despite distance and a lack of local
banking facilities. 36 “M” for “mobile; “pesa” for “money” (Swahili).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 37
from agents throughout Kenya. Any commercial space may The importance of this flexible “proportional risk” system of
become an agent, making this model particularly effective regulation is evident in M-PESA’s stalled attempts to operate
in rural areas. Mobile phones are used to perform financial in India, where regulators insisted on a connection with a
transactions, such as sending money to others, paying bills, licensed bank. In Afghanistan, regulations to prevent money
and even withdrawing cash from an ATM (without needing a laundering have constrained M-PAISA’s development as a
bank account). E-money can be cashed in with agents who money transfer service, and it operates predominantly as
receive a commission for the services they provide and for a microfinance service. The need for identification details
registering customers. detracts from M-PAISA’s simplicity and thus its appeal.
M-PESA’s great innovation has been to provide a service
accessible to the unbanked populations of emerging econo- A Business Model That Sidesteps the Banking Sector
mies at a low cost. M-PESA costs users about one-third as The M-PESA business model is characterized by low margins
much as using a money-transfer company such as Western and high volumes, whereas banks traditionally need relatively
Union, and it is still cheaper than banks. Such companies high margins from far fewer people with bank accounts.
cannot match M-PESA’s low rates because their operating Independence from the banking sector opened up a huge
costs are higher (Omwansa 2009:6). untapped market for M-PESA; 90 percent of Kenyans did not
have a bank account. Although only registered users can initi-
M-PESA now has over 10 million customers in Kenya, and ate transactions, anyone may receive money from M-PESA
services have been introduced in Tanzania and Afghanistan and withdraw it as cash. This positive nonuser experience
(called M-PAISA in the latter); a number of other deploy- was crucial to the user network’s growth. This business
ments are planned across Africa and Asia.37 Success has model has allowed M-PESA to become the dominant and
so exceeded expectations that M-PESA has faced system most attractive network. M-PESA’s low costs have enabled
capacity and cash flow problems. Cash flow problems have it to challenge money transfer companies and banks, even
arisen internally (as agents are paid to register customers, where they are present. Yet, over time, many M-PESA users
who take time to become profitable) and at the point of use graduated to having bank accounts, and M-PESA is now inte-
(agents run out of both e-money and cash). The problem grated with the banking system.
particularly affects rural areas, where people receive remit-
tances from urban workers and withdraw them as cash. To
Partnerships Facilitate Marketing and Technical
counteract this problem, larger agents now act as “super-
Operations
agents,” selling e-money and cash to smaller agents.
M-PESA’s collaborative nature is fundamental to its success.
Vodafone, as well as providing the initial funding, holds a
A Flexible Regulatory Environment coordinating role. Safaricom has provided a brand that many
Flexible regulation has been critical to M-PESA’s success. Kenyans trust, and its nationwide airtime reseller distribu-
Working with the UK Treasury, the Central Bank of Kenya tion network easily transformed into a network of dedicated
set up special provisions for M-PESA to launch its product M-PESA agents, enabling more rapid market penetration.
with limited risk to the consumer but without being linked Vodacom undertakes Safaricom’s role in Tanzania (and is its
directly to a bank and with relatively low levels of regulation. sister company); in Afghanistan, Roshan, a large MNO, has
Subsequently the Central Bank provided informal monitoring been vital in developing the service. Sagentia (IBM, as of
as opposed to formal regulation. By the time banks and com- September 2009) provided key technical expertise. The use
petitors realized M-PESA’s potential and began to demand of public funds during the development stage is regarded as
its regulation, the firm was already well established and crucial for maintaining interest in the telecommunications
respected. At the urging of the banks, the Central Bank con- sector during the pilot, which took longer than expected.
ducted a thorough audit of M-PESA and found it to be fulfilling
all its consumer obligations; the Central Bank has therefore
Networks, Appliances, and Infrastructure
continued enabling this special regulatory environment.
Registering with M-PESA requires proof of identity, a
SIM card, and submitting a PIN. In addition to providing
37 Safaricom statistics, June 2010 (http://www.safaricom.co.ke security, another key success factor was the added con-
/index.php?id=1073, accessed June 2011). venience of the customer being able to retain his or her
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
38 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
phone number. Since applications are on SIM cards, they In 2010, Zap expanded to Niger and Sierra Leone, and it has a
do not depend on the functionality of handsets, a factor pilot scheme in Malawi. Zain claims that Zap is now the most
crucial in making M-PESA financially accessible: M-PESA comprehensive mobile commerce service in Africa, with
works on even the most basic and inexpensive handsets. over 150 million customers. This claim suggests significant
In Tanzania, M-PESA uses USSD technology, which does impact in some of the world’s most unbanked populations,
not require a SIM card to be replaced and allows transac- particularly in rural areas without physical bank facilities. Zain
tions to be completed in real time without any application eventually plans to roll out Zap in all 24 countries in Africa
stored on the phone. and the Middle East where it has mobile networks. If regula-
tion permits this growth, Zain’s infrastructure leaves it better
M-PESA has a widespread and dense network of agents. placed for such expansion than M-PESA.
Kenya had 7,000 M-PESA agents in April 2009 but only
750 bank branches, allowing M-PESA to reach significantly
more people, especially rural people, than competitors.38 Thriving within Regulatory Constraints
The advantage obtained by being first in the market allowed Zain’s expansion has been checked by regulatory constraints;
M-PESA to build the dominant network in its pilot country Zain operates in Lebanon and Zambia without One Network
and become the most attractive network for new customers because it has not yet received governmental approval in
and businesses (as with companies such as eBay). these countries. However, Zain makes good use of its various
partners to ensure that national and international banking regu-
lations are met, and the company seems happy to operate
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY within this framework. Zain works with the National Bank of
Zain Zap Promotes Borderless Mobile Commerce Malawi and NBS Bank in Malawi, Eco-bank in Niger, and Zenith
Bank in Sierra Leone. In Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, Citibank
Zain Zap is a mobile phone–based banking service.39 As
and Standard Chartered Bank work in partnership with Zain.
M-PESA’s largest competitor, Zain Zap allows clients to trans-
fer money via mobile phones but requires each user to have
a bank account. Although registering with Zap is more com- A Business Model Seeking to Balance Availability
plicated than registering with M-PESA, Zap offers potential and Accessibility
access to a greater number of services. In partnership with Zain’s business model treads a fine line between widespread
banks in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, Zap provides plat- availability and accessibility. Its interaction with banks and its
form access to financial services to people without a nearby provision of mobile banking opportunities to all its dispersed
bricks-and-mortar bank. customers allow greater possibilities for the business to grow
in rural areas, as small-scale business owners gain access to
Zain Zap has differentiated itself from M-PESA by inno-
financial services they previously lacked. Zain’s only source
vating along international lines, operating across Kenya,
of revenue comes from a fixed fee for every transfer made
Tanzania, and Uganda without subjecting users to addi-
through Zap, however. It does not attempt to make money
tional fees, administration, or regulation. It forms part of a
on deposits or withdrawals but recommends a fee to agents,
wider Zain network, called One Network, which provides
who are then free to charge as much as they like. This prac-
international mobile coverage without the expensive rates
tice could lead to very high prices for customers, especially
usually associated with cross-border communication.
until other agents appear.
Before Zap, Celtel (now Zain) introduced a competing
product soon after the launch of M-PESA, but the product’s
very different pricing structure caused it to be withdrawn Partnerships with Big Banks and Big Clients
due to low demand. Non-Zain mobile operators can buy a place in the service: In
November 2009, the Arab Republic of Egypt’s Mobinil joined,
38 See M. Barrett, M. H.S.A. Kim, and Karl J. Prince (2009), “M-PESA adding 24 million customers to the platform. This practice aids
Power: Leveraging Service Innovation in Emerging Economies.”
Case study and teaching note, available through www.ecch.com.
international expansion and allows for the inclusion of local exper-
39 Since the 2010 acquisition of Zain Group’s African assets by tise in the business model. As well as partnering with large-scale
Bharti Airtel, the Zain Zap platform has been rebranded as Airtel banks, Zain has also signed deals with large corporate clients
Money. Bharti Airtel mobile network operators from Africa main-
tain their participation in the One Network, alongside Zain mobile such as Coca-Cola and Kenya Airways to allow users to pay for
network operators in the Middle East. these companies’ products through their mobile phones.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 39
Networks and Infrastructure a strong opportunity for income generation in underbanked
The primary factor in Zap’s successful development is that it areas. Though Tameer largely operates through bank
belongs to Zain’s One Network, the world’s first borderless branches at present (despite its branchless banking license),
mobile service. According to Zain’s corporate website, One and thus favors urban areas, the rise of its easypaisa service
Network offers over 90 million of Zain’s (and partner mobile looks set to counteract this imbalance.
operators’) customers relatively inexpensive rates, free of
Since its commencement, Tameer has disbursed more than
high roaming charges for cross-border communications.
3.5 billion rupees (Rs), with an active portfolio of Rs 1.4 billion
One Network not only aids rapid expansion by giving Zap a
and over 80,000 loan customers. The total customer base of
pretargeted customer base, it also offers consumers large
Tameer is over 170,000; it employs 1,100 staff.41
incentives to join Zain’s network and use its services (over
others, such as M-PESA).
A Business Model Benefits from Microfinance Regulation
As CEO Nadeem Hussain noted, one of the major enabling
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY factors for Tameer was the SBP 2001 Microfinance Ordinance,
Pakistan’s Tameer Microfinance Bank for the which regulates the creation of commercial microfinance
Economically Active Poor
banks. Tameer argues that unless microfinance is financed
Tameer Microfinance Bank describes itself as “one of the through commercial sources, it will remain in the realm of
first nationwide, private sector, non-NGO transformed, com- development aid and its growth will be limited.42 For this
mercially sustainable microfinance institutions in Pakistan.”40 reason, the Consultative Group to Assist the Poor has been
A majority share is held by Telenor Pakistan. Tameer has involved with branchless banking regulation in Pakistan from
produced an innovative hybrid of M-PESA and Zain Zap’s ser- the beginning. Regulation has allowed the use of retail stores
vices for the economically active poor in Pakistan. as agents.
With its new easypaisa service, Tameer matches M-PESA’s Regulation also made it possible for bank and telecom opera-
ability to reach the unbanked. Currently, easypaisa is available tors to enter into a business model conducive for commercial
to pay utility bills, but it plans to expand into sending and success. The two partners offer those services that each is
receiving money within Pakistan and receiving money from best placed to deliver: Telenor acts as a distribution arm for
abroad. As with M-PESA, customers do not need a bank branchless banking, organizes channel management and
account and can access the service from a variety of portals, retail setup, and hosts the technology and operation of a call
including their mobile phones. Tameer also operates as a center that provides customer service and complaint han-
bank much as Zain’s Zap platform does, although not through dling. Tameer is responsible for operating accounts, creating
partnerships with other banks. Since it became the first bank ledgers, reconciliation, fund settlement, risk, and compliance
to gain a branchless bank license in Pakistan (2008), it has and fraud investigations.43
been able to offer loans, deposits, overdrafts, insurance, and
domestic remittances.
Partnerships
Tameer’s innovations are notable for their focus on entrepre- In May 2010, Tameer joined with Pakistan Telecommunication
neurs and the self-employed. Their aim is to actively gener- Company Limited (PTCL), Pakistan’s largest national telecom
ate income in underserviced, frequently rural, areas, often by solution provider. PTCL will provide network connectivity to
freeing customers from moneylenders and their prohibitive all of Tameer’s outlets. This provision of centralized connec-
interest rates. Prior to Tameer’s penetration of the market, tivity has been one of the key enabling factors in easypai-
such moneylenders were generally the only option for small- sa’s success and, crucially, has allowed it to provide easily
scale businesses in need of cash. Tameer loans have been accessible, low-cost services.
used to buy new equipment, buy raw materials when they
are cheapest, enlarge or purchase new property, and provide
insurance against business failure. As such, they represent 41 Easypaisa (http://www.easypaisa.com.pk/about-tameerbank.php,
accessed April 2010).
42 Easypaisa (http://www.tameerbank.com/ceomsg.htm, accessed
40 Tameer Microfinance Bank (http://www.tameerbank.com/about April 2010).
.htm, accessed April 2010). 43 Mir (2010).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
40 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
Networks and Infrastructure Asia, and the Americas, as the market for mobile phones
Tameer’s large agent network allows customers to access expands rapidly in such areas as rural China and India.
services in a number of ways: via mobile phone, easypaisa
authorized shops, Telenor franchises, Telenor sales and ser- An Outsourcing Model Outside the Regulatory Flow
vice centers, or Tameer Microfinance Bank branches. Like Txteagle operates fairly unconstrained by regulation
M-PESA, Tameer uses USSD, so customers do not need because it is classified as a financial creditor, rather than
new SIM cards to store the application. This lowers the cost as any form of banking or microfinance institution. This
of signing up for the service even further. Tameer does offer setup gives txteagle a great deal of flexibility in its busi-
new SIM cards for purchase, however, on which the Tameer ness model and where it operates, enabling rapid inter-
application has already been uploaded. national expansion. As clients become more diverse, this
operational flexibility will become a key asset, as txteagle
will need workers with different languages and skill sets.
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Txteagle Taps a Vast, Underused Workforce Txteagle’s business model enables outsourcing at a lower
A large, global, and reasonably educated workforce remains cost because of savings in office-based costs and its access
underused because of poverty and isolation, especially in to a previously isolated workforce. Low costs and a guar-
rural areas. With the rapid penetration of telecommunica- antee of quality (clients pay only for adequately completed
tions in developing economies, Txteagle believes this work) attract corporate clients.
situation can change, particularly as more economies launch
payment platforms like M-PESA. Txteagle is a mobile Adapting to Partners’ Needs
phone–based SMS server application that takes tasks from Txteagle partners with a number of providers of wireless
corporate clients (such as Nokia and Google), breaks them services, such as Safaricom in Kenya, Telefónica México in
down into multiple microtasks, and sends them out for Mexico, MTN across Africa and the Middle East, and Viva
completion to registered users. Targeted users are the rural in the Dominican Republic. As it relies on these partners
poor in developing economies, who, through their mobile to provide its service, txteagle is eager to adapt to their
phones, supplement their incomes with these microtasks. needs, from configuring the txteagle platform to operate
Tasks include translation, image sorting, and audio tran- only during off-peak times, to providing assistance to their
scription. Txteagle is similar in some respects to Amazon’s customer support teams. This situation has led to worries
Mechanical Turk, which also divides up tasks, but differs in that txteagle could prove exploitative unless well regulated.
that it distributes them by mobile phone, a technology with
a higher penetration rate. Network and Infrastructure
Txteagle operates primarily in East Africa, where it relies on A key enabling factor in txteagle’s business model is its
technologies such as those developed by M-PESA; but it also Accuracy Inference Engine (AIE), which, once tasks have
sends work to users in Asia and the developing economies been broken into microtasks, can monitor user performance.
of the Americas. In areas not covered by payment platforms The AIE platform is a set of computational routines that can
such as M-PESA, users are paid in airtime credited to their dynamically predict which available workers will be most
mobile phones. likely to complete the given task successfully, correctly infer
when the job has been satisfactorily completed, and differen-
Txteagle’s impact is unclear because the company is still in tially pay workers in proportion to their level of contribution,
its start-up phase. Given the growing number of subscribers all to within a 99 percent confidence interval of accuracy.45
to wireless phone technology (more than 1 billion people in The firm also uses a database that monitors and records user
the developing world had a mobile phone in 2006),44 tech- performance. As the system learns more about the capabili-
nologies such as txteagle have the potential to enjoy great ties and expertise of its individual users, it updates the algo-
success. If txteagle can maintain and expand its systems rithms used to assign tasks to make the service as efficient
capacity, it has the potential to extend its workforce in Africa, as possible.
44 Tryhorn (2009). 45 Txteagle (http://txteagle.com/technology/aie, accessed April
2010).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 41
LESSONS LEARNED between allowing the freedom for such ventures to become
Mobile phones have the potential to provide low-cost banking commercially attractive and the constraints to ensure that
wherever there is network coverage, but the use of mobile they do not exploit the people they aim to help. Chile’s con-
banking services has been held back because mobile bank- gress has only just approved a law demanding network neu-
ing services and microfinance institutions often play quite trality, guaranteeing that Internet service providers cannot
different roles that prevent them from leveraging their full interfere with content accessed by Internet users. As Chile is
potential. There is a wide variety of mobile services; some among the most progressive of the Latin American and other
do not involve banking licenses and are therefore nonbank developing economies in its governance of Internet use, its
implementations, while others may involve banking partners. position demonstrates the great strides regulators must take
Mobile banking companies such as M-PESA primarily work in this emerging area, if mobile and Internet technologies
with money transfers and payments, using some of the most (such as mobile banking) are to become widely and equitably
advanced infrastructure available. By contrast, microfinance accessible.
institutions tend to focus on credit and savings, and use less
One of the biggest challenges for regulators is to find a bal-
advanced technologies. A marriage between the two can
ance between delivering the financial services that meet
produce commercially attractive coverage of the market, as
inclusion targets and at the same time combat fraud and
seen with Telenor and Tameer Microfinance Bank, but such
terrorism. The temptation is always to overregulate, to err on
partnerships can be difficult to source and sustain. Indeed, in
the side of safety. The World Bank has been working to cre-
the future, traditional banks may also find themselves trying
ate guidelines for services such as money transfer to encour-
to deliver these services.
age them to operate under tough regulation.
The emergence of competition in the sector (such as between
M-PESA and Zain Zap) has begun to erode differences in the Apart from these regulatory issues, service users have
roles of mobile banking services and microfinance institu- demonstrated the wider applicability of the technologies
tions, however. In May 2010, M-PESA joined with Equity involved by manipulating them to their own advantage.
Bank in Kenya to produce its most integrated product yet: a Bancosol in Bolivia, for example, has implemented a partial
low-cost, low-entry microsavings account called M-Kesho. It use of the technology by providing SMS information services
hopes to provide its 9.4 million users with accessible bank before committing to full mobile banking. The Rural Bankers’
accounts, which will allow them to hold savings and take Association of the Philippines has made GXI’s G-Cash ser-
out microinsurance and microloans, all managed from their vice possible in rural areas by grouping 60 rural banks to act
mobile phones. as agents and to use G-Cash to pay their employees. Alone,
these banks were too small to be commercially interesting
The competition between Zain Zap and M-PESA in particu- to the mobile service, but through collective action they have
lar highlights interesting considerations for the future. With become a significant business proposition.
network-based firms such as eBay and Wikipedia, the more
dominant a single network becomes, the more attractive it Customers have found moneymaking opportunities in these
becomes to new users (because it is the most comprehen- financial services of which their founders did not dare to
sive), and it compounds its success. Should either Zain Zap dream. M-PESA’s users have translated access to secure
or M-PESA win the battle for dominance in Kenya, the winner money transfers into innovative income-generation oppor-
could offer a more comprehensive and more widely acces- tunities, often in rural areas. By transferring primarily to
sible service. The ensuing lack of competition could raise M-PESA-based payments, users enjoy the safety of being
prices, however, cutting off access to the poorest sectors able to travel without cash and have reduced service times
of the community. The regulation of competition between (customers no longer fumble about with change). The growth
these networks will determine the shape of the industry— of the network of agents has created large numbers of jobs,
and of commerce in Kenya—in the future. many in the rural areas where M-PESA, and institutions like
it, flourish.
M-PESA has benefited from relative regulatory freedom to
become a comprehensive mobile financial service provider Tables 2.4 and 2.5 summarize the key enablers of the innova-
and harness the negotiating power of Equity Bank. If such tive financial service models described here and the lessons
innovations are to spread, regulators must walk a fine line derived from their experience.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
42 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
TABLE 2.4. Key Enabling Factors for Innovations in Mobile Financial and Income Services Worldwide
ASPECT M-PESA (EAST AFRICA, ZAIN ZAP (AFRICA AND TAMEER MICROFINANCE TXTEAGLE (AFRICA, ASIA,
SOUTH ASIA) MIDDLE EAST) (PAKISTAN) LATIN AMERICA)
Regulation Lack of regulation of new tech- Works with banking partners to Microfinance Ordinance It is classified as a financial
nology in Kenya: Establishes ensure international financial allowed the creation of com- creditor rather than a banking
self in regulation vacuum regulations are met mercial microfinance banks: or microfinance institution,
Willingness to adapt when Seems happy to work within Allows for wider growth so it can operate fairly free of
regulation necessitates: More regulatory framework, rather Allowed use of retail spaces regulation
closely resembles a microfi- than seek to bypass it, as rivals as agents
nance service in Afghanistan have done
Business Initial independence from bank- Users must have a bank Easypaisa concentrates on Use of mobile technology to
model ing sector and bricks-and-mortar account: Potential to provide paying bills, with expansion into reach previously untapped
banks allowed provision of a more diverse services than money transfer market: Relatively educated
low-cost service rivals Clients do not need a bank rural poor
Allow nonuser trial: M-PESA Users send funds across country account, but Tameer offers Offers additional source of
becomes dominant network boundaries without paying diverse financial services as it income to isolated workers
additional fees is itself a bank and opportunity for corporate
Fixed fee for transfers; other Focus on entrepreneurs and clients to save money in their
fees set by agents: Potential for self-employed outsourcing
large profits encourages busi-
nesses to become Zap agents.
Partnerships Backed by large MNO: Vodafone Signed deals with large Tameer is itself a bank and Works with local wireless ser-
Local brand equity and distribu- corporate clients to encourage so is not reliant on deals and vices (e.g., Safaricom in Kenya
tion network from Vodafone user growth partnerships with other banking and Viva in the Dominican
subsidiary: Safaricom Non-Zain MNO can buy into institutions Republic)
Use of local companies (e.g., One Network, increasing Partnership between a bank Signs up large corporate clients
Roshan in Afghanistan) provision and a telecom operator: Allows such as Google
services to be provided and
distributed in-house
Network and Widespread and dense network Use of Zain’s One Network: Large agent network: Customers SIM card functionality: Works
infrastructure of agents: Uses first-mover Infrastructure and distribution can access services from their on the most basic handsets
advantage to become dominant network already widely avail- mobile phone, easypaisa autho- Accuracy Inference Engine
network able in multiple countries rized shops, Telenor franchises, monitors individual perfor-
SIM card functionality: Telenor sales and service mances and assures quality
Customer can use existing centers, or Tameer Microfinance control to corporate clients
phone (more affordable service) Bank branches
Source: Authors.
TABLE 2.5. Lessons Learned from Mobile Financial and Income Services in Rural Areas
M-PESA ZAIN ZAP TAMEER MICROFINANCE TXTEAGLE
Consider regulatory issues: Strategies need to be imple- Entrepreneurs make good cli- Not so much what has been learned,
M-PESA has struggled to take hold mented to combat first-mover ents: Tameer has found a new and but what it is vital to learn:
in countries where regulation has advantage: Zain has had to offer loyal market in Pakistan by focusing The move away from “charity” to
proved tighter than in Kenya more services and work with big on this group (previously forced to helping people help themselves
Be adaptable: M-PESA changed name brands to combat M-PESA’s rely on extortionate moneylenders) should not be a move toward the
its business model when money dominant network in Kenya Rural areas can be profitable: exploitation of a still-vulnerable
transfer proved more popular than Customer service is vital: Zap has Tameer has rolled out easypaisa group: Deference to corporate
microfinance in the pilot phase lost customers to M-PESA due to its to meet the needs of the rural clients and local MNO partners
The move toward also providing more complicated sign-up procedure workforce, recognizing that rural should not mean that workers are
bank accounts is another sign of and the poor service and large fees areas hold large numbers of the paid unfairly for their contributions or
flexibility and may help solve regula- levied by some agents commercially minded self-employed abandoned when microtasks, such as
tory problems those provided by txteagle, run out
Source: Authors.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 43
Topic Note 2.4: DELIVERING CONTENT FOR
MOBILE AGRICULTURAL SERVICES
TRENDS AND ISSUES farmers is seen throughout developing economies. Prominent
The value of knowledge in the world economy has grown with examples include the Agricultural Market Information Systems
increased technological innovation in distributing information in Bangladesh, Farmer’s Friend (a Google product) in Uganda,
and greater incorporation of information in economic activity. and Ovi Life Tools by Nokia. The latter started off in partnership
As developed economies become increasingly knowledge and with RML in India but wanted to offer a wider range of informa-
service based, developing economies (agricultural or industrial) tion. It now provides education and entertainment services and
must be capable of communicating in and using the language of has rolled out in Indonesia and China as well as India.
knowledge if they are to be economically active on a global scale.
This sourcebook describes a number of efforts to benefit from
The spread of telecommunications technologies over the past mobile telecommunications in agriculture. Two of the examples
decade has outpaced the spread of Internet technologies, discussed below are also discussed in Module 3 (RML) and
which require more costly infrastructure, particularly for rural Module 6 on AIS (Farmers’ Friend), yet they are reviewed here
users. In India, for example, mobile technology has reached to highlight technical considerations in delivering content and
over 30 times as many people as the Internet.46 Because much services that rural users value. IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited and
of India, like many developing economies, remains predomi- RML have been implemented through a variety of platforms
nantly agricultural, thought has turned to using mobile technol- and business models, with voice - and text-based platforms
ogy for the benefit and service of agriculture (image 2.3). Rural being the primary competing modes of delivery. Farmer’s Friend
economies lose billions of dollars each year because critical differs from those services by using Google’s experience as a
information is inaccessible: information on production prac- search engine to provide an on-demand service and a database
tices, information on impending extreme weather or epidem- that may be searched in the same manner as the Internet.
ics, or information that could enable farmers to transport crops
more effectively to markets and sell them at better prices.
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Reuters Market Light (RML) offers farmers information on First-Mover Advantage Benefits Reuters
Market Light
crops, diseases, and market prices, as does the subsidiary
group of the Indian Farmer’s Fertilizer Cooperative, Kisan Reuters Market Light (RML) is a subscription-based SMS
Sanchar Limited. This trend toward mobile services for service providing Indian farmers with information that helps
them increase productivity, maximize revenue, manage risk,
and reduce waste. The service, launched in late 2007, pro-
IMAGE 2.3. Girl Uses Phone in Community Meeting in
vides localized and personalized information on commodity
India
prices, crop cultivation (covering 17 crops), and the weather.47
Mobile telecommunication was the obvious platform for pro-
viding this service, as India has one of the fastest-growing
mobile markets in the world, with over 427 million mobile
connections. By contrast, there are only 37.5 million landline
connections and 13.5 million Internet subscribers.48
The predominance of agriculture (which employs slightly more
than half of India’s 523.5-million-strong workforce) gives Reuters
a large potential audience. As of February 2010, it had more than
200,000 subscribers in 15,000 villages across 10 states. Supply
chain and information failures cause Indian farmers to receive
47 “Reuters Market Light Wins Award for Innovation,” Thomson
Source: Simone D. McCourtie, World Bank. Reuters Press Release, April 6, 2010 (http://thomsonreuters
.com /content/news_ideas/articles/financial/RML_wins _award,
accessed June 2011).
46 Prakash and Velu (2010). 48 Prakash and Velu (2010).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
44 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
about half of the value of their crops that their Western counter- communications and thus requires mobile phones to be GPRS
parts do (20–25 percent). If the service helps farmers to resolve enabled (adding to their cost and decreasing their accessibility).
these problems, the potential benefits for farmers are large.
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Regulation: Freedom to Develop Its Business Model Long Experience in Farm Communities Benefits
RML used its first-mover advantage in India to become a trusted IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited
network—a necessary strategy, given that their main competi-
IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL), another information ser-
tor, IKSL, is active in rural areas through its links with the IFFCO
vice for farmers, is a joint venture between the telecom network
farmer cooperatives. Active support from the government has
operator Airtel and the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative
given RML relative freedom to develop its business model.
Limited (IFFCO, from which the initiative takes part of its name).
In addition to crop advice and the weather, IKSL provides advice
The subscription-based business model allows RML to derive
on animal husbandry, rural health initiatives, and the availability
a steady and regular flow of income, allowing for future plan-
of products such as fertilizer. Unlike RML, IKSL’s information
ning toward expanding the service. The lack of reliable address
arrives via voice rather than text message.
databases prevents sales staff from locating farmers and con-
solidating the customer base. Another drawback is that the
Users access the service through traditional wired tech-
subscription fee makes RML expensive relative to on-demand
nology based at kiosks at rural cooperative societies
services (like those provided by Farmer’s Friend in Uganda,
throughout India. The kiosks are supplemented by mobile
discussed later). A survey of 1,000 households in 100 vil-
technology: Mobile phones are sold bundled with the Airtel
lages by the South Asia Sustainable Development Agriculture
mobile network, which essentially converts the phones
Department of the World Bank found that only around half of
into personalized communication kiosks. Members of the
RML users planned to renew their subscription. Of those who
service receive five free voice messages a day with agricul-
had not signed up for the service, 95 percent cited cost factors
tural information and advice; they also have free access to
as the reason (G. Dixie, personal communication).
a dedicated agricultural help line. IFFCO has around 40,000
societies, is present in 98 percent of India’s villages, and
In response, RML has enabled post offices across the states
brings a receptive audience to the enterprise. This exten-
covered by Reuters to provide the information service to
sive coverage and wide farmer base give IKSL the potential
unregistered users. This adjustment in its distribution platform
to make a significant impact on agricultural communities.
makes the service available to those who do not own a mobile
phone as well as those who wish to try the service before
IFFCO is clearly attuned to making its products and services
they commit. The postal network has been crucial for RML’s
accessible to rural people. Mobile phones are accompanied
presence in rural areas and the growth of its user network.
by a hand-cranked charger. This innovation is crucial, given the
scarcity and cost of power in much of rural India. IKSL’s wired
Partnerships with Multiple Operators Offer Scalability information kiosks can be operated through pedal power.
RML’s regulatory freedom is complemented by partnerships These adaptations ensure that the service is not a drain on a
with multiple operators, which frees the system’s content highly limited resource and should permit its wider use.
from dependence on any single network and is crucial to the
scalability of the business. The links with the post office are Regulation for Quality and Compliance with Standards
a valuable asset for RML’s distribution network. RML is dis- IFFCO is subject to high levels of regulation owing to its domi-
cussing a more formal association with the Indian Council of nant presence in the fertilizer trade, which is regulated by the
Agricultural Research or Punjab Agricultural University, which government. To ensure compliance with the standards set for
contribute some of the service’s crop information. IFFCO as an organization, IFFCO’s offshoots are regulated by an
in-house Representative General Body made up of members of
Network, Appliances, and Infrastructure the Board of Directors and representatives of the larger mem-
RML is “network agnostic,” meaning that it is not constrained ber societies in every state/territory.49 To ensure quality, Kisan
by the limitations of any one MNO, and its service has SIM Sanchar is assessed by experts from the agricultural universi-
rather than handset functionality. Information is provided by ties, and peer reviews are conducted by panels of scientists.50
SMS and therefore can be accessed from the most basic hand-
sets, even those only possessing text capabilities. This deliv- 49 See http://www.iffco.nic.in/ifc/web.nsf.
50 “Content Management” (http://www.iffco.nic.in/iksl/ikslweb
ery format contrasts with that of RML’s former partner, Nokia, .nsf/ef05d07df0ecee65652575040037b375/733c79d21f573e
whose Life Tools uses voice recordings instead of text-based 15652577a7002b2cd4?OpenDocument, accessed July 2011).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 45
A Business Model to Deliver More Diverse Agricultural forecasts and agricultural advice, Farmer’s Friend forms part of a
Information to an Extensive Rural Base wider initiative that includes health tips, a clinic finder, a Google
IFFCO has branched out from its original business as a fertilizer trading service for agricultural commodities, and other products.
cooperative into many other areas, and it has a great deal of
This innovation differs from RML and IKSL in that it is not
experience in growing new businesses in rural India. The part-
prepaid; the system is a search engine, and the user pays
nership between IFFCO and another large company, Airtel, has
for each query at the point of purchase. Customers text
been crucial to success. As one of the largest MNOs in India,
their query and location and receive a nearly instant reply.
Airtel can provide cellular connectivity to areas where it is not
The service is currently free from Google, but customers
financially advantageous (an example is the Aruku Valley in the
are charged by their network operator for each query. Pilots
Visakhapatnam District). Access at cooperative societies, facili-
demonstrate significant uptake of the AppLab’s services: the
tated by IFFCO, is also crucial to the success of IKSL, because
10 SMS applications that were trialed generated more than
new users can try the service before they commit to it, allow-
54,000 inquiries among their 8,000 respondents.
ing for the growth of the network. This capacity ensures that
IKSL achieves maximum coverage and consumer awareness.
Farmer’s Friend also generates employment among farmers,
some of whom are hired to collate data and pictures of sick
In this way IKSL’s business model carefully navigates
plants on local farms. They provide Grameen with more compre-
between the steady income of a subscription service and the
hensive information and the potential to offer for better advice.
value added for the consumer by offering flexibility. Users
pay Rs 47 to activate the mobile service, which lasts a life-
Farmer’s Friend launched at the end of June 2009. Like many
time, and then 50 paise per minute for calls between IFFCO
efforts initiated recently in rural areas, its impact is not yet
members (the rate is slightly higher for calls to nonmembers).
apparent. The service has the potential to achieve significant
Membership comes with five free daily messages, as noted.
penetration in rural areas because it can leverage MTN’s net-
work of over 10,000 village phone and other shared phone
ISKL’s information is more diverse than that available from by
operators, as well as all privately owned mobile phones.
RML, although it is still centered on agriculture (for example,
farmers can obtain information on fertilizer and farming equip-
ment and limited information on rural health care). In offering Regulation
a more comprehensive service, IKSL may be attempting to Farmer’s Friend’s regulatory framework is derived from that of
combat the first-mover advantage of its nearest rival. its parent organizations. Google adheres to U.S. Safe Harbor
Privacy Principles, is registered with the U.S. Department of
Network, Appliances, and Infrastructure Commerce’s Safe Harbor Program, and works with appropri-
ate local regulatory authorities, primarily local data protection
The innovation is SIM rather than handset dependent but
authorities.51 The service self-regulates through its guidelines
does not work on the most basic handsets unless they are
and maintains that it is “ready to assist any government
updated. IKSL hopes the kiosks will counteract this problem.
that wishes to seriously work to create an enabling environ-
The prices of the phones used in the pilot—made by Sinocell
ment.”52 Grameen Foundation has criticized the very loose
and sold for about Rs 4,000—would deny the poorer seg-
regulatory framework surrounding Farmer’s Friend.
ments of the population access to the technology; but Alcatel,
Philips, and Samsung have developed less expensive models
that may solve this problem. IKSL also has the potential to A Business Model Designed to Increase Access
develop a suitable phone. The voice recordings are provided Farmer’s Friend’s business model is specifically designed to
in all local languages where the service is provided, a key increase access. The service works on the most basic hand-
enabling factor in the challenge to increase access. sets. The organization’s membership in a much wider platform
(which includes Google Trader and health advice) ensures a
broader base of awareness in the community and further
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY opportunities to develop brand loyalty. The pay-on-demand
Farmer’s Friend Offers Information on Demand, system increases access because the financial commitment is
One Query at a Time far smaller than with subscription models; RML membership
Farmer’s Friend is a Ugandan mobile phone application from
Grameen Foundation’s AppLab. Working with MTN Uganda as 51 For details on the Safe Harbor certification program and privacy
principles, see www.google.com/privacy/privacy-policy.html.
its MNO and using the Google SMS search platform, it provides 52 http://www.grameenfoundation.org/recommendations-creation
information on demand for farmers. In addition to weather -pro-microcredit-regulatory-framework, p.6.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
46 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
lasts an average of five months (Preethi 2009). Farmer’s Friend to buy the equipment and profits from reselling the services
users can return to the service at any time. the phone offers. Farmer’s Friend expects to establish 5,000
Village Phone operators over time. Each is expected to serve
An Array of Strong Commercial and Noncommercial as many as 2,000 people, greatly enhancing Farmer’s Friend’s
Partners prospects for growth. (See IPS “Community Knowledge
Worker Initiative in Uganda” in Module 4.)
A key enabling factor of the initiative has been its marriage
between strong commercial and nonprofit partners. The
LESSONS LEARNED
nonprofit Grameen Foundation increases access to technolo-
gies. As well as using the search expertise of Google and the Table 2.6 recapitulates the factors enabling farmers to receive
network coverage of MTN Uganda (Uganda’s largest MNO), agricultural information through the increasingly accessible
Grameen receives agricultural information from the Busoga mobile phone services in rural areas—whether the information
Rural Open Source Development Initiative, a local NGO that arrives through personal or shared phones. The lessons learned
collects farming expertise from networks of farmers. Weather so far from the new services are summarized in table 2.7.
reports are provided by Uganda’s Department of Meteorology.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Networks, Appliances, and Infrastructure Abbey-Mensah, S. 2001. “Rural Broadcasting in Ghana.” Presented
As noted, the services work on the most basic handsets and at the International Workshop on Farm Radio Broadcasting,
February 19, FAO, Rome. http://www.fao.org/docrep/003
are not handset specific, but users need to be part of the /x6721e/x6721e12.htm, accessed July 2011.
MTN Uganda network. To widen its distribution network,
Armstrong, C., and R. Collins. 2011. “Digital Turmoil for South
Grameen is trying to establish Village Phones in rural Uganda. African TV.” International Journal of Digital Television 2 (1): 7–29.
As mentioned in this overview, this service, successfully
Benkler, Y. 2006. The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production
used by Grameen in Bangladesh, involves public pay phones Transforms Markets and Freedom. New Haven, CT: Yale
run by local entrepreneurs. An entrepreneur obtains a loan University Press.
TABLE 2.6. Key Enabling Factors for Delivering Agricultural Information to Farmers in India and Uganda
ASPECT REUTERS MARKET LIGHT, INDIA IFFCO KISAN SANCHAR LIMITED, INDIA FARMER’S FRIEND, UGANDA
Regulation Actively supported by the Indian government: IFFCO regulated by Indian government Derives regulatory framework from parent
Operates with relative regulatory freedom and expert assessment from agricultural organizations
universities Google works with U.S. Department of
IFFCO regulates all of its suborganizations to Commerce and local regulatory authorities
ensure they comply with its own standards
Business Subscription-based service: Regular local Voice rather than SMS information provision On-demand rather than subscription service.
model information for farmers, steady income for More diverse information than rival RML: Service is free from Google, but users are
RML Also provides advice on animal husbandry charged by their MNO
The potential to try the service in post and products such as fertilizer Rather than simply receiving advice, users
offices before subscribing has been crucial Wireless technology supplemented by can make queries based on specific needs
in the growth of the user network kiosks in cooperatives and commercial Supplemented by village phone operators
Service provided in multiple languages areas: Increases distribution and market in areas with few mobile phones: Income
penetration generation for vendor and wider use
Partnerships Subsidiary of large, powerful company, IFFCO uses experience of growing new busi- Marriage between strong commercial and
Thomson Reuters: strong financial backing in nesses in rural India nonprofit partners: Farmer’s Friend enjoys
implementation stages Airtel (one of the largest MNOs in India) multiple brand equities and financial backing
Crop advisory tips are derived from trusted creates wide coverage by setting up towers in implementation stages
sources (e.g., Indian Council of Agricultural at sites provided by IFFCO cooperatives and Partnership with Busoga Rural Open Source
Research) by providing connectivity in areas where Development Initiative uses networks of
it is not financially advantageous to do so: farmers to provide localized information:
Combats first-mover advantage of RML Encourages user support
Network and Network agnostic: allows for maximum Free, dedicated help line for service users Part of wider information platform, which
infrastructure coverage, as not restricted to one operator SIM rather than handset dependent, so has includes health tips and a trader function:
Information is provided by SMS, so it works the potential for extensive uptake: SIMs Diverse capabilities offer greater potential
on the most basic handsets, even those with must be updated for frequent use and opportunities to develop
only text functionality (unlike competitor brand loyalty
Widespread cooperative-held kiosks help
Nokia’s Life Tools, which requires mobile provide service to poorer customers and Queries access information database:
phones to be GPRS enabled to receive voice allow for trial: Helps grow user network Provides Internet-style capabilities where no
messages) such platform exists
IFFCO has cooperative presence throughout
Single, automated platform for customer rural India: Strong agent network allows Work on the most basic mobile phones
services IKSL to become dominant (including SMS only): Greater market pen-
etration potential
Source: Authors.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 47
TABLE 2.7. Lessons Learned in Delivering Agricultural Information to Farmers in India and Uganda
REUTERS MARKET LIGHT, INDIA IFFCO KISSAN SANCHAR LIMITED, INDIA FARMER’S FRIEND, UGANDA
Subscription services can be problematic: Access is a balancing act: The use of voice Diverse capabilities offer greater potential to
64% of users feel RML helps them achieve higher technology in a variety of local languages combats develop brand loyalty: Farmer’s Friend’s position
prices, but only around half plan to renew their the problem of illiteracy, but at the same time within a wider information service provided by
subscription increases the required capability (and therefore Grameen and Google affords it greater publicity.
Higher costs decrease access: 95% of those cost) of the handsets providing the service As customers use one service to positive effect,
who have not bought into the service state that The use of branded handsets in the trials of the they become aware of and begin to trust the other,
this is because of its cost. Subscription fees innovation have increased this problem related services
increase costs relative to on-demand services Alternatives must be provided: IKSL has sought On-demand payment can prove effective:
Database management is crucial: Problems to combat access issues through the use of kiosks Though providing less stable revenue, the lower
with finding subscribers by their listed addresses held by the farmers’ cooperatives (offshoots of cost commitments involved for users allow them to
and the difficulty of reaching them in their rural IFFCO) in villages: Less expensive wired technol- come back to the service at any time
locations have negatively affected subscriptions ogy supplements the convenience of wireless Strong financial backing plays a key role: All
to RML developments three of the initiatives are backed by large-scale
commercial and nonprofit organizations, which
are able to support the innovators in their rollout
phases, provide brand equity, and provide key
technical expertise
Source: Authors.
Burke, W. M. 2006. “Information Technology for Developing Futch, M., and C. McIntosh. 2009. “Tracking the Introduction of the
Countries: One Laptop per Child.” Perspectives on Global Village Phone Product in Rwanda.” Information Technologies
Issues 1 (1). http://www.perspectivesonglobalissues.com/0101 and International Development 5 (3): 54–81.
/OneLaptop.html, accessed August 2011.
Gasmi, F., and L. Recuero Virto. 2005. “Telecommunications
Burrell, J. 2010. “Evaluating Shared Access: Social Equality and Technologies Deployment in Developing Countries: Role of
the Circulation of Mobile Phones in Rural Uganda.” Journal of Markets and Institutions.” Communications and Strategies 58:
Computer-Mediated Communication 15: 230–50. 19.
Buys, P., S. Dasgupta, T. S. Thomas, and D. Wheeler. 2009. Gómez-Barroso, J. L., and C. Feijóo. 2010. “A Conceptual Framework
“Determinants of a Digital Divide in Sub-Saharan Africa: A for Public-Private Interplay in the Telecommunications Sector.”
Spatial Econometric Analysis of Cell Phone Coverage.” World Telecommunications Policy 34 (9): 48795.
Development 37 (9): 1494–505. Ghosh, A., V. Aggarwal, and N. Marwaha. 2009. “Telecom
Chigona, W., A. Chigona, B. Ngqokelela, and S. Mpofu. 2009. Infrastructure Industry in India.” ICRA Rating Feature, ICRA.
“MXIT: Uses, Perceptions, and Self-justifications.” Journal of http://www.icra.in/Files/Articles/2009-March-TelecomInfra
Information, Information Technology, and Organizations 4: 1–16. .pdf, accessed July 2011.
Chipchase, J. 2010. “Mobile Banking Uptake: Sim Card vs. Phone. Goyal, A. 2010. “Information, Direct Access to Farmers, and Rural
Ownership vs. Use.” CGAP technology blog, July 14. http:// Market Performance in Central India.” American Economic
technology.cgap.org/2010/07/14/mobile-banking-uptake-sim Journal: Applied Economics 2 (3): 22–45.
-card-vs-phone-ownership-vs-use/, accessed July 2011. Gupta, D., and J. Sullivan. 2010. “Bharti Airtel Limited
Clement, A., and L. R. Shade. 2000. “The Access Rainbow: Conceptualizing Africa: More Challenges Than Reflected; Comprehensive
Universal Access to the Information / Communication Infrastructure.” Feedback.” JP Morgan: Asia Pacific Equity Research. https://
In Community Informatics: Enabling Communities with Information mm.jpmorgan.com/stp/t/c.do?i=16238-5&u=a_p*d_481495
and Communications Technologies, edited by M. Gurstein, 32–51. .pdf*h_21ovi1ej%0D%0A, accessed July 2011.
Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing. Hollow, M. 2009. “Initial Reflections on the Ethiopia XO 5000
Dartey, D. Y. 2009. Communication for Empowerment in Ghana: An Programme.” Royal Holloway University of London. http://www
Assessment of Communication and Media Needs at the Community .gg.rhul.ac.uk/ict4d/workingpapers/HollowXO5000.pdf,
Level. Accra: United Nations Development Programme. accessed July 2011.
Dymond, A., S. Oestmann, K. Whiting, C. Smithers, C. Milne, and Hudson, H. E. 2010. “Defining Universal Service Funds: Are They
R. Milne. 2010. “Module 4: Universal Access and Service.” In Accelerators or Anachronisms?” InterMedia 38 (1): 16–21.
ICT Regulation Toolkit, edited by InfoDev. http://www.ictregula- ITU (International Telecommunication Union). 2010. Measuring the
tiontoolkit.org/en/Sections.html, accessed July 2011. Information Society. Geneva: ITU.
Esselaar, S., A. Gillwald, M. Moyo, and K. Naidoo. 2010. “South Jensen, R. 2007. “The Digital Provide: Information (Technology),
African ICT Sector Performance Review 2009/2010.” In Towards Market Performance, and Welfare in the South Indian
Evidence-Based ICT Policy and Regulation: Volume 2, Policy Fisheries Sector.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 122 (3):
Paper 6. Cape Town: Research ICT Africa. 879–924.
Forestier, E., J. Grace, and C. Kenny. 2002. “Can Information and Kim, T-H. 2009a. “Korea Facing More Pressure to Give Up WiBro.”
Communication Technologies Be Pro-Poor?” Telecommunications Korea Times, July 12. http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news
Policy 26 (11): 623–46. /biz/2011/02/123_48344.html, accessed July 2011.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
48 MODULE 2 — MAKING ICT INFRASTRUCTURE, APPLIANCES, AND SERVICES MORE ACCESSIBLE AND AFFORDABLE IN RURAL AREAS
———. 2009b. “KCC Chief Ambivalent About WiBro.” Korea Preethi, J. 2009. “Reuters Market Light Goes to Himachal.”
Times, July 15. http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news Medianama, April 17. http://www.medianama.com/2009/04/223
/biz/2009/07/123_48534.html, accessed July 2011. -reuters-market-light-goes-to-himachal-pan-india-with-nokia-txt
-vs-gprs-vs-voice/, accessed July 2011.
Kleine, D., and T. Unwin. 2009. “Technological Revolution, Evolution,
and New Dependencies: What’s New About ict4d?” Third World Prows, B. 2009. “Mobile Social Networks with Herman Heunis of
Quarterly 30 (5): 1045–67. MXit.” MobileBeyond blog, August 26. http://mobilebeyond.net
/mobile-communications-and-communities-in-south-africa-mxits
Kumar, K., C. McKay, and S. Rotman. 2010. “Microfinance and Mobile
-herman-heunis/, accessed August 2011.
Banking: The Story So Far.” CGAP Focus Note 62 (July): 13–14.
Qiang, C. Z.-W. 2010. “Broadband Infrastructure Investment in
Lio, M., and Meng-Chun Liu. 2006. “ICT and Agricultural Productivity:
Stimulus Packages: Relevance for Developing Countries.” Info
Evidence from Cross-Country Data.” Agricultural Economics
12 (2): 41–56.
34 (3): 221–28.
Ramachandran, S. 2009. “MXit Mixes Mobile Networks with
Mir, A. 2010. “Tameer Microfinance Bank and Telenor Provide
Social Conscience.” Business Week, August 20. http://www
Insights on Easypaise.” TelecomPK, January 6. http://telecompk
.businessweek.com/technology/content/aug2009/tc20090820
.net/2010/01/06/tameer-microfinance-bank-and-telenor-provide
_669558.htm, accessed August 2011.
-insights-on-easypaisa/, accessed July 2011.
Röller, L.-H., and L. Waverman. 2001. “Telecommunications
Mulas, V. 2010. “Broadband in Chile.” In Strategic Options for
Infrastructure and Economic Development: A Simultaneous
Broadband Development, edited by C. M. Rossotto, T. Kelly,
Approach.” American Economic Review 91 (4): 909–23.
N. Halewood, and V. Mulas, 121–47. Washington, DC: Global
Information and Communication Technology (GICT), Ministry of Rossotto, C. M., T. Kelly, N. Halewood, and V. Mulas, eds. 2010.
Communication and Information Technology (MoCT), Arab Republic Strategic Options for Broadband Development. Washington,
of Egypt, National Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (NTRA) DC: Global Information and Communication Technology (GICT),
121–47. Ministry of Communication and Information Technology (MoCT),
Arab Republic of Egypt, National Telecommunications Regulatory
Nedevschi, S., S. Surana, B. Du, R. Patra, E. Brewer, and V. Stan.
Authority (NTRA).
2010. “Potential of CDMA450 for Rural Network Connectivity.”
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Stern, P., D. Townsend, and R. Stephens. 2006. “Telecommunications
California, Berkeley. http://tier.cs.berkeley.edu/docs/wireless Universal Access Programs in Latin America: Lessons from
/cdma450.pdf. accessed July 2011. the Past and Recommendations for a New Generation of
Universal Access Programs for the 21st Century.” Draft paper
Nikomborirak, D., and S. Cheevasittiyanon. 2008. “Telecom Regulatory
prepared for the Forum of Latin American Telecommunications
and Policy Environment in Thailand: Results and Analysis of the
Regulators (Regulatel), the World Bank (including the Public
2008 TRE Survey.” SSRN eLibrary. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3
Private Infrastructure Facility (PPIAF) and the Global Program on
/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1555591, accessed July 2011.
Output Based Aid (GPOBA), and the United Nations Economic
Omwansa, T. 2009. “M-PESA: Progress and Prospects.” Paper prepared Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).
for the Mobile World Congress, Barcelona, February 16–19.
Sunderland, E. 2007. “Fixed-Mobile Convergence.” Discussion paper
Onuzuruike, E. 2009. “Telecom Infrastructure Sharing as a Strategy for the ITU Global Symposium for Regulators, Dubai World Trade
for Cost Optimization and Revenue Generation: A Case Study of Center, Dubai, February 5–7.
MTN Nigeria/Zain Nigeria Collocation.” Master’s thesis, Blekinge
Tobgyl, T. C. n.d. “Case Study: Bhutan: Wireless IP-Based Rural
Institute of Technology. http://www.bth.se/fou/cuppsats.nsf
Access Pilot Project.” ITU. http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ni
/28b5b36bec7ba32bc125744b004b97d0/8ab522d9c73deb98c
/futuremobile/technology/bhutancase.pdf, accessed July 2011.
125769a0037ccce!OpenDocument&Highlight=0,telecom*,
infrastructure*, sharing*, accessed July 2010. Tryhorn, C. 2009. “Developing Countries Drive Explosion in Global
Mobile Phone Use.” The Guardian, March 2. http://www
Pan, H. 2010. Telecom Mergers & Acquisitions Monthly Newsletter.
.guardian.co.uk/business/2009/mar/02/mobile-phone-internet
Information Gatekeepers Inc, June.
-developing-world, accessed August 2011.
Pham, N. H. 2009. “Digital Switchover Strategies Challenge and
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development).
Lessons Learned.” Paper presented at ITU BDT Seminar,
2010. “Financing Mechanisms for Information and Communication
Transition from Analogue to Digital Broadcasting: Correlation
Technologies for Development.” UNCTAD Current Studies on
between Technical, Economic and Social Costs and Advantage,
Science, Technology and Innovation, Geneva.
ITU, Saransk, Russian Federation, June 16–18. https://www.itu.int/
ITU-D/tech/digital_broadcasting/SaranskJune2009/Presentations/ UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2008. Creating Value
Day2/Saransk_June2009_Day2_3.pdf, accessed July 2011. for All: Strategies for Doing Business with the Poor. New York: UNDP.
Picot, A., F. Jondral, J. Elsner, and N. Grove. 2010. “Why the Digital Waverman, L., M. Meschi, and M. Fuss. 2005. “The Impact of
Dividend Will Not Close the Digital Divide.” Paper presented at Telecoms on Economic Growth in Developing Countries.”
the 4th International Conference on Economics and Management Vodaphone Policy Paper Series 2: 10–24. http://www.vodafone
of Networks, Sarajevo, September 3–5. .com/content/dam/vodafone/about/public_policy/policy_papers
/public_policy_series_2.pdf, accessed July 2011.
Prakash, S., and C. Velu. 2010. “Reuters Market Light: Business Model
Innovation for Growth.” Centre for India and Global Business. Wellenius, B. 2002. “Closing the Gap in Access to Rural
http://www.india.jbs.cam.ac.uk/opinion/pieces/downloads/2010 Communications: Chile 1995–2002.” World Bank Discussion
/prakash_reuters.pdf, accessed July 2011. Paper 430, World Bank, Washington, DC.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 49
Module 3 ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES
AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON
AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
KEVIN DONOVAN (InfoDev, World Bank Group)
IN THIS MODULE
Overview. What has been the impact of mobile phones on agriculture and rural development? This module describes
current knowledge, innovative practices, opportunities, and challenges in using mobile phones to benefit agriculture.
Based on what has been learned to date, it provides principles for practitioners seeking to use the mobile platform to
improve farmers’ livelihoods.
Topic Note 3.1: Key Benefits and Challenges Related to Mobile Phones and Agricultural Livelihoods. Mobile
phones may help to increase income, improve the efficiency of markets, reduce transaction costs, and offer a great
opportunity for innovative interventions, especially in service delivery. Yet to realize the full potential of enhanced com-
munication of market information, the use of mobile phones must be coupled with additional investments (in roads,
education, financial services, and so forth). Mobile services and applications also need to provide compelling value. They
must be affordable and have useful content. Finally, mobile phones may not confer their benefits in an equitable fashion
or be used in other socially and economically beneficial ways. Context matters. Technology cannot be airdropped into a
situation and guarantee positive results.
Weather Forecasting Reduces Agricultural Risk in Turkey
Mobile Phones Are the Center of Esoko’s Virtual Marketplace
Topic Note 3.2: Two Typologies and General Principles for Using Mobile Phones in Agricultural Projects. Two
frameworks help for understanding and designing initiatives that use mobile phones for achieving development goals.
One typology focuses on the services that operate through mobile phones to improve aspects of agricultural livelihoods.
A second focuses on the various forms that mobile applications might take to develop the agricultural sector. A number
of principles improve the chances of sustainable impact: understand users and the technology; engage in participatory,
iterative project design; identify partners with the appropriate knowledge, collaborative capacity, and alignment of goals;
ensure that the technology is widely accessible; develop a viable business plan to ensure sustainability; and use moni-
toring and evaluation to develop a better understanding of outcomes, which would help in designing new interventions.
Mobile Service Gives Chilean Farmers a Local and Global Information Edge
For Reuters Market Light, the Wider Network of People Matters
Nokia Life Tools Uses Simple Technologies to Deliver New Functionality
OVERVIEW can be found in the pockets of the wealthy and poor alike.
In July 2010, the number of mobile phone subscriptions Even in rural areas, mobile phones are growing in number
surpassed the 5 billion mark (figure 3.1), further establishing and sophistication. Recent figures suggest that although only
mobile phones as the most popular form of global connectiv- 81 million Indians (7 percent of the population) regularly use
ity.1 In their various designs and capabilities, mobile phones the Internet, price wars mean that 507 million own mobile
phones. Calls cost as little as US$0.006 per minute, and
Indian operators are said to sign up 20 million new subscrib-
1 According to https://www.wirelessintelligence.com/. ers per month (The Economist 2010).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
50 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Figures for access to mobile phones are higher than own- rose from 12 percent of the global population to nearly
ership figures. A survey in Uganda found that 86 percent 76 percent. A series of innovations drove this adoption, espe-
of those asked claimed to have access to a mobile phone, cially in developing countries, which had 73 percent of the
although only one-quarter of farmers said they actually world’s mobile phones in 2010.2 Like other digital technolo-
owned one (Ferris, Engoru, and Kaganzi 2008). gies, mobile phones benefit from Moore’s Law, which states
that computational power doubles approximately every two
This module highlights the impact of mobile phones on years. The newest smartphones are far more sophisticated
agriculture and rural development by outlining current knowl- than the more affordable models populating poor regions,
edge and describing innovative practices. The discussion but those simple phones are still leaps and bounds ahead of
complements information in Module 2 on technical aspects devices that were cutting edge a decade ago—and they are
of increasing mobile phone use in rural areas and agriculture. entirely relevant to agriculture.
It also serves as a preface to numerous other descriptions of
mobile phone applications throughout this Sourcebook. An additional reason for focusing on mobile phones is that
regulatory design has improved in recent decades, boost-
The rise of the mobile phone has been one of the most stun- ing competition among telecommunications companies.
ning changes in the developing world over the past decade. Competition has spurred significant innovation in business
The increasing ubiquity of these phones in developing coun- models. For example, in most of the developing world, in
tries presents both opportunities and challenges, especially contrast to practices in some wealthy countries, only the
for critical sectors such as agriculture. Like other technolo- person making the phone call pays. Moreover, mobile phone
gies before it, the mobile phone is likely to be the subject of airtime is available in prepaid bundles, allowing poor custom-
inflated expectations and hopes. To caution against the hype, ers to avoid lengthy contracts and manage their expenditure
this module also explores barriers to using mobile phones in a discrete, granular manner. For those at the bottom of
to benefit agriculture and provides recommendations for the pyramid, where income is indeterminate and manag-
practitioners seeking to use the mobile platform to improve ing finances is very important, this model is a key driver of
farmers’ livelihoods. access and use. (For additional discussion and examples of
regulation and business models as key enablers of mobile
FIGURE 3.1. Global Mobile Cellular Subscriptions, telecommunications, see Module 2.)
Total and per 100 Inhabitants, 2000–10
These supply-side improvements have met strong demand
6,000 100 from customers around the globe. Like all networked tech-
Subscriptions (millions)
Per 100 inhabitants
90 nologies, mobile phones exhibit network effects, making
5,000 Subscriptions (millions)
80 them more valuable as more devices are in use. Also, in
Per 100 inhabitants
70 contrast to landlines, the mobility and personal nature of this
4,000
60 technology have a strong appeal to users. Being connected
3,000 50 means being reachable (Ling and Donner 2009). The mobile
40 phone adds a layer of security, allowing someone to reach
2,000 30
loved ones or assistance following an accident. It also allows
20
1,000 for microcoordination of activities, limiting the need for plan-
10
ning and the cost of changing plans on the fly (Ling 2004).
0 0
Finally, as anyone who has made a phone call while waiting
2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 2010*
*Estimates for the bus or checked his or her phone during a meeting
Source: ITU World Telecommunication / ICT Indicators database. knows, mobile phones allow for multitasking.
What this proliferation means is that while mobile phones
Why Mobile Phones?
may be a substitute or complement for landlines in rich coun-
Mobile phones are but one form of ICT. Personal computers, tries, they are more frequently the first form of telephony for
laptops, the Internet, television, radio, and traditional news- many of the world’s poor. Through allowing communication
papers are all used to promote improved rural development. at a distance, mobile phones allow users to overcome limits
So why focus on mobile phones? of time and space.
The most obvious answer is the sheer scale of adoption.
In the ten years before 2009, mobile phone penetration 2 See ITU (http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 51
Why Agriculture? BOX 3.1. What Is a Mobile Application?
In many countries, agriculture accounts for the overwhelm-
ing majority of rural employment. The manifold benefits A mobile application is a piece of software on a portable
that accompany improvements in agricultural productiv- device (such as a mobile phone handset, personal digi-
ity are well known: Farmers’ incomes rise, food prices tal assistant, or tablet computer) that enables a user to
fall, and labor is freed for additional employment. In some carry out one or more specific tasks that are not directly
instances, productivity improvements have proven elusive, related to the operation of the device itself. Examples
as climate change and uncertain commodity prices have include the ability to access specific information (for
worsened agrarian conditions for many rural communities. instance, via a website); make payments and other
Development practitioners have rightly focused on the dif- transactions; play games; send messages; and so on.
ficult situations of many farmers, especially smallholders, The application (app) might come preinstalled, but more
who have little room for error and even less protection from usually is downloaded (for free or for payment) from a
social safety nets. Technical innovation, most prominently wireless network from an online store and may require a
demonstrated in the Green Revolution, has been key to live connection to function effectively. Simple apps may
improving agricultural markets in the developing world. make use of the built-in, low-speed data communication
Mobile phones, despite their recent entry into agrarian com- facilities of digital mobile phones, such as short mes-
munities, are already helping those communities improve saging service (SMS) or unstructured supplementary
their agricultural activities. service data (USSD). On many low-cost phones, appli-
cations are available through Java software. More com-
plex apps use the Internet protocol–based data commu-
nication facilities of higher-speed networks on third- or
THE VIRTUOUS CIRCLE OF MOBILE PHONES
fourth-generation mobile phone networks. The broad
AND AGRICULTURE
range of applications available includes:
Advances throughout the mobile phone ecosystem tend to
Stand-alone software apps downloaded onto
act as a positive feedback loop. This “virtuous circle” of inno-
a device, such as an iPhone app. As of April 2010,
vation enables a number of benefits, even for smallholder
third-party developers provided 185,000 apps, and
farmers:
more than 4 billion had been downloaded since
Access. Mobile wireless networks are expanding as the iPhone was launched in July 2008, based on
technical and financial innovations widen coverage to Apple’s presentation at the iPhone OS 4 media
more areas. preview event.
Affordability. Prepaid connectivity and inexpensive Applications that require an elaborate eco-
devices, often available second hand, make mobile system to support them, such as Safaricom’s
phones far cheaper than alternatives. M-PESA application for mobile payments in Kenya.
M-PESA (which operates in a number of countries)
Appliances. Mobile phones are constantly increasing
has some 15,000 agents and over 9 million users.
in sophistication and ease of use. Innovations arrive
through traditional trickle-down effects from expensive Applications built upon a specific platform that
models but have also been directed at the bottom of is itself an application. For instance, the MXit
the pyramid. instant messaging platform, which began in South
Africa, now supports 250 million messages per
Applications. Applications and services using mobile
day. It provides tools for users to develop their
phones range from simple text messaging services
own applications running on the platform.
to increasingly advanced software applications that
Source: Author.
provide both livelihood improvements and real-time
public services (box 3.1).
Through this expansion process, formerly costly technolo- The topic notes that follow review numerous ways that
gies quickly become everyday tools for the bottom of the private industry, government bodies, and nonprofit orga-
pyramid. Additional opportunities for more frequent and reli- nizations are using mobile phones in agriculture. Many of
able information sharing will open as technological advances these programs are relatively new, and conclusive results
lead to additional convergence between mobile phones and are difficult to ascertain. Most show promise, but there are
the Internet, GPS, laptops, software, and other types of ICT. reasons for caution and the barriers to surmount. Topic Note
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
52 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
3.1 focuses on what is known so far about the benefits, of mobile phones for agricultural development technologies
challenges, and enablers related to using mobile phones and help them determine whether and how to incorporate
to improve agriculture and rural welfare. Topic Note 3.2 them in the design of new initiatives. The Topic Notes are
describes two typologies that can help practitioners under- followed by Innovative Practice Summaries that highlight the
stand the various roles and rationales surrounding the use approaches taken so far.
Topic Note 3.1: KEY BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES
RELATED TO MOBILE PHONES AND
AGRICULTURAL LIVELIHOODS
TRENDS AND ISSUES but smallholder farmers, lacking a social safety net, are
The proliferation of mobile phones across the globe has often highly risk averse and therefore not very market ori-
impinged on agriculture in various ways. These phones are ented. A study in Uganda found that market participation
being used to help raise farmers’ incomes, making agricul- rose with mobile phone access (Muto and Yamano 2009).
tural marketing more efficient, lowering information costs, Although better market access can be a powerful means of
reducing transportation costs, and providing a platform to alleviating poverty, the study found that market participation
deliver services and innovate. Whether the potential of still depended on what producers had to sell: Perishable
these trends can be realized more widely, especially in rural bananas were more likely to be sold commercially than less-
areas and in an equitable way, is uncertain. Every aspect perishable maize.
of the technology is changing rapidly; the public sector,
Mobile phones can serve as the backbone for early warning
private sector, and private citizens are constantly experi-
systems to mitigate agricultural risks and safeguard agricul-
menting with new applications for it; and governments are
tural incomes. In Turkey, local weather forecasts transmitted
grappling with any number of strategies to ease the digital
through SMS provided very timely warnings of impending
divide. This note summarizes what is known so far about
frosts or conditions that favored pests.
the benefits, challenges, and enabling factors associated
with mobile phones in relation to several aspects of agri- Mobile platforms may also have potential for enabling rural
cultural livelihoods. people to find employment. In Uganda, Grameen AppLab
partners with government and NGOs to employ farmers to
collect information (for more on Grameen, see Module 3).
Helping Farmers Raise Their Incomes This method, which relies on local people to transmit data to
In some instances, access to mobile phones has been associ- more centrally located research and extension staff, is much
ated with increased agricultural income. A World Bank study less costly and can provide much more timely information
conducted in the Philippines found strong evidence that than traditional disease surveys.
purchasing a mobile phone is associated with higher growth
rates of incomes, in the range of 11–17 percent, as measured Txteagle provides employment for relatively educated
through consumption behavior (Labonne and Chase 2009). users (see “Txteagle Taps a Vast Underused Workforce” in
One reason for this finding is that farmers equipped with Module 2), and even the very poor in rural areas could even-
information have a stronger bargaining position within exist- tually benefit from access to a mobile job board. Farmers
ing trade relationships, in addition to being able to seek out could advertise when they need additional labor for harvest-
other markets. A study of farmers who purchased mobile ing or other high-intensity tasks via mobile phone, creating
phones in Morocco found that average income increased by a simple advertising portal. Workers could find jobs without
nearly 21 percent (Ilahiane 2007). wasting time and money traveling. A group called BabaJob
is developing such a service in India, where recruiters and
Mobile phones seem to influence the commercialization of workers submit listings by SMS, but it remains in the devel-
farm products. Subsistence farming is notoriously tenuous, opmental stage.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 53
Making Agricultural Marketing More Efficient regions, fishers who were previously ignorant of daily prices
At a fundamental level, markets are about distributing infor- in different markets were able to contact various ports to find
mation. They do so through prices, which serve as a unifying the best offer for their catch. The result was demonstrable
signal to participants to allow for the coordination of dis- welfare gains for fishers because fish were sold where they
persed producers and consumers. Underlying this powerful were more highly valued. Waste decreased and prices equal-
mechanism, though, is the assumption that everyone knows ized throughout the regional ports; there were even small
the market prices for commodities, which is not the case in gains in consumer welfare (Jensen 2007).
much of the developing world. Farmers have little information
Other studies have confirmed this effect. Despite hav-
about market prices in urban areas of their own countries, let
ing the lowest mobile phone penetration in Sub-Saharan
alone internationally. The result of this information asymmetry
Africa, Niger has seen important effects on agricultural
is price dispersion—the same goods sell for widely different
markets from mobile phone diffusion. As mobile networks
prices in markets merely a few kilometers apart.
have expanded, grain price differences have decreased
Mobile phones, in addition to other types of ICT, can over- by 20 percent, traders’ search costs have decreased by
come this problem by informing both producers and consum- 50 percent, scarce resources have been better allocated,
ers of the prices offered for agricultural products in various and consumers have paid, on average, 3.5 percent less for
locations. A number of studies have shown that when mobile grain, which is equivalent to 5–10 days of grain consump-
phones are introduced to farming communities that previ- tion annually (Aker 2010a). A small study in Morocco found
ously lacked any form of connectivity, prices unify as farmers that farmers with mobile phones increasingly dealt directly
learn where they can sell for a better price. (See Module 9 for with wholesalers or larger-scale intermediaries rather than
more information on marketing through ICT.) smaller intermediaries (Ilahiane 2007). These studies, in
conjunction with a host of anecdotal and theoretical evi-
A striking example comes from the Indian state of Kerala dence, point to the promise of mobile phones in making
(box 3.2). As mobile networks were rolled out in coastal markets more efficient.
BOX 3.2. Mobile Phones Enable Kerala Fishers to Identify Better Markets
As mobile phone coverage increased in Kerala, fishermen bought phones and started phoning along the coast to look
for beach auctions where supplies were lower and prices higher than at their home beach. Fishermen rapidly learned
to calculate whether the additional fuel costs of sailing to the high-priced auction were justified. The figure below tells a
vivid visual story of how phones affected prices (reduced volatility) and wastage (significantly reduced). Price dispersion
was dramatically reduced, declining from 60–70 percent to 15 percent or less. There was no net change in fishermen’s
average catch, but more of the catch was sold because wastage, which previously averaged 5–8 percent of the daily
catch, was effectively eliminated. The rapid adoption of mobile phones improved fishermen’s profits by 8 percent and
was coupled with a 4 percent decline in consumer prices.
By 2001, over 60 percent of fishing boats and most wholesale and retail traders were using mobile phones to coordinate
sales. The phones were widely used for fish marketing. Fishermen with phones generally carry lists with numbers of
potential buyers. They typically call several buyers in different markets before deciding where to sell their catch. Boats
using mobile phones on average increased profits by Rs 184 per day, compared to Rs 97 for nonusers, who tended to
follow the mobile phone users. Boats with mobile phones gained more (nearly twice as much), in part because they were
on average larger boats and thus caught more fish and because they were more likely to be able to profitably exploit the
small remaining arbitrage opportunities. Phones appear to be a worthwhile investment: The net increase of Rs 184 per
day in profits for phone users would more than cover the costs of the phone in less than two months (assuming that
there are 24 days of fishing per month, and given that the handset costs approximately Rs 5,000 and monthly costs are
Rs 500). Fishermen are still using phones for marketing purposes to date.
(continued)
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
54 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
BOX 3.2. continued
Cell Phone Impact on Fish Marketing (SW India)
REGION II
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
Phones added
% with phone
2 pct_phone
Cell phones purchased
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
Survey week
REGION II Reduced volatility and
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Phones added increased average price
Price (Rs./kg)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
Survey week
Fish wastage 5–8%
.05 .1 .15 .2 .25
% fishermen with
Fish wastage reduced to zero
waste
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
Survey week
Source: Jensen 2007.
Lowering the Costs of Information These costs can account for a large share of the cost of a
The most obvious and crosscutting way that mobile phones farm enterprise.
can improve agriculture is by improving access to informa-
tion and making it less costly to obtain. In many rural areas, In a study that compared transaction costs throughout an
the arrival of mobile coverage is a radical change in the extended period, 15.2 percent of the total cost of farming
nature of the information ecosystem. Although simply hav- was transactional, and of that, 70 percent was informational
ing more information is not sufficient to make advantageous (as opposed to, say, the cost of transporting crops to market).
decisions (other resources may be needed to implement Undertaken in Sri Lanka, where an inconsistent subsidy on fer-
them), it is a necessary step toward access to knowledge. tilizer introduces considerable uncertainty, the study found that
53 percent of the informational transaction costs were incurred
Transaction costs are present throughout agricultural value during the growing season, when farmers were attempting
chains, from initial decisions about whether and what to to ascertain fertilizer costs. As shown in figure 3.2, another
plant, to all of the operations during the growing cycle, 24 percent were incurred during the initial decision to plant or
harvesting, postharvest and processing operations, and sell- not, while only 9 percent of the costs related to information
ing (to intermediaries, consumers, processors, exporters). were incurred during the selling stage, where studies typically
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 55
FIGURE 3.2. Information Search Cost by Stage production cycles. Farmers who use mobile phones can also
of Farming save on transportation costs (Overa 2006)—an effect that is
stronger the more rural the area (Muto and Yamano 2009).
Harvesting, packing,
and storing Transportation cannot be avoided entirely: Crops need to get to
Selling customers. Although mobile phones can inform farmers where
they should travel to market their crops, evidence suggests that
Decision
the wealthy maintain an advantage in their ability to make use of
Seed purchase this information (Fafchamps and Hill 2004). In combination with
and seed bed
improved rural roads, ICT will encourage larger truck-traders to
Land preparation
and planting visit harder-to-reach areas, connecting rural and urban regions.
Growing
As noted in Module 9, the onion wholesalers known as
“Market Queens” increasingly use mobile phones to coor-
Source: Adapted from De Silva and Ratnadiwakara 2008.
dinate supply among themselves and to improve profits by
facilitating reductions in their transportation and opportunity
focus (De Silva and Ratnadiwakara 2008). It is easy to under- costs (Overa 2006). These costs are particularly high in com-
stand how mobile phones could reduce farmers’ informational modity chains that are geographically extensive and organiza-
transaction costs at critical points in the production cycle. tionally complex, such as the onion trade in Ghana.
Reducing Transportation Costs A Platform for Service Delivery and Innovation
Mobile phones may help users to substitute phone calls The numerous capabilities of mobile phones (box 3.3) pro-
for travel. Where safety standards are minimal, roads are in vide ample opportunities to deliver both traditional and inno-
disrepair, and distances are great, substituting phone calls vative services. Traditional agricultural extension agents are
for travel reduces farmers’ time and cost burdens. Time sav- increasingly being outfitted with mobile phones through pro-
ings are important for agricultural households, because many grams to increase their effectiveness by networking them to
crops have extremely time-sensitive and labor-intensive knowledge banks. Extension can reach more clients through
BOX 3.3. One Device, Many Channels
Mobile phones are multifunctional devices. From smartphones to models available secondhand in rural markets, these
phones do much more than simply place voice calls. In designing a mobile intervention or project, it is important to keep
in mind the various channels through which populations can be reached.
In much of the world, voice is still king, owing to widespread illiteracy; but other considerations—such as cost, ease of
use, and trust—influence users’ choices. In Africa, the high cost of calls has made 160-character text messages (SMS)
very popular.
As networks and devices acquire more capabilities, richer uses of phones are unfolding, and information channels are
converging. Camera phones send images, data transfer brings the mobile Internet to the bottom of the pyramid, down-
loaded software applications provide advanced functionality, and GPS sensors provide mapping functionality. Emerging
market consumers are more likely to have their first contact with the Internet through a mobile device, and many are
mobile-only users.a Cisco estimates that by 2015 there will be 788 million mobile-only Internet users, and though rural
areas will lag behind, the highest rates of growth will be in the Middle East, Africa, Latin America, and Eastern and Central
Europe.b In Kenya, Safaricom recently unveiled a service that converts emails to SMS messages and an interactive voice
response (IVR) service, in which a computer responds to voice inquiries. Combining mobile phones with other technolo-
gies, such as radio and telecenters, can enhance their capabilities.
This potential is important to understand. It shows how adaptable the technology is, and how it can be used in areas
where smartphones are likely to remain inaccessible to many in the near future.
(continued)
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
56 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
BOX 3.3. continued
Each form of mobile communication has its strengths and weaknesses. For example, SMS requires some form of
literacy and is limited to 160 characters (although some mobile information interfaces are striving to become more
visually intuitive). Data transfer is inexpensive but not available on most phones. The table summarizes types of mobile
technologies and their availability.
Types and Availability of Mobile Technologies
TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION AVAILABILITY
Voice The most basic channel; avoids most literacy or Basic phones
linguistic barriers
Short messaging service (SMS) Ubiquitous text-based messaging limited to Basic phones
160 characters
Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD) A protocol used by Global Service for Mobile Basic phones
Communications (GSM) phones to communicate
with the mobile network
Interactive Voice Response (IVR) Computer programs that respond to the voice input Basic phones
of callers
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) Low-bandwidth data service Midrange phones
Software app (e.g., Java or iOS) Preinstalled or downloaded software of varied Midrange, but increased sophistication with
sophistication smartphones
Mobile Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) A limited manner of browsing the Internet Midrange phones
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) SMS-based technology to transmit multimedia Midrange phones
(including images and video)
Camera For capturing still or moving images Midrange phones
Bluetooth Protocol for transmitting data over short distances Midrange phones
Mobile Web Full-fledged Web access Smartphones
Global Positioning System (GPS) Technology allowing for location-based information Smartphones
Source: http://www.crisscrossed.net/2009/11/01/the-many-potential-channels-for-mobile-services/; (a) http://www.slideshare.net/ondevice/the-mobile
-only-Internet-generation; (b) Cisco (2010).
mobile-based learning platforms—textual or richer platforms, political voice, raising the level of interaction between
such as video—that provide tips to farmers to improve agri- policy makers and their constituents. Mobile phones can
cultural skills and knowledge. (See the detailed discussion of be used to direct bottom-up insights toward the appropri-
advisory services and ICT in Module 6.) ate recipients, informing and improving governance (see
Module 12).
Significantly, mobile phones are also a platform for user
innovation. Mobile money services, now so prominent in
countries such as Kenya and the Philippines, originally began
LESSONS LEARNED
as informal mechanisms between family and friends. Software
engineers in developing countries are creating locally appropri- As mobile phones come into more widespread use and
ate applications to be deployed inexpensively. This form of phone applications for agriculture increase, it is clear that
innovation is possible due to the functionality of mobile they have the potential to confer significant benefits. To
phones, but capacity needs to be grown and technological summarize, they may help to increase income, improve
barriers, such as incompatible networks, need to be addressed the efficiency of markets, reduce waste, and improve
(see the discussion in Module 2). welfare. They can reduce agriculture’s significant transac-
tion costs, displace costly and time-intensive travel, and
Finally, the popularity of mobile phones means that previ- facilitate innovative interventions, especially in service
ously excluded populations can have considerably more delivery.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 57
Yet as many examples in this Sourcebook indicate, mobile Silva, and Soysa 2008). But when mobile phones were used
phones, and ICT more generally, may serve agricultural for timely interventions through SMS, up to 40 percent of
development best when accompanied by complementary wastage could be prevented, a service for which farmers
investments and reforms. For example, shoddy roads—or were willing to pay (De Silva and Ratnadiwakara 2008).
no roads—limit farmers’ ability to sell their grain in prime
markets. Poor access to education can prevent many rural Because mobile phones may be purchased as a status sym-
people from taking advantage of mobile phone services that bol, and because their uses are not necessarily economically
depend on being able to read. valuable (entertainment and other social uses are popular),
some mobile phone owners may decide to substitute their
A lack of financial services can undermine the new options use for important expenditures such as school fees or food.
that mobile phones allow. As discussed, Kerala’s fish- Given this possibility, it is even more important that devel-
ers saw their welfare increase through the use of mobile opment practitioners promote policies and programs that
phones (image 3.1), but they ran into another financial improve livelihoods (Heeks 2008).
barrier. Without access to capital, the fishers cannot own
their boats. The phones eliminated some intermediaries, An additional caution is that without specific attention to
but boat owners may still force the fish to be sold in a equity issues, mobile phones may reinforce inequitable social
less-than-optimal port. Small-scale producers and fishers structures. Larger traders are more likely to own mobile
can gain better access to services if they organize (see phones than small-scale traders (Overa 2006). Compared to
Module 8), but in many settings, increasing the bargaining men, women are less likely to have access to mobile phones3
power and political clout of small-scale producers remains (box 3.4 provides additional insight into the role of mobile
an issue (Reuben 2007). phones in relation to gender equity). To avoid exacerbating
such inequalities, agricultural programs using mobile phones
should be designed with equity in mind from the start.
IMAGE 3.1. Mobile Phones Can Help Fishermen Sell
Finally, context matters. Technology cannot be airdropped into
Their Catch
a situation and guarantee positive results, and mobile phones
may not necessarily be directed at economically useful behavior.
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Weather Forecasting Reduces Agricultural Risk
in Turkey
A project recently implemented by the Government of Turkey
in collaboration with international donors is an exemplary
model of local weather forecasting.4 Rather than focusing on
aggregate, national data, this project, implemented by the
Agriculture Directorate of Kastamonu Province, focused on
the microclimatic conditions essential for monitoring pests
Source: Curt Carnemark, World Bank. and diseases accurately and increasing productivity.
To succeed, mobile services and applications also need to The Problem and the Technology
provide compelling value, especially for the poor. Access to
Most producers in Kastamonu maintain orchards, which
devices and networks is insufficient; the technology also
are extremely susceptible to frost and local pests. Before
must be affordable and have useful applications and con-
tent. For example, in Sri Lanka, where researchers found
significant potential cost savings from the use of mobile 3 See “mWomen,” under http://gsmworld.com/our-work/mobile
phones, farmers rarely used their phones to obtain market _planet/development_fund/index.htm.
data because they could not obtain accurate and timely 4 This section draws on World Bank (2010) and personal communi-
cation from H. Agah, senior rural development specialist, World
information. Instead, farmers made frequent and costly trips Bank (interview with C. Belden, Agriculture and Rural Develop-
to distant markets to determine prices (Ratnadiwakara, De ment, World Bank, March 22, 2011).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
58 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
BOX 3.4. Mobile Phones, Agriculture, and Gender
The larger development community recognizes the importance of emphasizing equitable opportunities and benefits
for both genders (for example, see the Gender and Agriculture Sourcebook)—a principle endorsed for the use of ICT in
agriculture as well. Access to and use of ICT are often unequal, with women suffering the consequences. In a number
of cases, however, ICT has been used to benefit agriculture while empowering women.
Kenya is a country of 5 million farmers, ranging from the smallest subsistence growers to large industrial agricultural-
ists. It is also increasingly a hotbed of technological innovations, such as M-Farm, a mobile service that aims to improve
Kenya’s agricultural sector by connecting farmers with one another, because peer-to-peer collaboration can improve
market information and enhance learning opportunities.
Based on farmers’ traditional needs, such as the need for market price and weather information, M-Farm is a relatively
new subscription service that also works with larger institutions, such as NGOs and the government, to connect them
with farmers. The idea was generated at IPO48, a weekend-long “boot camp” where technologists and entrepreneurs
bring businesses from idea to initial product in only 48 hours. M-Farm, created by AkiraChix (an all-female team of
developers that are now pursuing the project full time), won the 2010 IPO48 competition’s first-place prize of more than
US$10,000. AkiraChix is also the recipient of an infoDev / World Bank grant to facilitate monthly networking events for
mobile entrepreneurs and developers in Nairobi.
Both networking and incentives such as IPO48 have proven essential to facilitate the rapid creation of sustainable
businesses based on mobile devices and the empowerment of women. Though IPO48 and M-Farm are new and their
impacts are still limited, they are expected to generate widespread improvements in agricultural marketing, particularly
for women.
The Village Phone program of the International Finance Corporation may also benefit rural women. The program provides
microloans to rural entrepreneurs who purchase a mobile phone, long-range antenna, solar charger, and airtime. The
recipient earns a livelihood by operating a phone kiosk in areas underserved by mobile networks. As is typical in micro-
finance, the loan recipients tend to be women. Since the program’s inception, nearly 6,000 women have received loans
and close to 10,000 have been trained in countries such as Madagascar, Malawi, and Nigeria.
Source: Author.
the project commenced, producers had little time to react stations, the province maintains 14 reference farms where
to weather that might harm their orchards, because national temperatures are measured and pest cycles are monitored.
weather forecasts for the next day were broadcast in the Monitoring the life cycle of pests, along with collecting
evening (both FM radio and broadband Internet were unavail- climate data, allows researchers to predict pest outbreaks
able). Given these constraints, mobile phones with SMS more accurately, because pest maturation depends largely
were the most applicable ICT for the project. on environmental conditions.
National aggregate weather forecasts are not particularly With localized weather indicators disseminated daily through
useful for pest management and frost prevention in rural SMS, producers can apply pesticides when needed and in
locations. Local, specific conditions vary widely from farm to appropriate amounts. In the first two years of the project, pro-
farm, depending on such variables as humidity, precipitation, ducers’ costs fell dramatically. Pesticide applications dropped
crop type, and soil fertility. In addition, rural weather is often by 50 percent in one year, saving farmers around US$2 per
a few degrees cooler than weather in urban areas, where tree. Considering the size of the orchards, overall production
most forecast data are generated. costs could be reduced by as much as US$1 million each year.
The provincial directorate established five mini-meteorological A similar design was used to avert frost damage. Climate
stations in rural areas throughout the province. The stations change and shifting temperatures have increased spring
collect data on variables such as temperature, precipita- frosts in Kastamonu Province. If the meteorological stations
tion, wind, leaf wetness, and soil moisture, most of which measure lower-than-normal temperatures, subscribers with
are not collected at the national level. In addition to these personal digital assistants (PDAs) and mobile phones receive
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 59
alerts at 4:00 P.M., giving them sufficient time to prepare for challenges. Turkey’s national meteorological system is more
the cold snap. advanced than the systems of most of its neighbors. High-
resolution images and national capacity for weather forecasting
are necessary to achieve local efforts. Because global satellites
Anecdotal Evidence of Impact
provide basic climate information free of charge, they may fill
Though the project has not gone through rigorous assess- the technological gap in some countries; but their resolution
ment, anecdotal evidence clearly points to its success. The is low. Alternative strategies like climate modeling have suc-
means chosen to disseminate information were essential to ceeded in Latin America and Africa, but they have not been
the project’s success, because mobile applications matched empirically tested for their effectiveness in forecasting weather.
the technological capacity of the area. Other dissemina-
tion and awareness strategies raised the project’s visibility, Anecdotal evidence also shows that technological capacity
including the mass media, village leaders, and other forms of is not the only factor influencing success. Institutional capac-
human interaction and leadership. It is likely that the weather ity is equally important. The local government’s high level of
forecasts had the ripple effect common to other ICT projects, commitment to the project and consistent implementation
because those who received the service shared the informa- were crucial to building client trust and ensuring that the
tion with family and neighbors who did not. Farmers who technologies were used appropriately.
participated in the project were successful in planting and
protecting their crops. Of 500 farmers reached through this
information channel, not one experienced crop losses from INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
frost, although farmers who did not receive the service did. Mobile Phones Are the Heart of Esoko’s Virtual
Marketplace
Scaling Up and Sustaining the Benefits Esoko (http://www.esoko.com/) (which began as TradeNet in
2005) is a market information service that provides price infor-
The project could be scaled up, but cost is a concern. For the
mation and a virtual marketplace for buyers and sellers of agri-
first two years, project costs were fairly low. The five sta-
cultural commodities to connect through mobile phones and
tions, telecoms, software, and system upkeep cost around
the Internet.5 Mark Davies—a successful British technology
US$40,000. Costs will climb over time, however, as donor
entrepreneur who also manages Ghana’s largest ICT center,
financing ends and climate conditions change (which could
BusyLab—set up Esoko.6 Since then, it has become one of
make it important, for example, to change the system to
Africa’s most successful agricultural services using ICT. Esoko’s
include other variables).
technology is used in nine African countries and is expanding
Several strategies could reduce the cost to government once quickly. Mobile phones are at the center of its system.
external funding ends. For example, the government could
partner with the private sector. Firms interested in domestic
Services
or export markets for the area’s crops may have an incentive to
Esoko provides four key services:
fund some of the technologies or develop the content. Revenue
could also be collected through small or tiered subscriber fees Live market feeds. Real-time SMS alerts on mar-
(daily forecasts in the Kastamonu Province are currently free). ket prices and offers are delivered automatically to
subscribers. Users can submit offers directly to the
Scalability is also difficult because of the nature of this system using SMS.
particular project. Site-specific climate information is more
expensive to obtain than aggregate temperature predictions. 5 Aside from the sources cited in the text, this summary also
draws on Gakuru, Winters, and Stepman (2009).
Moreover, other areas will produce crops vulnerable to a dif-
6 Esoko, which began as a private initiative with encourage-
ferent spectrum of biological and climate stress, making each ment from FAO and the UN, became a partner with USAID’s
target group fairly small. One way to reduce these costs and MISTOWA program in West Africa and CIAT’s FoodNet program
in Uganda, and it was supported with a grant of US$11 million.
broaden the scope of a similar program might be to focus More recently, IFC (a member of the World Bank Group) and
first on crops or livestock that represent the most widely the Soros Economic Development Fund (a nonprofit invest-
pursued or highest-value enterprises. ment fund that works to alleviate poverty and community dete-
rioration) each invested US$1.25 million of equity in Esoko. The
investment will give smallholder African farmers and businesses
Transferring this kind of early warning system to Central Asian timely crop information that can be shared via text messaging,
countries, as planned by the World Bank, may pose particular enabling farmers to increase their incomes.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
60 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Direct SMS marketing and extension. This service farmer groups. The firm also publishes the first commodi-
targets specific user groups or sends extension mes- ties indexes in Africa. These powerful tools ensure that
sages, which reduce travel and communication costs. farmers are fairly compensated for their crops, as formal
Scout polling. It is possible to set up automatic SMS commodity exchanges are very rare on the continent. The
polling for field activities to track inventories and crop company is initially publishing two indexes that provide
activities (among other things) and monitor and report prices for 12 agricultural commodities in 7 markets in
on crop cycles and yields. Ghana.
Online profiling and marketing. All users can have a
customizable Web space to advertise their goods and Impact
services. This space can be updated using Esoko’s
The impact of this information on traders, exporters, trans-
mobile2web content management service.
porters, procurers, and others in the agricultural value chain
is still to be determined. The service is believed to have
Participants throughout agricultural value chains can
the potential to reduce inefficiencies in the value chain. For
exchange real-time market information. Farmers receive cur-
example, an exporter took 60 days and needed 5 people in
rent demands, prices of crops, and the location of seed and
the value chain to procure a natural plant product, but with
fertilizer outlets directly on their mobile phones. Businesses
Esoko’s technology, the procurement process required 31
can track how their products are used and market themselves
days and 3 people, improving both the major traders’ and
to new customers. Associations and governments can share
producers’ share of the export price. Free field trials for
critical information with thousands using a simple feature for
farmers elicited self-reported evidence of a 20–40 percent
bulk text messaging.
improvement in revenue. Sixty-eight percent of farmers
Anyone in the world can visit esoko.com and register for a said that they would pay for the service; every farmer
free account. There, in addition to 800,000 prices from hun- who received information would forward it to an additional
dreds of markets, users will find a library of resources and 10 farmers.
thousands of members offering to buy and sell agricultural
products. Prices and transactions are also available via the
Building and Sustaining a Business Model
universal SMS channel; and for slightly more sophisticated
The idea driving the model is that most businesses in the
phones, a downloadable application offers additional func-
agricultural value chain collect and deliver their own data;
tionality. Users can even receive automated SMS alerts for
Esoko will provide tools and a platform and co-opt busi-
certain commodities in a given market (box 3.5). Because
nesses to generate content for the platform. Esoko pays on
anyone with a mobile phone may post offers to the website
an incentive basis to acquire information, using targets and
through SMS, smallholder farmers are able to reach a far
bonuses. Its revenue-generation model is based on levels
wider audience than they typically would. Esoko users also
of subscriptions (bronze, silver, gold, platinum), each with a
are in a better position to negotiate with buyers owing to
different pricing structure and its own mix of content and
their enhanced knowledge of prices in other markets.
tools.
Esoko offers training and strategy sessions on how to
For a US$1 per month subscription (beginning in 2011),
use the platform and can provide customer services for
farmers automatically receive information on commodities,
markets, and other topics of interest. In developing a model
BOX 3.5. An Esoko Transaction for selling information to farmers, Esoko encountered a few
challenges. Farmers are widely dispersed in the field and
Here’s how it works: A farmer in northern Ghana is hard to reach. It is also difficult to quantify the exact value
selling 20 tonnes of millet. The farmer texts in SELL that the service generates for farmers.
MILO 20MT to TradeNet’s international number, and
that information is processed by the software and imme- Esoko provides additional functionality for other users, includ-
diately published on the website. The same details are ing organizations that would like to customize the technology
also redistributed to every other user that has signed up for their needs. For example, paying subscribers can access
to receive alerts on millet sales in Ghana. Esoko’s supply chain tools, which allow harvest activities to
Source: Quoted from Bartlett 2008. be tracked. Mark Davies (quoted by Magada 2009) believes
this holistic approach, as opposed to simply providing price
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 61
information, is key: “While running TradeNet, we realised operate the hardware and work in the commodity mar-
that there was a need for a platform to integrate the whole kets collecting prices and news. To support this activity,
supply chain, not to just provide prices. . . .We’re missing the in addition to the tiered subscriptions mentioned above,
point if we don’t integrate the whole industry.” Esoko pursues public-private partnerships (Donner 2009).
Partnerships are key, with governments, donors, and the
But this scale requires significant investment; whereas Esoko Networks, a group of affiliated companies, using
Davis started the business with US$600,000 of personal and building upon the platform. Esoko demonstrates
money and US$200,000 from donors, he has suggested that finding the right business model is not easy, but
that nationwide rollouts require US$1 million in funding. donors and government have a role in supporting new
The money goes toward new hardware and for staff to interventions.
Topic Note 3.2: TWO TYPOLOGIES AND GENERAL
PRINCIPLES FOR USING MOBILE PHONES
IN AGRICULTURAL PROJECTS
TRENDS AND ISSUES Typology 1: A Focus on Mobile Livelihood
As governments, donors, NGOs, and private firms attempt to Services
use this popular technology for development goals, research- Jonathan Donner, a researcher with the Technology for
ers are developing frameworks to make sense of these initia- Emerging Markets Group at Microsoft Research India, has
tives and help design new ones. This topic note reviews two developed a framework that examines the various livelihood
such typologies. The first focuses on the services that operate services available to mobile phone users in the developing
through mobile phones to improve aspects of agricultural live- world (Donner 2009) (table 3.1). His survey finds six types
lihoods. The second focuses on the various forms that mobile of “mobile livelihood” services—mediated agricultural exten-
applications might take to develop the agricultural sector. Both sion, market information systems, virtual marketplaces, com-
of these approaches may be useful when considering pro- prehensive services, financial services, and direct livelihood
grams to use mobile phones. This note also reviews principles support—and five possible effects—improving internal activi-
for designing a program to use mobile phones in agriculture, ties, adding market information, adding market participants,
based on what has been learned to date. bypassing middlemen, and starting businesses. Note that
TABLE 3.1. The Impact of Mobile-Based Livelihood Services
IMPROVE
INTERNAL ADD MARKET ADD MARKET BYPASS START
SERVICE ACTIVITIES INFORMATION PARTICIPANTS INTERMEDIARIES BUSINESSES
Mediated agricultural extension (e.g., Collecting and Exchange X X
of Local Agricultural Content—CELAC, http://celac.or.ug/)
Market information systems (e.g., Kenyan Agricultural X
Commodities Exchange Program—KACE, http://www.kacekenya
.co.ke/)
Virtual marketplaces (e.g., Google Trader, http://www.google X X Sometimes
.co.ug/africa/trader/home)
Comprehensive services (e.g., Manobi or Esoko— http://www X X X Sometimes
.manobi.net/worldwide/; http://www.esoko.com/)
Financial services (e.g., M-PESA, http://www.safaricom.co.ke X X
/index.php?id=250)
Direct livelihood support (e.g., txteagle, http://txteagle.com/) X X
Source: Adapted from Donner 2009.
Note: For more information on M-PESA, see “M-PESA’s Pioneering Money Transfer Service,”in Module 2; for txteagle, see “Txteagle Taps a Vast Underused
Workforce,” in Module 2.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
62 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
although many livelihood services are bound to have more Farmers already have information sources and learning
than one effect—it is perfectly plausible that a service that opportunities, so it is best to avoid reinventing the wheel if
provides market information will also draw new participants a mobile intervention will not significantly improve upon the
into the market and help farmers bypass intermediaries— experience.
table 3.1 emphasizes the main areas of impact.
Mobile phones are far from unitary, as box 3.3 shows, and an
understanding of the platform’s strengths and limitations is
Typology 2: A Focus on Mobile Applications for essential. For example, while it is ubiquitous, SMS is limited
Agriculture to 160 characters. Although the mobile Internet is still limited
Alternatively, Kerry McNamara has suggested four catego- in scale and is often confusing to users, it can be sophis-
ries for understanding the forms that mobile applications ticated and is spreading; in fact, some research has even
may take to help the agricultural sector (Hellstrom 2010) shown more impact from the Internet than mobile phones,
(table 3.2). Mobile agricultural applications, in this frame- so their convergence is an exciting opportunity (Goyal 2010).
work, may (1) educate and raise awareness, (2) distribute There is always a risk that new technologies serve to blind
price information, (3) collect data, and (4) track pests and the development community to more tried-and-true meth-
diseases. ods, so considering how mobile phones fit with needs and
existing practices is a key initial step.
TABLE 3.2. Various Roles for Mobile Phones in
Agriculture Engage in Participatory, Iterative Project Design
GOAL METHOD Understanding local needs is a difficult task that can be
Education and awareness Information provided via mobile phones made easier by directly involving communities in the design
to farmers and extension agents about and implementation of interventions. In addition to surveys
good practices, improved crop varieties,
and pest or disease management.
of global and regional activities (such as this Sourcebook),
on-the-ground analysis is needed. Partnerships with local
Commodity prices and market Prices in regional markets to inform
information decision making throughout the entire organizations, extensive fieldwork, and interactive design
agricultural process. sessions offer ways to understand the subtle differences
Data collection Applications that collect data from large between agricultural subsectors and regions. Trying to “do
geographic regions. everything” has doomed projects, while initiatives that start
Pest and disease outbreak warning Send and receive data on outbreaks. small and focused (such as M-PESA, which began with peer-
and tracking
to-peer money transfers) can evolve into diverse offerings
Source: Hellstrom 2010. (purchases, credit, and savings). One example of a small,
focused program comes from Chile, where a small coopera-
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING A PROGRAM USING tive receives critical information for production and marketing.
MOBILE PHONES IN AGRICULTURE
The use of mobile phones in agriculture, though relatively Development practitioners can also learn from software
new, has already witnessed failure as well as success. What developers who practice the mantra “release early and
separates the two outcomes may often be unpredictable often,” meaning that “good enough” prototypes should be
and locally nuanced factors, but a survey of what has been piloted and improved in a rapid feedback loop. The risk with
learned indicates that a number of principles can improve the this practice is that it may confuse communities that may
chances of sustainable impact. not understand the process; but if the goal of the project
is to reach considerable scale, using a small pilot and focus
groups to improve earlier versions is a worthy practice.
Understand Users and the Technology
Time and again, interventions have failed to gain traction Bringing communities into the early stages of the project
because users’ needs and practices were incompletely can also foster local ownership, a key component of sustain-
understood. In technological interventions, this risk is even ability. This principle is closely aligned with the need to “go
more of a concern. Practitioners need to think carefully about beyond the technology” and focus on people. For example,
why mobile phones are the technology of choice and con- a lack of cultural awareness almost caused Text to Change, a
sider alternatives, from the cutting edge to the mundane. Dutch NGO working in Uganda, to derail an effort to provide
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 63
HIV/AIDS information via SMS. Only on the morning of the BOX 3.6. Kilimo Salama Demonstrates the
program’s launch did the NGO finally realize that the SMS Convergence of Mobile Phones and
code assigned to it was 666—locally known as “the devil’s Sophisticated Mobile Services
number”—and have to scramble to receive a new number to
avoid upsetting Christian partners and users.7 Kilimo Salama (“safe farming” in Kiswahili) is an inno-
vative program operated by Safaricom (Kenya’s largest
Mobile phones, like other technologies, are not silver bullets, MNO), Syngenta Foundation (the foundation established
but instead are tools that will be shaped by social conditions. by the Swiss agribusiness), and UAP Insurance. The ini-
Practitioners attempting to integrate mobile phones with agri- tiative delivers crop insurance to smallholder farmers in
cultural communities need to design their programs for equi- rural Kenya through the use of mobile phones. Farmers
table access. insure their crops with Kilimo Salama when they pur-
chase seed and fertilizer from registered vendors. The
vendors are equipped with a camera phone loaded with
Identify Partners with the Appropriate Knowledge,
special software. At the time of sale, the salesperson
Collaborative Capacity, and Alignment of Goals
takes a picture of a special barcode on the products, and
As the innovative practice summaries in this module indicate,
an SMS is sent to the farmer’s phone confirming the
it is unlikely that any one organization—whether an NGO,
insurance policy. For their work, agents receive a com-
ministry, donor, or private firm—will have all of the expertise
mission. Pricing has changed; the premium was origi-
required to succeed in designing and implementing success-
nally subsidized, but in mid-2011, farmers were paying a
ful mobile phone interventions in agriculture. Partners should
10 percent insurance premium.
be chosen for their specialized knowledge, willingness to col-
laborate, and alignment of goals. Special care should be taken The Kilimo Salama system relies on weather stations
at the very beginning of project planning to ensure that the key in each agricultural region to measure rainfall and other
stakeholders will work together positively. climate information. When conditions fall below histori-
cal benchmarks for farming (indicating that crops will be
Projects must seek to leverage trusted intermediaries. One lost and inputs wasted), the service automatically pays
example discussed in this module is Kilimo Salama, which insured customers in that region, using the M-PESA
relies on the trusted M-PESA money transfer service and mobile money service.
agricultural input suppliers to offer weather insurance to
Kilimo Salama demonstrates the potential for mobile
farmers (box 3.6). Another is IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited.
phones and services (such as mobile money) to deliver
The partners behind this service (which provides market
sophisticated financial products to smallholders, and it
information and agricultural advisory services) are IFFCO, a
underlines the importance of distribution channels and
well-known farmers’ cooperative organization that maintains
product reliability. Affordability and trust remain obsta-
a presence in 98 percent of India’s villages, and Bharti Airtel,
cles, especially if farmers dispute payouts from the
a large mobile network operator (MNO) (for details, see IPS
system.
“Long Experience in Farm Communities Benefits IFFCO
Source: Author, based on IFC Advisory Services 2011.
Kisan Sanchar Limited,” in Topic Note 2.4).
By their very nature, most agricultural services using mobile
phones partner with at least one MNO. For the network
rural areas where commercial banks have few or no physi-
operator, the services are a way to boost rural subscribers (an
cal branches and benefits from Zain’s vast international One
important source of growth) and decrease customer turnover.
Network (see IPS “Zain Zap Promotes Borderless Mobile
This objective does not necessarily mean that the network
Commerce,” in Topic Note 2.3). Partnering with private firms,
operator has any interest in farmers’ livelihoods (although it
including MNOs and input suppliers, is often required for
may), and partners should be cognizant of potentially conflict-
mobile phones–for–agriculture interventions to endure.
ing motivations. That said, operator buy-in can be a powerful
benefit, especially through distribution and marketing. Zain
Zap, the mobile international banking service, operates in Ensure That the Technology Is Widely Accessible
Mobile phones represent a great opportunity for agricultural
7 See . interventions because they are one of the most accessible
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
64 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
information platforms available, although barriers do remain. continue for an extended term. It is essential to develop a
They can take the form of illiteracy or prohibitive cost, or viable business plan from the very conception of a project to
they can be technical or cultural (image 3.2). Given the tenu- use mobile phones in agriculture. Such a plan requires a clear
ous nature of smallholders’ livelihoods and the lack of social understanding of who will pay—the government, end users,
safety nets, many smallholders are particularly risk averse. cooperatives, or a combination, for example—and how much
They are unlikely to participate in a new initiative without sig- they are willing to pay for a service. Farmers are willing to
nificant education, advertising, and local support. Even those pay for timely and contextual information, but different strat-
who wish to use a mobile intervention may be frustrated if egies may be needed to encourage poorer farmers to use
the program is not widely available. Nokia’s Life Tools appli- a service (such as payments per query rather than a long-
cation is intentionally designed to be widely available on its term subscription). The Reuters Market Light service offers
low-cost handsets and fill a gap in low-income communities a range of price and service formats to accommodate a wide
with a large latent demand for information. range of clients.
Innovation in technology is often less important than inno-
IMAGE 3.2. Other Challenges, Like Inadequate
vation in the business model; prepaid mobile airtime was
Transportation, Affect Mobile Phone
arguably more important than low-cost devices in enabling
Success
mobile phones to spread. When Google introduced three
mobile applications in Uganda for free, they gained sig-
nificant traction; but when fees were introduced, usage
dropped, indicating failure to accurately gauge the appeal
of the service and willingness to pay (Kubzansky, Cooper,
and Barbary 2011).
Market-based solutions can be more sustainable, but donors
and governments often remain important as anchor buy-
ers or subsidizers (see IPS “Mobile Phones Are the Heart
of Esoko’s Virtual Marketplace,” in Topic Note 3.1). When
interventions are not undertaken for profit, they can benefit
from approaches commonly used in the private sector, such
Source: Mano Strauch, World Bank. as advertising to stimulate demand, rigorous benchmarking,
market segmentation, and documenting failures as well as
successes for internal and external learning.
Projects that are exclusive to one MNO or a specific type
of phone may face implicit barriers to adoption. Open tech-
nological standards and free and open source software can Monitoring and Evaluation
be used to reach a wider audience and avoid lock-in. They Although mobile phones have had positive impacts on agri-
can do much to enable unanticipated user innovation. For culture, a better understanding of these outcomes would
example, individuals around the world save money through help in designing new interventions. A recent review of
“beeping,” or intentionally missed calls that communicate ICT-based interventions in agriculture suggests a number of
predetermined messages without using expensive airtime. questions to address (Aker 2010b):
Elsewhere, users send money through unofficial routes What is the impact of ICT on farmers’ knowledge, agri-
using airtime transfers. Given flexibility and understanding, cultural practices, and welfare?
communities will provide innovative solutions for their needs.
Are the observed changes due to the ICT or some-
thing else?
Sustainability Based on a Viable Business Plan What is the causal mechanism behind the effect?
Sustainable agricultural projects are key to long-term growth How does the impact differ between both farmers
and livelihood improvements, but often projects fail to and the type of information provided?
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 65
What are the potential spillovers or unintended conse- mobile phones.8 The software, developed by DataDyne
quences for participants and nonparticipants? (a nonprofit organization based in the United States),
Is the ICT-based approach cost-effective relative to organizes searchable content from the Internet into news
other, more traditional, interventions? feeds (RSS) and then transmits that content to farmers
Do the results transfer to different regions and via SMS messages. The system was designed to work on
contexts? simple mobile phones that sell for US$15–20 in Chile and
operate effectively even over slow networks with intermit-
tent connectivity.
LESSONS LEARNED
MIP solved the challenge of sending information from the
Although mobile phones continue to evolve quite rapidly, Internet via SMS messages; the next challenge was to
the evidence suggests that they can promote improved ensure that the content was valuable to the user. Because
livelihoods through networking and informing previously text messages transmit a maximum of 160 characters,
unconnected portions of the population. The evidence there is no guarantee that messages contain useful infor-
comes from users’ own rapid grasp of the technology’s mation. Even when a system chooses relevant informa-
potential (Kerala’s fishers using phones to seek optimal tion, the first 160 characters may not accurately convey its
markets for their catch) and from planned efforts originating meaning.
from commercial information providers and development
practitioners (as in the market information and insurance
programs described in the innovative practice summaries Starting Small: A Pilot with a Small Cooperative
that follow). To test the system, a pilot project, DatAgro, was set up in
early 2009 between DataDyne and an agricultural coopera-
Improving agricultural productivity is one of the most press- tive in the Cachapoal Valley, two hours south of the capital,
ing issues for developing regions. Although mobile phones Santiago. The cooperative, Coopeumo, has just under 350
are no silver bullet, their widespread availability and flex- small-scale farmer members, most of whom grow maize
ibility position the technology as a necessary component and some other crops. Members’ coop dues covered the
of sustainable improvements in agriculture. Coupled with cost of the new SMS system. There was no extra subscrip-
corresponding innovation in existing social and institutional tion fee and no charge for the text messages (the current
arrangements, mobile phones have the potential to make sig- cost of US$0.06 is borne by the coop). Training sessions
nificant contributions. As mobile phones converge with other were held at the beginning of the project to teach farmers
mobile devices such as netbooks and tablets, the opportuni- how to send and receive text messages. Most coop mem-
ties will proliferate. bers are men, and thus about 90 percent of those receiving
training were men.
For donors, governments, NGOs, and private entities work-
ing to promote better agricultural policies, current efforts Coopeumo farmers received weather, news, sports, and
offer much to learn. Designing programs and initiatives in other information via SMS. The information came from sev-
a careful, flexible manner will enable rural communities to eral sources. Two of the project’s partners, UNESCO and
adopt and use new technologies and methods to improve Chile’s Foundation for Agricultural Innovation (FIA),9 created
their lives. messages based on work already done but not yet shared
with the community. Two national newspapers sent news
to the system. Users could customize the feeds they sub-
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY scribed to and could rate the messages they found the most
Mobile Service Gives Local and Global Edge helpful.
to Chilean Farmers
In Chile, the Mobile Information Project (MIP) delivers 8 This summary is based on information from Cagley (2010) and
personal communication with John Zoltner, DataDyne.org.
targeted agricultural information from the Web directly 9 UNESCO = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
to farmers, using software to create news channels on Organization; FIA = Fundación para la Innovación Agraria.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
66 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Impact: Local and Global Advantages The experience in Chile suggests that disseminating informa-
In less than a year, the DatAgro service proved popular. One tion via simple mobile phones is a good way to reach farmers
Coopeumo member, Hugo Tobar, reported that his entire in areas where Internet facilities are unlikely to be provided
crop for 2009 was saved by an SMS message that urged in the near future. Refinements to the system should make
him to delay planting because of impending bad weather. it easier to provide relevant content to each individual, and a
Torrential rain during the next week would have washed his current challenge is to tailor the content automatically; when
seedlings away. information is mediated by a human editor, bottlenecks can
be introduced.
Ricardo Danessi, executive manager of Coopeumo, said,
“Our farmers can now find information about supply
prices, product prices, the weather, and what’s going on INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
in international markets. That’s important, because today, For Reuters Market Light, the Wider Network
everything that goes on outside Chile also affects us. of People Matters
When there’s an excess of production in one place, the While on a fellowship at Stanford University, a Reuters
prices go down here. Or when there is a sudden disaster employee hit upon the idea of offering highly customizable
or catastrophe somewhere else, the prices improve here. market information to farmers through the increasingly
When demand goes up in China or India, the prices here ubiquitous platform of mobile phones. From this initial idea,
get better. Everything is related in this connected world, the international news giant launched Reuters Market Light
and small-scale farmers aren’t left out of that reality” (RML) in 2007 to provide market prices, weather, and crop
(quoted by Cagley 2010). advisory services to farmers in India. This launch was pre-
ceded by 18 months of market research, tests, and pilot
Sustaining the Gains and Scaling Up programs to refine the idea and tailor it to the local context
(LIRNEasia 2008).
Farmers have stressed the importance of the information
they receive and the convenience of the MIP platform.
To subscribe, a farmer calls a toll-free number to activate
Since the end of the pilot project, Coopeumo has assumed
the service in the local language and specify the crops and
responsibility for creating, sending, and paying for the SMS
markets in which he or she has an interest. Throughout
messages. The only ongoing cost to DataDyne is the incre-
the subscription, farmers receive four to five SMS alerts
mental cost of maintaining and continuing to improve MIP.
with relevant information throughout the day. According
Developing the MIP platform, testing it in the field, and local
to RML’s managing director, Amit Mehra, the pilot farmers
implementation cost a little over US$200,000.
greatly preferred automated messages instead of having to
ask for them. Initial studies show that farmers who receive
Looking to the future, DataDyne plans to expand the use of
the service are receiving 5–10 percent more income. (See
MIP based on use of the successful mobile data collection
IPS “Impact of Immediate Market Information in Asia and
tool, EpiSurveyor (http://www.episurveyor.org). EpiSurveyor,
Africa,” in Topic Note 9.3, for additional details on farmers’
available via the Internet, can be used free of charge by
gains through RML.)
everyone who wants to collect data, unless they have very
heavy needs or require new functions. After a little more
than a year, more than 2,500 organizations in more than 140 Impact
countries are using EpiSurveyor, 99 percent of them for free. Today, the RML application is one of India’s largest mar-
The same model will be used for MIP. If new functions are ket information services, serving hundreds of thousands
needed, DataDyne can tailor the system accordingly and of paying customers in tens of thousands of villages. Via
charge a fee for doing so, but it will automatically make the SMS, it delivers highly personalized, professional informa-
new functions available for free to other users. In the case of tion to India’s farming community, covering more than
heavy data requirements, DataDyne will charge a US$5,000 250 crops, 1,000 markets, and 3,000 weather locations
annual license fee. There will also be a charge related to the across 13 Indian states in 8 local languages (Mehra 2010)
cost of SMS messages, because the telecoms companies (image 13.3). The impact is likely even larger than
have to be paid to transmit the messages. Reuters can count, due to the widespread sharing of
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 67
IMAGE 3.3. The Reuters Market Light Interface
Source: Medianama.
information that takes place within informal farmer net- service. Best of all, the service is free and benefits from its
works. Additionally, RML today has hundreds of employ- partnership with India’s largest MNO (Bharti Airtel), which
ees, many of whom are trained as dedicated price collec- views the service as a way to attract new customers in rural
tors in markets throughout India. areas.
According to Mehra, reaching economies of scale is essen-
Continuing Competition for Clients tial for profitability. Media reports suggest that RML had
Reuters Market Light has sought to reach as many invested US$2 million by late 2009 and expected to break
customers as possible through a number of strate- even within a few more years. In 2009, RML reportedly
gies. RML has attempted to avoid exclusive partner- crossed the US$1 million sales mark. Farmers seem willing
ships with MNOs, though in some cases it has found to pay for the service—indeed, they are paying for longer
that telecommunications firms provide a strong value periods of service than they were before. Up to 2008, most
proposition (notably through sales reach and by provid- farmers purchased quarterly installments of the service. But
ing a subscriber catalog that could lessen customer turn- by 2009, the half-year and one-year plans were becoming
over). To make it easy for unregistered users to try the more popular (Preethi 2009). It also partnered with Nokia
service before committing to a subscription, RML has as an information supplier for Nokia’s Life Tools application.
set up sales offices through the postal network, local There are plans to bring the service to Afghanistan and Africa
shops, input suppliers, and banks. Customers can obtain (Reuters Market Light 2009).
RML in basic SMS through prepaid scratch cards that
give access to the service for a given amount of time—
Providing Customized Information Requires a Wide
initially only 1 month; but now 3, 6, and 12 months. After
Network of People
much experimentation, pricing has settled at Rs 60, 175,
350, and 650, respectively. (For details of the technology RML and its competitors suffer from the high expense of col-
and business model, see IPS “First-Mover Advantage lecting market information and maintaining a sophisticated
Benefits Reuters Market Light,” in Topic Note 2.4 in technological infrastructure. RML sources information from
Module 2.) various content providers and sorts, organizes, and personal-
izes it for dissemination. A significant portion of this informa-
Although a leading example, RML is hardly a monopoly. It tion comes through partnerships with agricultural institutes.
competes with both traditional information services (radio, These institutes are typically funded by the government but
market intermediaries, newspapers) and other services that lack the means to disseminate the information. Students and
use mobile phones. IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL) researchers in these institutes contribute content relevant
offers similar market information for rural farmers but uses to RML, which includes it in their package and delivers it to
voice messages so that illiterate farmers are able to use the farmers (Preethi 2009).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
68 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
To process the information, RML employs over 300 office EnableM—to create a rich ecosystem to deliver the services.
staff in eight states. The teams are organized according to Content is divided into:
content area and include a news division that scours media Basic agriculture, at Rs 30 per month, provides tips
sources for agricultural news (pest and disease reports, on technique and news.
government programs, weather reports, and local news). Premium agriculture, at Rs 60 per month, addition-
The information is finely sorted by geography. Farmers are ally offers market prices and weather updates.
informed if a particular market in a village is closed or if
Education, also Rs 30 per month, provides simple
a pest or disease could affect their specific crops (Preethi
English courses and exam preparation services. For
2009).
an additional Rs 30, the General Knowledge option
The importance of customized information is highly evident provides daily world news.
in RML’s operations. As much as technical acumen is impor- Entertainment, at Rs 30 per month, provides regional
tant in mobile phone interventions, RML shows that a wide news, astrological predictions, cricket news, and ring-
network of people—in this case, price collectors, agricul- tone downloads.
tural institutes, and other information providers—is another
The agriculture service, available across 18 states, offers
essential ingredient.
two plans. The basic plan, at Rs 30 per month, provides daily
weather updates and agricultural news, advice, and tips.
The premium plan, at Rs 60 per month, provides the closest
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
market prices for three crops chosen by the subscriber, as
Nokia Life Tools Uses Simple Technologies
to Deliver New Functionality well as weather information, news, advice, and tips. Nokia
Life Tools supports 11 Indian languages: Hindi, Malayalam,
Nokia is famous for making the low-cost handsets that sit
Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi, Marathi, Bengali, Gujarati,
in more pockets than the products of any other manufac-
Oriya, and English.
turer.10 More recently, the Finnish mobile phone maker
has begun developing mobile applications for its phones, Because most subscribers are prepaid users who do not
and low-income communities are one of its primary audi- have a contract, the charges are subtracted weekly. To facili-
ences. The most notable of these efforts is Nokia Life tate this payment, Nokia has partnered with the MNO IDEA
Tools, unveiled in mid-2009 for the Indian market and sub- Cellular.
sequently expanded to other countries (China, Indonesia,
and Nigeria) (O’Brien 2010).
IMAGE 3.4. The Agriculture Package in Nokia Life Tools
Life Tools is aimed at rural, predominantly agricultural com-
munities in the developing world. It is available on a number
of Nokia handsets that retail for much less than US$50, and
despite the application’s rich graphic elements (image 3.4), it
uses SMS to communicate, making it affordable and widely
accessible. Additionally, because SMS can be delayed, users
need not have perpetual network coverage. The applica-
tion is a prime example of how simple technologies can be
tweaked to bring about new functionality.
In India, Nokia has collaborated with multiple partners across
the Indian government and private enterprises—including
Tata DOCOMO, MSAMB, Syngenta, Pearson, RML, and
10 The material for this case study was drawn primarily from Koh
(2009). Source: Nokia.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 69
Nokia believes that hyperlocalization is key to the success Centre for the Study of African Economies, University of Oxford,
of this service. The Indian application was launched with Oxford.
nine local languages, and future expansions will reformu- Ferris, S., P. Engoru, and E. Kaganzi. 2008. “Making Market
late Life Tools for the unique conditions of new countries Information Services Work Better for the Poor in Uganda.”
CAPRi Working Paper 77, CGIAR Systemwide Program on
and regions.
Collective Action and Property Rights (CAPRi), Washington, DC.
The key lesson is that Nokia’s mobile application recognizes Goyal. A. 2010. “Information, Direct Access to Farmers, and Rural
the multiplicity of human interests: Packaging agricultural Market Performance in Central India.” American Economic
Journal: Applied Economics 2 (3): 22–45.
information with entertainment can drive adoption (a lesson
learned by MxIt as well). Nokia also has shown that partner- Gakuru, M., K. Winters, and F. Stepman. 2009. “Inventory of
Innovative Farmer Advisory Services Using ICTs.” Paper pre-
ships are a viable alternative to going it alone.
sented at the W3C Workshop on Africa Perspective on the Role
of Mobile Technologies in Fostering Social Development, April
1–2, Maputo. http://www.w3.org/2008/10/MW4D_WS/papers/
REFERENCES fara.pdf, accessed May 2011.
Aker, J.C. 2010a. “Information from Markets Near and Far: Mobile Hellstrom, J. 2010. The Innovative Use of Mobile Applications in
Phones and Agricultural Markets in Niger.” American Economic East Africa. Stockholm: Swedish International Development
Journal: Applied Economics 2 (3): 46–59. Cooperation Agency.
———. 2010b. “Dial ‘A’ for Agriculture: A Review of Information Heeks, R. 2008. “Mobiles for Impoverishment?” Blog post,
and Communication Technologies for Agricultural Extension in ICTs for Development, December 27. http://ict4dblog
Developing Countries.” Agricultural Economics. .wordpress.com/2008/12/27/mobiles-for-impoverishment,
accessed May 2011.
Bartlett, S. 2008. “Making the Marketplace Mobile.” ICT Update
44. http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/Making-the- IFC Advisory Services. 2011. “Kilimo Salama: Index-Based Agriculture
marketplace-mobile, accessed May 2011. Insurance: A Product Design Case Study.” Washington, DC. .
Cisco. 2010. “Cisco Visual Networking Index: Global Mobile Data Ilahiane, H. 2007. “Impacts of Information and Communication
Traffic Forecast Update, 2010–2015.” Cisco, San Jose. http:// Technologies in Agriculture: Farmers and Mobile Phones in
www.cisco.com/en/US/solutions/collateral/ns341/ns525/ns537 Morocco.” Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the
/ns705/ns827/white_paper_c11-520862.pdf, accessed July American Anthropological Association, Washington, DC.
2011.
IT News Online. 2010. “Nokia, Tata DOCOMO to Offer Ovi Life Tools
De Silva, H., and D. Ratnadiwakara. 2008. “Using ICT to Reduce in Rural, Semi-Urban India.” IT News Online, July 20. http://www
Transaction Costs in Agriculture Through Better Communication: .itnewsonline.com/news/Nokia,-Tata-DOCOMO-to -Offer-Ovi-
A Case-Study from Sri Lanka.” LIRNEasia. http://www.lirnea- Life-Tools-in-Rural,-Semi-Urban-India/19934/7/1, accessed May.
sia .net/wp-content/uploads/2008/11/transactioncosts.pdf,
accessed May 2011. Jensen, R. 2007. “The Digital Provide: Information (Technology),
Market Performance, and Welfare in the South Indian Fisheries
Donner, J. 2009. “Mobile-Based Livelihood Services in Africa: Pilots Sector.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 122 (3): 879–924.
and Early Deployments.” In Communication Technologies in
Latin America and Africa: A Multidisciplinary Perspective, edited Koh, D. 2009. “Case Study: Nokia Life Tools.” CNEt Asia, October 20.
by M. Fernández-Ardèvol and A. Ros, 37–58. Barcelona: IN3. http://asia.cnet.com/reviews/mobilephones /0,39050603, 6205
8745,00.htm, accessed May 2011.
Economist, The. 2010. “The Next Billion Geeks: How the
Mobile Internet Will Transform the BRICI Countries.” Kubzansky, M., A. Cooper, and V. Barbary, 2011. Promise and
September 2. http://www.economist.com/node/16944020, Progress: Market-Based Solutions to Poverty in Africa.
accessed July 2011. Cambridge: Monitor Group.
Esoko. 2010. “African Farmers Get Boost from IFC, Soros Economic Labonne, J., and R. S. Chase. 2009. “The Power of Information:
Development Fund, and Esoko.” Press release, November 22. The Impact of Mobile Phones on Farmers’ Welfare in the
http://www.esoko.com/about/news/pressreleases/2010_10_22 Philippines.” Policy Research Working Paper 996, World Bank,
_Esoko_IFC_SEDF_Investment.pdf, accessed May 2011. Washington, DC.
Fafchamps, M., and R. Vargas Hill. 2004. “Selling at the Farm-Gate Ling, R., and Donner. 2009. Mobile Communication. Cambridge:
or Travelling to Market.” CSAE Working Paper Series 2004-30, Polity.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
70 MODULE 3 — ANYTIME, ANYWHERE: MOBILE DEVICES AND SERVICES AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
LIRNEasia. 2008. “Agricultural VAS through Mobile 2.0.” Policy Brief. Preethi, J. 2009. “Reuters Market Light Goes Pan-India with Nokia.”
http://www.lirneasia.net/wp-content/uploads/2008/05/Agriculture MediaNama, http://www.medianama.com/2009/04/223-reuters
VAS_briefV2.pdf, accessed May 2011. -market-light-goes-to-himachal-pan-india-with-nokia-txt-vs-gprs
-vs-voice/, accessed October 2010.
Magada, D. 2009. “Esoko: The New Market Info System for African
Farmers.” BNET, May 2009. http://findarticles.com/p/articles Ratnadiwakara, D., H. de Silva, and S. Soysa. 2008. “Transaction
/mi_qa5327/is_353/ai_n31882131/, accessed May 2011. Costs in Agriculture: From the Planting Decision to Selling at
the Wholesale Market—A Case-Study on the Feeder Area of the
Mehra, A. 2010. “Small Technologies Fuel Big Results in the
Dambulla Dedicated Economic Centre in Sri Lanka.” LIRNEasia.
Developing World.” Huffington Post, September 13. http://
www.huffingtonpost.com/amit-mehra/small-technologies-fuel Reuben, Abraham. 2007. “Mobile Phones and Economic
-b_b_715274.html, accessed October 2010. Development: Evidence from the Fishing Industry in India.”
Muto, M., and T. Yamano. 2009. “The Impact of Mobile Phone Information Technologies and International Development 4 (1):
Coverage Expansion on Market Participation: Panel Data pp 5–17.
Evidence from Uganda.” World Development 37 (12): 1887–96. Reuters Market Light. 2009. “IDEA Partners with Reuters
O’Brien, K. J. 2010. “Nokia Taking a Rural Road to Growth.” New York Market Light to Launch a Unique Service for Rural Markets.”
Times, November 1. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/02/ Press Release. http://www.1888pressrelease.com/idea-partners
technology/02nokia.html, accessed May 2011. -with -reuters-market-light-to-launch-a-unique-s-pr-148099.hml,
accessed October 7, 2010.
Overa, R. 2006. “Networks, Distance, and Trust: Telecommunications
Development and Changing Trading Practices in Ghana.” World World Bank. 2010. “New Uses for Global Forecasts: FY 10 ECA
Development 34 (7): 1301–15. Innovation Grant.” Istanbul.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 71
Module 4 EXTENDING THE BENEFITS—
GENDER-EQUITABLE, ICT-ENABLED
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
SOPHIE TREINEN (FAO) and ALICE VAN DER ELSTRAETEN (FAO)
IN THIS MODULE
Overview. While the digital revolution is reaching rural areas in many developing countries, the rural-urban digital divide
remains, and rural women face a triple divide: digital, rural, and gender. This module looks at the benefits of ICT when
placed in the hands of men and women working in agriculture and rural areas. It examines the challenges that must be
overcome and provides recommendations for rural communities to take full and equal advantage of ICT.
Topic Note 4.1: Mobile Finance and Gender in Rural Areas. Bypassing social restrictions on mobility and traditional
legal barriers to account ownership, new mobile finance services significantly boost women’s economic empowerment
and entrepreneurship, allowing them to save and transfer money, process financial transactions, and receive credit.
Development practitioners are well aware of the potential of mobile finance, especially for rural and agricultural develop-
ment, and are seeking to create an enabling environment in which appropriate mobile financial services are widely avail-
able at a reasonable cost for providers and customers.
Designing Mobile Finance Products for Rural Women in Zimbabwe
Topic Note 4.2: Mobile Learning, Gender, and Agriculture. Mobile learning expands the learning opportunities avail-
able to rural communities, enabling them to access educational resources, create communities of learners to share
information, and create content, both inside and outside classrooms. Mobile learning can help rural women improve skills
and knowledge in agriculture, business, and nutrition that are vital to their livelihoods and the well-being of their families.
Addressing social barriers to mobile learning at the community level—with the involvement of both men and women—is
likely to have the greatest impact on women’s capacity to take advantage of mobile learning.
Dimitra Clubs: Rural Communities Learn and Mobilize for Change with Participatory Communication
Technology
Participatory Community Video Highlights Local Agriculture-Nutrition Links and Best Practices for Health
Talking Books Deliver Valuable Advice, No Reading Required
OVERVIEW Gender in Agriculture
The importance of achieving gender equality and the Women play a central role in agricultural development
empowerment of all women and girls (Millennium throughout the world. On average, they make up 43 percent
Development Goal 5) was reconfirmed by the international of the agricultural labor force in developing countries, ranging
community in the 2030 Agenda by dedicating one of the 17 from 20 percent in Latin America to almost 50 percent in
Sustainable Development Goals to the issue. Goal 5 now East and Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. FAO (2012)
includes a specific target related to ICT. Target 5.b aims at asserts that “the empowerment of women could raise farm
enhancing the use of enabling technology, in particular ICT, productivity by 20–30 percent, increase national agricultural
to promote the empowerment of women (UN 2015). outputs by 2.5 to 4.0 percent and ultimately, lift 100 to 150
million of people out of hunger.”1 Although women are major
producers of food crops in most of the world, they lag well
behind men in terms of access to land, productive resources,
The previous version (2009) was written by Cristina Manfre (Cultural
Practice, LLC) with contributions from Pietro Aldobrandini (FAO),
Christiane Monsieur (FAO), Clare Pedrick (FAO), and Gerard Sylvester 1 “International Women’s Day: FAO Gender Policy Aims
(FAO) High” (FAO 2012).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
72 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
income from land, education, financial services, information, agriculture highlights the fact that access and opportunities
and the ability to share and learn from this knowledge (FAO are not distributed equally among users, creating asymmetries
2011, 2017). Technology, including ICT, can empower women that must be addressed with specific policies targeting the
to close these gaps—which is why the gender-equitable use sources of the inequalities. For example, access for women,
of ICT is now recognized as an integral part of sustainable youths, older farmers, and individuals in the most remote
development. areas is hindered by the cost of using ICT and by the persis-
tent inequalities that these groups face. Gender inequalities
remain a serious issue in the digital economy, along with the
Gender and ICT
gap between urban and rural populations. The digital divide
In 2015, FAO reviewed the use of ICT in agriculture over the is not exclusively related to technological infrastructure and
previous decade.2 The review concluded that despite sub- connectivity. It is a multifaceted problem of ineffective knowl-
stantial progress in making ICT available and accessible for edge exchange and management of information content,
rural communities, challenges remain with regard to seven insufficient human resources and institutional capacity, and
critical success factors (FAO 2015b, 2017) (box 4.1). the lack of sensitivity to gender and the diverse needs of dif-
ferent groups. For example, the digital skills of illiterate and
The presence of gender and diversity as one of the critical
older farmers are less developed, so they are less likely to
factors and remaining challenges to using ICT successfully in
adopt ICT (FAO 2015b, 2017). The many facets of the digital
divide are illustrated in box 4.2, figure 4.1, and image 4.1.
BOX 4.1. Seven Critical Factors for the Success of ICT Many factors that constrain men farmers from adopting more
in Agriculture sustainable and productive practices constrain women even
more. Specific gender barriers further limit women farmers’
1. Provide adapted and reliable content from capacity to innovate and become more productive. Young
trusted sources. people’s access to and familiarity with technologies, as well as
2. Develop capacities for three dimensions: the their role in the social dynamics of rural communities, are not
individual’s capacity, organizational capacity, and sufficiently leveraged. For these reasons, gender, youth, and
the enabling environment. diversity should be addressed systematically in development
3. Mainstream gender and diversity. projects—not only in the initial design and planning phase but
also throughout the life of the project. Access to technology
4. Increase access and participation.
and equipment among females and young people, as well as
5. Engage in partnerships, especially public-private.
6. Identify the right mix of technologies.
7. Ensure economic, social, and environmental BOX 4.2. The Gender Divide in Numbers
sustainability.
Source: FAO 2015b. 1.2 out of 2.9 billion females own a mobile phone in
low- and middle-income countries (41%).
1.4 out of 3.0 billion males own a mobile phone in
2 The review (FAO 2015b) reported on the implementation of low- and middle-income countries (46%).
Action Line C7 (ICT Applications: e-agriculture), adopted by
the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS). The Nearly 2/3 of unconnected (not owning a mobile
Tunis Agenda for the Information Society states that the WSIS phone) females live in the South Asia and East Asia
implementation mechanism at the international level should be
organized taking into account the themes and action lines in the
and Pacific regions.
Geneva Plan of Action, and moderated or facilitated by UN agen- 300 million unconnected females live in Sub-
cies when appropriate. The WSIS action lines are: C1. The role of
Saharan Africa.
public governance authorities and all stakeholders in the promo-
tion of ICT for development; C2. Information and communica- Women are 14 percent less likely than men to own
tion infrastructure; C3. Access to information and knowledge; a mobile phone.
C4. Capacity building; C5. Building confidence and security in
the use of ICT; C6. Enabling environment; C7. ICT Applications: Women in South Asia, where the lowest levels of
E-government, E-business, E-learning, E-health, E-employment, access are reported, are 38 percent less likely than
E-environment, E-agriculture, E-science; C8. Cultural diversity
and identity, linguistic diversity and local content; C9. Media; men to own a mobile phone.
C10. Ethical dimensions of the Information Society; and C11. Source: GSMA 2015a.
International and regional cooperation.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 73
the potential consequences for social dynamics within com- Remaining Barriers and Challenges for Women and ICT
munities, should be addressed before a project is initiated to The barriers that affect women’s and girls’ access to, con-
identify ICT gaps and ensure that solutions are adopted sus- trol, and use of ICT will reduce the efficacy of any ICT-based
tainably within communities. It is also crucial to collect gen- initiative in agricultural and rural development unless they
der-disaggregated data in projects and in national ICT-related are addressed appropriately. The gender differences are
statistics (FAO 2015b, 2017). as important to consider as the gender barriers; men and
women differ in their access to ICT, control of ICT, how they
use ICT, and even in which types of ICT they use (FAO 2017).
FIGURE 4.1. Mobile Phone Ownership in Low- and
Middle-Income Countries Cultural and Social Limitations
Cultural attitudes can discriminate against women’s access
to ICT and ICT-based education. For example, it may be
perceived as inappropriate for women to visit telecenters
or cybercafés, or women might be reluctant to visit them
because they do not feel comfortable doing so. Women
may be uncomfortable using a telecenter or cybercafé that
is located next to a bar (or in a bar), owned by a man, or
frequented only by men. If an intervention requires women
to use ICT or attend a course, the location of a telecenter
or training center should be considered carefully to ensure
that they can do so. A location close to a market or hos-
pital, where women often go, can be a good choice. At
all times, the telecenter or training center needs to be in
a neutral and safe place for women and youths. At the
same time, ICT can overcome some cultural or social bar-
riers to using technology. For instance, even females who
must remain in the local community or within the house-
Sources: GSMA Intelligence; World Bank data; and Altai Consulting analysis. hold compound can engage in e-learning on computers or
Note: The numbers show population in billions. There are 80 million fewer
mobile devices, and communicate with others in remote
females than males in low- and middle-income countries; the unconnected
population includes individuals who do not own, but may borrow, phones. locations (FAO 2017).
IMAGE 4.1. Population of Unconnected Women in Low- and Middle-Income Countries
Sources: GSMA Intelligence and Word Bank data. Altai Consulting analysis.
Note: The map shows women who are unconnected by region; “unconnected” women are those who do not own a mobile phone, but may borrow one.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
74 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
Time and Mobility Constraints the ability to access critical information and services; and
ICT cannot solve all the gender-related disadvantages that the potential to take advantage of greater employment and
women and men face in value chain development or in educational opportunities (GSMA 2015b,35). Yet women
other agricultural activities, but they can alleviate challenges are still less likely to be able to buy ICT hardware (even
that are intensified by the constraints on women’s time mobile phones, despite their wide availability) or to pay for
and mobility (including security challenges; see box 4.3). access or training. A household may have a mobile phone,
Women may not have time to travel to or frequent cyberca- but it is important to identify who owns it and controls its
fés, but mobile phones provide an alternative and very direct use (FAO 2017). Women in Zambia, when asked about this
means of gathering and exchanging information without issue, have said that men do not allow their wives to use
traveling or interrupting activities. their mobile phones (World Bank 2015d).
Finance and Control Cost is the most important overall barrier to owning and
For women, access to mobile phones and services offers the using a mobile phone, particularly for women, who often
benefits of feeling connected, safer, and more autonomous; have less financial independence. Lower hardware and
BOX 4.3. Remote Control for Irrigation Alleviates Time and Mobility Constraints
Remote irrigation control enables farmers to switch a water pump on and off and check the availability of water without
having to examine pumping equipment and fields. In addition to saving time, water, and energy, the technology helps
producers to outmaneuver erratic electricity and water supplies. Because farmers no longer need to be present to irrigate
their fields, they can pursue other livelihood activities, and avoiding field visits is an added advantage when safety is a
concern.
The judicious use of water and electricity are major issues in India, where well over 25 million water pumps deliver water
to agricultural fields. Electricity in rural areas often is available only during off-peak hours, at night. Visiting fields after
dark is not only inconvenient but also risky, especially for women, who now head farm households in greater numbers
as more men leave for cities in search of work. Rather than living with the inconvenience and potential risk of visiting
fields multiple times after dark to operate irrigation pumps, some farmers leave their pumps switched on permanently,
to operate whenever electricity becomes available. This practice leads to massive waste of energy and water, reduces
producers’ incomes, and increases soil erosion.
The Technology
Nano Ganesh, a remote control for water pumps, was developed by the Ossian Group, an Indian company. Simple and
low-cost, Nano Ganesh uses electronic hardware with mobile signal connectivity at both ends. Activated remotely by
a mobile phone, the system serves as an interface between the high-voltage starters of water pumps and low-voltage
mobile phones, enabling farmers to switch their water pump on and off from a distance, and to check the water supply
in the tank connected to the pump. Irrigation can be timed for the precise duration needed, which prevents excessive
irrigation and erosion and preserves soil nutrients and quality.
By sending codes on a mobile network, users can also obtain information on the availability of electricity and water.
Some Nano Ganesh models can also send a short message to a registered mobile phone in the event of tampering or
attempted theft of the irrigation pump. By the end of 2015, more than 20,000 farmers in India were using Nano Ganesh,
and the number is growing. This innovation brings with it additional income-generating opportunities, such as installation,
repair, courier services, training, and demonstrations. There are job opportunities for women in the company’s rural call
centers, electronics assembly, and marketing and training activities.
(continued)
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 75
BOX 4.3. continued
Generally, if a farmer invests US$100–150 in a Nano Ganesh unit for a 5 HP pump, he or she saves US$300 in fuel (and
10 g of CO2 per day), US$200 in water, US$75 in electricity, and US$25 in soil in one year. In other words, an investment
of US$100 can yield savings of US$600 every year.
The Challenges
One of the problems the technology is designed to overcome—irregular electricity in villages and farms—can make
it difficult to demonstrate, install, test, and commission the technology. Some technicians are reluctant to take up
the challenges of working in rural areas. The company needed time and patience to convince farmers to use the
technology. On the financial/marketing side, there was a huge disparity between the high costs of research and
development, promotion, marketing, training, and after-sales support and a purchase price that was acceptable to
farmers. A great deal of time was invested in pioneering the technology, but once it was on the market, rival products
emerged. Even so, considerable scope exists for Nano Ganesh to continue expanding in India and other countries
with similar challenges, and remote control technology is being adapted to other kinds of agricultural machinery and
operations.
Source: Sylvester 2015.
FIGURE 4.2. Women Predominate among Illiterate Adults
Source: UNESCO 2015a.
connection costs can disproportionately benefit women (public and private), such as G2P payments, mHealth ser-
and help to increase both access and use (GSMA 2015b). vices, and mobile money (see Topic Note 4.1).
Research on mobile phone use suggests that rural women
will divert income from other uses to pay for phones (GSMA Literacy and Education
Development Fund and Cherie Blair Foundation for Women Differences in education and literacy between and among men
2010). This finding indicates that women value the benefits and women (figure 4.2) limits the effectiveness of certain types
of mobile phones. It suggests that closing the gender gap in of ICT. The proliferation of audio- and video-based technologies
the ownership and use of mobile phones in low- and middle- is increasingly circumventing the literacy requirement. At the
income countries could substantially benefit women and same time, mobile learning offers a major opportunity for
society through the delivery of extension and other services women and girls to overcome the many obstacles to education
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
76 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
imposed by time and mobility constraints, costs of tuition and including some of the those described here: the high costs
travel, and sociocultural norms (see Topic Note 4.2). Increasing of mobile handsets and credit, poor network quality and
women’s and girls’ access to mobile phones, smartphones, coverage, security concerns and harassment over mobile
tablets, and the Internet is an important step toward more phones, lack of trust in agents and operators, and low techni-
accessible and better education (FAO 2017). cal literacy and confidence (GSMA 2015b).
Initiatives to Close the Gender Gap in ICT Use
KEY POLICY ISSUES
and Access
Major initiatives addressing unequal access to and control Despite the clear advantages of using ICT to increase and
of ICT between men and women include programs set in extend agricultural innovation and improve coordination
place by the United Nations specialized agency for informa- among different stakeholders, two specific challenges
tion and communication technologies (ITU), the Broadband reduce the potential for ICT applications to contribute to
Commission, FAO, USAID, CTA, the World Bank Group, and gender-equitable agriculture development. First, smallholder
many others. farmers are often considered an undifferentiated group of
beneficiaries, with the same needs and the same opportu-
World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends nities. Second, ICT is considered gender neutral—in other
(World Bank 2016) observes that ICT has brought massive words, the assumption is that men and women have the
changes and has a huge potential, but digital dividends are same ability to access, use, and control these technologies.
not spreading fast enough, for two main reasons. First, Combined, these challenges present a different landscape
nearly 60 percent of the world’s people are offline and of the potential opportunities and constraints to using ICT
cannot fully participate in the digital economy, while the to enhance agricultural gains—a landscape in which gender
digital divides persist across gender, geographical, age, plays a central role in determining how men and women
and income lines. Second, some of the perceived ben- participate in agricultural activities, access ICT, and derive
efits of the Internet are neutralized by new risks. Vested benefits from agricultural growth. Therefore, practitioners
business interests, regulatory uncertainty, and limited must carefully consider how to optimize the benefits of ICT
competition across digital platforms could lead to harmful in specific contexts where men and women may have differ-
concentration in many sectors. Rapidly expanding automa- ent opportunities and capabilities. The following strategies
tion, even of midlevel office jobs, could hollow out labor and recommendations focus on overcoming the challenges
markets and worsen rising inequality. The poor record of associated with using ICT in agriculture, with a specific
many e-government initiatives points to the high failure emphasis on the gender implications (for a summary guide,
rate of ICT projects and the risk that states and corpora- see box 4.4).
tions might use digital technologies to control citizens, not
to empower them (World Bank 2016). Conduct a Gender Analysis to Identify Opportunities for
Using ICT to Enhance Current Practices
In the mobile industry, the Groupe Spéciale Mobile
The analysis should describe where and how men and
Association (GSMA)3 launched the GSMA Connected Women
women participate in the specific value chain or agricul-
Programme in 2012. The Connected Women Programme
tural activity. It should capture what information and ser-
focuses on the socioeconomic benefits of greater inclusion
vices men and women farmers need and how they are
of women at all points in the mobile industry continuum,
currently meeting those needs. It should also assess what
from consumer to employee to leader. Aside from clos-
types of ICT are already in use and the type of access
ing the gender gap in mobile access and skills, it aims to
men and women have to them (direct or mediated). Sex-
attract and retain female expertise in the mobile industry and
disaggregated data on education and income, as well as
encourage female leadership in technology on a global basis.
attitudes toward technology use, should be collected to
In “Bridging the Gender Gap: Mobile Access and Usage
help identify the most appropriate ICT applications. In
in Low- and Middle-Income Countries,” the program high-
some instances, content providers themselves may have
lights barriers that are especially pronounced for women,
critical information on gender gaps in access to technology
and information. Box 4.5 presents insights from Esoko, a
3 Also known as the Global System for Mobile Communications communication tool for businesses, projects, NGOs, and
Association. governments to connect with farmers.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 77
BOX 4.4. A Step-by-Step Guide to Introducing ICT-Based Solutions with a Gender Focus on Agricultural Projects
1. Document the characteristics of men and women farmers / members of producer organizations through
a gender analysis:
Farmer group’s level of organization.
Farmer group’s level of activity (regular meetings and other involvement).
Type of economic activities.
Literacy level.
Mobile phone ownership.
Different areas of the value chain in which the group is engaged.
Provision of extension services.
2. Conduct a needs assessment to identify information needs and constraints, such as:
Extension information.
Group management information (organizational and financial management system, productivity and financial
management data).
Business model training.
Interactive communication channel for farmers and service providers.
3. Select or develop the ICT platform/tool:
Conduct a review of ICT tools/platforms available.
Involve target groups in the selection/design of the ICT tool.
4. Identify which provider can supply appropriate content to meet the needs of women farmers:
Ministry of Agriculture.
National Agricultural Research Institute.
Private sector.
5. Explore the ICT infrastructure in the selected project sites:
Mobile phone coverage.
Internet connectivity.
Access to electricity.
Cost of calls.
Number of users/subscribers to mobile data.
Maintenance.
6. Check the national policies and regulations on:
Gender.
Agricultural development.
Access to information.
Information and communication technologies.
Business environment.
7. Develop a business model for developing, promoting, and running the ICT platform, which may include:
Hardware.
Software.
Group training and sensitization.
(continued)
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
78 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
BOX 4.4. continued
Sensitization of extension workers to respond to women’s needs.
Development of training materials.
Software and user support.
Evaluation.
Financing: Public support and self-financing.
8. Develop a plan that ensures the continuity and sustainability of the tool/platform:
Ensure that the tool/platform is supported by an organization (private enterprise) that is committed to managing
the tool over the long term.
Ensure that the organization can provide reliable and current information.
Ensure that the organization can provide training / capacity building.
Source: World Bank 2015d.
BOX 4.5. Esoko’s Mobile Market Information Service Develop Appropriate Content to Meet the Needs of
Reaches Farmers in 16 African Countries, but Women and Men Farmers
Finds a Gender Gap Women and men take part in different production, process-
ing, and marketing activities, even when they are working in
Since 2005, Esoko has grown to be the leader in the same value chain. As a result, women and men farmers
delivering market information to farmers across Africa, do not always share the same information needs. To enable
operating in 16 countries, employing more than 200 ICT applications to improve, the productivity of women and
people, driving social and economic impact in rural men farmers, it is necessary to ensure that appropriate
communities, and increasing farmer incomes by content is developed for them in a language that they easily
10 percent. For agricultural institutions such as farmer understand, and in an appropriate format.
associations, Esoko facilitates direct marketing cam-
paigns through text messaging. Its Internet-based ser-
vices provide pricing and buying/selling information to Consider Using a Range of Types of ICT
all users and offer a platform for organizations to main- While the inclination may be to find ways of integrating the
tain a presence on the Web. Members register with most cutting-edge technology into value chains, practitioners
Esoko to receive text alerts with commodity market should recognize the infrastructure constraints, as well as
prices and offers to sell or buy produce. gender-based constraints, that can limit the effectiveness
Esoko is well placed to examine gender differences of the newest technologies. Programs need to look at the
in its client base, and initial observations show that array of technology available and determine which types of
women still have limited access to the information ICT are most appropriate for overcoming specific constraints.
Esoko disseminates. Many female farmers do not own In Africa, Esoko has found that women repeatedly state that
mobile phones and rely on their husbands’ or children’s using a mobile phone to exchange information on farms and
phones. Since education was not a priority when some agricultural products can lead to marital problems, due to
of these female farmers were younger, they are less lit- suspicions of infidelity by their husbands.
erate than their male counterparts. Extension providers
still tend to approach men rather than women farmers, Radio arguably remains one of the most effective means
thinking that men will pass information along to the rest of reaching farmers in the field, because the infrastruc-
of the household. These limitations have an impact on ture already exists. Reports indicate that combined ICT
farm productivity as well as economic growth, and they programming—using radio and mobile phones—might
illustrate why better access to ICT among women could provide new opportunities for women. Although there
have a positive impact on rural communities. may be disputes over control of the household radio,
programming can be designed to interest both men and
Source: https://esoko.com/.
women farmers.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 79
Use ICT to Complement Existing Information Channels Although only a little research has been done on the potential
Men and women farmers are already exchanging informa- for creating new ICT-related employment opportunities for
tion. Often through word of mouth, farmers share farming men or women in agriculture, it suggests that women have at
practices, experiences with different inputs, preparation of least two areas of opportunity. First, women can be employed
different crops for consumption, and so on. Women espe- as call center consultants and operators, for example, with
cially rely on these familiar channels, because their time and M-Kilimo,4 delivering agricultural information to farmers. This
mobility constraints often limit their exposure to new infor- option may be particularly attractive for women agricultural
mation providers. extension officers who find it challenging to travel to remote
districts to meet farmers. Second, rural women should be
ICT can support and enhance traditional information chan- recruited and trained at the village level to act as information
nels by providing access to expertise and more up-to-date intermediaries for other farmers (see the experience with
information. For instance, the Women of Uganda Network Digital Green in South Asia, “Participatory Community Video
relies on the strength of locally developed information chan- Highlights Local Agriculture-Nutrition Links and Best Practices
nels to increase the audience for its services. Women’s for Health”).
groups are given a mobile phone and a radio cassette player
to use as they listen to local agricultural radio shows, call
extension officers, or share information between groups. Design Two-Way ICT Programs to Collect and
Information is disseminated in the local language, and the Disseminate Information
groups are encouraged to spread the word to other women The exchange of information through ICT must consider not
farmers. Part of the program’s success is due to the fact that only “push” mechanisms for sending information but also
it works within channels that are familiar to women (GSMA “pull” mechanisms for collecting it. In gathering data on
Development Fund and Cherie Blair Foundation for Women farmers, it is critical to ensure that the information collected
2010). In the same way, FAO’s Dimitra Clubs use solar is sex disaggregated, including data on land holdings, produc-
radios and mobile phones to connect listeners to rural radio, tivity, and labor force participation. As noted, evidence from
opening the way to questions and feedback on air, and facili- Esoko has shown that women’s ICT needs differ completely
tating discussions among listeners after the radio program from men’s. Establishing mechanisms for men and women
has ended (see “Dimitra Clubs: Rural Communities Learn to become co-creators of knowledge products will enhance
and Mobilize for Change with Participatory Communication the understanding of innovation occurring at the local level,
Technology”). as well as opportunities for capturing men’s and women’s
climate adaptation and mitigation strategies.
Develop Direct Relationships with Men and
Women Farmers MercyCorps uses EngageSPARK, a new tool that enables
The most recent ICT innovations will fail to bring women anyone, anywhere, to build and launch text and voice call
into agricultural programs if leaders and practitioners do not alerts, surveys, educational curriculums, and on-demand
engage women directly. Buyers, extension agents, input information campaigns to more than 200 countries within
suppliers, and other service providers must reward individu- minutes. Using EngageSPARK, the TobangKO campaign in
als for their participation in the value chain. By reducing over- the Philippines offers cash transfers for natural disaster survi-
all transaction costs for firms, ICT can allow firms to invest vors and encourages end users to save their money and use
more in developing relationships directly with their suppliers. it in ways that will ensure a sustainable income. TobangKO
Firms can contract men and women separately and, more disseminated 844,000 SMS texts and voice minutes over 12
important, ensure that payment is distributed to reward the weeks using EngageSPARK and created two separate soap
man or woman responsible for the labor. opera series that end users can access through a mobile
phone. Women farmers can also use mobile phones to listen
Identify Employment Opportunities for Women with
Providers of ICT Services for Agriculture
4 In Kenya, the M-Kilimo helpline gave agricultural advice to nearly
Do not overlook the potential for women to find employment 25,000 farmers during its 18-month pilot phase. The project,
with providers of ICT services for agriculture. Much of the lit- funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and GSMA and managed
by KenCall in Nairobi, uses a mobile helpline to provide specific,
erature reviewed for this module outlined the benefits of ICT timely, and accurate information to smallholder farmers, as well
applications for farmers, buyers, or the value chain as a whole. as tips to help increase their incomes and farm productivity.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
80 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
to agricultural extension information. To assess whether differentiating between women and men, cooperation
people were actually listening to the messages and whether and team work between staff with different tasks, and
they were gaining information or knowledge, EngageSPARK learning mechanisms to deal with gender gaps when
helped MercyCorps implement a short text- or voice-based and where they arise.
quiz at the end of each soap opera episode.
IICD (2015)
Capacity development initiatives in ICT programs can oper-
In an enabling environment, ICT policies and e-agriculture
ate in three dimensions: building individual capacity, orga-
strategies must take gender into account. When policies and
nizational capacity, and the enabling environment. At the
strategies are developed, it is important to ensure that all
individual level, it is important to adapt capacity development
stakeholders are represented at all levels. If an initiative is
initiatives to the needs of men and women. Depending on
implemented at the local level, it will require mechanisms
the context, it can be useful to offer learning opportunities
for sharing information at a higher level to disseminate the
for women and men separately, and at some point bring the
local lessons on taking greater account of gender. Accurate,
two groups together to exchange experiences. In this way,
sex-disaggregated data and indicators are necessary to
men and women have both separate and shared moments
understand trends in participation, inform policy makers of
of learning, which can improve participation while providing
potential gaps and inequalities, and develop strategies to
opportunities for women and men to speak freely (some
address them (FAO 2017).
individuals find it more difficult to articulate their concerns in
mixed groups) (FAO 2017). It is also a good idea to include
literacy courses in any initiative, since the limitations that Develop Gender-Equitable National or Regional
illiterate people face go beyond the use of ICT. Meanwhile, ICT Policy
simple, effective applications (radio, mobile phones, and tab- The gender dimensions of rural infrastructure and the
lets) have been applied in the field to jump-start access to enabling environment for ICT are important considerations.
information even without literacy, providing information that ICT can have an impact on women’s lives only if infrastruc-
is critical to users’ socioeconomic welfare (FAO 2017). ture reaches them and appropriate policies and programs
are in place to address poverty and gender issues in access-
When limitations on mobility reduce access to capacity-
ing and using ICT.
building initiatives (as is often the case for women), individu-
als are likely to benefit from the new possibilities offered by
e-learning, making it a potent tool for gender mainstreaming.
NEW DIRECTIONS, PRIORITIES, AND
E-learning can also be integrated into existing organizational
REQUIREMENTS FOR INVESTMENTS
and educational structures as a hybrid system that can be
called “ICT-supported learning” (Tiwari 2008). If approached properly, ICT can improve women’s ability to act
effectively and productively in agriculture. New applications
At the organizational level, much can be done to improve and cheaper devices have created opportunities for women
gender equality. The capacities of all organizations involved in to engage in agriculture in ways previously unavailable to
an ICT initiative for agriculture or rural development initiative them. The following subsections highlight some of them.
should be developed to take greater account of gender in their
work and activities (FAO 2016). Regarding the importance of
Facilitating Women’s Access to Agricultural Information,
gender-sensitive organizations, the International Institute for
Market Prices, and Services
Communication and Development (IICD) concluded that:
One of the most important contributions of ICT to agri-
Well-functioning and gender sensitive farmer organiza- cultural development is the ability to disseminate critical
tions will understand the importance of equal participa- information to farmers through various channels, whether
tion and opportunities for men and women farmers. At a radio program, video, text, or phone call. Real-time and
the organizational level it is important to ensure gender cost-effective information on the weather, market prices,
responsive systems and structures. In order to design pests, diseases, and services allows farmers—especially
and implement gender responsive ICT projects, organi- women farmers, who may not otherwise have access to
zations need capable staff, monitoring and evaluation this type of information—to make more informed decisions
systems that capture well what happens on the ground about land preparation, planting, harvesting, and marketing.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 81
By increasing women’s access to information and services, The Sustainable Tree Crops Program in Ghana trained pre-
ICT can close gender gaps in yields and productivity. Box dominantly illiterate and semiliterate women cocoa farmers
4.6 describes how innovative voice messaging technol- through farmer field schools and video viewing clubs. A
ogy can be a critical equalizer by providing information to 10–15 minute video was shown on a topic relating to inte-
women farmers with no or limited literacy. grated crop and pest management, accompanied by a dis-
cussion. Out of 56 video clubs, 32 were women-only, while
The Irrigation Development and Support Project (IDSP) the others were mixed sex groups.
in Zambia and the Kenya Agricultural Productivity and
Agribusiness Project (KAPAP) analyzed the platforms and
tools available to provide opportunities for women to partici- Improving Coordination Between Women Farmers and
pate in commodity value chains. In both countries it was clear Other Actors in the Value Chain
that female farmers needed technical information to improve As the previous examples illustrate, ICT can reduce the
agricultural production and processing.as well as support to coordination challenges between different actors in a value
manage their organizations, production, sales, finance, and chain, providing better information to producers on product
communication. specifications and volumes, helping to coordinate transporta-
tion, and arranging to deliver goods at times when they can
secure the best prices. ICT can also improve the functioning
BOX 4.6. Women Advancing Agriculture Promotes of producer groups, recording financial accounts as well as
Equal Access to Information through Voice registration and management processes. Women will ben-
Messaging efit from these efficiency gains only if they can access the
associations and are trained to use ICT (see Module 8 on
Women Advancing Agriculture, an initiative of
farmers’ organizations).
Farmerline, advocates increased gender equality and
access to information for women in Ghana. Just 29 Coprokazan (a shea butter cooperative organized by women
percent of women in rural northern Ghana are literate. producers in Zantiébougou) and the Malian Association for
This initiative sends educational voice messages in local the Promotion of Youth (AMPJ)5 were jointly seeking solu-
languages directly to the mobile phones of female agri- tions for the problems they encountered in marketing shea
cultural workers, telling them about best farming prac- butter nationally, regionally, and internationally. Promotional
tices, weather forecasts, and regional market prices, as activities needed to be strengthened to generate higher
well as providing information on financial literacy, mater- sales and improve producers’ livelihoods. A project sup-
nal health, and family planning. The goal is not merely ported by IICD set out to install electricity and computers,
to help women farmers boost productivity but also to train members to use software and office tools (to make
address their unequal access to information. Voice mes- training presentations, handle overseas orders by email,
saging technology enables Farmerline to develop com- and perform accounting operations), create a website, and
munication channels that empower women to improve advertise on radio and television. Animated presentations
crop yields and income, market their produce more were developed and organized in surrounding villages
confidently, gain control of their finances, and make for women to share their knowledge of how to improve
informed decisions about their health. the quality of their shea butter. Product quality and sales
This initiative is only one aspect of Farmerline’s work, rose considerably, and Coprokazan and AMPJ have used
which focuses on empowering small-scale producers the additional income to continue their work (IICD 2009;
more generally. Since its launch in 2013, Farmerline has FAO 2016).
reached more than 5,000 small-scale farmers in rural
Ghana and more than 200,000 through partner organiza- Enhancing Transparency in Governance, Business
tions in Cameroon, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone. Its educa- Registration, and Land Administration
tional mobile phone messages have led to increases in
A number of modules in this Sourcebook describe the advan-
farmers’ yields (some as high as 55 percent) and income
tages of integrating ICT into governance and administrative
(up to 44 percent).
Source: http://farmerline.co/farmerline-launches-gender-equality
-initiative-in-ghana/.
5 Association malienne pour la promotion des jeunes.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
82 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
procedures in the agriculture sector. Improving the timeli- financial services must be widely available at a reasonable
ness, accuracy, and transparency of these processes is cost for both provider and customer.
among the key advantages of ICT. These same benefits can
apply to gender-equitable objectives. For example, more
accurate and transparent recordkeeping can identify the CONCLUSIONS
gender gaps in land administration and provide information to
Participatory approaches that include both men and women
advocacy groups supporting women’s land rights. For women
in ICT initiatives for agriculture are key to bridging the gender
traders and entrepreneurs, increasing the efficiency of regis-
digital divide. A 10-year review of e-agriculture (FAO 2015b)
tering a business and conducting customs transactions can
shows that successful initiatives often complement exist-
ease time burdens and may also reduce opportunities for
ing infrastructure, are low-risk in terms of time and financial
corruption. In the framework of the Voluntary Guidelines for
investment, are financially self-sustaining, and are based on
the Responsible Governance of Tenure, FAO has developed
locally adapted content and context. They also frequently
open source software called OpenTenure that supports a
enable multidirectional discussions among peers and social
crowdsourcing approach to the recording of tenure rights by
groups, which would otherwise be unable to connect. As a
individuals and communities.
result, these initiatives lead to knowledge sharing while also
providing information to specific users.
Contributing to the Collection of Sex-Disaggregated
Much scope remains for improving the capacity of people
Agricultural Data
and institutions to employ ICT in gender-equitable agricul-
The lack of sex-disaggregated agricultural data is frequently tural development, however. Equal access, resilience, and
cited as a constraint on understanding women’s contribu- empowerment need to be strengthened, as do partnerships
tions to agriculture and the benefits they derive from it. and the active participation of beneficiaries. Agriculture is
Many countries do not disaggregate agricultural census becoming more knowledge-intensive. Producers require
data by gender, and donor-funded agricultural development more information to make increasingly complex decisions
programs have been slow to recognize the importance of on land use, crop selection, choice of markets, and other
assessing gender-differentiated results. ICT applications issues that affect the livelihoods of their families and
alone will not motivate change in the behavior of these communities. Linking knowledge to innovation is crucial
institutions, but they can ease the burden of gathering and in addressing the information and knowledge gaps in the
recording sex-disaggregated data on farmers, suppliers, buy- agricultural sector.
ers, and other stakeholders.
Many valuable initiatives promote the use of ICT for agri-
culture, but their sustainability is a concern. Too often, after
Improving Women’s Control over Income and Access to
the pilot phase, these initiatives cease to operate because
Financial Services
of financial, human, and other constraints. Scaling up
Women’s lack of access to income is a significant constraint should be integrated in the formulation and implementation
on their participation and productivity in agriculture. Without of such initiatives.
access to and control over income, women are unable to
accumulate lump sums to pay for inputs and services or invest The rural digital divide is created in part by ICT infrastruc-
in upgrading activities. Moreover, when women contribute to ture that restricts the types and quality of applications
agricultural activities without seeing the income invested in and services that can operate in rural areas. The costs of
the household, they lack the incentives to improve their posi- devices and connections, poor quality and limited connec-
tion in agricultural value chains. The rapidly growing mobile tivity, and the limited array of services in rural areas are
finance sector holds considerable promise for increasing major hindrances to using the Internet and mobile tech-
women’s savings and control over their own financial destiny, nology effectively, especially by women who do not have
as discussed in Topic Note 4.1. Development practitioners are the same opportunities to attain income, education, and
well aware of the potential of mobile finance, especially for employment as men do. The triple divide—digital, rural, and
rural and agricultural development, and are seeking to unlock gender—needs to be addressed through national polices
that potential by creating an enabling environment. To achieve and ICT strategies, ensuring that digital technologies pro-
financial inclusion through mobile finance, appropriate mobile duce meaningful gains for all.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 83
Topic Note 4.1: MOBILE FINANCE AND GENDER
IN RURAL AREAS
Even with the gender gap in mobile phone ownership, the finance seeks to improve access to financial services for
fast-growing mobile finance sector (box 4.7) holds consid- people who cannot use formal banking services, yet very
erable promise for increasing women’s access to financial large numbers of people in developing countries are finan-
services in rural areas. Mobile finance can overcome social cially illiterate—69 percent of men and 75 percent of women
restrictions on mobility or legal barriers to account ownership, (World Bank 2015b). Making the change from cash to digital
providing a significant boost to women’s economic empow- transactions requires an investment in technology and a sig-
erment and entrepreneurship. It can offer women a new way nificant behavioral shift. If users are to trust mobile financial
to save and transfer money, process small financial transac- services, they need to understand how the services work,
tions, and receive credit from microfinance institutions. learn how to make basic transactions, and learn what to do
when something goes wrong. Above all, they need to have
confidence that the system is safe and reliable (World Bank
OPPORTUNITIES FOR FINANCIAL INCLUSION 2015b).
As of 2015, 271 services offered mobile finance in 93 countries,
Aside from these general challenges, women face particular
and the number of registered accounts had risen to 411
challenges of their own in adopting mobile finance (World
million by the end of 2015. Mobile providers are processing
Bank 2015b, GSMA 2015b):
an average of 33 million transactions per day (GSMA 2015c).
Women generally have lower incomes and do not see
The data also show that significant opportunities remain for the need to open an account.
increasing financial inclusion, especially for women and poor Women face more legal barriers than men when
people. Worldwide, men are 7 percent more likely than women trying to open a (mobile) account.
to own a mobile finance account. This gender gap is widest in Women have lower financial literacy rates than men.
developing countries, and is even more pronounced for adults Mobile financial services deliver mostly generic
living below the US$2 per day poverty line; women in that finance products that are not gender sensitive and/or
group are 28 percent less likely than men to own an account adapted to the agricultural/rural context.
(World Bank 2015a). When women do use mobile money, they
Women face more technological challenges and are
still lag behind men in the number of payments they make with
still less likely to own a mobile phone than men.
their account (World Bank 2015a). A study of the mobile finan-
Women with access to mobile finance use it less
cial service M-Pesa in Kenya revealed that women are more
than men.
likely to be passive receivers than senders and that women are
less likely to try a new service (GSMA 2015b).
The fact that mobile financial services tend to be generic
rather than adapted to different contexts or groups of clients
The opportunities for mobile finance to improve financial
has important implications. If mobile financial services are
inclusion are clear, but so are the many challenges. Mobile
to contribute effectively to financial inclusion and to closing
the gender gap, products and services must be adapted to
BOX 4.7. Mobile Finance Defined variations in income, age, gender, and occupation. A rural
woman farmer will have different needs from an urban man
Mobile finance “provides channels for credit, savings, employed in the formal sector.
insurance, transfers and payments. It encompasses not
only mobile money and mobile banking, but also other
alternative delivery channels such as e-vouchers, debit
POTENTIAL BENEFITS
cards, smart cards, branchless banking, ATMs and point-
of-sale devices.” When women gain access to mobile financial services,
Source: Babcock and Stratham 2014,2.
they benefit from a safer and more confidential way of
handling their money, which ultimately should give them
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
84 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
better control over their finances and increase their BOX 4.8. Evidence of Positive impacts of Mobile
economic empowerment (World Bank 2015b). Potential Financial Services on Women’s Finance and
positive impacts on finance and business opportunities for Business Opportunities
women include:
In USAID’s ADVANCE II program in Ghana, women
Increased access to an account for women. with mobile money accounts have reported that
Increased control over finance by women. they can better manage household expenditures,
Increased saving. Women are less likely to use money since no one else knows how much they have
saved in a mobile account than if they keep the received or saved (USAID 2016).
money at home. Mobile finance can also increase sav- When reminders to save were texted to mobile
ings through automatic deposits or text reminders. banking clients in Bolivia, Peru, and the Philippines,
Lower costs for the provider and client. savings increased by up to 16 percent (World Bank
Increased remittances—mobile money makes it easier 2015b).
for rural women to solicit funds from their husbands A randomized evaluation in Niger found that using
and other contacts in the city and overseas. mobile payments for unconditional cash transfers
Better access to credit to improve women-owned saved recipients 75 percent on payments. They
businesses. Mobile accounts create a history of used those savings to purchase a greater variety of
financial transactions, which helps to establish food and to grow a greater variety of crops (USAID
creditworthiness. 2016).
Increased participation of women in the labor force— Mobile money services offering International
including more opportunities for women to work Money Transfer saw the volume of cross-border
remotely from home. remittances increase by 52 percent. Cross-border
transactions were the fastest-growing mobile
Potential positive impacts on social relationships and quality finance product in 2015 (GSMA 2015b).
of life include: Farmers in Niger realized time savings for each
Empowerment for women. mobile finance payment, equivalent to an amount
Positive shifts in men’s and women’s relationships that would feed their family for a week (World
within communities. Bank 2015b).
Sources: USAID 2016; World Bank 2015b; GSMA 2015b.
Overcoming mobility restrictions.
Savings in time and transportation costs.
since expanded to the rural market. Much additional scope
For specific evidence of positive impacts, see boxes 4.8
exists for diversifying the products offered, including credit
and 4.9.
and insurance to complement current mobile payment
packages. The insurance industry is expected to earn up
Yet the introduction of mobile finance can also have negative
to US$1.7 trillion from women alone by 2030, presenting
impacts. If products and services are not adapted to local
a major opportunity for sustainable and inclusive growth
needs, including the needs of specific groups, they may
(IFC 2015).
even widen the financial inclusion and other gaps. Another
consideration is that sending payments directly to suppliers
As the previous discussion indicates, the introduction
of goods, instead of traveling to the supplier, can reduce
of mobile finance is accompanied by changes in social
the opportunity to control the quality of the goods ordered,
relationships at the household level (between men and
which is important for agricultural produce (Ndiaye 2015).
women), within communities, and within agricultural value
chains. Developing mobile financial services for women
will not tackle all of the issues of gender mainstreaming,
POLICY ISSUES however. Achieving this objective will require structural and
Mobile finance was introduced in about 2000 and has cultural changes among all stakeholders involved in provid-
grown continuously ever since. Initially, mobile finance ing the services, as well as mainstreaming gender in policies
platforms targeted highly populated areas, but they have (IFAD 2009).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 85
BOX 4.9. Positive Impacts from M-Pesa in East Africa paying its employees digitally, and digitizing purchasing
and payment data. The financial sector also has an impor-
M-Pesa—M for “mobile,” and “pesa” for money in tant role to play in extending the mobile finance market,
Swahili—is a mobile-phone-based money transfer, by recognizing the importance of extending and adapting
financing, and microfinancing service launched in 2007 its products to female and rural markets and training agents
in Kenya and Tanzania. In 2015, about 70 percent of who can educate customers (World Bank 2015b). The intro-
the adult population of Kenya used M-Pesa. Research duction of larger numbers of mobile phones has an impact
within fishing communities in Migory County, located on the environment, for which mechanisms need to be
on the Kenyan side of Lake Victoria, shows that put in place.
M-Pesa has brought significant positive changes for
women, including the chance to save money in a safe
place and to build up resources for costly activities and LESSONS LEARNED
purchases, such as helping families in times of need
Mobile phone ownership, or at least access to a mobile
and sending children to school. Women confirmed
phone, is a prerequisite for participating in mobile finance.
that they were less likely to spend money when they
Women who own phones make more savings deposits
saved through M-Pesa, compared to keeping their sav-
than women who borrow phones (Grameen Foundation
ings in cash at home, since their husbands no longer
2012).
had access to the money. Transportation costs and
time have also declined significantly, allowing women The savings, investment, and spending patterns of women
to invest more money and time in their businesses, differ from those of men and also vary depending on the
as a result of which they now process and sell more roles played on the farm or within the agricultural value chain.
fish. M-Pesa has also changed relationships between Mobile network operators and mobile finance providers have
men and women. Since women can save money using not yet made substantive efforts to conduct this kind of mar-
M-Pesa, they no longer need to ask for credit when ket research and adapt products, services, and marketing
they buy fish from the men. Direct payments have also strategies accordingly, especially in rural areas (CTA 2015).
increased trust within the communities. Strategic alliances between an agricultural organization,
Source: Ndiaye 2015. such as an NGO, a development organization or a private
sector firm, and a mobile finance provider can improve the
adaptation of the financial services to the specificities of
Governments play an important role in putting policies in the agricultural sector (Babcock 2014). “Designing Mobile
place to enable equal access to mobile financial services. Finance Products for Rural Women in Zimbabwe” explains
For example, governments can reform discriminatory poli- how an analysis of women’s needs for financial services in
cies that make it harder for women to access mobile finan- Zimbabwe led to the development of an outreach strategy
cial services, such as requiring a husband’s signature to that took those needs into account.
open an account or borrow money. Governments also need
to provide a favorable regulatory environment that allows Studies show that women have limited mobile phone lit-
mobile financial services to be offered and aligns banking eracy, even when they own a phone, and that they are
and telecom sector regulations (World Bank 2015b). A good often financially illiterate, so they need training and sup-
example of a government initiative comes from Malawi, port (Grameen Foundation 2012). In Indonesia, Mercy
where the FHI360 Mobile Money Accelerator Program is Corps’ Agri-Fin Mobile program combines the delivery of
coordinating with the government to introduce electronic rural advisory services and financial services to increase
salary payments for teachers, rather than cash payments agricultural productivity and farmers’ ability to manage
(Hasselback 2014). The new systems will eliminate the their increased income. The program pays particular atten-
need for teachers to spend time and money traveling to the tion to women beneficiaries and their specific needs.
nearest bank to collect their salaries (often only to learn that Apart from learning through the mobile service, women
the money has not yet arrived). requested face-to-face learning to acquire the necessary
skills. They learned to open an account and access sav-
The private sector can expand the mobile finance market ings, loan, and payment services through their mobile
by increasing the number of digital payments significantly, phones (Mercy Corps 2015).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
86 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
Trust remains an important barrier to the introduction of INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
mobile finance. People do not always immediately trust Designing Mobile Finance Products for Rural
the idea of their money becoming virtual and being stored Women in Zimbabwe
on a mobile phone. In Papua New Guinea, for example, FAO’s Zimbabwe Livelihoods and Food Security Programme
Nationwide Microbank has launched MiCash, a savings developed a gender strategy that included an analysis
product. It was important to choose the right ambassa- of women’s access to finance and financial needs (FAO
dors to increase awareness of the mobile finance prod- 2015c). The findings of the analysis reflected revealed
uct and convince potential users that it was trustworthy. many of the concerns that have been discussed through-
Active mobile money customers were used to educate out this module:
their peers about the use and benefits of mobile money.
Women lack access and control of assets to obtain
The peer-to-peer learning was crucial in increasing the use
loans.
of MiCash among women (GSMA 2014). Women consti-
Women have lower financial literacy rates
tute 38 percent of the customer base and use it primarily
than men.
for savings.
Women farmers experience more difficulties in
accessing formal financial services.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS Men and women both use mobile financial services.
The general consensus is that mobile technology
Overall, there is still a need to address current gender dis-
is important to further the delivery of rural financial
crimination and to ensure gender sensitivity at all levels and
services.
within all institutions involved in mobile finance. Development
practitioners can play an important role in developing capac- Mobile financial services have tended to restrict
ity for gender mainstreaming in the design, development, themselves to generic rather than specialized financial
and delivery of financial services. products (with no gender sensitive products).
Gender issues also need to be addressed at the policy and The findings and the resulting recommendations on gen-
legal levels, to ensure that women and men have the same der and finance led FAO to partner with the Netherlands
rights in accessing and using mobile financial services. Development Organization (SNV) and Steward Bank, a
Increased use of mobile finance by women will go hand- subsidiary of Econet Zimbabwe, to develop and implement
in-hand with modifications of laws that affect the rights of a Rural Finance Outreach Strategy for the Livelihoods and
women to access, use, control, and own natural and physical Food Security Programme (SNV 2015). The outreach strat-
assets (Fletschner and Kenney 2011). egy focuses on making relevant, appropriate, and affordable
financial services available to rural households in a cost-
Digital and financial literacy training is needed if women efficient and sustainable manner.
(and men) are to be able to profit fully from mobile finance
innovations.
In the rural areas targeted by the initiative, women mainly
Mobile finance products must be adapted to fit the needs save and obtain small loans through rural savings groups that
of specific groups. More research is needed to assess have no access to formal financial services. Aligning with this
the real advantages and potential disadvantages of the traditional model, Steward Bank developed the Eco Cash
mobile finance revolution for rural women (Ndiaye 2015), Savings Club (a savings account for groups) and Eco Cash
as well as gender-disaggregated data from mobile service Savings Club Loans (loans offered to groups for onward lend-
providers. ing to members). Club members guarantee the loans to miti-
gate credit risk. These products have the potential to benefit
Women will benefit from the strengthening of existing wom- the large numbers of women who are the majority in rural
en’s groups, where they can find a safe space to experiment savings groups. Steward Bank has also committed to look
with new mobile finance products. They are more likely to into products that can promote the specific value chains and
trust peers who have already tried mobile finance (Fletschner crops that women dominate, such as groundnuts, cowpeas,
and Kenney 2011). and small livestock.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 87
Topic Note 4.2: MOBILE LEARNING, GENDER,
AND AGRICULTURE
The digital revolution is reaching rural areas in many devel- SDG Goal 5, to “enhance the use of enabling technol-
oping countries, creating new openings for using ICT tools ogy, in particular information and communications
to drive agricultural and rural development. This topic note technology, to promote the empowerment of women.”
highlights how the range of learning opportunities for rural
communities is widening through the spread of rapidly evolv- Mobile learning devices are generally digital, easily portable,
ing mobile devices to improve knowledge and information, owned and controlled by an individual rather than an insti-
especially about agricultural issues. Women stand to benefit tution, can access the Internet, have multimedia capabili-
significantly from mobile learning opportunities, which can ties, and can facilitate a large number of tasks, particularly
help them to improve their livelihoods and the well-being those related to communication. Devices that can be used
of their families. Experience shows that addressing social for m-learning include handheld computers, MP3 players,
barriers to mobile learning opportunities at the community notebooks, mobile phones, and tablets. M-learning focuses
rather than the individual level—with the involvement of both on the mobility of the learner, interacting with portable
men and women—is likely to have the greatest impact on technologies. This form of learning is convenient because
women’s capacity to take advantage of mobile learning. it is accessible from virtually anywhere. Sharing feedback
and tips is almost instantaneous among everyone using the
Mobile learning (or m-learning) can be used to offer formal same content—which is a major advantage in remote, rural
and informal learning for children and adults in a vast range of areas.
areas. Definitions vary, but the following convey a sense of
the scope and variety of applications: There are numerous opportunities in agriculture for m-learn-
ing to provide information, including information on climate-
Mobile learning is “learning across multiple contexts,
smart agricultural practices, improved marketing strategies,
through social and content interactions, using per-
more effective pest and disease control, and agricultural
sonal electronic devices” (Crompton 2013).
advice. The specific challenges that prevent rural dwellers
Mobile learning is commonly used to describe “the
(women in particular) from taking advantage of m-learning
use of mobile technology, either alone or in combina-
opportunities resemble the challenges pertaining to the use
tion with other [types of ICT], to enable learning any-
of ICT in general: high cost and weak connectivity in rural
time and anywhere. People can use mobile devices
areas; low literacy levels and lack of digital skills; a lack of
to access educational resources, connect with
content adapted to users’ needs, in their own language; and
others, or create content, both inside and outside
sociocultural norms (such as those restricting women’s use
classrooms” (UNESCO 2013:6).
of mobile devices).
Mobile learning can be adapted to schools, workplaces,
Literacy is a catalyst for participation in social, cultural, politi-
urban and rural areas, and formal and informal contexts (e.g.,
cal, and economic activities, as well as for lifelong learning
see the innovative practices described at the end of this topic
(UNESCO 2015b). Yet as noted in the overview, two-thirds of
note). Mobile devices are regularly used to create communi-
adults who lack basic literacy skills are women, a proportion
ties of learners to exchange useful information. Realizing all
unchanged since 2000. Half of the adult women in South
of the potential benefits of m-learning in a rural context will
and West Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa cannot read or write
require some adaptation to overcome the barriers to using
(UNESCO 2015b).
the technology, especially for women.
Among the post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), two are directly related to mobile learning: POTENTIAL BENEFITS
SDG Goal 4, to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality The benefits of mobile learning go beyond the freedom to
education and promote lifelong learning opportunities learn at any place and time. M-learning can bridge formal and
for all.” informal learning and link online and offline environments.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
88 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
It can minimize educational disruption in conflict and disaster a result the technology is dismissed as distracting or disrup-
areas and assist learners with disabilities (UNESCO 2015b). tive. Although the small screens and awkward input meth-
In a rural setting, mobile learning provides valuable informa- ods of mobile devices were once seen as disadvantages to
tion for improving agricultural production and gives producers their use in education, these views are changing rapidly due
a way to contact other producers and sources of expertise, to technological advances. Policy makers should take steps
which is especially important in remote areas. to educate the public about the benefits of mobile learning
(UNESCO 2015b) and strive to promote gender equality for
If challenges posed by the digital gender gap can be over- mobile learning.
come, there is particular scope for linking women to m-learn-
ing, to improve agricultural outcomes and livelihoods. A Institutional considerations include ensuring equal access
study covering 12 Latin American and 13 African countries to mobile technology and participation in mobile learning for
from 2005 to 2008 found that fewer women accessed and all students and teachers. Students should be allowed to
used ICT because they had less access to employment, “own” their mobile device whenever possible. Government
education, and income; but when researchers controlled for departments and educational institutions should be encour-
these variables, women turned out to be more active users aged to negotiate with vendors and leverage the purchase of
of digital tools than men (Martin 2011). mobile devices.
More and more projects in the agricultural sector are using Since fewer women than men own mobile phones, women
mobile devices. Mobile learning is just one means of inte- are a new market segment, one that is likely to be offered
grating mobile devices into agricultural development initia- less sophisticated, lower-priced devices than those used
tives, and more work is needed to examine the efficacy of by men. Devices offered in rural areas should be durable
mobile learning in such initiatives, using sex-disaggregated (resistant to shocks, dust, and humidity), energy efficient,
data. and easy to maintain and repair. These conditions will limit
e-waste and subsequent damage to the environment.
Private sector mobile service providers have a role to play
POLICY ISSUES
in reducing the costs of making calls or sending SMS texts,
Sustainability can be largely influenced by the cost of and as the Tamil Nadu case study shows, there is scope to
mobile services. Some mobile learning projects have tested discover creative strategies for reducing costs. The gender
the strategy of providing mobile phones and services to gap in mobile phone ownership and use is unlikely to close
users/learners, either at no cost or at affordable prices
through temporary agreements with private providers. In
BOX 4.10. Mobile Learning Expands Women’s
UNESCO projects implemented in Cambodia and Senegal,
Livestock Rearing and Business Skills
subsidies or bulk prices for SIM cards were negotiated with
private providers. When the cost of the SMS aggregation/ In the Theni District of Tamil Nadu, India, an initiative
disaggregation system was transferred to the implementing is encouraging rural women to use mobile phones as
NGO in Senegal, it became unsustainable, and the service learning and business tools. Each of the 300 women
was terminated. A notable alternative to this approach was participating in the scheme developed a business pro-
tested in Tamil Nadu, India, where a goat-rearing project for posal to obtain credit to buy nine female goats, one
women included the cost of mobile phones in the business buck, and one mobile phone. The microfinance institu-
plans that participants prepared and presented to a public tion Vidiyal entered into an agreement with one of the
sector bank to obtain credit (box 4.10). Sharing mobile biggest mobile service providers in southern India to
phones is another strategy for reducing costs and increasing send audio messages and voicemails to the women.
cooperative learning. It is also important to explore commu- The 500 audio messages, adapted to the local culture
nity-based solutions for charging and repair services, such as and dialects, covered such topics as buying goats, feed
solar-based mobile phone charging centers. management, animal health, and marketing. Vidiyal also
encouraged the women to discuss issues concerning
Negative social attitudes regarding the educational poten-
their enterprises with one another and offered training in
tial of mobile technology are a significant barrier to more
effective conversation using mobile phones.
widespread mobile learning. In many cases, mobile devices
Sources: UNESCO 2015b; Balasubramaniana et al. 2010.
are viewed as portals to entertainment, not education, and as
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 89
without targeted intervention from the mobile industry, policy BOX 4.11. Mobile Learning in Local Languages
makers, and other stakeholders (GSMA 2015a).
In Nigeria, the government’s Growth Enhancement
For countries where the digital economy is still emerging Support Scheme for agriculture is harnessing m-learn-
and access to the Internet is limited, various reforms are ing to increase agricultural productivity in rural farming
needed. They include reforms to remove barriers, such communities. The scheme is overcoming the twin chal-
as (1) a lack of basic ICT and supporting infrastructure, lenges of developing literacy and of providing knowledge
(2) excessive regulation of product markets, and (3) high and information to speakers of many diverse languages
tariffs for digital goods (which exceed 25 percent in some by designing content for mobile platforms in English,
countries). Education systems need to focus on basic liter- Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, and Nigerian Pidgin, among oth-
acy and numeracy skills, connect teachers to digital content, ers. The content, delivered to mobile phones via synthe-
and promote adult literacy (World Bank 2016). sized speech and text messaging, provides extension
information, such as notices of preseason activities and
site selection for growing rice. The availability of content
LESSONS LEARNED in a medium and language that can have an impact on
Beyond doubt, a primary lesson is that it is critical for rural literacy and knowledge levels should enhance farmers’
communities to gain better access to affordable communi- productivity in a significant manner.
cation technology infrastructure, services, and devices. In Source: Ofulue, Adegbola, and Egbokhare 2013.
addition:
Due to low literacy levels, inadequate digital skills,
and sociocultural norms, the most interesting alterna-
tives and complements to phones for mobile learning BOX 4.12. Videos Easily Adapt to Local Audiences to
may be video, radio, and talking books (see “Talking Build Women’s Knowledge of Maternal and
Books Deliver Valuable Advice, No Reading Child Nutrition
Required”).
Instructions and content should be offered in local GloCal—Global issues in Local context—aims to
languages (box 4.11) and use visual literacy strategies improve the nutrition and health of mothers, children,
(box 4.12). and families around the world through educational vid-
eos that focus on maternal and child nutrition. A set of
During the life of a project, users/learners can gain
45 videos will be available for each region of the world,
access to mobile phones and services at a reduced
using familiar local foods and local women actors, to
cost through temporary agreements with private pro-
ensure that the target audience can relate to the infor-
viders. But to ensure sustainability after a project ends,
mation, even if they are not literate. Through voiceover,
the cost of using a mobile device should be included
the language can easily be altered to suit any local lan-
in the business model.
guage or dialect. The content, based on World Health
Participatory design, planning, and implementation
Organization guidelines, is consistent with government
with the community, including men, can help to
policies.
overcome social barriers to women’s use of mobile
devices for effective learning. The videos can be shown in health care centers and other
public places as well as on local TV channels, and they
It is important to monitor and evaluate the impact
will soon be available for download from the Internet.
of mobile phone technology on women’s and girls’
Rural health care workers can also use a tablet to show
literacy and empowerment.
the videos to mothers. A GloCal application will allow
Mobile learning demands new pedagogies, includ-
health care workers to quickly determine the specific
ing new approaches to delivering and facilitating
information needs of each mother and automatically
instruction.
locate the videos addressing those needs for viewing.
Pilot projects that have shown good results should The GloCalMom application includes growth charts and
be scaled up. It bears repeating that promising pilots vaccination record cards.
should have sustainability built into their design, so
that the benefits can be sustained when funding (continued)
ends.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
90 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
BOX 4.12. continued Developing strategies to teach relevant ICT skills to
women and girls (box 4.14), as well as to men and
The videos were piloted in 42 villages in 3 districts of boys.
Bihar, India, to investigate how locally produced videos Encouraging self and/or collective learning with skills
could increase community knowledge and the adoption and content relevant to learners’ prior knowledge,
of improved nutrition practices. The findings were very diverse needs, and expectations.
positive. Community members said that they learned
Designing mobile learning content and interaction that
about best practices in maternal and child health and
is gender-sensitive and equitable.
nutrition. The familiar local dialect used in the videos
Opening mobile learning to a wide range of educa-
helped them to remember key messages.
tional settings and pedagogical processes.
Currently, the GloCal videos are available in English and
Rethinking curriculums and teaching methods. Digital
Kiswahili, and translations are under way into French,
technologies can assist teachers and students, by
Portuguese, Amhara, and Tanzanian Swahili. In Kenya,
allowing group work among classrooms connected
the effectiveness of the video set is being tested with
online, apps that stimulate creativity and problem solv-
1,200 mothers in urban and rural areas in a joint research
ing, and games designed for education (gamification)
project by the University of Helsinki and Kenyatta
(World Bank 2016).
University.
Pursuing blended leaning—mobile learning grafted
Source: www.glocalnutrition.com.
onto existing nonformal education and community
initiatives.
Promoting self-learning and peer-to-peer learning.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS For resources to pursue some of these recommendations,
see box 4.15.
UNESCO, which is committed to enabling “all people around
the world to make use of the huge potential of ICT for learn-
ing and self-empowerment,” recommends a number of
policy measures to promote m-learning (UNESCO 2015b;
World Bank 2016): BOX 4.13. Adapting Mobile Phone Use to
Using low-cost devices and relying on affordable SMS- Sociocultural Norms
delivered content and interaction, as well as hardware
and systems with which users feel comfortable. A project in Cambodia found a solution to sociocultural
practices that limit women’s ownership of mobile
Designing projects that take advantage of the benefits
devices. Phones were colored pink to signal that they
of sharing mobile phones—to lower costs and encour-
belonged to women, as a way of circumventing men’s
age more cooperative and peer-to-peer learning.
predominant ownership of the device. The Pink Phone
Building mobile-phone enhanced literacy compo-
project in Cambodia trains women leaders to use mobile
nents within existing literacy and empowerment
handsets to share ideas, information, and resources in a
endeavors.
virtual space. Women draw on the expertise of females
Linking mobile-phone-enhanced literacy to collective in their virtual network to assist people in their physical
efforts to improve women’s livelihoods, participation, communities.
and employment opportunities.
Another creative way of overcoming obstacles to female
Improving gender gaps in the use of ICT in educa-
phone ownership in male-dominated households was
tion by encouraging women and girls as well as
used in a goat-rearing project in the Theni District of
men and boys to leverage mobile technology for
Tamil Nadu, India. Women carried their mobile phones
learning.
in a small pouch (surukku pai) that is associated with
Identifying culturally relevant ways of normalizing women’s identity and objects in Indian culture.
mobile phone ownership and use, for women and Source: UNESCO 2015b.
girls in particular (see the examples in box 4.13).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 91
BOX 4.14. Women and the Web Alliance—Training promote change in their communities. They meet regu-
That Empowers Women and Girls Online larly to discuss the challenges they face in their daily
lives, make decisions, and take action to resolve their
The Women and the Web Alliance is a public-private part- problems. Set up in several Sub-Saharan African countries
nership designed to improve women’s digital literacy in (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Niger, and
Kenya and Nigeria. Through local training and online Senegal), the Dimitra Clubs follow a simple formula: the
activities, the goal of the alliance is to enable women, determination of community members to mobilize, a wind-
their families, communities, and countries to realize up solar-powered radio, close collaboration with community
the socioeconomic benefits that can arise when more radio stations, and support from FAO (mainly in capacity
women and girls know how to benefit from the Internet. development). The clubs use mobile phones to improve
Increased Internet access enables women and girls to con- information sharing and networking within and among clubs,
nect, engage with, and find new educational and career as well as with the radio stations and other stakeholders. In
opportunities, greatly expanding their capacity to create sum, the participatory communication technology enables
economic change for themselves. By producing, curating, the clubs to promote change more effectively.
and sharing high-quality digital content, including training
More than 60 percent of the population of Sub-Saharan Africa
content customized for women and girls, the Women and
lives in rural areas, where the main challenges are not only
the Web Alliance helps to sustain their interest in using
restricted access to productive resources and markets, but also
the Internet and reaping the benefits in the long term.
to information, knowledge, skills, and networking. Participatory
The alliance aims to reach 600,000 young women communication approaches play a central role in addressing
online in Kenya and Nigeria in the next two years and these challenges by enhancing people’s potential and facilitat-
enable them to use the Internet for social and economic ing their involvement in decision making, dialogue, knowledge
empowerment. The alliance’s partners are the United sharing, and partnership with development stakeholders.
States Agency for International Development (USAID),
Intel, NetHope, World Pulse, World Vision, UN Women, The Dimitra Clubs seek to contribute to individual and col-
Women in Technology in Nigeria, and Internews. lective socioeconomic empowerment of rural communities,
Source: http://www.womenandtheweballiance.org/. especially women and young people. Through this approach,
women and men cease to be mere recipients of development
actions and become protagonists. The process is guided by
BOX 4.15. An Open Course on Digital and Mobile the principles of gender equality, social cohesion, solidarity,
Learning and participation. Discussions may revolve around any topic
of importance to club members, such as agriculture, natural
The global Community of Digital Learning offers free resources, food security, and everyday issues linked to the
material on digital and mobile learning. Topics explored relationship between men and woman and the division of
on a step-by-step basis include digital learning, quality household tasks.
in digital learning, new digital learning scenarios, aug-
mented learning, blended learning, gamified solutions, Since 2007, over 300,000 people, more than half of them
mobile learning, massive open online courses (MOOC), women, have been empowered through 1,500 Dimitra Clubs.
scenario-based learning, self-paced learning, and the As documented in specific context-linked assessments, the
peer-reviewing process. clubs have significantly improved organizational capacity,
Source: For details, see: https://quality4digitallearning.org/. social mobilization, access to information, gender relations,
and women and men’s active participation in decision-
making processes. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, an
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY IFAD supervision report concluded that “the project in the
Dimitra Clubs: Rural Communities Learn and Tshopo Province has developed the self-development capaci-
Mobilize for Change with Participatory ties of the members of the clubs, the gender dimension and
Communication Technology structuring of youth in groups. The clubs are increasingly
The FAO Dimitra Clubs are groups of women, men, and engaged in farming activities and many of their members have
young people—mixed or not—that decide to organize to joined the local Union of Farmer Organizations (69%).”
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
92 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
In Niger, the use of radio, mobile phones, and other means of climate change are likely to make the crisis even worse. At the
communication has contributed strongly to building women’s same time, increasing problems of people being overweight
leadership and self-esteem, and reinforced their capacity to and obesity, especially in India, are creating another kind of
speak in public and take part in local decision-making pro- public health concern related to nutrition. The South Asia Food
cesses. Furthermore, the approach has brought about behav- and Nutrition Security Initiative (SAFANSI), supported by the
ioral changes in various areas, including nutrition and World Bank Group and the UK Department for International
agriculture, and has helped to bolster community resilience to Development (DFID), teamed with the international NGO
climate change. For example, in the village of Banizoumbou, Digital Green to use a participatory video to promote sound
women organized into Dimitra Clubs have obtained a 99-year nutritional practices in rural communities, based on the close
lease from local landowners to use 3 hectares of land. This links between agriculture and nutrition in those areas. The aim
result came after months of on-air discussions, with club was to investigate how locally produced videos could increase
members calling community radio stations to discuss how to knowledge of nutrition in the community, encourage the adop-
solve women’s lack of access to land. Meanwhile, in the tion of better nutritional practices, and evaluate the feasibility
Democratic Republic of Congo the clubs have played a key of integrating nutritional information into the agricultural pro-
role in changing people’s view of food taboos for women. In gram. The pilot targeted 42 villages in 3 districts of Bihar.
the village of Yalosuna, a series of awareness-raising activities
conducted by the Dimitra Clubs, coupled with club discussions SAFANSI had a secondary objective as well. It sought to
that were broadcast live, have resulted in a community deci- enhance and promote knowledge management platforms—
sion that women should improve their protein intake and eat massive open online courses (MOOC)—both on and offline,
food such as catfish, which was previously reserved for men. so that a wider audience, including agricultural universities
and other organizations, could use the instructional videos.
A number of lessons have emerged from this experience
that are relevant for similar activities:
Participatory communication is key, using ICT to pro- THE DIGITAL GREEN APPROACH
mote empowerment.
Digital Green uses video as a cost-effective, scalable means
Facilitating dialogue and exchange is crucial for ensur-
of bringing community members, researchers, and devel-
ing ownership by communities.
opment practitioners together to produce and share locally
Generally, Dimitra Clubs become autonomous after relevant information on innovative practices and change
two years of support from FAO. behavior. Video is an intuitively accessible technology that
Sustainable partnerships between clubs and com- sidesteps challenges related to literacy, and it is especially
munity radio stations are based on confidence and effective when local farmers themselves convey advice
respect. and information to community members. Unlike traditional,
The approach encourages rural populations to be creative generic informational videos, these films are produced within
in solving development challenges using local resources. the communities, with the help of community resource
persons who are taught to film, edit, and screen the final
The flexibility of the model is one of its strengths, but
product. Low-cost, hand-held Pico projectors, which are
it also presents challenges for scaling up.
battery-operated, are used to showcase the videos at regular
local events, such as self-help group meetings.
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY The topics for the videos were relevant to local agricultural
Participatory Community Video Highlights Local
systems and nutritional needs, to ensure that their messages
Agriculture-Nutrition Links and Best Practices
would resonate with the community and have an impact.
for Health6
For example, the topics included cultivating kitchen gardens
South Asia has the highest rate of hunger in the world. According to increase the access to nutrient-rich vegetables, balancing
to one estimate, 336 million people (nearly 23 percent of the the agricultural workloads of pregnant women, and improv-
population) are routinely hungry, and new threats such as ing dietary quality and diversity for women and children.
General public health and nutrition advice (for instance,
6 For more information, see World Bank 2015c and visit information on personal hygiene and breastfeeding) was
digitalgreen.org). also included.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 93
BENEFITS AND IMPACT remember all of the information. Being illiterate, they are
Community involvement was central to the success of the unable to take notes.
initiative. During screenings, the community resource person
Other knowledge exchange approaches that do not require
would pause the video at strategic points and engage the
literacy have their limitations. Mobile phone solutions require
group in productive discussions on their understanding of the
funds for network time or expensive and fragile smart-
featured practice. Small groups (the typical group had 15 to 20
phones. These options are valuable for transmitting simple,
people) created an informal and intimate environment, enabling
time-critical information, but they may be less effective as
all members to interact, ask questions, and clarify doubts.
teaching systems. Texts are no use to the illiterate. Local
radio programs reach a wide audience through a single
In a controlled evaluation, Digital Green’s approach was shown
broadcast, but broadcasts cannot be replayed or shared
to be at least 10 times more effective, on a cost per adoption
with people who were not present when the program airs.
basis, than a conventional approach to agricultural extension,
A single broadcast generally is not enough for someone to
with a sevenfold increase in the rate of behavior change.
learn a new technique. With Talking Books, users can listen to
a recording as many times as they need, before incorporating
LESSONS LEARNED AND ISSUES FOR WIDER a new practice into their lives.
APPLICATION
Combining Talking Books with other knowledge exchange
Community members remembered key messages in the
approaches can provide good results for illiterate farm-
videos, as the local dialect was familiar to viewers and
ers, however. For example, coupling a Talking Book with a
the messages were clear. Some videos were screened
mobile-based intervention combines timely distribution of
more than once, at the request of viewers, to enable view-
content with the ability to play lengthier content on demand
ers to retain their messages better. The videos increased
at no cost. Likewise, adding Talking Books to a radio-based
knowledge of best practices for health and nutrition. Women
intervention combines radio’s broadcast capability with a net-
found the nutritional content especially useful, since they
work of devices that act as local audio libraries. In all cases,
are largely in charge of household dietary decisions (deci-
those targeted for the Talking Book project are people with
sions on agricultural practices are traditionally dominated
oral cultures and few or no literacy skills, families without
by male household members). The videos helped to dispel
electricity, communities with unreliable or expensive mobile
myths related to pregnancy and childbirth, such as not eat-
networks, mothers without a phone, and grandmothers who
ing pumpkin during pregnancy. Communities said they felt
do not like technology.
better informed about maternal and child health and nutri-
tional practices after watching the films.
HOW THE TALKING BOOK TECHNOLOGY WORKS
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY The Talking Book is a small portable recording device
Talking Books Deliver Valuable Advice, (12 cm × 12 cm × 6.5 cm, weighing 225 g without batter-
No Reading Required7 ies), built to withstand dry dust storms and tropical rain, and
Literacy Bridge is an NGO that aims to save lives and improve storing 140 hours of audio content. It is affordable, simple
the livelihoods of impoverished families by providing on- to use, and runs on batteries. The device features indented
demand access to locally relevant knowledge. At the heart of touch buttons, to facilitate use by visually impaired people
its programs is the Talking Book, an innovative, low-cost audio and by all users at night. With a simple audio menu offered
computer designed for the learning needs of illiterate people in a range of local languages and dialects, users can select
living in the poorest areas of the world. The device links users the information that interests them. The audio content can be
to valuable information on agriculture and other rural issues. replayed as needed, played for family and friends, and easily
loaned to third parties.
In many rural areas of Ghana, farmers rarely receive vis-
its from extension officials, and when they do have the The Talking Book disseminates information created and
chance to meet agricultural experts, they cannot always recorded by local experts for rural communities. Recordings
may feature agricultural extension agents describing farm-
7 For more information, visit http://www.literacybridge.org/talking ing techniques—such as fertilizer preparation, seed spacing,
-book/ and the Literacy Bridge 2014 Annual Report. and livestock care—or microfinance institutions offering
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
94 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
business guidance and explaining topics such as credit and REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
rotating savings plans. Abdoulaye, M., and A. Van der Elstraeten. 2013. “Les clubs d’écoute
communautaire Dimitra au Niger.” Fiche de bonne pratique:
Literacy Bridge does not sell Talking Books. It includes Niger, Rome. http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/aq225f/aq225f.pdf.
Talking Books as part of its ongoing partnerships designed Babcock, L. H. 2014. “Mobile Payments: How Digital Finance Is
to help organizations develop and distribute effective audio Transforming Agriculture.” Devex, August 20. http://www.devex
content based on formative research and continuous moni- .com/news/mobile-payments-how-digital-finance-is-transforming
-agriculture-84191.
toring. Literacy Bridge collaborates with its partners to apply
best practices in social and behavior change to address the Babcock, L. H., and C. Statham. 2014. “The Agricultural Mobile Finance
specific needs of a community, leading to healthier practices Revolution.” ICT Update, Issue 76, February. http://ictupdate.cta.int
/en/Feature-Articles/The-agricultural-mobile-finance-revolution.
and more productive skills.
Balasubramaniana, K., P. Thamizolib, A. Umara, and A. Kanwar. 2010.
Once loaded with information, Talking Books are dis- “Using Mobile Phones to Promote Lifelong Learning among
Rural Women in Southern India.” Distance Education 31 (2):
tributed to remote areas, where they serve as a rapidly
193–209. http://sites.asiasociety.org/womenleaders/wp-content
expanding audio library offering information when it is /uploads/2010/05/using-mobile-phones-to-promote -lifelong
needed. New audio recordings are regularly added to -learning-among-rural-women-in-southern-india.pdf.
Talking Books (typically every 1–3 months) via USB from a
Baumüller, H. 2016. “Agricultural Service Delivery through Mobile
smartphone, tablet, or laptop. Users can also record their Phones: Local Innovation and Technological Opportunities in
own messages to ask questions, expand on ideas, and Kenya.” Chapter 9 in Technological and Institutional Innovations
relay feedback. for Marginalized Smallholders in Agricultural Development,
edited by F. W. Gatzweiler and J. von Braun, 143–59.
Berlin: Springer International. http://link.springer.com/chap-
ter/10.1007/978-3-319-25718-1_9/fulltext.html.
BENEFITS AND IMPACT
Crompton, H. 2013. “A Historical Overview of Mobile Learning:
By 2008, 1,000 people had used a Talking Book. By 2015, Toward Learner-Centered Education.” In Handbook of Mobile
that figure had risen to 175,000 in Ghana alone. Each month, Learning, edited by Z. L. Berge and L. Y. Muilenburg, 3–14.
New York: Routledge.
users listen to more than 1 million minutes of valuable mate-
rial. The impact has been significant. Since the launch of the CTA (Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation).
2015. Mobile Payments—How Digital Finance Is Transforming
device, Talking Book users have won a variety of farming
Agriculture. Wageningen, Netherlands: CTA. http://publications.cta
awards. In 2009, the average Talking Book farmer’s harvest .int/media/publications/downloads/1849_PDF.pdf.
increased by 48 percent after one year. In 2012, the average
David-West, O. 2010. “Esoko Networks: Facilitating Agriculture
Talking Book farmer’s harvest increased by 36 percent after through Technology.” GIM Case StudyB061, United Nations
one year. Development Programme, New York.
Eurostat. 2014. “Progress of the World’s Women 2015–2016:
Transforming Economies, Realizing Rights.” Chapter 2, 84,
LESSONS LEARNED AND ISSUES FOR WIDER Retrieved from UN Women, New York.
APPLICATION
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2011. The State of Food and
Literacy Bridge found that families listen to an average of Agriculture 2010–11. Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gender
Gap for Development. Rome: FAO.
37 Talking Book messages over a period of six hours each
week. Users typically repeat messages four times to absorb ———. 2012. “International Women’s Day: FAO Gender Policy Aims
all of the information, and the most popular messages High.” News article, March 8. http://www.fao.org/news/story/en
/item/128104/icode/.
are conveyed through songs and drama, on the subject of
children. The top four messages were child marriage, new ———. 2014. The State of Food and Agriculture: Innovation in Family
agriculture messages, children’s birth registration, and child Planning. Rome: FAO.
immunization. ———. 2015a. “Dimitra Clubs: A Unique Approach.” FAO, Rome.
———. 2015b. e-Agriculture 10 Year Review Report: Implementation
Monitoring features built into the device enable organiza- of the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) Action
tions to evaluate the achievement of impact objectives and Line C7. ICT Applications: e-agriculture. Rome: FAO. http://www
constantly improve content as a result. The Talking Book’s .fao.org/3/a-i4605e.pdf.
simple design, affordability, and flexible content are highly ———. 2015c. Livelihoods Food Security Programme—APN Gender
conducive to rapid expansion and scaling up. Strategy. Rome: FAO.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 1 — OV E RVIE W OF ICT IN AGRICULT URE : OPPORTUNITIES, AC C ES S , A ND C R OSS C UTTING TH EMES 95
———. 2017. “Mainstreaming Gender in the Use of Information -for- economic-growth-how-mobile-money-expands-financial
and Communication Technologies for Agriculture and Rural -inclusion-in-malawi/.
Development.” FAO, Rome.
IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). 2006. “Gender
Fletschner, D., and L. Kenney. 2011. “Rural Women’s Access to and Rural Microfinance: Reaching and Empowering Women.”
Financial Services: Credit, Savings, and Insurance.” ESA Working IFAD, Rome. http://www.ifad.org/gender/pub/gender_finance.pdf.
Paper 11-07, Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome. http://
www.fao.org/3/a-am312e.pdf. ———. 2009. “Gender and Rural Microfinance: Reaching and
Empowering Women.” IFAD, Rome. https://www.ifad.org/
Gandhi, R., R. Veeraghavan, K. Toyama, and V. Ramprasad. 2009. documents/10180/8551f293-2573-417d-908a-d1841359df57
“Digital Green: Participatory Video for Agricultural Extension.”
Information Technologies for International Development 5 (1): ———. 2012. “Gender Factsheet: Gender Equality and Women’s
1–15. http://itidjournal.org/index.php/itid/article/view/322/145. Empowerment.” IFAD, Rome. http://www.ifad.org/pub/policy/gen-
der/equality_e.pdf.
Grameen Foundation. 2012. “Women, Mobile Phones, and Savings:
A Grameen Foundation Case Study.” Grameen Foundation USA, IFC (International Finance Corporation). 2015. She for Shield: Insure
Washington, DC. http://www.grameenfoundation.org/resource Women to Better Protect All. Washington, DC: IFC. http://www.ifc
/women-mobile-phones-and-savings-case-study. .org/wps/wcm/connect/a2d8348049d01b0c82a5a3e54d141794
/SheforShield_Final-Web2015.pdf?MOD=AJPERES.
———. 2013. “Best Practices in Mobile Microfinance.” Grameen
Foundation USA, Washington, DC. http://www.grameenfoundation IICD (International Institute for Communication and Development).
.org/resource/best-practices-mobile-microfinance. 2009. “Gender and ICT: A Good Mix.” IICD, The Hague. http://
www.bibalex.org/Search4Dev/files/310731/140254.pdf.
GSMA (Groupe Spéciale Mobile Association). 2014. “State of the
Industry: Mobile Financial Services for the Unbanked.”GSMA, ———. 2015. “Promoting Equal Chances for Women and Men to
London. http://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/wp Use and Benefit from ICT-enabled Solutions.” IICD, The Hague.
-content/uploads/2015/03/SOTIR_2014.pdf. http://iicd.org/documents/promoting-equal-chances-for-women
-and-men-to-use-and-benefit-from-ict-enabled-solutions/.
———. 2015a. “Accelerating Digital Literacy: Empowering Women
to Use Mobile Internet.” GSMA, London. http://www.gsma.com Kaisaris, J. 2015. “Education for Women through Mobile Phone
/connectedwomen/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/DigitalLiteracy Messages.”https://www.empowerwomen.org/fr/community/stories
_v6_WEB_Singles.pdf. /2015/5/education-for-women-through-mobile-phone-messages.
———. 2015b. “Connected Women 2015: Bridging the Gender Kanwar, A. 2012. “Can Mobiles Support Learning for Development?
Gap—Mobile Access and Usage in Low- and Middle-Income A Gendered Perspective.” Opening Remarks for the Mobiles
Countries.” GSMA, London. http://www.gsma.com/connect- for Development (M4D) Workshop, National Institute of Bank
edwomen/wp-content /uploads/2015/02/GSM0001_02252015 Management, Pune, March 7. http://dspace.col.org/bitstream
_GSMAReport_FINAL-WEB-spreads.pdf. /handle/11599/1082/2012_Kanwar_Mobile_Gendered_Transcript
.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
———. 2015c. State of the Industry: Mobile Money. London: GSMA.
http://www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/wp-content Kumar, A., A. Tewari, G. Shroff, D. Chittamuru, M. Kam, and J. Canny.
/uploads/2016/02/SOTIR_2015.pdf. 2010. “An Exploratory Study of Unsupervised Mobile Learning
———. 2015d. Women and Mobile Money: Insights from Kenya. in Rural India.” In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on
London: GSMA. http://www.gsma.com/connectedwomen Human Factors in Computing Systems, ACM, New York, 743–
/women-and-mobile-money-insights-from-kenya/. 52. http://bid.berkeley.edu/files/papers/CHI2010a.pdf.
GSMA Development Fund and Cherie Blair Foundation for Women. Martin, H. 2011. “Digital gender divide or technologically empowered
2010. Women and Mobile: A Global Opportunity. London: women in developing countries? A typical case of lies, damned
GSMA. http://www.cherieblairfoundation.org/wp-content/ lies, and statistics.” Women’s Studies International Forum 34 (6,):
uploads/2012/07/women_and_mobile_a_global_opportunity.pdf. 479–89.
Gurumurthy, A., and N. Chami. 2014. “Gender Equality in the Mercy Corps. 2015. Lessons Learned on Service Delivery, Marketing,
Information Society: A Review of Current Literature and and Capacity Building on Agri-Fin Mobile. Portland, OR: Mercy
Recommendations for Policy and Practice.” IT for Change, Corps. E-book. http://www.shareweb.ch/site/Agriculture-and
Department for International Development (DFID) and Bridge, -Food-Security/focusareas/Documents/ras_agri-fin_mobile
London. http://www.eldis.org/vfile/upload/4/document/1409 _report.pdf.
/Gender%20and%20ICTs%20briefing%202014.pdf.
Miranda, V. 2011. “Cooking, Caring, and Volunteering: Unpaid Work
Harvey, J. 2012. “Extension Agents: Why Does It Matter if They around the World.” OECD Social, Employment and Migration
Are Male or Female?” Cited in “Gender Mainstreaming in ICT Working Paper 116. OECD, Paris. http://www.oecd.org/berlin
for Agriculture,” Briefing Paper, US Agency for International /47258230.pdf.
Development, Washington, DC.
Morawczynski, O., and M. Pickens. 2009. “Poor People Using
Hasselback, C. 2014. “Technology for Economic Growth: How Mobile Financial Services: Observations on Customer Usage and
Mobile Money Expands Financial Inclusion in Malawi.” Impact from M-PESA.” Consultative Group to Assist the Poor
Degrees, June 9. http://degrees.fhi360.org/2014/06/technology (CGAP), Washington, DC.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
96 MODUL E 4 — E XT E NDING T HE BENEFITS —GEND ER-EQUITA B LE, ICT-ENA BLED AGR ICULTURA L D EVELOPM ENT
Ndiaye, O. K. 2015. “Is the Success of M-Pesa ‘Empowering’ Development Knowledge Platform. https://sustainabledevel
Kenyan Rural Women?” Feminist Africa 18: 156–61. http://agi opment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld.
.ac.za /sites /agi .ac.za/files/standpoints_is_the_success_of_m
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development).
-pesa_empowering_kenyan_rural_women_.pdf.
2013. Empowering Women Entrepreneurs through Information
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). and Communications Technologies: A Practical Guide.
2012. Gender Equality in Education, Employment, and Geneva: UNCTAD. http://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary
Entrepreneurship: Final Report to the MCM 2012. Paris: OECD /dtlstict2013d2_en.pdf.
Publishing. http://www.oecd.org/employment/50423364.pdf.
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Ofulue, C., T. Adegbola, and F. O. Egbokhare. 2013. “Mobile Technology Organization). 2013. Policy Guidelines for Mobile Learning. Paris:
for Development in Nigeria: Designing Mobile Technology UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002196
Enabled Application in Local Languages.” Paper presented at /219641e.pdf.
the UNESCO Mobile Learning Week, Paris, February 18–20.
http://docplayer.net/3629161-Mobile-telephony-for-development ———. 2015a. EFA Global Monitoring Report 2015: Education for
-in-nigeria-designing-mobile-technology-enabled-application-in All 2000–2015—Achievements and Challenges. Paris: UNESCO.
-local-languages.html. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002322/232205e.pdf.
Opportunity International. 2011. “Opportunity International ———. 2015b. Mobile Phones and Literacy Empowerment in
Launches ‘Banking on Women’ Campaign.” Press Release. Women’s Hands: A Cross-Case Analysis of Nine Experiences.
http://opportunity.org/news/press-releases/opportunity Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023
-international-launches-banking-on-women-campaign. /002343/234325E.pdf.
Oshadare, A. A., T. P. Ige, and C. Omowumi Lawal. 2015. “E-Learning USAID (United States Agency for International Development).
through Information and Communication Technology: A Suitable 2012. “Gender Mainstreaming in ICT for Agriculture.” Briefing
Methodology for Adult Education in Nigeria.” Knowledge Paper, USAID, Washington, DC. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs
Review 33 (3). http://www.globalacademicgroup.com/journals/ /pnaec808.pdf.
knowledge%20review/Ade%20Ariyo.pdf.
———. 2016. Guide to the Use of Digital Financial Services in
Plyler, M., S. Haas, and G. Nagarajan. 2010. “Community Level Economic Agriculture. Washington, DC: USAID. http://www.summitweb
Effects of M-PESA in Kenya: Initial Findings.” Executive Summary. casting .com/webcast/02-17-16/DFS_FTF_Guide_Final_Feb%20
Financial Services Assessment, IRIS Center, College Park, MD. 2016.pdf.
Quisumbing, A. 2003. “Household Decisions, Gender, and Women and the Web Alliance (website). http://www.womenandthe
Development: A Synthesis of Recent Research.” International weballiance.org/about/.
Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC.
World Bank. 2011. ICT in Agriculture Sourcebook: Connecting
Schneider, K., and M. K. Gugerty. 2010. “Gender and Contract Farming Smallholders to Knowledge, Networks, and Institutions.
in Sub-Saharan Africa: Literature Review.” Paper prepared for the Washington, DC: World Bank. e-Sourcebook. http://www.icti-
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. https://evans.uw.edu/sites/ nagriculture.org/content/ict-agriculture-sourcebook.
default/files/public/Evans%20UW_Request%2067_Gender%20
%26%20Contract%20Farming_03-08-2010.pdf. ———. 2015a. “The Global Findex Database 2014: Measuring
Financial Inclusion around the World.” World Bank, Washington,
SNV (Netherlands Development Organization). 2015. Rural Finance DC. http://documents.banquemondiale.org/curated/fr/2015/04
Outreach Strategy in Zimbabwe. Harare: SNV. /24368699 /global-findex-database-2014-measuring-financial
-inclusion-around-world.
Sylvester, G., ed. 2015. “Success Stories on Information and
Communication Technologies for Agriculture and Rural ———. 2015b. “Digital Financial Solutions to Advance Women’s
Development.” Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Economic Participation.” World Bank, Washington, DC. http://
Bangkok. http://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/a891e31d www.uncdf . org /sites/default/files/Documents/womens
-af59-461b-8f33-be75158f7b73/. _economic_participation_report_16_november_2015.pdf.
Tegemeo Institute, Egerton University. 2011. KAPAP Gender ———. 2015c. “Providing Agriculture-Nutrition Convergence
Disaggregated Baseline Survey Report. Njoro: Egerton University. through Participatory Extension Videos.” Agriculture Global
Tiwari, S. P. 2008. “Information and Communication Technology Practice Note, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Initiatives for Knowledge Sharing in Agriculture.” Indian Journal
———. 2015d. Supporting Women’s Agro-Enterprises in Africa with
of Agricultural Sciences 78 (9).
ICT: A Feasibility Study in Zambia and Kenya. Report No. 93077-
UN (United Nations). 2010. The World’s Women 2010: Trends and AFR, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Statistics. New York: Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
———. 2016. World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends.
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/Worlds
Washington, DC: World Bank. http://www-wds.worldbank
women/WW_full%20report_color.pdf.
.org / external /default/WDSContentServer/WDSP / IB/2016
———. 2015. “Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for /01/13/090224b08405ea05/2_0/Rendered/PDF/World0develop
Sustainable Development.” United Nations Sustainable m0000digital0dividends.pdf.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
SECTION 2
Enhancing Productivity on the Farm
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 99
Module 5 INCREASING CROP, LIVESTOCK, AND
FISHERY PRODUCTIVITY THROUGH ICT
EIJA PEHU (World Bank), CORY BELDEN (World Bank), and SUVRANIL MAJUMDAR (World Bank),
with input from TEEMU JANTUNEN (FM-International Oy FINNMAP)
IN THIS MODULE
Overview. How can farmers and governments use ICT to increase agricultural productivity? At the local level, farmers
can use ICT to match cropping practices to climatic trends, use inputs and resources environmentally and sustainably,
and cope with productivity threats. At the national level, public officials can adjust policies to reflect the data collected
with ICT, predict food supplies, and target social programs or promote yield technologies. Integrating ICT into national
programs, creating a policy environment conducive for ICT investment, and designing digital systems that are compatible
and common can help improve access for users, but social and financial challenges remain. Powerful yet inexpensive
tools (and the financial support and training to use them) are not always available for small-scale producers in most devel-
oping countries, although some are being developed and piloted. Conducting impact studies and sharing pilot project
information can focus and speed the development of such types of ICT. The productivity goals and technologies used to
meet them must match the IT capacity in the focus location.
Topic Note 5.1: Achieving Good Farming Practices through Improved Soil, Nutrient, and Land Management. New
types of ICT help to characterize field conditions, sometimes at a very fine level of detail, and help farmers improve soil
and land productivity. Correcting past damages and ensuring future yields will require farmers, governments, and devel-
opment partners to mitigate the effects of climate change and environmental degradation. Significant, national progress
with some of these technologies will require appropriate legal and regulatory frameworks, monitoring systems, and
liability, access, and property rights laws and regulations, such as regulations on carbon limits.
Seeing-Is-Believing Project Improves Precision Farming
Improving Nitrogen Fertilization in Mexico
Monitoring Livestock to Prevent Pasture Damage
Topic Note 5.2: Preventing Yield Losses through Proper Planning and Early Warning Systems. ICT has consider-
able potential to help even small-scale producers prevent losses after investments have been made by identifying and
controlling pests and diseases, receiving timely weather information, and improving resource use. At the same time, ICT
allows governments and development partners to better monitor farm productivity, make more accurate projections, and
plan better for the future. ICT should be used to form two-way communication networks that gather and use local knowl-
edge. Advances in ICT are best suited to helping farmers improve their management of one or two farm components at
a time. Development partners and governments need to prioritize which yield technologies or agricultural strategies to
introduce. Incentives for partnering with the private sector in large-scale ICT projects may enable the investment to reach
smallholders. Taking stock of the technical capacity in rural areas will clarify infrastructure needs.
Radio Frequency Identification to Prevent and Treat Cattle Disease in Botswana
Digital Orthophoto Quads Form a Database for the Dominican Republic
Using Landsat to Assess Irrigation Systems in Mali
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
10 0 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
OVERVIEW countries, has stagnated in developing countries. Several
Agriculture is a vital sector for the sustained growth of regions, particularly East Asia, have seen rice yields decline by
developing countries, especially agriculture-based countries 10 percent owing to climate change. The factors contributing
such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa. Equally important, a to low productivity are vast, including the coevolution of pests
significant portion of the world’s population—86 percent of and pathogens, poor infrastructure, soil loss and degradation,
rural inhabitants—still depends on agriculture for employ- waterlogging and salinity, the impact of climate change, the
ment and sustenance (World Bank 2007). Demand for food lack of storage facilities, and weak markets. Low investments
is increasing, too (box 5.1). The Food and Agricultural Policy in agricultural research have reduced the scope for innovative
Research Institute (FAPRI) estimates that an additional 6 thinking and technological development that could address
million hectares of maize and 4 million hectares of wheat, these contributing factors and improve productivity.
plus a 12 percent increase in global maize and wheat yields, Despite the dim outlook for meeting global food demand
will be needed to meet demand for cereals alone in the in a sustainable manner, successful social, economic, and
next decade (Edgerton 2009). Demand for meat is expand- technological developments have resolved productivity and
ing as incomes rise, creating competition for land and other population issues in the past and may hold some hope for
resources. Increasingly unstable weather and temperatures the future. For example, over the past 40 years, annual global
require adaptive agronomic techniques to meet the demand. cereal production has grown from 420 million to 1.176 million
tons (FAO 2000). In the 20th century, yields in the United
The average maize yield per hectare in wealthy countries like States rose from 1.6 tons per hectare to 9.5 tons per hectare
Canada is three times higher than the average maize yield in (Edgerton 2009). Similarly large increases occurred around
low-income countries (FAO 2008). Growth in yields of rice, the world from the mid-1980s to early 2000s, when cereal
the primary staple for a significant number of developing yields rose by more than 50 percent (World Bank 2007).
BOX 5.1. The Food Security Challenge
The lack of food. Increasing agricultural productivity and access to food are the primary development goals of the 21st
century. Demand for food has reached new heights, and predictions of future demand are discouraging. Although growth
in global demand for cereals will slow in the coming 40 years, demand in Sub-Saharan Africa will balloon by as much as
2.6 percent per year.a The food-insecure population in Sub-Saharan Africa is also expected to increase by up to 32 percent
by 2020, whereas food insecurity is projected to decline in Latin America and Asia.b Overall, the world will need 70–100
percent more food by 2050, when the population increases to 9 billion.c
The lack of nutrients. The lack of food is not the only problem. Almost one billion people were undernourished in 2010,
and the lack of nutritious food has serious, long-term consequences for physical and mental health. More than one in
seven of the world’s people do not receive enough protein and carbohydrates in their daily diets. These people constitute
16 percent of the developing country population.d
The rising prices. Even with projected reductions in food insecurity, price spikes could keep staple food out of the reach of
poor people. The 2008 price spikes led to starvation in many countries, hitting the net food importers—typically the poorest
countries—the hardest. Ethiopia, Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda experienced maize prices that were twice as high as in the pre-
vious year. In Kenya and Mozambique, prices rose by 50–85 percent, according to the United States Department of Agriculture.
Sharp and unexpected price spikes can provoke riots and political instability, aggravating an already precarious food situation.
FAO recently predicted that the total costs of food imports would reach a near-record level in 2010, roughly US$1 trillion.e
The changing climate. Climate change has made the challenges of food security and rising prices even more stark.
Continued release of greenhouse gases increases the likelihood of unpredictable weather and temperatures. The severe
2010 droughts and fires in the Russian Federation, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan raised wheat prices substantially, leading
to grain embargos in multiple countries. Russia’s wheat exports fell by 13 million metric tons in one year.e Pakistan’s
floods are another warning of the serious climate changes facing developing countries. The loss of soil nutrients that
can accompany climatic extremes makes agricultural land less productive and adds to food insecurity. This prospect is
ominous, considering the consistent drop in cereal yields over the last decade.f
Source: Authors; (a) Rosegrant et al. 2006; (b) Shapouri et al. 2010; (c) World Bank 2007; (d) FAO 2009; (e) FAO 2010a; (f) Raloff 2010.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 101
Agricultural productivity rose around the world because more Nonetheless, land can be used more intensively as well as
land was cultivated and more land was cultivated more inten- more sustainably than in previous years, under innovative
sively. Most of the gains were made through intensification. farming practices like precision farming, integrated pest man-
Agricultural land expanded by only 11 percent between 1961 agement, agroforestry, and aquaculture (Burney, Davis, and
and 2007 (FAO 2009), but between 1960 and 2000, genetic Lobella 2010). Sustainable land intensification, in which yields
improvement and agronomic practices contributed to 78 per- rise but negative environmental impacts are curbed, provides
cent of the increase in production (Lal 2010). a potential answer to food security and poverty reduction chal-
lenges. The sobering consideration, however, is that this type
Bringing more land into production is infeasible, not only of intensification cannot occur unless 1.5 billion farmers—
because of the growing number of competing uses for land 85 percent of whom farm less than two hectares—obtain and
but because of the environmental and social costs involved. use these and other new technologies (World Bank 2007).
The drive for agricultural land has often resulted in deforesta-
tion, reduced biodiversity, and provoked other forms of envi- If the goal is to achieve sustainable increases in the global
ronmental degradation (Balmford, Green, and Scharleman food supply and economic growth, it is important to ask who
2005). It has also removed livelihood opportunities for some is responsible for producing food and commodities. Equally
communities and elevated greenhouse gas emissions crucial, it is important to ask if they have access to technology,
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). the knowledge to use it, and the purchasing power to acquire
it (Pretty et al. 2006). The world as a whole, all regions, and
Given these constraints, development partners and govern- all nations depend on farm households to provide food and
ments alike continually seek ways to raise crop yields with- by 2050 the world will ask farm households to supply double
out using additional land. Raising yield per unit of land was the current amount of food. Today, the farmers that the globe
observed during the Green Revolution of the 1960s and depends on are primarily smallholders with little access to
1970s, when the use of new cultivars (shorter, higher-yielding technology, limited knowledge, and few financial resources.
varieties of wheat and rice) and improved practices (such as Notably, 43 percent are women (FAO 2011). Box 5.2 expands
the use of fertilizer and irrigation) significantly increased crop on why gender is a critical consideration in designing and
yields throughout most of Latin America and Asia. A similar implementing ICT for agriculture productivity.
Green Revolution never arrived in Sub-Saharan Africa but is
sorely needed, given that almost all of the arable land is being Given that the future of food depends to such a great extent
cultivated (Govereh, Nyoro, and Jayne 1999). on small-scale agriculture, governments and development
BOX 5.2. Gender in Agricultural Productivity
Exploring how gender disparities affect agricultural productivity is at the forefront of the development agenda. Women play
significant and essential roles in agriculture in most developing countries. Their knowledge of local agrobiodiversity and conserva-
tion practices makes them prime assets in the sustainable intensification of agriculture. Women are also responsible for process-
ing most crop and animal products and are often more involved than their male counterparts in high-value production. In addition,
females play the chief role in care-taking, making them essential to household nutrition and children’s (especially girls’) education.
It is widely accepted that women invest more regularly, and to a greater extent than men, in the well-being of future generations.
These responsibilities add to a burdensome workload that involves time-consuming activities like fetching water and fuel.
Despite women’s key contributions to agriculture and rural development, they face major challenges in accessing inputs
like land, improved tools, and financial services. Cultural, social, and political barriers prevent women from using their assets
effectively in the field. Women are much less likely than men to purchase fertilizer or machinery. Women also have lower
incomes compared to men: They receive smaller salaries in formal positions, earn less from their livestock, and are typically
involved in seasonal, part-time work, if any.a As a result, their productivity is minimized and below that of male smallholders.
This situation represents a major challenge to increasing yields, because the majority of the world’s smallholders are
female (75 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa). Increasing agricultural productivity requires greater attention to gender dif-
ferences and women in general. FAO asserts that if women had better access to resources, they could increase yields
by 20–30 percent.a Development institutions should use ICT to address these issues—and of course make certain that
women can access ICT in the first place.
Source: Authors; (a) FAO 2011.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
102 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
partners are focusing on how to increase productivity in biophysical technologies appropriately (for example, nitrogen
sustainable ways through new technologies that smallhold- sensors can help to determine the correct fertilizer dose).
ers can use. Irrigation management, biotechnologies, pest
management and eradication, soil assessment, improved Similarly, governments or development partners may know
nutrient and land management, improved market access, that farmers are using new yield-enhancing technologies
and innovative storage facilities are all strategies for increas- but may not have the capacity to understand their effects.
ing smallholders’ agricultural productivity and improving Data-mining technologies, decision-support systems, and
their access to markets, but the challenge lies in ensuring modeling software that can clarify the effects and outputs of
that smallholders can obtain and use them. ICT provides an yield-enhancing technologies are among the most promising
incredible opportunity to reach farmers with the technical means of linking productivity and ICT.
information they require to increase yields.
This module describes how farmers and governments can
use ICT in their strategies to increase agricultural productivity.
Linking Technology for Agricultural Productivity with ICT
The applications are quite broad; ICT can be used to moni-
This module discusses two sets of technologies and the links tor pest thresholds in integrated pest management, provide
between them: relevant and timely information and agricultural services,
Yield technologies, like improved seeds, crops map agrobiodiversity in multiple-cropping systems, forecast
developed through biotechnology, tractors, pesticides, disasters, and predict yields. Crop losses diminish as farmers
fertilizer, and irrigation systems. receive relevant and timely information on pests and climate
Information and communication technologies, warnings through SMS technology.
like geographical information systems (GIS), wireless
sensor networks, data mediation software, and short Just as important, information can (and should) go both
messaging service (SMS). ways: Farmers can alert local governments or other relevant
actors about serious crop developments like disease symp-
Though they often work symbiotically at the farm level, and toms. This information makes it possible to avoid disasters
though both are often required to achieve the kinds of develop- more effectively and improves economic management, both
ment goals discussed in this module, the differences between of which are crucial for adapting to climate change.
them need to be understood. Figure 5.1 helps to clarify them.
ICT can also lead to more optimal use of inputs. Increasing
When farmers have access to biophysical and other yield- producers’ knowledge of how to use and manage water;
enhancing technologies, frequently they do not know how to equipment; and improved seeds, fertilizer, and pesticides has
use them effectively to address their productivity challenges strengthened of farm practices around the world. In the long
(for example, they may have fertilizer but not know the opti- run, and after collecting and analyzing multisite, multiyear data,
mal amount to apply). ICT can fill this gap in knowledge. Global ICT can be used to match cultivars to appropriate environments,
positioning systems (GPSs), radios, mobile phones, digital soil increase the understanding of genotype-by-environment inter-
maps, and other types of ICT give farmers information to use actions, and adapt cropping strategies to the changing climate.
FIGURE 5.1. Defining the Relationship Between Types of ICT and Yield Technologies
New technologies
(Tractors, seed, pest management, biotechnology)
Types of ICT Types of ICT
(GIS, GPS, radio, wireless, cameras) (Data mining, SMS, decision-support systems)
Source: Authors.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 103
Each of these applications increases the profitability of agri- Global positioning system (GPS) is a satellite-based
culture, reduces transaction costs, facilitates climate change positioning and navigation system with three basic
adaptation, and improves livelihoods for the rural poor. components: satellites that orbit the Earth, control and
monitoring stations on the Earth, and the GPS receiv-
Strategies to increase yields (including strategies to avoid yield ers owned by users. GPS receivers pick up signals
losses) include initiatives like soil nutrient assessments, weather from satellites, including precise orbital information
forecasting, and crop or animal protection. The types of ICT used (latitude, longitude, and ellipsoidal GPS altitude) for
to enhance these strategies are discussed in the topic notes. a given object or location, as well as the time. GPSs
can function in any weather and are free for public use
Topic Note 5.1, “Achieving Good Farm Practices through
(GPS.gov n.d.; GARMIN n.d.).
Improved Soil, Nutrient, and Land Management,” focuses on
Satellite imagery is an image of Earth taken from
soil testing technologies and tools that characterize field con-
satellites in orbit. There are four types of satellite
ditions, sometimes at a very fine level of detail. These tech-
imagery—spatial (size of surface area); spectral
nologies help farmers apply inputs appropriately and encour-
(wavelength interval); temporal (amount of time);
age the use of sustainable, profitable farming practices.
and radiometric (levels of brightness)—which
Topic Note 5.2, “Preventing Yield Losses through Proper capture a variety of variables about a given area of
Planning and Early Warning Systems,” focuses on how varying size. The resolution (in meters) of these
ICT can be used to identify and control pests and diseases, images depends on the satellite system used and
improve access to timely weather information, and improve its distance from Earth; weather can interfere mainly
the design and management of irrigation systems. with satellite systems utilizing visible wavelengths
of light. The cost of the technology depends on the
Various examples and innovative practice summaries are satellite system used, on whether new or archive
included; it should be noted that most of these practice imagery is purchased, and on possible georeferenc-
summaries come from pilot programs in Africa, where many ing to a coordinate system.
studies and projects are currently under way. Discussions of Aerial photography and orthophoto mosaic. An
lessons learned (covering crosscutting themes, challenges, aerial photo is an image (once a photograph, now a
and key enablers) conclude each note. Finally, the broad digital image) of the ground taken from an airplane,
types of ICT discussed in this module fall into three catego- helicopter, or radio-controlled aircraft at a given altitude.
ries. They are briefly defined in the subsections that follow.1 Aerial images are presented as an orthophoto mosaic
that is an alternative to a map. These images are higher
Remote Sensing Technologies: Raw Data Collection in resolution (deci-meter) than satellite images, proving
The first type of ICT that improves productivity includes tools useful for those who want more details of the terrain
that collect agricultural data: such as crop conditions or land use. In addition, modern
Geographical information systems (GIS) collect digital aerial photography is georeferenced—that is,
geographic data through computer hardware and each point has geographical coordinates, whereas sat-
software to capture, store, update, and display all forms ellite imagery requires georeferencing to be geographi-
of geographically referenced information by match- cally accurate and compatible with other geographi-
ing coordinates and time to other variables. Data sets cal data (for example, in GIS) (T. Jantunen, personal
formed by GIS constitute “layers” of informa-tion (for communication).
example, on topography, population size, or agricultural Laser scanning, or light detection and ranging
household income) that can be merged and analyzed to (LiDAR), is an active airborne sensor using a set of
establish relationships and produce maps or charts that laser beams to measure distance from an aircraft to
visualize geographical traits (GIS.com n.d.). features on the ground. Airplanes and helicopters
can be used for laser scanning. The data from laser
scanning are three-dimensional at very high accuracy,
1 This is not a comprehensive list of all of technologies discussed and they also allow ground elevation under the tree
in the module; nor is it a comprehensive list of all the types of canopy to be measured. The elevation accuracy of
ICT used to increase agricultural productivity. The technologies
reviewed here are the best known and most applicable to all
laser scanning data is much better than aerial photog-
yield technologies or agricultural strategies. raphy, which makes laser scanning useful for accurate
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
104 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
topographic mapping where elevation is critical. The WiFi. Wireless local area network that allows various
data can also be used to measure forest attributes devices to connect to the Internet remotely.
such as the height and density of trees and thus Knowledge management system. Electronic
the volume (above-ground biomass) of the forest system that provides relevant information as it is
(T. Jantunen, personal communication). requested.
It should be noted that extension agents and advisory pro-
Information Management Technologies: Making Sense
grams are essential to disseminate knowledge about the
of the Data
types of ICT discussed in this module, but this issue is not
The raw data collected, as indicated above, are fairly useless discussed in detail here; see Module 6.
without analytical tools, both human and inanimate:
Spatial modeling (among other models). Closely
related to spatial analysis or statistics, models are KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS
an attempt to simulate real-world conditions and
Increasing smallholder productivity is one the greatest
explore systems using their geographic, geomet-
tasks in this century. Although the dimensions of the chal-
ric, or topological properties. GIS (which can also
lenge are huge (growing populations, growing demand for
perform analysis), among other types of ICT, has
food, rising poverty, economic stagnation, worsening envi-
increased opportunities to create models that pre-
ronmental degradation, and climate change), the growing
dict occurrences like yield growth and ecosystem
number and sophistication of types of ICT offer some hope
degradation.
of raising agricultural productivity, even in smallholders’
Data mining is the extraction of stories or pat- fields. Variable rate technology, GIS, GPS, satellite imag-
terns from large amounts of data. Data mining can ery, and other data collection technologies have increased
find four major patterns: clustering (discovering the information available about soil health, weather con-
groups), classification (forming a structure), regres- ditions, and disease outbreaks, making very site-specific
sion (finding a function), and associations (finding farming possible. The key to using these technologies to
relationships). These analyses help to make sense of boost productivity is to remember that complementary
agricultural data collected by remote sensors (Palace technologies are needed: Data analysis technologies (such
1996). as data mining or mediation software) and information
Data mediation is the process of taking many dif- dissemination technologies (such as mobile phones and
ferent data sets to produce a single, coherent set radio) are essential for reaching smallholders effectively.
of information. Data mediation software organizes Dissemination also includes the crucial human component:
different types of data (such as hourly versus daily) Extension agents and farmers themselves must transmit
and synthesizes different approaches to classifica- and share knowledge.
tion (for example, the use of a different classifica-
tion vocabulary), helping to mediate differences As noted, productivity can be increased by expanding the
between data sources—particularly those on the land available for agriculture or by making the land already
Internet. in use more productive. Given current global circumstances,
it seems that the second option is more likely to close the
productivity gap and meet demand. In conjunction with tech-
Dissemination Tools: Getting the Results to the
nologies developed to raise yields, the use of the types of ICT
Stakeholders
discussed in this module may do just that. Mainstreaming
After analysis, the results must reach those who need to the use of ICT devices and techniques in agriculture will also
react to the findings, using tools like: enable them to be used more effectively. Integrating ICT
SMS. Text options that allow interaction between into national programs, creating a policy environment condu-
fixed-line and mobile phones. cive for ICT investment, and designing digital systems that
Radio. transmission of information through electro- are compatible and common can help improve access for
magnetic waves with low frequencies. users. Conducting impact studies and sharing pilot project
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 105
information is also critical to success with ICT, as more spe- and regions need to understand their potential uses to
cific lessons and impacts are learned (IICD 2006). increase agricultural productivity. These stakeholders must
learn how to tailor ICT solutions to macroeconomic needs
In closing, it is important to emphasize that the benefits as well as local agricultural bottlenecks, while exploring how
of ICT can be realized on multiple levels. As ICT capacities current infrastructure can harness relevant and appropriate
expand, local farmers and communities as well as nations technologies.
Topic Note 5.1: ACHIEVING GOOD FARMING PRACTICES
THROUGH IMPROVED SOIL, NUTRIENT,
AND LAND MANAGEMENT
TRENDS AND ISSUES ASSESSING SOIL PROPERTIES FOR CLIMATE-
RESILIENT AGRICULTURE
Residue removal, tillage, overuse of pesticides and fertilizers,
lack of crop diversity, overgrazing, overexploitation of natural Accurate soil analyses and improved farming practices are
resources, and deforestation have led to unhealthy soils and needed urgently because productivity gains are highest
yearly reductions in crop output. Greenhouse gases worsen in healthy soils and where pesticides, fertilizer, tools, and
the situation. Changes in atmospheric temperatures (rising in machinery are used properly. Instruments for mapping and
most developing countries) reduce crop performance. Above analyzing soil properties have proliferated in the last decade,
30°C, food and fiber crops develop at a faster rate, leaving increasing farmers’ knowledge about the soils on their farms
less time for nutrient assimilation, biomass accumulation, and the need for climate-resilient agricultural practices. The
and growth (Qaderi and Reid 2009). With lower yields and following section discusses these technologies and their
continued soil mismanagement, economic growth slows associated challenges in broad terms. Subsections discuss
drastically. This outcome is seen most vividly in countries like innovative technologies specifically related to nitrogen and
Rwanda, Tanzania, Mozambique, and Niger, where the costs carbon, two essential chemical components of successful
associated with the depletion of soil nutrients are estimated soil conservation and climate change mitigation.
to account for 12–25 percent of the agricultural share of GDP
(Drechsel et al. 2001). Digital soil maps are the most promising applications for visu-
alizing soil properties and the gravity of soil nutrient deple-
tion in a particular area.2 The International Working Group on
Good farming practices maximize the chances of a good har-
Digital Soil Mapping (WG-DSM) defines digital soil mapping
vest. In the past, conventional farming practices treated entire
as “the creation and the population of a geographically refer-
farms as homogeneous units even though they are often vari-
enced soil database generated at a given resolution by using
able in productive potential. This view is changing as technology
field and laboratory observation methods coupled with envi-
allows producers to measure soil nutrient status, crop potential,
ronmental data through quantitative relationships” (Rossiter
pasture health, and water-use efficiency at specific sites within
2004). A variety of technologies, including satellite remote
a field. Some types of ICT, like digital soil maps, provide exten-
sensors and cameras, can be used to survey soil and collect
sive soil information that can be stored and accessed online.
data to create digital soil maps.
GPS, satellite imagery, remote sensors, and aerial images help
to assess soil and land variations, and mobile applications and
These technologies collect soil information faster than
the Internet can disseminate the information quickly. With this
methods that require scientists to take soil samples from
array of types of ICT, precision farming can be employed to
optimize crop and livestock management. Until now, however,
these techniques have been concentrated in highly mecha- 2 For a diverse set of soil maps and data, see FAO, http://www.fao
nized, large-scale agriculture in industrialized countries. .org/climatechange/54273/en/).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
106 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
the field. In the latter methods, 80 percent of the work on Digital soil maps give practitioners a good picture of soil fertil-
soil mapping is dedicated to soil identification and boundary ity, vulnerability, and potential. Statistically testing soil maps
mapping, and only 20 percent of the time spent in the field against other data on human or policy variables (like demo-
is left to gather data on more complex and equally impor- graphics, land administration, farming practices, and climatic
tant topographical features, such as water-holding capacity changes) allows researchers and others to explore causes of
(Manchanda, Kudrat, and Tiwari 2002). Innovative data col- soil damage and forms of restoration.
lection technologies allow researchers to focus on a variety
of soil features (box 5.3). At a national or regional level, models created from digital
soil maps can be used to improve the selection of crops
Practitioners can take the soil data collected from the technol- and varieties (based on which crops and varieties can
ogies described in box 5.3 and use statistical methods, GIS, withstand stressful soil conditions). They can also be
and soil inference systems to form “predictive soil maps.” used in early warning systems (predicting crop failure,
These maps provide information on a soil’s capacity to provide for example), giving policy makers more time to react to
ecosystem services (such as its capacity to infiltrate water, shortfalls in domestic and export markets. In addition, fine-
produce crops, or store carbon), geographical representations resolution soil maps collected from a number of regions could
of soil constraints (such as aluminum toxicity, carbon deficit, enable climatologists, hydrologists, and crop modelers to
or subsoil restrictions), and a baseline for detecting subse- more accurately predict the effects of climate change or new
quent changes and assessing their impact (AfSIS 2009). technologies on food production and environmental health.
After soil data are collected, analyzed, and reflected in digital
BOX 5.3. Using Remote Sensors and Similar Tools soil maps, the results need to be shared with policy makers,
to Measure Soil Properties scientists, and especially farmers, who would otherwise
not have such detailed information on soil fertility in their
A number of types of ICT can be used to measure soil respective farming communities. Recent developments in
properties for creating digital soil maps. Through near- ICT increase the cost-effectiveness of soil maps: The spread
infrared and short-wave infrared sensors, satellites mea- of mobile phones and Internet access can transfer relevant
sure spectral reflectance in soils on the ground. Different soil information to even remote locations. Collaborating with
materials reflect and absorb solar radiation at a variety extension staff, farmers, agrodealers, and others, develop-
of wavelengths (see the figure). As a result, remote ment institutions can generate integrated soil fertility man-
sensors can measure soil color, texture (sand, silt, and agement schemes that improve a wide range of farming
clay), organic matter, moisture, salinity, and absorption practices. Box 5.4 explains how these results can be applied.
processes by detecting and observing the solar radiation
reflected (orbit sensing). Reflectance changes depend-
ing on the soil’s contents; for example, reflectance is
Challenges in Soil Mapping
low in areas with low silt content.a This technology gives
researchers an accurate assessment of soil properties to Although technological developments have improved
use in GIS and computer modeling for digital soil maps. access to digital soil maps, major technological and eco-
nomic challenges remain to be addressed in soil science
and development institutions. Broadly speaking, the impacts
Sun Satellites and outcomes of using digital soil maps in smallholders’
fields have not been captured. Soil assessment techniques
certainly contribute to the knowledge of production poten-
tial, but the transformative effects of this knowledge (such
as the adoption of new practices) have not been tested
empirically. Another technical challenge is that some digital
soil maps cannot be used in quantitative studies or in mod-
els of food production or carbon management. Such studies
generally require information on the functional properties
Soil Water Trees Buildings Crops
of soils—such as available water capacity, permeability,
Source: Authors, adapted from http://www.crisp.nus.edu.sg/~research
/tutorial/optical.htm and Hoffer 1978. and nutrient supply—which many mapping procedures do
not capture. Finally, individual soil map units are shown as
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 107
BOX 5.4. Collecting African Soil Data over Time to small-scale farming in most developing countries, although
Understand Soil Degradation Trends they are being developed and piloted. Even where technolo-
gies are free to the public (like online satellite images), the
The African Soil Information System (AfSIS) Project, led resolution is too low to capture soil characteristics on individ-
by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), ual plots. Without accurate, affordable soil analysis technolo-
collects data that will help address food insecurity and gies, resource-poor farmers are unlikely to adopt sustainable
environmental degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa. AfSIS and resource-optimizing farming practices. These practices
takes advantage of recent developments in ICT—digital are often more expensive in the short term and are typically
soil mapping, remote sensing, statistics, and soil fertil- more labor intensive. Finally, disseminating knowledge about
ity management—to analyze alternatives for protecting soil management and farming practices is challenging. Soil
and rehabilitating soil. The project also tests a variety science is complex. Soil restoration activities vary based on a
of farming techniques in an effort to discover the most diverse set of properties and the agroecological system. Even
effective methods to suit a wide range of conditions and digital soil maps that create opportunities for soil assessment
situations. The soil map website and mobile networks at the local level will require major dissemination and training
help to ensure that the data collected can reach the com- efforts by extension staff and other stakeholders.
plete spectrum of people involved in farming in Africa.
One objective of the AfSIS research, therefore, is to These challenges are being overcome as technologies
develop a baseline—an overview against which future advance. For example, GlobalSoilMap.net (along with others)
results can be compared—using standardized tests and is compiling data on digital soil properties around the world
procedures. By applying an agreed-on process of sam- into a comprehensive global map, providing access to a con-
pling and analysis, scientists can build a comprehensive sistent set of soil functional properties that define soil depth,
picture of soil health and degradation in an area of Sub- water storage, permeability, fertility, and carbon (information
Saharan Africa covering 42 countries and more than needed for more quantitative studies). Placing maps online
18 million square kilometers. helps address some of the challenges related to dissemina-
tion and smallholder relevance. GlobalSoilMap.net can be
It is well known that farmers in Africa typically use little
used in a variety of ways to suit a range of purposes: users
fertilizer compared with farmers in the rest of the world.
can view and manipulate the data online (for example, they
One important initiative in AfSIS investigates methods
can compare soil patterns with satellite imagery or land-use
farmers can use to improve the fertility of their soils. The
maps) or compose and print local maps by combining several
trials compare the effectiveness of different fertilizers
sources of online data (soil, climate, terrain, and infrastruc-
used on a range of soils, the rate of fertilizer application,
ture, among others). Development partners, soil scientists,
and the integration of leguminous crops in rotations.
and governments then have a firm basis for formulating poli-
AfSIS information will also be used in a wider interna- cies on land use and can share this information with farmers,
tional effort to produce a digital map of the world’s soil so that they can make management decisions such as how
resources (the Global Digital Soil Properties Map Initiative). much fertilizer to apply.
Scientists from soil information and agricultural develop-
ment institutes in Mexico, Canada, and the United States
work with the AfSIS team to produce the global map. NITROGEN MANAGEMENT
Sources: AfSIS 2009; ICT Update, “Farming From the Ground Up: In addition to digital soil maps, which are useful over larger
Scientists Use the Latest Technology to Produce a Digital Soil Map
of Africa,” April 29, 2010 (http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/ areas, nitrogen-sensor technologies are used to manage
Farming-from-the-ground-up, accessed July 2011). nutrients and prevent the overuse or underuse of fertilizer at
the level of a single field and crop. Ineffective use of nitrogen
fertilizers can limit crop biomass production and diminish car-
discrete polygons with definite boundaries. The data used bon content in the soil. Conversely, optimal nutrient manage-
in polygon maps are difficult to integrate with other forms ment raises yields, improves soil health (including soil carbon
of data, which are grid-based (like satellite images and digi- storage capacity), and maximizes the cost-benefit ratio. An
tal elevation models) (Hartemink et al. 2010) especially important consideration for smallholders is that
reduced or more accurately timed fertilizer applications
Social and financial challenges remain as well. Detailed yet can lower the cost of investing in fertilizer (see “Improving
inexpensive soil analysis tools are not widely available for Nitrogen Fertilization in Mexico”).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
108 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
A key component of soil management is to maintain appro- developed by the same company, is another example of
priate amounts of nitrogen in the soil to optimize crop sensory technology for nitrogen. This portable device, using
growth and yields. Under certain weather conditions and no subsidiary equipment, measures the chlorophyll content in
farming practices, nitrogen applied as fertilizer, which is the leaves of cereal and potato plants to monitor the need for
highly soluble, can be lost from the soil. Successful nitro- nitrogen. N-tester is being piloted with high-value, nitrogen-
gen management delivers enough nitrogen to the crop to demanding crops in a range of countries throughout Northern
optimize yield and profitability while minimizing losses to Europe, Southern Africa, and North America.
water and air. The timing, rate, and method of fertilizer
application largely determine this optimization (Scharf and The tools used for nitrogen-sensor technology have similar
Lory 2006). Over the years, agronomists have established challenges to those of digital soil technology. Databases and
how much nitrogen various crops require. Using these information support systems have been established to raise
measures, along with data collected from digital soil maps awareness and disseminate information to smallholders,
and other soil data, farmers can apply the right amount of but widespread access is limited by the extent of network
nitrogen at the optimal time to maximize crop performance. infrastructure and costs. Increasing the opportunity for com-
munication among various stakeholders involved in farming
Farmers in developed countries use technologies that measure (such as input dealers and extension agents) could improve
nitrogen levels and determine rates of fertilizer application. the spread of information.
Evidence shows that sensors like the Yara N-Sensor (http://
www.yara.co.uk/fertilizer/index.aspx), which measures light
SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN AGRICULTURE
reflectance from vegetation and adjusts fertilizer application
accordingly, can increase yields by up to 10 percent over stan- The amount of organic carbon present in soil depends on water
dard farm practices while reducing fertilizer costs and minimiz- availability, soil type, and other features. A primary factor affect-
ing environmental losses (image 5.1). N-tester, a technology ing the soil’s carbon content is agriculture. Soil carbon in forests,
crop land, or grazing pastures increases or decreases depend-
ing on inputs that are applied, rates of deforestation, and farm-
ing practices. In recent decades, producers’ poor land manage-
IMAGE 5.1. Nitrogen-Sensor Technology
ment practices have reduced soil carbon content. When soils
are tilled, organic matter previously protected from microbial
action decomposes rapidly and accelerates erosion and degra-
dation. Improved farming practices like leaving crop residues
in the field after harvest and no-till (where seed is planted
without plowing) maintain soil carbon at higher levels (Lal et al.
2004),3 but these practices are not widespread. No-till is prac-
ticed on only 5 percent of the globe’s cultivated land (Derpsch
and Benites 2003). The overwhelming majority of vulnerable
regions are those with lower organic carbon pools (figure 5.2).
High levels of soil organic carbon are crucial to agricultural
productivity and environmental conservation. Studies found
that increasing the pool of soil organic carbon by 1 x 109
picograms of carbon per hectare can boost yields 20–70 kilo-
grams per hectare in wheat, 10–50 kilograms per hectare in
rice crops, and 10–20 kilograms per hectare in bean crops
(Lal 2010). Despite rapid depletion of soil organic carbon,
projections show that carbon can be restored to about 60–70
percent of natural levels. A calculation relevant to developing
countries and poor producers is that they could grow up to
3 These practices incur some costs, especially in the short
term. More fertilizer may be needed before soil organic carbon
increases. Similarly, crop residues that are used for fuel or feed
Source: Yara International ASA 2004. will no longer be available (Lal et al. 2004).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 109
FIGURE 5.2. Organic Carbon, Share in Subsoils
Source: FAO.
40 million tons of additional food grain if they increased soil in agricultural land. The variability of sequestration is huge:
carbon by only 1 ton per hectare. This productivity increase observed rates of sequestration range from 0 to 150 kilograms
would be complemented by reductions in climate change of carbon per hectare in dry climates and 100 to 1,000 kilograms
and greenhouse gas emissions (World Bank 2010a). of carbon per hectare in humid areas (Lal 2004). This immense
variability implies that monitoring and verification technolo-
For these reasons, increasing soil carbon in farmers’ fields,
gies are essential to carbon sequestration efforts, especially
especially smallholders’ fields, is integral to agricultural sus-
those that result in financial exchanges, like carbon markets.
tainability and productivity. Soil carbon sequestration, or the
ICT is currently used to measure soil carbon sequestration for
process of transferring carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
large land spans. Digital soil maps are created (either through
into the soil through crop residues and other organic solids
remote sensors, satellite images, or models) to measure and
(like mulch), is one technique to restore carbon levels in soils.
monitor changes in carbon content. In-field assessment meth-
This transfer helps offset emissions from fossil fuel combus-
ods, neutron-scattering techniques, and satellite-normalized
tion and other carbon-emitting activities while enhancing
difference vegetation indexes (which use different tools to
soil quality, water-holding capacity, and long-term agronomic
measure carbon pools from afar), as well as microwave sen-
productivity (World Bank 2010a). Carbon sequestration can
sors like JERS or ERSSAR, can measure soil carbon and other
be accomplished through farming practices and land man-
chemical components in the soil. Computer-based models are
agement systems that add high amounts of biomass to soil
also employed to predict soil carbon content (Lal 2010). Most
while enhancing soil fauna activity.
of these methods and technologies, along with free satellite
Various technologies have been developed in recent years to data (such as that available through Landsat), are not detailed
measure, monitor, and verify carbon content and sequestration enough for small-farm monitoring.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
110 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
Despite the growth in sensor and information technologies for reduces their ability to participate in simple soil restoration
carbon sequestration and restoration, significant barriers pre- and conservation techniques. Recent World Bank projects
vent smallholders from being included in efforts to monitor and have shown that robust, clear, and cost-effective accounting
increase carbon sequestration. They include the poor develop- methods that outline how carbon is measured and quantified
ment of carbon markets to date, especially in agriculture, and are essential if projects designed for smallholders are to func-
the continuing problem of developing methods that smallhold- tion well, as is transparency in monitoring to assure farmers’
ers can truly access and afford. See the discussion below. participation (World Bank 2010a). In the future, development
institutions can focus attention on reducing the costs of ICT
for soil carbon (using coarse-to-medium resolution satellite
Poor Carbon Market Development, Especially in Agriculture imagery) (Smukler and Palm 2009), improving land rights and
Carbon markets were designed to provide incentives for enforceability (which will help regulate carbon trade), and
carbon sequestration and good farming practices. Since determining how financial incentives might be created (for
2002, developed countries and firms (primarily in Europe) example, through local carbon markets or payment for eco-
have traded carbon credits (Lal 2004). Trading carbon cred- system services) to ensure that smallholders can participate
its can encourage firms and farmers to increase soil carbon (box 5.5) (World Bank 2010a).
content and switch to more environmentally conservative
systems. Despite major strides in carbon market develop-
ment, serious challenges remain. A variety of economic and
scientific factors make it difficult to set prices for carbon BOX 5.5. Rewarding Farmers for Carbon Sequestration
credits, and assessing the biological and ecological rela- in Kenya
tionship between carbon storage and climate change is
even more daunting (Lal 2010; World Bank 2010a). Even The Kenya Agricultural Carbon Project is one of the first
more important, agriculture and livestock are not included examples of a soil carbon project that not only addresses
routinely in global carbon emissions treaties, which reduce issues like food security and climate change but also
even large firms’ incentives to participate in carbon seques- provides financial assistance to rural dwellers. Kenya is
tration. The Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto a prime candidate for carbon sequestration. Agriculture
Protocol does not include land management, which prohib- contributes to over 50 percent of gross domestic prod-
its carbon in agricultural soils from being traded in the Kyoto uct and one-third of the country’s population lives on
compliance market (World Bank 2010a). Current efforts to ecologically fragile arid land.
include agriculture in carbon trade institutions and policies
Funded by the World Bank and designed by the Swedish
will create financial incentives for governments, firms, and
Cooperative Center–Vi Agroforestry, the project, located
farmers in developing countries to use soil carbon seques-
in Western and Nyanza Provinces, addresses most issues
tration technologies.
faced on arid land. On approximately 45,000 hectares of
land, farmers adopt good practices that result in carbon
Accessibility and Affordability of the Technology sequestration. These practices are expected to generate
for the Poor 60,000 tons of carbon dioxide each year, increase yields,
and allow smallholder farmers to access the carbon mar-
Beyond poorly functioning carbon markets, other technical and
ket and achieve supplemental income through payment
social barriers prevent smallholders from adopting practices
of environmental services. Extension agents disseminate
that increase soil carbon levels. As noted, the types of ICT
technical knowledge, monitor and account for carbon
used to monitor, report, plan, and verify the amount of carbon
sequestered, and build capacity in farmers’ organizations.
sequestered are not appropriate for small farms. Monitoring
sequestration is easiest when the potential is large, or around Once carbon is sequestered, the credits will be sold to
100,000 carbon tons (Bajtes 2001). This limitation is a major the World Bank’s BioCarbon Fund. Project developers
challenge for carbon sequestration, given that “90 percent of expect that improved practices will result in an additional
the potential for carbon capture can be found in the develop- US$350,000 in 2011 for the communities involved. The
ing world, where land managers are largely poor farmers on project also promotes improved carbon management
small plots of land” (Smukler and Palm 2009,1). policies and strategies that improve agriculture produc-
tivity and sustainability at the national level.
Most available ICT not only inhibits smallholders from par- Sources: World Bank Ghana Office 2010; World Bank 2010d.
ticipating in carbon markets (or their development) but also
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 111
PERFECTING THE FARM THROUGH PRECISION raw data to a base station in the network, which transmits the
AGRICULTURE data to a central computer that performs analysis and extracts
Site-specific information that allows producers to make man- meaningful information. The base station acts as a door to the
agement decisions about discrete areas of the field is called Internet (typically a local area network), providing operators
precision farming or precision agriculture. Determining soil with remote access to the WSN’s data (Dargie and Zimmerling
and crop conditions to improve whole-farm efficiency—while 2007). Because the networks can have multiple sensory
minimizing impacts on wildlife and the environment—is the devices, the data can contain information on soil, climate,
crux of precision farming. It has been used successfully in chemicals, and other relevant subjects. The wide application of
many developed countries and has the potential to change WSNs allows them to be used not only in managing agriculture
agriculture dramatically in this century. but also in testing water quality, managing disasters, detecting
volcanic activity, and conducting environmental evaluations.
A variety of tools can be used in precision agriculture. GPS,
satellites, sensors, and aerial images can help to assess varia- These networks have several key features. First, WSNs have
tion in a given field. Farmers can match input applications and both active and passive sensors. Active sensors release a
agronomic practices with information received from these signal to detect a physical phenomenon like seismic activity
types of ICT. Precision agriculture has been applied to many and radar. Passive sensors, which transform a physical phe-
types of agricultural produce (hay, pasture, fruit, and cereals, nomenon into electrical energy, can detect a vast array of phe-
for example) and to fisheries under many different climatic con- nomena, including temperature, humidity, light, oxygen, and
ditions. Many of these efforts have been limited to large-scale chemicals (Dargie and Zimmerling 2007). Once sensors (for
farming because of the significant investment required, but example, temperature and soil moisture) are selected, node
applications under smallholders’ conditions are gaining visibil- locations are needed. Node density in developing countries
ity. Remote sensors, sonar-based technology, and other types should be scarce to better guarantee network connectivity for
of ICT can also improve aquaculture and livestock production. each node, reduce maintenance, and improve the network’s
reliability (though it will limit field-mapping techniques). In addi-
Essentially, precision farming provides a framework of infor- tion, because low-income countries often experience poor
mation for farmers to make management and production network and telecommunications connectivity, nodes will
decisions. It can answer questions pertaining to land prepa- often require a “buffer,” where data can be rerouted or stored
ration (including tillage depth and type, residue management in another node if connection to the base station fails. If an
and organic matter, and reductions in soil compaction); seeds active node fails to transmit data to the base, the network will
(planting date and rotation, density and planting depth, culti- “wake up” the closest neighboring buffer node (Kabashi et al.
var selection); fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, 2009), providing a “multihop transmission” (see figure 5.3 for
and other nutrients, as well as pH additives, application a basic illustration of the process).
methods, and seasonal conditions); harvest (dates, moisture
content, and crop quality); and animals and fisheries (pasture The design and implementation of WSNs requires a number
management, animal tracking, and school identification). of important features. The nodes should monitor the field(s)
continuously and for a significant period—it is best if main-
Precision Farming through Wireless Sensor Networks tenance is not required for at least one cropping season (or
Consistent advances in microsensing, smaller devices, and 4–6 months). The nodes should cover a wide area, be small
wireless communication (Kabashi et al. 2009) have resulted to prevent animal and human interference (like stealing), and
in new, comprehensive technologies that offer even more tolerate harsh environmental conditions like monsoons and
consistent and reliable systems for smallholders and policy extreme heat. Self-organization is also important: The net-
makers alike. Wireless sensor networks (WSNs), which com- work should automatically detect removed or newly arrived
bine many kinds of sensory data in one location, are some of nodes and adapt the messaging route (Depienne 2007).
the most innovative technologies available for farming and
agricultural planning. With the right components, these net- WSNs offer extensive benefits to farmers producing plants
works can form knowledge management systems, research and animals. Agriculturalists can detect problems at an early
databases, and response systems that can guide local com- stage and use more precise applications of fertilizer, water, and
munities and governments in agricultural development. pesticide. Pastoralists can use WSN to monitor grazing land
productivity. Placing wireless nodes in pastures allows farm-
A WSN is a group of small sensing devices, or nodes, that ers to move animals according to environmental indicators like
capture data in a given location. These nodes then send the soil moisture (see image 5.2 and IPS “Monitoring Livestock to
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
112 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
FIGURE 5.3. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), IMAGE 5.2. WSN Can Help Monitor the Quality of
Distributed Collection Architecture Pastures
DRK
GPRS
Server/KMS
GPRS
Source: Curt Carnemark, World Bank.
sense of the data is pertinent to the design. The data pro-
Bluetooth
duced can be used to improve crop management strategies
and even develop knowledge management systems where
best practices, crop disease identification, and planting tech-
niques can be disseminated to smallholders. It is important
to note, however, that although battery-operated nodes can
WSN function in areas with low power connections, changing bat-
teries in remote areas may prove difficult. Sleep settings and
well-designed energy-conserving hardware can help prevent
frequent battery changes (Dargie and Zimmerling 2007).
Source: Kabashi et al. 2009.
Note: DRK = Distributed Resource Kits GPRS = General packet radio service;
KMS = Knowledge Management System. Wireless sensors can also be used in aquaculture. Though
concentrated in developed countries, the use of under-
Prevent Pasture Damage,” in Topic Note 5.1). WSNs can also water wireless sensors has great potential for develop-
be used to manage irrigation and even to measure water quality. ing countries. Real-time information is crucial for effective
and profitable aquaculture. Akvasmart (see http://www
Governments and development partners also benefit finan- .akvagroup.com), a Norwegian firm specializing in commer-
cially from WSNs. The technology is fairly cheap; some cial fish farming, uses a wide variety of ICT tools, including
units cost as little as US$100 (Dargie and Zimmerling 2007). sensors. Sensor systems can monitor oxygen, tidal currents,
Developing countries often experience power deficiencies, temperature levels, fish behaviors, and water conditions.
but nodes that operate on batteries and alternative energy Interestingly, Doppler pellet sensors with a built-in camera can
sources do not need electricity. Data are collected more eas- detect uneaten food in fish cages (figure 5.4). With this infor-
ily. Whereas traditional methods of collecting agricultural data mation, signals from the sensors can stop the feeding, allow-
for national planning rely on occasional data logging by human ing for more specific care and feed purchase. The sensors can
operators, WSNs can collect continuous data with minimal also adapt to the accurate feeding rate of the fish over time.
human interaction. Even though some types of ICT, like mobile
phones and transceivers, can collect information faster in the Wireless sensors in water, just like those on land, can be coupled
field, they often have trouble cooperating with other software with other cameras for more precise readings. Akvasmart offers
or Internet servers (Fukatsu et al. 2004). WSNs integrate the a video image system called the Vicass Biomass Estimator that
Internet into the software, making the data more user friendly measures the height and length of the fish in the pond. These
and accessible. figures can be used to estimate the weight of the fish. Other
camera systems can be placed at the surface or underwater.
Data organization is vital to the output of WSN as well as other Monochrome cameras monitor the feeding process by “look-
remote technologies. If countries want to use WSN data ing up” from the bottom. Color cameras can monitor feeding
to construct yield models or predict climate shifts, making and inspect the pond or cages and surrounding environment.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 113
FIGURE 5.4. Akvasmart Doppler Pellet Sensor Network
Doppler Pellet Sensor flow chart
Doppler CSU AkvaControl Feed System
Source: Akvasmart (http://www.akvasmart.com/index.cfm?id=205626).
Note: CSU = Cage Sensor Unit.
Remote access cameras can tilt, zoom, and pan according to Agricultural information is typically captured spatially, making
the interest of the fish farmer. Each of these camera and wire- it more convenient to handle on a regional scale. GIS technol-
less sensor systems can be accessed from a personal computer ogy is promising because it allows for a more specific focus.
and in some cases the Internet, where the data are collected. Variable rate technology has helped to identify weed infesta-
tions and water stress in areas where crop pest levels are high,
which improves the targeting of chemical applications and
Precision Farming through Satellite Technologies
reduces waste associated with conventional blanket spraying
Precision farming through satellite technology utilizes three (Munyua 2007). In addition to the potential productivity gains
technologies: GPS (which can position a tractor within and cost savings, precision farming through satellite technol-
a few feet in the field), GIS (which can capture, manage, ogy enables governments to study how agricultural practices
and analyze spatial data relating to crop productivity and affect the ecosystem and to develop better regulations.
field inputs), and variable rate technology (which provides
site-specific, “on-the-fly” estimates of field inputs for Once data are collected through GIS, scientists can interpret the
site-specific application). The three types of ICT combined images and analyze the soil and crop conditions to achieve bet-
provide information that allows producers to apply inputs, ter results. Although satellite imagery cannot detect soil quality
such as fertilizer and insecticide, precisely where they are directly as sensors can, it can record soil properties like light
needed (figure 5.5). reflections and color. As crops start growing, precise pictures
of the crops are captured more efficiently. The condition of the
fully grown plants can then provide a clearer picture of the qual-
FIGURE 5.5. Precision Farming through Satellite ity of the crops and what they require for a successful harvest.
Technologies
Based on soil and crop conditions, farmers can estimate the
precise amounts of seeds, pesticides, and fertilizer they need;
organize the distribution of inputs; plan which crops to plant in
Satellites
which areas; and make new investments. Knowing the size
and shape of fields can also help rural communities plan for
GPS + GIS future developments and investments like mechanization.
Small, fragmented, or awkwardly shaped fields are difficult to
work with a tractor or even animals. Above a certain minimum
field size, it becomes cost-effective to use a tractor. Precision
Automated machine
farming provided through satellite imagery can determine this
threshold before a community invests in new equipment. If an
Large farming area
area is suitable for mechanization, the benefits can be exten-
sive. A GPS system that controlled tractor steering in Sudan
Source: Adapted from GIS Development Net. cut planting time on the farm by 60 percent (Munyua 2007).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
114 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
Precision farming must also rely on an information dissemi- and development partners to mitigate the effects of climate
nation process. Many rural areas in developing countries are change and environmental degradation on soils. With the
isolated from sources of new agricultural information; not expanding reach of ICT, achieving this goal is more likely in
surprisingly, farmers in these areas use few modern technol- both developed and developing countries, but challenges
ogies. ICT is beginning to play an important role in providing remain in using ICT to improve soil and land health. They
advisory services in real time to farmers, which helps them are discussed in the following paragraphs, along with some
plan and manage production, postharvest activities, and means of preventing or overcoming them.
marketing more efficiently (see Module 9). Online informa-
tion, consultation, and land suitability maps with Web-based To begin with, these technologies are relatively new, even in
systems can play an important role in improving and updating developed countries, and their potential is just being realized
knowledge for producer organizations. in developing countries. National awareness of the impor-
tance and benefits of soil fertility takes time to develop. As
Management and information-sharing tools are also neces- with carbon sequestration, using ICT to improve and maintain
sary for effective precision farming based on satellite tech- the fertility and productivity of land will require new legisla-
nologies. RiceCheck and the online knowledge bank at the tion and policies outlining their use and providing incentives
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) (http://irri.org to achieve their benefits. Appropriate legal and regulatory
/knowledge/training/knowledge-bank) are two of the most frameworks, monitoring and verification systems, and liabil-
advanced knowledge management tools in rice production ity, access, and property rights laws and regulations, such as
today. Collecting, analyzing, and sharing information on regulations on carbon limits in some countries, are necessary
individual plots has been difficult, but through RiceCheck, to make significant, national progress. Though not all technol-
farmers can now monitor crops, have an online group meet- ogies require such stringent legal frameworks, government
ings (often with agronomists), and compare their yields to involvement—specifically at the national policy level—often
regional benchmarks for high yields (for a description of raises the visibility and adoption rates for new types of ICT.
these benefits in Malaysia, see box 5.6). Through IRRI’s site,
connected farmers can also make a checklist for their daily Testing methods for soils vary and are still in development.
activities and review plans for the entire growing season. For this reason, results are not always reliable and may be
difficult to harmonize. Continued research—particularly in
poor countries, where research is typically limited—will help
LESSONS LEARNED to address these challenges. Developing countries also lack
This topic note primarily reviews soil and land productivity, the financial footing and human capital to use expensive
particularly for the planning and preplanting stages of the technologies that require reliable operation and maintenance,
production cycle. Correcting past damages and ensuring even more so in harsh conditions. Strategic and long-term
future yields, however, will require farmers, governments, investments are needed to sustain improvements in soil and
land productivity, especially if they are used in rural areas,
BOX 5.6. Web-Based GIS for Paddy Precision Farming, where farmers who may be required to maintain ICT devices
Malaysia have little time to do so.
In Malaysia, an interactive, Web-based GIS provides Farmers may not have a contemporary perspective on the
information for precision farming and mapping in the environment because they have received little new informa-
Sawah Sempadan rice-growing area in Tanjung Karang, tion. They may not have access to the country’s environ-
Selangor (Che’Ya et al. 2009). The system allows farmers mental regulations (for example, prohibiting the burning of
to access information about rice cultivation in their area. charcoal) or export requirements (such as limits on pesticide
Because it uses open source software, the system is residues). Extension education and campaigns using types of
cost-effective for users. Farmers can print variable-rate ICT like radio will help farmers to make decisions related to
fertilizer application maps and historical data about yield environmental policies and strategies.
per paddy lot in previous seasons. This helps farmers
Despite the benefits of soil technologies, smallholders have
analyze and reflect on the best strategy for the coming
limited access to credit to use them. Even if they have access
growing season. Farmers can share information, espe-
to soil maps or nitrogen estimates, their adoption or adjust-
cially on fertilizer recommendations. A Web presence
ment rates might be low. The inputs required to change prac-
also allows policy makers to access rice information.
tices are often out of reach in poor rural areas. New credit
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 115
insurance schemes or financial rewards (like carbon markets) When the ICRISAT team acquires a very-high-resolution
may reduce these monetary concerns. image (VHRI), they use computer software to enhance it,
adding extra layers of information, and analyze data that
Soil ICT devices are not only new but complex. Farmers will would be useful to farmers, such as variations in soil fertility,
require training and education to learn how to use them. land size, and shape. Although a single VHRI image costs
Electronic education (e-learning) is an option, but infrastruc- US$1,000–US$1,500, this method of analysis is often still
ture must be considered. In some cases, technologies func- cheaper than visiting every individual farmer’s field to collect
tion well with low bandwidth (WSNs are one example), but samples. Partnering with local NGOs and extension officers,
in others they do not (the RiceCheck Web interface is an the SIBWA team visits the project sites to verify their find-
example). The productivity goals and the technologies used to ings with the farmers. ICRISAT further analyzes the images
meet them must match the IT capacity in the focus location. using feedback from field research to build a database that
they can use to develop an accurate map of each farm.
Finally, the lack of institutional capacity poses other challenges
for increasing soil and land productivity. Governments that want SIBWA partners translate the soil and image information into
to incorporate the use of carbon markets or digital soil maps local languages and take the detailed maps back to individual
into agricultural policy will have to make major adjustments and farmers, who can use them to plan and manage their crops
investments in human resource capacity. Development part- for the coming season (image 5.3). The maps show areas of
ners like the World Bank can support some of these efforts. low or high fertility inside each field. With an overview of soil
and crop conditions, farmers can organize the distribution of
fertilizer throughout their fields and estimate which crops will
produce the highest yields. The SIBWA team works with the
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Seeing-Is-Believing Project Improves Precision farmers to determine the area of each field, making it easier
Farming for farmers to calculate the amounts of seeds, pesticides,
and fertilizer required for each field.
Small-scale farmers in West Africa are experiencing unpre-
dictable changes in their agricultural land. Soils are infertile in Another advantage of VHRI is that it shows the direction of fur-
many areas, reducing agricultural productivity and spurring fear rows on the field and areas where farmers can plow along the
and uncertainty about future livelihoods among farmers. In the contour lines of the land. Using this imagery, farmers monitor
past few years, many West African farmers have abandoned whether they were following the contour lines accurately and
their land, which had been in their families for generations. efficiently to reduce soil erosion. SIBWA also involved local
NGOs specialized in technology and extension services in
It is imperative that smallholders obtain the knowledge about
each community to help farmers make use of the data.
changing soil and crop patterns that can help them manage
their farms. The Seeing-Is-Believing West Africa (SIBWA)
IMAGE 5.3. Farmers Learn to Use Images of Their
Project has been assisting farmers with accurate satellite
Farms to Improve Productivity and
information and imagery of their farm fields to help them
Resource Management
improve their agricultural practices.
In June 2009, SIBWA started working with six farming
communities in this region—three in Mali, and one each in
Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Niger. SIBWA is funded by the
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation through AGCommons, with
supplementary funding from the United States Agency for
Internal Development and Germany’s Federal Ministry for
Economic Cooperation and Development (CODE-WA project).
Led by scientists at the International Crops Research Institute
for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), the SIBWA team pro-
vided farmers with very-high-resolution satellite images (such
as those on displayed on Google Earth) of their land. To get
a more precise picture of soil fertility, scientists can analyze
the images when the crops are at their peak growth stage. Source: Work funded by AgCommons, a program executed by the CGIAR.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
116 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
Data from projects like SIBWA can be used to develop growth (I. Ortiz-Monasterio, personal communication). Though the
and yield models by various means. Some rely on computer cost of the diagnosis is expensive for smallholders, they
simulation and include weather-related variables; others are needed significantly less fertilizer to maintain yields. Farmers
statistical estimation models based on multiple regression who did not use the sensor applied 219 kilograms of nitro-
equations. While no single model has proven satisfactory in gen per hectare for yields of 6.92 tons per hectare; those
all conditions, both low- and high-resolution types of imagery who used the sensor applied as little as 158 kilograms of
have benefits extending beyond the decisions of individual nitrogen per hectare for yields of 6.91 tons per hectare. For
farmers. Low-resolution yield prediction can benefit food a 100-hectare farm, these savings add up to approximately
importers and exporters as well as international and govern- US$7,500 per harvest (CIMMYT 2007).
ment agencies concerned with global markets and prices. In
The technology not only reduces costs but also lessens envi-
this regard, data collected from imagery in localized projects
ronmental damage: Nitrogen that washes into the ocean or
will be useful in years to come. Although it remains too early
local streams can harm ecosystems. CIMMYT is now working
to analyze the effects of SIBWA, the team expects that the
on a prototype pocket sensor that costs US$100–US$200,
farmers will use the data when planning for the new growing
which would facilitate more affordable nitrogen testing ser-
season (Traoré 2010; ICRISAT 2010).
vices for farmers in developing countries (I. Ortiz-Monasterio,
personal communication).
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Improving Nitrogen Fertilization in Mexico
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center Monitoring Livestock to Prevent Pasture Damage
(CIMMYT) recently piloted a nitrogen sensor on 174 wheat
Animal production in Australia traditionally required animals
plots in Mexico’s Yaqui Valley, in collaboration with the State of
to be restrained to a particular location. The cost of installing
Sonora, Oklahoma State University, and Stanford University
fences and maintaining them constitutes around 30 percent
(image 5.4). A handheld device with an infrared sensor cap-
of the cost of rearing one animal. Controlling animal location
tures light to measure biomass and red wavelengths to mea-
implies that farmers need to know about pasture conditions,
sure chlorophyll content. These two measures determine
because overgrazing leads to land erosion and nutrient deple-
how much nitrogen a plant requires and thus the appropriate
tion. With this in mind, researchers implemented a static and
amount of fertilizer to apply (CIMMYT 2005).
mobile node and camera network to remotely monitor the
In Sonora, farmer-advisers purchase the sensors for US$5,000 condition of grass throughout a field.4 Using solar panels,
and charge 7 pesos per hectare to diagnose farmers’ crops which generate much higher energy outputs compared to
what is needed, the team observed soil moisture, greenness
level, grass height, and grass coverage.
IMAGE 5.4. Infrared Sensor Technology Increases
the Cost-Efficiency of Nitrogen Fertilizer Consisting of an Atmega 128 microcontroller at 8 MHz, a
Applications in the Yaqui Valley Nordic NRF903 radio transceiver with a bit rate of 76.8 kilobits
per second, a temperature sensor, and a soil moisture sensor,
the commercially available static node (ECH20 capacitance-
based) takes readings every minute with a ±2 percent error
rate. Pictures of the pasture, troughs, and gates help to guide
herdsmen in cattle movement. Additional mobile nodes con-
nect directly to the cattle (around their necks). These nodes
measure the livestock’s speed and turning rate, which
improves tracking capacity.
With these two technologies, scientists can build generic
models of herd movement so that herdsmen can better man-
age resources in smaller pastures. Though the technology
is focused on developed countries, these types of ICT hold
great potential for developing countries.
Source: Iván Ortiz-Monasterio, CIMMYT. 4 This section draws on Wark et al. (2007).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 117
Topic Note 5.2: PREVENTING YIELD LOSSES THROUGH PROPER
PLANNING AND EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS
TRENDS AND ISSUES efficiently use the total amount of pesticides employed in crop
ICT can help to prevent and reduce losses in crops through protection. Farmers often are unaware of or cannot accurately
well-planned investments and disaster warnings or time- assess plant diseases, which may reduce agricultural produc-
sensitive alerts. Water management and disease or pest tivity and raise costs if pesticides are overused. Concerns for
prevention are crucial to increased productivity. Advances in animal health are similar. Herdsmen and fishermen spend
ICT—such as GPS, GIS, mediation software, mobile phones, resources and time treating sick animals or identifying disease
and satellite imagery—have improved smallholders’ ability to outbreaks. Using various types of ICT, producers can better
adjust farm strategies and reduce risk. At the same time, identify, track, and protect their crops, animals, and livelihoods.
these advances allow governments and development part-
One example involves fishing communities, which face major
ners to better monitor farm productivity, make more accurate
challenges in both wild and managed fisheries. They can use
projections, and plan better for the future.
ICT to prevent fish diseases and protect local fishing grounds
Water is a primary topic in this thematic note. Although water from unwanted visitors. Illegal, unregulated, and unreported
is scarce and is becoming more so due to climate change, fishing poses serious obstacles to sustaining fish production.
many water resources in developing countries are simply not Tools like GPS and mobile phones help fishers and govern-
exploited. In fact, the vulnerability facing agriculturalists in ments locate poachers and report abuse (image 5.5). The South
most of Africa is not the result of more variable rainfall but of Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency, for example, now has a vessel
failure to access the water that is available. Only 2–3 percent monitoring system, which observes fishing grounds throughout
of Africa’s water is used (Woodhouse 2009). Despite current the area, identifying and fining illegal fishers. The Sustainable
efforts to tap water resources and adapt to climate change, Fisheries Livelihoods Program has helped Guinean fishing
competition for water for household and industrial use will communities perform similar policing; local fisherman used
steer water away from agriculture over the next few years in hand-held GPSs to calculate the position of poachers and then
almost 60 percent of the world’s most vulnerable countries radio them to the coastguard. Benefits of these technologies
(Ruttan 2002). Weather data, along with improved irrigation improve productivity indirectly by protecting the fish population.
management and system engineering, are more important In Guinea, for example, incursions by industrial criminal vessels
than ever. went down from 450 to 81 after just two years (FAO 2007).
This note also discusses disease and pest control. Pests and Protecting farm animals from disease and other ailments also
pathogens continually evolve, making it particularly difficult improves through ICT (see IPS “Radio Frequency Identification
for small-scale farmers to increase productivity. Without
inputs like pesticides and the knowledge to use them cor-
IMAGE 5.5. Mobile Applications Help to Monitor
rectly, pests and diseases reduce global harvests by upward
and Protect Fishers
of 30 percent for maize, rice, and potatoes (Oerke 2006). ICT
devices like mobile phones and radio frequency identification
technology are making it easier for farmers to know which
diseases or pests to watch for and how to handle them if
they are found. Pest eradication takes national and collective
efforts. With ICT, governments find it easier to reduce crop
losses from flies or rodents and livestock losses from dis-
ease like bovine spongiform encephalopathy (less formally
known as “mad-cow disease”).
PREVENTING DISEASE AND PEST DAMAGE
Plant protection is important to save crops from diseases and
pests. Increasingly, ICT is used to help farmers reduce or more Source: Edwin Huffman, World Bank.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
118 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
to Prevent and Treat Cattle Disease in Botswana.” in Topic BOX 5.7. Crowdsourcing Prevents Cassava Losses
Note 5.2). Sensors and other remote technologies can be in Tanzania
implanted in an animal, providing herdsman with the exact loca-
tion, health, and situation of livestock like cows, pigs, or sheep. In Tanzania’s Lake Zone, farmers from 10 districts who
In addition to enabling easier identification and tracking, in the participate in the Digital Early Warning Network have
future, some instruments may offer animal response systems. been trained to recognize symptoms of cassava mosaic
disease and cassava brown streak disease. Armed with
ICT is now being used in integrated pest management systems mobile phones, farmers “crowdsource,” or send out
to improve farm management in a variety of ways. The Low monthly text messages, to researchers about disease
Frequency Array Project (http://www.lofar.org) piloted in the incidence and receive disease control advice in return.
Netherlands uses sensors to monitor and treat potato crops When more than 10 percent of the members of a group
at risk for the fungus Phytophthora infestans, which causes spot a disease that was not present previously or has
late blight. Because the development of late blight depends increased in prevalence, the project team visits the area
heavily on climatic conditions (OECD 2009), capturing climatic to verify the information and advise farmers what to do.
conditions like humidity and leaf temperature can help farm- Each group of farmers—60 overall—is given a topped-up
ers prevent an onset of the disease by optimizing fungicide phone card to text researchers. They meet monthly to
applications when climatic conditions warrant it. The project discuss observations and send the text messages. The
used three instruments: sensor nodes, a server, and a decision network is part of the Great Lakes Cassava Initiative,
support system. One hundred and fifty sensor nodes, called which aims to improve the livelihoods of more than a
TNodes, send soil information every 10 minutes through a million farmers in six countries of the Great Lakes region
TinyOS operating system to the server where data are stored by tackling issues that affect cassava yields.
(Baggio 2004). Users can access this information directly, or Source: Ogodo 2009.
receive texts or emails from the linking decision support sys-
tem (LOFAR n.d.). The decision support system gathers infor-
mation from the server along with other meteorological data pest phenology models for 22 insects, 2 diseases, and 2 crop
from weather stations to produce maps of the temperature species (Bajwa and Kogan n.d.). Pest alerts and control tech-
distribution within fields. The system sends alerts to the farmer niques are announced and shared through social media like
that identify the patches of land most susceptible to the fungus. Twitter and email subscriptions. Similar alerts can be carried
out through SMS in developing countries (box 5.7).
Information technologies are vital for disseminating crop
protection advice, but “crowdsourcing,” (using ICT to lever-
age widespread collaboration) can prevent diseases from WEATHER FORECASTING
spreading in the first place. If sufficient numbers of farmers Since 2000, new types of ICT have given farmers and partners
can text information on potential crop disease symptoms to better opportunities to manage climate risk. WSNs and satellite
researchers and receive appropriate disease control advice, images capture raw data that can be transformed into informa-
researchers can also track and potentially forestall epidem- tion useful for agriculturalists, helping them optimize decisions
ics. If farmers or cooperatives have access to the Internet, related to choosing crops (based on water requirements), plant-
online bulletin boards or mailing lists can spread informa- ing (timing and planting density), buying inputs, and applying fer-
tion on disease incidence quickly. Online decision support tilizer. Climate information can also improve insurance markets.
systems5 that link data to possible action, such as the one
used in the Low-Frequency Array Agro Project, are becom- Remote sensors are presently the chief source of climate
ing more popular because clients require minimal software, data. FAO’s Global Information and Early Warning System
which reduces management and distribution costs. on Food and Agriculture tracks data and trends related
to food security, price risks, and natural disasters. FAO
Additionally, it is useful to link weather information to pest or dis- analysts monitor climate conditions and changes around
ease development over time. The Pacific Northwest Integrated the world using four satellites—FAO’s ARTEMIS (Africa
Pest Management website, through Oregon State University Real Time Environmental Monitoring Information System),
(http://oregonstate.edu/dept/nurspest/), collects temperature Europe’s METEOSAT, the United States’ NOAA (National
and precipitation data from 380 weather stations and links it to Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), and Japan’s GMS
(Geostationary Meteorological Satellite). Every 10 days,
5 See http://www.dssresources.com. ARTEMIS and METEOSTAT provide images that help to
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 119
IMAGE 5.6. Satellite Image of Vegetation Changes from 1998 to 2004 (Red Indicates Decreasing Vegetation
and Green Indicates an Increase)
Source: FAO (http://www.fao.org/giews/english/spot4/sea/index.htm).
estimate rainfall for Africa. FAO maintains a database of producers could not obtain weather information on time to
these images from the past two decades, which provides cope with conditions that might harm their orchards. (See
an opportunity to monitor significant changes in weather the IPS, “Weather Forecasting Reduces Agricultural Risk in
over time (image 5.6). GMS produces similar information for Turkey,” in Topic Note 3.1.)
Southeast Asia as well as information on crop densities at
the subnational level (FAO 2010b). Beyond reflecting past BOX 5.8. Modeling India’s Groundnut Yield through
trends and predicting future ones, these satellites and others Climate Information
can provide up-to-date forecasts for farmers. These satellite
images and others are free on FAO’s website. In India, rainfed agriculture supports more than 60 per-
cent of the population. In the semiarid Anantapur region,
This proliferation of weather information has made mediation rain typically falls from May to November, yet it varies
software extremely relevant to the productivity discussion. significantly from week to week, resulting in frequent
For example, MetBroker (http://www.agmodel.org/projects wet and dry spells. If a dry spell occurs at a critical plant-
/metbroker.html), software that pulls weather data from vari- ing stage, groundnut yields decrease significantly.
ous sources and “hides” the differences between them, is
run on a computer permanently connected to the Internet. Attempting to identify the most promising planting times,
From 5,000 stations from 14 databases in 7 countries, researchers used the PNUTGRO model to simulate
MetBroker averages forecasting data and makes it consis- groundnut growth and yield. The model included veg-
tent (Laurenson, Otuka, and Ninomiya 2001). This approach etative and reproductive development, carbon balance,
has two benefits: Researchers and modelers can access nitrogen balance, and water balance. The team collected
data from various harmonized sources for growth prediction climate data from the Anantapur Agriculture Research
models, and farmers can receive accurate, real-time weather Station, which has maintained records since 1962. Using
information to make farming decisions. Clients—whether maximum and minimum temperatures, radiation, and
farmers or modelers—can request a wide array of climate- rainfall data over three decades, they found that the period
related information from MetBroker, including rainfall predic- between July 15 and August 10 is associated with very
tion, air temperature, solar radiation, soil temperature, and high yields. Even more important, planting in two addi-
leaf wetness (Laurenson, Otuka, and Ninomiya 2001). Some tional periods was also associated with high productivity,
mobile technologies permit farmers to access MetBroker suggesting that missing the earlier planting time does not
and request information on weather conditions for a certain mean that yields will be low for the entire season.
region, specific stations, and for a restricted period, even Like all models, this one is limited: it cannot be used to
with low bandwidth. MetBroker provides an option for sum- assess the profits or risks associated with management
marizing data as well; users can opt to receive daily tempera- strategies in times of crisis (like the El Niño weather pat-
tures instead of hourly ones or receive expert summaries of tern). Nonetheless, analysis of yields associated with differ-
weather information instead of complete data sets. ent climatic conditions can help to improve farming strate-
gies for specific seasons and raise red flags for potential
Another weather forecasting service, this one in Turkey, weather disasters after investments have been made.
relies on simple SMS information to help farmers prevent Source: Gadgil, Seshagiri Rao, and Narahari Rao 2002.
losses to frost and pests in their orchards. Prior to the project,
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
120 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
Mediation software was also essential for modeling ground- service online, he or she can request information and specify
nut yields in India (box 5.8). Among other things, the models the method to receive it (via text, email, or recorded voice
can help identify the best times to plant to evade drought. message). Eventually, the service will offer climatic informa-
tion in Spanish, making it easier for native Spanish speak-
Other forms of electronic weather information have potential ers to make interpretations and decisions (Lester 2010). In
to increase productivity, primarily by reducing risk. Many of the future, similar types of ICT can be used in rural areas of
these systems are being tested in OECD countries. A system developing countries.
called eWarning (http://www.landbrugsinfo.dk/Planteavl/Sider/
pl_11_543.aspx) was created through PlanteInfo (www.plant-
einfo.dk), a Danish initiative supporting decision making in IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT
national plant production. eWarning provides farmers with real- Major water resource constraints and climate change make
time weather information sourced by the AgriMeteorological it increasingly important for developing countries to develop
Information System and Danish Meteorological Institute. In sound water-use policies and well-functioning, well-managed
this particular system, weather information, including precipi- irrigation systems. Innovative water management systems
tation and temperature, is divided into 10-square-kilometer and related types of ICT are helping to improve water use
plots to provide farmers with specific climatic details on spe- and expand intensive irrigation facilities. Though the number
cific plots. of technologies for irrigation is vast, this section focuses on
remote sensors, satellite imagery, and GPS cameras. Each
In eWarning and other systems, farmers request information of these technologies helps to connect the farmers to irriga-
through SMS in two forms. Push-type messages are regular, tion infrastructure and guide governments in designing and
automatic updates obtained through a user subscription. Pull- implementing irrigation strategies.
type messages are sent only when a user requests them.
When the user sends a letter (like “P”) in a message, the ICT can help address some of the challenges inherent in
eWarning system will respond with information on precipita- creating and sustaining irrigation systems in rural areas. The
tion for the user’s geographical location. Surveys show that functioning of water-user associations and their productivity
the push-type message is most popular, providing farmers improve with the use of ICT devices, like mobile phones and
with an hourly forecast up to four times per day (Jensen and personal digital assistants (PDAs), which increase the quality
Thysen 2003). and frequency of producers’ communication and interac-
tion. Sharing information about emergency maintenance
A Yakima software firm, in partnership with Washington State problems, entitlement rights, and management schedules
University, is customizing a weather website for specific is facilitated through ICT, which allows real-time responses
locations to provide weather alerts to farmers in the United even between users from distant communities.
States. These alerts include frost warnings, wind speed with
recommendations for pesticide spraying, and information Digital orthophoto quads (DOQs), a feature of GIS, are
on disease outbreaks. After a farmer has registered for the digital maps that combine the geometric information of a
IMAGE 5.7. Two Examples of Digital Orthophoto Quads
Source: United States Geological Survey.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 121
regular map with the detail of an aerial photograph (Neale Mali (see IPS “Using Landsat to Assess Irrigation Systems
2003) (image 5.7). DOQs provide spatial illustrations of ter- in Mali,” in Topic Note 5.2). This irrigation scheme, one of
rain, including elevation and property boundaries, which can the largest is West Africa, produces 40 percent of Mali’s rice
help delineate irrigation canals and drainage systems. Given crop and is key to national food security.
the high and increasing value of rural land, it is worth noting
that the resolution and georeferencing possibilities of most An equally intriguing ICT for irrigation management, specifi-
satellite remote sensing systems are not yet adequate to cally for monitoring the construction of irrigation systems, is
demarcate property accurately. Nonetheless, achieving GPS cameras. The cameras are relatively cheap and user
greater accuracy and confidence in property boundaries is friendly; when a project worker photographs infrastructure,
essential to limit the land disputes that ensure when new the camera records the date, time, longitude, and latitude
irrigation schemes are designed and built. DOQs can help automatically.
to achieve this higher level of resolution, but sometimes
Afghanistan’s national Emergency Irrigation Rehabilitation
at higher costs than other high-resolution imagery. (See
Project (funded by the World Bank) was delayed owing to
IPS “Digital Orthophoto Quads Form a Database for the
increases in conflict in certain regions, but now GPS cam-
Dominican Republic” in Topic Note 5.2.)
eras provide “remote supervision.” As the irrigation project
LiDAR (laser scanning) is a new technology for obtaining a unfolds, water users can photograph the construction pro-
highly detailed digital terrain model or, if equipped with an cess to make contractors more accountable and prevent
aerial camera, for topographic mapping. A digital terrain financial resources from being wasted. Users can report
model is basically a digital representation of an area’s ter- infrastructure problems to the government without needing
rain on a GIS that provides accurate position and elevation to travel through potentially dangerous regions.
coordinates. It is compatible with other digital spatial data,
Project workers have photographed over 650 locations
is more accurate, and has a higher resolution than satellite
where irrigation construction projects are being imple-
images. Elevations can be accurate within 5 centimeters,
mented. These photos, which are emailed or delivered by
but accuracy typically is closer to 10 or 20 centimeters. In
hand to ministry offices, serve as the baseline for progress
comparison, digital aerial cameras only provide only about a
(World Bank 2010b). A crucial point is that the technol-
20-centimeter horizontal resolution.
ogy also enhances the participatory process, which may
Because of its detailed imagery, a digital terrain model can improve user associations’ productivity once the irrigation
be used for meticulous engineering designs, such as those system is complete.
for roads, drainage, gravity-fed irrigation works, and deten-
tion reservoirs. These models can also be used more broadly
to manage land and water (for example, in flood control). LESSONS LEARNED
When combined through GIS with other data such as soil This note has described the many ways that ICT enables real-
types, these models can help to identify areas with potential time adjustments in agricultural practices to prevent losses
slope instability and erosion, which are important for reduc- after investments have been made. These technologies also
ing soil degradation and its negative impact on soil fertility. have considerable potential to help small-scale producers
At the field level, digital terrain models can monitor and use scarce resources—water, nutrients, and others. Greater
improve areas affected by waterlogging or flooding. Overall certainty about the weather, access to water, and disease
laser scanning has considerable potential for planning irriga- outbreaks can lead to better decisions and higher produc-
tion schemes, designing infrastructure, managing irrigation tivity. These types of ICT also face important challenges,
operations, and modeling. Laser scanning is most useful however, and a number of considerations are important in
for large areas because the aerial operation is expensive. improving their effectiveness, especially for smallholders.
The cost of laser scanning also depends on the accuracy
of the data required, the location of the area of interest, and Strategies to improve agricultural practices change dra-
the level of the data products (such as GIS layers). matically over time, just as strategies to manage irrigation
have evolved from a nationally operated to user-operated
Satellite data can also prove useful in managing irrigation model. ICT devices aimed at preventing crop or livestock
schemes, such as the enormous Office du Niger project in losses must adapt in line with these strategies so that
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
122 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
users receive current information, communicated in the technologies can help achieve economies of scale that
most cost-effective way. reduce costs (IICD 2006).
Local knowledge is critical to improving smallholders’ pro- Just as they can be overwhelmed with too much new infor-
ductivity. ICT not only creates opportunities to disseminate mation, farmers can be overwhelmed with new technology
information but also offers ways of capturing local expertise. and become reluctant to use it. Advances in ICT are best
Vast differences in ecological and agronomic conditions suited to helping farmers improve their management of one
make farmers’ knowledge indispensable. ICT should be used or two farm components at a time. Development partners
to form two-way communication networks, ensuring that and governments need to prioritize which yield technologies
local knowledge is acquired and utilized. or agricultural strategies they would like to introduce and use
ICT to disseminate them to a broad population.
The collective action problem is quite apparent in relation
to the technologies described here. Water management Limited financial resources are also a potential limitation to
and disease control require hundreds or even thousands of using these technologies. Large agricultural firms and small-
farmers to perform the same tasks in unison. By strengthen- holders alike need to control agricultural water, diseases, or
ing information sharing, ICT devices like mobile phones will pests. Incentives for the private sector to partner with gov-
increase the potential for collective action. Self-policing may ernment in large-scale ICT projects may enable the invest-
also be crucial to the technology’s success. ment to reach smallholders as well.
ICT devices that are used to disseminate information like
weather forecasts must match capacity in the focus area. INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Some phones handle complex messaging; others do not. Local Radio Frequency Identification to Prevent and
types of ICT may need to improve before some preventive Treat Cattle Disease in Botswana
technologies can work in developing countries. Taking stock
Implemented by Inala Identification Control (IIC) in South
of the technical capacity in rural areas will clarify infrastructure
Africa, the Livestock Identification Trace-Back System in
needs.
Botswana is one of the largest and more innovative forms
Gender is an important consideration when using ICT to of ICT for animal husbandry, involving over 300 million cat-
prevent crop loss. Women are often already involved in tle.6 The system, which uses radio-frequency identification
maintaining water resources (for domestic and agricultural (RFID), serves many purposes, including meeting beef import
use) in their families. Involving them in water management requirements for the European Union (EU), the destination
or pest control projects increases their time to attend to for 80–90 percent of Botswana’s beef exports. The system
other important activities like education and generating also improves veterinary services and livestock health.
income. It also often results in more effective management.
A bolus with a unique ID number and a transponder are
Timing is a major concern in weather, water, disease, or pest inserted into each animal’s rumen. In the field, 300 fixed
ICT. If information is sent too late, farmers may not have time readers scan cattle ID numbers and relay information to data-
to adjust their farming strategy. If information arrives too bases in 46 district offices. The bolus collects information
early, farmers may make changes that prove unnecessary or that allows both herdsmen and the government to monitor
even damaging. new registrations, look for possible disease outbreaks, iden-
tify lost or stolen cattle, track weight gain, and plan for animal
Information must be relevant and clear. Too much text or treatments. The database also provides the opportunity to
scientific data can conceal the message and cause confu- monitor trends over time.
sion. Only the most appropriate and contextually based
information (like forecasts) and updates should be provided. Technology like this offers many benefits. The bolus is safe
By continually interacting with farmers and monitoring their for animals, is protected from criminal tampering, and can
responses to information, project managers can clarify which be recycled, which keeps costs low. The bolus also saves
information needs to be sent and which does not. time: Ear-tags, the traditional form of identification, required
Keeping information current is expensive. Collaborating
with various agencies and creating common systems and 6 This section draws on Burger (2004).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 123
herdsmen or veterinarians to handpick cows through a INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
lengthy process. This system speeds up the identification Using Landsat to Assess Irrigation
process. Herdsmen can optimize feeding schedules, select Systems in Mali
certain bulls for breeding programs, and keep updated health The Office du Niger, a vast irrigation scheme dating to the
records, which improves productivity directly by reducing 1920s in Mali, delivers water from the Niger River to approxi-
susceptibility to disease and planning for yields. mately 80,000 hectares of rice fields The irrigation scheme
is divided into five administrative zones, each responsible for
its own water management. The scheme’s senior staff use
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY data from Landsat (which uses sensors to record reflected
Digital Orthophoto Quads Form a Database and emitted energy from Earth) and other sensory data
for the Dominican Republic
(including air temperature and humidity) to analyze cropping
Digital orthophoto quads (DOQs) can do much more than intensity, asses water productivity, and monitor equity in
provide digital maps. By tracking the photos, it is possible water distribution.8 The data are also used to compare the
to create water databases that are crucial to the success of productivity of fields at the head (beginning) of the water
irrigation. The databases can provide real-time information on source with the productivity of the fields at the tail (the most
heavily and sparsely irrigated locations, statistics on water distant point from the water source).
use (and subsequently water users), drainage problems, and
even salinity issues. Landsat has the ability to “see” a variety of colors as well as
near-infrared, mid-infrared, and thermal infrared light, which
This kind of database featured in a program to improve helps to distinguish differences between land plots and
users’ management of irrigation systems (PROMASIR) in the water sources. Initial results from Landsat images revealed
Dominican Republic in partnership with the Inter-American critical similarities and differences between administrative
Development Bank and Utah State University.7 By combin- zones, which irrigation managers can use to determine and
ing DOQs with other information (such as information on address the causes of yield variation (for example, low yields
property ownership), the database enables water users to in fields near the tail). To gain even greater clarity on why
search for other water users, observe property boundaries, irrigation may succeed or fail in a given location, remote
review monthly crop and water statistics, and obtain esti- sensing and GIS images, such as those used in Mali, can be
mates of irrigation water demand in certain areas. Users coupled with other statistics like administrative boundaries,
have access to more accurate information to use when crop data, and poverty levels in GIS maps.
updating their infrastructure as well as more insight into
potential maintenance problems (such as a system break-
down upstream). Assigning water rights and water fees is REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
also easier with databases. In areas with greater demand, AfSIS (Africa Soil Information Service). 2009. Digital Soil Mapping.
prices can be expected to rise. Finally, a system like this http://www.africasoils.net/methods/dsm, accessed November.
can also prevent conflicts over water, because all users have Baggio, A. 2004. “Wireless Sensor Networks in Precision Agriculture.”
access to the same factual information, such as price infor- Swedish Institute of Computer Science. http://www.sics.se/real-
mation and plot size. wsn05/papers/baggio05wireless.pdf, accessed April.
Bajtes, N. 2001. “Options for Increasing Carbon Sequestration in
An important point, however, is that smallholders who West African Soils: An Exploratory Study with Special Focus on
typically use agricultural water to meet their own needs for Senegal.” Land Degradation and Development 12: 131–42.
sustenance may not be accustomed to the kinds of collec- Bajwa, W. I., and M. Kogan. n.d. “Internet-Based IPM Informatics
tive action needed to develop and sustain large water man- and Decision Support.” IPM World Textbook. http://ipmworld
agement networks. They may maintain an individual farm .umn.edu/chapters/Bajwa.htm, accessed November 2010.
mentality, even when technologies like DOQ databases are Balmford, A., R. Green, and J. Scharleman. 2005. “Sparing Land for
available. Nature: Exploring the Potential Impact of Changes in Agricultural
Yield on the Area Needed for Crop Production.” Global Change
Biology 11 (10): 1594–605.
7 This section draws on Neale (2003) and World Bank (2006). PRO-
MASIR is the Programa de Mejoramiento y Administración de
Sistemas de Riego por los usuarios. 8 This section draws on World Bank (2010c) and NASA (n.d.).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
124 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
Burger, T. 2004. “LITS: Tracking Botswana’s Livestock Using Radio Agriculture, 685–91. http://model.job.affrc.go.jp/fukatsu/paper
Waves.” ICT Update, January 6. http://ictupdate.cta.int/en /AFITA2004_fukatsu.pdf, accessed April 2011.
/Feature-Articles/LITS-tracking-Botswana-s-livestock-using-radio
Gadgil, S., P. Seshagiri Rao, and K. Narahari Rao. 2002. “Use of
-waves, accessed November 2010.
Climate Information for Farm-Level Decision-Making: Rain-Fed
Burney, J., S. J. Davis, and D. B. Lobella. 2010. “Greenhouse Gas Groundnut in Southern India.” Agricultural Systems 74: 431–57.
Mitigation by Agricultural Intensification.” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences 107 (26): 12052–57. GARMIN. n.d. “Garmin.” http://www.garmin.com/garmin/cms/site
/us, accessed December 2010.
Che’Ya, N. N., A. R. Shariff, M. A. Soom, S. K. Bejo, A. R. Mahmud,
and F. A. Aziz. 2009. “Generating Online GIS Decision Support GIS.com. n.d. “The Guide to Geographic Information Systems.” gis.
System for Paddy Precision Farming.” Global Spatial Data com, accessed December 2010.
Infrastructure Association. http://www.gsdi.org/gsdiconf/gsdi11 Govereh, J., J. Nyoro, and T. Jayne. 1999. “Smallholder Com-
/papers/pdf/225.pdf, accessed April 2011. mercialisation, Interlinked Markets, and Food Crop Pro-
CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center). ductivity: Cross-country Evidence from Eastern and Southern
2005. “Wheat and Water Win.” http://www.cimmyt.org Africa.” Paper presented at the 4th Agricultural Transformation
/en/newsletter/86-2005/295-wheat-and-water-win, accessed Conference, Nairobi.
February 2011. GPS.gov. (n.d.). “Global Positioning System: Serving the World.” gps
———. 2007. “Wheat Farmers See Infrared.” E-News 4 (7). http:// .gov, accessed December 2010.
www.cimmyt.org/en/newsletter/63-2007/182-wheat-farmers-see-
Hartemink, Alfred E. et al. 2010. Chapter 33: “GloablSoilMap.net-
infrared, accessed February 2011.
A New Digitial Map of the World.” In Digital Soil Mapping,
Dargie, W., and M. Zimmerling. 2007. “Wireless Sensor Networks Progress in Soil Science edited by J. L. Boettinger et al.
in the Context of Developing Countries.” Paper presented at the Dordrecht: Springer Science and Business Media B.V.
3rd IFIP World Information Technology Forum, Addis Ababa.
Hoffer, R. 1978. “Biological and Physical Considerations in Application
Depienne, F. 2007. Wireless Sensor Networks Application for of Computer Aided Analysis Techniques to Remote Sensing.” In
Agricultural Environment Sensing in Developing Countries. Remote Sensing: Quantitative Approach, edited by P. Swain and
Semester Project Report, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de S. Davis, 237–86. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lausanne.
ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Derpsch, R., and J. Benites. 2003. “Situation of Conservation Tropics). 2010. “Satellite Imagery for Smallholder Farmers in
Agriculture in the World.” Proceedings of the Second World Mali.” ICRISAT Happenings. http://test1.icrisat.org/Happenings
Congress on Conservation Agriculture: Producing in Harmony /happenings1431.htm, accessed December 2010.
with Nature, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome.
IICD (International Institute for Communication and Development).
Drechsel, P., L. Gyielea, D. Kunzeb, and O. Cofiea. 2001. “Population 2006. ICTs for Agriculture Livelihoods: Impact and Lessons
Density, Soil Nutrient Depletion, and Economic Growth in Sub- Learned from IICD Supported Activities. The Hague: IICD. http://
Saharan Africa.” Ecological Economics 38 (2): 251–58. www.iicd.org/files/IICD-agri-impact-2006.pdf, accessed April
2011.
Edgerton, M. D. 2009. “Increasing Crop Productivity to Meet Global
Needs for Feed, Food, and Fuel.” Plant Physiology 149: 7–13. Jensen, A., and I. Thysen. 2003. “Agricultural Information and
Decision Support by SMS.” In Proceedings of the EFITA
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2000. Agriculture: Towards
Conference, July, Debrecen, Hungary, 286–92. http://www
2015/30. Rome: Global Perspectives Study Unit.
.kiwanja.net/database/document/report_agriculture_support
———. 2007. “Information and Communication Technologies _SMS.pdf, accessed April 2011.
Benefit Fishing Communities.” New Directions in Fisheries 7.
Kabashi, A. H., K. Walker, J. Underwood, N. Wirastuti, and J. Elmirghani.
———. 2008. FAOSTAT database. http://faostat.fao.org/default 2009. “Wireless Sensing for Development: An Integrated Design
.aspx. Approach.” Paper presented at the 3rd International Conference on
Next Generation Mobile Applications, Services, and Technologies,
———. 2009. The State of Food Insecurity in the World. Rome: FAO Cardiff, London Knowledge lab. http://www.lkl.ac.uk/projects
———. 2010a. Food Outlook. Rome: FAO. /vesel/files/ngmast09.pdf, accessed April 2011.
———. 2010b. “Global Information and Early Warning Lal, R. 2004. “Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate
System.” http://www.fao.org/giews/english/index.htm, accessed Change and Food Security.” Science 304 (11): 1623–27.
December 2010.
———. 2010. “Managing Soils and Ecosystems for Mitigating
———. 2011. State of Food and Agriculture. Rome: FAO Anthropogenic Carbon Emissions and Advancing Global Food
Security.” Bioscience 60 (9): 708–21.
Fukatsu, T., M. Hirafuji, T. Kiura, A. Imada, and S. Ninomiya. 2004.
“Long-Term Monitoring System Using Field Monitoring Servers.” Lal, R., M. Griffin, J. Apt, L. Lave, and G. Morgan. 2004. “Policy
Proceedings of the 2004 AFITA/WCCA Joint Congress on IT in Forum: Managing Soil Carbon.” Science 302: 393.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 125
Laurenson, M., A. Otuka, and S. Ninomiya. 2001. “Developing Qaderi, M. M., and D. M. Reid. 2009. “Methane Emissions from Six
Agricultural Models Using MetBroker Mediation Software.” Crop Species Exposed to Three Components of Global Climate
Journal of Agricultural Meteorology 58 (1): 1–9. Change: Temperature, Ultraviolet-B Radiation, and Water Stress.”
Physiologia Plantarum 137 (2): 139–47.
Lester, D. 2010. “Sensors, Software Send Ag Alerts to Farmer
Phones.” Seattle Times, March 4. http://seattletimes.nwsource Raloff, J. 2010. “Food Security Wanes as World Warms.” Science
.com/html/localnews/2011254603_apwafarmtechnology.html, News, December 1. http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic
accessed April 2011. /id/66902/title/Food_security_wanes_as_world_warms, accessed
January 2011.
LOFAR (Low Prequency Array). n.d. “Fighting Phytophtora Using
Micro-Climate.” http://www.lofar.org/agriculture/fighting-phytoph- Rosegrant, M. W., S. Msangui, T. Sulser, and C. Ringler. 2006.
tora-using-micro-climate/fighting-phytophtora-using-micro-climate, “Future Scenarios for Agriculture: Plausible Futures to 2030 and
accessed April 2011. Key Trends in Agricultural Growth.” Background paper for World
Development Report 2008, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Manchanda, M., M. Kudrat, and A. Tiwari. 2002. “Soil Survey
and Mapping Using Remote Sensing.” Tropical Ecology 43 (1): Rossiter, D. 2004. “Digital Soil Mapping.” Global Workshop on Digital
61–74. Soil Mapping, International Union of Soil Sciences, Montpellier.
Mathur, S. 2003. “Carambola Fruit Fly Campaign: Latin America.” Ruttan, V. 2002. “Productivity Growth in World Agriculture: Sources
ICT for Development. http://www.comminit.com/en/node and Constraints.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 16 (4): 161–84.
/121310/307, November 2010. Scharf, P. C., and J. A. Lory. 2006. Best Management Practices for
Nitrogen Fertilizer in Missouri. Colombia: University of Missouri.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and Human
Well-Being. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. Shapouri, S., M. Peters, A. Summer, S. Rosen, and F. Baquedano.
2010. “Food Security Assessment 2010–20.” Economic
Munyua, H. 2007. ICTs and Small-Scale Agriculture in Africa: A
Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture,
Scoping Study. Ottawa: International Development Research
Washington, DC. http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/GFA21
Centre (IDRC).
/GFA21.pdf, accessed April 2011.
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). n.d. “The
Smith, E. A. 2010. “Sustainability and Global Seafood.” Science 327
Landsat Program.” http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/, accessed
(5967): 784–86.
January 2011.
Smukler, S., and C. Palm. 2009. Agriculture and Climate Change: An
Neale, C. 2003. “Putting the Dominican Republic on the Map.” ICT
Agenda for Copenhagen. Washington, DC: International Food
Update, June 13. http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles
Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
/Putting-the-Dominican-Republic-on-the-map, accessed October
2010. Traoré, P. S. 2010. “The View from Above: VHRI Gives West African
Farmers Data on Soil Fertility and Land Size.” ICT Update,
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). February 23, http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/The-view
2009. “Smart Sensor Networks: Technologies and Applications -from-above, accessed July 2011.
for Green Growth.” STI Digital Economy Paper 167. 10.1787
/5kml6x0m5vkh-en, accessed April 2011. Wark, T., P. Corke, P. Sikka, L. Klingbeil, Y. Guo, and C. Crossman.
2007. “Transforming Agriculture through Pervasive Wireless
Oerke, E. 2006. “Crop Losses to Pests.” Journal of Agriculture Sensor Networks.” Pervasive Computing 6 (2): 50–7.
Science 144: 31–43.
Woodhouse, P. 2009. “Technology, Environment and the Pro-
Ogodo, O. 2009. “Cassava Disease Monitoring Goes Mobile.” SciDev ductivity Problem in African Agriculture: Comment on the World
Net. http://www.scidev.net/en/agriculture-and-environment/news Development Report 2008.” Journal of Agrarian Change 9 (2):
/cassava-disease-monitoring-goes-mobile.html, accessed November 263–76.
2010.
World Bank. 2006. Reengaging in Agriculture Water Management.
Palace, B. 1996. “Data Mining.” Technology Note prepared for Washington, DC: World Bank.
Management 274A. Anderson Graduate School of Management,
University of California, Los Angeles. http://www.anderson.ucla ———. 2007. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for
.edu/faculty/jason.frand/teacher/technologies/palace/index.htm, Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.
accessed December 2010. ———. 2010a. Agriculture Action Plan 2010–2012. Washington, DC:
World Bank.
Porcari, E. 2010. “Smallholder Farmers and ICT-KM.” i4d Quarterly
Journal, January–March, 15–16. http://www.i4donline.net/jan ———. 2010b. “In Afghanistan and India, Low-Tech Approaches Aid
-march-2010/jan-mar-2010.pdf, accessed July 2011. Monitoring.” June 1. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL
/N E W S / 0 , , c o n t e n t M D K : 2 2 5 9 8 0 3 1 ~ p a g e P K : 6 4 2 5 7 0 4 3
Pretty, J., A. Noble, D. Bossio, J. Dixon, J. R. E. Hine, and F. W. T.
~piPK:437376~theSitePK:4607,00.html.
Penning De Vries. 2006. “Resource Conserving Agriculture
Increases Yields in Developing Countries.” Environmental ———. 2010c. “New Uses for Global Forecasts: FY 10 ECA
Science Technology 40: 1–6. Innovation Grant.” Istanbul: World Bank.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
126 MODUL E 5 — INCR EAS ING C R OP, LIV ESTOCK , A ND FISH ERY PROD UC TIVITY THR OUGH IC T
———. 2010d. “Project Information Document: Kenya Agricultural PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS
Carbon Project.” http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects
H. Agah, senior rural development specialist, World Bank. Interview
/ main?pagePK=64283627&piPK=73230&theSitePK=40941&
with C. Belden, Agriculture and Rural Development, World Bank,
menuPK=228424&Projectid=P107798, accessed April 2011.
March 22, 2011.
World Bank Ghana Office. 2010. “First Soil Carbon project in Africa:
T. Jantunen, March 9, 2011.
Kenyan Farming Project Could Be Model for the Region.”
Modern Ghana, November 8. http://www.modernghana.com I. Ortiz-Monasterio, agronomist, Global Conservation Agriculture
/news/303612/1/first-soil-carbon-project-in-africa-kenyan-farming Program and International Maize and Wheat Improvement
.html, accessed April 2011. Center, February 15, 2011.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 127
Module 6 ICTS, DIGITAL TOOLS, AND AGRICULTURAL
KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS
JEEHYE KIM (World Bank Group) and DAVID NIELSON (World Bank Group)
IN THIS MODULE
Overview. Research, extension and advisory services, and learning activities are the major knowledge and information
services for agriculture. Each of these services increasingly employs information and communication technology (ICT)
and digital tools to promote and exploit rapidly expanding access to information, advice, consultation, and data. This
module discusses the use and impact of ICT and digital tools in research, extension and advisory services, and activities
related to agricultural learning.
Topic Note 6.1: ICT, Digital Tools, and Agricultural Research. Throughout the agricultural research process—
from engaging partners and stakeholders, through data collection and analysis, collaboration and knowledge access,
publishing and dissemination, to feedback and interactions with rural and other end-user communities—ICT and digital
tools are making agricultural research more effective.
Fujitsu Launches New “Akisai” Cloud Initiative for the Food and Agricultural Industries and Research
KAINet Kenya Knowledge Network Anchored in Partnerships and Collaboration
Topic Note 6.2: ICT, Digital Tools, and Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services. ICT and digital tools appear to
have the potential to transform extension and advisory services in several ways—including changing the way in which
extensionists do their work, but also changing the ways extension institutions are organized and staffed. The emergence
of public and private innovators and start-ups with business models built around ICT-enabled advisory services signals
the types of transformations that are likely to come. This note examines how traditional and new types of ICT are used to
reach rural communities, enable rural communities to create and share their knowledge, and connect rural communities
with knowledge institutions and other sources of information and advice.
E-extension with a Business Orientation in Jamaica’s Rural Agricultural Development Authority
Videos on Rice Seed Production Bring Multiple Benefits to Bangladeshi Women
Participatory Video and Internet Complement Extension in India
Topic Note 6.3: ICT, Digital Tools, and Agricultural Learning and Education Systems. Learning through ICT can
provide fresh approaches that place producers and their communities at the center of designing and implementing the
learning experience. ICT can also make it easier to maintain quality by supporting feedback mechanisms and ensuring
appropriate accreditation and certification processes. This note also explores some of the adaptations and strategies
required for e-learning to succeed in rural areas of developing countries.
Lifelong Learning for Farmers in Tamil Nadu
Innovative E-Learning for Farmers through Collaboration and Multimodal Outreach
OVERVIEW
Information and communication technology (ICT) and digital
The authors of the original Module 6 were Stephen Rudgard (FAO),
Peter Ballantyne (ILRI), Riccardo Del Castello (FAO), Philip Edge
tools are fundamentally transforming the operating environ-
(Consultant), May Hani (FAO), Ajit Maru (GFAR), Estibalitz Morras ment for agricultural knowledge and information systems.
(FAO), Karin Nichterlein (FAO), Enrica Porcari (CGIAR), Sophie These technologies and tools can expand access to infor-
Treinen (FAO), Venkatraman Balaji (Commonwealth of Learning), and
K. Balasubramanian (Commonwealth of Learning). The reviewer of mation and knowledge, and promote communication and
the current Module 6 is David Spielman of IFPRI. cooperation among the actors in agriculture. Mobile phones
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
128 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
in particular can drive participatory communication, includ- BOX 6.1. Cloud Computing Improves Open Access and
ing communication with those on the margins of traditional Open Data in Agriculture while Integrating
research-extension processes, and phones are often the key New Technologies for New Uses
instruments enabling organizations to deliver services to
larger numbers of rural people than they could reach before. Pioneered by Amazon Web Services, cloud comput-
ICT is also integral to the business models of the public and ing (the practice of using a network of remote servers
private “info-mediaries” and “information brokers”—such hosted on the Internet to store, manage, and process
as extension agents, consultants, and companies contract- data) has played an important role in improving global
ing farmers—that are emerging to broker advice, knowledge, access to knowledge resources and data. The use of
collaboration, and interaction among groups and communi- cloud computing in agriculture goes beyond access to
ties throughout the agricultural sector. All of these devel- data and servers. Merged with a number of technolo-
opments offer opportunities to significantly enhance the gies, such as radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags
effectiveness and reach of agricultural research, extension the cloud enables tagging, downloading, analyzing, and
and advisory services, and learning programs, as well as synthesizing immense data sets. Instead of waiting for
opportunities for profound and transformational changes in an expert to analyze such data, systems can automate
how such programs are structured. the practical analysis and interpretation of current and
past data and formulate user-friendly and actionable
recommendations for farmers and other participants in
ICT AND DIGITAL TOOLS IN AGRICULTURAL agricultural value chains. Considering that few individu-
KNOWLEDGE AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS als (including farmers) are IT experts and that many are
As ICT has developed and become more pervasive, it has not even adept users, Software-as-a-Service platforms
become a source of essential tools for agricultural research, (licensing and hosting the tools) and cloud computing
extension and advisory services, and e-learning systems. services (providing remote access to hardware and soft-
First and foremost, the increased coverage of telecom- ware) might prove a good fit for agricultural producers
munication networks means that more technologies and and corporations.
applications long regarded as potentially useful in rural com- Source: Authors.
munities are finding their way into the hands of more rural
users, even in remote areas. Exceptional increases in the
speed, reliability, scope, and accuracy of communication already becoming cost-effective for high-performance com-
and information exchange—through text, voice, and other puting, like video and image processing, bioinformatics, and
applications—have created new opportunities for farmers most types of scientific data analysis. Agricultural research
to connect with their partners (other farmers, researchers, institutes, such as the member centers of the Consultative
extension and advisory service providers, agribusiness, or Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), are
others important to farmers’ lives and enterprises) in ways shifting to cloud computing, anticipating that it will cut the
that enhance their productivity and incomes. cost of scientific computing and present new opportunities
for international agriculture. The extent to which cloud com-
A second way in which ICT has become essential for agricul- puting will influence the overall effectiveness and impact of
tural research, extension, and e-learning systems is through agricultural research and extension and advisory services
cloud computing services (box 6.1). Cloud computing pres- remains to be seen—but many see tremendous potential in
ents vast possibilities to manage big data about agriculture this regard.
and render it directly and practically useful to agricultural
policy makers, researchers, extensionists, farmers, and A third transformative development for agricultural research,
agribusiness. Cloud computing offers “a model for enabling extension and advisory services, and e-learning for public
convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of agricultural agencies and farmers themselves is the emer-
configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, gence of online or mobile tools that facilitate open access
storage, applications, and services) that can be rapidly provi- to agricultural knowledge and information and encourage
sioned and released with minimal management effort or ser- public involvement in its use. Governments, organizations,
vice provider interaction” (Mell and Grance 2011). Over the and even the private sector share data and reports with
past few years, these services have been the lowest-cost the public and one another through ICT. As ICT has allevi-
option for nearly all types of data center computing and are ated the difficulties inherent in interactions among people
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 129
in dispersed locations, knowledge sharing and multistake- IMAGE 6.1. Specialized Knowledge on Farm Practices
holder engagement are widely acknowledged to have Can Result in Profitable Enterprise
increased. Research can involve more expert opinion and
diversity (box 6.2). Advisory services can tap a much wider
range of current expertise and provide advice in a much
more targeted way to those who need it. With Internet
access, e-learning can function without a formal distance
education program, and Web platforms such as agropedia
(discussed in Topic Note 6.3) make it much easier to develop
and transmit content for e-learning programs. At the same
time, the capabilities for data collection and analysis that are
becoming available raise new issues about protecting the
privacy of farmers and other actors in the agricultural sector.
These issues will need to be managed if the full potential of
big data in agriculture is to be realized.
Finally, new forms of knowledge sharing are possible through
Source: Rikin Gandhi.
ICT (image 6.1). Knowledge brokering has always been an
integral part of agricultural innovation systems. The creation
and passing of information between farmers and extension
agents, farmers and researchers, and researchers and exten-
BOX 6.2. Agricultural Research Center Facilitates
sion agencies, among others, is critical to increased produc-
Open Access and Global Platform for Sharing
tivity through the adoption of better farming practices and
Knowledge
technologies.
Providing free Web-based access to research is a
Knowledge sharing is becoming a specialization—one that
priority for international research and development
is often marketable and sometimes profitable. As digital lit-
centers. Housing more than 5,700 research docu-
eracy and the availability of ICT increase, farmers, traders,
ments—including journal articles, conference papers,
and others in developing countries are offering and receiving
theses, and monographs—an Open Access Repository
hypercontextualized information for a fee. This private activ-
launched by the International Crops Research Institute
ity can widen the availability and improve the relevance of
for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) provides an easy
information in rural areas and reduce reliance on public exten-
interface for researchers, practitioners, and Web-
sion agents. Compared to traditional public advisory services,
connected farmers to use, build on, and share research
private sector involvement has often proven more effective
conducted at ICRISAT. Since the Open Access
in providing specific, well-defined, high-quality information
Repository was created in May 2011, more than
needed by producers).
144,000 documents have been downloaded by people
from more than 70 countries.
ICRISAT also uses the Web-based KSI Connect KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS
platform to spotlight interesting research projects,
The topic notes and innovative practice summaries in this
cutting-edge research, and stories at ICRISAT for
module demonstrate the potential and the challenges for
both an in-house and a global audience. This platform
ICT and digital tools to dramatically increase access to
allows experts across the globe to share their proj-
knowledge and information in the agricultural sector,
ect experiences and cutting-edge research activities
opening the way for substantially improving the effective-
contributing to global food security. Since its launch in
ness and value of agricultural research, extension and
July 2012, KSI Connect has hosted more than 100 vid-
advisory services, and learning. Two key enablers—
eos, and the website receives more than 3,000 users
the policy environment and collective action (among
every month.
research institutions, extension agents, governments, and
Source: ICT Update (February 2013) on CTA’s website (http://ictupdate
.cta.int/mobileen/Feature-Articles/The-right-information-at-the-right-time).
farmers)—are critical to using various types of ICT, such as
mobile phones and the Internet, to bring about the many
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
130 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
BOX 6.3. Key Elements of ICT Systems for Agriculture
Policies. Generate or adapt institutional and national strategies and policies to make the introduction of ICT innovations
more frequent and more effective.
Institutions. Adapt organizational structures at all levels to accommodate changes in ICT systems and information man-
agement processes, develop new incentive structures to encourage all innovation actors to contribute novel outputs or
to stimulate collaboration, and develop innovative business models, particularly where they relate to mobile devices and
telecommunications.
People and communities. Develop and diversify the skills and competencies of stakeholders at every level and in every
aspect of the agricultural sector in applying and adopting ICT for their activities in farming and agribusiness. Invest in the
skills of new intermediaries, such as innovation brokers (often agricultural advisers and extensionists), who specialize in
linking actors and resources to foster ICT-related investments and activities that boost productivity and profitability at the
farm level and in other parts of agricultural value chains.
Content. Ensure relevant local content and stimulate open access to the increasing volume of agricultural research
results so that all can benefit. Develop and comply with coherent standards that continue to improve the interoperability
and exchange of data among stakeholders.
Processes. Use ICT to facilitate and open up inclusive multi-actor processes in which knowledge flows efficiently and
can be put to use by different stakeholders. Facilitation will be needed at various levels to bridge divides and gaps in
access to ICT and in institutional strength.
Technologies. Invest in greater connectivity, data and information generation and handling capacity, hardware, software,
and improved human-computer interfaces to serve all aspects of the agricultural and agribusiness sectors. Ensure that
rural ICT infrastructure and connectivity are enhanced. Specific actions are needed to overcome barriers to technology
use, such as those related to culture, language and literacy, and gender. A recurring challenge is the fast pace of change
and development in ICT.
Monitoring and evaluation. Develop new and improved tools and approaches to assess information and knowledge
interventions more effectively.
Capacities and training. Invest in the technical and organizational capacities of individuals and institutions so they appre-
ciate and use ICT devices as tools to enhance knowledge creation, transformation, and innovation. These capacities are
more than just technical; appropriate mind-sets and incentives are essential to encourage information and knowledge to
flow.
Source: Authors.
relatively small, scattered agricultural innovations that can offices, or research centers is a critical prerequisite for
together have a major impact. Policy change can spur the implementing effective technical services. Public-private
development of the infrastructure for ICT-enabled informa- partnerships can be forged, particularly for commercially
tion sharing. Collective action facilitated by digital tools oriented extension, advisory services, and e-learning (see
can enhance productivity in the sector enormously. “Lifelong Learning for Farmers in Tamil Nadu”), to improve
telecommunications infrastructure, identify sustainable
Just as roads are essential for rural development, digital business models, and aid in capacity building and training.
connectivity is becoming essential for research, extension Box 6.3 reviews the key elements of ICT systems for agri-
and advisory services, and e-learning. Not all types of ICT culture that require attention.
available for agricultural information systems will work in
rural areas. An analysis of the technical capacity (infrastruc- National ICT policy can create an enabling environ-
ture, connectivity, accessibility, affordability, and equip- ment for the use of ICT and digital tools (World Bank
ment) as well as staff capabilities (in software development, 2015), but the overall conduciveness of the enabling
IT understanding) in line departments, local government environment depends on more than national policy alone.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 131
It is also affected by the policies prevailing at the organiza- IMAGE 6.2. ICT must be Complemented by Other
tional level. Researchers may want to disseminate results Inputs, Such as Improved Seedlings
more widely and increase their usefulness, for example,
but they can be inhibited by organizational IT and intellec-
tual property policies that limit opportunities to tap into the
open access movement.1 If national research systems do
not digitize their research results and create repositories
for them, they make it difficult for their researchers to
share findings in a wider network. Extension and advisory
programs, other agricultural services, and producers may
suffer the consequences of not having access to impor-
tant research results. Appropriate institutional policies
and general e-readiness are essential to build innovation
cultures where ICT thrives and is put to good use—but Source: Dominic Sansoni, World Bank.
their development requires an appropriate policy environ-
ment that safeguards researchers’ incentives to develop
innovative products that will have value for the sector and ORGANIZATION OF THIS MODULE
its participants. This module focuses specifically on how ICT can be used in
three major, interrelated components of agricultural knowl-
Effective management and collaboration are essential for edge and information systems: research and knowledge
building research networks, data repositories, and expert sharing systems; advisory services; and e-learning. Each of
query systems and for engaging in large data collection these components is discussed in a topic note.
efforts. In addition to committing resources, agricultural
research services must create the right climate and culture, Topic Note 6.1 focuses on the use of ICT in research
including at the senior management level, to support collab- and ICT-enabled information systems for agricultural devel-
orative planning, knowledge sharing, communication, cross- opment. Investments in infrastructure and digital research
functional teams, and a critical review of current information collaboration, along with rapid developments in mobile
and communication systems. devices and connectivity in rural areas, are changing infor-
mation and knowledge flows. This note focuses more on
Advisory services can dramatically improve the effective-
general research processes than on specific applications,
ness of their efforts by using ICT to nurture and facilitate
describing how ICT is altering research collaboration and
knowledge sharing and brokering (including brokering new
data collection, analysis, storage, and dissemination.
partnerships). The nature of farmer engagement, two-way
For example, the note describes efforts by individuals
communication, information requirements, and complex
and research organizations to make formal and informal
extension networks all make the design of advisory service
research outputs (peer-reviewed journal articles and unpub-
programs critical to their ultimate success. In designing advi-
lished literature) freely and openly available on the Internet
sory programs that use ICT, the basic requirements must
using low-cost technologies.
be considered, including ICT policy, rural connectivity, user
fees, the information and communication needs of potential
Topic Note 6.2 describes how ICT contributes to efforts in
stakeholders, functional linkages, existing communication
many countries to employ new operational and institutional
channels and knowledge sources, lessons related to previ-
modalities to make advice and information more accessible
ous information dissemination and networking efforts, farm
to producers. The discussion is organized around broad func-
diversity, and demographic, political, and environmental
tions of ICT in supporting this new notion of advisory ser-
demands (image 6.2).
vices: the need to provide localized, customized, and highly
accessible information; the need to archive and provide ref-
1 The urge to protect research results can be strong, especially
erence information for a wide array of actors in the sector
if they represent a potential source of income for impoverished (from fertilizer application rates to quality standards for food
national research programs. Many public organizations, lacking processors and exporters); the need to facilitate networks
expertise in intellectual property management and protection, opt
for the most restrictive policy on information sharing, even though (local, regional, global) for collaborative, interdisciplinary
they recognize that it is detrimental to innovation. approaches to problem solving and research diversification
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
132 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
through shared knowledge bases, online forums, and collab- any actor in the innovation system to reach large numbers
orative spaces; and the need to empower and “give voice” of producers, involving them as partners and adult learners
to rural communities. in designing and implementing the learning experience. The
use of ICT devices such as mobile phones makes it possible
Topic Note 6.3 focuses on electronic learning, especially its for learning to occur without classrooms or fixed schedules,
potential for building capacity in extension and advisory ser- although face-to-face interaction and incentives for using the
vice providers and in producers. E-learning potentially enables new knowledge are important for e-learning to succeed.
Topic Note 6.1: ICT, DIGITAL TOOLS, AND
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
TRENDS AND ISSUES COLLABORATION IN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
Agricultural research is a key knowledge- and information- The need for collaboration cuts across the entire agricultural
intensive activity for improving the productivity and sustain- research process, from the conceptualization of a research
ability of the agricultural sector. The effects of ICT have program to the application of its results. In agricultural
permeated the agricultural research process and the partner- research for development, for example, priorities are often
ships that define, sustain, and direct it toward development based on the needs of small-scale farmers with very lim-
goals. For example, ICT is making agricultural research more ited resources. ICT is making it easier for research organi-
inclusive and at the same time more focused on develop- zations to link with these stakeholders and document and
ment goals, because it changes how, where, and to whom understand their needs, thus enhancing the relevance and
information flows. Information can flow in many directions; it effectiveness of their research. ICT also makes it possible to
can be highly dispersed and accessible, and it can be highly consult a much wider and more dispersed network of stake-
targeted, location specific, and location aware (Ballantyne, holders (such as producer groups, technical experts, private
Maru, and Porcari 2010). sector actors, research administrators, and policy makers)
prior to developing a research program (box 6.4).
ICT is not only becoming integral to the mechanics of the
research process. It is also associated with the collaborative An integral part of “who to include in the collaborative research
context in which the research process unfolds, and it is criti- process” is “where to do the research.” The local nature of agri-
cal to the communication and accessibility of the data, infor- culture, from the environment’s effect on crops and biodiversity
mation, and knowledge that researchers and their partners or the social and cultural norms that influence the agricultural
create. sector (e.g., in one location women are quite active as small-
scale farmers and traders; in another, they never work alone in
ICT devices and techniques offer new potential to devel- the field and are forbidden from selling produce to strangers),
oping national institutions, such as research centers, and suggests that it is usually necessary to pick locations appropri-
networks to participate in a worldwide digital knowledge ate to the locale in which the results are to be applied.
economy. Movements of information are almost instanta-
neous and can be transmitted across the world at no or min- Here again, ICT has proven quite useful making these links.
imal costs (Mark 2014). Open repositories and Web tools For example, in developing new varieties with specific traits
create opportunities for the more digitally connected stake- needed by small-scale farmers (such as drought tolerance or
holder groups in research agencies and academia to gener- resistance to a particular disease), plant breeders have relied
ate, capture, store, analyze, and share virtually the entire for years on ICT to collect, analyze, and validate data to iden-
range of research content, such as academic theses, data, tify field testing sites that are representative of conditions
images, researcher profiles, and so on. These technologies in small-scale farmers’ fields. In Tanzania, researchers have
have also created more informal ways of communicating added to their capacity to track and monitor the development
research outputs. of cassava mosaic disease and cassava brown streak disease
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 133
BOX 6.4. ICT Engages Stakeholders in Formulating an BOX 6.5. Rural Tanzanians Update Researchers on
Ambitious Research Program Spreading Cassava Diseases
In the summer of 2010, four international agricul- Pandemics of cassava mosaic disease and cassava
tural research centers in the Consultative Group on brown streak disease are reaching East and Central
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) came Africa. The costs of sending researchers to monitor dis-
together with partners to develop an innovative, inclu- ease development are high. Yearly visits have barely kept
sive research program on livestock and fish. Before pace with these spreading diseases, yet early warnings
the program could be developed, a very wide range of of new outbreaks and greater community involvement
stakeholders (from governments, funding agencies, the in their control would considerably slow their progress.
private sector, and research, extension, and advisory ser-
The Digital Early Warning Network (DEWN) provided
vices) participated in extensive consultations, not only
training and mobile phones to farmers in northwest-
in person but also online. Their efforts were supported
ern Tanzania so that they could recognize symptoms of
by a wiki to share documents and other resources in
the two diseases and text their findings to researchers.
a transparent, efficient, and cost-effective manner; a
Information obtained from farmers was used to gener-
blog where assumptions and questions were posed and
ate maps. One of the most significant findings was that
comments received; and several online surveys devel-
brown streak disease reported by farmers was confirmed
oped using the SurveyMonkey tool. The process and
by researchers’ visits to two districts where it had not pre-
documentation were fully open. All documents, presen-
viously been reported. This finding allowed project teams
tations, and interviews were publicly available.
to concentrate disease mitigation efforts on these areas.
Fostering broad and deep engagement among numer- DEWN has provided an innovative, informative, and
ous stakeholders to develop a very large research pro- relatively cheap means of involving communities in
gram is not a simple or brief task. For this particular monitoring and maintaining the health of their crops.
program, the e-consultation began in July 2010 and Research has been enriched and cost-effectively
consisted of eight rounds of questions, each focused extended through greater connectivity with the voices
on a different aspect of the proposed research. The and knowledge of farming communities. DEWN was
initial proposal emerged after five rounds of consulta- primarily piloted by the Lake Zone Agricultural Research
tion, each including a survey (a series of statements Institute in Tanzania with the International Institute of
with which participants were invited to agree or Tropical Agriculture.
disagree) and an opportunity to submit open-ended Source: Adapted from http://measict.weebly.com/uploads/3/2/4/3
comments. Three more phases of the e-consultation /3243215/meas_tanzania_-_rapid_appraisal_of_the_ict_for_agricultural
_extension_landscape_-_jan_2013.pdf.
followed in February 2011. During this time, revi-
sions to the initial proposal based on an external
review were shared and tested in public through the
e-consultation forum. because ICT offers a means of cooperating with the distant
farming communities whose crops are at the front lines of
Between July 2010 and March 2011, the various these pandemics (box 6.5).
e-consultation tools and resources were viewed more
than 25,000 times. The organizers received 465 com- Communication in agricultural research has traditionally
ments and other feedback on questions and surveys. focused on disseminating “end results”—by publishing
The consultations raised a number of concerns and results in peer-reviewed journals, monographs, proceed-
suggestions that were instrumental in strengthening ings, and so on. To make research more relevant, open, and
the proposed program throughout its development. accessible, some organizations use ICT to enhance knowl-
This type of consultation is becoming widely used and edge sharing much earlier in the research process, during
is integrating a much broader and more diverse set of program formulation, design, and as part of ongoing planning
views, perspectives, and insights into CGIAR planning and review. Increasingly, researchers are using digital social
processes than ever before. media tools, which are easy to access and use, to extend and
Source: Program proposal (http://livestockfish.wordpress.com). open up communication and knowledge sharing throughout
the research process.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
134 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
To disseminate information on such approaches and tools, of ICT and digital tools. Mobile devices of all kinds record
the CGIAR has assembled a Knowledge Sharing Toolkit research data—smartphones, mobile phones using SMS text
in conjunction with the Food and Agriculture Organization messages, personal digital assistants (PDAs), global position-
(FAO), the KM4Dev Community, and the United Nations ing system (GPS) units, and specially designed equipment
Children’s Fund (UNICEF). The toolkit consists of knowledge to measure indicators of soil nutrient levels, among others.
sharing tools and methods to promote collaboration at each Electromagnetic and photographic data are recorded by
stage of the research project cycle. Online tools include col- sensors in satellites and aircrafts and on the ground. Small
laboration platforms, wikis, blogs, photo sharing, podcast- transmitters are used to collect, store, and send data, includ-
ing, Google documents, discussion forums, intranets, ing data from radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags
content management systems, and instant messaging. Each (Simon et al. 2014).
tool is described, with links to relevant resources and sugges-
Mobile technology has also created opportunities for
tions for use, on the website. Figure 6.1 illustrates how the
crowdsourcing from farmers. Rather than perform data
CGIAR ICT-KM Program perceives the relationship between
collection by hand or through paper surveys, researchers
the research cycle and the various knowledge sharing and col-
can collect data through SMS or mobile digital data collec-
laboration tools highlighted above.
tion tools (box 6.6). Data on pest outbreaks, for example,
can be recorded by asking farmers to text information to
a premium number. Scientists and governments are able
COLLECTING AND ANALYZING RESEARCH DATA to monitor farming activities and local problems remotely
ICT is widely used to collect data, with the choice of technol- and to predict regional and national challenges with greater
ogy depending on the kind of data needed. Surveys can be certainty. SMS and other mobile data collection tools have
administered electronically. Information from online research also eased data entry. Paper surveys, which require enor-
collaboration can be recorded and analyzed using a variety mous amounts of labor after the initial data are collected,
FIGURE 6.1. Knowledge Sharing and Collaboration Tools in the Research Cycle
How can ICT support this?
–Providing many more
channels for information to How can ICT support this?
flow to target groups that –Providing ways for more
are appropriate for them people to provide
information/priorities/needs
Disseminating from the ground and
Identifying influence this
research research priorities
results/products
How can ICT support
this?
–Providing ways to
include more voices in M&E
M&E and to make it a How can ICT support
wider learning process Developing this?
Planning
research results –Providing ways for
research
into outputs more people to be
involved in and
contribute to this
How can ICT support this? process
–Providing ways for co-
creation, collaboration, Carrying out
and feedback on research
development of products
despite different
geographical locations How can ICT support this?
–Providing ways for people
to be involved and
share information
Source: Manning-Thomas 2009.
Note: M&E = monitoring and evaluation.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 135
BOX 6.6. Open Applications for Mobile Digital Data Collection
Mobile data collection for humanitarian and public health projects started to take off with the invention of the Open Data
Kit (ODK), a collaboration between Google and the University of Washington. ODK allows smartphone users to submit
information to a central server (ODK Aggregate), drastically scaling back the need for using and collecting paper-based
forms. A number of open standards have been developed around open data collection, including OpenRosa, XForm, and
XLSForm. Years later, methods have been validated, innovations have progressed, and others have built on the ODK
platform, including formhub, Ona.io, and KoBo Toolbox.
formhub
The Columbia University Sustainable Engineering Lab (SEL) initially created formhub as an internal system to assist
small-scale, offline data collection. The SEL team then created formhub.org and provided formhub free to users as
a hosted Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) platform. It was an instant hit, and there are over 3 million form submissions.
A number of virtualboxes have been created so users can download formhub and run it on their own, just as if they
were using the ODK platform.
On to Ona
A number of formhub developers joined together and created Ona, which is based in Nairobi and New York City. Recognizing
that their customers needed a hosted mobile data collection system, they immediately began work on improving the scal-
ability of formhub and rebranded it as ona.io, which is currently available both as a free service and paid plan.
KoBo Toolbox
Built for the most demanding contexts where Internet connectivity is the exception, not the rule, KoBoToolbox is a flex-
ible, free, and easy-to-use software for mobile digital data collection (and surveys). The software requires no special
programming skills or equipment. Surveys can be conducted entirely offline, regardless of what kind of device is used to
collect the data. For that reason, the toolbox is particularly helpful for researchers who collect data through face-to-face
interviews for large-scale, social science population surveys. In coordination with the United Nations and the International
Rescue Committee, KoBoToolbox launched a new phase in September 2014 to make electronic data collection more
standardized, more reliable, and easier to use in humanitarian crises. Many additional features are being developed as
growing numbers of researchers contribute their expertise to this open source effort.
Enketo
Enketo is a Web-based data collection client that allows data to be collected offline through a Web browser on any
device. It adjusts for different screen sizes and touchscreen ability. When users visit the survey page the first time,
Enketo automatically “installs” the survey in users’ browsers, allowing them to collect data with the device both online
and offline. It automatically syncs to the server when an Internet connection returns. One of the first fully offline-enabled
SaaS solutions, Enketo is available for deployment with independent ODK and formhub installations and is automatically
embedded in Ona.io and KoBoToolbox. A new, fully open source version of Enketo called Enketo-Express is under devel-
opment to allow organizations to collect information from computers that are not connected to the Internet.
Source: Extracted from mHealth Platform Compendium.
are being replaced with devices connected to software sometimes free of charge.2 Other organizations (public and
packages that automatically transfer the data to databases private) offer crop genome sequencing data. In the future,
and statistical programs. iFormBuilder is an innovative appli- as biotechnology and agriculture increasingly overlap,
cation that collects rural survey data. results of nanotechnology applications in agricultural pro-
duction and food processing and packaging will increasingly
In addition to collecting primary data, researchers often rely be collected and shared through ICT (Interagency Working
on secondary data to complete their analyses. For exam-
ple, several organizations offer archival GIS data, including 2 See CGIAR Consortium for Spatial Information (“What Is CGIAR-
remote sensing data, at increasingly better resolutions and CSI?” http://csi.cgiar.org/WhtIsCGIAR_CSI.asp).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
136 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
Group on Manufacturing R&D, Committee on Technology, by an organism) has numerous applications in plant breed-
and National Science and Technology Council 2008). ing research, such as improving the understanding of how
plants respond to disease, but until recently few research
The use of ICT to analyze research data appears virtually institutions in developing countries have been able to afford
universal, although some research systems are limited the ICT infrastructure to analyze proteomics data.
by the infrastructure and applications available to them.
Options range from custom software developed for a
particular research project or organization to more generic MAKING DATA AND INFORMATION ACCESSIBLE
packages such as GenStat Discovery Edition, a version of
A primary output of the research process is knowledge.
the widely used GenStat software for statistical analysis
Given the transition from print to digital information, one
that is available free of charge to noncommercial users in
of the most useful investments that an agricultural research
developing countries.
institution can make is to invest in organizing and providing
One chief impediment to the wider use of analytical soft- access to its digital information and data resources. New
ware in research for development is the lack of funding. The storage technology, particularly cloud storage, is making
13th edition of GenStat costs about US$330, for instance, it far less expensive to store and share data and other
but other software, especially for sophisticated genomic and information.
proteomic analyses, may be even more costly, especially for
public research programs in developing countries. To enable Complete and easily accessible open repositories or archives
resource-constrained institutions to participate in innovation of research outputs are the standard to which research
systems, various cost options need to be discussed. Perhaps institutes aspire. The concept is based on the use of free
software can be procured at a humanitarian-use discount or software such as Dspace, which allows an organization to
through cofinancing by development partners, or perhaps set up a repository of its documents and outputs. These
an agreement can be reached for large-scale licensing at a repositories allow content to be uploaded and made acces-
discounted rate, specifically to meet the needs of developing sible in full; they also allow metadata to be harvested and
countries. shared using open standards. As these collections grow,
they become permanently accessible indices of an institu-
Some of the most innovative current uses of ICT in data tion’s research and nodes in a globally searchable knowledge
analysis are for modeling, simulation, visualization, and base for agriculture.
cloud computing (do Prado, Barreto Luiz, and Chaib Filho
2010; Hori, Kawashima, and Yamazaki 2010; Li and Zhao Alongside these repositories, many related specialized
2010). For instance, ICT is vital for developing models systems focus on, for example, theses or academic learn-
of crop performance in environments where yields are ing materials, specific subject areas (aquaculture, for-
reduced by climate stress and increasing climatic variabil- estry, and so on), and national aggregations of data from
ity. Such models offer an important means of evaluating different sources. Parallel systems facilitate the curation,
the potential for new cultivars to adapt to climate stress sharing, and sometimes analysis of data in various forms
and climate change and to assess food import needs and (box 6.7). All of these systems build on basic connec-
export potential. tivity and ICT infrastructure, both within institutions and
outside them, through the adoption of applications that
Another example of innovation is the free tools for analyz- enable global sharing and aggregation, harvesting, and
ing virtual proteomics data developed by researchers at distributed management of data.
the Medical College of Wisconsin’s Biotechnology and
Bioengineering Center.3 The tools are used in combination A number of examples of data storage and sharing follow,
with other free software and Amazon’s cloud comput- and many more could be cited. They are similar in several
ing service, giving researchers access to considerably ways. First, they use open standards and common taxono-
more computing power than they may have at their own mies that allow metadata to be shared across organizations
institutions. Proteomics (the study of proteins expressed and systems. Second, they are often based on free or low-
cost specialized applications provided by third parties. Third,
they depend on the distributed actions of organizations
3 “Cloud Computing Lowers Cost of Protein Research”
(2009). http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/1669050/cloud and initiatives that are working toward common objectives
_computing_lowers_cost_of_protein_research/. and are committed to making information and data widely
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 137
BOX 6.7. Dataverse: An Open Application for Storing Project (NAIP) in 2006. This six-year project, led by the
and Analyzing Data Indian Council of Agricultural Research, sought to quicken
the pace of agricultural development by exploring and apply-
Dataverse, initially unveiled in 2007, is an open application ing agricultural innovation in collaboration with a variety of
to publish, share, reference, extract, and analyze research public and private stakeholders. NAIP has established over
data. It makes data available to others and allows them 50 research alliances between public organizations, com-
to replicate work by other researchers. Developed by mercial enterprises, and farmers, focusing applied research
the Institute for Quantitative Social Science at Harvard initiatives on technological innovation in poor rural areas.
University, the software can be freely downloaded for The project and its partnerships have led to a wide expan-
local use, or data can be hosted by the project. sion of stakeholder engagement, more frequent monitoring
Dataverse has been continuously improved. The latest and evaluation of technological outcomes, and improved
iteration, Dataverse 4, was launched in early 2015 and knowledge brokering.
used to share research on 213 cases of Ebola in Sierra
Leone globally, more safely, and more rapidly. The team The project component most relevant to this module focused
behind this development is already working on ways to on managing change and information in the national agricul-
improve the streaming of large-scale data to accelerate tural research service by strengthening the use of ICT for
research output. The next complete overhaul, due in research and technological innovation, increasing public
2016, will address the challenges of confidentiality. awareness of ICT, experimenting with e-learning models,
Sources: Authors; see also Simon 2015.
and opening opportunities for stakeholder collaboration and
exchange using electronic tools and Web platforms. The
project connected over 300 institutions on the Web, work-
accessible through the Internet. Fourth, they have chosen
ing toward building an enormous ICT network for agricultural
to use systems that not only store content but also curate
research and dissemination. A central portal for the network
and index content in ways that add value to this public good.
will serve as the platform for knowledge building and shar-
Finally, they all rely on increasing (remote) storage and con-
ing and will maintain 42 open source and subscription-based
nectivity capacities.
agricultural libraries. Formal links between libraries in the
Research institutes and other agricultural entities participat- national research system and other agricultural libraries will
ing in research projects or dissemination projects usually be forged. This project component also includes the develop-
select a single approach to organize their research electroni- ment of virtual classrooms.
cally. These forms of organization include subject, national,
regional, institutional, and crowdsourcing approaches (or a Brazil’s national agricultural research system, EMBRAPA
variety of these approaches). The approach selected to (the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation), recently
organize repositories is a critical determinant of its user- and contributed 470,000 bibliographic records to WorldCat, “the
management-friendliness. world’s largest library catalog,” reflecting the scale and
publishing power of this research system. EMBRAPA also
maintains substantial repositories of its research outputs in
Subject Approaches
full text. Its ALICE repository provides full access to formal
The Global Forest Information System (GFIS), organized by
research outputs in the form of book chapters, articles in
the global forest community, is an open system to which
indexed journals, articles in proceedings, theses and dis-
information providers, using agreed-on information exchange
sertations, technical notes, and more. A complementary
standards, may easily contribute content related to forests
resource is Infoteca-e, which collects and provides access
through a single gateway. GFIS relies on the adoption of
to more practical information on technologies produced
open tools and content by its many collaborators. It uses RSS
by EMBRAPA. This information is intended for farmers,
as the primary device to aggregate and re-present content
extensionists, agricultural technicians, students and teach-
acquired from different sources.
ers from rural schools, cooperatives, and others concerned
relatively directly with agricultural production.
National Approaches, Pioneered and Partnered
with Ministries In Jordan, the National Center for Agricultural Research
The Government of India, in partnership with the World Bank and Extension, the Ministry of Agriculture, and FAO have
Group, began funding the National Agricultural Innovation joined forces to set up the National Agricultural Information
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
138 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
System portal. The portal provides updates and news as In Uganda, the Makerere University Institutional Repository
well as access to full-text reports and publications. (Mak IR) provides the full texts of scholarly articles and books,
electronic theses and dissertations, conference proceedings,
and technical reports, including those produced by its agricul-
Regional Approaches ture and veterinary sciences faculties.
Similar in concept, in that it seeks to link local project actors,
the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) A final example comes from the International Crops
joined with the International Development Research Centre Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT).
to use ICT to support learning and networking across a num- ICRISAT conducts genomics research to enhance the
ber of IFAD-supported rural development projects in Asia efficiency and effectiveness of crop improvement. In the
(initiatives were launched in Africa, Latin America, and the course of this work, it learned that the rate-limiting step
Middle East as well). The ENRAP4 project, which ended in in genomics was no longer data generation but the speed
2010, promoted knowledge networking and Internet applica- at which data were captured, validated, analyzed, and
tions at the local, national, and international levels in the Asia- turned into useful knowledge. For that reason, ICRISAT
Pacific region. ENRAP supported local electronic newsletters initiated its Global Theme on Biotechnology, a program
and the dissemination of agricultural market information, and that focuses on building and sharing ICT tools to accel-
shared electronic libraries as a means of increasing effective erate these stages of research. The program develops
use of the Internet and electronic communication by project information systems for data capture, storage, retrieval,
staff and, ultimately, by project communities. The project and dissemination.
focused especially on methods and practical solutions to
foster participation at the grassroots level. The first phase of The program also develops software based on open
ENRAP began with an emphasis on ICT. Subsequent phases source technologies; this software is all in the public
focused more on the knowledge and content that needed domain (http:// www.icrisat.org/bt-software-downloads
to be shared, as well as on building capacities in knowledge .htm). Applications have been downloaded several hun-
production, especially the use of digital video as a supple- dred times by users from other institutions. For example, a
ment and alternative to written documentation of project Library Information Management System (LIMS) facilitates
experiences. molecular genotyping through modules that make it pos-
sible to track samples, schedule jobs, generate reports,
and perform other tasks. LIMS has been adopted by other
Institutional Approaches research facilities and customized by a private sector part-
In Chile, the digital library of the Fundación para la Innovación ner. Information is shared through ICRISAT’s Integrated
Agraria (Foundation for Agricultural Innovation) incorporates Crop Resources Information System (ICRIS). Available on
new types of ICT to manage and diffuse public information. the Internet with password-protected access, the database
It assembles all of the reports and publications, photos, vid- provides genotype, marker, and phenotype information. An
eos, and presentations produced by the foundation. integrated decision support system, iMAS, has also been
developed to facilitate marker-assisted plant breeding by
In 2009, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) integrating freely available software for designing experi-
used free DSpace software to set up an open repository of its ments, mapping quantitative trait loci,5 and providing deci-
research outputs. In the first 18 months, some 4,500 outputs sion guidelines to help users interpret results.
were included in the service. Since the system uses open
standards, the contents are harvested across the Internet and
can be reused in other services—Google Scholar, the CGIAR Crowdsourcing Approaches
Virtual Library, FAO’s International System for Agricultural Researchers and others are not just sitting back and waiting
Science and Technology (AGRIS), and others. The same for others to provide tools to share data and information.
platform has been used to develop a shared service across
several CGIAR centers and initiatives.
5 A preliminary step in identifying and sequencing genes related to
variations in physical characteristics of an organism arising from
the interactions of multiple genes and/or interactions between
4 Originally Electronic Networking for Rural Asia Pacific. genes and their environment.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 139
BOX 6.8. Reference Management Software Preferential Access Schemes for Research in
Developing Countries
Reference management software, or citation manage- Even with rapid increases in Internet access and connectiv-
ment software, enables researchers to organize their ity, developing-country researchers continue to face barriers
research and produce a reference list nearly automati- in gaining access to scientific publications and literature,
cally from the software packages that are integrated particularly the literature that is available only through a paid
with word processors. More than 30 reference man- subscription. In recent years, commercial publishers have
agement tools are listed on the Web. Many provide begun to provide better access to their products for some
access to an academic social network free of charge, developing countries through initiatives like Access to Global
and many offer both free and premium services. Using Online Research in Agriculture (AGORA), which provides free
such software, researchers can organize their research, or very-low-cost access to 2,400 journals on food, agricul-
collaborate with others, and discover the latest research ture, and related sciences to institutions in 107 countries; the
in their areas. With Internet connectivity, scientists can Programme for the Enhancement of Research Information
manage their personal research profiles and presence (PERI), which supports the efforts of developing-country
and co-create a literature base on a subject or around institutions to form consortiums to pay for heavily discounted
an event. Extensive comparisons of various features of subscriptions; and The Essential Electronic Agricultural
reference management software are available online. Library (TEEAL), which provides a package of content that
Source: Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of institutions can run on their own networks.
_reference_management_software.
Although Internet connectivity gives scientists access to the
resources provided, evidence shows that individuals require
significant investments in information literacy to maximize
Researchers with Internet access are making their own their use of these tools. Scientists may rely on their tradi-
specialized literature bases available online (box 6.8). tional information-seeking strategies and remain unaware of
They are also assembling them into quite sophisticated new electronic resources. Their parent organizations need to
resources that become new research products in their own encourage the use of e-resources and provide appropriate
right. An example is WikiGenes. This collaborative knowl- bandwidth and training.
edge resource for the life sciences is based on the general
wiki idea but employs specifically developed technology to
Gaining Access to Private Sector Innovation and
serve as a rigorous scientific tool. The project provides a
Research
platform for the scientific community to collect, commu-
nicate, and evaluate knowledge about genes, chemicals, Initiatives like Coherence in Information for Agricultural
diseases, and other biomedical concepts in a bottom-up Research for Development (CIARD) (box 6.9) and AgriProfiles
process. (box 6.10) are important to make publicly funded research
results accessible (image 6.3). It is quite another challenge
Such open collaboration is possible only because of the to gain access to the results of research financed by pri-
Internet and the way it allows distributed systems for the vate companies. In general total agricultural R&D spending
aggregation, review, and dissemination of knowledge and, by the private sector exceeds R&D spending by the public
most important, the active support of a large community sector in the world’s wealthier countries. Because they oper-
(Hoffmann 2008). Tools like these are a form of “expert ate for profit and need to recover their R&D investment,
crowdsourcing” online. private companies seek intellectual property rights for their
innovations, which typically may prevent public access and,
Crowdsourcing through ICT can also be effective in research at times, even collaboration. This issue is multidimensional,
projects that involve rural inhabitants. Asking farmers to send extending beyond the scope of this module, and it is treated
information via mobile phone can be an effective way of in more depth elsewhere.
gathering data with reduced costs and labor. In areas where
mobile phones are ubiquitous, it also allows for increased Some systems permit research results from private firms to
participation from a variety of farmers or farmer groups (see be shared. Innovations covered by patent rights allow the
Module 15). patent holder 20 years to exploit the commercial potential of
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
140 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
BOX 6.9. Driving Developing-Country Access to BOX 6.10. continued
Research Results: CIARDRING
VIVO model to reflect the ways that agricultural research
Public knowledge and research results have a lim- is organized. It also incorporated data on agricultural
ited impact on agricultural and rural development research management from institutional and community
when they are not easily or widely accessible. The sources.
Coherence in Information for Agricultural Research
In 2014, after consultation with other VIVO partners, the
for Development (CIARD) initiative—pioneered by the
portal changed its name to AgriProfiles. Reflecting the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Global
concept of distributed but interlinked databases, and
Forum on Agricultural Research, the Consultative
operating in an open data environment as part of a wider
Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR),
effort to bridge separately hosted directories and online
and other partner organizations—aims to overcome
communities, AgriProfiles aggregates profiles of agricul-
this barrier by increasing awareness of how new types
tural experts and organizations across regions, countries,
of ICT and associated institutional changes expand
and institutions. An AgriProfiles data provider may be
options to manage and present information differently
any institution, project, or platform managing profiles of
and economically. One of the principal tools created
people and/or organizations and contributing data to the
through CIARD is the CIARD Routemap to Information
global AgriProfiles. Some of these data providers contrib-
Nodes and Gateways (CIARDRING). CIARDRING:
ute data to Agriprofiles directly from internal databases or
Provides a map of accessible information sources files. Others have their own “AgriProfile” website, where
with instructions for searching them effectively. their data are searchable and in many cases have their own
Provides a data set–sharing platform for agriculture. system for letting users update their profiles. Among the
Provides examples of services that follow good data providers are hubs such as Agricultural Information
practices for interoperability. Management Standards (AIMS) and e-agriculture.
Source: http://www.agriprofiles.net/page/background.
Clarifies the level and mode of interoperability of
information services.
Provides instructions for building enhanced
integrated services that repackage information in
IMAGE 6.3. Accessing Private Sector Research Could
different ways.
Have Wide Impacts on Poor Agriculture
This functionality makes CIARDRING a true map for
users to discover, access, and use sources of agricul-
tural information.
Source: CIARD (http://www.ciard.net/).
BOX 6.10. AgriProfiles, a Global Search Portal of
Profiles of Experts and Organizations
Started at Cornell University in 2003, VIVO is a research-
focused discovery tool that enables collaboration among
scientists across all disciplines at Cornell University.
Users can browse information on people, departments,
Source: Jonathon Ernst, World Bank.
courses, grants, and publications, following an ontology-
based navigation system.
In 2012, Cornell University, the Global Forum on the patented innovation, in exchange for publicly disclosing
Agricultural Research (GFAR), and FAO launched the innovation in a patent database. This practice is meant to
AgriVIVO. AgriVIVO, funded through GFAR, adapted the enable other researchers to build on the initial innovation. The
largest searchable patent databases include PATENTSCOPE
(continued)
from the World Intellectual Property Organization, with
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 141
close to 2 million patent applications submitted worldwide. Unfortunately, beyond the use of ICT for everyday com-
The Patent Full-Text Databases (from the U.S. Patent and munication and Internet access, research institutions may
Trademark Office) and Espacenet (from the European Patent offer few incentives to undertake ICT-enabled research
Office database) offer 60 million patent documents from that deviates from traditional paths and uses newer types
over 80 countries.6 of ICT, especially if that research involves gaining access
to proprietary information and ICT tools (or even paying
Initiatives like the African Agriculture Technology Foundation fees for ICT services). This lack of incentives represents
(AATF), the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri- a major challenge to using ICT for agricultural research,
biotech Applications (ISAAA), and the Public Intellectual especially in rural areas where difficulties like the lack
Property Resources for Agriculture (PIPRA) enable develop- of electricity and weak telecommunications connections
ing countries to maximize access to promising technologies abound.
and innovations developed by the private sector. Such efforts
are built on smart access to relevant developments in the pri- As for open access to research products, low investment in
vate sector, insights into local research interests, and broker- technical infrastructure, in sustaining research capacity, and
ing between the various parties. A review of these initiatives in research itself has left many countries on the margins of
would be very valuable. global digital society and innovation, most notably in Sub-
Saharan Africa (Karanja 2006; Kashorda and Waema 2009;
RUFORUM 2009). Such marginalization reduces awareness
LESSONS LEARNED of and the capacity to adopt the international standards
As part of a personal research toolkit or dashboard for scien- and methodologies required to participate in open digital
tists and those they work with, ICT is essential to delivering information sharing. In this context, the efforts made by
today’s research. Lessons learned in using these types of organizations to overcome institutional inertia, join together,
technology for agricultural research are summarized here; and develop collective and accessible research informa-
the discussion also highlights the key enablers for designing tion repositories and services are immensely important.
and implementing ICT-enriched research initiatives. Although each institution will have its own priorities and
constraints, all can subscribe to common approaches.
First, ensure that each researcher has basic levels of
e-literacy and ICT access. It is critical to convince managers An additional major challenge in research is for organiza-
and funders that ICT is “basic” to research, not just a desir- tions and individuals to truly grasp the emerging possibilities
able add-on. Beyond the level of the individual scientist or and be willing to use them. One aspect of this challenge is
researcher, many opportunities for using ICT in research awareness: Which of all the possible tools and investments
require significant institutional investments to have a real will work best, and where? Who has the skills to make them
impact on research itself or the targets of research. work? What “fallout,” positive and negative, will the organi-
zation experience if they are used? What is the best portfolio
The lack of systematic investment in ICT by research of ICT-related investments for my particular set of individual,
institutions and their funders often holds researchers back project, or institutional goals and challenges? The use of new
from adopting and using ICT (Balaji 2009; FARA 2009; GCARD types of ICT is also a risky and change-making business. Just
2009; Karanja 2006; Kashorda and Waema 2009; RUFORUM adopting a new tool can trigger major changes in workflows,
2009; UNCTAD 2010). Like funding for agricultural research procedures, processes, culture, and hierarchy that force a
more generally, investments in ICT for agricultural research wider assessment of business processes. Legacy IT sys-
must increase, and this issue should be at the forefront of tems as well as institutional processes and power relations
the agricultural research discussion. Thinking carefully about are often threatened.
how ICT might contribute to research projects is critical to
tapping the wide range of opportunities available throughout Finally, taking full advantage of ICT and digital tools in agri-
the research process. cultural research is a challenge for even the smartest,
best-funded scientific institute. A research organization
6 For a 2010 review of patent databases, see “The Patent Librarian’s that has been transformed through ICT needs people and
Notebook” (http://patentlibrarian.blogspot.com/2010/02/pat- leadership with skills to develop a vision for e-research
ent-database-review.html); IFPRI, Bioversity, and other CGIAR
research centers have published more general reviews of intellec- and align ICT investments with research and innovation
tual property and related issues in agricultural research. processes, ensure that staff acquire the necessary skills,
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
142 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
redesign institutional processes, adopt open standards Support the creation of a fixed-time, fixed-quantity,
and access to knowledge, change staff mind-sets, give fixed-quality, and fixed-price supply model (intensive
staff access to ICT tool sets, invest in technological infra- management for food-related industries), by
structure and networks, and innovate and experiment— centrally managing data in the cloud (production
among other needs. Devising and developing the optimal schedules, production history, harvest volume,
ICT investment portfolio for a national research institute or and planting information) from the several hundred
network is a major challenge. to several thousand contract farm product suppliers
across Japan. Because the status of products can
be ascertained from the production stage, contract
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY producers can manage their operations to support
Fujitsu “Akisai” Cloud Initiative for the Food procurement based on the fixed-time, fixed-quantity,
and Agricultural Industries and Research fixed-quality, and fixed-price model.
Since 2008, with an updated version launched in 2012,
By offering the cloud service for agriculture, Fujitsu aims
the Fujitsu Group has been field-testing the Akisai
to promote a shift toward a new enterprise-like agricul-
cloud for food and agriculture. Based on the concept
tural research and management approach that improves
of “utilizing ICT to ensure plentiful food supplies in the
agriculture and food markets by ensuring a plentiful, safe
future,”7 Fujitsu’s service is the first of its kind worldwide,
supply of food at all times.
designed to provide comprehensive support to all aspects
of agricultural research and management. This SaaS-
based solution leverages cloud computing to support
agricultural administration, production, and sales for field INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
crops, horticulture, and animal husbandry. To date, this KAINet Kenya Knowledge Network Anchored
initiative has demonstrated substantial results, leading to in Partnerships and Collaboration
transformational changes in companies’ work patterns, The Kenya Agricultural Information Network (KAINet)
improved productivity, and the training of a new genera- project, supported by FAO, encourages and assists
tion of farmers. Kenyan agricultural organizations to capture and share infor-
mation in a series of repositories. The network, launched
With the on-site utilization of ICT as a starting point, the ser-
in 2009 and supported by the Ministry of Agriculture,
vice aims to connect distributors, agricultural regions, and
provides training and support. The network’s website
consumers through an enhanced value chain by providing
allows researchers to query the resources of all member
SaaS applications for end users such as farmers, researchers,
institutions at once. The repositories include around 4,000
and agribusiness operators, among others. The SaaS-based
full-text digital documents generated by the institutions,
agricultural production management solution enables end
with around 40,000 metadata records that conform to
users to:
international coherence standards to facilitate access and
Visualize processes at farm sites, by using mobile
sharing. The network is guided by a national stakeholder
devices to collect, store, and analyze data in the
forum, a board of trustees, and a network management
cloud, such as the results of daily on-site operations
committee.
and planting information. Fujitsu’s solution enables
customers and researchers to visualize quality and Like the thematic service GFIS, mentioned earlier, KAINet
cost figures for each of their planted fields. By relies on distributed action by different organizations, their
leveraging these accumulated data, farmers can look compliance with standards, and sufficient connectivity for
back on the results of previous plans and modify the the harvesting and virtual querying of the databases. The
farming schedule in the future, enabling enterprise- collaboration between national institutions and international
style agricultural management that improves both partners under the project ensured the effective use of
earnings and efficiency. national resources and leveraged knowledge of international
best practices.
An important aspect of KAINet is that it is integrated
7 h t t p : / / w w w. f u j i t s u . c o m / g l o b a l / a b o u t / r e s o u r c e s / n e w s into national and institutional policies and strategies.
/press-releases/2012/0718-01.html. Its outputs and resources, such as the institutional and
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 143
national repositories of agricultural information, complement that it would enhance existing work and not remain an iso-
national and global initiatives aimed at sharing information. lated initiative. The initial planning and partnership-building
Its training programs support the development of human phase was critical for success, because it provided an under-
capacity in information and communication management. standing of the institutions’ information and communication
management needs and helped partners develop a basis for
Experiences with KAINet have been carefully documented. collaboration.
Among the lessons and enabling factors that emerged, a
major lesson is that piloting the network with a limited num- The development of adequate capacities in information and
ber of national institutions allowed the partners to learn and communication management (including physical infrastruc-
devise workable solutions before expanding the network. ture) was essential for developing open repositories, and
The management and steering committees played important these capacities should preferably be built early in a network-
roles in promoting the network, involving the management ing project. Because networking contacts were the basis for
of partner institutions in its development, and guiding proj- collaboration and project operations, telephone and email
ect activities. Linking the project to the priorities and plans groups were essential for constant communication among
of partner institutions added credibility to KAINet, ensuring partners.
Topic Note 6.2: ICT, DIGITAL TOOLS, AND EXTENSION
AND ADVISORY SERVICES
TRENDS AND ISSUES security, market development, and climate change chal-
Rural people must be able to respond quickly and effectively lenges (Christoplos 2010).
to the opportunities and challenges of economic and tech- In the context of rural advisory services, ICT devices and
nological change, including opportunities to improve agri- techniques have four broad functions. First, they can deliver
cultural productivity and food security. Innovation is more or provide access to information. They should address the
successful when producers can communicate with and need for localized and customized information—adapted
be heard by their peers, local authorities, and institutions. to rural users in a comprehensible format and appropriate
Producers also require relevant knowledge and information, language—to give small-scale producers as well as provid-
including technical, scientific, economic, social, and cultural ers of advisory services adequate, timely access to technical
information. To be useful, this information must be available and marketing information, as well as information or support
to users in appropriate languages and formats. At the same related to new technologies and good farming practices
time, it must be current and communicated through appro- (image 6.4). It is not just a matter of getting information out.
priate channels. A key aim is to give rural people the facilities and skills to find
the information and answers they need.
This topic note outlines key issues involved in using ICT to
convey demands for rural advisory services and deliver those A second, broad function of ICT is to organize the knowl-
services effectively. Although there is convincing evidence edge base for extension and advisory services. ICT should
that ICT can revitalize interactions between research and help document and store information for future use. In many
extension/advisory services in ways that respond to farm- cases, information and knowledge on technologies and good
ers’ demands, the use of ICT is merely one element in the practices is available only in hard copy or in people’s heads,
wider transformation of a traditional, top-down, technology- and data are incomplete, scarce, or inaccurate. Local and
driven extension system into one that is more pluralistic, indigenous knowledge is often transmitted orally, records are
decentralized, farmer-led, and market-driven. One role of often unavailable, and information is dispersed only to nearby
ICT is to contribute to the many reforms that are urgently family and friends. All of this knowledge, like the knowledge
needed to empower and support small-scale farmers as that emerges from research, needs to be documented
developing countries seek to respond successfully to food and organized for reuse. The challenge is evident from the
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
144 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
IMAGE 6.4. Matching ICT to the Diverse Needs of need to focus on ways to empower rural communities to
Farmers Is Critical connect with one another, not just to the outside world.
Facilitating linkages between market actors, extension and
advisory services, and smallholders along value chains is
also essential.
Fourth, ICT needs to empower rural communities. ICT
should help farming communities “gain a voice” to convey
needs and demands, negotiate better deals with other actors
in value chains, and generally get practical benefits from
the services intended for them (and otherwise avoid being
exploited). One key to empowerment is for rural people to
acquire the ICT skills and tools to tell their own stories, and
provide feedback on services received in their own words
and languages, in ways that reach and influence others (see
Module 8 on farmer organizations for additional information
on ICT and collective action).
Throughout the developing world, ICT is being integrated
into classic rural advisory services through conventional
channels (radio, television, video, print media, libraries) and
newer options (text and voice messaging, the Internet, and
mobile services). Advice and information provided via ICT is
becoming more varied, covering specific technologies and
practices; climate change mitigation and adaptation; disaster
management; early warning of droughts, floods, and dis-
eases; price information; health and nutrition advice; political
empowerment; natural resource management; production
efficiency; and market access. It is not a one-way flow: ICT
opens up new channels for farmers to document and share
Source: Neil Palmer, CIAT. experiences with each other and with experts (IICD 2006).
See IPS “Participatory Video and Internet Complement
Extension in India” and Module 4.
scattered nature of the information, its multiple “formats,”
and the general lack of attention to documentation and Some of the likely trends in the use of ICT for rural advisory
learning in advisory services. Researchers are rewarded for services over the coming years include (Ballantyne 2009):
publishing, but extension workers, advisers, and farmers are
Many advisory services may be privatized as the
motivated to deliver “practical” results; documentation is
agricultural sector becomes more commercial, as
only a potential by-product.
other actors step into this arena, and as clients
Third, ICT needs to connect people and networks. ICT can are willing to pay. Some services—for small-scale
facilitate networking—locally, regionally, and globally—and producers and natural resource management, for
foster collaborative and interdisciplinary approaches to prob- example, which excite less interest from commercial
lem solving and research based on shared knowledge and providers—will continue as public services.
collaboration (Nyirenda-Jere 2010). Many nongovernmental Various types of ICT, including devices and software,
organizations (NGOs), research organizations, and national will become more available, much cheaper, and more
ministries have used ICT to improve access to technologies affordable, even in rural areas.
and knowledge in their rural advisory services, by means of Connectivity will become more pervasive and more
rural telecenters, community knowledge workers (CKWs), mobile. More devices will be “smart” and perform
online networks, and various types of forums. They also multiple operations.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 145
Farmers and rural communities will be regarded services is accumulating rapidly—albeit mostly through
far less as “passive” consumers of advice relatively small-scale programs. Likewise, the literature
and information; through ICT, as well as other analyzing these experiences is growing. The findings have
developments, they are becoming active participants in been mixed so far, and there is a clear need to use these
formal rural knowledge and innovation systems. findings when developing and refining programs using ICT
Traditional public advisory services will be challenged in advisory services. This area requires much more atten-
by the emergence of new actors with alternative tion, given the growing interest in reinvigorating support
ICT-based business models. To remain relevant and for agricultural extension and advisory services—particu-
competitive, public extension and advisory services larly if new and demonstrably more effective and sustain-
will need to reinvent or transform themselves, making able approaches can be found.
the strategic use of ICT part of the change process.
Some developing countries have moved quickly to enable
There will be much experimentation and innovation
farmers to interact in real time (or close to it) with advi-
by governments, NGOs, the private sector, and new
sory services through ICT. Until ICT offered farmers a
infomediaries to develop and test ICT-based services
channel for communicating directly with distant techni-
and business models to better reach or engage with
cians and experts, many farmers could wait months or
rural communities. The challenge will be to scale
years for an extension worker to provide technical advice,
these out to reach specific target groups or broad
and often that advice did not address their immediate
groups of marginal communities.
concerns (image 6.5). The following examples highlight
The more complex and dynamic interactions characteristic of some of the ICT applications that advisory services have
innovation systems, including the interactions fostered through used to improve their interactions and sharing of technical
ICT, will require farmers and advisory service providers to knowledge with farmers in developing countries. These
acquire new skills, both technical and entrepreneurial (Swanson applications include Web services like “ask the expert,”
and Rajalahti 2010). In some instances, ICT tools themselves mobile messaging for advice, radio programs to dis-
can enable farmers and service providers to attain these skills; in seminate technical information, and video. Many of these
others, special capacity-building efforts will be needed. This dis- endeavors are fairly new, limiting practitioners’ ability to
cussion is beyond the scope of this topic note, but helpful infor- analyze their effectiveness.
mation is available (see World Bank 2012, especially Module 4).
Informing the Extension Agent and Advisory
In the remainder of this note, the discussion of ICT in advi-
Service Providers
sory services contains examples and innovative practice
summaries that illustrate practical strategies for integrating Two projects improve the ability of extension/advisory ser-
farmers’ demands into advisory services and that discuss vice providers to respond to farmers’ needs by improving the
their relative strengths and weaknesses. The examples and quality and relevance of information available to both groups.
practice summaries also illustrate some of the social and
economic outcomes that can arise when ICT supports the
wider webs of communication that characterize effective IMAGE 6.5. Timely Advisory Services Improve the
innovation systems. Effectiveness of Other Technologies
ICT FOR EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES
ICT has great potential to transform the way public exten-
sion and advisory services are organized and delivered—
including interactions with farmers. It is also an entry point
for nontraditional actors that see advisory services as an
area of intervention and for giving greater emphasis to
subjects that are traditionally deficient in extension and
advisory services. ICT can also increase women’s access
to advisory services. Experience with a vast variety of
approaches to the use of ICT in extension and advisory Source: Thomas Sennett, World Bank.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
146 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
The first was launched in the Arab Republic of Egypt and the was to extend the reach of centralized expertise and transmit
second in Uganda. farmers’ concerns more clearly. Via mobile phones, CKWs
provide information on three-day weather forecasts, sea-
Egypt launched a Virtual Extension and Research Communication sonal forecasts, good farming and husbandry practices, input
Network (VERCON)8 in 2000 to develop and strengthen links supplies, and markets. The subject matter for each of these
among the research and extension components of the national topics comes from expert partner institutions like the Uganda
agricultural knowledge and information system. By improving National Agro-Inputs Dealers’ Association and Uganda’s
research-extension linkages, the initiative aimed to improve National Agricultural Research Organization.
advisory services for Egyptian farmers, especially resource-
poor farmers. Early findings indicated that women and poorer farmers
frequently used the service and that farmers generally
VERCON-Egypt introduced and tested several innovative acted on the information. At first, however, CKWs required
communication tools. One of the most useful tools is the intensive training in mobile technologies, agricultural informa-
Farmers’ Problems Database, created explicitly to address tion, survey techniques, and business skills to be effective.9
farmers’ problems. The Web interface enables extension More analysis of this experience, and of others like it, will
agents to pose questions on behalf of farmers seeking be needed to validate these findings.
solutions to agricultural problems; they can also examine
answers to questions already posed to researchers. Content
is classified into four main categories of problems: produc- Using Radio and Video to Reach Rural Farmers
tion, administration, environment, and marketing. Compared to the most novel and technically sophisticated
mediums of communication available, radio remains the
The online database and tracking system enable farmers’ most pervasive, inexpensive, popular, and socioculturally
questions to flow from provincial extension centers to appropriate option in many parts of the developing world.
the national extension directorate and research system. Radio is still the only medium for disseminating information
Producers approach extension centers with problems, rapidly to large and remote audiences, including critical infor-
and if they cannot be solved using online resources such mation about markets, weather, crops, livestock production,
as extension bulletins or agricultural expert systems, the and natural resource protection. Video has also had substan-
extension agent develops a full description of the problem tial impacts in convincing farmers to try new technologies;
and his or her proposed solution, which is forwarded to a the images, demonstrations, and audio narrative can make
specialized researcher, who provides advice to address the information easier to understand and apply, especially for
it (El-Beltagy et al. 2009). The problems and solutions are audiences with limited literacy.
added to the online database to assist other users of the
network who face similar problems. Rural radio is distinctive in relation to urban radio and most
national radio networks. It is directed specifically to a rural
Aside from addressing farmers’ problems, the system audience with particular information needs, and it often
provides valuable information to track farmers’ problems, includes authentic stories and experiences from commu-
including their incidence and significance. The system makes nities and successful farmers. Rural radio can motivate
farmers’ problems more visible and quantifiable for research farmers, promote the exchange of views, and draw their
planners, and chronic problems can be addressed in research attention to new agricultural production ideas and tech-
projects. From 2006 to 2008, over 10,000 problems and their niques. Rural radio can be highly interactive (box 6.11).
solutions accumulated in the interactive database, and over Communities, far from being passive listeners, actively
26,000 farmers benefited from the system (FAO 2008). plan the production of broadcasts that are an expression of
community life and concerns.
In Uganda in 2009, the Grameen Foundation established a
distributed network of intermediaries, called CKWs, who Rural radio producers must know the rudiments of agricul-
used mobile devices to collect and disseminate information ture, be familiar with farmers’ agricultural problems, and have
to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. The idea a good general understanding of rural life to ensure that their
8 See http://www.e-agriculture.org/content/egypt-vercon-virtual 9 For results of the initial review, see Grameen Foundation USA
-extension-and-research-communication-network. (2013).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 147
BOX 6.11. Interactive Radio Programs Perform starting point should be a participatory needs assessment
Governance Roles and Services to evaluate not only the material needs of communities
that will benefit from the project but also the perceptions,
The financial, political, and social capital available to radio expectations, and commitments that community members
stations directly affects the kinds of programs and mes- can bring to the initiative.
sages that are directed toward farmers. For example,
stations managed and funded by the communities they Radio overcomes some of the most challenging issues
serve may emphasize the local context and locally avail- related to using ICT in advisory services:
able resources. Commercial and private stations may Accessibility. Radios are relatively cheap to produce
be more inclined to enlist agro-dealers or businesses and distribute and do not need electricity or special
as sponsors of programs, which bias the programming. skills to operate. They can also be shared by groups
Public stations, funded by government agencies, may of listeners. A key challenge for rural radio is to reach
reinforce national policies and may not accommodate female producers. Radio programs should target
the locally specific needs of rural communities. women producers, although ensuring women’s
access to radios in the household may not be so easy.
Radio-based extension activities, particularly interactive
Often, men own the household radio and choose the
programs, can perform several governance roles and
programs to listen to, which may not be relevant for
services:
women producers.
They can help to provide feedback on government Literacy and language barriers. Radio requires no
initiatives—for example, by monitoring the uptake reading and generally speaks the language of the
and impacts of government policies (on land use, community it intends to reach.
crop specialization, and other issues affecting rural
Geographic coverage. Radio can easily and
areas), including unintended consequences.
simultaneously reach large numbers of isolated
They can provide feedback on land grabbing and communities over vast geographic areas.
land disputes. Radio can offer an inclusive and safe
Local focus. Radio can focus on local issues in local
venue for discussing sensitive issues around land
languages. United Nations Development Programme
and land use changes between various stakehold-
(UNDP) notes that in Latin America, for example,
ers, particularly if listeners can contact the station
most radio programs are locally or nationally produced,
anonymously.
whereas only 30 percent of television programming
They can rapidly provide information on natural comes from the region.
disasters, food security, and climate-related issues.
In Liberia and Sierra Leone, for example, local radio New ICT has benefited radio by offering better and cheaper
stations played a key role in delivering information means of recording, mixing, editing, and transmitting
to remote villages about Ebola prevention, while (e.g., the digital audio recorder, audio editing on computers,
also tracking the rate and locations of infection, and the electronic transmittal of sound programs as attach-
and advising where to seek treatment. ments) (image 6.6). Development practitioners increasingly
Source: Rao 2015. recognize the potential for combining radio with new Internet
technologies and mobile phones, although limitations must
be considered, including the lack of telecommunications
infrastructure in some areas and the cost of mobile phones
programming is relevant to their audience. Production teams and other ICT devices.
are taught to work with farmers and, to the extent possible,
organize broadcasts directly from the field in open-air gather- Like radio, video has the advantage of attracting people’s
ings in which entire villages or communities participate. curiosity, and it appears to be an especially convincing
medium when it captures familiar people or situations (as
Program content is generated through participatory dis- does local participation in radio broadcasts). Advances in
cussions with community representatives and presented ICT have made video much easier and less costly to pro-
in languages and formats to which the audience relates duce, disseminate, and preserve for all to use (box 6.12).
socially and culturally. For every rural radio project, the Like radio, video does not demand literacy, and images can
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
148 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
IMAGE 6.6. New Technologies Have Allowed for More Through videos developed in collaboration with farmers and
Innovative Radio Programs shared with local radio stations and farmer organizations
across Africa, the Africa Rice Center widely disseminated
information about rice production, processing, and market-
ing opportunities (van Mele, Wanvoeke, and Rodgers 2013).
The series of 11 videos (in 30 languages) has reached more
than 500 organizations and probably hundreds of thousands
of farmers, stimulating learning and experimentation in rice
production from field to market. It is likely that the videos
continue to be copied and distributed more widely, but
this spontaneous diffusion and any resulting innovation are
difficult to monitor and evaluate.
The videos appear to have had a tangible impact on the
livelihoods of rural women. Because the videos featured
women, they reached more women, who were more likely
to apply what they learned (Africa Rice Center 2014). For
Source: Farm Radio International.
example, women who saw the video on parboiling rice
improved their parboiling techniques and marketed their
rice through new outlets (Zossou et al. 2012). Others devel-
BOX 6.12. Access Agriculture’s Web and Social Media
oped a better relationship with the NGO that showed the
Platforms for Sharing Training Videos
video, formed producer groups, and gained assistance from
Access Agriculture, an international NGO, showcases the NGO in obtaining credit to purchase inputs for improv-
agricultural training videos in local languages as well ing rice production. The NGO, in turn, recognized the effec-
as in English and French. Users can search its website tiveness of the video format and began to use more visual
(www.accessagriculture.org) for training videos on agri- aids in its work with women. The fact that the videos show-
cultural production and download them or order copies cased women’s expertise and innovation convinced some
on DVD. The audio tracks can also be downloaded by male researchers that they should work more with women
radio stations for wider dissemination. farmers. Giving a voice to women and other marginalized
groups in this manner and involving them in the develop-
This Web platform—primarily designed for agricultural
ment and dissemination of agricultural technology may be
R&D staff, service providers, and extension agents,
an effective means of promoting greater social inclusion.10
among others—hosts training videos on 14 types of
agricultural products, including cereals, vegetables,
fruits, livestock, and fish, as well as technical topics Making Information Accessible through Mobile
related to (e.g.,) integrated pest management, agribusi- Phones and Internet
ness, and mechanization. Colombia’s Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development,
The development team is now testing Agtube, a social in collaboration with partners, facilitates AGRONET, the
media platform for rural people in developing countries. National Agricultural Information and Communication
Individuals (including researchers) and communities can Network of Colombia. AGRONET is a network of agricultural
share their experiences on this platform by registering at information providers that have adopted a common platform
www.agtube.org. to standardize and integrate resources to offer value-added
information and communication services for the agricultural
Source: http://www.accessagriculture.org/.
sector using modern and traditional ICT devices.
To send relevant information to producers, AGRONET devel-
make it easier for viewers with little formal education to
ops user profiles based on a needs assessment and on
understand complex topics. An additional benefit is that
video can foster social cohesion in agricultural communities
by featuring the actions and voices of marginalized groups 10 To see the rice videos, visit http://www.africarice.org/warda
(Lie and Mandler 2009). /guide-video.asp.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 149
users’ particular productive activities. AGRONET introduces be defined before the work is under way. The approach will
new methods and improved workflows to provide content involve some loss of control and very probably unexpected
systemically, and it takes advantage of mobile technologies impacts.
to reach a growing number of rural users. Producers receive
text updates on AGRONET’s platform, including changes in People will use a system for sharing information, including
its databases and other news and events pertinent to agri- agricultural information, if the content is adapted to local
culture. The ministry has expanded the service (initiated in needs, sourced appropriately, and presented suitably. In
2005) to provide context-specific information on agricultural Costa Rica, a national team conducted a participatory rural
markets, inputs and supplies, weather alerts, and other sub- communication appraisal in selected regions to engage
jects. Over the medium term, AGRONET plans to provide a farmer organizations in sharing their knowledge. In the
greater wealth of content and information services to pro- Brunca region, for example, livestock production dominates
ducers by adding capacity in digital television. agriculture, and farmers identified livestock diseases as an
important concern. One participant, a woman, was famous
The government’s efforts to reduce the digital divide through for her knowledge of how to cure sick cows. The organiza-
public-private partnerships and growing broadband pen- tion decided that the best way to document her knowledge
etration in rural municipalities catalyzed the development of was to film her. The videos could be shown at the local live-
AGRONET’s innovative, value-added information services. stock auction and remain available digitally on the national
An assessment by Colombia’s e-Government Program PLATICAR (“talk”) Web platform.11
ranked the ministry first in online information provision.
In other regions where the participatory method was used,
it elicited information and knowledge on other themes.
Farmer organizations producing tuber crops decided to pre-
ICT THAT PRESERVES AND SHARES FARMERS’
pare radio programs that were broadcast and then archived
KNOWLEDGE
on PLATICAR. For rice producers, information sheets were
Various types of ICT—including technologies that have been developed on each of the many rice varieties in Costa Rica.
available in rural areas for some time, like radio, and others
that have become more common only recently, such as digi- The participatory approach that led to the choice of the most
tal video—bring farmers’ views and voices into agricultural knowledgeable person was the innovation that enabled farm-
advisory and research services. ICT is invaluable for eliciting ers to recognize that their own local and traditional knowl-
and preserving local knowledge, such as knowledge of the edge was most appropriate for their needs. The innovative
medicinal traits of plants or traditional erosion control prac- decision was to select the best medium for sharing this
tices. The following sections illustrate how rural people in a knowledge, as well as the place and time where it would
range of settings have benefited from and enriched advisory be shared most effectively. The fact that the information is
services through greater participation and knowledge sharing digitally preserved means that it can be archived and avail-
mediated by ICT. able through PLATICAR. The team that led the participatory
process was the key enabler, because it built trust among
stakeholders and brokered the sharing of personal knowl-
Using ICT to Share and Elicit Local Knowledge
edge that could benefit the whole group.
Many organizations and governments see ICT devices as
tools that bring information and modernity to rural areas—
that get messages “out” to the hinterlands. Undoubtedly Documenting and Mobilizing Indigenous Knowledge
ICT extends the reach of extension and advisory services, A related information-sharing effort documents indigenous
but they can become one-way pipelines, pushing informa- knowledge (image 6.7). As experienced farmers migrate
tion to uninterested communities. A more inclusive approach to urban areas, as the local farming population ages, or as
uses ICT to empower rural people to document their own climate change and social upheavals uproot agricultural com-
knowledge so it can be shared with other communities and munities, much knowledge can be lost. This knowledge is
with extension/advisory service providers. This empowering worth preserving simply for its cultural value, but it is also
approach is more challenging, because it depends on the
capacities of the communities and their willingness to share
11 Plataforma de Tecnología, Información y Comunicación
their knowledge. For their part, proponents of the approach Agropecuaria y Rural (Platform for Agricultural and Rural
must be willing to use ICT to enable changes that cannot Information and Communication).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
150 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
IMAGE 6.7. Farmer-Led Documentation Processes Can In South Asia, in an effort to increase their impact, organi-
Use Digital Tools in Place of Paper zations working with rural communities in Bangladesh and
India embarked on a process of Farmer Led Documentation
and Knowledge Sharing (MISEREOR 2010). Farmer-led docu-
mentation is defined as an empowering process in which
local communities take the lead role in the documentation
process. The results are used by community members
for learning within the community (internal learning) and
exchange between communities (horizontal sharing) and
among communities, development agents, and policymak-
ers (vertical sharing).13 This process of engaging with farm-
ers to document their knowledge and experiences showed
that a “people-led development process does not only help
increase yields or conserve the local biodiversity; it can also
help farmers to get access to the resources they need and
Source: Charlotte Kesl, World Bank. can contribute to strengthening local organizations, net-
works, and alliances…. Most important of all,…it leads to
instrumental in aiding researchers and extension workers to empowerment” (MISEREOR 2010).
develop and adapt technology and practices for local condi-
tions (and could help communities recover from natural
disasters and conflicts). ICT TO MONITOR AND EVALUATE
AGRICULTURAL INTERVENTIONS
In Bolivia, the Communication and Training Centre for AND RESEARCH
Natural Resources Management and Sustainable Agriculture Monitoring and evaluating the outcomes of research results
(CARENAS) project was initiated in 2003 in the Department (such as new varieties and management practices), the
of Santa Cruz to strengthen rural communication for sustain- construction of agricultural infrastructure (often involving
able natural resource management and rural development. contractors), or the impacts of extension and advisory pro-
Representatives of municipalities, farmer associations, and grams or new technologies in a decentralized rural setting
NGOs participated in intensive training for one month in com- can greatly benefit from ICT. ICT can transform monitoring
munication methods and techniques, the use of ICT, and the and evaluation, which are often afterthoughts in agricultural
production and use of multimedia materials in the field. The interventions because of the difficulties associated with
21 people who passed the course became local audiovisual analyzing impact. Monitoring and evaluation are expensive
specialists, who engaged in a participatory process with advi- (entailing the costs of traveling, producing materials, hiring
sory service workers and farm communities to elicit farmers’ experts, and analyzing data), especially for poorly resourced
traditional knowledge and integrate it with technical knowl- public agencies. It is often a challenge to measure impact
edge. Based on this interaction, the audiovisual specialists accurately because many variables cannot be controlled,
produced initial videos, which were validated through focus including unanticipated changes in weather, conflict, natural
group discussions, interviews, and farmer extension meet- disasters, or community or farmer health. ICT can address
ings. The videos were then shown to the communities and, some of these challenges by reducing the paper trail,
after participatory evaluation, final versions were produced. increasing farmers’ responses (and the diversity of respon-
They were distributed to 25 communities in 11 municipali- dents), improving remote observation, and expanding data
ties.12 The videos—which demonstrated such techniques as accuracy. It should be emphasized that methods for employ-
repairing drainage ditches using nets and vegetative cover, ing ICT and digital tools in M&E are at a very early stage of
recycling organic waste, and building compost latrines— development and adoption. Much more needs to be learned
eventually formed part of a training package consisting of about how these tools can best be employed.
printed guides for trainers and booklets for farmers.
13 The farmer-led documentation approach was promoted by
12 See “Information, Communication, and Training for Natural Participatory Ecological Land Use Management (PELUM),
Resource Management and Sustainable Agriculture—Bolivia” Promoting Local Innovations (PROLINNOVA), and OXFAM
(http://www.fao.org/tc/tcdm/italy/op_bol034_en.asp?lang=en). Novib. See www.prolinnova.net/fld.php.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 151
India has pioneered the use of ICT in many agricultural maps and a set of recommended actions are shared with
interventions and is often at the forefront of technologi- rural communities through the information centers. Every
cal innovation for smallholder farming. To track research village has at least one individual who is trained in reading
being conducted in India, the Indian Agricultural Statistics the vulnerability maps.
Research Institute developed the Project Information and
Management System for the Indian Council of Agricultural Analyses of the effects of this intervention reveal that after
Research (PIMS-ICAR). This data management system two seasons, a large number of individuals started to use the
was created to prevent duplication between research color-coded maps as reliable information resources. In 2009
projects, monitor research initiatives and their progress in India, a particularly serious drought was forecast at the
more effectively (and simultaneously at the national and micro level, although not at the aggregate level. Rural fami-
state levels), evaluate research outcomes, and contribute lies prepared for the anticipated drought by storing fodder
to smoother management processes. Users involved in and not sowing water-intensive crops such as rice. Through
research projects can upload information on new projects these actions, they mitigated the effects of the ensuing
and update information as the project moves forward. Users drought, which was serious, lasting more than halfway into
can also browse through projects, which helps to spur the season. Using ICT to monitor weather patterns as well
innovation and creative thinking while preventing overlap. as farmers’ responses helps VASAT determine the correla-
Research directors and managers can then manage and tion between the two. In this intervention, it was significant
monitor agricultural interventions and research remotely and that women were key factors in absorbing and relaying
with fewer costs. In addition, the management system can information about vulnerability to drought. They were also
archive research data and final reports. meticulous data providers for experts to refine or correct the
vulnerability forecasts.
In another project, which monitored drought vulnerability,
local participants played key roles in validating and evalu- Pajat Solutions Ltd., a company founded in 2009 and
ating the effectiveness of the information provided. The financed by the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and
Virtual Academy for the Semi-Arid Tropics (VASAT14) uses Innovation, among others, has also pioneered ICT for moni-
components such as PC-equipped rural information cen- toring and evaluation. It has developed Poimapper for use
ters, community radio, and mobile telephony in conjunc- on GPS-enabled mobile phones to collect geotagged data
tion with human-centered efforts to anticipate and monitor and photos, which can then be uploaded to a central data-
the effect of drought at the micro level. Since 2005–06, base through cellular or bandwidth networks. Data collected
activities under this initiative have taken place in Niger and for a particular intervention can be mapped on a computer;
in India. In both locations, rural organizations established multiple data sets can be layered to create more informative
community-based information centers with international maps. This tool can be used to monitor a variety of projects,
support. The focus was on helping rural communities including projects to develop infrastructure such as wells or
anticipate droughts and to help them develop and arrive at to manage forests (see Module 15). It may also be used to
decisions that can mitigate the impact of droughts when monitor the effects of agricultural interventions by mapping
they occur. data on increases or declines in crop yields or frequencies of
livestock disease.
In the VASAT initiative, a blend of remote sensing and
agro-meteorology techniques was used to develop highly In Africa, organizations have used mobile phones to collect
localized, village-by-village forecasts of drought vulnerabil- information from farmers about how they can improve their
ity. These forecasts were presented as simple color-coded programs, as illustrated in box 6.13.
maps of the locality (a cluster of adjoining villages). Red/
amber indicated severe vulnerability to droughts (includ-
ing drinking water scarcity), whereas green indicated that LESSONS LEARNED
business as usual could continue. Yellow indicated that the
Lessons from the examples presented in this note and
village needed to give attention to altering cropping patterns
accompanying innovative practice summaries are relevant
and pay attention to fodder supplies. Developed for the com-
to many projects that use ICT to improve advisory services.
ing season from global and regional rainfall forecasts, these
The lessons highlight the many challenges that remain,
and the discussion that follows describes options for
14 https://core.ac.uk/download/files/449/12107443.pdf. addressing them.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
152 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
BOX 6.13. Mobile Phones as Tools for Farmer Surveys appropriate. The focus should be on what the technology
and Feedback needs to deliver, not its capabilities.
Voice of the Farmer (VoF) is a pilot project testing a Accountability improves when participants are aware of what
structured approach to using mobile phone technology is expected from them in terms of their roles and their com-
to obtain broad-based, low-cost, and frequent feedback mitments of human and financial resources and time. This
from farmers in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. The pilot clarity is especially important for national advisory services,
was conducted between January 2010 and March 2011 where stakeholders are diverse and systems are decentral-
by Synovate Panafrica, with funding from the Bill & ized. Regular face-to-face meetings are also crucial to capi-
Melinda Gates Foundation. talize on information exchange and stimulate new ways of
working together and sharing lessons learned.
The approach was designed to help organizations col-
lect a steady supply of empirical, actionable data more
Any technology used for advisory services must be
rapidly and cost-effectively. Feedback from target con-
user-friendly, accessible, and serve farmers’ needs quickly
stituencies enables organizations to assess whether
and sufficiently. Trust, useful information and knowledge,
they need to change their activities and approach to
and appropriate support are critical to user sustainabil-
better meet their constituents’ needs. In the shortest
ity. Two steps to ensure sustainability are to conduct a
possible time, findings can be available to participating
sound prior analysis and to involve the end users. These
organizations through an online portal.
steps will help providers determine whether the users
How has VoF been used? Some organizations used can pay for the service and, if so, how much; understand
VoF data to monitor progress in implementing the culture surrounding the use of technology in a given
projects. Others used the surveys to help guide the location; identify social and political challenges that may
content of products they planned to develop. One arise during implementation; and determine what kinds of
organization used VoF to get a better idea of how to applications will serve users best, based on their agrarian
focus its monitoring and evaluation surveys. Another activities.
used VoF primarily for quick marketing surveys to
receive timely feedback on new products and ser- Special efforts have to be made to guarantee that both
vices. Experience with the pilot project indicates that men and women participate in and benefit from informa-
VoF has potential as an efficient, low-cost solution tion and communications for advisory services (Module 4).
meeting a number of needs in private, public, and civil The opportunities offered by ICT can significantly enhance
society organizations. information provision to rural women in developing coun-
Sources: Authors; see also https://www.facebook.com/synovate tries. Without equal access to information, women are at
.panafrica.
a disadvantage in making informed choices about what to
produce and when to sell their products. The availability of
ICT is no guarantee that women will have equitable access
Because advisory services are one of the most direct lines to
to the technology and its benefits. More often than not, ICT
poor farmers, it is critical to determine the main objectives of
devices (radios, phones) remain under the control of men,
services and the most appropriate ways to use ICT to meet
preventing women from tapping knowledge and information
them. If the primary aim is to get information to farmers, then
relevant to their needs. Gender-disaggregated data, moni-
multiple channels and media should be used to reach many
toring, evaluation, and better targeting will improve these
groups. The quality and relevance of the content/advice to
outcomes.
be provided is also important, as is the level of community
“connectivity” to the providers’ messages. Conversely, if
the aim is to maximize farmer-to-farmer documentation and
sharing, then the emphasis is likely to be much more on INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
E-Extension with a Business Orientation in
capacity building and issues of culture, language, and vari-
Jamaica’s Rural Agricultural Development
ous forms of literacy.
Authority (RADA)
The technological component of an ICT for advisory services Driven by the need to transfer improved and adapted tech-
should be developed locally, in collaboration with users, nologies to farmers participating in a modern agricultural
and drawing on local, national, and international content as industry, in 1998 the RADA of Jamaica began to automate its
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 153
operations to deliver more effective extension and advisory Training for extension officers relies on Web-based resources
services. In the last 10 years RADA has emphasized even and other types of ICT, and extension officers use laptop/
greater use of ICT by purchasing equipment and developing notebook computers and multimedia technologies to share
specialized tools to support its increased extension staff and technical information with producers. The combination of
reach producers more efficiently. laptop/notebook computers and devices with wireless broad-
band connectivity has increased RADA’s capacity to collect
The Agricultural Business Information System (ABIS) is data in the field, strengthened the reporting and monitoring
RADA’s flagship ICT effort. ABIS puts the management of capabilities of extension staff, and helped to mitigate disease
agricultural information to work to develop a more business- and pest outbreaks. Digital photography captures and com-
oriented approach to agriculture. With data on registered municates events of interest in a timely manner.
farmers and other stakeholders, crops, livestock, and farm
practices, as well as a repository of technical information, RADA also uses text messaging to relay important alerts and
ABIS is a primary source of information on the agricultural bulletins to farmers (more than 75 percent of farmers regis-
sector and point of contact with advisory services. It facili- tered with ABIS have provided phone contact information).
tates disease and pest tracking, weather forecasting, and These alerts are particularly critical for rapid communication
trade between buyers and sellers of agricultural produce, during the hurricane season. RADA is mindful of the chal-
and it facilitates production through its Agricultural Resource lenges that some farmers may face in retrieving text mes-
Planning Tool. The system registers producers, records crop sages and therefore encourages family members, especially
estimates (monthly), records receipt books sold to farmers younger ones, to help producers take advantage of this impor-
(to prevent agricultural theft), records field service reports, tant communication channel. The authority is also pursuing
tracks specific farmers (produce and farm practices), and voice messaging to train and communicate with farmers.
provides technical guidance to stakeholders. Information
publicly available from ABIS on request includes information As RADA celebrates its 20th anniversary of providing exten-
on the availability of produce and contact information for pro- sion services to the agricultural sector, ICT remains at the
ducers; number of farmers, registered by parish; aggregate/ center of its operational strategy to continue the mission of
summary crop, livestock, and property reports; and demo- Repositioning Agriculture through Dynamic Action (RADA).
graphic data on farmers (age and gender). Table 6.1 provides examples of some of its achievements
to date.
The richness and granularity of ABIS data sets have been
commended. The system’s usefulness and value-added
opportunities have created increased demand for its ser- INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
vices internally and externally. ABIS now supports other Videos on Rice Seed Production Bring Multiple
government agencies, including the Agricultural Marketing Benefits to Bangladeshi Women
Information Division, Praedial Larceny Prevention Unit,
It is easier for men to access information than it is for women.
Jamaica Agricultural Society, Coffee Industry Board, and
A study by Access Agriculture asked if farmer-to-farmer vid-
Ministry of Tourism and Entertainment, as well as other
eos could help overcome this gender bias, and what women
stakeholders, such as the Mona School of Business and
would do with new knowledge.
Management. Additional human resources have been
required to modify and enhance ABIS and to support, man- In Bangladesh, videos on rice seed were filmed with farmers
age, and coordinate demand for ABIS services. and then shown in many villages. Researchers interviewed
TABLE 6.1. Objectives and Achievements of ICT to Support RADA Extension Services
ASPECT OBJECTIVE(S) OUTCOME/ACHIEVEMENT/STATUS
Text messaging facility Increase mobile communication with farmers Over 160,000 alerts sent to farmers about adverse weather
and best agricultural practices
Farmer registration Register farmers island-wide into a Web-based database Over 176,000 farmers registered to date
Production of farmer identification cards Identification of registered farmers receiving services Over 100,000 cards printed and distributed
Closed User Group (CUG) cellular phones Increase capacity of extension services to communicate 128 CUG phones distributed to extension staff
with farmers
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
154 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
IMAGE 6.8. Women Who Saw Instructional Videos innovate, and found ways to sell seeds and to bargain for bet-
Produced Healthier Seeds, Earned More, ter prices. The women reduced their seed rate by almost half
and Gained Confidence in Seeking and (lowering their production costs). The seeds they produced
Sharing New Information were brighter, with fewer signs of diseases or pests, and
easier to sell. There were no changes in the control villages.
Rice yields increased by 15 percent, which improved the
women’s social and economic status. Over 20 percent of the
households attained rice self-sufficiency, with no changes
in control villages. Twenty-four percent more of the video-
viewing households became surplus producers (image 6.9).
They sold more rice, seedlings, and paddy. The women’s
husbands began consulting them more often about rice
seeds and on spending household income.
Households that owned their own land (in other words, that
were not sharecroppers) and households that received help
Source: Paul Van Mele—Access Agriculture. http://www.accessagriculture.org/. from household members were more likely to increase their
income. Women who watched the videos many times were
able to marshal more support and raise their incomes more.
IMAGE 6.9. Increased Household Rice Stocks in a They also more confidently sought and shared new knowl-
Video Village in Northwestern Bangladesh edge with service providers and others in the community.
In sum, if they had land and labor, women who watched the
videos were able to increase their income, their social stand-
ing, and their ability to innovate. Knowledge is power (but so
is land).15
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Participatory Video and Internet Complement
Extension in India
Digital Green started with the support of Microsoft Research
in India. It disseminates targeted agricultural information
to small-scale and marginal farmers in India through digital
video. The system includes a database of digital videos
produced by farmers and experts. The topics vary, and they
are sequenced in ways that enable farmers progressively to
become better farmers.
Unlike some systems that expect ICT alone to deliver useful
Source: Jeff Bentley—Agro-Insight.
knowledge to marginal farmers, Digital Green works with
existing, people-based extension systems to amplify their
effectiveness. The videos provide a point of focus, but it
140 randomly selected women in 28 video villages and
40 women in four control villages in northwestern Bangladesh
about changes in their lives over the past five years. The 15 These findings are based on a small sample; additional analysis
women had watched the videos six times on average. may be needed to establish causality. Nevertheless, they suggest
the types of impact that may be sought through video exten-
sion, as well as the types of innovation required for extension
The women who watched the videos (image 6.8) conducted and training programs to address the needs of women (or other
more experiments, adopted more innovations, helped to marginalized groups).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 155
is people and social dynamics that ultimately make Digital provides opportunities to customize materials. When
Green work. Local social networks are tapped to connect videos feature farmers’ fellow villagers, farmers often
farmers with experts; the thrill of appearing “on TV” moti- instantly connect with the message. Digital Green has
vates farmers. Although Digital Green requires the support an open model to disseminate content, so it is freely
of a grassroots-level extension system and other partners, it available to everyone to use.
is effective because its content is relevant and it maintains a No need for connectivity. Digital Green operates
local presence. This local presence makes it possible to con- in environments with limited infrastructure and
nect with farmers on a sustained basis. The key elements financial resources. High-bandwith Internet access is
of the model are: not necessary for successful and sustainable video,
Digital video. Digital Green relies on advances in because the content can be supplied on DVD or
digital videography, including low-cost camcorders and downloaded on mobile devices.
digital solutions for editing video, which greatly reduce Feedback. By enabling anyone to be a content
the costs of developing local video content. producer and consumer, Digital Green gives even
Mediation. Video demonstrations are not a complete isolated communities a voice. It also uses other audio-
extension solution. They lack the interactivity that is and video-based mechanisms to support reporting and
the hallmark of good extension and advisory services. build trust among virtual communities of participants.
Digital Green relies on a local facilitator, whose role
is to pause or repeat video to engage the audience in Various technological innovations and tools underpin Digital
discussion and capture farmers’ feedback. Green’s approach. For example, its COCO (Connect Online,
Partnerships. Digital Green emphasizes the Connect Offline) software supports data tracking for orga-
development and delivery of digital content as a way nizations with sizable field operations, even where Internet
of improving the cost-effectiveness of organizations service is intermittent and/or poor. Because COCO is a
involved in agricultural research and/or providing stand-alone application in the Internet browser, no additional
extension and advisory services. The goal is to software has to be installed or maintained on a device. It has
strengthen existing institutions and groups, not to an open source, customizable framework and can be used
create new ones. without support from professional IT or engineering staff.
Community-based content. Content must be The Analytics Dashboard provides nearly real-time insight
relevant to local conditions (crops, climates, soils, into field operations, performance targets, and basic mea-
farming practices, and so on). The use of video sures of return on investment relevant to an organization.
Topic Note 6.3: ICT, DIGITAL TOOLS, AND E-LEARNING
AND EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE
TRENDS AND ISSUES research disciplines and areas of technical expertise; innova-
Increasing agricultural productivity in a climate-smart way tion brokers; and developers of food processing systems and
requires a continuous investment in developing human standards, financial and risk management instruments, rural
capital in agriculture, through formal and informal learning infrastructure, and information and knowledge management
and education. Human capital is critical at the farm level, systems— and thus the list is as extensive as the agricultural
in the public agencies that support agriculture, and in the innovation system is comprehensive.
private sector actors that drive agricultural value chains.
Formal learning consists of specific courses of study of var- Informal learning occurs through the varied interactions in an
ied length and complexity in the educational system. This agricultural innovation system and is particularly important
system develops the skilled experts needed in every aspect in agricultural extension and advice (Mekonnen, Gerber, and
of agriculture—the people working in the varied agricultural Matz 2016). The role of agricultural education and training in
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
156 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
an innovation system is discussed in detail in Module 2 of These features make e-learning especially attractive to
Agricultural Innovation Systems: An Investment Sourcebook extension and advisory services, especially for expand-
(World Bank 2012). This topic note focuses on the role of ing extension workers’ and farmers’ knowledge and skills.
e-learning, particularly in extension interactions. The advent of Extension education has long been challenged by the use
radio was just the beginning of an exponential increase in the of a formal didactic framework that expects students to fit
use of ICT to facilitate learning. Learning delivered through the with the established courses (Kroma 2003). Public sector
newer ICT devices and formats (computers, mobile devices, extension has been limited by the challenges accompany-
the Internet, DVDs, and so on) is termed “e-learning,” and ing declining investments, the high proportion of farmers in
its potential to facilitate “distance learning” and “distance relation to trained extension workers, and the need to incor-
education” (instruction and learning outside the traditional porate adult learning strategies and indigenous knowledge
classroom setting) was recognized immediately (image 6.10). into their activities (World Bank 2012).
The World Bank defines e-learning as “the use of elec- ICT (and e-learning) may make it possible to surmount
tronic technologies to deliver, facilitate, and enhance both some of the barriers to effective extension training and
formal and informal learning and knowledge sharing at any outreach in developing countries, but significant adapta-
time, any place, and at any pace.” This form of learning tions will be needed. E-learning originated in a postindus-
can make agricultural innovation system more inclusive by trial setting among a relatively well-educated population
bringing elements of traditional learning and mentoring to with reasonably good infrastructure for accessing digital
a wider audience and empowering people through learning services. Investments in digital content for e-learning were
communities. an agreed-on priority that resulted in the development of a
host of advanced platforms and applications for learners and
In theory, e-learning enables governments, agricultural advi- facilitators/teachers.
sory services, NGOs, farmer organizations, and private compa-
nies—in fact, any actor in the innovation system—to reach The innovative practice summaries in this topic note indi-
large numbers of producers, and for producers to interact cate some of the adaptations and strategies required for
with everyone else. Content can be updated quickly and e-learning to succeed in rural areas of developing countries,
accommodate rapidly changing needs. E-learning can also especially communities with limited literacy (digital and oth-
provide fresh approaches that are learner-centric, engaging erwise) and inadequate access to digital resources. Both
producers and their communities as partners and adult learn- examples come from India. The first summary describes an
ers in designing and implementing the learning experience. e-learning initiative in which farmers use mobile phones to
In addition, e-learning can make it easier to maintain quality gain specific skills that enable them to benefit more substan-
by supporting feedback mechanisms and ensuring appropri- tially from services such as commercial banking and exten-
ate accreditation and certification processes. sion advice. The second describes the development of a
Web-based platform called agropedia for storing and sharing
agricultural information in a range of formats and languages.
The platform—which incorporates Web 2.0 elements such
as wikis, blogs, and commentary spaces—provides much-
IMAGE 6.10. E-Learning Creates Opportunities for needed content for e-learning for farmers and extension
Rural Participation workers. Through these features and multiple access points
(including mobile phones and landlines), the platform con-
nects researchers, extension personnel, and farmers in vari-
ous information-sharing and e-learning activities.
LESSONS LEARNED
The experiences summarized here offer important social
and technical perspectives on e-learning for rural people
and extension workers in developing countries. ICT can
facilitate a learner-centric process if it is adapted carefully
Source: Curt Carnemark, World Bank. to the particular social, economic, and political context
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 157
(including constraints on learners’ time and travel). A provision of rural credit is accompanied by appropriate
multistakeholder partnership is essential for promoting capacity building, rural credit will perform much better
learning among the farming community through ICT, and in terms of productivity, returns, and nonperforming
agricultural institutions need to produce more extension- asset levels. Such gains will lead financial institutions
oriented digital content. Content for e-learning must be to support L3F.
highly granular for rapid uptake and must be linked to Capacity building will also enlarge the market for bank
specific learning outcomes. E-learning does not require credit among small-scale and marginal farmers and
the complex online workflows associated with standard among other marginalized groups of the rural poor,
learning management systems, but a priority in promoting particularly women. Modern ICT can play a major role
e-learning in agricultural innovation systems is to build ICT in supporting capacity building, which in turn would
capacity in personnel at all levels of agricultural education, enhance the market for such technologies.
training, and extension.
The rural poor stand to gain in this process, along with the
Finally, ICT and virtual interactions are not sufficient to
participating financial institutions, research institutions, and
form cohesive learning communities. Peer-to-peer contact
ICT companies. In addition to using ICT to build capacity,
significantly improves learning, and mobile phones can
financial institutions can use the technology to reduce the
provide useful support. In the initiative focused on life-
transaction costs of lending. Integrating these functions can
long learning for farmers, for example, mobilization, social
improve the likelihood that the L3F process will be replicable
capital, and social networking played major roles. The use
and sustainable.
of ICT for learning influenced development outcomes
because the learning experience was tailored to women’s
cognitive social capital and reinforced by links with com-
INTEGRATING MOBILE PHONE–BASED
mercial banks.
LEARNING AND CREDIT FOR WOMEN
LIVESTOCK PRODUCERS
VIDIYAL, an Indian NGO, uses L3F to promote community
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
banking among 5,000 women organized into self-help groups
Lifelong Learning for Farmers in Tamil Nadu
(SHGs). During 2008, nearly 300 women from the SHGs
Lifelong Learning for Farmers (L3F) is an application became partners and decided to build their capacity through
of Open and Distance Learning for Development by open and distance learning related to various aspects of
Commonwealth of Learning16 in Commonwealth countries sheep and goat production. As poor laborers, most of the
(Balasubramanian and Daniel 2010). Banks, universities, and women felt that attending classes or watching multimedia
marketing agencies are the partners in the L3F initiative. materials restricted their ability to work and attend to house-
Using open and distance learning and ICT, the initiative aims hold chores. They asked VIDIYAL and COL to explore the
to strengthen the self-directed learning process among use of mobile phones as a learning tool, because they would
men and women in the farming community and to create not need to be confined to any particular place or time during
linkages between various stakeholders. The objective is to the learning process.
enhance farmers’ skills and knowledge in partnership with
financial and research institutions. Through face-to-face and computer-based learning, COL
and VIDIYAL encouraged the women to develop a busi-
L3F is based on the following premises: ness proposal for rearing sheep and goats. They devel-
Unexploitative, mutually reinforcing contractual oped a business proposal in which each member would
relationships between rural producers and the obtain credit for buying nine female goats, one buck, and
formal public and private sector will promote rural one mobile phone. The local bank agreed to the proposal
entrepreneurship. and sanctioned a loan of US$270,000. The credit and the
Learning and extension can be a self-sustaining legal ownership of the assets are in the names of the par-
process in which secondary stakeholders support ticipating women.
L3F within a win-win framework. For instance, if the
The 300 women bought simple mobile phones, and VIDIYAL
entered an agreement with IKSL, one of India’s major
16 https://www.col.org/. mobile network operators, to send audio messages to the
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
158 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
women’s phones free of charge and enable free calls among universities. Designated professors at the universities pro-
group members. The company felt that this strategy would vide answers through video emails that are stored in a digi-
enhance its mobile service in the long run. tal library for farmers and others to access easily. Similarly,
the FAQ system used in mobile phone–based learning is
VIDIYAL and some of the participating women were trained linked to the universities, research institutions, and exten-
in developing audio content for mobile phone–based learn- sion organizations.
ing (image 6.11). Learning materials are prepared within the
broad principles of open and distance learning to meet learn- In this learning process, information flows both ways as
ers’ time and geographical constraints. VIDIYAL developed farmers contribute their informal learning and tacit knowl-
the materials in consultation with the Tamil Nadu Veterinary edge to the other partners. Through mobile phones and
and Animal Sciences University and contextualized them to computers, the students and researchers interact with SHG
the local culture and dialects. members (farmers and women) to understand their indig-
enous knowledge. SHG members participate in university
The learning materials convey information in short, con- research by managing research plots, providing data, and
cise messages. Three to five audio messages are sent to analyzing results. Undergraduate and graduate students
participating women every day. Each message runs for 60 undergo field training under the supervision of the women
seconds. farmers. Universities use the distance learning materials
developed by the women’s groups and farmer groups as
Women preferred to receive the messages in the mornings
reference materials for diploma courses in agriculture and
while going to work or performing their household tasks—
horticulture.
for example, while grazing the livestock. The women
reported that they learned and practiced the messages and The social capital and capacity building accumulated through
recorded them in their diaries. Illiterate women sought the L3F and the interaction it induces have led to some interesting
help of literate family members to record the messages. results. Around 5,000 women and men are involved in struc-
Most of the respondents’ families supported their learning tured learning courses accessed through their mobile phones.
objective, which benefited the entire family by expand- During 2009–11, commercial banks extended approximately
ing their knowledge base in relation to small livestock US$1.0 million in credit to 2,000 L3F participants. Over the
production. same period, the total turnover of the supported enterprises
was US$3.14 million. The higher rate of credit repayment
Other multimedia learning materials were shown during SHG
among L3F participants encourages support from the banks
meetings and telecast over local satellite channels run by the
(COL 2010). Studies by COL indicate that the quality of the
SHGs. Once a week, SHG members met and shared expe-
sheep and goat enterprises operated by L3F participants is
riences. The horizontal and vertical transfers of knowledge
significantly better than those of nonparticipants in the same
have encouraged self-directed learning among the members
region (Balasubramanian and Daniel 2010).
(Balasubramanian, Umar, and Kanwar 2010).
LEARNING THROUGH INTERACTIVE VOICE
PRELIMINARY IMPACT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
An important contribution of L3F is that it establishes links Recognizing the potential of mobile phone–based learning,
between research and education institutions, organizations COL asked the University of British Columbia to develop an
providing extension and advisory services, and the primary audio-based Learning Management System and Learning
stakeholders. The participatory preparation of learning Content Management System. The university created
materials fosters intensive interaction between all of these a prototype called Learning through Interactive Voice
groups. A consortium of agricultural and veterinary universi- Educational System, which not only enables audio-based
ties supports the farmers’ and women’s groups in devel- learning materials to be automated but also helps process
oping business plans and providing learning materials on the tests, feedback, and responses through appropriate
seeds, animals, and other subjects. The women’s associa- databases (Vuong et al. 2010). This system should improve
tion assesses the problems in a particular area, aggregates quality assessment and certification in an informal learning
the queries, and sends them through video emails to the environment.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 159
IMAGE 6.11. Women Use Mobile Phones to Learn Better Goat Production Techniques
Source: Commonwealth of Learning.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
160 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY receive specific messages and not broadcasts. A farmer or
Innovative E-Learning for Farmers through a practitioner in the field can raise a query via voice or text.
Collaboration and Multimodal Outreach A virtual call center built into agropedia receives the query
The limited availability of digital content relating to agricul- and passes it to appropriate extension workers and experts.
tural extension and advice reduces the opportunity to build In this way, trust and/or interest-based messaging networks
sustainable, digitally mediated services that bring new can be formed and sustained.
benefits to farmers and increase the reach of extension
personnel (see Balaji 2009). This gap could be overcome by Agropedia is an example of how a highly integrated plat-
developing a content aggregation system that receives and form can use multiple approaches to connect a spectrum of
provides information in multiple modes, especially through stakeholders, including research experts validating informa-
the Internet and voice/text messaging on mobile phones. tion, extension personnel in farm research stations and in
the field, and farmers. Field-based producers do not need
Such information could be generated using standard valida- computers to connect to experts and extension personnel.
tion procedures in research and education or captured from Farmers with advanced practical knowledge and skills are
transactions (such as query response services involving in a position to share their tips and messages with a much
farmers and experts). The same arrangement could pro- wider community and can participate in discussions related
vide additional training support to field-based stakeholders to the validation of particular pieces of information.
in agriculture, especially farmers. The core principle here is
multimodality in access to information and training/learning Agropedia has the equivalent of about 10,000 pages of mate-
support services. rial on 10 important crops in four languages and has close to
2,000 registered expert users. During two cultivation seasons
in 2009–10, the consortium organized mobile phone contacts
THE CONSORTIUM FOR AGRICULTURAL with about 27,000 farmers in four language regions and con-
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT: RESOURCES ducted 2.2 million text and voice transactions through 687
FOR E-LEARNING specific messages. Analysis revealed that farmers in general
prefer voice as the transaction medium and that they prefer
A key initiative under the World Bank–funded NAIP in India
messages that are no longer than 36 seconds.
is the Consortium for Agricultural Knowledge Management,
which has been active since 2008. The initiative is built The consortium is continuing into its second phase. An
around an advanced online content aggregation system analysis of costs and efforts in the first phase (January
called agropedia, which delivers and exchanges information 2009 to September 2010) revealed that university-based
through a Web portal and mobile phone networks accessible extension personnel could participate in the second phase
to phones with limited or no data capability. Agropedia also without requiring additional staff. Since mobile phone and
provides a subsidiary platform—Agrilore—to support online platform-hosting costs are low in India compared to the rest
learning for agricultural extension. of the world, the analysis concluded that the effort can be
mainstreamed as a regular activity in a typical agricultural uni-
Agropedia was designed to overcome the paucity of useful
versity. The serious challenge is to strengthen ICT capacity
agricultural extension information in the Web space. Online
among specialists and personnel at all levels, ranging from
discussions can be set up to support queries or validation.
researchers to field-level extension workers.
The platform incorporates Web 2.0 elements such as wikis,
blogs, and commentary spaces and receives material in digi-
tal formats, including text, still images, audio, and video. A
highly targeted search engine allows users to locate content ADAPTING THE E-LEARNING APPROACH
FOR FARMERS
in multiple Indian languages, overcoming a serious challenge
in using ICT for development. Agropedia is linked to the prin- An important activity for the consortium is to use e-learning
cipal website of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. methods to help farmers adapt their crop management
practices to cope with droughts. This activity was pursued
Agricultural extension workers can use the agropedia plat- by Adarsha Mahila Samaikhya (AMS), a community-based
form to create their own groups of contact farmers or peers, federation of women’s microcredit groups (in south central
facilitating e-learning. These groups can be sent timed text India) and ICRISAT, which led the agropedia consortium in
and voice messages, enabling specific interest groups to 2008–10. As of June 2011, about 7,400 women belonged to
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 161
AMS; almost 70 percent came from households below the Taking this experience into account, agropedia designers
official poverty line. developed Agrilore as a repository of agricultural learning
objects for use in extension. Three open and distance learn-
ICRISAT helped AMS set up the basic infrastructure con- ing institutions—Indira Gandhi National Open University,
necting the AMS rural operations hub to the Internet, using Maharashtra State Open University, and the Open and
a low-cost landline. A number of AMS activists were trained Distance Learning Directorate of Tamil Nadu Agricultural
in IT. ICRISAT research scholars functioned as trainers and University—are populating this repository with about 500
remotely supported extension-related queries from farm- granules relating to horticulture. They use this information to
ers. The scholars escalated queries to senior scientists of deliver certificate-oriented learning services to 5,000 farm-
ICRISAT if needed. Several AMS activists were trained in the ers in three linguistic regions. This effort is also supported
basics of reporting problems related to crop cultivation, using by the World Bank–financed NAIP as a separate activity.
a blend of online/e-learning and direct contact.
ICRISAT scientists and scholars realized that the e-learning
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
methods were originally designed for the classroom milieu
Africa Rice Center. 2014. Annual Report 2014: Partnerships for Impact.
and needed to be adapted to new learners with limited or no Côte d’Ivoire.
classroom experience. Based on advice from COL, ICRISAT
Balaji, V. 2009. “The Fate of Agriculture.” Thinkpiece for CGIAR
developed modules based on granules of instruction (concise
Scientific Forum Workshop on ICTs Transforming Agricultural
messages) (see Lifelong Learning for Farmers in Tamil Nadu). Science, Research, and Technology Generation, Wageningen, June
16–17. http://www.india-seminar.com/2009/597/597_v_balaji.htm.
Twenty minutes was set as the maximum amount of time
Balasubramanian, K., and J. Daniel. 2010. “Knowledge Transfer for
that a farmer would have to attain a learning outcome.
a Horticultural Revolution: The Lifelong Learning for Farmers
Learning outcomes were defined accordingly (e.g., a learn- Model.” Paper presented at the 28th International Horticultural
ing outcome in this context would be to recognize a visible Congress, Lisbon.
symptom of a plant disease). Women farmers were trained Balasubramanian, P. T., A. Umar, and A. Kanwar. 2010. “Using Mobile
in facilitation to help other farmers state their field problems Phones to Promote Lifelong Learning among Rural Women in
with greater clarity. Together, these skills were developed Southern India.” Distance Education 31 (2): 193–209.
in a group of 30 farmers using Internet chat first, bolstered Ballantyne, P. G. 2009. “ICTs Transforming Agricultural Science,
by regular contact sessions. Eight hours of instruction were Research, and Technology Generation.” Summary of the ICT
required over four weeks on average. Workshop at the Science Forum, Wageningen, June 16–17.
http://www.fao.org/docs/eims/upload/278059/Report%20
of%20the%20Workshop%20on%20ICTs%20held%20at%20
the%20Science%20Forum,%20Wageningen,%202009.pdf.
PRELIMINARY RESULTS Ballantyne, P. G., A. Maru, and E. M. Porcari. 2010. “Information
The results were encouraging. With an untrained interlocutor, and Communication Technologies—Opportunities to Mobilize
Agricultural Science for Development.” Crop Science 50 (2): S1–S7.
a farm problem received a solution from a subject matter spe-
cialist in an average of 26 hours, since the specialist needed Bentley, J. W., P. van Mele, Md. Harun-ar-Rashid, and T. J. Krupnik.
to keep going back to the farmer for more information. With a 2016. “Distributing and Showing Farmer Learning Videos in
Bangladesh.” Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 22
trained interlocutor, the average time taken to identify a solu- (2): 179–97.
tion dropped to less than two hours, because the interlocutor
Christoplos, I. 2010. Mobilizing the Potential of Rural and Agricultural
was able to elicit important supplementary information (on
Extension. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization. http://
rainfall, fertilizer and irrigation applications, crop varieties, and www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1444e/i1444e00.htm.
so forth). With the same number of extension personnel,
“Cloud Computing Lowers Cost of Protein Research,” Red Orbit.
more problems could be resolved in the field owing to the
April 10, 2009. http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/1669050
improved skills that women interlocutors mastered through / cloud_computing_lowers_cost_of_protein_research/index
e-learning. Key granules with photos were translated by the .html.
activists into the local language (Telugu) and issued as pam- COL (Commonwealth of Learning). 2010. “Memorandum Signed by
phlets for distribution among the interested farmers. Over a 25,000 Farmers.” Burnaby, Canada: COL.
period of two years, 15 of 30 trained activists received higher-
Cole, S. A, and A. N. Fernando. 2012. “Information Inefficiencies
level recognition in the form of certificates from the Indian and Technology Adoption: Evidence from Mobile Phone-Based
National Virtual Academy for Rural Prosperity. Agricultural Extension.” Draft, June 15. http://www.people.hbs
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
162 MODUL E 6 — ICT S, DIGITA L TOOLS, A ND AGRICULTURA L KNOWLED GE A ND INFOR MATION SY STEM S
.edu/scole/Papers&Publications/Working/Informational%20 Kashorda, M., and T. Waema. 2009. 2008 e-Readiness Survey of
Inefficiencies.pdf. East African Universities. Nairobi: Kenya Education Network.
———. 2016. “‘Mobile’izing Agricultural Advice: Technology Kroma, M. M. 2003. “Reshaping Extension Education Curricula for 21st
Adoption, Diffusion, and Sustainability.” Harvard Business Century Agricultural Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Paper
School Finance Working Paper 13-047. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139 presented at the 19th Annual Conference of the AIAEE, Raleigh,
/ssrn.2179008. NC. http://www.aiaee.org/attachments/article/1204/Kroma353.pdf.
do Prado, H. A., A. J. Barreto Luiz, and H. Chaib Filho, eds. 2010. Li, D., and C. Zhao. 2010. Computer and Computing Technologies in
Computational Methods for Agricultural Research: Advances and Agriculture III. Berlin: Springer.
Applications. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Lie, R., and A. Mandler. 2009. Video in Development: Filming for
El-Beltagy, S. R., A. Rafea, S. Mabrouk, and M. Rafea. 2009. “An Rural Change. Rome: CTA and Food and Agriculture Organization.
Approach for Mining Accumulated Crop Cultivation Problems Manning-Thomas, N. 2009. “Changing the Emperor: ICT-Enabled
and Their Solutions.” Paper prepared for the Association for Collaboration Transforming Agricultural Science, Research,
the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence for Development and Technology into an Effective Participatory and Innovations
Symposium, Stanford. http://ai-d.org/proceedings2010.html. System Approach.” Web2forDev, June 26. http://www.web-
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2008. Report of the 2nd 2fordev.net/en/article/changing-the-emperor-ict-enabled-collabora-
Expert Consultation on International Information Systems for tion-transforming-agricultural-science-research-and-techno.html.
Agricultural Science and Technology, Rome, September 23–24, Mekonnen, Daniel Ayalew, Nicolas Gerber, and Julia Anna Matz. 2016.
2007. http://www.iaald.org/sites/default/files/iisast2_report.pdf. “Social Networks, Agricultural Innovations, and Farm Productivity
FARA (Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa). 2009. GCARD- in Ethiopia.” Working Paper Series No. 235, African Development
Africa e-Consultation Report. Food and Agriculture Organization, Bank, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire.
Rome. http://www.fao.org/docs/eims/upload/270028/gcard%20 Mell, P., and T. Grance. 2011. “The NIST Definition of Cloud
africa%20econsultation%20report%20final.pdf. Computing.” September. http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy
Farm Radio International. 2011. Participatory Radio Campaign /SP/nistspecialpublication800-145.pdf.
Evaluation Report 2011. Processed. MISEREOR. 2010. “Strengthening People-Led Development: A
GCARD (Global Conference on Agricultural Research for Joint Effort of Local Communities, NGOs, and Donors to Redefine
Development). 2009. “Regional Consultations: Final Synthesis Participation.” Aachen. http://www.misereor.org/fileadmin/redaktion
for Europe.” Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome. /MISEREOR_Strengthening_people-led_development.pdf.
http://www.fao.org/docs/eims/upload/268570/GCARD%20 Nyirenda-Jere, T. 2010. “Unlocking the Promise of ICTs for
Consultation%20in%20Europe%20SYNTHESIS.pdf. Transforming Agriculture in Africa.” Technical Centre for
Graham, Mark. 2014. The Knowledge-Based Economy and Digital Agricultural and Rural Cooperation, Wageningen.
Divisions of Labour. Oxford: Oxford Internet Institute. Rao, S. 2015. “Using Radio in Agricultural Extension.” Note 18.
Grameen Foundation USA. 2013. Community Knowledge Worker GFRAS Good Practice Notes for Extension and Advisory
Uganda Program Executive Summary: Lessons Learned Services. GFRAS: Lindau, Switzerland.
2009–2014. Washington, DC: Grameen Foundation. http://www Robinson-Pant, Anna. 2016. Learning Knowledge and Skills for
.grameenfoundation.org/sites/default/files/resources/Grameen Agriculture to Improve Rural Livelihoods. Paris: UNESCO.
-Foundation_CKW -Lessons-Learned-(2009-2014)_Executive
-Summary_0.pdf. RUFORUM. 2009. Situation Analysis of ICT Capability and
Infrastructure in RUFORUM Universities. Kampala: Regional
Hoffmann, R. 2008. “A Wiki for the Life Sciences where Authorship Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture. http://
Matters.” Nature Genetics 40: 1047–51. repository.ruforum.org/documents/situation-analysis-ict-capability
Hori, M., E. Kawshima, and T. Yamazaki. 2010. “Application of Cloud -and-infrastructure-ruforum-universities.
Computing to Agriculture and Prospects in Other Fields.” Fujitsu
Simon, C. 2015. “Information, Writ Widely.” Harvard Gazette,
Scientific and Technical Journal 46 (4): 446–54. http://www
August 21. http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2015/08
.fujitsu.com/downloads/MAG/vol46-4/paper15.pdf.
/information-writ-widely/.
IICD (International Institute for Communication and Development).
Simon O. L. Mwombe, Fred I. Mugivane, Ivan S. Adolwa, and John
2006. ICTs for Agricultural Livelihoods: Impact and Lessons
H. Nderitu. 2014. “Evaluation of Information and Communication
Learned from IICD Supported Activities. The Hague: IICD.
Technology Utilization by Small Holder Banana Farmers in
Interagency Working Group on Manufacturing R&D, Committee on Gatanga District, Kenya.” Journal of Agricultural Education and
Technology, National Science and Technology Council. 2008. Extension 20 (2).
Manufacturing the Future: Federal Priorities for Manufacturing
Swanson, B., and R. Rajalahti. 2010. “Strengthening Agricultural
R&D. Washington, DC. https://nifa.usda.gov/sites/default/files
Extension and Advisory Systems: Procedures for Assessing,
/resource/nanotech__manufacturing_rd.pdf.
Transforming, and Evaluating Extension Systems.” Agriculture
Karanja, G. 2006. African Tertiary Institutions Connectivity Survey (ATICS) and Rural Development Discussion Paper 44, World Bank,
2006 Report. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre. Washington, DC.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 163
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development). System.” Paper presented at the IADIS International Conference
2010. “Technology and Innovation Report 2010: Enhancing Food on Mobile Learning, Porto.
Security in Africa through Science, Technology and Innovation.”
UNCTAD, New York. World Bank. 2012. Agricultural Innovation Systems: An Investment
Sourcebook. Washington, DC: World Bank.
van Mele, P., J. Wanvoeke, and J. Rodgers. 2013. “Innovative and
Effective Ways to Enhance Rural Learning in Africa.” In Realizing ———. 2015. World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends.
Africa’s Rice Promise, edited by M. Wopereis, D. Johnson, N. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Ahmadi, E. Tollens, and A. Jalloh. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing. Zossou, E., P. Van Mele, J. Wanvoeke, and P. Lebailly,. 2012.
Vuong, S. T., J. Schroeder, M. Alam, A. Tjia, Y. I. Chung, and A. Chen. “Participatory Impact Assessment of Rice Parboiling Videos with
2010. “LIVES: Learning through an Interactive Voice Educational Women in Benin.” Experimental Agriculture 48 (3): 438–47.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 165
Module 7 BROADENING SMALLHOLDERS’ ACCESS
TO FINANCIAL SERVICES THROUGH ICT
HENRY BAGAZONZYA (World Bank), ZAID SAFDAR (World Bank), and SOHAM SEN (World Bank)
Overview. Four kinds of financial services help farmers to achieve their economic goals: credit savings, transfer and
payment facilities, and insurance. The major prerequisites for using information and communication technology (ICT) to
deliver these services in rural areas are robust national financial systems (for example, with national payment systems,
credit bureaus, ATM switches, central platforms for microfinance) and the infrastructure that allows electronic financial
transactions between institutions and individuals. Factors that are critical for ICT to expand financial services in rural
areas are a supportive economic policy and regulatory framework; appropriate financial and nonfinancial products; and
mechanisms, processes, and technology applications that can deliver products and services, improve transparency and
accountability, reduce costs, and become self-sustaining.
Topic Note 7.1: The Use of ICT-enabled Financial Services in the Rural Sector. New channels for deliver-
ing financial services (facilitated by ICT), new players, and greater competition enable service providers to offer a larger
suite of financial products and services and acquire better financial information, some of which is useful for government
regulation and policy development. A number of nonbank institutions have developed innovative approaches to financ-
ing agriculture, enabled by or integrated with ICT, including mobile financial services, branchless banking, ATMs, and
smartcards.
Linking Conditional Cash Transfers and Rural Finance in Brazil
RFID Facilitates Insurance and Credit for India’s Livestock Producers
Topic Note 7.2: Policy Strategies and Regulatory Issues for ICT-Enabled Rural Financial Services.
Often, governments lag in introducing the policies and regulations needed to extend cost-effective financial services
throughout the economy, including underserved rural areas. To design supportive policies, provide the necessary infra-
structure, and provide appropriate, affordable financial products meeting local needs, governments must explore partner-
ships with the private sector and rural communities. In turn, governments can devise and implement policies that give
rural communities and private enterprises incentives to participate in the rural financial sector.
Kenya’s DrumNet Links Farmers, Markets, and Financial Service Providers
A Common Platform Delivers Financial Services to Rural India
OVERVIEW FIGURE 7.1. Smallholder Farmers Are the Largest
Smallholder farmers are the world’s largest group of Group of Working-Age Poor
working-age poor (figure 7.1). Much of the world’s food 6.8b
supply will continue to depend on their efforts, yet a lack
610m Smallholder
of financial services often stymies their attempts to make farmers
productivity-enhancing investments and to smooth their People
consumption between periods of plenty and scarcity. living on 370m Casual
laborers
Capital-constrained farmers minimize risk instead of maxi- < $2/day:
mizing returns (for example, by investing in high-quality
Young &
1.0b 300m Low-wage
elderly salaried
seeds and fertilizer or growing what is most profitable)
Working 180m Microentrepreneurs
(Trivelli and Venero 2007). Box 7.1 summarizes the four 1.6b
age 100m Unemployed
kinds of financial services that farmers need to achieve 80m Fishermen/pastoral
Source: Mas 2010b.
their economic goals.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
166 MODUL E 7 — BROA D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ AC C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERVICES THR OUGH IC T
BOX 7.1. Farmers Require Four Kinds of Financial pose challenges of inventory assessment and management,
Services and collateral substitutes based on warehouse receipts or
returns from future crops are unavailable in many countries.
Credit—in the form of loans, personal loans, sal- Farmers also have a special need for financial products with a
ary loans, overdraft facilities, and credit lines—is time horizon extending over multiple crop cycles.
often used as working capital at the beginning
of the growing season to purchase inputs and This module explores how innovative mechanisms and
prepare land. Farmers also need capital to invest technologies are used in specific situations in different
in equipment such as tractors or drip irrigation and countries to help rural dwellers—mainly farmers, whose
to harvest, process, market, and transport their businesses do not readily receive financial support—
produce. It is important to distinguish between obtain the financial services listed above from commercial
short-term loans, which microfinance institutions banks and other providers. Some of these technologies
usually provide, and the long-term financial services are already used in microfinance institutions in urban and
required for agricultural and livestock enterprises. peri-urban areas. It is important to note that the types of
Savings may be in the form of current accounts, ICT discussed in this module are gender neutral; they are
savings accounts, or fixed or time deposits. enablers and should be used in contexts where both men
Famers have a significant need for savings, and women can participate.
because their income is seasonally tied to the har-
Major prerequisites for using ICT in financial services for
vest, and for much of the year they rely on savings
agriculture are robust national financial systems and the
to smooth consumption.
infrastructure that allows electronic financial transactions
Transfer and payment facilities allow for local between institutions and individuals. Two types of infra-
and international money transfers, remittances, structure and related services facilitate electronic transac-
government transfers, and check clearing. tions and are vital for extending financial services to rural
Insurance may cover crops and livestock as well areas.
as human life and health.
Source: Author, based on CGAP and IFAD 2006, 6; Nair and Fissha The first is ICT infrastructure, such as high-speed Internet
2010.
and mobile phones, available at affordable prices. This
infrastructure is the backbone of electronic financial transac-
tions. The second is financial infrastructure, which includes
ICT has now created the potential to deliver a greater diver- national payment systems, credit bureaus, ATM switches,
sity of financial products to greater numbers of rural clients or central platforms for microfinance institutions. Financial
than conventional financial service providers have been able infrastructure enables financial service and technology ser-
to reach. ICT can also enhance the government’s capacity vice providers, as well as other providers vital for the integrity
to monitor and evaluate financial services provided to rural and stability of the financial system, to connect and perform
clients and design effective financial policies and regulations transactions in real time.
for the rural sector.
For example, financial infrastructure makes it possible for
A number of agents in rural areas—such as government customers of one bank to use the ATM of a different bank
departments, commercial banks, microfinance institutions, or conduct a transaction (such as writing checks or wiring
traders, telecommunications companies, community-based money) with customers of a different bank. It also channels
organizations, families, and friends—provide financial ser- financial information (such as the creditworthiness of a new
vices, which can include credit, savings, insurance, trans- customer) to financial institutions.
fers, and payments. Even so, tailoring and providing financial
services for small-scale farmers remains challenging. Rural These services and infrastructure do not benefit merely one
clients differ from the typical clients of financial service operator or financial service provider; they cater to the entire
providers. They are located in remote and often sparsely rural and financial sector. For this reason, their provision is
populated areas, and they rarely possess the sorts of physi- often initially regarded as a task for government, although
cal or financial assets that financial institutions customarily in reality they can be (and often should be) provided by the
accept as collateral. Typical rural assets, such as livestock, private sector alone or in partnership with government.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 167
CURRENT ACCESS TO FINANCIAL SERVICES banks constitute more than 75 percent of all rural branches of
IN RURAL AREAS financial institutions worldwide; in comparison, microfinance
Across developing countries, in urban and rural areas, access institutions account for less than 3 percent. Microfinance
to and use of formal finance remains very low in general. The institutions and cooperatives may situate a larger share of
financial access data given in figures 7.2 and 7.3 are not specific their branches in rural areas—41 percent and 43 percent,
to farmers, but they serve as a good proxy, showing that rural respectively (figure 7.4)—but their absolute total country
reach is a smaller proportion of total reach. Agriculture in par- reach is limited (figure 7.2).
ticular has been underserved; for example, commercial lending
The supply of financial products and services in rural areas
to agriculture is 1 percent of all lending in Africa (Campaigne
will remain a challenge until financial institutions can reduce
and Rausch 2010). Often, as a result of poor access to formal
the high operating costs associated with catering to rural
sources of finance, farmers are left to borrow at very expen-
clients; however, as this module indicates, ICT applications
sive rates from informal money lenders.
have demonstrated considerable promise in doing so. The
Commercial banks remain the dominant formal institutions next section briefly describes the factors that have proven
providing finance to farmers (figures 7.5 and 7.6). Commercial critical to using ICT successfully to expand the range of finan-
cial services in rural areas. The topic notes that follow provide
FIGURE 7.2. Low Access to Financial Institutions
Access to financial services
(median per 100,000 adults)
FIGURE 7.4. Access Is Worse for Farmers
100
% of branches in rural and urban areas
Branches
80
ATMs
Cooperatives
60
Microfinance
institutions
40
State institutions
20
Commercial banks
0
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
A
A
P
A
C
C
EN
SA
EC
EA
SS
LA
HI
Urban Rural
M
Source: CGAP and World Bank 2010. Source: CGAP and World Bank 2010.
Note: The abbreviations under the bars are defined in the glossary.
FIGURE 7.3. Low Utilization of Financial Services
Access to commercial banks
(median per 1,000 adults)
FIGURE 7.5. Commercial Banks Are Main Players
2,500
% of rural branches by institution
Deposit accounts
2,000 1%
Loan accounts 15%
1,500 3%
5%
1,000
500
78%
0
Commercial banks State institutions
A
A
P
A
C
C
EN
SA
EC
EA
SS
LA
HI
Microfinance institutions Cooperatives
M
Source: CGAP and World Bank 2010. Other
Note: The abbreviations under the bars are defined in the glossary. Source: CGAP and World Bank 2010.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
168 MODUL E 7 — BROA D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ AC C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERVICES THR OUGH IC T
greater detail on ICT-enabled interventions in rural finance Agricultural policies may act to suppress private sector
(Topic Note 7.1) and explore policy and regulatory issues that development, including the development of private financial
either positively or negatively influence the expansion of the services. Governments often use state-owned enterprises
frontier for rural finance (Topic Note 7.2). to intervene in agricultural product pricing to reduce price
fluctuations and provide a floor price, for example. Such
Both topic notes contain summaries of innovative practices interventions can be very costly, are often ineffective, and
that demonstrate how ICT is being used in specific settings preempt development of both insurance and storage mar-
to expand financial services while reducing transaction costs kets. Farmers will not hedge their production if there is a
and information asymmetries. These approaches are cer- floor price. Since producers have little incentive to store
tainly not conclusive (because the ICT is extremely dynamic crops if they do not expect prices to rise over time, the
and constantly changing), yet they provide an indication of market for storage facilities (and therefore the emergence
alternatives that practitioners can consider when designing of a warehouse receipt system and other mechanisms for
projects to improve rural access to financial services in a vari- managing risk) will be suppressed if these price movements
ety of situations, given the right policy and legal environment. are prevented by government intervention.
In sum, the policy environment that enables markets for
financial services to develop is one in which minimal govern-
KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS
ment interventions are carried out on a commercial basis,
Expanding access to rural finance is challenging, and needs which allows markets to function freely. This restraint will,
to be looked at as a process that includes a combination of in turn, provide an opportunity for financiers to provide cost-
factors, including a supportive economic policy and regulatory effective and appropriate financial services without being
framework; appropriate financial and nonfinancial products; encumbered by the government. It will also allow the provi-
and mechanisms, processes, and technology applications sion of increased-risk management services and ultimately
that can deliver products and services, improve transparency lead to greater availability of financial services.
and accountability, and reduce costs. Any proposed technol-
ogy solution should be self-sustaining, with a clear plan for
generating revenue and financing, or it will eventually prove Legal and Regulatory Environments: Enforcing
impossible to sustain and replicate elsewhere. The techno- Contractual Obligations
logical applications described in the topic notes meet these The largest risk to sustainable financing for agriculture is often
criteria. This section reviews the lessons from implementing attributed to inherent business risks, or the inability of finan-
those applications as well as the enablers that different play- cial institutions to design profitable financial products for the
ers can take to ensure that using ICT to help farmers access rural population. Yet interventionist government policies—
finance is achievable in the long term. such as subsidized interest rates, forgiveness of debt, and
failure to enforce appropriate rules and regulations—can
severely limit the effectiveness of an ICT-enabled product
Federal Economic Policy
that could have made finance accessible to a large number of
Financial markets resemble other markets in that direct gov- people. Conversely, an enabling environment and legal frame-
ernment involvement can crowd out private participation. This work, enforcement of regulations, and supportive rural infra-
problem has been perennial in developing countries’ rural structure will eventually lead to lower but sustainable interest
credit markets, where government agricultural banks offering rates by reducing transaction costs and risks and increasing
subsidized credit have been almost ubiquitous. Their presence competition. All of these outcomes go a long way toward
created a “chicken-and-egg” problem: Governments were making a sustainable access to finance a reality.
reluctant to withdraw from these markets because there was
no private sector presence, but the private sector was reluctant
to enter when, in addition to other obstacles to rural lending, Infrastructure Costs and Shared Platforms
government competition was a constant threat. In recogni- Technology solutions require an investment that can be
tion of this problem, a new generation of government agen- costly and difficult to justify when implementation is risky,
cies was designed to coexist with—or even “crowd in”—the as is typically the case with technology. Investments in
private sector by filling niches or resolving market failures by technology can be leveraged by financial intermediaries and
operating on a more commercial basis than their predecessors. others within a community to provide additional services on
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 169
the same platform, however. Sharing infrastructure such as Borrowers will need to be educated about new, ICT-enabled
power, telecommunication, data networks, hosting, applica- instruments for risk management and insurance. There are
tion support, or data management drives down the cost of many ways that organizations and producers can manage
technology, making it affordable to deliver financial products risk, and they should learn to select the correct tool or com-
and services to rural areas (see IPS “Passive Infrastructure- bination of tools that most efficiently and cost effectively
sharing in Nigeria,” in Module 3). match their risk.
This idea of leveraging infrastructure can also be considered Finally, governments will, in some cases, require assistance
in the development of warehouses for collateral-based sys- in capacity building or creating an appropriate legal or regula-
tems, weather stations for the development of index-based tory framework. Such assistance may include, for example,
rainfall insurance, and physical infrastructure to facilitate support in drafting appropriate legislation and regulations.
improved functioning of the supply chain. Investments in Variations in the regulation of ICT infrastructure for making
infrastructure that can be leveraged but require a high initial cash transfers and providing other financial services have
investment require the participation of both the public and had a considerable impact on the kinds of services eventually
private sectors to ensure ownership on both sides. provided in rural areas (see “Topic Note 2.3: Mobile Money
Moves to Rural Areas”).
Technical Assistance and Capacity Building
Building the capacity to use and adapt ICT to facilitate finan- Organizational Culture
cial services is important not only for the staff of banks and A dynamic organizational culture allows staff to innovate—
financial service providers but also for borrowers and, in some by using new technology, for example—and ensures the
cases, for governments. Capacity building for staff increases sustainability of financial innovation. For example, Bolsa
the chances of innovation and success in extending financing. Família (see IPS “Linking Conditional Cash Transfers and
Capacity building is also important for borrowers. In a number Rural Finance in Brazil”) involves organizations that train staff
of cases reviewed in the topic notes, particularly the cases well, provide innovative tools for the job, and create dynamic
involving institutions or agencies other than banks, techni- environments with appropriate incentives to motivate staff
cal assistance was one of the core components of success. to work closely with clients. Management’s participation is
Likewise, capacity building that focused on maximizing the crucial, particularly for the development and implementation
impact of credit through improvements in product quality was of an ICT-for-finance program. Other case studies (such as
essential to successful management of supply chain financing DrumNet) underscore the benefits of empowerment. People
in Kenya (see IPS “Kenya’s DrumNet Links Farmers, Markets, with a stake in a business will expend much effort to make
and Financial Service Providers,” in Topic Note 7.2). the business work.
Topic Note 7.1: THE USE OF ICT-ENABLED FINANCIAL
SERVICES IN THE RURAL SECTOR
TRENDS AND ISSUES traditional relationships and service capacities in the rural
ICT introduces new channels for delivering financial prod- finance ecosystem. (As noted, Topic Note 2.3 looks at how
ucts and services to the rural sector, and it has the potential ICT infrastructure enables this expansion.)
to reach farmers, intermediaries, entrepreneurs, and rural
dwellers more directly than traditional bricks-and-mortar Interventions using ICT can introduce new players and
bank branches or microfinance offices. These new channels lead to greater competition in the rural financial sector.
enable financial service providers to offer a larger suite of Institutions or agencies that are not banks (nonbanks) may
financial products and services and acquire better financial start providing rural financial services. Since the early 2000s,
information, some of which is useful to governments as they a number of nonbank institutions have developed innovative
oversee, regulate, and develop policy for the agricultural and approaches to financing agriculture. They have sometimes
rural sectors. Figure 7.6 illustrates how ICT expands the adapted microfinance concepts to provide agricultural
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
170 MODUL E 7 — BROA D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ AC C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERVICES THR OUGH IC T
FIGURE 7.6. ICT and the Rural Finance Ecosystem
Financial service Financial Rural sector
providers instruments
Government
Traditional Suppliers
Credit
Retailers
Savings
Commercial banks
Wholesalers
Insurance
Microfinance Farmers
institutions
Intermediaries
Other financial ICT-enabled
service providers
Mobile finance Entrepreneurs
Mobile operators Branchless banking
Rural dwellers
ATMs
Smart cards
Source: Author.
finance, used good banking practices, and above all, drawn information, and keep records of clients’ creditwor-
on knowledge of agriculture and ICT to enter and succeed thiness. In this way, branchless banking deepens
in this market. Many of these new approaches show great financial inclusion throughout rural areas.
promise, but no single approach will work for all situations. ATMs. Though ATMs are often associated with debit
Rather, organizations have the most success when they cards or smartcards, ATMs can serve as cash-
are not dogmatic, apply innovative and comprehensive risk- dispensing machines in tandem with branchless bank-
management strategies and tools, and retain the ability to ing, mobile financial services, and other ICT-enabled
perform credit analyses of their intended rural clients without financial products. The availability of ATMs in rural
political interference. areas can place cash-exchange points within reach.
Smartcards. Though not entirely in the category of
Nonbanks and banks can provide these ICT-enabled financial
ICT, smartcards (or stored-value cards) are an alternate
services for the rural sector:
means of providing services when mobile financial
Mobile financial services. Given the pervasiveness
services are not readily available. Prepaid cards, debit
of mobile phones in developing countries, financial
cards, or credit cards provide payment and credit facili-
service providers can use them to reach clients in rural
ties to rural clients. Stored-value cards have historically
areas and provide a broad array of financial products
assumed some level of literacy (in particular, the ability
and services, including credit, insurance, payments,
to sign for a transaction), but the advent of smartcards
and deposits. Financial service providers can tailor
that use biometric devices eliminates the challenges
financial products offered through mobile phones to
associated with literacy barriers.
rural needs.
Branchless banking. Field agents, equipped with As discussed, financial services rely on the availability
mobile phones or point-of-sale devices, can serve as of an underlying financial and ICT infrastructure, such as
mobile branches. Agents can provide financial ser- payment systems, credit bureaus, central ATM switches,
vices to smallholders, take deposits, provide financial central financial platforms, mobile telephony, mobile data
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 171
services, and the Internet in rural areas. Governments have Cost and Operational Efficiency
to work with the private sector to ensure that the underly- Financial service providers have reduced transaction costs
ing infrastructure is in place and extended to rural areas. using electronic payment systems, branchless banking, and
(For a discussion of how various governments have done other ICT-enabled services. Because these services are avail-
so, see Module 2.) able to farmers via handheld devices or loan officers based
in the field, they obviate the need to visit a bank branch to
conduct basic transactions (box 7.3).
EXAMPLES AND LESSONS LEARNED
Aside from reducing operating costs, the use of ICT within
The following examples highlight successful ICT-enabled
financial institutions or government can also improve opera-
interventions selected from a wide range of similar inter-
tional efficiency, create public platforms for smaller organiza-
ventions implemented in developing countries. They
tions to use, and develop management capacity.
demonstrate that rural and agricultural finance can be
profitable without high government subsidies and discuss
the lessons learned in the course of implementing the BOX 7.3. In Rural Kenya and South Africa, ICT
interventions. Applications Reduce the Cost of Financial
Services
Availability and Transparency of Financial Services
Kenya: M-PESA. The leader in mobile payments is
ICT can make financial services more readily available in Safaricom’s M-PESA, a short messaging service (SMS)–
rural areas through mobile phones, the Internet, point-of- based money transfer system that allows individuals to
sale devices, and field agents (box 7.2). Electronic banking deposit, send, and withdraw funds using cell phones.
makes it possible to provide financial services in places that M-PESA has grown rapidly to reach approximately 38 per-
rural clients visit routinely, such as markets and post offices. cent of Kenya’s adult population. The M-PESA model has
Electronic conditional cash transfers also make it easier for been copied with little modification worldwide.a Kenyans
rural poverty reduction programs to reach specific beneficia- use M-PESA to deposit money with a registered agent or
ries (see IPS “Linking Conditional Cash Transfers and Rural phone vendor. The agent then credits the phone account.
Finance in Brazil”). Because transactions are conducted Users can send between 100 Kenyan shillings (US$1.5)
electronically using ICT, they promote transparency, account- and 35,000 K Sh (US$530) via text message to a recipient.
ability, and financial discipline among all account holders, The recipient obtains the cash from a Safaricom agent by
whether they are in farming, business, or government. entering a password and showing personal identification.
South Africa: Wizzit. In South Africa, First National
Bank partnered with a mobile phone provider, Mobile
Telephone Networks (MTN), to provide services to cli-
BOX 7.2. ICT Increases the Availability of Rural Finance
ents who had no bank accounts but wanted to send and
in South Africa
receive money via cell phone. The service, called Wizzit
Through its A-Card, South Africa’s uBank (previously (http://www.wizzit.co.za/), has enabled 500,000 South
Teba Bank) (http://www.tebabank.co.za/index.php) Africans to send and receive money from relatives, pay
offers affordable and accessible financial services to for goods and services, check balances, and settle utility
communities, especially in rural areas, that were previ- bills. Previously, South Africans often paid couriers the
ously denied access. The card is used with a point-of-sale equivalent of US$30–50 to deliver cash to relatives. Now
device that enables customers to access a transactional such transactions cost only US$0.50 through mobile
banking account. The primary banking products and ser- bank networks. The greatest impact is in rural areas,
vices include standard savings and credit accounts and a where 80 percent of farmers still lack back accounts.
facility by which state social grants are deposited directly Wizzit accounts, unlike regular bank accounts, do not
into a customer’s bank account. The United Kingdom’s expire if customers do not use them regularly, which is
Department for International Development, ShopRite, critical for seasonal activities like agriculture.b
and Checkers partner with uBank in this project. Source: Author.
(a) Jack and Suri 2009,6;
Source: Cracknell 2004. (b) Kimani 2008.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
172 MODUL E 7 — BROA D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ AC C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERVICES THR OUGH IC T
The need for ICT-based government services becomes more BOX 7.5. Financial Service Providers in the United
important as the financial sector expands and the sophistica- States and Mozambique Use ICT to Improve
tion and complexity of financial products grow (box 7.4). The Risk Management
availability of a common information technology (IT) platform
enables government at all levels (municipal, state, federal) to The United States. In the United States, Sevak
obtain accurate information about the availability and affordabil- Solutions and Financial Ideas are piloting technology that
ity of financial services in rural areas, the financial well-being allows credit decisions for microfinance clients to be
of financial service providers, the indebtedness of citizens, and made electronically, increasing transparency between
related information. This information enables policy makers and lenders and lendees. Initial tests will be carried out with
regulators to make appropriate decisions with respect to the U.S. military personnel and their families, some of whom
rural financial sector. ICT can make information gathering and experience financial distress caused by limited financial
monitoring and evaluation possible on a real-time basis. literacy and predatory “payday” lenders (http://www
.sevaksolutions.org/prototypes/finideas.html). A similar
Governments require information systems for their own man- idea could be useful in developing countries, particularly
agement and operations with respect to making policy and as farmers and rural citizens gain further access to loans
regulating the rural financial sector. Such information systems and credit.
can be linked with financial infrastructure (such as payment
Mozambique. The Banco Oportunidade (a microfinance
systems) and applications that can reach most rural clients.
bank) introduced its Client Relationship Management
(CRM) system, a Web- and cloud-based system that
BOX 7.4. Increased Operational Efficiency in Africa assists with processing and monitoring loans and is
through ICT accessible to loan officers, managers, and country and
regional teams. The CRM uses data from land mapping
IBM and CARE: The Africa Financial Grid. IBM and and farmer and crop profiling conducted with agricul-
CARE are designing the Africa Financial Grid, a shared tural clients to process loan applications electronically,
financial service and infrastructure model that will, for taking into account the standard data and farmer, crop,
example, help microfinance providers reduce their oper- and national limits. After a loan is approved, the CRM
ating costs, streamline lending processes, scale up, and sends the data to the bank’s accounting system and
integrate their services with other resources such as assists in loan disbursement, monitoring, and recovery,
credit bureaus, financial institutions, and international providing real-time information. The CRM has a personal
payment networks. The Africa Financial Grid will even- dashboard, specific to each bank team member, which
tually link with telecommunications providers to enable allows inputting and monitoring related to the team
customers to repay loans or carry out money transfers member’s specific line management and process con-
via mobile phones or other devices. trol responsibilities.
Ghana: E-Zwich payment system. The Bank of Ghana Sources: Sevak Solutions 2008; Management Reports for Banco Opor-
tunidade in Mozambique.
has rolled out a national payment and settlement sys-
tem in the form of an electronic clearinghouse for all
banking and financial institutions called e-Zwich (http://
the market and clients and improve their ability to expand
www.ghipss.net/e-zwich). The Bank of Ghana has also
lending. (See IPS “RFID Facilitates Insurance and Credit for
issued a biometric smartcard, which is a very secure
India’s Livestock Producers” for more detail on the impor-
way of paying for goods and services.
tance of ICT in managing lending risks.)
Sources: IBM 2007; B&FT 2010.
Authentication
Improved Risk Management Using a variety of technologies, ICT can help financial ser-
Through ICT, financial institutions and intermediaries can vice providers and government authenticate individuals,
better manage the risk involved in increased lending, espe- inventories, and assets in rural areas (box 7.6). For example,
cially in lending to lower-income and rural clients (box 7.5). biometric technology captures and stores information that is
Credit bureaus and collateral registries can equip financial unique to every person, such as fingerprints, retina scans,
service providers with better financial information about and facial images. Its increasing availability and decreasing
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 173
cost has made it useful in developing countries, where it Disseminating Information
limits identity theft and facilitates the development of credit ICT applications perhaps best known for their capacity to dis-
markets. The ability to track individuals in a credible way over seminate information. Online videos, television, and commu-
time provides incentives to individuals to repay loans and nity radio can improve farmers’ financial literacy by informing
reduces the risks faced by lenders. Financial service provid- them about the benefits and risks of credit and various bank-
ers can use biometric tools to provide services to individuals ing transactions. At basic rural Internet kiosks, farmers can
who may not have a national identity card or never learned acquire accurate financial information, such as market prices,
to sign their names. (See IPS “Using Biometrics to Provide to improve productivity and sales.
Rural Services,” in Module 12.) Similarly, radio-frequency
identification (RFID) can count and track livestock, harvests,
and inputs, among other things. Global positioning systems Conclusion
(GPSs), satellite data, and weather-based electronic sensors These brief examples provide some idea of innovative, on-
can collect data necessary to create and price crop insurance the-ground initiatives that have brought financial services
policies, particularly index insurance programs. to rural areas. All of these initiatives hold promise but face
challenges, which, in the end, may not enable them to be
BOX 7.6. Using ICT to Identify Financial Service Clients scaled up or replicated. Even so, they demonstrate that it is
in Africa and South Asia possible to provide financing for agriculture on a sustainable
basis and at a reasonable cost. Many of these initiatives are
Malawi: Biometric technology in rural credit mar- based on the premise that the policy environment will allow
kets. In 2009, 3,200 smallholder paprika farmers in such innovations to flourish.
Malawi who had applied for loans to purchase agri-
cultural inputs were randomly assigned to control and The next sections of this topic note explore two innova-
treatment groups. The treatment group was electroni- tive practices in greater detail. The first one, Brazil’s Bolsa
cally fingerprinted and told that their fingerprints would Família, uses an IT platform to extend financial services to
be stored and used to validate their eligibility for future people who have been excluded from using them. The sec-
loans. Repayment rates rose by 40 percent in the treat- ond one, a livestock insurance and credit scheme in India,
ment group. The increased rate of repayment and the uses RFID technology to reduce the risk inherent in providing
resulting savings from avoiding default could justify the these services to poor producers.
costs of deploying an IT system to collect fingerprints
for all loan applicants.
Kenya: Kilimo Salama. The Kilimo Salama index insur- INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
ance scheme uses weather indicators as a proxy for loss Linking Conditional Cash Transfers and Rural
of inputs. The insurer collects premiums and distributes Finance in Brazil
payouts via mobile phone, which reduces assessment A 2009 study found that governments worldwide transfer
and administrative costs. Kilimo Salama also employs cash to more than 170 million poor people through social
a “pay-as-you-plant” sales model, in which insurance protection programs providing cash allowances, health
policies are sold for each input purchased. benefits, and pensions (Pickens, Porteous, and Rotman
India: Biometric ATMs. ICICI Bank and the Government 2009). The number would be much higher if government
of India launched an initiative in 2004 to offer banking wage payments were included. In comparison, an estimated
services to people who earned less than US$40 per 99 million people access microfinance loans, but few of
month (http://www.icicibank.com/). The service relied these payments advance the goal of rural financial inclusion.
on biometric ATMs (based on fingerprint scans) and Three-quarters of government-to-person (G2P) payments
biometric smartcards that do not require personal iden- are delivered in ways that do not allow people to store the
tification numbers, which can be forgotten or stolen. payments until they need the money, transfer the money to
The ATMs cost 5 percent of what these wage-earners others, or access them easily (from the perspective of cost
have been accustomed to pay at kiosks offering similar and distance).
services.
ICT creates a significant opportunity to exploit the synergy
Sources: Giné 2010 for Malawi; Ogodo 2010 for Kenya; ICICI Bank
2001 for India. between G2P payments and financial inclusion. The reason-
ing is that if the government were to facilitate development
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
174 MODUL E 7 — BROA D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ AC C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERVICES THR OUGH IC T
of the required infrastructure, institutional capacity, and Bolsa Família: The Applications and Their Impact
literacy to deliver government payments into basic savings Of the programs just mentioned, Brazil’s Bolsa Família
accounts that poor recipients could access easily, those program is exceptional in its scale and impact. Created in
accounts might also be used to channel a wider array of 2004, the program consists of monthly cash transfers to
financial services to the same segment—a segment that cur- poor households with children or pregnant women as well as
rently has little or no access to such services. unconditional transfers to extremely poor households (Anna
Fruttero, World Bank, personal communication). In 2007, the
While three-quarters of G2P payments have not yet
program reached 12.4 million households—one-quarter of
exploited this opportunity, some governments are using
the country’s population.
ICT to reduce the transaction and administrative costs of
implementing government transfer programs that also Of the 13 million Bolsa Família family recipients, 3.84 percent
serve as vehicles for financial inclusion. Examples include withdraw benefits using their electronic benefit card at one
Brazil’s Bolsa Família (“family allowance”) program, imple- of 13,000 lottery kiosks, correspondents, or point-of-sale
mented through Caixa Economica (http://www.caixa.gov terminals belonging to merchants acting as agents of Caixa
.br/Voce/Social/Transferencia/bolsa_familia/index.asp); Economica, the bank that holds the grant delivery contract
Colombia’s ACCION Social (http://www.accionsocial.gov.co (figure 7.7). In 2004, when cards were first issued to Bolsa
/portal/default.aspx); Kenya’s Hunger Safety Net Program, Família recipients, only 24 percent of customers said that
through Bankable Frontier Associates (http://www.hsnp.or using the card was “easy” or “very easy,” but one year
.ke/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=81: later, the number had risen to 96 percent (Pickens, Porteous
ending-hunger&catid=38:fp-items); Mexico’s Oportunidades and Rotman 2009; Anna Fruttero, World Bank, personal
program, implemented through McKinsey and BANEFSI communication).
(http://www.oportunidades.gob.mx/Portal/); Peru’s Juntos
(“together”) program (http://www.juntos.gob.pe/); and South The electronic benefit cards did not quite constitute finan-
Africa’s Department of Social Development (http://www cial inclusion because the value of the cards had to be used
.dsd.gov.za/) (Rotman 2010b). The Government of India within three months or it would expire. Nor was the value of
has used the Financial Inclusion Network and Operations the card easily transferable. In response, Caixa Economica
platform to deliver social transfers as well (see IPS “RFID decided to migrate the Bolsa Família recipients from the elec-
Facilitates Insurance and Credit for India’s Livestock tronic benefit card to a Conta Caixa Facile (“easy account”),
Producers”). a financially inclusive account that includes a Visa-branded
FIGURE 7.7. Channels for Financial Inclusion for Bolsa Família Beneficiaries
80
68%
70
60
50
Percent
40
30
20 16%
12%
10 5%
0
POS ATM Lottery Correspondents
kiosks
Source: Pickens, Porteous, and Rotman 2009.
Note: POS = point of sale.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 175
debit card. As of October 2009, the bank had converted Monitoring the whereabouts and health of livestock poses
2 million recipients to the Conta Caixa Facile. Caixa also has a significant challenge for both farmers and financial institu-
experimented with offering insurance to Conta Caixa Facile tions. Insurance companies must be able to validate reports
holders, is considering microloans, and has developed a of livestock losses to avoid the moral hazard problems (the
financial literacy program for new account holders. false claims) that plague insurance delivery and drive up
the cost of insurance for all farmers. Most livestock move
around to graze and are therefore susceptible to injury, theft,
Two Key Enablers, One Key Lesson
starvation (when drought reduces foliage and pastures), and
Though G2P recipients often have limited schooling and little drowning in floods. Monitoring animal health is even more
exposure to banking, these limitations have not prevented important when animals are concentrated in intensive pro-
them from using electronic infrastructure as long as the ser- duction facilities where the risk of disease is high.
vices match their needs. In Brazil, two key enablers fostered
success with electronic transfers through Bolsa Família. First, Traditional livestock monitoring is cumbersome and expen-
the value of the Conta Caixa Facile is significantly enhanced sive. Farmers must hire or use family labor to herd, pasture,
by a wide national network of over 20,000 contact points or otherwise keep track of animals to keep them safe. Banks
formed by Brazil’s preexisting financial infrastructure of and insurance companies need to spend time and money to
ATMs, bank branches, and point-of-sale-equipped merchants find and identify individual animals to verify reported losses
that handle deposits and withdrawals. Second, government or take possession if owners have defaulted on loans.
policy favoring cash transfer programs such as Bolsa Família
drives the growth of the Conta Caixa Facile. The key lesson is The use of RFID technology has reduced the cost of monitor-
that a government transfer program can indeed be a vehicle ing livestock. RFID uses electromagnetic waves to exchange
or instrument for financial inclusion. data between a terminal and an electronic tag attached to
an object that enables identification and tracking (image 7.1).
At a minimum, most RFID tags have an antenna for receiv-
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY ing and transmitting the signal and an integrated circuit for
RFID Facilitates Insurance and Credit for India’s performing specialized functions such as monitoring animals’
Livestock Producers location, heart rates, or temperatures and storing and pro-
cessing information on animal weights, feeding histories, and
Worldwide, 60 percent of rural households are estimated to
immunizations. The tags can be read by terminals or readers
own livestock (including cattle, goats, pigs, sheep, poultry,
honeybees, and even silkworms) and to earn 10 percent of
their income from products such as meat, milk, cheese, eggs,
honey, raw silk, wool, hides, and skins (FAO
2009,34). Livestock perform numerous vital IMAGE 7.1. RFID Can Be Used to Track Cattle and Manage Herds
functions. They are a savings mechanism,
a form of insurance, collateral for loans, a
source of food security, an aid to farm opera-
tions, a means of recycling waste products,
and form of controlling insects and weeds,
and a powerful source of opportunities for
women to earn income (which promotes
gender equality) (FAO 2009,33).
For this reason, livestock constitute some
of the most important assets of rural house-
holds. Their loss through theft, disease, or
drought can push households into poverty
or deepen the distress of already impov-
erished households. Insurance products
piloted in Mongolia, Kenya, and India seek
to mitigate the risk of such losses. Source: Curt Carnemark, World Bank.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
176 MODUL E 7 — BROA D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ AC C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERVICES THR OUGH IC T
from several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the policy issuance system. PKGFS and DNE, which manage the
reader. The readers can be used to access the stored informa- RFID technology and health services, must verify that the
tion or place additional information on the chip. producer does indeed own the animals he or she wishes to
insure and that the animals are healthy. Once this informa-
The technology allows farmers to better manage their herds tion is verified, PKGFS collects the premium (PKGFS can
and enables farmers, banks, and insurers to locate animals. issue a loan for the premium if necessary) and the producer’s
RFID tags have become 99.9 percent reliable and have information and transmits it to HDFC Ergo, which activates
dropped in price. Prices vary by location, but a basic RFID the policy, usually in less than three days (IFMR Trust 2008).
chip costs approximately US$0.15, whereas readers can
range from US$100 to several thousand dollars, depending Once a policy is issued, DNE registers the insured animals
on their sophistication (RFID Journal 2010). at the farm, tags them, and records their vital information in
a computer database. Then DNE begins regular checkups
to ensure that the insured animals remain in good health.
A Business Model for Delivering Cattle Insurance
Veterinarians update the computer database every time they
in India
perform a checkup. In entering this information, they must scan
India is the world’s largest milk producer, but only 7 percent the RFID tag of each animal to collect the unique ID number,
of India’s cattle are estimated to be insured (Economic Times which must be entered into the database along with the lat-
2009). Insurance would not only protect producers from est health update. This procedure prevents veterinarians from
losses but also improve their ability to obtain loans to increase avoiding farm visits and entering false data into the system.1 If
their herds, because commercial banks are more willing to an animal should die, DNE agents verify the death and notify
lend toward the purchase of insured cattle. PKGFS, which connects to HDFC Ergo to ensure payout.
In September 2009, several institutions in India teamed up
to offer cattle insurance to farmers in two districts of the Key Enablers
southern state of Tamil Nadu. The Institute for Financial One key enabler was leadership in coordinating important
Management and Research (IFMR) Trust, a private trust that stakeholders. The partnership between the bank/insurer
has pioneered financial inclusion efforts, joined HDFC Ergo, a (HDFC Ergo), the logistics organization (DNE), the rural finan-
commercial bank that provides insurance, and Dairy Network cial institution (PKGFS), and the coordinating group (IFMR
Enterprise (DNE), a supply chain and logistics organization, Trust) was critical for ICT-enabled insurance to promote
to design and deliver the new insurance product, which has financial inclusion.2 The leadership demonstrated by IFMR
several unique features. Trust in assuming a coordinating role cannot be overstated.
Elsewhere, such a role might also be performed by the gov-
First, the insurance is cheaper than other insurance offerings,
ernment or a public financial institution.
with a premium of 2.9 percent of the insured value—typically
10,000–20,000 rupees (Rs), or US$200–400, compared to A second key enabler was the Internet and communications
the typical premium of about 4.5 percent. Second, the time infrastructure. The PKGFS customer management system
needed to issue a policy or indemnity payment is only 72 connected to HDFC Ergo requires Internet and communi-
hours, compared to the norm of 15 days or more. Third, the cations infrastructure. Such infrastructure is increasingly
insurance policy provides access to preventive veterinary accessible in India. According to the World Bank’s World
services and medicine through DNE to maintain the health Development Indicators, teledensity—a measure of tele-
of insured animals. Finally, insured animals are tracked using phone access—is 60 percent (though 100 percent in urban
RFID chips in ear tags. The tags cost Rs 60 (US$1.20) (stan- areas and 20 percent in rural areas), and 670 million people
dard metal tags cost US$0.30). in the country subscribe to a mobile phone service. India has
4.5 Internet users per 100 people, double the number for the
Policies are sold through Pudhuaaru Kshetriya Gramin
average least-developed country (though less than one-third
Financial Services (PKGFS), which has 25 branches serving
of the average for low- and middle-income countries).
135 villages in the two remote districts where the new prod-
uct is being piloted. Each branch has three agents who serve
approximately 2,000 households. Policies can be issued 1 If services other than routine preventive care are required, the
producer must pay for them on top of the insurance cost.
rapidly because the PKGFS customer management system 2 This arrangement resembles the arrangements in another suc-
is connected in real time and integrated with HDFC Ergo’s cessful program, DrumNet in Kenya.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 177
Growth and Lessons a national or regional identification system is probably neces-
Since its launch in 2009 in Tamil Nadu, the program has sary for commercial banks to become sufficiently confident to
expanded to the states of Uttrakhand and Orissa. The mortal- extend financial services to the poor to buy livestock.
ity rate of cows has improved with the provision of preven-
Several factors appear to limit adoption. Given insurance
tive care, especially deworming drugs and vaccinations.
companies’ propensity to renege on contracts, producers lack
Despite this initial success, two issues remain to be resolved: confidence that indemnities will actually be paid. Producers
moral hazard issues and low adoption. With regard to moral haz- also seem to be confused by the livestock insurance product
ard, it appears that RFID tags can be removed far too easily from compared to a cheaper personal accident insurance product
animals’ ears, and without a national or even regional animal offered by PKGFS. Where efforts have been made to explain
tracking system, it is possible to have duplicate tags. Australia’s the difference, a higher rate of adoption has been observed
National Livestock Identification System tracks all animals, each (Gupta 2010). The key lesson is that technology cannot sub-
of which has two RFID chips (one in the ear, one in the diges- stitute for human capacity. In determining whether insurance
tive system). The point is that RFID technology alone may not products—even efficient, ICT-enabled products—will suc-
resolve moral hazard problems. Using two tags may help, but ceed in a given area, practitioners must consider the prevail-
the key lesson is that an institutional framework in the form of ing basic literacy and financial literacy rates.
Topic Note 7.2: POLICY STRATEGIES AND REGULATORY
ISSUES FOR ICT-ENABLED RURAL
FINANCIAL SERVICES
TRENDS AND ISSUES organizations is in Sri Lanka, which has 600 distance learning
As noted, a diverse group of stakeholders is involved in centers and e-libraries that penetrate deeply into rural and
providing financial services to rural dwellers. To design sup- remote areas, cover 22 of 24 districts in all nine provinces,
portive policies, provide the necessary infrastructure, and and link more than 70,000 underserved users to markets and
provide appropriate, affordable financial products based on information essential to their livelihoods.3 At the telecenter
assessments of local needs, governments must explore in Bakalacia, users include farmers checking market prices,
partnerships with the private sector and rural communities. entrepreneurs marketing their businesses, community lead-
In turn, governments can devise and implement policies that ers searching for information on how to improve community
give rural communities and private enterprises incentives to livelihoods, mothers seeking first aid and connecting to hos-
participate in the rural financial sector. pitals and doctors in the capital city, children and students
interested in learning, and citizens communicating online,
For example, the Government of India promoted rural digi- requesting government services, or doing word-processing,
tal services by partnering with the private sector to set up printing, and copying. Surveys indicate a user satisfaction
village kiosks with IT infrastructure. The kiosks offered a rate of 96 percent. An estimated 48 percent of users are
single window for providing government services electroni- women; 82 percent are youths up to 25 years of age. These
cally at the village level (for example, issuing land records telecenters can also be used for financial services, like point-
to farmers). The kiosks improved citizens’ experience in of-sale terminals.
dealing with government, because they reduced the time
needed for officials to respond to citizens’ requests. They
also created a village database that could be used to reach LESSONS LEARNED
more citizens. Financial service providers could potentially Financing smallholder agriculture is a complex undertaking,
use this infrastructure to follow up on clients from the easily thwarted by regulatory impediments to the devel-
village. opment of new products or service delivery channels. For
Another example of effective public-private partnerships 3 This section draws on unpublished information from World Bank
between government and ICT providers and community implementation support missions.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
178 MODUL E 7 — BROA D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ AC C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERVICES THR OUGH IC T
example, some potential financial service delivery chan- financial services throughout the economy, including under-
nels, such as agency arrangements that operate outside served rural areas.
physical branch offices, are not yet allowed in most coun-
tries in Africa and in most of Asia. Regulatory support for The two innovative practice summaries that follow demon-
such arrangements may be needed to alleviate the per- strate the importance of public policy and regulatory frame-
ception of risk associated with financing agriculture and works in stimulating the use of ICT to improve rural financial
livestock production. Agents can be based closer to rural systems and services. The first summary describes how ICT
communities at a fraction of the cost of bricks-and-mortar minimizes information asymmetries and links farmers directly
banks. From this vantage point, they can assess the risk to markets and to finance. It demonstrates how risk can be
associated with lending to farmers better than banks or managed at the three operational levels of the financial service
microfinance institutions. Agents can address the scale provider, market operator, and farmer. The second summary
issues associated with providing financial services in rural offers another example of the benefits that accrue from a
areas, such as the small size of most transactions. common ICT platform to support rural banking in India.
The lack of an appropriate regulatory framework also ham-
pers the development of warehouse receipts as an electronic INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
financial instrument.4 Many countries do not recognize ware- Kenya’s DrumNet Links Farmers, Markets,
house receipts as a transferrable financing instrument, even and Financial Service Providers
though this product can facilitate smallholders’ access to Small-scale farmers struggle to obtain agricultural loans
finance and, at the same time, improve the quality of produce, even where they have good access to commercial banks.
which is often dictated by warehouse managers. Policies and Commercial banks are reluctant to lend to them, recogniz-
enabling legislation would provide for the establishment of a ing the severe barriers and risks these farmers face in suc-
central registry for warehouse receipts as a title document cessfully producing a crop, marketing it, and repaying loans.
used by banks to grant loans. Warehouse receipts held by Smallholders face risks in transporting produce to markets,
banks would be included as liquid assets under the definition finding buyers there, and earning the value they expected
of the national banking act. A fund would be established to at planting. This risk not only introduces uncertainty in
collect assets from warehouses to indemnify receipt holders their income stream but, as noted, also inhibits their abil-
in the event of a loss. Coherent industry standards and certi- ity to obtain the credit to make the productivity and quality
fication regulations would be introduced. improvements that will break the cycle of poverty.
Many ICT-enabled applications described in this module (and Much of the risk in accessing markets can be mitigated, and
Sourcebook) require an enabling legal and regulatory environ- farmers’ access to credit can be improved, if farmers can
ment. In many countries, point-of-sale devices, m-banking, forge better links with agribusiness buyers such as domestic
and other innovative applications have yet to be introduced supermarkets, agroprocessors, or (further along the supply
because the corresponding regulations have not been intro- chain) exporters. When such links are weak, buyers also
duced, despite evidence that they can extend cost-effective face problems in sourcing sufficient produce of the quality
demanded by supermarkets or food processors. Farmers
4 Warehouse receipts are not covered in depth by this module often do not know that the market is willing to pay a high
because of the limited ICT used. Nonetheless, the basics for price for certain products that meet certain quality standards;
establishing warehouse receipts as a financing mechanism are
not normally addressed, and, as a result, some interventions do even if they do know, they lack the financing to switch to a
not succeed. In addition to proper legal frameworks that protect new and more profitable crop or the knowledge to achieve
all parties, there must also be a critical mass of farmers’ orga-
the desired level of quality.
nizations that can bring produce to the warehouse. The com-
mercial banks and other service providers must be brought into
the design from the very beginning, and there must be interest Better links between farmers and buyers would help to over-
from the private sector to participate in the operations of the come these obstacles, but they are difficult to form. Mistrust
scheme. Warehouse receipt mechanisms also often lack the
long-term objective of linking the scheme to the overall com-
between farmers and buyers runs deep. Buyers fail to honor
modity exchange system, which would then encourage small- purchasing agreements or do not pay the agreed-on price
scale farmers to participate. Warehouse receipts can be useful at harvest. Farmers abandon purchasing agreements and
with the proper frameworks and implementation, however. The
Uganda Commodity Exchange warehouse receipt mechanism, sell their produce to another buyer or on the spot market
for example, is working well for smallholders. if they can get a more favorable price. Aside from these
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 179
problems, the practical aspects of working with large num- in doing so. ICT devices and systems such as mobile phones,
bers of small-scale farmers—organizing them, negotiating smartcards, and management information systems facilitate
prices, sharing information, and managing their agronomic communication between the parties and help to manage
activities—are daunting for agribusinesses. Even if they the administrative challenges of tracking large numbers of
were easy to resolve, agribusinesses still lack the core capa- smallholders, delivering loans cost-effectively, ensuring that
bilities and often the resources to extend financing to all of funds are properly used, and collecting payments.
those farmers.
Links with Key Players
The less risk exposure a client presents, however, the more
banks are willing to lend. If farmers can demonstrate that an DrumNet recognized that it could not improve financing for
agribusiness is willing to purchase what they will produce, a farmers without linkages with financial intermediaries and
bank will be much more amenable to financing the purchase buyers (DrumNet 2007). In 2008, DrumNet began a pilot
of inputs and labor for production. The challenge for the bank program in the sunflower subsector to facilitate partner-
is then limited to the transaction costs of disbursing funds, ships that would give smallholders access to finance and
ensuring the loans are used for their stated purpose, collect- improve efficiency throughout the supply chain. The agri-
ing payments, and bearing the exposure to weather risks business buyer, Bidco, was the largest manufacturer of
(unless there is crop insurance). vegetable oils, fats, margarines, and protein concentrates in
East Africa and needed a steady supply of sunflower seeds.
DrumNet is a project of Pride Africa, a nonprofit that has pro- The financial institution was Equity Bank (also involved with
moted the spread of microfinance across the continent since to M-PESA, discussed above). Farmers were recruited to
1988. Created in Kenya in 2002, DrumNet was designed to grow sunflowers instead of their typical crop. Two additional
provide market, information, and financial services to small- players proved important to the partnership. Input suppli-
holders, and it has evolved a sophisticated technology plat- ers had to agree to sell products to farmers on credit and
form to deliver these services. The project illustrates that it receive payment from Equity Bank instead of cash directly
is possible for a third party to coordinate and link farmers, from farmers. AgriTrade recruited farmers and managed
buyers, financial intermediaries, and operations managers to sunflower production, harvest, and collection. The benefits
deliver financing to small farmers, and that ICT has a vital role foreseen from their collaboration are depicted in figure 7.8.
FIGURE 7.8. Benefits to Stakeholders in DrumNet’s Sunflower Supply Chain Partnerships
More demand for products Producers Grew under structured contracts
without credit burden (fixed price) with buyers
Aware of producer needs, so can Access to credit and cashless/
more easily manage stocks transparent transactions
UM
DR T
Input retailers NE Equity bank
Markets • Finance • Information
Increased, more predictable, and Lent to previously nonaccessible
higher-quality supply without clientele; increased deposit base
cumbersome field mobilization
Reduced overall cost and risk
Reduced time and cost involved Bidco involved in agricultural lending
in producer payment
Source: Adapted from Pride Africa n.d.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
180 MODUL E 7 — BROA D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ AC C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERVICES THR OUGH IC T
FIGURE 7.9. Flow of Goods, Information, and Money in DrumNet’s Sunflower Supply Chain Partnerships
Farmer groups
Input
retailer Buyer
Collection point
UM
DR T
Bank NE
Legend:
Flow of farm input loan Flow of produce payment
Flow of produce Flow of farm inputs
Source: Adapted from Pride Africa n.d.
Services and Revenues 25 percent of the value of the input loans and acts as security
DrumNet negotiated the contracts that brought these par- for them (DrumNet 2009).
ties together and managed the flow of information and
financial transactions among them (figure 7.9). Through
this arrangement, farmers received credit for inputs from ICT Applications
Equity Bank upon signing a fixed-price contract with Bidco. DrumNet provides the ICT platform through which all
To ensure that the loans would be used for their stated pur- financial transactions and communications take place. The
pose, farmers received no cash from Equity Bank. Instead, platform includes mobile phones, SMS, and email to enable
through another agreement facilitated by DrumNet, Equity the parties to do business. All payments from buyers pass
pays input retailers directly for materials purchased by through DrumNet accounts at the bank.
farmers on credit. When the produce is delivered to Bidco,
Bidco pays farmers through DrumNet, which first deducts Information is transmitted up and down the supply chain dur-
the cost of the loan and transfers it to Equity Bank. The ing the crop cycle, primarily via SMS. Bidco is informed about
remainder is sent to the farmer’s account with Equity Bank the area planted to estimate production and plans accord-
(Campaigne and Rausch 2010). DrumNet earns revenue for ingly. The processor monitors crop progress and passes on
this service. important crop management information to farmers. Input
retailers are updated on which products to stock at what
Farmer groups (typically consisting of 20–100 farmers in time, and producers learn about collection dates and loca-
the same area) open an account with Equity Bank through tions long before harvest.
which all payments are made. Individual farmers can be paid
in cash, but cash is withdrawn from the bank at the group The input retailers, trained in basic recordkeeping for
level to reduce transaction costs. Each member is required DrumNet, submit virtual receipts to DrumNet via mobile
to contribute to a Transaction Insurance Fund, which is phone and receive payments into their bank accounts in
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 181
two-week cycles through the DrumNet system. Equity Bank harvest was completed. The complex arrangement between
is shielded from these many small transactions, as it simply farmers, buyers, banks, and retailers certainly allows farmers
opens a single line of credit in DrumNet’s Master Account, to obtain credit, reduces defaults, and increases trust. Yet the
receiving regular principal and interest payments from relationship remains extremely fragile. It is still susceptible to
DrumNet from this revolving account. DrumNet’s manage- mistrust. Side-selling by farmers, scams from input retailers,
ment information system provides the internal controls to buyers reneging on agreements, and hidden fees from the
track and report on compliance throughout the process. It bank all erode trust and undermine the relationships. Such
also retains data to establish user and credit ratings. problems occur more often at the beginning of the process.
As the partners come to understand each other’s operations
and develop trust, the problems should lessen. As noted,
Key Enablers
efficiency in service delivery is one way to mitigate some of
Key enablers are the partnerships between Equity Bank, these risks.
Bidco, input suppliers, and farmers that enabled the system
to work. ICT plays a significant role in sustaining the trust The partnership is also susceptible to problems arising from
and confidence that make these relationships work. It pro- typical production risks such as droughts or floods. After
vides the visibility, communication, and speedy transactions the first year, when one region of sunflower growers was
that bind partners together for their common benefit. The affected by a drought (McCormack 2009), the issue of loan
DrumNet system allows the various partners to be in touch repayment became contentious. Would Equity Bank allow an
constantly, reducing the potential for misunderstanding additional year to repay? Should DrumNet require a higher
and unilateral decision making. Each partner can view the security deposit from farmers? Failure to reach agreement
actions of the other partners. If there is no rainfall, Bidco on such flashpoints before a partnership is implemented can
knows to downgrade production plans, Equity Bank knows unravel hard-won cooperation.
and can begin to work with farmers to make refinancing
arrangements, and so on. Collaboration replaces confron-
tation. The speed of payment permitted through DrumNet
is also central to maintaining sound relationships. Farmers INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
note that they get paid in days rather than months, as was A Common Platform Delivers Financial Services
customary. The same can be said for the retailer and bank or to Rural India
the buyer and bank. In India, Financial Inclusion Network and Operations
(FINO), an Indian technology company, and ICICI Bank
As the previous paragraph implies, another key enabler have used ICT to facilitate remote bank transactions and
was infrastructure. DrumNet’s ICT platform relies on dramatically reduce the costs of serving rural areas. Using
mobile phones and the Internet. Based on the World smartcards and point-of-sale devices connected to a cen-
Bank’s World Development Indicators, it appears that tralized ICT platform, FINO has overcome the traditional
Kenya’s infrastructure for both technologies is above problems of low volumes and values of transactions in
average compared to that of other developing countries in rural areas.
Sub-Saharan Africa. Kenya has wireless coverage across
77 percent of its territory (the average for developing
ICT Application and Business Model
countries in Sub-Saharan Africa is 75 percent) and 42.1
mobile subscriptions per 100 people (compared to 33.3 In partnership with IBM and i-Flex (now Oracle), FINO
in developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa). Similarly, developed a remote transaction system that uses a small
Kenya has 8.7 Internet users per 100 people compared to biometric point-of-sale device, in combination with a
6.5 for Sub-Saharan Africa. biometric smartcard, to authenticate users and conduct
transactions (figure 7.10). Transaction data are sent over
the Internet to a core banking system that houses the
Outcomes and Lessons data and allows for analysis. Besides the obvious benefit
More than 2,000 smallholders participate in the sunflower of allowing remote transactions, the service provides the
pilot. Several lessons have become apparent since the first ability to uniquely identify customers and record their
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
182 MODUL E 7 — BROA D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ AC C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERVICES THR OUGH IC T
FIGURE 7.10. Other Types of ICT Used by Financial Inclusion Network and Operations
Wireless point-of-sale device Customer smartcard
Receipt generation slot
Jane Doe
Fingerprint
scanner
9000 0001 0736 1728
Slot to insert operator Encrypted storage of
or customer card account and customer
information
Sources: FINO and author.
transactions over time. The transaction history for each loans and cattle insurance combined in a single product (India
customer can be used to provide credit bureau services Knowledge@Wharton 2010).
to mainstream banks and allow them to lend to qualified
borrowers in whom they have confidence (Business Line Profit Margin and Cost Structure
2006). FINO earns approximately US$0.10 for each transaction.
A similar transaction costs US$1.00 at a bank and about
An Extended Agent Network US$0.40 cents at an ATM (Rotman 2010a). The com-
FINO employs over 10,000 agents, 95 percent of whom pany had turnover of US$22.5 million in 2009–10 (India
are based in rural areas. The agents, called bandhus Knowledge@Wharton 2010). FINO aims to keep interest
(“friends” in Hindi), form a network of human ATMs. Each rates below 20 percent. The company has a cost struc-
agent is trained and equipped with the handheld biomet- ture similar to those of other microfinance institutions
ric transaction device that allows clients with smartcards (figure 7.11), but it claims to have operational costs of
to access banking services. Balance transfers, deposits, 4–6 percent, nearly on par with traditional banks, because
and withdrawals can all be done through the smartcard its rural agents cost less than urban agents, technology
system, even where the Internet is not accessible, since reduces administrative paperwork, and FINO shares the
the smartcard retains the user’s account information (India cost of maintaining the agent network with other banks
Knowledge@Wharton 2010). New transactions are stored that use FINO to conduct transactions (India Knowledge@
on the transaction device until the Internet is available, at Wharton 2010).
which point the data are synchronized with the core bank-
ing system.
Scale and Sustainability
Products and Services FINO has grown spectacularly since it was launched in July
Through its human and electronic network, FINO deliv- 2006. The company reached 2 million customers by 2008
ers microfinance transactions for various banks as well as (FINO 2008) and 5.5 million by 2009 (findBiometrics 2009),
its own banking services. Originally meant as a conduit within an estimated market of 500 million rural people. By
for other financial institutions, FINO decided to offer its September 2010, “there were 21 million customers, 22
own financial services—savings, credit, insurance, and banks, 10 MFIs, 4 insurance companies and 12 govern-
remittances—primarily because banks and businesses ment entities covering 22 states, 266 districts and 5,884
remained reluctant to pursue the rural market (India gram panchayats [village councils].” The ambitious goal
Knowledge@Wharton 2010). was to reach 100 million customers by July 2011 and have
revenue turnover of US$52 million (India Knowledge@
FINO is also testing new initiatives. For instance, the com- Wharton 2010).
pany opened bank accounts for dairy farmers that supply
milk to the National Dairy Development Board in Gujarat. The financial viability of the agent network is questionable,
Along with a savings bank account, farmers can receive bank however. At about US$23, the average monthly profit for
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 183
FIGURE 7.11. Cost Structure of Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in India
(% of loan amount)
Typical MFIs are less
efficient than
traditional banks on a
unit basis, with
meaningfully higher
operating costs per
loaned dollar
20%
31%
3%
8% 14% 8%
3% 3%
Loan loss Cost of Operating Total Total Operating Cost of Loan loss
reserves funds costs costs costs costs funds reserves
Typical MFI Traditional banks
Sources: CGAP and IBM.
a FINO agent is less than 20 percent of the profit made Government of India, industry, and the World Bank—has
by an M-PESA agent in Kenya or an agent in Brazil, both consistently innovated in service delivery. In 2004, the
of whom make around US$130. FINO agents surely need bank launched the Kisan (“farmer”) Credit Card in Andhra
additional income to supplement that from FINO, but Pradesh to facilitate delivery of cash loans and credit to
being an agent for FINO takes up an enormous amount tobacco farmers (ICICI Bank 2001). In the same year, ICICI
of time, leaving little time for another job unless there are unveiled biometric ATMs in peri-urban areas. The ATMs cost
synergies between the travel required for FINO and the 5 percent of typical ATMs.
other job (Rotman 2010a).
These steps led ICICI to envision a technology platform
Key Enablers that could allow banking transactions in rural areas, and
An operation on such a large scale requires strong support ICICI began incubating FINO to achieve this goal. The effort
from major institutions, policy initiatives, and infrastruc- was guided by leaders of other companies that ICICI had
ture. FINO has benefited from all of these key enablers. A incubated: Crisil, a ratings agency, and Ncdex, a commodi-
major advantage was that ICICI Bank, India’s largest private ties exchange (Business Standard 2006). FINO was spun
financial institution with assets of US$81 billion, incubated off in 2006, with ICICI retaining a 19 percent stake. Intel
FINO. It transferred critical technical and administrative Capital and the International Finance Corporation (IFC) each
capacity to the company in addition to financial support. have a 15 percent stake, the Life Insurance Corporation of
India has 8 percent, and various other public banks have
Early on, ICICI Bank recognized the challenge of reach- the remaining 22 percent (figure 7.12) (India Knowledge@
ing rural customers. The bank—founded in 1955 by the Wharton 2010).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
184 MODUL E 7 — BROA D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ AC C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERVICES THR OUGH IC T
FIGURE 7.12. Financiers of Financial Inclusion Network and Operations
Public sector International
8%
15% investors
LIC
30% IFC
22% Intel Capital 40%
UBI, Indian Bank 15%
and Corporation Bank
HAV
3 ho
2% (Maur ldings
2% itius)
IFMR trust ICICI Bank
10%
ICICI
Lomb
19% ard
9%
28%
Private equity
Source: fino.co.in.
Government policies and regulatory incentives have also to the development and implementation of a rural transac-
been instrumental in helping FINO to grow and maintain tions system as ambitious as FINO. Another important les-
its momentum. First, FINO earns most of its revenue by son is that the government can be an important customer.
delivering government transfer payments for the Social It can drive the transaction volumes necessary to make rural
Security Pension system, the Health Insurance initiative, financial transactions viable.
and the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (India
Knowledge@Wharton 2010). Second, FINO facilitates
transactions that commercial and state banks are legally REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
obligated to perform. Since the 1960s, the Reserve Bank of Agwe, J., and A. Fissha. 2009. “Managing Risk in Financing
India has required commercial banks to direct some portion Agriculture: Proceedings of an Expert Meeting Convened and
(more than 40 percent) of their lending to priority sectors, Co-sponsored by AFRACA, FAO, the Land Bank of South Africa,
and the World Bank.” Mendeley. http://www.mendeley.com
which include rural industries and agriculture. Finally, a
/research/managing-risk-financing-agriculture-expert-meeting
centralized ICT platform such as FINO’s relies heavily on -convened-cosponsored-afraca-fao-land-bank-south-africa-world
the telecommunications infrastructure, which is already -bank-3/#page-1, accessed July 2011.
quite good in India. B&FT. 2010. “E-Zwich: Answer To Ghost-Names?” Peace FM Online,
August 23. http://business.peacefmonline.com/news/201008
/73673.php, accessed January 2011.
Lessons
Bagazonzya, H., Z. Safdar, A. K. M. Abdullah, C. T. Niang, and A. Rahman.
As indicated in the discussion of FINO’s operations, signifi-
2010. Linking Up and Reaching Out in Bangladesh: Information
cant financial, management, and political support from ICICI and Communications Technology for Microfinance. Directions in
Bank and the International Finance Corporation were critical Development 52863. Washington, DC: World Bank.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 185
Business Line. 2006. “ICICI Bank Launches New Initiative (Focus 18), International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI),
in Micro-finance.” Business Line, July 24. http://www Washington, DC.
.thehindubusinessline.com/2006/07/14/stories/2006071404270600
Gupta, A. 2010. “Cattle Insurance: Revisiting Assumptions.” IFMR Blog,
.htm, accessed December.
November 14. http://ifmrblog.com/2010/11/14/cattle-insurance
Business Standard. 2006. “ICICI-FINO to Play Big Brother to MFIs.” -revisiting-assumptions/, accessed December 2010.
Business Standard, July 14. http://www.business-standard
IBM. 2007. “IBM and CARE Partner to Advance Microfinance in
.com/india/news/icici-fino-to-play-big-brother-to-mfis/250588/,
Africa.” http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/22761
accessed December 2010.
.wss, accessed November 2010.
Campaigne, J., and T. Rausch. 2010. “Bundling Development Services
ICICI Bank. 2001. “Kisan Loan Card.” http://www.icicibank.com
with Agricultural Finance: The Experience of DrumNet.” 2020
/aboutus/pdf/Kisan_Loan_Card.pdf, accessed December 2010.
Vision for Food, Agriculture and Environment Series. Innovations
in Rural and Agricultural Finance (Focus 18), International Food IFMR Trust. 2008. “Redefining Cattle Insurance.” http://www.ifmrtrust
Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC. .co.in/announcements/cattle_ins.php, accessed December 2010.
CGAP (Consultative Group to Assist the Poor) and IFAD (International India Knowledge@Wharton. 2010. “FINO Shows a Low-Cost
Fund for Agricultural Development). 2006. “Emerging Lessons in Way Out of India’s Microfinance Mess.” http://knowl-
Agricultural Microfinance.” IFAD, Rome. edge . wharton .upenn .edu/india/article.cfm?articleid=4545,
CGAP (Consultative Group to Assist the Poor) and World Bank. accessed December.
2010. “Financial Access 2010.” CGAP and World Bank, ITC. 2010. “ITC’s E-Choupal Movement.” http://www.itcportal.com
Washington, DC. /ruraldevp_philosophy/echoupal.htm, accessed September 2010.
Cracknell, D. 2004. “Electronic Banking for the Poor: Panacea, ITU (International Telecommunication Union). 2009. “ICTs and Food
Potential, and Pitfalls.” Small Enterprise Development 15 (4): 8–24. Security.” ITU-T Technology Watch Repor, ITU, Geneva. www
CSR360 Global Partner Network. 2010. “mKRISHI—Connecting .itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/oth/23/.../T230100000B0001MSWE.doc,
India’s Rural Farmers.” Interview with Arun Pande, June 4. accessed April 2011.
http://www.csr360gpn.org/magazine/feature/mkrishi-connecting Jack, W., and T. Suri. 2009. “Mobile Money: The Economics of
-indias-rural-farmers/, accessed September 2010. M-PESA.” Stanford University, Nairobi. http://bit.ly/hJZ0AT,
DrumNet. 2007. “Financing the Agricultural Value Chain.” Rural accessed October 2010.
Finance.Org, March 15. http://bit.ly/fZ1N8Y, accessed December Kathpalia, G. 2010. “Government of India: Radio-Frequency
2010. Identification (RFID).” http://www.mit.gov.in/content/radio
———. 2009. “Experience in Kenya’s Sunflower Sector.” Pride -frequency-identification-rfid, accessed December 2010.
Africa. http://bit.ly/iazdBk, accessed December 2010. Kimani, M. 2008. “A Nank in Every African Pocket?” African
Dzawu, M. M. 2009. “Finding Ways to Improve Financial Literacy in Renewal, January. http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec
Africa.” Business Times Magazine, November. http://bit.ly/fFjeci, /vol21no4/214-cell-phone-banking.html, accessed November
accessed January 2011. 2010.
Economic Times. 2009. “IFMR, HDFC Ergo Redefine Cattle Mas, I. 2010a. “M-KESHO in Kenya: A New Step for M-PESA
Insurance Using RFID Technology.” Economic Times, and Mobile Banking.” Financial Access Initiative, May. http://
November 2. http://www.ifmrtrust.co.in/downloads/et_article financialaccess.org/node/2968, accessed December 2010.
_09.pdf, accessed December 2010.
———. 2010b. “Everyone Needs a Safe Place to Save.” TedxSeattle
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2009. The State of Food presentation, Seattle, April 16.
and Agriculture 2009. Rome: FAO.
McCormack, D. 2009. “Building a Supply Chain Transaction System
findBiometrics. 2009. “India’s FINO Provides Biometric Smart for Smallholder Farmers in Kenya, Phase II Operations (2007–
Card Services to 1200 Locations.” findBiometrics. http://www 2009).” YouTube Flooded Cellar Channel, May 20. http://www
.findbiometrics.com/press-releases/i/7059/, accessed January .youtube.com/watch?v=8hw4bWMQMBQ, accessed December
2011. 2010.
FINO (Financial Inclusion Network and Operations). 2008. “FINO Nair, A., and A. Fissha. 2010. “Rural Banking: The Case of Rural and
Reaches Two-Million Unbanked Populations in India.” PRLog, Community Banks in Ghana.” Agriculture and Rural Development
November 4. http://bit.ly/fyW5vP, accessed January 2011. Discussion Paper, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Giné, X. 2010. “Biometric Technology in Rural Credit Markets: Ogodo, O. 2010. “Kenyan Farmers Get Micro-insurance.” SciDevNet,
The Case of Malawi.” 2020 Vision for Food, Agriculture, and March 22. http://www.scidev.net/en/news/kenyan-farmers-get
Environment Series, Innovations in Rural and Agricultural Finance -micro-insurance.html, accessed September 2010.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
186 MODUL E 7 — BROA D ENING S MA LLH OLD ERS ’ AC C ES S TO FINA NC IA L S ERVICES THR OUGH IC T
Pareti, S. 2010. “Out of the Tin, Into the Bank.” Asian Development Rotman, S. 2010a. “India’s Doorstep Banking: FINO Starts Something
Bank. http://www.adb.org/documents/feature-stories/2010/van New.” CGAP Technology Blog, May 5. http://technology.cgap
-bank.asp, accessed January 2011. .org/2010/05/05/indias-doorstep-banking-fino-starts-something-
new/, accessed December 2010.
Pickens, M., D. Porteous, and S. Rotman. 2009. “Banking the Poor via
G2P Payments.” Consultative Group for the Poor. http://www.cgap ———. 2010b. “The Forced Marriage between Social Protection
.org/gm/document-1.9.41174/FN58.pdf, accessed December 2010. and Financial Inclusion . . . or a Match Made in Heaven?”
CGAP Technology Blog, November 29. http://technology.cgap
Post and Parcel. 2010. “Botswana Post and Bank Could Merge.” .org/2010/11/29/the-forced-marriage-between-social-protection
Post and Parcel, March 22. http://postandparcel.info/32367 -and-financial-inclusion%E2%80%A6or-a-match-made-in
/companies/botswana-post-and-bank-could-merge/, accessed -heaven/, accessed December 2010.
January 2011.
Sevak Solutions. 2008. “Extending Financial Networks.” Sevak
Pride Africa. n.d. “Experience in Kenya’s Sunflower Sector.” http:// Solutions. http://www.sevaksolutions.org/prototypes/finideas.html,
www.prideafrica.com/assets/docs/DrumNet%20Sunflower%20 accessed January 2011.
Experience.pdf, accessed July 2011.
Trivelli, C., and H. Venero. 2007. “Agricultural Development Banking:
RFID Journal. 2010. “RFID FAQs.” http://www.rfidjournal.com Lessons from Latin America?” FAO Rural Finance Learning
/faq#16, accessed December 2010. Center. http://bit.ly/dMmeFK, accessed October 2010.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA R M 187
Module 8 FARMER ORGANIZATIONS WORK
BETTER WITH ICT
WORLALI SENYO (consultant) and BENJAMIN KWASI ADDOM (CTA)
IN THIS MODULE
Farmer organizations can function more efficiently by using information and communication technology (ICT) to attract
and retain a wider membership, generate more funds, and provide better services to their members. Documented bene-
fits of ICT include improved connections for members, better accounting and administration, the provision of value-added
service (VAS) to members, and stronger collective voice. Given the lack of basic infrastructure in much of the developing
world, the most successful types of ICT are robust and relatively simple. Governments, donors, and nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs) generally initiate the development and testing of ICT solutions for farmer organizations, but in many
instances partnerships with the private sector are essential. Three key challenges are to scale up existing applications,
ensure sustainability over the long term, and ensure inclusiveness.
Topic Note 8.1: Finding Better Marketing Options and Sharing Technical Information Using ICT. Mobile phone systems
appear to be the most flexible technology for improving connections within farmer organizations and providing a wider range
of services. Mobile phones help to tackle supply chain inefficiencies, poor logistics, and weak infrastructure in rural areas, all of
which cause agricultural produce and other resources to be wasted after the harvest. Technologies that do not depend on literacy
(digital photography and video clips) are extremely effective for sharing information within and between farmer organizations.
Zambia’s National Farmer Organization Develops a Text-Based Service
The SOUNONG Search Engine for Farmer Organizations in China
Field Data Collection Tool for Certified Farmer Groups in Sustainable Agriculture
Topic Note 8.2: Dairy Cooperatives Lead the Way with Computerized Systems to Improve Accounting,
Administration, and Governance. While farmer organizations do benefit from third-party service providers, the use
of innovative types of ICT can add value by strengthening the human and institutional capacity of farmer organizations
to provide better commercial services to members. Computerized recordkeeping has transformed efficiency in farmer
cooperatives; approaches include both commercial systems and systems using open source software. Supportive gov-
ernment policy and willingness on the part of government organizations to join partnerships are important enablers.
IT Tools for India’s Dairy Industry
CoopWorks Dairy and Coffee, Open Source Software Launched in Kenya
ICT Improves Marketing and Governance for a Malian Cooperative
Topic Note 8.3: Giving Farmers a Voice and Sharing Information. Farmers’ collective voice is stronger and reaches
wider audiences with the help of radio and television. Interactivity is possible and even more promising through phone-in
programs and text messaging. Radio and television are also effective tools for agricultural extension. Interactivity through
websites is becoming more crucial for farmer organizations, but less so for individual smallholders. Surging use of social
media tools such as Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, and Dgroups is enabling farmers and farmer organizations to participate
more intensively in policy dialogues and discussions.
Community Listeners’ Clubs in Rural Niger
Through Social Media, a Women’s Producer Network in Caribbean Small Island States Improves
Its Communication Capacity, Outreach, and Knowledge Management
The Case of the Pan-African Farmers’ Organization
The authors of the original Module 8 were Julie Harrod (consultant) and Pekka Jämsén (AgriCord). The reviewer of the current Module 8 is
Pekka Jämsén of AgroBIG.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
188 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
OVERVIEW challenges, which when solved will go a long way to improve
Smallholder farmers can generate more income in a number of their lives and livelihoods. Access to timely and relevant
ways. They can use better cultivation techniques and improved information in villages, many of which are remote and inac-
seeds, follow practices to reduce postharvest losses, and find cessible, can empower rural citizens. Increasing aware-
ways to improve their access to markets. Even so, as indi- ness and knowledge through information on government
vidual entrepreneurs they may lack the knowledge or capital schemes and welfare measures can improve the quality
to change the way they operate. Farmers are able to seize of life in rural areas, as most rural dwellers have difficulty
new economic opportunities to improve their livelihoods and accessing the resources that the government has put in
food security when they have access to natural resources, place to safeguard their welfare. Farmer organizations have
productive assets and markets, information and knowledge, been striving to address these issues but often through con-
and the opportunity to participate in policy making. ventional means. The use of ICT to help farmers, however, is
a sure way to complement, and in many situations surpass,
One strategy for men and women farmers to access produc- the effectiveness of conventional means. ICT is integral
tive assets and expand their capacities is to collaboratively, to fulfilling both the lobbying and the service functions of
voluntarily organize to pursue a shared goal and, through farmer organizations, speaking both for and to the farmer.
innovative institutional arrangements, build useful links with Commercial activities become more efficient and transpar-
public and private actors, benefit from economic opportuni- ent when supported by ICT.
ties, and participate in policy making. Evidence shows that
by virtue of the fact that they are organized rather than act- “ICT” is a catchall term for an increasing number of technolo-
ing alone, smallholder farmers who form groups, especially gies, each offering corresponding opportunities for innova-
groups resembling cooperatives, are more viable market tion. This module looks at a range of technologies, from the
actors because they have more access to information, better well-established and familiar, like radio and mobile phones, to
power to negotiate, and in general are better placed to seize the more specialized, such as computerized recordkeeping
market opportunities. and farm management systems, global positioning systems
(GPS), and remote sensing technologies that facilitate access
Farmer organizations therefore play an important role in tack- to timely and accurate information for agricultural develop-
ling the systemic causes of poverty, because they legitimize ment. The discussion emphasizes technologies that can (or
the voices of farmers—men and women—in shaping pro- that have the potential to) reach large numbers of beneficiaries
poor rural policies. By articulating farmers’ interests to pub- and perform reliably in the challenging context of the devel-
lic and private institutions, farmer organizations encourage oping world. Different technologies offer different benefits,
those institutions to tailor their strategies, products, and ser- achieve different objectives, and have different limitations, so
vices to farmers’ needs (Zimba 2013). Farmer organizations each is considered on its own terms.
encourage democratic decision-making processes, leader-
ship development, and education. Given their values and
Benefits Offered through ICT
the principles inherent in their structure, they are also well
When considering the value of ICT to farmer organizations
designed to be vehicles for inclusion, especially of women
and cooperatives, it is worth bearing in mind that in remote
farmers and youths.
rural areas of many developing countries, particularly in
Farmer organizations provide services to members by forg- Africa, these organizations often are the only ones operating
ing institutional links and giving farmers a collective voice. and providing peer support. Local government offices may
The collective strength of an organization can help individ- be found in district headquarters and may offer some level of
ual members become more efficient, if the organization’s support, usually limited by inadequate budgets, from front-
services match its members’ needs. To fulfill this com- line extension officers and schools. In this context, farmer
mercial function, as seen in agricultural cooperatives and organizations—as hubs for business information, transporta-
producer groups, farmer organizations need to begin act- tion, storage, and credit support, as well as a place where
ing as business organizations, by adopting viable business people share new systems and processes—have enormous
models and developing the flexibility to adapt to changing potential, which should not be underestimated, for network-
circumstances. ing and bringing people together with the help of ICT.
Despite the important role that farmer organizations play Broadly, ICT appears to offer three categories of benefits to
in the lives of their members, farmers still have several farmer organizations. Practical examples might cut across
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 189
these categories, and particular technologies may bring Despite the potential benefits of ICT tools, farmer
unexpected benefits: organizations are rarely the first to adopt them, given that
Enhanced connections to members. Through the they usually work in difficult environments with low margins
organization, farmers share market information and to generate income for their members. Neither managers
technical know-how, and they remain informed about nor members are preoccupied with the latest smartphone or
the organization’s activities. For instance, topics tablet technology. Where particular ICT solutions are available
discussed and decisions made at board or executive and necessary to guarantee better performance and benefits
committee meetings can be shared with members to members, farmer organizations can be expected to be late
who, for reasons of distance or cost (direct and oppor- adopters of such technology without external support.
tunity) cannot attend. Decision-making processes
Generally, it is governments, donors, and NGOs that have
become more transparent, increasing trust between
the funds to develop and test ICT solutions that may benefit
members, the board, and executive managers, and
farmer organizations. Most if not all of the cases illustrated
the overall functioning of the organization is improved.
in this module are public-private initiatives to “include the
Improved accounting and administration. Farmer
excluded” by promoting ICT in remote rural areas. Successful
organizations are often responsible for handling very
cases provide good examples for scaling up and replicating in
large amounts of money that may represent the
other countries and regions.
cash income of thousands of farm families. Efficient
recordkeeping allows an organization to better
Promising Approaches
serve its members, and the transparency offered by
Table 8.1 summarizes the types of ICT covered in this module,
computerization and other technologies enhances
arranged by topic note. All of them have proved useful in address-
trust. Cooperatives that have invested in modern
ing one or more challenges faced by farmer organizations.
management and member information systems can
improve their image to attract high-quality staff and It is worth knowing that ICT applications—whether mobile
gain members’ confidence. phones, computers, smart mobile applications, or radio
Stronger collective voice, including improved broadcasts—are not ends in themselves; they are simply
political voice. “Interactivity,” as understood in the means by which information can be captured, recorded,
developed countries with good infrastructure, is summarized, displayed, and passed on more quickly. It is
still rare in many parts of the world. But individual the information itself that is important. Since information
farmers nevertheless “have their say” through types (on market intelligence and agricultural techniques, for
of participatory engagement that were not possible instance) changes, the task of collecting it and choosing the
before, such as crowdsourcing views and experiences most relevant sources is critical. Farmer organizations might
using text, voice, and video technologies. Farmers have to be helped to create partnerships that will provide
now learn and give feedback through services offered information that is of most use and relevance to members
by their farmer organization, local government, and and management. Any intervention dealing with ICT must
private sector actors. therefore consider this point.
The application of ICT in these areas has facilitated greater
involvement of farmer organizations and cooperatives in Key Challenges and Enablers
policy processes and agricultural value chain development. With regard to farmer organizations, ICT applications currently
However, these propositions all reinforce the conventional offer guaranteed improvements in enhanced connections
roles of cooperatives as consumers or end users of products to members and improved accounting and administration.
within the agricultural innovation system. The innovative use Already, working examples offer lessons for future devel-
of ICT can add value and help farmer organizations go beyond opment of ICT interventions. The third topic discussed in
these conventional roles by strengthening their organizational this module—stronger collective voice—has fewer working
capacities—institutional and human—to provide commercial examples, but it may benefit more from ICT interventions in
services to their members. By providing relevant services to the future.
their members, organizations improve members’ ownership
and access to technological and knowledge resources and Farmer organizations can function more efficiently by
enhance their economic power for value chain development, using ICT to attract a wider membership and thus generate
especially in terms of production and marketing. more funds and provide better services in a virtuous spiral
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
190 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
TABLE 8.1. Specific Types of ICT Discussed in This Module
CHALLENGE FACED BY FARMERS AND THEIR ORGANIZATIONS
LACK OF LENGTHY MANUAL LACK OF LACK OF ACCESS
MARKET BUREAUCRATIC KNOWLEDGE TO EXTENSION
INFORMATION— PROCEDURES, OF MARKET SERVICES
PRICES, POOR STANDARDS BY AND LATEST
POTENTIAL TRANSPARENCY, FARMER, OR LACK RESEARCH, AND
BUYERS, AND INCLUDING WITH OF CONSUMER INABILITY TO EXAMPLES IN
TYPE OF ICT APPLICATION SO ON THE FO CONFIDENCE SHAPE RESEARCH THIS MODULE
Enhanced Mobile phones (voice Fairer relationship If GPS an option, can Informed farmer can Voice and text increas- ZNFU (Zambia)
connec- or text messaging between farmer and make it easier to sort and offer produce ingly used to contact Coopeumo (Chile)
tions to systems) to access price trader verify the source of according to required interactive radio FrontlineSMS
members information, purchasing crops—for example, standards broadcasts to solve
options, and other market for organic or other problems SOUNONG (China)
intelligence; also to certification mergdata (Ghana)
access information in IFFCO Kisan (India)
broader sense.
Digital multimedia Can demonstrate FO can document best Song-taabaYalgré
(cameras, video recorders, standards in effective, practice and share Association
computerized presen- visual way. Can help from farmer to farmer; (Burkina Faso)
tation) to share new in reaching export pictures are more Coprokazan (Mali)
techniques and effective market effective than words
practices; ICT-based
information on grades and
standards.
GPS technology for plot- Speeds recording Consumers know Song-taabaYalgré
ting source of produce. Process source of produce and Association
trust claims about (Burkina Faso)
organic status and AuditAide (Côte
similar characteristics d’Ivoire and
Ghana)
Mobile applications Fairer relationship FO can share Information available Information available, IFFCO Kisan (India)
between farmer and information for better interactivity possible e-Granary
trader transparency
Improved Member transaction Reduces need for Graphic presentation Dairy and coffee
accounting systems; software for clerks, speeds of financial informa- cooperatives
and admin- financial management. transactions, improves tion makes statistics (India, Kenya)
istration transparency easier for coop mem- Coprokazan (Mali)
bers to understand
Automated milk measure- Fairer relationship Reduces waiting Dairy and coffee
ment systems. between farmer and time for farmers and cooperatives
coop amount of milk spoiled; (India, Kenya)
farmers trust the
automated
system
Stronger Local radio stations Farmers better Together with mobile Farmers better Possible to broadcast Farm Radio
collective providing market and informed about phones, can increase informed on standards information on latest International
voice technical information and prices and possible connections with FO techniques; phone-in RIU (Zambia)
phone-in virtual markets. markets members and increase programs allow Listeners’ clubs
Could also share informa- transparency farmers to discuss (Niger, Zambia)
tion about FO. problems
TV programs are specially Market information As above for radio As above for radio Interactive problem Doordarshan
tailored to share farming broadcast solving seminars on Broadcasting Co.
information—technical, agricultural issues; (India)
market, problem solving, picture more effective
and other. than words
Websites set up by FO Can reach wider FO could put financial Inform members of Information can be Several
and producer groups; markets and other information standards required accessed online
online discussion forums online to increase
transparency
Source: Authors.
Note: BAAC = Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (Thailand); FEPPASI = Fédération Provinciale des Professionnels Agricoles de la Sissili;
FO = farmer organization; RIU = Research Into Use; ZNFU = Zambia National Farmers Union.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 191
of development. Many examples in this module are rela- One way of looking at the sustainability issue is to regard
tively small-scale interventions that succeeded in changing well-functioning farmer organizations as a public good that
the way farmer organizations operate. To speed the uptake merits support from public funds, at least initially. Given the
of ICT, it may be appropriate for public agencies to provide vital role of such organizations in helping impoverished farm-
funds that can overcome the inertia typical of organizations ers improve their living standards in areas that may be poorly
struggling on a shoestring budget. Supporting a pilot project reached by other interventions, this argument is powerful.
to demonstrate benefits can be effective; but now, after
decades of piloting, the fundamental challenge is for inter- Public-private partnerships are also important, as develop-
national development partners and donors to join hands with ments in ICT come largely from the private sector. Dealing
the private sector to scale up some of these cases. with such partnerships will be a critical issue. Private compa-
nies need to make a profit for their goods and services, but
A second fundamental challenge is to sustain the use of safeguards need to be built into partnership arrangements so
ICT after the period of support. Costs are associated with that the farmer organizations (and ultimately their members)
change, not only equipment costs but also the costs of see long-term benefits.
maintenance, training, and continuous development. New
technology must either generate enough extra income for an A key issue for ensuring sustainability is the ownership of
organization to cover ongoing costs, or individual users must the information service after donor support ends. Most initia-
be able to envision enough tangible benefits to choose to pay tives to use ICT for agriculture have been led by donors, the
for the technology. In the developing world, and particularly private sector, or the public sector, with farmers and their
in agriculture, subject as it is to the external shocks of unpre- organizations often at the receiving end. Now it is time for
dictable weather and global market forces, the benefits of financial partners to recognize farmer organizations as stra-
ICT must be very firmly established for farmer organizations tegic partners in the design and provision of services, and to
to sustain their costs. strengthen organizations’ capacities to own the service and
carry it forward after outside support ends.
A third challenge is that viable business models for providing
services are still lacking. Most start-ups focusing on ICT for Where support is offered to farmer organizations that have
agriculture are not very business-minded. Little consideration not yet reached a level of financial maturity that would allow
is given to how ICT services expect to generate revenue; them to adopt ICT independently, it is important to design
whether (and how much) beneficiaries will be prepared interventions that give due consideration to the issue of
to pay for information; the opportunities for external con- gender. Women need to be involved at the planning stage as
tributions; and how to control costs in line with potential well as in the management of a project to ensure their proper
revenue—yet all of these questions must be addressed, both representation (box 8.1 lists obstacles to increasing women’s
for government- and donor-led projects. use of ICT). Somewhat paradoxically, women, despite having
BOX 8.1. Factors That Can Hamper Women’s Uptake of ICT
Cultural attitudes discriminate against women’s access to technology and technology education: What would a
woman farmer want with a computer?
Compared to men, rural women are less likely to own communication assets, such as a radio or mobile phone.
Rural women are less likely to allocate their income to use in public communications facilities, except when they
need to communicate with family or to arrange for income transfers.
Rural women are often reluctant to visit cyber cafés or public Internet centers, which are often owned by men and
visited by men. The café culture often excludes girls and women.
Rural women’s multiple roles and heavy domestic responsibilities limit the time they can allocate to learning and
using ICT applications, until and unless they realize the potential information benefits (and time-saving elements)
of using these technologies.
Source: World Bank 2008.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
192 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
lower social visibility and literacy than men, have more to gain with traders. Phones that connect users directly to the Web
from ICT. Women may not be able to free themselves from unleash an even wider range of possibilities. A recent survey
their traditional time-consuming commitments to household of eight emerging and developing countries found that about
and children, but armed with only a cheap mobile phone they 9 of every 10 persons owned a mobile phone and that people
can find the best prices for their crops without abandoning in Sub-Saharan African nations—including Nigeria, Senegal,
their domestic tasks. Women who might already be involved and Ghana—used mobile phones for texting and taking pho-
in the accounting function of a farmer cooperative should tos and videos at the same rate as people in other emerg-
have the opportunity to learn computer skills when these ing and developing regions (Pew Research Center 2015b).
functions become computerized. Such skills will become Mobile money is another e-service that is rapidly gathering
more valuable as computerization becomes more common, momentum; it enables individuals to make and receive pay-
giving women more employment choices. ments via mobile phone and has become commonplace in
Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania (Pew Research Center 2015a).
Consideration should also be given to age asymmetries in
access to ICT, which younger people tend to adopt more Using text messages or the Web requires a certain level of liter-
readily. This asymmetry has the potential to cause friction in acy, and not everyone owns a phone, so radio broadcasts have
traditional societies where elders are respected and turned proved even more effective than newer technologies, espe-
to for guidance. On the other hand, young people’s readiness cially when the content and timing of broadcasts are carefully
to adopt new technology can be turned to advantage and considered. Popular and informative programs transmitted at
used as a learning tool within communities. appropriate times of day—such as early evening, when outdoor
chores have been completed and women can listen, too—can
Of course, there are also the persistent challenges common bring about real improvements over a wide geographical area.
to developing countries: poor infrastructure, poverty, illiteracy,
and the draw exerted by urban centers. Mains electricity is rare It is also worth noting that ICT can be beneficial in indirect
outside major towns (although solar recharging devices and ways. Farmers who are not online or familiar with using
kiosks are starting to appear). Mobile phones are widely used any new technology may still be reached through farmer-to-
in some rural areas, but others still lack network coverage. farmer information sharing, at which farmer organizations
Maintaining computer systems can be a challenge in remote have already proved adept. Some have used digital multime-
rural areas. Technical staff trained to use computers tend to dia equipment to produce teaching materials showing better
migrate to towns, where salaries are higher. Farmers them- farming or production practices. Slide shows, animations, and
selves may not see the importance of spending money on video footage of real farmers demonstrating new methods,
ICT (bringing Internet connectivity, say) when a reliable water particularly if the farmers are from the local area, appear to
supply would bring more immediate and tangible benefits. be much more effective in getting a message across than dry
information presented by an “expert” from outside. In such
A more subtle challenge is the danger of widening the digi- cases, even though the actual users of technology are few,
tal divide, because better-educated groups are more likely to the benefits are enjoyed by a much wider group.
accept and use new technology, which further distances them
from poorer organizations. The cooperatives that are likely to be The same can be said when community radio is combined
successful are the ones that already have competent, educated with text or voice contributions via mobile phone, where the
managers and already function well as businesses (see the dis- audience as a whole is much larger than the number of par-
cussion in Topic Note 8.2). Smaller, less-well-organized groups ticipants. Regular, facilitated programs covering local issues,
will always present more of a challenge; they require more agricultural extension messages, and specific problems
intensive training and support services over a longer period. raised by farmers that can be answered by experts command
They might also need a significant period to become aware of a wide and receptive audience. The approach is inclusive as
the benefits of technology before any intervention is possible. well, and with the interactivity made possible by texts and
phone calls, the audience can influence program content.
Given these challenges, it is not surprising that the most
effective technologies are relatively cheap and simple. Taking the idea a step further, the workings of farmer orga-
Mobile phone ownership is increasing rapidly. Far more peo- nizations could be made more transparent with regular
ple own phones than have computers. Market information in programs covering recent activities and financial information.
the form of text messages can therefore reach large num- Leaders of farmer organizations could take questions from
bers of farmers and give them a stronger negotiating position listeners and viewers, improving both awareness and trust.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 193
A final point is that even proven technology can take time agricultural services for members and to offer more efficient,
to be adopted fully, and adoption rates will differ according transparent accounting of transactions. The topic note also
to complex factors in the underlying development and busi- highlights the unexpected benefits of ICT, using examples
ness environment. The rate of adoption also depends on the from India and East Africa.
route chosen, and so far it is not possible to say which will
be more successful in the longer term. For instance, dairy Topic Note 8.3 examines how ICT can give farmer orga-
cooperatives in India are already benefiting from comput- nizations and their members a stronger voice. The lack of
erization based on commercial software systems, whereas infrastructure—for electricity, mobile signals, and Internet
similar cooperatives in Kenya are at an earlier stage, pursuing connectivity—in rural areas has severely limited the means by
a different approach with open source software developed which farmer organizations can receive communications from
specially for that context. their members, but many organizations now have websites
and use email and online discussion forums to interact with
Topic Note 8.1 discusses how farmer organizations have similar organizations and the wider world. Other alternatives
used ICT to help their members find better markets and to communicate farmers’ views, locally and nationally, are
share technical information, using examples from Zambia, rural radio and telecenters. Farmer organizations can also pur-
China, and other countries. sue their advocacy role by confederating, linked by ICT. The
note provides examples of how farmer groups have used all
Topic Note 8.2 looks at new approaches in which farmer orga- of these strategies and innovative practice summaries from
nizations themselves are using ICT to provide value-adding the Caribbean Small Island States and Africa.
Topic Note 8.1: FINDING BETTER MARKETS AND
SHARING TECHNICAL INFORMATION
TRENDS AND ISSUES organizations and their members is crucial if the organiza-
The concept of farmer organizations is based on the notion of tions themselves are to flourish. Reliable flows of informa-
strength in numbers, of giving small-scale farmers the chance tion between headquarters and the grassroots should boost
to punch above their weight and become entrepreneurs in trust and membership.
their own right. The challenge, though, is to reach isolated
The challenge of improving links between farmer orga-
farmers with the information they need to sell their produce at
nizations and their grassroots members can be tackled
the best price and to grow more and better crops. Although an
using ICT, but in the poorest areas of developing coun-
organization’s headquarters can offer a business hub for mem-
tries where infrastructure is lacking and many farmers are
bers, many members live too far away to make frequent visits.
illiterate, the technology must be simple and cheap. Most
Others are effectively barred from using the facilities because
farmer organizations cannot afford to introduce new tech-
they speak a minority language or cannot read or write.
nologies, even when they can see the potential benefits,
New communication technologies are vital for overcoming so they rely on partnerships with public and private sector
these barriers. They include technologies that help farmer institutions.
organizations to maintain and expand ties with grassroots
Despite the digital poverty in rural areas, evidence suggests
members, mobile phone technology to provide services,
that farmers, both men and women, are well able to learn to
and ICT to facilitate certification and access to international
use relevant technology if they are taught in the local language
markets. A persistent issue is how farmers and farmer orga-
and can see clear benefits from new ways of doing things. For
nizations will pay for obtaining and providing technical and
instance, some of the nearly 2,000 women who work with a
market information.
shea butter association in Burkina Faso have become finan-
cially independent by learning to use ICT applications, including
TECHNOLOGY TO MAINTAIN CLOSE TIES WITH GPS and the Internet, to reach a developed-country market for
GRASSROOTS MEMBERS certified organic shea butter. Another promising idea is for a
Smallholder farmers are some of the poorest people in the farmer organization to communicate with members to create
world, and they cannot afford to join a group that does not a database on crops and productivity. Backed by reliable his-
offer tangible benefits. Creating better links between farmer toric production figures and sound projections of possible
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
194 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
future yields, the organization would be in a better position to MOBILE PHONE TECHNOLOGY DELIVERS
access credit for its members—a valuable service. MARKET INFORMATION AND OTHER SERVICES
TO MEMBERS
Many small-scale producers struggle to access up-to-date
A major service provided by farmer organizations is to
technical information, but experience in Burkina Faso and
improve members’ access to market information, and the
elsewhere shows that farmer organizations can use new
advent of mobile phones, short messaging service (SMS)
types of ICT to provide advice and services tailored to
text messaging, interactive voice response (IVR), and apps
members’ needs. For example, box 8.2 describes a project
has exponentially increased their capacity to do so (see the
in Uganda designed to test a satellite-based information
description of the Agricultural Commodity Exchange, ACE,
service for farmers that farmer organization themselves
for Africa in box 8.3). Module 9, which focuses on the use of
will ultimately own and manage. Using local languages and
ICT in marketing, discusses many aspects of these issues;
photos or moving images are effective ways of reaching
this topic note concentrates on how farmer organizations
poorly educated farmers. ICT has revolutionized the means
have used ICT to gain an advantage in marketing and infor-
of disseminating information to such an audience, although a
mation sharing.
facilitator is often needed as part of the process.
BOX 8.2. The Market-Led, User-Owned ICT4Ag-Enabled Information Service (MUIIS), Uganda
Market-Led, User-Owned ICT4Ag-Enabled Service (MUIIS) is an innovative project that harnesses the power of satellite
data to support extension and advisory services for Ugandan farmers. The project is being implemented by the Technical
Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) in partnership with the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa
(AGRA), aWhere Inc., the East Africa Farmers’ Federation (EAFF), Environmental Analysis and Remote Sensing (EARS)
Earth Environment Monitoring (EARS-E2M), the eLEAF Competence Center (eLEAF), and Mercy Corps, Uganda.
The MUIIS project runs from September 2015 to August 2018 with support from the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs
(MFA) through the Geodata for Agriculture and Water (G4AW) Facility of the Netherlands Space Office (NSO). A critical
component of the project is to build capacity in the participating farmer organizations to own the information service and
provide services to their members. When support from the project ends, MUIIS is to be owned by EAFF and its national
partners—the Uganda National Farmers Federation (UNFFE) and the Uganda Cooperative Alliance (UCA)—with revenue-
sharing agreements with other cooperation partners.
The MUIIS project is designed to provide timely, accurate, and actionable information regarding crop management and
climate risks so that participants can meet the production and postharvest demands of selected value chains in Uganda.
The project also has a proof-of-concept function, seeking to demonstrate that satellite data-enabled extension and advi-
sory services can increase farmers’ productivity by about 40 percent. MUIIS was inspired in part by the globally acclaimed
success of a farmer cooperative in India that provides “ICT4Ag” (ICT services for agriculture); it was also inspired by the
fact that several mobile platforms have been taken to market in Uganda and attracted users who are willing to pay for
agricultural and financial information services.
The information service consists of three bundled information products related to (1) weather forecasting and alerts,
(2) crop management and agronomic tips, and (3) financial services (including index-based insurance). The service is
expected to reach over 350,000 maize, soybean, and sesame farmers in central, eastern, northern, and western Uganda.
The main distribution channel for the three information products is Ensibuuko’s Mobile Banking and Information Software
(MOBIS), operating in collaboration with Mercy Corps. The information service eventually will be complemented with
the e-Granary platform (box 8.7) being developed and managed by EAFF in Kenya. The platforms will be supported by
about 200 ground agents (farmer leaders) equipped with smartphones loaded with content. Revenue streams will include
subscriptions by groups (via farmer organizations), third-party international development partners, and individual farmers;
farmer profiling; sales of data products; surveys and data collection; advertisement; quantity discount; premium finance;
and index-based insurance.
Source: CTA, http://www.cta.int/en/news/muiis-project.html.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 195
BOX 8.3. Using ICT to Access Market Information: Agricultural Commodity Exchange for Africa (ACE), Malawi
The electronic ACE Platform consist of five independent services that are interlinked and interact with each other. The
platform provides farmers, traders, food processors, and other stakeholders with access to real-time market information,
collateral financing, structured trade, and formal markets. The five systems are:
1. The trading system, which allows buyers or sellers to submit bids and offers, respectively, and sends notifica-
tions instantly through texts and email. A buyer or a seller can accept the bid/offer to generate a formal contract
on the system. The contract can then be tracked online until its settlement.
2. The Bid Volume Only (BVO), which is a reverse auction that provides a commodity price discovery tool for big
buyers such as the World Food Programme. The buyer needs only to specify the details on the commodity and
volume they would like to purchase without indicating the price. Sellers compete on the price until the auction
closes. Users can access the BVO in real time through the ACE Android App or the Internet.
3. The Warehouse Receipt System, which is a collateral management and financing tool. Storage Operators man-
age the commodity deposited into an ACE-certified warehouse and issue an electronic Warehouse Receipt
(WHR) through the ACE Android App or the Internet. The WHR can then be used as collateral to get financing
from a bank. The system keeps track of storage costs, loans, and any other lien against the WHR.
4. The ACE network of rural trade agents, who collect market prices from the major rural markets across Malawi
on a weekly basis. This information is uploaded to the Market Information System using the ACE Android App
and sent to subscribers in the form of text messages. Users can subscribe to receive prices by selecting their
preferred commodities and markets.
5. The Market Information System, which is to become an open-interface, nationwide farmer database. This
database will give the government and other stakeholders—such as development partners, farmer unions, and
NGOs—a chance to track accurate farmer statistics, including data on crops grown, household demographics,
commodities stored and traded, and national market price information. The database will also help track from
which interventions farmers and other target groups have benefited, when multiple actors work in the same
area (such as agricultural NGOs, extension services, and ACE).
Sources: Peter Pemba; http://www.aceafrica.org.
Among farmer organizations, text messaging systems, voice/ which provide options for sending bulk messages. (For more
IVR systems, and smart apps are proving their worth by detail, see Module 3.) Another example is the e-Granary
enabling farmers to compare prices in different markets and to system, developed by the East African Farmer’s Federation
take a stronger negotiating position when selling their produce. (EAFF), which helps aggregate farm produce and in the
Some farmer organizations have opted to use platforms such process helps link farmers to buyers (see box 8.7).
as Esoko and Farmerline (box 8.4 describes how Farmerline
uses voice messaging to overcome literacy barriers in sharing FrontlineSMS (Banks 2009) is software that effectively turns
agronomic and marketing information). Other farmer organi- a computer and mobile phone into a two-way, group text
zations have set up their own services. Some large organi- messaging hub that does not need Internet connectivity.
zations, such as the Zambia National Farmers Union (ZNFU) Devised to enable information to flow to election monitors,
and Indian Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), news agencies, and humanitarian NGOs, the system is prov-
have developed message systems using commercial routes ing adaptable to the needs of farmer groups.
(see box 8.5 and the Innovative Practice Summary, Zambia’s
National Farmer Organization Develops Text-Based Service”). In El Salvador, for instance, where farmers in general have
Smaller farmer groups have used free open source software no access to computer-based information services but
such as Mobile Information Platform (box 8.6 describes the where there are more than 50 mobile phones for every
efforts of a very small cooperative in Chile) or FrontlineSMS, 100 inhabitants, the Agricultural Technology Innovation
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
196 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
BOX 8.4. Farmerline’s Voice Messaging Service Empowers Female Smallholders in Northern Ghana
The Greater Rural Opportunities for Women (GROW) project, funded by Mennonite Economic Development Associates
(MEDA), seeks to assist at least 20,000 women to increase their soybean production and forge better market links to
increase their income. Since 2014, Farmerline, a technology and content provider, has been helping farmers to receive
location-specific weather alerts along with information on good agricultural practices, financial literacy, and market prices.
Farmerline uses an innovative mobile communication and data collection platform to provide this relevant, timely, loca-
tion-specific information in local languages to eight Village Savings and Loan (VSL) groups based in the communities of
Piina/Nandom, Tumu, Vamboi, Tarsor, Naabugubelle, Dorimon, Poyentanga, and Ga in Ghana’s of the Upper West Region.
Literacy in English and other local languages is a big challenge in these communities. Farmerline’s innovation is that
its platform (mergdata) supports voice messaging to deliver information. In this way, farmers have obtained valuable
help to improve production and market their produces at better prices. To ensure that these women continue to benefit
from the service, each farmer can subscribe directly to the platform and pay for a bundle of information services using
mobile money.
Source: Farmerline (www.farmerline.org).
BOX 8.5. India’s IKSL: Potential to Reach a Vast Farmer Base with Interactive Ago-Advisory Services
The Indian Farmers Fertilizer Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) has a membership exceeding 40,000 cooperative societies and
an estimated base of 50 million farmers. These farmers are not only consumers of the fertilizers produced by IFFCO’s
various plants; they are also the owners of IFFCO through the share contribution system of their respective societies.
Apart from distributing quality fertilizer to farmers through the cooperative societies, IFFCO organizes various promo-
tional activities so that farmers can acquaint themselves with the latest technology in agriculture. IFFCO undertakes a
large number of conventional agricultural extension activities to this end.
To more effectively leverage technology for the benefit of farmers, IFFCO launched a joint venture called IFFCO Kisan
Sanchar Ltd (IKSL) in 2007 in association with Star Global Resources and Bharti Airtel. IKSL’s mission is to empower
Indian farmers by converting the ubiquitous mobile phone into a powerhouse of knowledge. IKSL uses mobile phone
technology to provide timely, relevant agro-advisory services to farmers to improve their incomes, reduce cost,
improve yield, reduce wastage, enhance quality, expand their markets, and educate them on issues such as health
and the environment. Agricultural advice is provided as voice messages in local languages to ensure that even illiterate
farmers can benefit.
The IKSL model is simple. It is based on the idea of engaging with farmers by showing them how to use their mobile
phones in two new ways. The “push” approach ensures that farmers receive the latest updates and advice that are
immediately relevant to their situation. The information is provided in the form of 1-minute voice messages in the perti-
nent local language or dialect. These voice messages are provided free of charge to IKSL Green Card subscribers. The
“pull” approach provides an opportunity for farmers to call a helpline to request additional information about the data
they have been provided with or seek solutions for their specific problems. The IKSL Green SIM Card is marketed mainly
through farmer organizations, and the card’s services have been offered through this model since 2007. This example
shows how farmer organizations have managed to effectively use ICT to provide service to their members.
Source: IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL), http://www.iksl.in/.
Foundation is promoting the use of mobile phones to In Aceh, Indonesia, FrontlineSMS is used to send information to
encourage farmers to exchange information and strengthen small-scale producers. A team gathers a range of information,
market links. With 600 subscribers who pay only for the and the data are entered into a computer running the program.
information they receive, the pilot project is currently sup- The latest prices, input costs, and weather forecasts are sent
ported by the cost of calls. to groups of producers and others in the agricultural sector.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 197
BOX 8.6. Chile’s Coopeumo and the Mobile Information Project
Coopeumo, a Chilean farming cooperative with fewer than 400 members, uses text messages to help small-scale farmers
increase productivity. This area of Chile, south of Santiago, has good soils and climate, but smallholders are at a disadvan-
tage compared to larger enterprises because it is not easy for them to access specific information on markets, technol-
ogy, and weather that could boost production. The low population density and low incomes in the area make it difficult
for private service providers to offer connectivity. This “digital poverty” has been noted in Chile, where the government is
keen to promote social equity, and agricultural exports are an important part of the country’s economy.
Through the Mobile Information Project (MIP), farmers now receive research findings and news (including market prices
and weather forecasts) directly from the Internet on their mobile phones. Weather updates are particularly useful to farm-
ers at critical points such as planting and harvest. The MIP software works on the cheap phones (US$15–20) that farmers
tend to use and is effective over slow networks.
Several organizations implement MIP:
The Foundation for Agrarian Innovation (FIA, Fundación para la Innovación Agraria), is a Chilean governmen-
tal agency that works closely with agrarian communities to understand their information needs and to locate,
edit, and/or create appropriate content to meet those needs (e.g., resulting in the creation of micro weather
stations). FIA is therefore a key partner responsible for sending a content stream of locally relevant information.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is responsible for financial support
and provides educational content.
Coopeumo, a cooperative based in the town of Peumo, is responsible for local implementation of the project
among cooperative members.
Entel PCS, a Chilean telecommunications company, is helping support the project with the technological platform,
telephony equipment, and competitive pricing for mass text messaging.
The national Chilean newspapers El Mostrador and El Mercurio supply news feeds, among which users can
choose preferred news streams.
Sources: Authors; Cagley 2010; Datadyne (http://datadyne.org/programs/mip/).
BOX 8.7. The e-Granary Platform of the Eastern Africa Farmers Federation
The Eastern Africa Farmers Federation (EAFF) has a new platform, e-Granary, that seeks to dramatically improve the way
farmers do business in Uganda and Eastern Africa as a whole. EAFF members are being registered onto the system.
The EAFF chief executive officer (CEO), Stephen Muchiri, has noted that the main idea behind e-Granary is to position
farmers in the market for the purposes of obtaining better prices or bigger market shares using the mobile platform to
help aggregate production from farmers.
The system is easy to use. Farmers interact with the platform, which has a registration component and can therefore
identify a farmer by location, farmer group, gender, age, and commodity. The platform allows farmers to choose between
commodities—about five—and they are able to key in information on planting and harvest.
The e-Granary system was developed as a result of two meetings organized by the Technical Centre for Agricultural and
Rural Cooperation (CTA) in 2013 (Rwanda) and 2014 (the Netherlands). These meetings involved two farmer organizations—
EAFF and the Indian Fertilizer Farmers’ Co-operative (IFFCO). At the Rwanda meeting, IFFCO made a presentation on a
very successful mobile and Web-based aggregation platform, which captured the interest of EAFF because it was already
seeking a platform to help farmers aggregate produce and, in the process, link farmers and trade associations to national
and regional buyers through the use of ICT.
Source: http://www.eaffu.org/egranary.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
198 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
Farmers say they like to have a base price on which to start Services for sending and receiving cash via mobile phone—
negotiations with buyers. They also report that as they learn such as M-PESA, which has 13.9 million active customers per
the range of price fluctuations for each product, they are better day in Kenya (see Safaricom 2015)—make it easier for farmer
able to choose which crops to grow. organizations to provide other services, such as selling inputs
and arranging more convenient payments for produce. For
An even more low-tech approach is used by the First Mile example, in 2015 Zambia launched a project1 in which partici-
Project in Tanzania (IFAD n.d.). The project supports a group of pating farmers register to receive prepaid mobile phone
“market spies” to gather market intelligence and share it with e-vouchers worth about US$50 to purchase inputs from agro-
farmers (“Bahati Tweve: The Honest ‘Middleman’ Brokering dealers2 (see Module 9). Farmer organizations may be able to
Deals,” New Agriculturalist 2008). This intervention is based develop similar arrangements with input suppliers.12
simply on phone conversations, text messages, face-to-face
meetings, and village notice boards, but it has helped build Technology for International Certification and Markets
market chains and put farmers in a stronger position when Farmer organizations are using ICT not only to provide local
selling their produce. After support from project funding and national market information to members but also to
comes to an end, the spies aim to cover their costs by charg- increase their international reach. The lure of lucrative inter-
ing a commission to link buyers with producers. Other pos- national markets, such as those for organic or Fair Trade prod-
sible ways to generate revenue might be to charge a small fee ucts, can be a strong motivation for farmer organizations to
for advertising on information boards and for storing produce. master ICT in the first place. Anecdotal evidence from some
organizations shows that they can reach this ambitious goal
Mobile market information has a number of benefits. At the
even if their members have little formal schooling (image 8.1).
very least, a smallholder armed with information on cur-
rent prices has a better chance of negotiating a good deal Many women belonging to the Song-taabaYalgré Association,
for his or her produce with passing traders. Smallholders a shea butter trading group in Burkina Faso, never attended
also value and use information on the price of inputs from school but confidently use ICT tools and the Internet (Soré n.d.).
different sources and on the whereabouts of the nearest The group has had a French-language website since 20043 and
buying center. Although household responsibilities keep handles 90 percent of its sales through the Internet, sending
many women close to home, if they can discover the best shea butter products to Europe, Canada, and the United States.3
markets for their produce via a text messaging service, they
can maximize their income. The website describes the background of the producer group
and lists the various products formulated using shea butter
as well as the chemical ingredients
IMAGE 8.1. Women’s Cooperative Processing Shea Butter in Ghana
of these products. Largely through
their website, the women have
strengthened their position in the
marketplace. As Noelie Ndembe,
the head of MIPROKA (the national
shea information and promotion
center), has said, “To be on the Net
is to be seen everywhere in the
world” (quoted by Soré 2008).
1 ITWeb Africa, “Zambia: Govt Launches
e-Voucher System for Farmers,” http://
www .itwebafrica.com/enterprise
-solutions/692 -zambia/235317-zambia
-govt-launches-e-voucher-system-for
-farmers.
2 The scheme is a joint venture between
the Zambian government and FAO,
funded by various donors.
Source: Jonathan Ernst, World Bank. 3 http://www.songtaaba.org.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 199
A particular selling point for this shea butter (a sought-after text message can make it a challenge to provide certain kinds
ingredient for beauty products) is its certification under of content. Newer versions of software such as FrontlineSMS,
Bio-Ecocert and Bio-NOP, which guarantee that a product IKSL, and mergdata4 have become platforms for multimedia
is 100 percent natural and has been manufactured under communication by incorporating audiovisual capabilities.
conditions that respect human and environmental health. Other software and hardware designers are also developing
GPS technology has been essential for recording the source products that are more intuitive to use and employ audio and
of the shea fruit and thus assuring distant customers that video. One benefit of using a common, open source platform
the certification is genuine. like FrontlineSMS is that users can easily share experiences,
which in turn should lead to improvements.
Website development and related training in the technol-
ogy were done in partnership with MIPROKA. Two village Studies of a range of agricultural market information systems
telecenters were set up, each with several computers linked in Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that disseminating information
to the Internet, a scanner, a photocopier, and a telephone. by mobile phone creates interactivity between the system
Technical training had two elements: (1) how to produce and its users.5 Where users choose the information of inter-
shea butter to the exacting purity and cleanliness standards est to them, a wider range of information can be offered
demanded of an export product; and (2) how to use ICT tools, without inundating users with valueless data.
including GPS and computers. Other facets of the training It is worth pointing out that mobile phone communication
included better ways of marketing the product, as well as continues to be an effective way of sharing market prices.
environmental and energy awareness. Several studies corroborate the view that mobile phone cov-
erage can improve market efficiency (see Module 9).
Moré, the local language, has been used throughout, and the
trade group produces an in-house bulletin that also appears The question of how information systems that rely on mobile
in Moré. The bulletin gives information on the group’s activi- phones can pay for themselves may be finding some innova-
ties and on the production of organic shea butter. tive answers. Prospective solutions include pay-per-use and
subscription models, leveraging the adoption of mobile money
Despite some literacy barriers, many women have learned systems for payment. These models are still in the early
to use GPS equipment to map their fields and record each stages of development, however, and the evidence of farm-
tree from which they harvest shea fruit. A small group was ers’ readiness or ability to pay for information services remains
initially taught by an expert from Europe, but they can now scant. In India, early results from research attempting to
train other village women in the GPS and mapping skills that quantify the impact on farm profitability of a subscriber-based,
are vital for certification. As an incentive to capture all rel- local-language information service suggest that farmers can-
evant GPS data each time, the women earn a small bonus if not afford it.6 Farmers say they cannot pay, despite claiming
they do it without mistakes. Careful recordkeeping and good to have negotiated better prices for their crops, spent less
production techniques allow the women to sell their “bio” on inputs, and enjoyed overall better income. The package
shea butter at more than twice the price of uncertified shea costs about US$1.50 per month, for which the subscriber gets
butter. Even the raw shea fruit is worth more if it is certified 75–100 texts. Each subscriber shared the information with
as coming from approved fields. about seven other people. Only about half of the subscribers
planned to renew their package. Almost all of those who had
Lessons Learned
not bought the service said that cost was the reason.
Although ICT can certainly improve connections between
farmer organizations and their members, farmer organiza- In Zambia, the ZNFU admits that although there is huge
tions are unlikely to be early adopters of this technology. demand for its text-based market information system (see
Organizations of small-scale producers in particular are likely “Zambia’s National Farmer Organization Develops Text-Based
to need support to try new systems and learn how to make Service”), the system does not yet pay for itself and cannot
them cost-effective. It is worth remembering that farmers yet be expanded. One possible revenue-raising mechanism
can be reached by channels other than ICT; prices can be
published in newspapers, broadcast on the radio, or simply
chalked on boards in markets or farm supply shops. 4 See http://farmerline.org.
5 Agricultural Market Information Systems in Africa: Renewal and
Impact.” Unpublished summary of workshop held March 29–31,
Text messaging systems require a level of literacy that is often 2010, Montpellier, CIRAD—UMR MOISA.
rare in remote rural areas, and the limit of 160 characters per 6 Grahame Dixie, World Bank, personal communication.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
20 0 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
for ZNFU and similar schemes might involve transportation countries, and any proposal to set up a messaging service
companies. Recognizing that after trucks make a delivery it using mobile phones must comply with prevailing rules.
is inefficient for them to return empty, truck owners might When ZNFU was setting up its market information system,
be willing to pay for information to find return loads. Other the fact that Zambia had not finalized its ICT policy was
revenue-raising possibilities might include charging for arbi- regarded as slowing development of the ICT industry.7
trage or brokerage services.
In many African countries, providers of new mobile services
The experience in Chile (box 8.6) suggests that disseminat- must use intermediaries to get a short code for customers to
ing information via simple mobile phones is a good way to dial, and many governments see phone companies as sources
reach farmers in areas where Internet facilities are unlikely of easy tax revenue. Competition and the development of
to be provided in the near future. Since the pilot project new infrastructure are often limited by restricting licenses to
closed, Coopeumo has taken on the responsibility and costs new operators (see Module 3). Mobile communications are
of creating and sending the text messages. Farmers do not thus more expensive in Africa than they need to be.8
pay directly—the charges are included in the membership
Kenya is a notable exception. Its good regulatory environ-
fees they pay to the cooperative. Refinements to the sys-
ment has led to competition and reduced the cost of mobile
tem should make it easier to provide relevant content to
phone tariffs (World Bank 2010). See box 8.8 for additional
each individual. The goal is to tailor the content automatically
considerations for designing effective ICT interventions for
(a human editor would slow the service).
farmers’ organizations.
A concluding lesson is that farmer organizations and their
partners may find it challenging to use ICT in the absence 7 Unpublished summary of the meeting of the Agricultural Thematic
of a supportive regulatory framework for the technology. Group (part of the e-Brain Forum of Zambia), “e-Agricultural
Marketing—What Are the Issues?” on October 27, 2006 in Lusaka.
Mobile phone networks are subject to varying degrees of 8 The Economist, “Not Just Talk,” http://www.economist.com/node
bureaucracy, taxation, and government regulation in different /18008202.
BOX 8.8. A Checklist of Considerations for Designing an Effective, Sustainable, ICT-Based Project to Support
Farmer Organizations
What are the levels of literacy, mobile phone ownership, and willingness of farmer organization members to
embrace new technology? Many smallholders cannot afford phones, do not know about texting or voicemail,
or cannot punch a message into a phone keypad.
How well can farmers understand market information and use it to their advantage?
What is the role of smallholder farmers’ organizations in this context? What capacity is required for them
to be effective?
How will the most vulnerable members of the organization be included? Some people might be too poor to pay
for information or might live outside the range of mobile phone coverage. Women may be less likely to have
access to a phone.
What information is best disseminated using which media—text, interactive voice response (IVR) / Voice, video
ICT-enhanced training workshops?
Do different categories of farmers need different information? Large-scale farmers have different interests than
smallholders, but both groups may belong to the same organization.
Are there transportation links to the different markets? Information is of no use unless farmers can get their crops
to the market of their choice.
Can farmers store crops safely and without spoilage after harvest? Otherwise they are in no position to delay sell-
ing until prices are optimal. Market price information has little value here, so improved drying and storage facilities
might need to go hand in hand with a market information system.
(continued)
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 201
BOX 8.8. continued
What sources of information do farmers need? Sources are likely to include research bodies, government exten-
sion services, news media, the Internet itself, other farmers, other farmer organizations, and private seed or input
supply companies.
How should information be sorted to be most useful for the recipient? Text messages have a 160-character limit,
so it is a challenge to prioritize messages.
Who will be responsible for selecting and sorting information, and how can quality control be maintained?
How will the costs of the service be covered?
What is the level of cooperation offered by mobile phone companies? How well might rival companies work together?
What is the appropriate software? Is free, open source software such as FrontlineSMS the way forward?
Source: Authors.
with instructions and relevant codes and trains them to use
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Zambia’s National Farmer Organization Develops the system. Farmers wanting to know the price of a particular
a Text-Based Service product simply type the code into a text message and send
ZNFU’s messaging system is an easy-to-use service that it to the specified number. The system sends back another
announces prices via text to mobile phones and the Web.9 text with the latest prices and the codes for the traders offer-
ZNFU introduced the system with support from the main ing those prices. The farmer chooses a trader and sends
mobile phone network provider in Zambia, several other local the code in a second text to the system, which replies with
organizations, many farming cooperatives, the agribusiness the trader’s full name, phone number, business address, and
chamber, and buyers and sellers. The mobile phone network directions. The farmer can then contact the trader directly.
provider organized the bulk messaging process to deliver the
To make the information available to farmers without mobile
information to as many mobile phones as possible, and it
phones and in areas lacking network coverage, ZNFU trains
offered several hundred half-price mobile phones to farmers.
at least one farmer in every district to act as a contact farmer.
The Smallholder Enterprise and Marketing Program gave
Contact farmers, based in district offices, publish the com-
additional funding and technical support.
modity price and trader information that they get either via text
Starting with details of just 6 commodities in 2006, the (SMS) or from the website and give it to extension officers.
system now deals with 14 commodities and sends 1,000 Every week the extension officers display the prices and details
messages each month. Pamela Mulozi, the market/trade of interested traders on posters in local information centers.
information administrator at ZNFU’s head office in Lusaka,
reported “a significant change in how farmers and traders are So far the system seems successful and popular with farmers.
dealing with each other” and observed that traders “are now For instance, Grace, a farmer involved with the scheme, said,
taking the farmers much more seriously as trading partners” “The SMS system makes everything so much easier. You can
(Goudappel 2009). check the market on your phone to find the 10 best prices in
the district or even in another district if that works out better
More than 200 buyers use the system, giving farmers a wider for the transport cost” (Goudappel 2009). Farmers coordinate
set of options for selling their produce. Another measure of their delivery times and organize a single location for traders
success is the fact that food-processing businesses, govern- to pick up goods in bulk, saving many individual farmers from
ment ministries, and banks regularly use the system to pro- traveling to the Lusaka market.
vide broader support to the country’s agricultural sector. Each
commodity, trader, and district has a code. ZNFU supplies This arrangement saves money and gives farmers more time
everyone using the system with a small information card to work on the farm. Grace said, “Although we still pay for
the costs of the SMS messages, we end up spending only
5,000 kwacha” (just over US$1), adding, “It’s a big saving but
9 This summary is based on Goudappel (2009) and personal com-
munication with Pamela Mulozi, market/trade information admin- it also reduces a lot of the risk involved with travelling to the
istrator, ZNFU. city every time” (Goudappel 2009).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
202 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
Despite this initial success, which means that ZNFU would
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
like to extend the trading system to more farmers, any imme- The Sounong Search Engine for Farmer
diate expansion is limited by the lack of funding. Hamusimbi Organizations in China
Coillard of ZNFU observed, “We still have to work out how
A good example of how ICT enhances farmer organiza-
the system will pay for itself.... If we can use the SMS sys-
tions’ access to knowledge comes from a project in China,
tem to link up farmers and other small traders to the trucking
where a priority is to make ICT accessible and useful for
companies, then both sides would benefit and we would
farmers. The project—Construction and Popularization
gain more subscribers to the scheme” (Goudappel 2009). If
of Agriculture Info-Service System—introduced in Anhui
another network operator, MTN, joins the scheme, coverage
Province, has three main features: an Internet portal, infor-
will reach more communities.
mation assistants, and information dissemination models.
ZNFU E-extension is an addition to the existing ZNFU 4455 It targets specialized farmers’ cooperatives, a primary
SMS price information system, which has been operating force for agricultural development in China. The project is
for over eight years. The ZNFU E-extension service provides funded by the World Bank and implemented by the Hefei
farmers with up-to date market price information for 17 agri- Institute of Physical Sciences of the Chinese Academy of
cultural commodities. It is meant to tackle key information and Sciences.10
extension constraints by making practical agricultural informa-
The Institute of Intelligent Machines developed an Internet
tion available to the farmer. The service uses Unstructured
search engine called SOUNONG to aggregate information
Supplementary Service Data (USSD) and can be accessed via
and provide it to farmers’ cooperatives in a meaningful
mobile phone by dialing a dedicated short code, *880#. It is
manner (figure 8.1). SOUNONG coordinates with China’s
the Union’s approach to embracing new types of ICT that will
governmental agricultural websites, which maintain high
bring about new, catalytic, and cost-effective development of
user rates and have more authority to promote information.
agribusiness based on the provision of information.
This multilateral collaboration has helped raise the visibility of
The E-extension system interacts with users by presenting SOUNONG and its activities and to prevent overlap.
menus from which the user selects an option to receive spe-
SOUNONG monitors over 7,000 websites per day, includ-
cific types of agricultural extension information and tips. In
ing nearly all of China’s agricultural data. These sites contain
this way farmers can obtain agricultural information relevant to
information on prices of wholesale farm products, prices in
their location without having to travel or search for it. Farmers
9,000+ markets, and prices for 20,000 types of agricultural
can also benefit from vital information about crop field prac-
products. Information is also retrieved from a number of data-
tices and on identifying, preventing, or treating crop-specific
bases, including those on climate, crop species, and pest and
diseases and pests. Tips on livestock production and informa-
disease diagnostics.
tion on livestock diseases that require particular vigilance may
also be obtained from the extension platform. Electronically generating a short list of agricultural informa-
tion from this array of websites reduces the time spent col-
The information menu does not end there. Farmers can also
lecting it manually. In 2009, 1,276 households were using the
obtain weather data and alerts on disease outbreaks, theft, new
site—and by 2010, that figure had almost doubled.
legislation, and business opportunities. The ZNFU E-extension
system also makes contact information available for government Once the website was launched, project leaders selected
extension staff, ZNFU field staff, and others with an important 38 farmer organizations to act as partners. The organizations
role in the agricultural sector (such as agro-dealers and other were well established and had good management, which
input suppliers), allowing groups of small-scale farmers to locate suggests that it may be critical for farmer groups to meet
and contact service providers in their area. With recent develop- certain criteria to become involved in ICT for agricultural
ments in the mobile phone industry in Zambia, cell phone use development.
by small-scale farmers is continually expanding. The opportunity
to use mobile phones as a platform to provide extension infor- A total of 76 information assistants, who are responsible
mation to facilitate direct communication between extension for collecting and disseminating information, as well as 541
service providers and farmers remains immense. farmer households, were trained to use computers to search,
For additional information: www.znfu.org.zm; www.farmprices 10 Information gathered from SOUNONG 2010, Institute of
.co.zm. Intelligent Medicines.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 203
FIGURE 8.1. Conceptual Technological Framework for the SOUNONG Search Engine
Information
access terminal:
Different 1. Computer
information services 2. Mobile Farmers
Web 3. Information
Network machine
resources information is Agriculture
automatically vertical Professional
collected by search cooperative
soft robots engine agency of
farmers
Soft robots Agricultural
Information
enterprises
Data service
warehouse platform
(7,900)
Agriculture Household
information agriculture
processing specializations
Agriculture
websites (9,500)
Source: Adapted from SOUNONG 2010, Institute of Intelligent Machines.
browse, download, and disseminate information through the IMAGE 8.2. ICT Programs Like SOUNONG Help
Internet. As the project grew, over 1,000 members of coop- Cooperatives Identify Livestock Disease
eratives received ICT training (figure 8.1).
Members of farmer organizations can access informa-
tion from the SOUNONG site through computers, mobile
phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and PDAs plus
mobile phones. Depending on network connections, regional
characteristics, and farm conditions, farmers can select the
appropriate option for their local network capacities and skill
level. All of the options provide low-cost, easy access to the
SOUNONG site. For members who may not have access to
computers, mobile phones, or PDAs, cooperatives can also
print information and recommended actions.
Source: Steve Harris, World Bank.
Surveys found the mobile phone option to be popular as a number of their pigs had high fevers. The information assis-
result of its timeliness and convenience. The mobile phone tant released the information onto SOUNONG. Veterinary
option is consumer friendly—farmers have both “push” and experts diagnosed fatal swine high-fever syndrome and
“pull” alternatives to obtain information. The computer option provided control methods that prevented potential losses of
was also popular because users could browse and select spe- 1,000,000 yuan (Y) for the farmer group.
cific information. Network coverage is not a problem in rural
Anhui Province, but Internet service remains more expensive TaihiJinqiao extended sales of their local chicken breeds
than mobile phones, and Internet users must become adept to poultry markets like Nanchang and Wuhan by using the
at identifying irrelevant or misleading information. SOUNONG website. Smaller cooperatives producing pork
have used SOUNONG to reach major markets like Shanghai.
Success stories are common, including success in livestock
disease identification and control (image 8.4). For instance, in SOUNONG attracted additional cooperatives, entrepreneurs,
2010, farmers in TaihiJinqiao Cooperative recognized that a and farmer households and led to the development of more
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
204 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
specialized services for farmer organizations. Websites were Fairtrade cocoa beans.12 This project is part of a larger project
developed to provide information for specific producer orga- with the primary goal of improving the well-being of children
nizations; for example, the Agriculture Committee in Anhui and young people from three Fairtrade-certified cooperatives
Province formed an Anhui Farmers’ Specified Cooperative in Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana. One of the project’s desired out-
website.11 The Taihi County Government gave Y 24,000 comes is an improvement in the ICT systems used by the
to the Jinqiao Cooperative to generate an online platform cooperatives.
enabling more discussion and real-time information sharing
between members. Voluntary Certification Programs and
Sustainable Agriculture
The Anhui Fengyuan Agriculture Science and Technology In recent years, sustainable cocoa has taken off in West Africa.
Co. Ltd. was selected to monitor and evaluate the project Dozens of cooperatives have been certified as complying with
and its development over time. The company continuously Fairtrade or sustainability practices (such as UTZ Certified and
examines the practicality, effectiveness, degree of user Rainforest Alliance). These cooperatives are often federations
satisfaction, and public welfare (the four main indicators) of smaller organizations. They can have thousands of mem-
of the Construction and Popularization of Agriculture Info- bers, many living in very remote rural areas.
Service System. A key lesson is that farmers require train-
ing to use the information they access appropriately. Those After more than a decade of programs and projects to imple-
involved in the project note the challenges associated with ment sustainability standards, certain questions are being
introducing ideas and technologies that have major learning raised about their impact. What have they achieved? How
curves for users. did they improve the livelihoods of farmers and their fami-
lies? What is the added value of these programs for farmers,
who must spend more than five years becoming certified?
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Field Data Collection Tool for Certified Farmer One conclusion of these discussions was that improved
Groups in Sustainable Agriculture collection and management of data on certified farmer
cooperatives would help to meet the need for “big data” for
Tony’s—a Dutch manufacturer producing certified Fairtrade
assessing impact.
Chocolonely chocolate bars—became popular in the
Netherlands because of a successful television program about Pilots
child and forced labor in cocoa production in West Africa. Before rolling out the project to the entire group of
Through its “Crazy about chocolate, serious about people” cooperatives—comprising about 12,000 cocoa farmers—the
mission, Tony’s aims to achieve a 100 percent slave-free project started with two pilot groups of 500–600 farmers, one
chocolate industry. in Côte d’Ivoire and one in Ghana. With the lessons learned
from these two pilots, the project was to be extended to all
Because this goal is ambitious, and because Tony’s had to
farmers of both cooperatives in early 2016. It was expected
be able to make accurate claims about its products, the
that the project would reach almost 20,000 children in the
company needed to monitor progress toward reaching its
cocoa-growing regions of both countries.
objective. The company recognized that the key to measur-
ing improved conditions on cocoa farms and in cocoa farming For this specific project, Tony’s used AuditAide,13 a data
communities was for farmer cooperatives to collect timely, collection and management solution specifically designed
accurate field data on a series of development and sustain- for producer organizations that engage in group certifica-
ability indicators. And the key to collecting those data was to tion of larger farmer groups. AuditAide includes data col-
strengthen and, where needed, implement the use of ICT lection tools, data processing and analysis software, a
tools by cocoa cooperatives. custom-built management information system (MIS) for
membership-based organizations, and training materials
In collaboration with the Max Havelaar foundation (Fairtrade
for farmers and field staff to learn the skills to scale up the
Netherlands) and with support from the Dutch Postcode
IT capabilities of cooperatives in data collection and data
Lottery, Tony’s initiated a project in 2014 to improve the
management.
use of ICT by the farmer cooperatives that produced and sup-
plied the company with certified sustainably produced and
12 www.tonyschocolonely.com.
11 http://www.ahhzs.com. 13 www.audit-aide.com.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 205
Benefits and Impact/Experience to Date farmers were disqualified when the mobile app was used,
To date, the project has achieved some noteworthy results. whereas in previous years the percentage was much higher.
An important achievement is that the pilot cooperatives, as
A fourth achievement is that AuditAide made it possible
part of their certification programs, improved their Internal
to automate the most time-consuming and crucial admin-
Management Systems (IMS) by developing a well-considered
istrative processes within the certification programs. For
data collection system and materials to train farmers to
example, the software contains a scoring and sanctioning
comply with Fairtrade, Rainforest Alliance, and UTZ Certified
module for automated assessments of internal inspection
standards. The most important training tool was an Internal
forms. Internal inspections are carried out annually because
Standard combining the three different standards into one
the cooperatives are externally audited once or twice a year
compact, easily understood standard. The Internal Standard
to assess compliance with the respective standards. Internal
also contained illustrations for each criterion to make sure
Inspections assess farmers’ performance based on the crite-
that illiterate farmers were included. In the AuditAide meth-
ria in the Internal Standard. The software also automates the
odology, each criterion in the Internal Standard refers to a
creation of corrective action letters to farmers, previously a
question in the internal inspection form that helps to monitor
time-consuming exercise. Another important feature of the
compliance with standards. Each of the answers that can be
software is the reporting module, which performs the spe-
chosen reflects a possible scenario in the field. The scenarios
cific data analyses and generates the reports required by the
were determined jointly by the project partners.
IMS of a certification program.
A second important achievement was to implement Poimapper,
A fifth achievement was to train the office staff in the IT skills
a mobile data collection tool, and train field staff to use it.14
needed to execute and continue the project.
Poimapper was selected for several reasons. Its mobile client
and online portal are easy to use. The mobile application pro-
Finally, the MIS at the cooperative level was developed
vides several forms to collect accurate field data instantly. The
further. The MIS is important to manage all data, such as
project preferred a mobile application, because it was impor-
member data, sales, distribution of agro-chemicals, and
tant to identify issues quickly on the ground, such as the use
inspection data. The cooperative in Côte d’Ivoire had an MIS
of child or forced labor or unapproved agro-chemicals. After
that was not fully functional (it lacked some of the required
the data are collected, the data in the portal are cleaned up and
data fields and reports for the project). The cooperative in
imported into AuditAide for further reporting at the IMS level.
Ghana had no MIS. Tony’s decided to custom-design an MIS
The Poimapper reporting module made it possible to analyze
that they and the Ghana cooperative could use so they would
responses to the individual questions and monitor incoming
not have to incur an additional cost. The Côte d’Ivoire coop-
data during the data collection phase itself. The training focused
erative received funding to further develop their MIS to make
not only on how to use the Poimapper mobile client but also
sure it would be fully functional.
on the interpersonal and communication skills that field staff
needed to collect reliable data (in fact, these skills appeared
Lessons Learned and Issues for Wider Application
very useful and contributed to the reliability of the data).
The pilot projects proved successful. They collected, pro-
A third achievement was that Poimapper made it possible cessed, and analyzed all of the required data, and all farmers
to collect more accurate information. A common problem in and field staff were trained in the desired skills and knowledge.
collecting field data is to verify that staff actually make field Lessons and issues to consider for the future include:
visits and do not provide spurious information on the forms. Field staff were less familiar with smartphones than
Poimapper’s GPS-tracking function made it possible to con- expected. It took the project nearly an additional week
firm that field staff were visiting the farms and communities for field staff to become sufficiently familiar with the
where they were supposed to collect information. A consid- phones and the application to work with them. Most
erable advantage of using the mobile data collection tool as of these men did not use smartphones themselves,
opposed to paper data collection is that most questions in and the whole concept was new to them. Once they
the mobile data collection forms are mandatory, and field understood how to use the application, the inspection
staff had to provide an answer. With the paper forms, the and other field data were collected without delay.
level of non-response was high. Consequently, only a few Because there is no Internet connectivity in the com-
munities, the field staff had to go to the nearest town,
14 www.poimapper.com. once a week, to upload the filled forms to the portal.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
206 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
Extra power banks had to be bought, because there to the training materials, containing only the illustra-
was no electricity in many areas, and field staff could tions of the booklet. Each group of farmers would
not always charge the phones. receive one printed Internal Standard, and each
It was expensive to print the Internal Standards for farmer received the poster to hang up at home
each farmer. The project therefore added a poster or take with them to the farm.
Topic Note 8.2: DAIRY COOPERATIVES LEAD
THE WAY WITH COMPUTERIZED
SYSTEMS TO IMPROVE ACCOUNTING,
ADMINISTRATION, AND GOVERNANCE
TRENDS AND ISSUES Information for control and management decisions
Computer systems have the potential to vastly improve the is available instantly. Inventory control improves, and
efficiency, governance, and accountability of farmer organiza- information becomes available in real time.
tions. Dairy cooperatives are considered the type of organi- Relations between members and management can
zation most likely to see clear benefits from computerized be improved. Better services to members flow from
accounting systems, simply because of their numerous more efficient administration. New and improved
members and large volume of daily transactions. Even smaller services to members mean that they are prepared
cooperatives benefit from computerizing their accounts, to invest more in the society.
which leads to greater efficiency and transparency. Having The cooperative has more options for communication
financial and membership information always at hand helps and information sharing. There may be opportunities
management make better decisions, and using software to to communicate beyond the organization, using email,
present financial information in graphical or diagrammatic newsletters, websites, and information networks.
form can make the information easier to understand. Attention is paid to develop a sustainable business
model that ensures co-creation and ownership of the
It is well known that small companies generally regard
services needed by farmers
accounting as a “backroom” function, and consequently it
Data are available to guide policy decisions.
attracts little management interest or company investment.
Management counts the cash in the till and requires no other Capacity is built within the organization as staff members learn
financial information. Accounting is done only because the new skills. The general lessons from these efforts are dis-
government requires accounts for taxation. Yet when “other cussed next, followed by three innovative practice summaries.
people’s money” is involved in a business (like a coopera- Two summaries describe contrasting approaches to the devel-
tive), accounting becomes the only means to explain what opment of computerized accounting systems for cooperatives
happened with the money, to prove that transactions with in India (dairy) and Kenya (dairy and coffee). The third shows
members and clients are straightforward, and to create the how computers brought in for other purposes improved admin-
trust that enables a cooperative to function. istrative efficiency in a women’s shea butter cooperative in Mali.
Farmer organizations and cooperatives in the developing
LESSONS LEARNED
world are turning to computerized management systems,
despite their cost and the challenges posed by infrastructure, The evidence to date suggests that computer systems can
for some or all of the following reasons: be adopted successfully to improve accounting, administra-
Better accounting and management increase tion, and governance, not only in cooperatives for staple
efficiency, save time, and reduce mistakes. The commodities (such as milk) but also in cooperatives produc-
more logical approach demanded by computeriza- ing export commodities (such as coffee and shea butter), and
tion means that procedures have to be improved, in peri-urban as well as remote rural areas. People with very
which leads to better overall administration. low levels of literacy can benefit from and learn to use the
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 207
IMAGE 8.3. Many Enablers Are Needed to Ensure calculations are easily done, and the balance sheet is automati-
Cooperatives Function cally updated. The various options for graphic display—using
colored charts, for instance—make it easier for management
and cooperative members to understand financial information.
In dairy systems, daily payment slips are printed for farmers
and can be modified to include other pertinent information,
such as reminders to inoculate cattle. When detailed milk
records are kept for each farmer, patterns in production can
be discerned. Seasonal variations in quantity and fat content
can be predicted, which are useful for the dairy, veterinary
services, and cattle feed companies alike.
The quality of infrastructure and the resources available to
maintain it are challenging with all ICT tools. Computers
need an electricity supply with backup generators and unin-
terrupted power supply equipment to cope with failures if
they are common (generators will add to the overall cost of
installing a computer system). Power can be provided by
Source: Ray Wiltin, World Bank. solar panels where the climate is suitable.
The choice of technology also depends on whether a range of
systems, if they are designed with care and deliver tangible computer and training experts can be found within a reasonable
benefits (image 8.3). distance of the cooperative’s offices and are able and willing to
travel to the site. If a solar-powered computer system is set up
Even so, the danger of widening the digital divide persists. The in a remote area, for example, initial training and routine main-
best potential clients for computerization are successful and rel- tenance will almost certainly be done by staff from elsewhere.
atively rich organizations with business-minded management, The cooperative’s administrative personnel must be confident
situated near a big city. Poor cooperatives find it challenging to that any subsequent problems will be dealt with speedily. This
purchase computers, and distant ones do not have electricity. kind of response is unlikely if support services are sparse or do
not exist, or if the surrounding road network is poor.
Computerization has clear potential to make the governance
of cooperatives more efficient, transparent, and fair. Even if Although there are real benefits for a farmer organization to
they do not necessarily understand the technology, coop- have a simple computerized member and MIS, the organiza-
erative members can see that the new systems work well. tion can achieve far more if it also has Internet connectivity.
In dairy cooperatives, for example, computerized systems Dial-up connections are possible where telephone land lines
facilitate timely payments to farmers for their milk, together are available. Mobile phone coverage is expanding, and
with clear records of all transactions (milk supplied and another alternative is to use a small, plug-in wireless adapter
inputs bought). Where there is an automated milk collection to connect to the Internet. Neither option is as fast as a broad-
system, it is operated by personnel of the cooperative, who band connection, and both are subject to lapses in service.
are generally also farmers and members of the society. Milk
Supportive government policy and willingness on the part
is always weighed and tested, with few errors, and the data
of government organizations to join partnerships are impor-
are displayed clearly on the testing equipment. The opera-
tant enablers. For example, India’s National Cooperative
tion is quick and transparent. Farmers no longer worry that
Development Corporation supports computer projects in
figures might be adjusted by unscrupulous staff.
the cooperative sector, including hardware, site prepara-
Benefits to the cooperative societies are many, largely tion, system and application software, and training. It has
because computerized accounting is faster and more reliable. encouraged cooperatives from the primary level to the state
Computerized accounts are much quicker to audit and may and national levels to install computers and evolve effective
even be displayed online for greater transparency. Cooperatives MISs. Lower-level (district and primary) cooperatives must
need to employ fewer clerks, and daily accounts are available have a threshold turnover of rupees (Rs) 1 crore (roughly
immediately at each milk collection center. Profit and loss US$225,000) to qualify for assistance and must be financially
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
208 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
sound and viable. This stipulation raises the issue touched on For long-term sustainability, the private sector probably
before—that only the more organized cooperatives qualify should be involved in computerization projects. Success
for assistance, thereby widening the digital divide. may thus depend to an extent on the willingness of entre-
preneurs to risk capital. In India, the inventors of milk-testing
Indirect government support can come from the educational equipment were prepared to lend it out for free so that dairy
system, because skilled people are needed to develop and cooperatives could see the benefits. They also had the fore-
maintain computer systems. For example, among Kenya’s sight to predict that illiterate farmers would accept the sys-
roughly 30,000 university graduates in 2008, only about 5,000 tem and use it confidently. Success might also depend on
were considered suitable for employment in the ICT industry creating a critical mass of users so that a business “ecosys-
(World Bank 2010). This situation makes it all the more impor- tem” can develop. This effort would include software devel-
tant for Kenya’s Cooperative College to move forward with opment, support, marketing, and other network effects.
plans to train students in the CoopWorks software.
Finally, aside from modernizing their management informa-
The independent nature of open source software allows users tion tools, cooperatives need to attract good management
to tailor it to their needs, and it can be a form of insurance against staff if they are to compete in the marketplace. A cooperative
power issues—no single individual or group can control it, and must decide how much it is prepared to spend on manage-
users may be encouraged to cooperate. But this advantage is rial capacity. Box 8.9 lists practical guidelines to help farmer
theoretical in the many cases where farmer organizations do organizations use computerized administration and manage-
not yet have the capacity to develop software themselves. ment systems.
BOX 8.9. Considerations for Effectively, Sustainably Computerizing Farmer Organizations and Cooperatives
The organization’s management and members will want a system that works, can be maintained, and is affordable. In
small, cash-strapped cooperatives, it may be hard to persuade farmers that it is worth making the investment, because
initial costs are high and benefits are not immediately apparent. It is broadly true that the bigger the institution, the more
likely it is to afford the costs of computerization.
How willing are management and members to invest money and time and to take a long view? In the early stages, man-
ual and computerized systems must operate in parallel to make sure that data are not lost, and this procedure increases
costs in the short term.
Can cooperatives make independent investment decisions and buy a computer system from a local provider on a com-
mercial basis? Management might lack the skill to do this, and it might be hard to get loans for the investment.
Which approach to software development—commercially licensed or free, open source software—is best? In practice,
the cost of the software is likely to be only a small part of the overall cost of computerization, so this issue might be less
important than others, such as technical support (see the next point).
Is backup technical support available? Aside from requiring initial installation of the software and training in its use, the
contract should require fully functioning accounting output. All operations, not just the machinery, must work and be reli-
able for a long time.
Consider how the process will be funded and develop plans for sustainability.
Training is very important. Enough trained operators must be on hand locally. Local availability is a critical requirement,
because individuals with computer skills tend to migrate to towns and work for companies at higher pay.
Training should not focus simply on narrow technical issues; it needs to provide an insight into the wide-ranging possibilities
of a fully functioning computerized system. Without this overview, cooperatives may not use a system to its full capacity.
Consider the possibility of offering on-the-job training. Cooperatives that are already using computer systems might offer
internships to staff from other cooperatives. Perhaps such internships could be linked with formal technical education at
the tertiary level.
Source: Authors.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 209
The new technology found a ready market, once initial mis-
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
IT Tools for India’s Dairy Industry trust was dispelled by active marketing by the company, which
offered equipment to some cooperatives free of charge. The
With demand for milk in developing countries projected to dou-
free installations showed neighboring cooperatives the utility
ble in the next 20 years, dairy cooperatives are crossing the digi-
of automated collection centers. Intensive training was pro-
tal divide. The need for computerized administrative systems is
vided, and IT systems were maintained by motorcycle-borne
especially urgent in India, the world’s largest milk producer.
service engineers who could quickly attend to any faults.
Dairy cooperatives typically have thousands of members. Only when the cooperative was convinced of the system’s
The recording system at the collection point has to cope worth did it have to pay. The application, initially built around
with the huge volume of members’ daily transactions. Milk is a microprocessor but now usually involving computers, took
highly perishable, especially in hot climates, and any delay in a decade to diffuse on a large scale, but many Indian dairy
collection quickly leads to significant waste. Members often cooperatives have now adopted computerized systems.
buy inputs on credit from the cooperative. These purchases
Developers of the Akashganga system claim that there is a viable
have to be reconciled before members can be paid for their
market for companies that can design products suited to the
milk. Each member needs a statement at the time of each
needs of cooperatives in developing countries. The design of the
monthly or twice-monthly payment to show (correctly) how
equipment was carefully considered, not only to ensure that it
it has been calculated. Payments must be timely and regular,
was easy to use but also to make the weighing equipment suf-
because cooperative members depend on receiving their
ficiently robust to cope with the heat and dust of rural India. Price
money on time. In manual accounting systems, a mountain of
was an issue, as cooperatives have to justify expenditures to
paperwork is done before issuing each payment. Computer
members. The equipment to measure fat content was developed
accounting can produce up-to-date payment calculations and
in India for less than one-quarter the cost of European designs.
member statements at the click of a mouse.
The most advanced examples of computerization are to be SUBSEQUENT INNOVATION
found in the Indian dairy industry, where cooperative societies Village cooperatives have installed more than 3,000 comput-
have a long history. India has more than 10 million dairy farm- ers to support automated milk collection.17 Distributors are
ers, most of whom run small, marginal operations (Sharma keen to computerize their operations, too, and to get email
and Yadav 2003). Although milk yields had quadrupled in the connectivity for better communication with sales offices.
40 years ending in 2001, time-consuming manual recording
systems had changed little. Producers waited for hours before Currently, no standard ICT solution is used throughout the
they could deliver their milk, much of which soured in the heat. industry. Software may be tailored by local vendors to a par-
ticular enterprise (the Mulkanoor Women’s Dairy Cooperative
EARLY INNOVATION has taken this route), or dairies may choose to use packages
developed by software companies such as Tata Consultancy
A significant change occurred in 1996, when a small private
Services.18 Member records can include not only information
company (Akashganga–Shree Kamdhenu Electronics Private
on milk delivered and inputs bought but also information on
Ltd.) developed IT-based tools to automate milk collection at local
veterinary care (dates for vaccination or artificial insemination,
dairy cooperatives and computerize the accounting system.15
for instance), so that farmers can be prompted to take action.
The company introduced simple technology to weigh milk, check
its quality (fat content), and pay producers promptly. The basic Some dairies are now upgrading to enterprise resource plan-
model was an electronic weighing system, a milk analyzer, a per- ning (ERP), which encompasses the range of activities from
sonal computer, and accounting and management software.16 the farmer or collection point to consumer sales (box 8.10).19
One of these is the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing
15 This summary is based on information from the Akashgasnga Federation Ltd., whose brand name is Amul. The federation
website (http://akashganga.in/WhatWeDo.htm and http://www
.akashganga.in), a presentation on the Amul Dairy Project by Vipul
Vyas (http://www.scribd.com/doc/16808474/Amul-Dairy-Project 17 See the presentation on the Amul Dairy Project by Vipul Vyas (http://
-by-Vipul-Vyas), the UN-Habitat Best Practices Database (2006), www.scribd.com/doc/16808474/Amul-Dairy-Project-by-Vipul-Vyas).
and personal communication with Anil Epur. 18 Anil Epur, personal communication.
16 Akashganga’s current high-end system, selling for about 19 A widely used, comprehensive ICT solution (based on the
US$3,300, incorporates an electronic weighing system, a milk Microsoft DYNAMIX ERP package) currently costs around
analyzer to test milk quality, a personal computer, and account- Rs. 3.5 million. It can handle all activities for a daily throughput of
ing and management software. up to 10,000 liters of milk (Anil Epur, personal communication).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
210 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
BOX 8.10. What Is ERP? Despite this potential, the process of computerizing agricul-
tural cooperatives and producer organizations is at an earlier
A large company’s “back office” makes use of many dif- stage in Kenya than in India. The impetus for computerization
ferent systems, including planning, manufacturing, distribu- in Kenya has come not from private enterprise with govern-
tion, shipping, and accounting systems. Enterprise resource ment support, as in India, but as a joint push from Food and
planning (ERP) integrates these functions into a single Agriculture Organization (FAO) and donors (Kenya National
system designed to serve the needs of each department Federation of Agricultural Producers 2008).21
within the enterprise. ERP is more of a methodology than a
piece of software, although it does incorporate several soft- Under a donor contract, the private sector developed a
ware applications under a single, integrated interface. prototype management and member information system
to improve the business efficiency and competitiveness of
Source: Sererra (http://www.sererra.com/ERP).
producer organizations and cooperatives in national, regional,
and global markets. The system, known as CoopWorks, is
collects over 10 million liters of milk every day and is co-owned open source software available free of charge from http://
by some 2.8 million milk producers. All zonal, regional, and sourceforge.net/projects/coopworks/.22
member dairies are connected through very small aperture
The software replicates all the accounting functions that
terminals (VSATs) to make information-sharing easier. Amul is
would formerly have been done on paper, and it consists of a
in the process of Web-enabling the entire supply chain so it
dozen or so modules (including member management, inven-
can capture key information at the source.
tory, payroll, and others). It conforms to Kenyan government
The experience in India suggests that the private sector plays regulations and the stipulations of the International Systems
an important role in bringing computers to rural communi- Audit and Control Association, and the prototype was fol-
ties and that such activities can profit private enterprise and lowed by improved versions (the latest being CoopWorks 5).
benefit users. Complementary support from the public sec-
tor was also valuable, including support from the National THE DAIRY EXPERIENCE
Cooperative Development Corporation (discussed earlier)
CoopWorks was first trialed at the Tulaga dairy coopera-
and the National Informatics Center. The National Informatics
tive in 2006. The system kept member records, including
Center developed Lypsaa and openLypsaa software, a com-
the amount of milk delivered and any purchases made by the
plete solution for dairy cooperative societies, used by more
member. Clerical officers found they could operate more effi-
than 50 societies in Kerala. The center also developed a
ciently, without duplicating work, and the task of preparing
Linux-based portal for communication between the coopera-
members’ monthly payments was much easier. Fewer errors
tive department and the cooperative societies.20
in this important task meant that members’ confidence in the
The key lesson is that change does not come quickly, even society improved.
where all factors are conducive to development. Despite At the start of the trial, Tulaga had 800 active members,
aggressive marketing by the inventors, clear benefits to which increased to 1,800. Daily milk intake more than tripled,
users, and a supportive policy environment, it has taken a from 3,000 to 10,000 kilograms, and the average price paid
decade to automate dairy cooperatives on a large scale. to members increased from K Sh 10 per kilogram to K Sh
17. Cooperative sales also tripled in eight months. The milk
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY customer base increased from two processors to five after
CoopWorks Dairy and Coffee, Open Source many private buyers emerged.
Software Launched in Kenya
Kenya, one of the largest milk producers in Africa, sources 21 Specifically, an FAO project funded by the Government of Finland
more than 80 percent of its milk from roughly 800,000 small- in collaboration with Agriterra (the Netherlands) and Kenya
National Federation of Agricultural Producers.
scale dairy farmers (Seré 2010). These producers “represent 22 This summary is based on information from the Kenya National
an emerging market opportunity for local and international Federation of Agricultural Producers (2008); personal communica-
tion with Marcel Werner (Flametree Systems / Innovation Africa)
agribusiness alike” (Seré 2010).
in Kenya; the draft report of the AgriterraCoopWorks evaluation
mission to Kenya (January 2011); “How Open Source Software
Makes Money for Coffee Grower Cooperatives” (http://www
20 See http://www.kerala.nic.in/Brochures/opensource.pdf; http:// .selectstartcafe.com/2010/08/how-open-source-softwaremakes
informatics.nic.in/archive/july2007.pdf. -mon...); and “Kenya Coffee Eyes a New Golden Era” (2011).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 211
After various revisions, CoopWorks Dairy version 2 was tested at better understand their costs and profits. KCPA is delivering
Oloolaiser and Wamunyu dairies, where it was also well received. coffee and input prices to members on their mobile phones
By 2010 at Tulaga, cooperative membership had reached 3,000, via text and will soon link to mobile banking as well. The asso-
and milk production was 18,000 kilograms per day. Since the ciation has also promoted CoopWorks Coffee throughout the
introduction of CoopWorks Dairy, Tulaga has used its own funds country (covering about 600,000 producers).
to increase the number of computers from 4 to 15 and uses all
the capabilities (modules) of CoopWorks in its operations. A weighing scale may be added to the system, although this
option is relatively expensive (€1,000). Farmers are said to
A group of donors and international organizations, together value automated scales, as they believe there is less scope
with the Cooperative College, the Cooperative Bank, and the for dishonesty behind the scenes, but their high cost has
Kenyan Ministry of Cooperatives, all see a need to computer- prevented most cooperatives from adopting them.
ize Kenya’s dairy cooperatives on a larger scale and believe
that it can be done. Electricity is available in most places, PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS FROM THE OPEN
dairy cooperatives are big enough to need quick accounting SOURCE EXPERIENCE
methods, and investors are ready to help. CoopAfrica has a
The experience in Kenya suggests a different route to com-
project to involve all stakeholders, including the Cooperative
puterization. Free, open source software can be developed,
Bank (providing loans) and the Cooperative College (training
customized, and upgraded, preventing the software provider
local service providers).
from becoming too powerful within an organization.
THE COFFEE EXPERIENCE Using free, open source software does not mean there are no
costs to computerization, however. The software is available
Given the applicability of the software to other products as well
as a free download, but a cooperative still has to buy appropri-
as milk, a Finnish-funded AgriCord-Agriterra project developed
ate computing hardware and find resources to train staff to
a version of CoopWorks for coffee (Kiplagat 2010). Smallholder
use the system.23 The low costs and high adoptability of open
coffee farmers were dissatisfied with the recordkeeping in cof-
source software are insufficient to create critical mass and
fee factories, where they suspected that unscrupulous clerks
network effects if other related costs are too high.
easily abused the paper-based system. The Kenya Coffee
Producers Association (KCPA), which implements the project,
A survey in late 2009 of 27 agricultural cooperatives in Kenya
was attracted by the lower cost of free, open source software.
suggested that many are aware of the potential benefits and
would be keen to computerize if the process were less expen-
The new system has two components, one to keep records
sive (Flametree Systems Engineering Ltd. 2010). The two
within the society and one to provide information via a website
cooperatives involved in the pilot project certainly felt the sys-
and test messaging. The system tracks all the steps from cof-
tem to be a success (Nissila, Puhakainen, and Tanhua 2009).
fee collection to processing to sales. A member management
feature holds data on individual members, and the accounting
A recent review found differences in the extent to which
module has cash book registers, ledgers, and a payroll system.
cooperatives use CoopWorks’ capabilities. Even when only
Other features include asset registration, loan management,
some modules were used, the effects of computerization
inventory for the cooperative store, and report publication.
were considerable, not least in creating a stronger bond
With the old manual data entry system, the cooperatives between the cooperative and its members. The main chal-
did not know how much coffee the milling factory would lenge is to make users aware of the true scope of the soft-
produce from their beans and could not predict the financial ware and the significant benefits that will accrue on top of
return. The new system, however, can convert the weight the improvements in efficiency and transparency already
of beans into an estimated value once it goes into the mill. experienced. Good ICT support at the local level is vital.
Trainers or advisers must be proactive in demonstrating
The software also monitors coffee deliveries based on each the “big picture” of what CoopWorks can do, rather than
cooperative’s tracking number. Once the coffee is sold,
the payment is received into the system and credited to the
appropriate cooperative’s account. CoopWorks already pro- 23 Successful free, open source software (FOSS) initiatives are
driven by large developer communities, including programmers,
duces a member statement of inputs bought on credit and trainers, and advisers with commercial interests. The software
the proceeds of deliveries sold to millers, which helps farmers will be free, but related services may not be.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
212 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
dealing only with narrow technical instruction or responding women from harvesting and transporting poor-quality
to queries from cooperative staff.24 produce to the collection point only to have it rejected.
Filmed demonstrations of new, more efficient processing
Apart from highlighting capacity issues specific to CoopWorks,
methods would improve the quality as well as the quantity
the experience has shown that further capacity building in
of shea butter.
modern information systems is required. To address this
issue, Kenya’s Cooperative College is adopting a proactive, These benefits materialized, and Coprokazan now has its own
innovative approach by planning to cover CoopWorks software website showcasing its products. An unplanned benefit of
in its curriculum. Even though the short timeframe of the pilot computerization was that it enabled Coprokazan to improve
project was insufficient to develop capacity, it could be argued governance and administration. The cooperative’s office
that without such support for development, dairy cooperatives personnel began using the computers for routine administra-
in Kenya might be even slower to computerize. tion, and member records are now kept electronically. Staff
members also learned to use PowerPoint to produce a visual
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY overview of yearly accounts and activities to show at the
ICT Improves Marketing and Governance Annual General Meeting, which has increased transparency
for a Malian Cooperative and boosted members’ confidence in the workings of the
In some cases, the decision to use computers is not driven coop. This experience indicates the extent to which it can be
by a perceived need for better governance and administra- challenging to neatly apportion the benefits of ICT.
tion, but better governance may be a welcome by-product
In the first four years after ICT techniques were introduced,
of the process. Women in southern Mali traditionally gather
the cooperative almost tripled its shea butter production and
fruit from the shea tree (Butyrospermum parkii ) to extract the
income. With its improved administrative capacity, the coop-
seeds for processing into cooking oil and a “butter” that is
erative can now deal with more members. From a base of
an effective skin moisturizer. In 1999, by forming a coopera-
fewer than 400 in 2006, the cooperative expected to have
tive society, Coprokazan,25 producers were able to get better
more than 1,100 members by the end of 2010. The coop-
prices for their products. All management and accounting
erative plans to invest in GPS equipment as a step toward
procedures were done manually, and the society had only a
traceability and possible organic certification.
few hundred members.
Among the more general lessons from Coprokazan’s experi-
The move toward computerization came from a desire to
ence was the lesson that local languages make technology
produce effective training materials for cooperative members,
more accessible. Many poorer farmers, especially women,
raise the profile of the society, and enable its products to reach
have poor reading and writing skills, even in their own
a wider market (Laureys, Marcilly, and Zongo 2010). Working
language. It is unrealistic to expect them to master ICT in a
with the Malian Association for the Promotion of Youth and the
foreign language. Computer keyboards were adapted to
International Institute for Communication and Development
make it easier for Coprokazan women to type in the local
(IICD), Coprokazan assessed what sort of technology would
language.
be most useful. Zantiébougou, the town where the society
was based, had no mains electricity, so all equipment had Multimedia tools, on the other hand, often do not require
to be solar powered. This requirement limited the society to high literacy levels. Women who could barely read or write
three computers, together with a printer, a projector, a small learned to use digital cameras and create image-oriented nar-
video camera, and some digital photo cameras. ratives that could be used for training cooperative members.
With these, the cooperative planned to create visual training Another unforeseen effect of bringing solar-powered com-
materials that would give clear information to all members, puter equipment to a small town without electricity was that
including those who could not read. Photographs showing the cooperative offices became a magnet for nonmembers.
the quality of nut suitable for processing would prevent Some people reportedly traveled more than 30 kilometers
to type, print, and copy documents. The training room was
24 Draft report of AgriterraCoopWorks evaluation mission to Kenya, used by other organizations for training sessions, and local
January 2011. schoolchildren were attracted to the premises to do their
25 http://www.coprokazan.org. Coopérative des Productrices de
beurre de Karité de Zantiébougou (Zantiébougou Shea Butter homework, as the building is one of very few in the area to
Producers’ Cooperative). have electric light.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 213
Topic Note 8.3: GIVING FARMERS A VOICE AND
SHARING INFORMATION
TRENDS AND ISSUES a place; and the radio is also becoming cheaper in the sense
In an increasingly interactive world, the idea of “having your that the cost of setting up a radio station has fallen dramatically
say” is easier to put into practice. Internet-based discussion in recent years (AFRRI and FRI 2008). Recording equipment
forums, blogs, and phone-in radio programs are part of the that only a decade ago would have cost thousands of dollars
information exchange landscape. For farmers in the develop- can now be bought for about US$100 or less, and computers,
ing world, opportunities to be heard are few, but the situation the Internet, and mobile phones have brought down the cost
is changing, largely as a result of the simple combination of of obtaining and storing information for broadcast. Research
local radio and mobile phones. (See Module 13 for more on in 2008 reported that a microstation with a broadcast range of
citizen participation, exchange, and knowledge sharing.) 2.5 kilometers had been set up in Mali for just US$650.
The hope is that as radio becomes cheaper and more interac-
Farmer organizations have higher visibility than individual farmers.
tive, its programming can become much more locally relevant
Many have a website and Internet connectivity to communicate
and inclusive. Efforts in this direction include Farm Radio
with similar organizations or in regional forums. If farmers can
International. This NGO partners with more than 350 radio
raise issues with their local organizations, there is a chance that
broadcasters in almost 40 African countries to develop program-
their concerns will be noted and passed to higher levels, which
ming to help small-scale farmers improve their food security.
suggests an important role for ICT. Answers to technical prob-
Participatory Radio Campaigns, carefully planned broadcasts
lems raised by members need to reach farmers even in remote
focusing on one farmer-selected issue at a time, feature farm-
areas, which is currently best achieved by using broadcast media.
ers’ participation and appear to make measurable differences
Given the lack of infrastructure typical of remote rural areas, it to farmers’ livelihoods (AFRRI and FRI 2009). (For more detail,
is a challenge for farmer groups to use ICT for interactive com- see Module 6.) In Uganda, Her Farm Radio, an initiative of Farm
munication. Radio and, to a lesser extent, television broadcasts Radio International since 2013, reaches more than 2 million
reach wide audiences and can be understood by all, even those women. Thirty episodes of a radio drama are aired in six lan-
who cannot read or write, so they are currently the best ways of guages by 10 radio stations to promote the consumption of
transferring information to individual farmers. When the makers orange-fleshed sweet potatoes. These episodes are vibrant and
of radio and television programs base their output on real issues interactive, because widespread use of mobile phones enables
raised by farmers themselves, farmers readily act on the infor- listener polls, call-ins, and discussions. A current program, Her
mation to improve their production methods. Farmer organiza- Voice on Air,26 feature true stories of women farmers in Malawi,
tions thus have a role in seeking the views of their members on Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia.
which topics should be featured in the broadcast media.
Local radio stations are particularly well placed to develop
The following sections highlight the effectiveness of radio and programming to suit their audiences. When radio operates as
television in reaching a broad audience, including women. a source of reliable information that works at the local level, it
They show that the interactivity enabled by phone-in and SMS gives farmers an alternative to limited public agricultural exten-
contributions brings true relevance and usefulness to farmers. sion services. In Kenya, Radio Mbaitu FM prioritizes content on
fruit farming and horticulture and uses the Kikamba language to
reach the farmers in its listening area. Radio Coro FM, broadcast-
ICT MAKES RADIO PROGRAMMING LESS ing in Kikuyu, covers dairy farming, which is widespread in cen-
EXPENSIVE, MORE INCLUSIVE
tral Kenya. Radio Salaam uses Kiswahili to broadcast information
Radio is a popular medium that can draw a wide audience and on fisheries and fruit farming to coastal farmers, while Kass FM,
operate in local languages (image 8.6). Like mobile phones and a Kalenjin station, focuses on dairy and maize production.
other ICT applications, however, radio has issues related to
access, such as who owns the radio, who chooses which pro- In Zambia, the Research Into Use (RIU ) program uses com-
grams to hear (men, women, elders), or whether programs are munity radio as a way of promoting conservation agricul-
broadcast when listeners can actually listen. The innovation in ture (Research Into Use 2011). Programs follow different
radio is that programming is becoming more interactive, with
phone-ins, live community forums, and radio diaries all finding 26 http://www.farmradio.org/portfolio/her-voice-on-air/.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
214 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
IMAGE 8.4. Clara Moita, Broadcaster with Radio 5 in up in a village, with farmers invited to bring diseased or pest-
Arusha, Tanzania infested crop samples or other field problems to be discussed
by a panel of experts. Possible solutions are then suggested.
Each seminar is filmed and broadcast live by Doordarshan
through its provincial network (55 stations, using the appropriate
local language) to share the information with farmers who live too
far to attend in person. Daily bulletins on the latest market prices
and weather forecasts also appear on television. The broad-
caster also offers a weekly live phone-in program to give experts’
“instant solutions” to farmers’ problems. In some areas of India,
this televised exchange occurs twice a week. Information about
the programs is shared on the Internet—television producers
upload program details onto the portal. The website also fea-
tures contact details to facilitate interaction between farmers
and appropriate subject matter specialists, as well as opportuni-
Photo: Facebook.
Source: Takepart.com. ties for farmers to give feedback and offer suggestions.
formats—prerecorded factual programs, drama programs, FARMERS “CLUSTER” IN THE CARIBBEAN
and phone-in or interactive programs—and are broadcast The Caribbean Farmers Network (CaFAN)28 has found that farm-
in either English or the local language. Listeners particularly ers in the Caribbean region benefit from working in clusters
enjoy the vernacular, drama, and interactive output. that are created either geographically or thematically (Greene
2010). Farmers working in close proximity, or those who simply
RIU Zambia has set up radio listeners’ clubs that have trained
share an interest, set up a cluster to share technical information
over 1,000 people in recording skills and club coordination.
and experiences, plan for new market demands, and maximize
Local farmers can now record their discussions, questions,
their lobbying and bargaining power.
and development concerns and send the recordings to their
local radio station. A producer then edits the material and CaFAN encompasses 30 member organizations that together
includes feedback from experts before the program is aired. represent half a million farmers in 12 countries. Clusters cut
These programs are also interactive at the point of broadcast; across membership boundaries. Farmers use Skype, email,
farmers phone in with further contributions. and the CaFAN website to keep in touch. Text messages are
also widely used to communicate directly with farmers, and it
Some of the radio stations are private, such as Sky FM in
is hoped that production information will soon be sent that way.
Monze District. The RIU program supports them to broad-
cast this content, and six radio dramas were sponsored by CaFAN claims that fostering connections, sharing information,
a local seed company. This suggests a route toward sustain- and training farmers puts farmers in a stronger position to respond
ability when RIU support comes to an end. Another possibil- to the perennial problems of the agricultural sector. They say that
ity is shown by Namwianga Radio in Kalomo District, which collective action can give better access to important resources
is supported by the church. Community church services have (agricultural inputs, credit, transportation, information) and can
apparently proved to be useful forums for smallholders to reduce financial risk. Pooling resources and collective marketing
share experience with conservation agriculture. reduces the high transaction costs incurred by farmers acting
alone: Operating as part of a group is simply more efficient.
TELEVISION SUPPORT FOR AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION IN INDIA THE ZNFU DISCUSSION FORUM
In 2005, the Doordarshan Broadcasting Corporation of India ZNFU reports more than 10,000 hits a month to its website.29
began a project to televise live, interactive, problem-solving New topics are introduced to its discussion forum as a
crop seminars as well as to set up various other initiatives to means of encouraging farmers to participate and share their
spread agricultural information.27 Agricultural seminars are set
28 http://www.caribbeanfarmers.org/.
27 “Mass Media Support to Agricultural Extension,” ICT for Development. 29 http://www.znfu.org.zm/.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 215
experience related to particular issues. Current threads include Technological developments can be seen simply as exten-
the state of feeder roads in rural areas, price expectations for sions of a very human need. These developments indicate
the maize crop, and tariffs charged by Zesco (the national elec- that there is an argument for recommending that govern-
tricity supplier). Members are invited to make suggestions ments and donors should strengthen the capability of farmer
to be included in ZNFU’s submission of proposals relevant organizations to contribute to radio programming. The credibil-
to agriculture in the national budget. The “How Do I” section ity and transparency of farmer organizations would improve if
for technical questions is divided by subject and includes farm problems and achievements were discussed openly on local
and land, equipment, livestock, and employment. radio, with members’ comments being welcomed on air. Any
issue related to the organization could be raised.
Despite its welcome and advanced features, this online forum
still has low participation, because most farmers do not have Independent community radio is relatively new in most
computers, Internet access, typing skills, or great proficiency African countries. About a decade ago, the only programs
in English. There are only a few posts and comments on the offered were from publicly funded state radio. A study of
forum—some discussion categories are empty, and several the effectiveness of the Participatory Radio Campaigns
of the other posts are more than six months old. At this tentatively concluded that participatory farm radio by itself,
stage, the ZNFU website appears much more useful to large- without any other intervention, has a strong impact and is a
scale farmers than to the smallholders who form the majority highly cost-effective strategy for helping farmers learn about
of those working in agriculture in Zambia. and adopt new approaches to farming (AFRRI and FRI 2009).
However, a more recent study showed that farmer exposure
to and participation in radio campaigns may increase aware-
LESSONS LEARNED
ness and knowledge but may not be sufficient to cause the
There is much to gain but also much to be done in giving farmer to adopt new technologies or innovations (Manda and
farmers a voice. Rural areas lag behind towns and cities in Wozniak 2015).
the infrastructure needed for online connectivity and access
to blogs or Internet discussion forums. Many farmer organiza- A study into the economics of rural radio, a hitherto-unexplored
tions are situated within reach of electricity and the Internet, subject, points out that the costs of programming depend on
however, so they are able to set up websites to raise their the level of interactivity of the program format, the accessibility
profile and market possibilities. Their online forums offer a of additional resources to produce specialized programs, and
space for those few farmers with Internet access to share the type of station involved (AFRRI and FRI 2009). Community
information or raise concerns to be aired more widely. stations tended to invest more resources in interactive pro-
gramming with community involvement and less on in-studio
Considering the current state of infrastructure in much of the formats. The cost of a reporter in the field (a common format
developing world, it is realistic to expect the uptake of ICT to for agriculture reporting) was about US$300 per program for a
give farmers a stronger voice at the organizational level rather commercial station in Uganda and just over US$100 per pro-
than individual level. Giving smallholder farmers a stronger gram for a community station in Malawi.
political voice, for example, can be done by encouraging them
to join an organization or cooperative. If individual farmers can Educational farm radio must compete for airtime with less
reach their representative organizations better, these organi- expensive and popular items such as music and evangelism,
zations can effectively represent farmers at the local, regional, but interactive programs with farmers—phone-in shows,
national, and international levels. The best way for individual field interviews, listening groups, and talk shows with local
farmers to be heard at present is via local radio stations. experts—can be popular enough to compete. Among the
radio stations examined, the average cost of rural produc-
The visual nature of television makes it particularly valuable tion ranged from just over US$100 for a phone-in show to
for practical demonstrations of good agricultural practice. US$300 to record and air a village debate. An investment
Overall, though, radio seems more useful than television as a of US$500 per week (US$26,000 per year) would therefore
discussion forum, given the ubiquity of radio ownership and finance the production and broadcast of 3–6 hours per week
access. Radio producers are now skilled in presenting infor- of interactive farm radio programming. Radio broadcasting
mation in memorable ways, and radio programs are more requires an enabling policy framework under which local
interactive, owing to contributions made through mobile radio stations can flourish without excessive regulation.
phones. Listeners’ clubs in Zambia and Niger show that oral Many African countries lacked such a framework until
communication is very popular. recently, so commercial and community radio stations are
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
216 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
still relatively new. Many countries have issues related to a large proportion of first-time Internet users access it via
freedom of expression. For instance, proposed amendments their mobile phones using Web 2.0 applications such as
to the Zambian Constitution included scrapping an article on Facebook. Because the biggest factor in user satisfaction is
freedom of speech in favor of one providing penalties for the speed of response, it makes sense to design websites
false statements. This amendment is of major concern to the for prevailing conditions. See box 8.11 for additional consid-
many privately sponsored and civil society–sponsored local erations in designing and implementing ICT interventions to
radio stations. Another example is Ethiopia, where commu- increase farmers’ voice.
nity radio (whether run by the private sector or civil society)
is not fully liberalized. INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Community Listeners’ Clubs Empower Social
Effective radio programs depended heavily on partnerships, Networks in Rural Niger
both with radio broadcasters, individual farmers, and agricul-
Since July 2009, 300 community listeners’ clubs (200 all-
ture experts. For example, close cooperation with the Indian
women, 89 all-men, and 11 mixed clubs) have been estab-
Department of Agriculture has been necessary to support the
lished in villages of southern Niger.30 Involving more than
Doordarshan Broadcasting Corporation’s live crop seminars.
6,000 women and men, together with nine community
Villages are chosen in consultation with the department, and
radio stations, the Listeners’ Clubs Project breaks the iso-
the experts who deal with the farmers’ questions come from
lation of rural populations, especially women. It does this
the agriculture department of the nearest university. Where
by offering access to information and communication and
possible, the Department of Agriculture sets up an exhibition
by encouraging people to join discussions on development
in tandem with each broadcast to offer farmers additional
issues. The project is led by FAO, via the Dimitra Project, and
information about crop varieties and new technology.
cofinanced with UN agencies and the Canadian Development
Corporation. It is implemented by an NGO.
For farmer organizations wishing to set up a website, with
or without a discussion forum, the question of design can
The community listeners’ clubs are groups of villagers who
be fraught with difficulties. Bandwidth—as a percentage
have been trained and organized through literacy training
of average annual income—is still expensive. International
centers to identify and discuss their information needs and
bandwidth increased 20-fold and the size of terrestrial net-
development priorities. Whenever a group finds a topic that
works doubled between 2009 and 2014, but to make the
they feel deserves attention, they contact a community radio
Internet accessible and affordable, more investment is
to record club members’ views on the subject. These views
needed in national backbones, cross-border connectivity,
and last mile access (Nyirenda-Jere and Biru 2015). At the
30 This section is based on information from FAO’s Dimitra Newsletter,
same time, traditional website design has been transformed: issues 17, 18, and 19, available at http://www.fao.org/dimitra/dimitra
optimizing content for mobile devices is critical, given that -publications/newsletter/en/.
BOX 8.11. Considerations for Effectively, Sustainably Enabling Farmers to Share Information and Gain a Greater
Voice in the Agricultural Sector
How many members of the farmer organization can realistically benefit, given local infrastructure? This question
favors radio broadcasts over Internet discussion forums and similar technologies.
What resources are available to the farmer organization, including basic infrastructure and financial and human
resources?
Will radio broadcasts be done in the form of “community” radio, or will they be part of a commercial local radio
station?
What is the best way to support the process to ensure that it can become self-sustaining? Consider whether radio
broadcasts should be regarded as a significant public good that justifies long-term public support.
When setting up a website, determine how complex it will be. The level of complexity will depend on its intended
purpose. Is it simply intended to raise the profile of an organization and provide contact details, or does it need to
be used interactively by buyers or those seeking information?
Source: Authors.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 217
are then broadcast, prompting immediate responses, opin- through targeted interventions to reduce the level of inequal-
ions, and suggestions sent by mobile phone from other ity they experience and improve their socioeconomic posi-
listeners. The clubs have already discussed a wide range of tion. The interventions include but are not limited to training,
topics, including food security, agricultural inputs, plant and cultural exchanges, networking and promoting interregional
animal health, and policy issues such as land access and and intraregional trade, access to specialized credit, creation
decentralization. Debating and listening to radio programs of sustainable employment opportunities, and advocacy to
gives the participants knowledge, allows them to share their sensitize society to the needs and contributions of women
experience, and reinforces self-confidence. in agriculture.
The project has also improved rural populations’ knowledge From the beginning, CANROP has received regular sup-
of new technologies. At the outset, each club was given a port from the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on
solar-and-crank-powered radio and mobile phones fitted with Agriculture (IICA)32 and the Technical Centre for Agricultural
solar chargers, but the project was so popular that clubs and Rural Cooperation (CTA).33 In 2014, CANROP initiated
were soon given extra mobile phones. These phones were a series of activities to facilitate networking and commu-
linked up in a network known as a “fleet,” which enables nication among members and strengthen their knowledge
cost-free communication at any time between the clubs and management (KM) skills. A KM scan34 developed by CTA
radio stations. and Co-Capacity35 has helped the network to set new priori-
ties for KM and communication and for finding new sources
These mobile phones are now also used to pass wide-ranging of support. The first priority was to improve the network’s
information between villages—such as forthcoming social communication capacity and extend its reach to farmers,
events or the price of agricultural produce and livestock—or markets, governments, and external supporters. One of the
to offer products for sale. The telephones in the fleet also results was a KM and Storytelling workshop held in Trinidad
serve as public telephones, allowing private calls to be made to create awareness among stakeholders, share experi-
for a small charge. For women, the telephones have helped ences and lessons, and identify key issues and opportunities
create a social network, enabling them to communicate with in using KM to drive entrepreneurship and improve food and
other women they have never met and to exchange informa- nutrition security. Participants resolved to develop a com-
tion beyond the topics covered by the clubs. mon vision and values, create a database, decide how to
use social media tools, and determine who should undertake
The enthusiasm for the listeners’ clubs has exceeded all
specific tasks to have a more profound impact on policy.
expectations. Preliminary data indicate that women have
gained self-confidence, good practices have been shared, For example, Faumuina Tafuna’i of Women in Business
and even sensitive subjects such as HIV/AIDS have been Development Incorporated36 shared her experience in
discussed. Club members have realized that their knowl- Samoa, where her organization has used a positive news
edge and opinions have a value and that their voices matter. approach to help elevate farming as an honorable, exciting,
and innovative occupation.37
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Through Social Media, a Women’s Producer Acting on recommendations from the workshop, CANROP
Network in Caribbean Small Island States began implementing activities to improve communication
Improves Its Communication Capacity, Outreach, and knowledge skills among members, including:
and Knowledge Management The establishment of a website, directly managed and
Established in 1999, the Caribbean Network of Rural Women maintained by CANROP members, to serve as the
Producers (CANROP) is an umbrella organization that collabo-
rates with 12 national chapters of rural women’s associations 32 http://www.iica.int/en.
33 http://www.cta.int/en/.
in the Caribbean.31 CANROP’s mission is to empower rural
34 “Introduction to the Knowledge Management Scan,” http://www
women producers in the region to improve their livelihoods .cta.int/images/documents/Introduction%20KMScan_V2Sept2013
.pdf.
35 A knowledge management advisory firm based in Wageningen,
31 This Innovative Practice Summary is adapted from ICT Update the Netherlands.
Bulletin, Issue 81. it was written by Gia Gaspard Taylor 36 http://www.womeninbusiness.ws/.
(nrwptt@gmail.com), president of the Network of Rural Women 37 ICT Update, “Women at the Forefront of Knowledge Sharing,”
Producers Trinidad and Tobago (NRWPTT), and Isaura Lopes http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/Women-at-the
Ramos (lopes@cta.int), CTA. -forefront-of-knowledge-sharing/(published)/1455449487.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
218 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
main showcase for sharing best practices, promoting New ways and tools for external communication have put
products and events, and disseminating news and the network and the women it represents on the radar of
publications. key national and regional policy makers. Chavara Roker of the
The development and creation of a dynamic Facebook Bahamas chapter was part of the CANROP delegation at the
page and Twitter account to serve as the key tools for Caribbean Week of Agriculture (CWA) and felt that they had
internal and external networking and informing stake- a strong presence: “A whole lot of people were talking about
holders rapidly about the latest activities. CANROP, and after the CWA, the Director National School
Continuous ICT training to ensure that members can for Science and Agriculture in the Bahamas invited us to do a
update the network’s social media tools. presentation which enabled us to recruit new members and
inspire young women.”
Improving stakeholder connections through stake-
holder analysis, strategic alliances at the leadership
level, and becoming more aware of stakeholders’ DIVERSITY AND PROCESS
needs and demands. The approach of CTA, IICA, and the consultants they mobi-
lized to accompany CANROP was to support the emergence
Among other activities, CANROP marked International of an organic process, in which the energy of diverse groups
Women’s Day in 2015 with a series of “image messages” in with different histories and interests could blend to generate
recognition of the work of Caribbean rural women producers. positive action. For example, the dynamic of the group work
Since then, CANROP’s work has put more emphasis on the in the first workshop acknowledged the diversity between
importance of KM as a tool for members to share information long-standing network executives, the newer chapters, and
and experiences. For example: the passionate supporters, and at the same time sought to
Everyone can learn more about the women of CANROP bring their different ideas together. The KM scan smoothly
on Facebook and follow their Twitter conversation with aligned KM with the overall strategy and institutional capaci-
the hashtag #weareCANROP. ties of the network. The KM scan “tree” has been devel-
CANROP chapters also use Facebook: https://www oped, and its use by different actors in the network has been
.facebook.com/SLNRWP?pnref=lhc; https://www supported and encouraged.
.facebook.com/BAHMROP.
Many CANROP members use Facebook personally and TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES
for their businesses: https://www.facebook.com/pages Storytelling has boosted the network internally and at
/Good-Hope-Mushrooms/208423655856405?pnref the same time contributes to CANROP’s external image.
=story; https://www.facebook.com/pages/Chiccharney Facebook seems to be a tool that fits the target group, but
-Farms/423924377632772?pnref=lhc; https://www it excludes women who have no easy Internet access, and
.facebook.com/pages/Chiccharney-Caterers-Bahamian using a mobile phone can be expensive. Yet using visual
-Bread-and-Tang/217035645154282. media (on and offline) is flagged as empowering for a target
They also have a closed sharing group: https://www group that has generally low levels of education.
.facebook.com/groups/798898080161785/.
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
REAL CHANGE The Case of the Pan-African Farmers’
Organization (PAFO)
Internal communication among and within the chapters
has intensified and become easier at all levels. Many In 2010, five regional farmers’ organizations created the
CANROP chapters depended entirely on IICA for com- PAFO38: the Network of Farmers’ and Agricultural Producers’
munication with other chapters and their own members— Organizations of West Africa (ROPPA),39 the Southern
with unavoidable delays and a lack of communication. The
CANROP president notes that “now we are on Facebook 38 This Innovative Practice Summary was adapted from ICT Update
Bulletin, Issue 81. It was written by Chris Addison (addison@cta.int),
and we keep in touch, connected, and we can access each a senior program coordinator of knowledge management at CTA,
other individually and share. You get instant response to in collaboration with Fatma Ben Rejeb (ceo@pafo-africa.org), chief
emails. But further change is possible as some six or seven executive officer, PAFO.
39 http://map.seedmap.org/solutions/food-sovereignty/people
chapters still work mainly using (Internet) communication -farmer-led-movements/network-of-farmers-and-agricultural
facilities of IICA.” -producers-organisations-of-west-africa-roppa/.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 219
African Confederation of Agricultural Unions (SACAU),40 the way of disseminating relevant information and creating space
Organisations Paysannes d’Afrique Centrale (PROPAC)41 in for dialogue. Even more important, it helps to create PAFO’s
Central Africa; the Maghrebian and North African Farmers human network and build the skills to capture information
Union (UMAGRI),42 and the EAFF.43 PAFO aims to organize and foster communication.
farmers and agricultural producers, to effectively engage
members in advocacy, and promote participation in the for- REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
mulation and implementation of Africa-wide development
For general information on the use of ICT in development, see:
policies that affect agriculture and rural development. PAFO Information and Communications for Development (IC4D), http://
recognized the value of KM from the outset, making it a key go.worldbank.org/DMY979SNP0. Three publications by the Royal
pillar of its formative strategy and creating a knowledge man- Tropical Institute (KIT), Amsterdam, and International Institute of Rural
Reconstruction (IIRR), Nairobi, are particularly recommended:
ager position almost immediately.
KIT and IIRR. 2005. “Chain Empowerment: Supporting African
Since 2012, CTA has worked with PAFO to support informa- Farmers to Develop Markets.”
KIT and IIRR. 2008. “Trading Up: Building Cooperation
tion exchange and KM with an ICT platform that enables
between Farmers and Traders in Africa.”
policy discussions among board members and by build-
KIT and IIRR. 2010. “Value Chain Finance: Beyond
ing a website for the organization. Prior to the first PAFO Microfinance for Rural Entrepreneurs.”
Continental Briefing, which took place in Yaoundé, Cameroon,
AFRRI and FRI (African Farm Radio Research Initiative and Farm
in December 2013, ideas resulting from e-discussion held
Radio International). 2008. The Economics of Rural Radio in
earlier on the website’s group space were presented to help Africa. Ottawa: AFRRI and FRI. http://www.farmradio.org/english
formulate policy on themes such as land acquisition, links /partners/afrri/info.asp.
between climate change and agriculture, and rural youth in ———. 2009. “The Effects of Participatory Radio Campaigns
agriculture. The strong achievements of the e-discussion led on Agricultural Improvement Uptake.” Ottawa: AFRRI and FRI.
the KM and communications officers to hold a half-day ses- http://www.farmradio.org/english/partners/afrri/info.asp.
sion during the conference to present those achievements AgriCord. 2010. “Farmers Fighting Poverty: Strengthening Farmers’
and challenges for farmer organizations in KM. Organisations in Developing Countries.” September, Leuven.
Banks, K. 2009. “A Program to Reach Many Farmers.” ICT Update.
As part of the development of PAFO’s knowledge plat- http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles /A-program-to
form, the regional farmer organizations were supported in -reachmany-farmers.
developing their websites to ensure that content would be Bossio, J. F. 2007. “Sostenibilidad de Proyectos de Desarrollo con
available across the network as a whole. Most recently, the Nuevas Tecnologías: El Caso de la Organización de Regantes y
PAFO KM team was at the forefront of a massive Twitter Su Sistema de Información en Huaral.” Community Informatics 3
(3). http://www.ci-journal.net/index.php/ciej/article/view/394.
campaign called #includeagriCOP2144 at the third PAFO
Continental Briefing, in the context of the Africa edition of Cagley, M. 2010. “From the Web to the Phone.” ICT Update. http://
ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/From-the-web-to-thephone.
the Global Forum for Innovations in Agriculture (GFIA). The
Twitter campaign was launched to advocate the inclusion de Silva, H., and A. Zainudeen. 2007. “Teleuse on a Shoestring:
of agriculture in the text of the Paris Climate Conference Poverty Reduction through Telecom Access at the ‘Bottom
of the Pyramid.’” Paper presented at the Center for Poverty
agreement (COP21).45 Analysis Annual Symposium on Poverty Research in Sri Lanka,
December 6–7.
Although the results vary with the different regional
Economist, The. 2010. “The Next Billion Geeks: How the Mobile
farmer organizations, the achievements are encouraging.46
Internet will Transform the BRICI Countries.” September 2.
Strengthening farmer organizations’ KM skills through initia- http://www.economist.com/node/16944020.
tives such as the PAFO knowledge platform is an effective
———. 2011. “Not Just Talk: Clever Services on Cheap Mobile
Phones Make a Powerful Combination—Especially in
Poor Countries.” January 27. http://www.economist.com/node
40 http://www.sacau.org/. /18008202.
41 http://infopropac.org/.
42 http://pafo-africa/umagri.org. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2004. Computerizing
43 http://eaffu.org/. Agricultural Cooperatives: A Practical Guide. Rome: Economic
44 https://twitter.com/hashtag/includeagricop21. and Social Development Department. http://www.fao.org/docrep
45 www.cop21paris.org. /007/y5471e/y5471e00.htm.
46 See the PAFO evaluation video: shttps://www.youtube.com
/watch?v =ceJoYvyidEs&index=3&list=PLUtvIa4Yp5ynhqVx Ferris, S., P. Engoru, and E. Kaganzi. 2008. “Making Market
Dwj1_EfBlxQrT0xTh. Information Services Work Better for the Poor in Uganda.”
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
220 MOD ULE 8 — FA R MER OR GA NIZATIONS WOR K BETTER W ITH IC T
CAPRi Working Paper 77, CGIAR Systemwide Program on Nabwowe, A. 2010. “Uganda: Farmers On-Line.” Spore. http://spore
Collective Action and Property Rights (CAPRi), Washington, DC. .cta.int/population/en/HS4_09report_ouganda.html.
Fin24. 2011. “Kenya Coffee Eyes a New Golden Era.” Agence France- New Agriculturist. 2008. “Bahati Tweve: The Honest ‘Middleman’
Presse, updated March 6, MSN, http://www.fin24.com/Markets Brokering Deals.” New Agriculturist, July. http://www.new-ag
/Commodities/Kenya-coffee-eyes-new-golden-era-20110306-2. .info/focus/focusItem.php?a=477.
Flametree Systems Engineering Ltd. 2010. Baseline Survey Report Nissila J., J. Puhakainen, and I. Tanhua. 2009. “CoopWorks: A
ICT in Farmers Societies. (Annex 3 of 10 June 2010 Progress Case Study on an Information System Meant to Enhance the
Report). Capacities of Agricultural Cooperatives.” In Proceedings of
the 10th International Conference on Social Implications of
Goudappel, P. 2009. “Sending the Right Message.” ICT Update. http://
Computers in Developing Countries, Dubai, May (accessed May
ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/Sending-the-rightmessage.
2011), http://www.ifip.dsg.ae/Docs/FinalPDF/Full%20Papers/ifip
Government of Uganda. 2010. “Programme Implementation Manual _25_nissila,%20tanhua,%20phuakinen.pdf.
for the Agricultural Technology and Agribusiness Advisory Services
Nyirenda-Jere, T., and T. Biru. 2015. “Internet Development and Internet
(ATAAS) Programme.” Final Draft.
Governance in Africa.” Internet Society, Geneva. http://www
Greene, J. 2010. “The Bridge between Farm and Market.” ICT .internetsociety.org/sites/default/files/Internet%20development
Update. http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Regulars/Perspectives/The %20and%20Internet%20governance%20in%20Africa.pdf.
-bridgebetween-farm-and-market.
Pew Research Center. 2015a. “Cell Phones in Africa: Communication
IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). n.d. “The Lifeline.” April 15. http://www.pewglobal.org/2015/04/15/cell
First Mile Project.” Rome: IFAD. http://www.ifad.org/rural -phones-in-africa-communication-lifeline/.
/firstmile/FM_2.pdf.
———. 2015b. “Internet Seen as Positive Influence on Education
IICD (International Institute for Communication and Development). but Negative on Morality in Emerging and Developing Nations.”
2010. “Augmenter la production agricole à travers les TIC: March 19. http://www.pewglobal.org/2015/03/19/internet-seen
Leçons apprises d’une fédération paysanne Burkinabè.” -as -positive-influence-on-education-but-negative-influence
Learning Brief, IICD project website, The Hague. http://www. -on-morality-in-emerging-and-developing-nations/.
iicd.org/projects/burkina-feppasi/?searchterm=increasing%20
Research Into Use. 2011. “Zambia Turns on the Media,” January 31,
agricultural%20production%20through%20ict.
2011 (accessed May 2011), http://www.researchintouse.com
ITWeb Africa. 2015. “Zambia: Govt Launches E-Voucher System for /news/110131media.html.
Farmers.” October 13. http://www.itwebafrica.com/enterprise
Safaricom. 2015. Annual Report 2015. http://www.safaricom.co.ke
-solutions/692-zambia/235317-zambia-govt-launches-e-voucher
/images/Downloads/Resources_Downloads/annual_report_2015
-system-for-farmers.
.pdf.
Kenya National Federation of Agricultural Producers. 2008.
Seré, C. 2010. “Backing Smallholder Farmers Today Could Avert Food
“CoopWorks: Computerising Agricultural Co-operatives and
Crises Tomorrow.” The Guardian, Poverty Matters (blog), October
Producer Organisations.” Farmer’s Voice 1 (11). http://www
14, 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/poverty
.coopworks.org/index2.php?option=com_docman&task=doc
-matters/2010/oct/14/smallholder-farmers-agribusinessinvestment.
_view&gid=24&Itemid=66.
Sharma, A., and A. Yadav. 2003. “What Works: Akashganga’s IT Tools
King, R. P., and I. G. Shuker. 1991. “Information System Adoption and
for the Indian Dairy Industry.” What Works Case Study, World
Use in Local Cooperatives.” Journal Article 18,559 of the Minnesota
Resources Institute. http://www.bdsknowledge.org/dyn/ bds/
Agricultural Experiment Station. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu
docs/293/Akashganga%20-%20India.pdf.
/bitstream/46260/2/Vol%206%201991%20Article%205.pdf.
Sibanda, N. 2010. “Zambia Scales Up Agriculture e-Voucher Scheme.”
Kiplagat, R. 2010. “A Program to Build Trust.” ICT Update. http://
SciDevNet, November 30 (accessed May 2011), http://www
ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/A-program-to-build-trust.
.scidev.net/en/news/zambia-scales-up-agriculture-e-voucher-
Laureys, F., B. P. Marcilly, and O. Zongo. 2010. “The Market Spread.” scheme.html.
ICT Update. http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-ArticlesThe Soré, R. n.d. “Agriculture and ICT—From Traditional to Modern
-market-spread. Harvest: Upgrading of Skills of Rural Women in Burkina Faso.”
Lenoir, M. 2009. “Farmers Teaching Farmers.” ICT Update. http:// i4d, http://www.i4donline.net/articles/current-article.asp?articleid
ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/Farmers-teaching-farmers. =774&typ=Features.
Manda, L. Z., and J. Wozniak. 2015. “Farmer Participation in Radio ———. 2008. “Burkina Faso Shea Butter Producers Go High Tech.”
Campaigns for Technology Adoption: Lessons from AFFRI’s PCWorld, May 15. http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter
[sic] Hybrid Maize Campaign in Mangochi, Malawi.” Journal of /article/145954/burkina_faso_shea_butter_producers_go_high
Development and Communication Studies 4 (1): 2–17. http:// _tech.html.
dx.doi.org/10.4314/jdcs.v4i1.1. SOUNONG. 2010. Institute of Intelligent Machines, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China.
Mbogo, S. 2008. “Found in Translation: Farm Radio Goes Local.”
New Agriculturalist. http://www.new-ag.info/en/focus/focusItem Souter D., N. Scott, C. Garforth, R. Jain, O. Mascarenhas, and
.php?a=484. K. McKemey. 2005. “The Economic Impact of Telecommunications
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 2 — E N H ANCING P RODUCT IVIT Y ON T HE FA RM 221
on Rural Livelihoods and Poverty Reduction: A Study of Rural Cooperative.” Information Technologies and International
Communities in India (Gujarat), Mozambique, and Tanzania.” Development 5 (1): 81–95. http://itidjournal.org/itid/article/view/327.
Commonwealth Telecommunications Organisation for UK
Ward, D. 2010. Manual for Participatory Radio Campaigns: Revised
Department for International Development. http://www.telafrica
Manual for the Programming Stages of AFRRI Participatory
.org/R8347/files/pdfs/FinalReport.pdf.
Radio Campaign Number Two. Ottawa: African Farm Radio
UN Habitat Best Practices Database on Improving the Living Research Initiative.
Environment. 2006. “Akashganga—Using Simple and Appropriate World Bank. 2008. Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. Washington,
ICTs to Facilitate Timely Collection of Milk and thereby DC: World Bank. http://go.worldbank.org/5Z9QPCC7L0.
Generating Higher Revenues to Rural Milk Producing Farmers
in India.” http://www.unhabitat.org/bestpractices/2006/mainview ———. 2010. “Kenya at the Tipping Point? With a Special Focus
.asp?BPID=357. on the ICT Revolution and Mobile Money.” Kenya Economic
Update, December, Nairobi. http://siteresources.worldbank.org
USAID (United States Agency for International Development). 2010. /KENYAEXTN/Resources/KEU-Dec_2010_with_cover_e-version
“Using ICT to Provide Agriculture Market Price Information .pdf.
in Africa.” Briefing Paper, USAID, Washington, DC. https://
communities.usaidallnet.gov/ictforag/node/11. Zimba, J. 2013. “Role of Farmers’ Organizations for Inclusive Business
in Africa.” Paper presented at International Green Week, Berlin,
Veeraraghavan, R., N. Yasodhar, and K. Toyama. 2009. “Warana January 16–22. http://www.wfo-oma.com/documents/role-of
Unwired: Replacing PCs with Mobile Phones in a Rural Sugarcane -farmers-organizations-for-inclusive-business-in-africa.html.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
SECTION 3
Assessing Markets and Value Chains
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 225
Module 9 STRENGTHENING AGRICULTURAL MARKET
ACCESS WITH ICT
SHANE HAMILL (consultant, the World Bank)
IN THIS MODULE
A growing body of evidence suggests that market information services, especially those based on mobile phones and
tablets, can enhance farmers’ ability to access markets and match consumers’ demands through improving the flow
of information between traders and producers, reducing transaction costs, and enabling farmers to purchase required
inputs. As new programs and applications are developed, and as the speed of information increases, the potential of
information and communication technology (ICT) is still being discovered.
Mobile Phones for Market Intelligence
Farmers use mobile phones to build a network of contacts and draw on this wider expertise to obtain critical information
more rapidly. Essentially the mobile phone, its special applications, and the Internet are becoming management tools
for farmers, especially in relation to market intelligence. Greater access to information has proven to help farmers make
better decisions about transportation and logistics, price and location, supply and demand, diversification of their product
base, and access to inputs.
ICT also facilitates market research, increasingly using live information. This market information strengthens farmers’
position in their day-to-day trading. Over time, market intelligence enables them to focus on satisfying consumers’ and
buyers’ demands and on developing relationships with stakeholders in the next stage of the value chain. The key devel-
opment challenge lies in assembling and disseminating this information in a timely manner, not just to traders or larger-
scale farmers but also to smallholders.
Case studies:
Esoko in Ghana: Market Information Tool Increases Price and Builds Inter-Village Networks
mFarming in Tanzania: Mobile Phone Service Increases Smallholder Access to Market Information
Improving Logistics and Access to Inputs
By improving supply chain management (SCM), ICT tools enhance logistics and reduce transaction costs. They reduce
costs of coordination and transportation, increase transparency in decision making between partners, disseminate mar-
ket and weather information, and ensure traceability. In doing so, ICT fosters smallholders’ inclusion in supply chains (see
“Smallholder Inclusion in Commercial Supply Chains” section).
ICT increases access to inputs by enabling farmers to make more informed decisions about which inputs are most suit-
able or offer the best value for money, when and where to obtain them, and how to use them. ICT can also ensure that
subsidized inputs are correctly sold to the intended beneficiaries.
(continued)
The authors of the original module 9 were Grahame Dixie (World Bank), Vikas Choudhary (World Bank), Nithya Jayaraman (consultant),
and Soham Sen (World Bank); the authors of the original module 10 were Soham Sen (World Bank) and Vikas Choudhary (World Bank).
The reviewers of the current Module 9 were Vikas Choudhary (World Bank) and Judith Payne (USAID).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
226 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
Case studies:
TruTrade in Uganda: Paying Smallholders a Fairer Share of Their Produce Value
E-Wallet Scheme in Nigeria: Using Mobile Phones to Increase Access to Subsidized Inputs
E-Krishok and Zero Cost In Bangladesh: Providing Extension and Advisory Services through Mobile
Phones
Smallholder Inclusion in Commercial Supply Chains
Smallholders can raise their incomes by participating in commercial supply chains, but including small farmers entails
significant challenges for both the agribusinesses and smallholders. For agribusinesses, interacting with a large group of
smallholders implies high transaction and monitoring costs to ensure quality, safety, and timely delivery. For smallholders,
participation can be risky, requiring access to inputs and training to satisfy stringent quality requirements.
ICT can address this by facilitating exchanges and flows of information between parties all along the supply chain and
can be used to manage transactions and arrange logistics. ICT-supported SCM software stores information on suppliers,
enables customers to transmit orders to farmers in an efficient manner, monitors production, and tracks the movement
of inputs and end products along the supply chain.
ICT-supported SCM software also has an important role to play in eliminating unnecessary intermediaries from transac-
tions and assisting farmers in their management of traceability schemes, quality assurance programs, and certification
schemes such as Fairtrade, Rainforest Alliance, and others.
Case studies:
Farmforce in Guatemala: SCM Tool Facilitates Sustainability Certification for Smallholders
Farmbook in Africa: Enabling Smallholders to Develop Business Plans and Locate Buyers More Effectively
Digital Green in Africa and Asia: Transforming Agricultural Extension Systems and Creating Routes to
Market
OVERVIEW production on satisfying consumers’ and buyers’ demands
As data collection and the dissemination of easily digested and to develop skills in market servicing (the capacity to
market data for agriculture become more feasible and wide- develop relationships with stakeholders in the next stage of
spread, it has become increasingly clear that information is the value chain).
power. Driven by the view that greater price transparency
better empowers farmers to turn a profit, a number of initia-
The Technology Is Changing
tives aim to provide market price services.
Government-run market information services have been
Both public and private sector organizations are leveraging criticized in the past for providing information that is neither
ICT solutions to build market intelligence, improve logistics, accurate nor timely and that has yielded little immediate
and integrate smallholders into commercial supply chains. economic impact. Public market information systems collect,
The primary role of government in promoting ICT for the analyze, and disseminate information, but their weakness
immediate acquisition of the most updated information is to lies in price gathering, as public organizations have fewer
focus on the overarching importance of maximizing mobile incentives for accuracy than private organizations. The major
phone coverage while improving access to the technology criticism has been that public sector information does not
for the rural poor. An equally important role for government reach farmers on time, if at all.
is to support producers in using the technology to become
more commercially astute and better attuned to changing Mobile phone applications are overcoming this problem.
markets for agricultural products. Agricultural applications support logistics with graphical pre-
sentations of available supplies and methods for traders to
The overall aim is to strengthen farmers’ position in their upload price and supply information directly. They facilitate
day-to-day trading and, over time, enable them to focus marketing by linking buyers and sellers.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 227
Private companies increasingly sell subscription-based infor- situation is changing. Very often, farmers’ primary source of
mation services and use price information as a means of information continues to be progressive farmers (figure 9.1
promoting other products to farmers—most notably, to sell presents an example from India).
mobile phone services or agricultural inputs, such as fertilizer.
These services generally rely on local-language text messages Farmers’ information priorities include accurate local weather
to farmers’ phones. This information has been well received forecasts, technical information sequenced according to the
by farming clients, with positive reports on its quality, accu- stage in the crop cycle, data on the costs of production, and
racy, and timeliness and positive evaluations of its impact. market supply and price information. Toward the start of the
harvest, these priorities shift toward market information.
Generally, content consists of technical, marketing, weather, When a subscription-based agricultural information service
costing, pest, and disease alerts as well as information on has been rolled out, farmers claim that the market news ser-
government schemes. Short messaging service (SMS)– vice was the most valuable.
based services are likely to cost considerably less than
sending out mobile extension officers to visit farmers, and Through examples from India, Indonesia, and Uganda,
text-based services are also likely to be more accessible than figure 9.2 illustrates how farmers’ information priorities
Internet-based services. and sources of information can differ. For market infor-
mation, these farmers rely less on the Internet but turn
SMS will increasingly enable the two-way flow of informa-
tion. The emergence of open source software is facilitating FIGURE 9.1. Percentage of Farmers in India Relying on
the dissemination of targeted SMS messages on a large a Given Information Source
scale. Agricultural initiatives are using this technology to
Extension
better control and improve their agricultural information
dissemination. In particular, this new technology can help TV
eliminate the recognized weaknesses in dissemination by Radio
government-run market information services.
Input suppliers
Farmers’ Information Needs Are Evolving Progressive
farmers
Farmers’ information sources outside their immediate 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
network have not always been reliable, but with ICT this Source: Mittal, Gandhi, and Tripat 2010.
FIGURE 9.2. Farmers’ Differing Information Priorities and Sources of Market Information in Indonesia,
India, and Uganda
Farmers’ priorities for information differ Farmers’ sources of market information
Indonesia India Uganda Indonesia India Uganda
Information on farm credit Family and friends
and subsidies
Farmer organizations
Access to experts in real time
Farmer supplier/vendor
Information type
Market/price information
for commodities
Other farmers
Weather Information
SMS/voice service
Pest Information and remedy
Internet
Package of practices
leading to certification Newspapers and others
Package of practices TV
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Radio
Importance rank (out of 7) of 0 10 20 30 40 50
information type Percentage
Source: Kumar, n.d.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
228 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
to multiple other sources, including farmer organizations, prices can be lowered, it is also clear that traders who have
other farmers, newspapers, radio, TV, and SMS and access to ICT and mobile phones can raise their margins.
voice services.
Overall however, according to studies, technical advice is
Effects on Prices
the most popular agricultural information service (provided
Price is disseminated in many ways—chalked on notice
via phone-in hotlines), followed by SMS-based technical and
boards, broadcast by local radio stations, published in news-
weather advice, with SMS-based market price services com-
papers, texted on mobile phones, and (more recently) posted
ing third.
on websites and circulated via smartphones. The scale of the
effect on farmers’ prices appears to depend on a number of
factors, including:
THE IMPACT OF ICT ON FARMERS The effectiveness of the informal market information
Quantitative evidence is increasingly available on how mar- networks that already exist.
ket information affects prices paid to farmers (table 9.1). The The stability of the price structure (for example,
results are generally positive in terms of farmers’ income whether the government controls prices for a staple
and prices. Although some evidence indicates that consumer crop or whether fixed-contract pricing is widely used).
TABLE 9.1. Summary of ICT’s Impact on Farmers’ Prices and Incomes, Traders’ Margins, and Prices to Consumers
LOCATION, PRODUCT, MEDIUM
(STUDY AUTHORS) FARMER TRADER CONSUMER COMMENTS
Uganda, maize, radio (Svensson and + 15% Increase in price paid to farmers considered to be due to farm-
Yanagizawa 2009) ers’ improved bargaining power
Peru, range of enterprises, public phones + 13% Increases in farm income, but higher for nonfarm enterprises
(Chong, Galdo, and Torero 2005)
India (West Bengal), potatoes, SMS + 19% Yet to be published, but showed information to be important
(M. Torero, IFPRI, pers. comm.) both in the form of SMS and as a price ticker board in markets
Philippines, range of crops, mobile phones + 11–17% Effect on income among commercial as opposed to subsistence
(Labonne and Chase 2009) farmers, plus perceived increase in producers’ trust of traders
India (Madhya Pradesh), soybeans, Web- + 1–5% Transfer of margin from traders to farmers, effect seen shortly
based e-Choupal (Gayal 2008) (average: 1.6%) after e-Choupal established
Sri Lanka, vegetables, SMS (Lokanathan + 23.4% Appreciable price advantage over control over time, plus ben-
and de Silva, pers. comm.) efits such as increased interaction with traders and exploring
alternative crop options
India (Maharashtra), range of products, No significant In this one-year study, quantitative analysis did not show any
SMS (Fafchamps and Minten n.d) effect overall price benefit, but this finding is thought to be due to
sales in state by auction; price benefits of 9% were observed
with farm-gate sales and younger farmers
Morocco, range of crops, mobile phone + 21% Small sample showed usual behavioral changes; higher-value
(llahiane 2007) enterprises took a more proactive approach to marketing via
mobile phones
India (Kerala), fisheries, mobile phones + 8% −4% Outlier in the sense that fish catches are highly variable and
(Jensen 2007) fishermen have their own boat transportation
Uganda, range of crops, SMS and radio Bananas + 36% Awareness of market conditions and prices offers more active
(Ferris, Engoru, and Kagaozi 2008) Beans + 16.5% farmers opportunities for economic gain
Maize + 17%
Coffee + 19%
Niger, grains, mobile phones (Aker 2008) + 29% −3 to −4.5% Traders increased margin by securing higher prices through
greater capacity to search out better opportunities
Ghana, traders, mobile phones (Egyir, + 36% Traders using mobile phones tended to sell at higher prices but
Al-Hassan, and Abakah 2010) also tended to be larger-scale traders than nonusers
Kenya wholesale traders, mobile phones + 57% Improved trader margin though combination of cheaper buying
(Okello 2010) prices and higher sales prices
Source: Authors.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 229
TABLE 9.2. Current and Future Roles of ICT in Agricultural Marketing
FUNCTION DELIVERED BY ICT ENABLING OR DELIBERATE? TECHNOLOGY FUTURE
Real-time market research Enabling infrastructure Fixed-line and mobile phones Extending range of mobile phones and ICT, facilitated by
infrastructure investment and policies
Coordination of logistics Enabling infrastructure Fixed-line and mobile phones Specialist applications, training/producer organizations
Market information (price and Deliberate: Public and private sector Web-based and SMS Applications and public–private sector partnership, plus
supply) training and organization
Market intelligence Deliberate Web-based Applications and development of market intelligence
services, plus training and organizations
Inputs Enabling infrastructure Fixed-line and mobile phones Targets SMS messaged by private sector, e-vouchers for
subsidies
Source: Authors.
How the product is sold. ICT may have a greater It can be argued that if the situation were left to resolve
effect where negotiation is part of the sales process itself, the bulk of the benefits generated by these new
and a lesser effect when sales are by auction. market opportunities would go to the larger-scale and
The type of product being marketed. Circumstantial better-off farmers and to the trading sector. To redress
evidence suggests that market information systems this imbalance, there may be a role for extension to alert
have a greater effect on prices of higher-value, less farmers to new market opportunities, provide training on
perishable products—such as onions, potatoes, and changing market conditions (especially experiential train-
beans—and a lesser effect on prices of extremely ing), and transmit important market intelligence, especially
perishable products, such as leaf salad. through the Internet.
Input supply companies can use text messages to promote
Delivery to Rural Areas their products and provide technical advice to farmers.
In many countries, profits generated by mobile phone use Electronic voucher schemes offer potential for implement-
in urban areas are set aside specifically for extending the ing subsidy programs that include the private sector and
mobile phone network further into rural areas. In occasional enable more precise targeting of input supply programs to
instances, technologies such as mobile phone amplifiers and the poor.
transmitters, focused on marketplaces, can extend the dis-
Table 9.2 summarizes the role of ICT in agricultural marketing,
tance over which wireless signals travel and can encourage
based on whether the ICT consists of enabling infrastructure
additional agricultural trade to emerge.
such as telephones or deliberate applications.
Sharing the Benefits
Although ICT appears to reduce transaction costs, in the past FUTURE TRENDS
most of these cost savings accrued to traders who invested
The use of ICT tools in ensuring market access for small-
in mobile phones. Little analytical work has been done to
holder farmers has grown and evolved rapidly over recent
provide empirical evidence of these effects. These kinds of
years, and this trend is forecast to continue. Future trends in
studies are likely to be important for informing better invest-
ICT will center on improving existing services and developing
ment decisions on infrastructure, particularly at the nexus
new capabilities focused on Internet access, smartphones,
between investments in roads, markets, and communication
social media, and data collection and integration for the user
technology.
by Internet of Things (IoTs)-type services.
Given accelerating urbanization and the increasing empha-
sis on food security, the development sector needs a bet-
ter understanding of how to ensure that the reductions in Internet Access
transaction costs that are possible along the agricultural Approximately two-thirds of the world’s population is offline.
supply chain especially benefit those at both ends—the rural Access to high-speed Internet service can be limited in many
producers and urban consumers. cities around the world, while access in rural areas can simply
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
230 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
be nonexistent. Internet access will expand over the coming farming, including the sales process through market connec-
years, including through innovative services such as Google’s tions (Facebook 2016a).
Project Loon and Facebook’s Free Basics (formerly internet.org).
An underlying challenge of the Internet’s expansion will
Project Loon is a research and development project aimed at be overcoming the digital divide, which carries the risk of
providing Internet access to rural and remote areas through marginalizing groups that may not have equal access to
the use of high-latitude balloons. By partnering with tele- services. Internet access is not universal, and as long as
communications companies to share the cellular spectrum, restrictions on Internet service remain in place, investments
Google has enabled people to connect to the balloon net- in rural infrastructure and addressing farmers’ constraints will
work directly from their phones (Google 2016). require incentives offered by public stakeholders and will be
addressed by both public and private actors.
Since launching the project in in June 2013, Google has
conducted a number of comprehensive tests in the Northern
and Southern hemispheres. In May 2014, the project’s lat- Smartphones
est long-term evolution high-speed wireless communication
By complementing existing text messaging and phone call
(LTE) radio technology was tested at Linoca Gayoso, a rural
services with Internet access, smartphones have the poten-
school in Brazil that had never before enjoyed Internet access.
tial to be a truly disruptive technology in increasing market
Challenges remain over the length of time the balloons can
access for smallholder farmers. Estimates of smartphone
stay afloat, but Google is committed to launching 300–400
use around the world vary widely, however, and can be more
balloons over the coming years (Google 2016). In the medium
difficult to obtain for rural areas than for urban areas.
term, farmers in Sri Lanka will be able to access this Google
service. Google signed an agreement with the national ICT Forecasts of smartphone use can be equally problematic.
Agency in July 2015, and in February 2016 the Government According to eMarketer, Latin America is home to 155.9 million
of Sri Lanka announced that it will take a 25 percent stake smartphone users, and this number is forecast to grow to 245.6
in a joint venture with Project Loon to provide high-speed million users by 2019. In 2015 an estimated 84 percent of these
Internet service across the country (Guardian 2016). users came from just six countries; Argentina, Brazil, Chile,
Colombia, Mexico, and Peru (eMarketer 2015). In Bangladesh,
Facebook’s Free Basics service also aims to provide high-
smartphones accounted for 6 percent of total handset shipments
speed Internet service to areas that until recently have
in 2013. However, the mobile Internet reached 20 percent pen-
remained difficult to reach. By partnering with the world’s
etration through 2G networks. The 3G Internet is expected to
leading telecommunications companies, Facebook aims to
outpace 2G by 2020 (GSMA Intelligence 2014).
make Internet access more affordable. Simple, quick-to-load
websites are available on the platform via smartphones for In North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, smartphone penetra-
free without data charges. Launched in August 2013, it is tion reached approximately 20 percent of the population by
now available in 36 countries and has reached 19 million 2013, according to the United States Agency for International
people who otherwise would not have had access to the Development (USAID). By 2017, it is expected to exceed 50
Internet (Facebook 2016b). In 2015 and early 2016, this ini- percent in South Africa, 29 percent in Nigeria, and 28 percent
tiative came under strong opposition, particularly in India, in Kenya (USAID 2013).
from some groups over Net neutrality issues. As reported
by Forbes and other media outlets, this may have implica- Smartphones can drive further innovation in market access
tions for how Free Basics is rolled out in other countries and through real-time information but also through application
regions in the future (Forbes 2016). interfaces driven by video and sound. Smartphones turn a
surface into a screen, and over time farmers will increas-
As an extension of its Free Basics program, Facebook ingly absorb content through video. This trend is illustrated
has awarded a number of Innovation Challenge Awards to by the growth of Access Agriculture and Digital Green, two
projects in India that have played a role in connecting and nonprofit organizations that host videos on a digital plat-
providing added value to communities through ICT. Farming form to improve the lives of farmers across South America,
has been identified as a key category, and in October 2015, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.
US$250,000 was awarded to eKutir, an Internet program
accessible by computer or smartphone. eKutir provides Launched in 2008, Digital Green enables extension agents and
farmers with tools and resources to support all aspects of peer farmers to upload videos online to share knowledge on
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 231
improved agricultural practices, livelihoods and market trends. data collection methods by sensors and crowdsourcing, com-
As of March 2016, in India the organization had reached over bined with processing platforms called IoTs, are transforming
1 million individuals across over 12,000 villages through 4,360 agriculture.1 Today, farmers in developed countries use IoTs
videos, which showcase and demonstrate best practices to remotely monitor sensors that can detect soil moisture
(Digital Green 2016a). According to a controlled evaluation by and follow the growth of their crops. They can also remotely
Digital Green, this approach led to an uptake of new practices manage and control crop management and irrigation equip-
that was 7 times higher compared to traditional extension ser- ment, and utilize artificial intelligence to make sense of the
vices and 10 times more cost-effective (Digital Green 2016b). data to guide their management actions on the farm and in
Digital Green is addressed in more detail in the “Smallholder the market.2 Adoption and development of IoT applications
Inclusion in Commercial Supply Chains” section. in international agriculture are also emerging and expanding.
Some examples include connected micro-weather stations
for localized weather data and provision of crop insurance
Social Media
(Kenya); low-cost, mobile-controlled micro irrigation pumps
The power of social media is still being discovered with (India); soil-monitoring sensors to improve tea production
every new global event, news cycle, and digital start-up. (Sri Lanka, Rwanda); and radio-frequency identification
Ultimately, through platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, (RFID)-based food supply testing and tracking systems (India)
WhatsApp, and LinkedIn, social media empowers individuals and RFID-based livestock tracking, theft prevention, and
to connect to one another, collaborate, and share. For small- vaccination records (Botswana, Senegal, and Namibia) (ITU
holder farmers, it can facilitate new connections, strengthen and CISCO 2016).
networks, and disseminate information on markets, inputs,
logistics, and supply chain stakeholders. All of these factors
create a grassroots enabling environment for smallholders to
KEY MESSAGES
negotiate better prices for their produce, find new custom-
ers, and make informed decisions. Farmers use mobile phones to build a network of contacts
and draw on this wider expertise to obtain critical informa-
USAID highlights a case in Maharashtra State in west-central tion more rapidly. Essentially, the mobile phone, its special
India, where farmers used Facebook to discuss prices and plan applications, and the Internet are becoming management
a joint market strategy. In 2012, these turmeric farmers had tools for farmers, especially in relation to market intelligence.
overproduced their crop and turmeric prices were crashing. Greater access to information has proven to help farmers
Farmers contacted one another across the country through make better decisions about transportation and logistics,
Facebook Messenger to plan a reduction in supply over a price and location, supply and demand, diversification of
number of days (USAID 2013). Initially, 35 farmers agreed their product base, and access to inputs. ICT also facilitates
to boycott the local auction in Sangli District. Within days, market research, increasingly using live information.
thousands of farmers withheld their produce. Their protest—
By improving SCM, ICT improves logistics and reduce trans-
which would traditionally have taken months to organize—
action costs. ICT can foster smallholders’ inclusion through
was finalized within 10 days. When farmers returned to the
these logistical improvements by reducing costs of coordi-
auctions, turmeric prices had doubled, from Rs 4 to Rs 8 per
nation, increasing transparency in decision making between
kilogram (Economic Times 2012). As the Internet becomes
partners, reducing transaction costs, disseminating market
more accessible, these trends will continue to grow in rural
and weather information, and ensuring traceability. ICT also
areas, particularly among younger users.
facilitates exchanges and flows of information between
parties all along the supply chain and can be used to man-
Data Collection and Integration by IoTs age transactions, arrange logistics, and ensure that quality
With increased integration of devices such as smartphones, specifications are clearly understood. The IoT is fast finding
computers, and tablets, access to information will become its way to support agriculture, from field monitoring to pro-
even easier. This cross-screen trend has implications for con- cessing and marketing, and is a trend to follow and adopt
tent delivery, advertising, and analytics. Increasingly, the net- where feasible.
work upon which the information lies becomes more relevant
than the device being used. The integration of printers and 1 For an overview of the IoT in agriculture, visit http://www.link
scales with mobile devices is also streamlining the business -labs.com/iot-agriculture/.
of smallholder farming. Recent development of a range of 2 https://www.thingworx.com/platforms//
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
232 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
With the development of Internet access in rural areas, ICT market. As this kind of information tends to change rapidly,
will continue to evolve to incorporate smartphone interfaces its timeliness and accuracy are of great importance.
and social media. However, with this advancement, ICT pro-
viders will need to overcome the challenges of any potential Longer-term market information changes slowly and informs
digital divide. ICT programs will no longer be restricted to decisions such as which product to produce, which market-
text messaging, phone lines, or websites but will be inte- ing channel to use, and other strategic decisions aimed at
grated across all platforms, reaching all smallholders any- maximizing profits. To be made well, these kinds of deci-
time, anywhere. sions require an understanding of a wide range of factors,
such as competing suppliers, product specifications, market
No single digital platform for market access has yet to out- trends, and other issues for specific products. Generally
perform all others, so no single model can be used going these decisions also build on the aggregate knowledge cre-
forward. Many different organizations across the world are ated through the acquisition of short-term market informa-
developing programs to assist farmers, with varying objec- tion over a period of time.
tives and results. Diversity in these programs is likely to con-
tinue to yield positive outcomes under each specific scenario. The key development challenge lies in assembling and dis-
It is important to emphasize, however, that ICT applications seminating this information in a timely manner, not just
are tools and not solutions. All stakeholders along the value to traders or larger-scale farmers but also to smallholders
chain, both public and private, have a role to play in maxi- so that they can make more sensible management decisions
mizing the potential for ICT to disseminate knowledge and and increase their opportunities.
empower smallholders.
The type of product-based information that farming stake-
By all indications, the mobile phone is the most powerful holders generally require includes:
marketing tool available to farmers and traders. The studies A general overview of the market. What is the mar-
reviewed throughout this module indicate the phone’s poten- ket’s size, value, and growth rate? What are the divisions
tial for reducing asymmetries of information between traders between sectors? Who are the competing suppliers?
and producers, lowering transaction costs, and enhancing Product specifications. What are the prevailing grad-
farmers’ ability to fine-tune their production strategies to ing and packing standards and consumer and market
match the accelerating rates of change in consumer demand preferences (taste, color, size)?
and marketing channels. The phone’s potential is still being dis-
Marketing issues. What are the typical prices and
covered, and the scale of its impact is still being understood.
seasonal price patterns, quality premiums, and
marketing channels? What is the prognosis for future
prices and changes occurring in the supply chains for
MOBILE PHONES FOR MARKET INTELLIGENCE
the market?
Trends and Issues Key contacts. What are the names, addresses, and
Multiple and complex dynamics operate around market telephone numbers of key contacts, particularly buy-
demand. Consumer demand fluctuates constantly as mar- ers, agribusinesses, and traders but also specialist
keting channels continuously evolve, to name just two such input suppliers and transportation operators?
dynamics. To become adept at pairing production with oppor-
tunities, farmers and others along the value chain need to Challenges Faced by Smallholders
become better at both acquiring market information that is Although the situation differs by product, in most situations
immediately useful and obtaining longer-term knowledge market information for smallholders has proven to be frag-
related to markets. mented, anecdotal, outdated, inconsistent, and incomplete.
For example, markets for staple cereals, which are often
The Need for Market Information
subject to price controls, move relatively slowly. Information
Immediate market information is needed to gain a bet- about these markets is more widely known. For products that
ter understanding of short-term fluctuations in pricing and are more perishable or for which consumer demand is shift-
demand, thus enabling the sale of existing crop and livestock ing, the market situation is far more opaque.
products in ways that maximize their profitability. Most
often, short-term information helps in price negotiation, but In terms of balance of power in negotiations, smallholder
it can also influence the timing of sales and selection of the farmers are mainly at a considerable disadvantage in the
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 233
day-to-day marketing of their products. Often, market infor- Greater access to information and buyers steadily adds to farm-
mation will come from a neighboring farmer who may have ers’ market knowledge and gives them greater confidence to
visited a market on the previous day. A trader’s core skill is to diversify products. The additional knowledge translates into a
read the market, assess supply and demand, and compute more accurate understanding of demand and an enhanced ability
how these factors might affect price. Increasingly, traders to control production and manage supply chains.
will triangulate their information with information from oth-
ers. Given the opportunity, traders may exploit farmers’ rela- Farmer Networks. Farmers build up a network of contacts
tive ignorance to buy low and, ideally, sell high. Case studies and draw on this wider experience and expertise to obtain
have shown that the power balance in these negotiations critical information more rapidly. With phones, farmers deal
is altogether different when the trader senses that that the directly with wholesalers or larger-scale intermediaries rather
farmer-interlocutor also appreciates the real market situation than small-scale intermediaries. Farmers who own mobile
and can access different markets, buyers, and outlets. phones have also proven able to develop a broader network
of contacts than their peers who do not own them.
Figure 9.3 provides a sense of the package of information
that farmers need with respect to immediate information and Studies have shown that in Malaysia, for example,
long-term market intelligence and displays the likely sources mobile phone use was linked to increased profits among
of that information. younger owner/managers of farms and smaller agribusi-
nesses. A survey of 134 younger agricultural-based entre-
Role of ICT preneurs asked for their perceptions of the impact of mobile
phones on their businesses. The two overarching benefits
A growing body of knowledge indicates that phones, tab-
they reported were that they could draw upon a wider net-
lets, TV and radio, mobile phones, and increasingly smart-
work of people for information (a “wisdom of crowds” effect),
phones have a positive impact on agricultural income. This
and they could obtain information at a greatly increased
technology gives users the ability to tap into a wider range
speed (Shaffril et al. 2009). Other benefits—such as market
of knowledge and information than they could access previ-
information, time savings, and technology—were of a lower
ously. Research is emerging on just how much farmers are
order. The overall impact was an increase in profits from their
starting to use mobile phones to assist in marketing their
businesses, especially after the entrepreneurs had used their
production. Work in Bangladesh, China, India, and Vietnam
mobile phones for more than two years.
showed that about 80 percent of farmers now own mobile
phones (Minten, Reardon, and Chen n.d.). Mobile phones
Price and Location. An ability to compare prices increases
are used to speak to multiple traders to establish prices and
farmers’ power to negotiate with traders (as discussed below).
market demand, and more than half of smallholder farmers
It also enhances farmers’ ability to change the time and place
concluded selling arrangements and prices on the phone.
of marketing to capture a better price. Figure 9.4 shows how
market information can significantly affect farming profits.
Profitability is highly affected by
FIGURE 9.3. Commercial Farmers’ Information Needs and Sources prices, largely because any change
in price has little or no effect on
Commercial farmers require a package of information costs, so the effects are directly
on the bottom line. An inability to
(Mobile phone / SMS) Short-term information Longer-term information (Web based) find buyers for products naturally
has a profound effect on profits.
Real-time market research Alternative enterprises/options By accumulating market knowl-
edge, however, producers gain an
Market prices Price patterns
opportunity to identify and diversify
Market supply/demand Demand trends
into alternative and more profitable
Product specifications
Accurate local weather forecasts products.
Production blueprints
Timely and specific technical advice
Databases of buyers,
Cost of production data
suppliers, and transporters The main goal of increasing
Sources of inputs access to market information is to
Source: Authors. empower farmers to take greater
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
234 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
FIGURE 9.4. Market Information Affects Farmers’ Profits
70,000
Net return Marketing costs Production costs
60,000
+64%
Indicative cost (Rs)
50,000
+10% +29% 23,000
40,000
15,400 18,000
14,000 –64%
30,000
5,000
20,000
10,000
0
Base scenario 10% yield 10% price –30% sold Alternative
increases increases enterprise
Source: Authors.
control of marketing their produce and orienting their produc- markets to capture better prices coordinated with local
tion to identified market opportunities. In essence, the ability truckers to improve product transportation. A particularly
to conduct market research—to gather both short- and long- important change was that they used their new knowledge
term information—will increasingly become part of the mix of to become more market oriented in their production, moved
farming skills. away from producing low-value crops, and diversified into
higher-value enterprises. The knowledge gained from using
One of the most influential studies of the impact of mobile the mobile phone reduced the perceived levels of risk and
phones was carried out by Jensen (2007), who tracked effects helped them target their production to specific, identified
on the fisheries subsector as mobile phone coverage was market opportunities.
extended along the coast of Kerala, South India. The results
were dramatic. Because farmers could identify the best Svensson and Yanagizawa (2009) assessed how prices paid
markets for selling their catch, price volatility was reduced, to farmers were influenced by market information collected
wastage was significantly lower, fishermen achieved higher by the Market Information Service Project and disseminated
average prices, and consumer prices fell. through local FM radio. The information was broadcast
through daily bulletins of 2–4 minutes and a longer weekly
Studies in Niger have found that mobile phones bring bet- program that provided district market prices.
ter price integration, improve profits for traders, and reduce
consumer prices. Aker (2008) found that mobile phones Having access to a radio was associated with a 15 percent
reduced search costs by 50 percent compared with personal higher farm-gate price. Where market information was not
travel. Traders’ profits increased by 29 percent—not because disseminated through the radio, there was no effect. The
they traded more products but because they obtained bet- results suggest that reducing the information asymmetries
ter prices through real-time market research conducted via between farmers and other intermediaries increased farm-
mobile phone. Mobile phones were also associated with a ers’ bargaining power.
3.5 percent reduction in average consumer grain prices.
One of India’s leading private companies, ITC, has annual
A survey of a small sample of farmers in Morocco found revenues of US$7 billion and 29,000 employees. It is active
that mobile phone use resulted in a 21 percent increase in in fast-moving consumer goods, hotels, paper and packag-
income (Ilahiane 2007). An even more relevant finding was ing, agribusiness, and information technology. Through its
that the technology changed farmers’ behavior; increasingly, e-Choupal program, it has established Internet access kiosks
they spoke directly with wholesalers or larger-scale interme- across rural India to both enable farmers to retrieve market
diaries rather than smaller intermediaries. Farmers switched information and to serve as a sales channel for its products.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 235
Launched in 2000, the kiosks operate in 40,000 Indian vil- Farmers reported feeling increased trust in their trading part-
lages and reach approximately 4 million farmers. These ners after they had gained access to mobile phones.
kiosks are hubs where farmers can obtain price information,
seek options for selling their produce, buy inputs, and obtain Research on tomato farmers’ negotiations with rural traders
advice on farming practices related to input use. This service is in Ethiopia showed that, on average, farmers’ initial ask-
free of charge; ITC earns revenues through commodity trans- ing price was about three times higher than the final price
actions at the kiosks and through advertising other goods via they obtained from buyers (Jaleta and Gardebroek 2007).
the kiosks such as agricultural inputs. Ultimately, ITC expects Yet when farmers had market price information—typically
half of its revenue to come from input sales through its Web- obtained by a mobile phone call to acquaintances close to
enabled e-Choupal network. the central market—the difference between their initial ask-
ing price and the final price was reduced by 16.5 percent.
In addition to the kiosks, ITC also offers information services In other words, market information increased farmers’ bar-
to farmers via mobile phone, thus deepening its relationship gaining power by one-sixth.
with the farmer and enabling them to make more informed
decisions (Kumar n.d.). Table 9.3 demonstrates the impact of Goyal (2008) compared farmer prices in the regulated market
the e-Choupal service on farmers’ yields and costs. (mandi ) for soybeans in two areas of Madhya Pradesh, India.
In some areas, 1,600 e-Choupals Internet kiosks operated
Negotiations. Research on negotiation approaches indicates by the aforementioned agribusiness company ITC dissemi-
that it is important to obtain as much information as possible nated price information, whereas the other areas relied only
prior to a potential transaction. This information should include on the mandi for such information. Goyal found that farmers
the trading patterns, goals, and preferences of those that obtained better prices when they had access to a wider range
one is negotiating with. Groups provided with more informa- of market information. Farmers’ price increases ranged from
tion in advance achieved more effective and efficient outcomes 1 percent to 5 percent, with an average of 1.6 percent. The
as well as higher levels of satisfaction with the negotiation. additional farm income from soybeans in Madhya Pradesh
TABLE 9.3. Agricultural Interventions Made through e-Choupal Kiosks and Their Effects
TYPE OF AGRICULTURAL
TECHNOLOGY OR
PRACTICE BEFORE E-CHOUPAL: 2000 E-CHOUPAL INTERVENTION EFFECTS
Seed use per unit area For soybeans, farmers used a high plant- Farmers advised to use a lower planting Savings: 10 kg seeds/acre (Rs 200 /
ing density (45–50 kg seeds/acre) density (30–35 kg seeds/acre) acre)
Seed of verified quality Farmers’ limited awareness of benefits The e-Choupal demonstrated the benefits Yield increase and self-sufficiency in
of certified and foundation seeds led to of foundation and certified seeds through seeds (for self-fertilizing, nonhybrid
limited use of such seeds its agricultural extension program (Choupal crops)
Pradarshan Khet)
Seed treatment Low awareness of benefits of seed The e-Choupal spread awareness about ben- Germination percentage and yields
treatment efits of seed treatment and provided treated increased significantly
seeds to some farmers
New varieties and improved Farmers used varieties inappropriate The e-Choupal suggested new varieties suit- Most suitable variety planted on time,
timing of planting for local conditions (climate, pest, and able for adverse conditions and advised farm- leading to higher yields
disease incidence and timing of rainfall) ers how to better align planting with rainfall
Weed and other pest Farmers controlled weeds by hand; for The e-Choupal suggested use of herbicides Effective weed and pest control leading
management pest control, they were largely guided by and/or pesticides in specific circumstances to low loss of yield
local input dealers
Soil testing No awareness of soil testing and conse- The a-Choupal propagated the practice of Reduced fertilizer costs and more appro-
guent benefits replenishing soil nutrients based on soil priate nutrients applied
testing reports
Storage practices and market Low awareness of hygienic practices for The e-Choupal advised storage of grain Reduced losses from poor storage
linkages stored crops; limited opportunities to sell based on moisture content to avoid loss and practices as well as better earnings from
products contamination; it offered farmers alternate the sale of output
opportunities to sell their products
Source: ITC Ltd 2010.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
236 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
was estimated at about US$10–20 million per year. This Figure 9.5 illustrates where the effects of ICTs on agricultural
income was almost certainly a transfer from traders to pro- marketing occur along the links in value chains, thus indicat-
ducers as a result of producers’ greater market knowledge ing the information required and the technology involved. The
and improved strength in negotiation. figure has two key messages. First, ICT potentially has an
impact on the management of every step in the production
Increasingly, ICT is being used to integrate markets and bring marketing chain, from planning to sales. Second, almost all of
in more transparency and opportunities. This provides many these functions are likely to be carried out by mobile phone.
opportunities for empowering the negotiation position of Other potential services (for example, market price information,
smallholder farmers. The Government of Karnataka (India), market intelligence, and specific phone-based applications)
for example, has been implementing electronic markets largely perform support and secondary functions that make
(e-mandi) for the past many years. This has been found to farmers’ mobile phones more useful.
improve marketing efficiency through competitive and trans-
parent bidding mechanisms and by minimizing manipulations
in trading practices (Athawale 2014). Now this approach is Lessons Learned
being scaled at national level by the Government of India, Experience in using ICT devices to improve access to market
which plans to integrate 585 wholesale markets through a information reveals that they contribute to:
common electronic platform (The Hindu 2015).
Broader and deeper networks. Farmers commu-
nicate by phone with traders and farmers outside of
Supply and Demand. Farmers gain greater control over
their immediate geography, as opposed to making a
their production and product sales by finding new sources of
physical trip. The ability to communicate more easily
demand, improving their ability to adjust supply and quality
and to triangulate information creates deeper trust in
to market conditions, and learning about quality, grades, and
key trading relationships.
product presentation.
More sophisticated marketing plans based on
Over the longer term, a better understanding of market price information. Farmers can modify the date of
demand and consumer trends helps farmers diversify into marketing, product permitting, or switch to alternate
higher-value crops and capture greater value. Farmers can also markets, transportation and regulation permitting.
make more informed decisions about which inputs are better Producers also use market information to decide
or cheaper to buy and when and where to best obtain them. when to harvest produce or, if possible, where to
store it until they can sell it at higher prices.
Transportation and Logistics. Farmers can organize and Improved negotiation power. Farmers increase their
coordinate among themselves and (larger-scale) truckers power to negotiate, particularly with traders, based on
to consolidate volume and leverage economies of scale. their ability to understand pricing in multiple markets,
Greater coordination also occurs around the timing of aggre- to cut out intermediaries, and to sell directly to larger-
gation, collection, and volumes. Larger volumes lower costs scale buyers.
and enable farmers to realize higher prices. Informed use of inputs. Farmers improve their
capacity to raise yields through better use of inputs
Increased Uptake of ICT and/or use of better inputs. They can identify sources
Evidence indicates that farmers increasingly use mobile of inputs, obtain them more cheaply, and are better
phones for real-time market research. In Bangladesh, for able to buy and apply them at the optimal times.
example, about 80 percent of farmers now have mobile Future production and marketing choices. Aside
phones; of these, two-thirds have owned mobile phones from increasing their profits and competitiveness
for three to five years (Minten, Reardon, and Chen n.d.). through immediately useful information related to
About 70 percent of rice growers and 30 percent of potato prices, markets, and logistics, farmers also require
growers contact multiple traders by phone to explore selling information about market changes that may influ-
opportunities and prices, and about 60 percent will agree ence their production and marketing choices over
on the details of the trading deal over the phone. In parallel the longer term.
with mobile phone growth, smartphone penetration is also Reduced logistics and transportation costs.
growing in Bangladesh and other regions (as discussed in Farmers obtain the latest information with a phone
the overview). call instead of making a long trip to a market.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 237
FIGURE 9.5. ICT Input for Marketing along the Agricultural Value Chain
Harvesting,
primary Transportation and Sales and
Production
processing, and logistics marketing
storage
Harvesting dates Arranging the
Pre- affected by Establish supply,
production aggregation of
market prices; product and demand, and
decisions grades adjusted prices
based on consolidation of
on basis of market loads
accumulated information
market
knowledge and Storage decisions based Real-time market
intelligence Seeking lower-cost tran-
Access to inputs on market knowledge and sportation and improved research and
access and costs of arrangements negotiation
storage
Motivated by Real-time Mainly Organized Real-time
market visits, Mainly phone market facilitated by by cell market
phone contact, Mainly real- research on cell phones, phone, with research Mainly
conversations, increasing SMS- time cell phones some cell some by phone, cell-phone-
sometimes based input market with some phone apps assistance supported based
supported by advice and research on support being from Web- by SMS and conver-
Web-based promotion, plus cell phones through developed to based Web-based sations
market e-vouchers for Web-based support the market market
intelligence subsidies market processes intelligence price
intelligence services
Source: Authors.
They can coordinate with other local farmers to use for gathering the price and market information that they
one large truck rather than several smaller ones to need. As ICT services improve, resources become available,
deliver their products. infrastructure expands, and technological learning becomes
Innovative partnerships. Partnerships are facilitated more widespread. In the future, smartphones might make
and built among groups of producers, or by virtue of Internet-based dissemination more effective, especially for
direct communication with corporations and trad- interventions that seek to expand market intelligence.
ers, or through the ability to supply product based
The private companies that have emerged in recent years to
on just-in-time and/or quality needs.
deliver market information take a proactive approach to under-
Improved farm business management. Farmers
standing potential customers’ information needs, and they
can become better managers through better infor-
build feedback loops to learn how their services can be better
mation about which inputs to use, new knowledge
attuned to demand and more responsive to complaints. They
about grades and standards for produce, and
use their own enumerators, whose employment depends
increased interaction with corporations, traders,
on the accuracy of their price reporting. Generally, their
and other farmers.
customers—mostly younger, more literate, and larger-scale
Debate among practitioners centers on the relevance of the farmers—have reacted positively.
public and private sectors’ roles in market information ser-
vices and how public-private partnerships can offer the best Principles and Guidelines for Potential Interventions
way forward. Some take the view that if telephone infra- Based on the accumulating evidence, experience, and les-
structure is provided, stakeholders will find a way to use ICT sons learned, a number of principles and guidelines are
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
238 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
important to consider when using ICT to develop market Lower the cost of SMS. Clearly, there are important
intelligence: opportunities for enhancing the range, scale, and
Market intelligence is one of the building blocks impact of information dissemination by working with
for stronger knowledge of the changing landscape the regulator to reduce prices for bulk messaging to
of agricultural production. producers. Development institutions need to be able
Market information on prices, supplies, and to benchmark costs to strengthen negotiations when
demand can positively affect prices paid to farmers, proposing the development of public good, SMS-
but only if it is done well. Farmers need a package based information services.
of information that evolves as their priorities change Invest in farmer education and extension training.
throughout the agricultural season. This information Helping smallholders to understand needs for grading,
package can encompass weather forecasts, techni- organization, coordination, and market opportunities
cal advice, market prices, pest and disease alerts, is critical to success. Marketing education, especially
and messages about schemes and support from the experiential marketing training, can be an important
appropriate line departments. Market information on element in leveraging the benefits that ICT can bring
its own is not enough to make farmers both more to farmers’ prices and returns.
productive and more profitable, however. An inte-
grated approach to information generation and delivery
Case Study: Esoko in Ghana—Market Information Tool
is required.
Increases Price and Builds Inter-Village Networks
Both the government and private sector are hav-
Esoko, a private company founded in Ghana in 2004, provides
ing difficulty in delivering ICT-based information
information and communication services for agricultural mar-
in a sustainable, effective way. Public-private
kets in Africa. Now operating in 8 countries and employing
partnerships offer a way forward. New open source
over 200 people, it has played a role in the explosive growth
technology is making it possible for government
of cellular services across the continent. It has grown to
institutions to provide far more targeted information,
be the leading initiative in delivering market information to
primarily by sending local-language SMS messages
farmers across Africa, and it is an example of how Ghanaian
or voice messages directly to farmers’ phones and
software developers can build world-class technology that is
by allowing feedback from the field. The technology
used throughout the continent (Esoko 2015).
helps overcome the major criticism that government
information systems do not reach their clients. Esoko uses a simple text messaging system and website
to bridge the information gap being faced by smallholder
Open source systems can become the foundation of an farmers. This platform provides three services: current local
ICT-mediated extension service that alerts clients to pest market prices; a matchmaking platform that connects buy-
and disease problems, other information vital for production, ers and sellers; and information including weather forecasts,
and opportunities to participate in new government schemes. news, and tips for farmers. These services enable farmers
The potential for generating income to cover operating costs to make informed decisions that can increase their income.
would be significantly increased if the government would use
its resources to build an accurate and useful database of its By driving this social and economic impact in rural commu-
farming clients, with their mobile phone numbers and farm- nities through the use of mobile phone technology, Esoko
ing characteristics, and leverage a very substantial reduction has succeeded in increasing farmers’ incomes by about
in the cost of SMS messages. 10 percent per year. Now, 6,000 farmers in 16 countries in
Africa use the platform (Hildebrandt et al. 2015). According
The extension service will have the very real possibility of sell- to a 2015 study by New York University (NYU) on the impact
ing SMS broadcasting services to clients supporting the farm- of market information tools, farmers in Ghana using Esoko
ing sector, such as banking institutions (to send messages, were able to increase their income by 9 percent per year
technical and price information, and loan repayment reminders (Hildebrandt et al. 2015).
to borrowers) or input suppliers (to promote products, remind
farmers to buy inputs, and respond to pest, disease, and plant/ For this 2015 study, researchers conducted a randomized field
animal nutrition issues). Sales of such services, along with the experiment to examine how market price information shared
collection of price data, may best be done by the private sec- via text messages to mobile phones affected smallholder
tor or suitably incentivized individuals. farmers. As in other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, a majority
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 239
of Ghanaian farmers are smallholders who depend on traders experienced higher prices. This spillover probably is the result
to market their production. In each agricultural season, the of two factors. First, farmers tend to share market prices with
typical farmer in this study sells, on average, to three to five one another, demonstrating the importance of farmer net-
different traders. About half of these traders are individuals works built up locally and via mobile phone. Second, traders
with whom farmers have a long-standing relationship. apparently did not know which farmers had access to market
information and which did not, therefore shifting the power
It is common in the region for transactions between farm- balance in negotiations. Many traders began offering the
ers and traders to take place at the farm gate or in the local higher price once they encountered farmers who had access
area, to be conducted in an informal manner, and to involve to that information (Hildebrandt et al. 2015); see image 9.1.
bargaining between the parties. As described earlier in this
module, farmers often complain of unfair practice by traders,
and this is also the case in Ghana; smallholders believe trad- Case Study: mFarming in Tanzania—Mobile
ers cheat them by citing prices that are lower than the actual Phone Service Increases Smallholder Access to
urban prices. Farmers cannot verify this and are at a disadvan- Market Information
tage in negotiations (Hildebrandt et al. 2015). Poor transportation and communication infrastructure means
that smallholder farmers in Tanzania, a large and fairly sparsely
As mentioned above, this NYU study found that by simply populated country, struggle to access vital agricultural market
having access to market information, farmers were able to information and training. Finnish mobile-service company
increase their income by 9 percent. For a typical yam farmer in Sibesonke was established in 2009 and aims to offer a
Ghana, the resulting increase in annual household income was cost-effective and scalable mobile service to address these
approximately US$170. The direct return on investment for this challenges.
service was in excess of 200 percent (Hildebrandt et al. 2015).
Sibesonke launched its mFarming Service to empower
Researchers also found a spillover effect, in which nearby farmers to receive real-time weather forecasts and crop
farmers without direct access to Esoko information also and livestock management tips, including advice on topics
such as pests and disease treat-
IMAGE 9.1. Market Information Tools Used by Smallholder Farmers
ment. This information presents
a. Mobile and computer screen views of Esoko smallholder farmers in Tanzania
with an unprecedented opportunity
to increase their yields and improve
farming practices.
In March 2013 Sibesonke announced
a partnership with the Tanzanian
Ministry of Agriculture, Food
Security, and Cooperatives, and the
Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries
Development to empower both
b. Close-up of data fields for a commodity ministries to better reach the 33 mil-
lion Tanzanian farmers with relevant,
up-to-date farming content on mobile
phones (Finnpartnership 2013).
The mFarming service allows
farmers to buy and sell crops and
livestock, receive crop and live-
stock management tips, and obtain
weather forecasts. Farmers on
the network Vodacom can access
the mFarming service by dialing
*149*50# on their mobile phones.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
240 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
By 2013 over 600 smallholder farmers benefited from this farmers higher incomes and more stable demand but required
initiative. The mFarming website has an interesting moni- farmers to make significant improvements in product quality,
toring tool for their customer activity on a given day, which quantity, and business management (Kaganzi et al. 2008).
indicates rapid uptake of the service across the country with
most customers in the North (http://mfarming.sibesonke. To ensure direct communication between all stakehold-
com/). ers under this agreement, the chairman of the Nyabyumba
Farmers’ Group purchased a mobile phone to maintain regu-
lar contact with Nandos as well as other members of the
IMPROVING LOGISTICS AND ACCESS TO INPUTS cooperative. The phone facilitated collection, delivery, and
the fine-tuning of harvesting and dispatch to match demand
Trends and Issues
in Kampala.
Field observations show that in many places ICT devices, par-
ticularly mobile phones, are transforming how rural logistics To meet these conditions and engage with this higher-value
function. The resulting improvement in logistics can be seen market over the long term, farmers needed to become more
through lower transaction costs and less wastage. Mobile organized and strengthen their partnerships with service
phones enable market agents to better coordinate product sup- providers. The key challenges were to ensure that farm-
ply and demand, strengthen existing trade networks, facilitate ers could consistently produce potatoes to these standards
the assembly of products to reach a critical mass, and enable and communicate directly with their client. Farmers’ lack of
products to be delivered cost-effectively to new markets. grading knowledge and initial inability to produce potatoes
that met Nandos’ quality standards caused 80 percent of
Logistics their production to be rejected. Training reduced the rejec-
Despite these positive effects, other factors can still limit tion level to less than 10 percent in less than a year.
increased supply chain efficiency, such as geographic
Access to Inputs
position, limited access to transportation and credit, and
poor access to inputs. An ICT-enabled logistics system can Farmers’ yields may not approach the highest potential yields
help in: for a variety of reasons; poor climate or weather may play a
part, along with other factors such as socioeconomic status,
Collection, by setting out well-organized
physical infrastructure, institutional and government policies,
collection routes.
or poor access to farming technology or finance. If farmers
Aggregation, by assembling markets with sufficient
narrow the gap between their yields and potential yields, they
critical mass to attract large-scale traders. Traders use
can improve productivity and profits; but to do so, they require
the quantity and variety of products and the mobile
accurate information on agricultural inputs, technology, work-
phone network to conduct real-time research and
ing capital, and how to obtain them. Much of the yield gap
identify arbitrage and market opportunities for the
is related to problems in accessing inputs. For example,
products they buy directly in rural areas.
farmers can be unsure when inputs are available, particularly
Delivery, by coordinating directly with other farmers when the government distributes subsidized inputs.
or truckers to organize times, dates, volumes, and so
forth. The literature on ICT’s impact on rural logistics Questions remain about how ICT can help to facilitate access,
largely focuses on data obtained from user surveys although some answers may be emerging from efforts such
and case studies. Less research has been done to as the e-Choupal kiosks mentioned in this module. In a study
assess the direct impact of mobile phones on reduc- in India, farmers’ search for inputs—particularly seeds, fertil-
ing transaction costs related to agriculture. Perhaps izer, and plant protection chemicals—was listed high among
the reason is because logistics are regarded as an their reasons for using mobile phones. Farmers highlighted
infrastructural issue, so its synergies with ICT are difficulties in sourcing inputs such as fertilizer, seeds, and
not often considered. agrochemicals for plant protection twice as frequently as
their next key problem, lack of irrigation. They especially
For example, mobile phones proved very effective for the wanted information to distinguish genuine products from
Nyabyumba Farmers’ Group in Uganda, which reached an counterfeits.
agreement in 2007 to supply Nandos, a multinational fast-food
restaurant in in Kampala, with graded ware potatoes at a fixed Even if they know where to buy inputs, farmers cannot always
price throughout the year. Supplying these outlets offered buy them at the right time due to high costs and other barriers.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 241
myAgro is a service in Senegal and Mali that helps smallhold- through the use of mobile phones and other ICT
ers purchase agricultural inputs on an incremental payments services such as e-Choupal kiosks.
basis via a mobile phone platform and a network of local vil- A national survey of Indian farmers in 2005 found that
lage vendors. By topping up their myAgro accounts, farmers only 40 percent of farm households accessed informa-
easily save and then digitally pay for inputs over time. tion about modern agricultural techniques and inputs.
The survey also found that almost all small-scale
Farmer Behavior farmers reported some increase in convenience and
Even if they know where to buy inputs, farmers still do cost savings from using their mobile phones to seek
not always buy them at the right time. Duflo, Kremer, and information such as input availability.
Robinson (2009) argue that a tendency to procrastinate may RML (formerly Reuters Market Light) was launched
explain why so few African farmers use fertilizer, despite in India in 2007 to provide market information and
knowing that it raises yields and profits. Only 9 percent intelligence to farmers and agribusinesses. In a survey
of farmers interviewed believed that fertilizer would not of farmers who received the RML service, 50 percent
increase their profits, yet only 29 percent had used any fertil- said they reduced expenditures on agricultural inputs
izer in either of the two preceding seasons. When asked why, because of SMS information services. The service is
almost four-fifths of the respondents said that they did not also changing farmers’ behavior; 44 percent said that
have enough money to buy fertilizer, although fertilizer was it changed their fertilizer applications and 43 percent
readily available. However, even poor farmers earned enough said that it changed the timing of spraying.
to buy fertilizer for a portion of their fields. Better intentions
made little difference. Virtually all farmers said they planned A reason commonly cited for the difficulty in obtaining
to use fertilizer the following season, but only 37 percent inputs is that the government will often distribute subsidized
actually did so. inputs, often through schemes that last only a few years.
These policies restrict the potential for the private sector
The question is whether ICT, with targeted messages, to supply inputs; and when government programs end,
could be effective for helping farmers to become more no company can sustainably deliver inputs to the farming
rational and better-organized buyers of inputs. In other cir- community.
cumstances, having access to such information through ICT
seems to provide clear benefits (table 9.4):
Lessons Learned
In India, farmers with access to ICT services
reported 10–40 percent yield increases, primarily Findings on how mobile telephony enhances marketing by
through gaining better access to hybrid seeds and improving logistics include:
being encouraged to introduce new farming practices More efficient use of existing storage, packaging,
(Vodafone India 2009). All farmers claimed that their transportation, and processing facilities.
mobile phones had led to increased yields, with some Increased monitoring and coordination of freight
also citing price and revenue improvement. These transportation operations, including product collection,
increases are a result of better information flows delivery, and security.
TABLE 9.4. Information Priorities of Farmers Using Mobile Phone in India
INFORMATION PROVIDED
NSS 59TH ROUND OF PHONE USAGE VIA: VODAPHONE REUTERS MARKET LIGHT
Seeds Seeds Accurate local weather forecasts
Fertilizer application Prices Technical information
Plant protection Plant protection Input sources and/or production costs
Harvesting and marketing Fertilizer application Market information
Farm machinery Harvesting and marketing
Farm machinery
Source: Authors.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
242 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
Quick response to any disruptions in the supply Integrated rural infrastructure investments could
chain (for example, disruptions such as vehicle break- include investments that improve agricultural produc-
downs clear up more rapidly). tivity, rural roads, and rural markets (assembly or pri-
Reduced travel time and expense through the mary wholesale markets in particular) and that extend
ability to call markets and obtain information rural mobile phone coverage. As noted, in areas
instead of having to travel there. where phone signals are weak, a mobile phone ampli-
Disintermediation and improved transportation fier located at a market would facilitate conversations
efficiency as mobile phones facilitate the assembly of and flows of information around market opportunities
product, which enables larger trucker/traders to buy and needs, logistics, and prices.
sensible-sized loads directly in rural areas. Suppliers Form innovative private-sector partnerships.
can use mobile phones to conduct real-time market Better involvement and organization of stakeholders
research, and entire truckloads can be bought and can improve farmers’ access to information about
sold while still on the road. inputs. Agribusinesses and input suppliers have
Synergies between investments, so that combined an incentive to invest in ICT services that provide
investments in roads, telephone communications, input information because of the potential benefits
and electricity have a greater aggregate benefit that can be realized from increasing input sales.
than separate investments ever could have. (If a Moreover, input suppliers and dealers can come
single investment were to be made, however, the together to create partnerships to facilitate access
most cost-effective investment would probably be to inputs. They can do so by combining their data
telephones.) and communicating via SMS. For example, input
supply companies can use ICT to remind farmers to
Principles and Guidelines for Potential Interventions purchase inputs, alert them to input arrivals, and pro-
vide timely advice on proper use, such as for treating
A combination of economic intuition, observation, and
emerging pest and disease problems.
research indicates that important synergies can be created
from a confluence of investments: Use ICT to improve governance of subsidy
programs. ICT offers a means of delivering subsides to
Address policy issues around increasing access to
the intended beneficiaries. It enables community pro-
the poorest. Despite phenomenal growth in tele-
curement of inputs and input delivery through the pri-
phone lines and mobile phone networks, access is
vate sector. Embedded e-payment systems guarantee
still highly inadequate and unequal. Today, the main
timely payment from the government and encourage
beneficiaries of ICT are those who have the tech-
the emergence of a private network of input suppliers.
nology, enabling them to increase their profits. Not
only are the poor and those living in rural areas at a Education and information dissemination are key
disadvantage, but full utilization of the technology is components of supplying inputs through ICT. It is
impossible, even for those with access, until the digi- critical for farmers to have a rooted understanding of
tal divide is addressed (as discussed in the overview) the potential long-term implications for productivity
and universal access is achieved. A full transforma- and profits of using better inputs in a timely manner.
tion of the logistics system will not happen until the On a more practical level, farmers need information
technology becomes ubiquitous, intensifying competi- about how to source inputs and identify counterfeit
tion and carrying the potential long-term benefits of supplies, which remain a significant productivity drain.
reducing transaction costs.
Create an integrated rural infrastructure invest-
ment program. Investments that help to remove Case Study: TruTrade in Uganda—Paying Smallholders
intermediaries are believed to have strong potential a Fairer Share of Their Produce Value
for improving marketing efficiencies and lowering TruTrade offers IBM cloud-based mobile and online applica-
transaction costs. Studies in South America have tions to allow price setting, tracking produce from collection
demonstrated synergies between investments in to delivery, and tracking payments from buyer to farmer.
roads, telephones, and electricity, although individu- Established as a private, for-profit company in Kenya in
ally telephones consistently show the highest returns 2012, it has expanded into Uganda and is planning to
(Jansen, Morley, and Torero 2007). develop operational capacity in Tanzania. Its application links
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 243
smallholders to buyers with controls that enforce quality white sorghum. In a typical remote area, a farmer going to a
and transparency and thereby embed trust, enhance market TruTrade collection point receives UgSh 700 per kilogram of
efficiency, manage risks, and allow farmers to share in value- sorghum. The buyer pays UgSh 1,150 per kilogram of cleaned
addition processes. sorghum, and the costs of the intermediate transactions are
broken down per kilogram.
TruTrade has a franchise network of brokers and field
agents to manage transactions on the ground. As produce Assuming a deal goes well (the logistics work out, trucks are
is sorted, graded, cleaned, pressed, milled, and packaged all full, all produce is accepted by the buyer, and payment is
to meet buyer requirements, farmers that use TruTrade timely), TruTrade will pass any profit back to farmers. In the
are rewarded for quality and capture a share of the value case shown in table 9.5, the profit results in a bonus of UgSh
addition. TruTrade’s financing mechanism pays farmers 50 per kilogram for farmers. When farmers do well, TruTrade’s
when the crop is delivered to company collection points. network commissions also increase (TruTrade 2015).
Those farmers are also awarded a bonus from value addi-
tion or when savings are made. TruTrade’s approach gives farmers a strong understanding
of costs, which helps them to negotiate better with other
TruTrade’s Transaction Security Service (TSS) ensures that buyers or market their other crops. It also helps other sup-
benefits are awarded to farmers, traders, and buyers. Farmers ply chain players to define and analyze the costs accurately
receive better prices, more reliable access to markets, and before deciding to engage in a specific deal.
can benefit from value-addition opportunities. Traders can
grow their businesses, earning a commission and building TruTrade’s experience with ICT in agriculture demonstrates
relationships as a trusted service provider. Buyers receive the importance of user-led programming and peer exchange
produce that meets their demand for quality and volume, learning. The field operations evolved over many years of
reliability, and traceability (TruTrade 2015). intensive peer exchange among the value chain actors, men-
tored by Rural African Ventures Investments (RAVI). Insights
As of 2015, three of TruTrade’s franchisees in northern gained on the ground were then communicated to program-
Uganda were sourcing sorghum and barley from smallhold- mers in Webgate to build the ICT tools for TSS.
ers to supply East African Breweries (EABL) in Kampala.
In 2016, TruTrade continued to work with broker networks
Another of its franchisees, AgriNet Ltd, is sourcing maize
across the region to use its application to improve smallholder
from smallholders to supply flour to base-of-the-pyramid
prices and provide produce to a whole range of buyers, from
urban consumers. TruTrade provides a transparent and
large-scale processors like breweries to small vendors serving
secure way to link farmers with the buyer.
base-of-the-pyramid urban consumers (see image 9.2).
Farmers can bring whatever produce they have to TruTrade’s
registered agents, who weigh and check the quality of the pro- TABLE 9.5. TruTrade Transactions and Payments
duce and pay the agreed-on price. TruTrade encourages farmers to White Sorghum Producers, Uganda,
to receive payment through mobile money as it is more secure 2015/16
and easy for the company to track. TruTrade covers the with- TRANSACTION PAYMENT (UGANDAN SHILLINGS)
drawal charges, and farmers are also eligible for a bonus. Farmer 750 (700 down payment + 50 bonus)
Storage 10 (collection point)
Through its TSS business model, TruTrade gives farmers the
Cleaning/packaging 50
best deal possible because the company earns commissions
on each transaction linked to the price the farmer receives. Transportation to Kampala 135
The process is transparent, ensuring that farmers know Loading/unloading 9
the price the buyer is paying and all the different costs that Bags/labeling 30 (100 kg for sourcing; 50 kg for cleaned)
are involved in getting the produce from the farm gate to the Local tax 10
end buyer. TSS has been accepted as “fair to farmers” by Trade finance/insurance 30
the Kenya Federation of Alternative Trade and the World Fair TSS agent 50
Trade Organization.
Commissions 45 (TruTrade 3%; network manager 3%)
Process loss 31 (2–3% of the total volume sourced)
To show how this business model works in practice, table 9.5
presents average figures from the recent 2015/16 season for Total 1,150
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
244 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
IMAGE 9.2. Schematic Presentation of TruTrade Africa
a. Accurate price information provided to the farmer
b. Gains from efficient and transparent transactions benefit farmers
Case Study: E-Wallet Scheme in Nigeria—Using Mobile Of the approximately 14 million Nigerians who claim farm-
Phones to Increase Access to Subsidized Inputs ing as their occupation, 4.2 million in 36 states have regis-
In the 1960s, Nigeria was an agricultural powerhouse and tered with the scheme. Of these farmers, 1.2 million have
supplied 95 percent of its local food needs. With the advent redeemed their vouchers and received subsidized fertilizer
of oil and gas, policy and investment in agriculture were and improved seeds. Approximately 198,000 women farm-
significantly reduced. To revitalize this essential sector, the ers have registered, and 49,000 have received subsidized
Government of Nigeria launched its E-Wallet Scheme in fertilizer and improved seeds (Adubi 2016).
2012 as part of its broader Growth Enhancement Support
The low number of famers who have redeemed vouchers
(GES) program.
can be explained by a number of factors, including the poor
E-Wallet provides Nigerian farmers with an electronic wal- trust in government, the delayed start of the program, and
let that is accessible via a mobile phone or through unique the general disbelief that the government is serious about
identification codes. Using this scheme, farmers can directly addressing agricultural challenges (Adubi 2016). Throughout
access government subsidies on inputs. the wider supply chain, 1,080 agro-dealers were certified and
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 245
registered to participate, and 804 redemption centers were Intelligence Agency 2016). Only recently, however, have
established. Over 25 companies producing fertilizer and public and private stakeholders started to focus on strate-
seeds participated in supplying the agro-dealers. gies for agriculture to benefit from ICT. The government’s
vision of “Digital Bangladesh” gave major impetus to the
According to the Nigerian minister of agriculture and rural development of the ICT sector and led the government to
development, Akinwumi Adesina, fertilizer companies sold revise the National Agriculture Policy to include e-agriculture
US$100 million worth of product directly to farmers instead as one of its major objectives.
of the government through the E-Wallet Scheme. Meanwhile,
seed companies sold US$10 million worth of seed directly to The mobile network and Internet penetration have grown rap-
farmers, and banks lent US$20 million to seed and fertilizer idly across Bangladesh. The country has almost 132 million
companies and agro-dealers (IFAD 2013). mobile phone users and 56 million Internet subscribers,
of whom 53 million are mobile Internet subscribers (BTRC
Despite the program’s initial success, a number of challenges 2016). No data are available on the number of smartphone
remain in realizing its potential. It is challenging to ensure users, but trends show that their numbers are growing as
that all parties with a stake in the outcome implement their smartphones become more affordable. This environment has
part of the solution effectively and in good time. Farmers encouraged service providers such as mobile operators, non-
will need to adapt to the new system. It is also essential to governmental organizations (NGOs), and the private sector
ensure that agro-dealers have sufficient financing to maintain to develop ICT-enabled products and services for agriculture.
inventory. Going forward, the significant physical logistics
of moving inputs to remote parts of Nigeria also need to The Bangladesh Institute of ICT in Development (BIID) was
be considered (Adubi 2016). The potential of this program founded in 2008 as a private-sector-inclusive business initiative.
remains enormous, however. Once farmers can be identified It launched e-Krishok, a service for ICT-enabled agricultural
through their registration data and are accessible through products and services, including an information and advisory
their mobile phones, a range of new services become possi- portal delivered through a network of local information centers.
ble—for instance, microinsurance, e-extension, mobile trad-
ing platforms, market price information, and more extensive Following piloting and testing, e-Krishok evolved to include
financial services can be developed. the Farmbook business planning solution, the Zero Cost
phone-line, and extension.org, a knowledge repository
portal. As of 2016, BIID also focused on integrating gender-
Case Study: e-Krishok and Zero Cost in Bangladesh— inclusive and nutrition-sensitive messages in agricultural
Providing Extension and Advisory Services through extension practices. It is developing an Irrigation Scheduling
Mobile Phones Application in collaboration with the University of Twente
Agriculture contributes 16 percent of national gross (the Netherlands) and CIMMYT.
domestic product (GDP) in Bangladesh (the second-largest
share) and employs 47 percent of the workforce (Central The Zero Cost Extension and Advisory Service was launched
in October 2015 in partnership with the Bangladesh Seed
IMAGE 9.3. Billboard for Zero-Cost EAS Association (BSA) and Katalyst, a develop-
ment agency funded by multiple donors.
Zero Cost enables farmers to access exten-
sion and advisory services by phone for free.
A farmer leaves a missed call to a Zero Cost
phone number (image 9.3), and an agricul-
turist calls back immediately to respond to
any queries that the farmer has. The core
principle behind this service is that it is
essential to facilitate easy access to advice
and promote the use of quality seeds, fertil-
izer, and pesticides, and other inputs.
As the use of smartphones is compara-
tively low in rural areas, this phone-line
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
246 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
service advises farmers on the selection and application of Functions of SCM Systems
inputs, taking into account the cropping season, geographical SCM software running on networked computers and hand-
region, productivity, and other factors. This free service is held devices typically performs some or all of the following
funded by partners whose products are promoted and who functions:
can access business intelligence through farmer data. BIID Stores information about suppliers. This function
is now in the process of scaling up this model and commer- allows a food-processing company to know the details
cializing it through various input suppliers, including financial of its farmers, their previous transactions, and previ-
service providers in the agricultural sector. ous performance.
Enables customers to transmit orders to farmers
SMALLHOLDER INCLUSION IN COMMERCIAL in an efficient manner. The order would specify what
SUPPLY CHAINS is required, by which date it will be collected, and how
much will be paid for it.
Trends and Issues
Monitors production, making it possible to manage
ICT facilitates exchanges and flows of information between
quality and incentivize high-performing suppliers or
parties all along the supply chain and can be used to manage
support poorer performers. The software could provide
transactions, arrange logistics, and ensure that quality specifi-
answers to questions such as which farmers are on
cations are clearly understood. Under the right circumstances,
schedule, which are behind, and how much product
agribusinesses have the incentives, capacity, and resources
has already been collected from each farmer. If con-
to create and apply technologies that support inclusion. Public
nected to the bank accounts or mobile transaction
organizations play an important role by implementing sup-
accounts of the procurer and supplier, such software
portive policies and fostering public-private collaboration to
might also transfer payments when orders are fulfilled.
develop ICT applications.
Tracks the transportation of goods from the farm
Smallholders can raise their incomes by participating in com- gate to the warehouse or retailer.
mercial supply chains, but including smallholders entails sig-
nificant challenges for agribusinesses and smallholders. For Varying Types of ICT-Supported SCM Systems
agribusinesses, interacting with a large group of smallholders No single ICT application is ideally suited for all smallholder
implies high transaction and monitoring costs to ensure qual- farmers, other supply chain actors, and procurement con-
ity, safety, and timely delivery. For smallholders, participation texts. Organizations vary in size, budget, and operations.
can be risky, requiring access to inputs and training to satisfy Some source perishables; others source staple grains. Supply
stringent quality requirements. chains encompass larger and smaller ranges of regions and
Market forces do not in and of themselves guarantee small- producers (whose languages and education levels also vary).
holders’ inclusion in modern supply chains. When possible,
Not surprisingly, the varying degree of sophistication in ICT
companies might seek to source from larger producers,
applications reflects this diversity. Bigger firms can extend
which can deliver economies of scale, often are better
their SCM solutions, while smaller firms turn to off-the-shelf
educated, and typically also have better access to finance.
software or applications for increasingly widely available
Including smallholders can present significant challenges for
mobile phones. Others may still rely on spreadsheets. Some
both the agribusiness and smallholder, but a strong business
applications handle everything from transactions to logistics
case can be made for both sides to work together
and quality control. Others focus on a smaller subset of
ICT can foster smallholders’ inclusion and overcome the areas. They rely on different combinations of software and
risks associated with commercial supply chains by reducing hardware; but a combination of mobile phones, personal
the costs of coordination (collection of production, distribu- digital assistants (PDAs), networked computers, and cen-
tion of inputs, and so on) and increasing transparency in tralized databases figure prominently in the architecture of
decision making between partners. They can also reduce most applications.
transaction costs and disseminate market demand and price
information. Additionally they can disseminate information on Finally, the applications differ in their commercial approach.
weather, pest and risk management, and best practices to Some are public goods that do not have a revenue-generating
meet quality and certification standards. They can also can col- model, while others adopt a one-time installation fee. Others
lect management data from the field and ensure traceability. are based on a fee-per-transaction approach, while many
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 247
follow an embedded service model in which revenues are A particular area of concern for stakeholders is that one side
generated from commercial trading transactions and a fee will not uphold the preexisting agreement. When prices are
for the ICT service is not charged to farmers. high, farmers have an incentive to sell to the spot market
(side-sell) instead of to agribusinesses. Similarly, when mar-
ICT applications can be the glue that holds together complex ket demand for certain products changes or is lower than
supply-chain partnerships. The rapid flow of information expected, procurers have an incentive to buy less than prom-
between buyers and producers that such applications allow ised or to offer a lower price (finding produce to be of insuf-
minimizes misunderstandings, allows for risk manage- ficient quality is a common tactic).
ment, provides higher levels of transparency, and ultimately
fosters trust. Better communication between farmers and procurers, and
systems that allow farmers to be paid faster, can reduce such
The development of ICT applications for SCM can be myopic behavior and help relationships endure. If farmers
driven by a wide variety of agents in the private and public know that side-selling this season will have repercussions in
sectors; but collaborative partnerships appear to yield more the next one because the company keeps electronic records,
effective applications. For example, agribusiness companies, they might be less likely to engage in this behavior.
mobile network operators, third-party service providers,
Effective SCM systems can also play a role in eliminating
and software firms as well as development institutions and
unnecessary intermediaries from transactions. To illustrate
research institutes may participate. It is rare for applications
this point, Cropster Hub was launched in February 2016 as
to be developed independently by any one party; collaborative
an online trading platform for anyone with Internet access to
partnerships focused on smallholder inclusion or value-chain
create an account and purchase green coffee from coopera-
competiveness are much more common.
tives or traders around the world. The platform enables coffee
Challenges of ICT-Supported SCM Systems sellers to better manage their information and to connect to
previously inaccessible markets. Because it is a business-to-
The lack of context-appropriate software, the prohibitive cost
business platform, coffee sellers have ownership of their own
of hardware, and the lack of supporting infrastructure can
data and marketing information. Facilitating direct trade means
make it difficult to use SCM systems in developing countries,
that intermediaries are eliminated, transactions are faster and
and thus include smallholder farmers as key suppliers. The
more efficient, and prices are lower (Cropster 2015).
diffusion of ICT devices (especially mobile phones) and infra-
structure has eased these constraints by making it possible There is a consensus that ICT applications have a positive
to aggregate smallholders virtually. effect on smallholders’ inclusion in commercial value chains,
but the extent to which ICT enhances or dilutes that effect
Issues Faced by Supply Chains. Although participation in
requires further research. The application of ICT can be
commercial supply chains presents an opportunity for small-
expensive from the perspective of software development or
holders to attain higher incomes (between 10 and 100 per-
purchase, implementation, training, and so forth. The costs
cent; see World Bank 2008,127) and reduce poverty, these
may not be justified in all cases. Better information on the
outcomes are not certain unless other important factors are
potential impact can help to make this determination.
addressed. For example, actual income changes depend on
the crop, the time needed for farmers to learn to produce Public Sector Role. The public sector can help smallholders
the crop more efficiently, and the quality and other standards participate in commercial supply chains by helping them to
required. Changes in income may not be sustainable unless develop relationships with agribusinesses and to grow prod-
accompanied by improved practices such as postharvest han- ucts that the market demands. Public organizations have
dling and risk management. facilitated the creation and deployment of various ICT appli-
cations to reduce the transaction costs associated with the
The application of ICT for including smallholders in commer-
interaction between producers and procurers, better monitor
cial supply chains suggests that these technologies can solve
the production process, and improve traceability. As these
many problems associated with transactions (ordering, invoic-
technologies and their applications become more appropri-
ing, payment), logistics (collection, storage, transportation),
ate to local contexts and needs over time, they are likely to
quality assurance (safety, traceability), process management
become indispensable for smallholder inclusion.
(production oversight, input distribution, extension support),
and product differentiation (specialization in organic, fair trade, Public organizations also have a unique role to play in enhanc-
or regional labels). ing competition, facilitating smallholders’ participation in
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
248 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
commercial supply chains, and ensuring higher earnings for supply-chain functions that are common for procurers work-
those that do participate. Public organizations can push for ing with smallholders, such as tracking data about producers
policy changes and make systematic interventions as well as and their performance over time, communicating orders to
coordinate partnerships between parties in the supply chain farmers, managing production, speeding collection and pay-
that create value but would be difficult for any single player ment at harvest, and tracing materials along the chain to
to facilitate. They can also invest in both ICT and non-ICT comply with certification requirements.
infrastructure.
Also in demand are applications that can run on mobile
Private Initiatives. Private companies often source from phones or other lower-cost ICT devices such as PDAs.
smallholders out of competitive necessity, even if doing so Supply-chain solutions relying on such devices are better
can be difficult (Barrett et al. 2010). Quality and certification suited for use in developing contexts, where computers
demands by consumers and export markets also force agri- and Internet connectivity are generally less accessible than
businesses to assert more control and link backward to the mobile phones and wireless service. Several private firms
producers in the supply chain. Often, there is no choice but to have produced such solutions, and others have been created
source from numerous smallholders, because they dominate in joint efforts by private and public organizations.
production of certain goods. Corporate social responsibility
initiatives may encourage procurement from smallholders; Access to Information. ICT applications can improve link-
the political context may require it—the ramifications of ages between procurers and smallholders in indirect ways
ignoring smallholders may be significant. also. A phenomenon not limited to India, but highly prevalent
there, is agro-dealers’ practice of running retail distribution
Food processors and retailers, especially in India and Latin and collection centers in rural areas. These centers (some-
America, are turning to procurement models that bypass tra- times, simple kiosks) offer ICT-based access to information
ditional wholesale markets to engage directly with farmers. and extension services to attract farmers to the centers.
Through SCM software on networked computers and mobile Farmers are consumers of household items and agricultural
phones, ICT facilitates this process in headquarters, field inputs sold in these places, but they are also suppliers of
offices, collection centers, the offices of farmer coopera- agricultural produce. In some instances, farmers have the
tives, and in the hands of farmers and extension workers. option of visiting multiple centers nearby; but in other cases,
The sophistication and source of the technology, as well as a company that procures the major crop grown in a place
the extent of its reach to smallholders, vary. might have the sole collection center in the area.
Many large organizations simply extend the use of their By offering access to information and other services through
current enterprise resource planning (ERP) software to their rural centers, companies build farmers’ trust and loyalty.
manage their smallholder suppliers. Such software is used Come harvest time, farmers familiar with the center are likely
by large organizations to centrally store organizational data to sell their produce at the distribution center, which reduces
and manage data transmission and use between depart- the company’s cost of procuring raw material. In exchange,
ments within the organization and external partners, such farmers have access to information that improves the pro-
as suppliers. In 2002 the typical costs of owning an SCM ductivity and quality of their crops.
system averaged about US$15 million and could range from
US$500,000 to US$300 million (Sysoptima 2005). These Lessons Learned
costs represent fees for software, consultants required for
ICT applications may create opportunities to incorporate
installation, and hardware.
smallholders more effectively into supply chains, but their
impact will be limited without the requisite supporting infra-
ICT for Smaller Operations. For smaller operations, world-
structure, policy, and culture of collaboration:
class SCM systems may be neither necessary nor cost-
effective. These players develop modest systems in house Infrastructure. Physical infrastructure is particularly
to manage sourcing challenges. A market for cheaper ICT critical for ICT devices, which often require reliable
solutions has developed owing to the growing trend toward electrical power and telecommunications networks.
direct sourcing as well as the large number of procurers The presence of complementary infrastructure also
that cannot afford SCM systems but can no longer get by has much to do with the success of ICT interventions
with simple spreadsheets. The market has grown, espe- for smallholder inclusion, such as roads, storage facili-
cially because applications are needed to perform specific ties, transportation, and financial infrastructure.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 249
Business environment. Commercial value chains unless they are assured of markets. Public institutions
prosper in an enabling business environment; poli- can lead such collaborative efforts if they are willing to
cies that support such an environment are indirectly share rights to outputs of the joint activities.
quite important to the effectiveness of ICT applica- Getting around market failures. Farmers often join
tions in supply chains. Policies can also discourage or value chains to solve market failures in insurance,
encourage smallholder inclusion. In India, for example, financial, input, and information markets (Barrett
limits on the size of landholdings make it difficult for et. al. 2010,13). The numerous instances of rural
agribusinesses to avoid smallholders in favor of larger collection centers creating links with farmers by
producers. Until quite recently, policy barriers made providing access to weather, extension, or other
it difficult to source directly from farmers at all. services through Internet-connected computers
Public sector. The public sector can play a number of appear to be effective.
roles in ensuring smallholder inclusion. It can rigor-
ously evaluate current ICT applications to determine The wide array of private information services available for
their impact on smallholder inclusion and incomes. agribusiness actors to communicate with or manage their
Quantitative and qualitative evaluation can include interactions with farmers is still growing. Care must be taken
a variety of indicators to document outcomes, such to identify the actual problems that prohibit farmers from par-
as production volumes, net income; distribution of ticipating prior to the implementation of an ICT solution. ICT
income, product quality, and the distribution of costs. interventions are not one-time efforts. Technologies and busi-
ness needs continually change, and the deployment of ICT
Public intervention in the private sector’s use of ICT in supply must continue to evolve as well.
chains can focus specifically on improvements in the policy
environment and the competiveness of smallholders. An Principles and Guidelines for Potential Interventions
important role of the public sector might be to incentivize
Key qualitative or skills-based indicators that have an impact
smallholder inclusion and provide guidance on technologies
on farmers’ incomes can include key skills related to the
that can be used to do so. The public sector might also work
nature and quality of the relationship between farmers and
to organize farmers into groups and spread financial literacy
trading intermediaries, improvement in bargaining power,
(ICT can help here, too; see Module 8).
and governance functions.
Donor-funded projects present unique challenges to scale For supply chains linked to high-value markets, additional
and sustainability. Low-cost, context-specific software, for attention should be paid to issues related to product and pro-
example, can have difficulty supporting higher volumes, and cess upgrading and collective innovation as the chain adapts
in such cases success can lead to collapse. In other cases, the to increasingly demanding market conditions. While this pro-
products are too specialized and cannot be applied to other cess does not occur fully at the farmer level, the existence
projects. ICT applications are not one-time interventions. of this skill set is critical for the entire system’s continuing
Hardware and software must be maintained and upgraded. competitiveness. Unlocking innovation and opportunities for
The funds and human capacity to do so might be in short smallholders is a critical element of impact, because it leads
supply after a project is completed, unless special care is to benefits that help drive farmers’ incentives for inclusion
taken to ensure sustainability: (K. Kumar, personal communication).
Private sector. Private companies and other stake-
When beginning an intervention, ascertain whether the bar-
holders can be effective in developing and deploying
riers to smallholder inclusion are best addressed by an ICT
ICT tools to procure directly from farmers. Providing
application. Care should be taken to ensure the presence of
services (information, advice, inputs, finance, and
key enablers—special attention is required to include women
other resources) to farmers can be an effective incen-
and other vulnerable groups. It is also important to consider
tive for them to participate in commercial value chains.
the full cost of ownership beyond any one-time software and
Public-private partnerships. Partnerships have hardware fees. Installation charges, maintenance, upgrades,
proven critical in developing ICT applications targeted and the cost of training users must also be included.
toward smallholder inclusion. Public organizations
lack the technical capacity, and technology companies If an ICT application is deemed appropriate, consider exist-
are reluctant to absorb the risk of producing products ing commercial products before attempting to develop
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
250 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
new products. If the development of a new product cannot In 2010 Adisagua, a Guatemalan smallholder initiative, set
be avoided, sustainability should be a made a priority, and out to pursue Global GAP certification. Smallholders must
local partners must be included. A focus on developing stan- adhere to guidelines on quality and pesticide use to qualify
dards for ICT applications and systems will allow interoper- for Global GAP certification. Adisagua faced a number of
ability between technologies and make it easier to develop challenges in collecting the required information on farmers
new applications when necessary. and their harvesting activity. As smallholders were spread
across vast distances, field agents were required to spend
Finally, human capacity is critical for the development and half a day every week collecting data and sending it to head-
uptake of ICT applications in supply chains. Farmers or quarters. This system also meant that it was impossible for
farmer associations may find ICT tools challenging to use management to collect data on activities at specific farms,
(illiteracy, a lack of training, or simply a lack of comfort with because information was available only at the farmer group
modern ICT devices are typical barriers). Nor can ICT appli- level (Farmforce 2016).
cations be developed or deployed well if a technical talent
pool with an entrepreneurial spirit is lacking. Adisagua signed up to Farmforce to improve its capacity to
manage growers. Collecting data from each farmer allows
the performance of individual smallholders to be evaluated
Case Study: Farmforce in Guatemala—SCM and helps to ensure that technical assistance and training are
Tool Faciliatates Sustainability Certification targeted where they are needed most.
for Smallholders
In August 2013, Farmforce technology was rolled out
Farmforce is a software program that simplifies the manage-
across 150 hectares on which smallholders operated 220
ment of smallholder farmers, increases traceability in the
farms producing French beans. Information about the
supply chain, and enables smallholders to gain access to for-
farmers, field profiles, and harvested yields was collected
mal markets. It is used to manage outgrower schemes and
and uploaded in real time. Within the first year, Farmforce
contract farming programs efficiently. Through mobile phone
covered 16 percent of the farmers in Adisagua. By 2014,
technology, it modernizes smallholder management by track-
all 1,350 smallholders across 500 hectares were enrolled
ing growing activities, harvests, and audits in real time. It
in the scheme. The technology has had a number of posi-
was developed by the Syngenta Foundation for Sustainable
tive results. It has been easier for producers to comply with
Agriculture and cofunded by the State Secretariat for
Global GAP requirements. Information is transferred more
Economic Affairs of Switzerland.
efficiently between the field and head office, decreasing
the time required from several days to an hour. Traceability
Reasons for using Farmforce differ depending on the
of smallholder groups is now also 10 times more precise
stakeholder. Producers use Farmforce to efficiently organize,
(Farmforce 2016); see image 9.4.
manage, and monitor large numbers of farmers to improve
productivity and reduce risks. Cooperatives, agribusinesses,
and agricultural processors can obtain real-time information Case Study: Farmbook in Africa—Enabling
on yield forecasts and harvests to make postharvest opera- Smallholders to Develop Business Plans and
tions easier to manage. All stakeholders can use the tool to Locate Buyers More Effectively
increase traceability and reduce the auditing costs associ- Farmbook is an application designed by Catholic Relief
ated with certification schemes and compliance with food Services (CRS) to help smallholder farmers plan their busi-
standards (Farmforce 2016). nesses and locate buyers more effectively. It was built and
tested in parallel between May 2010 to November 2012 in
Formal markets require traceability and compliance with Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Madagascar.
food safety standards, issues that have proven challenging
and time-consuming for smallholder farmers. Increasingly, Business development is a challenge for many smallholder
international food processors and retailers are seeking sus- farmers and field agents. Most smallholders do not keep
tainability certification standards for their products (Global records, and many field agents have not received any for-
GAP, Fairtrade, Rainforest Alliance, and others) as an additional mal education in business management. Farmbook offers
point of differentiation and quality assurance. Farmforce uses field agents and farmers a business-planning process that
mobile technology to address this need and make these stan- focuses on both production practices and market opportuni-
dards an integral part of smallholder production. ties (CRS 2015).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 251
IMAGE 9.4. Timely and Efficient Data Collection by Farmforce Frees to improve marketing activities in subse-
Time for Farmer Training quent seasons.
Project teams can use Farmbook to register
farmers and farmer groups, assigning each
person or group a barcode. The Map & Track
application collects data to streamline farmer
FPO registration and business planning. SMART
Skills courses provide agro-enterprise train-
ing to help farmers to increase production,
grow their incomes, and engage with mar-
kets. The Farmbook Business Planner tool
guides field agents and farmers through the
process of creating business plans. Finally,
Farmbook collects farmers’ feedback in vari-
ous ways to help project managers adjust to farmers’ needs
IMAGE 9.5. Steps of the Farmbook Business Support
(CRS 2015); see image 9.5.
Program
Case Study: Digital Green in Africa and Asia—
Transforming Agricultural Extension Systems
and Creating Routes to Market
Digital Green (www.digitalgreen.org) leverages low-cost,
peer-to-peer, video-based knowledge exchange to amplify
existing agricultural extension systems in Asia and Africa.
Digital Green trains extension agents and peer farmers to
produce short videos featuring local farmers demonstrating
improved agricultural practices or sharing testimonials using
low-cost pocket video cameras, microphones, and tripods.
The videos are distributed using mobile, battery-operated
projectors among small groups of farmers. In a controlled
evaluation, Digital Green’s participatory, video-based
approach was found to increase the cost-effectiveness of
an existing extension by a factor of 10 times on a cost-per-
adoption basis (Gandhi et al. 2009).
Digital Green’s approach, along with its established network
Farmbook was formally launched in May 2012 and has 994 of trusted village agents, has proven to be an effective tool to
farmers logged into the system from 55 famer groups. There improve farmers’ access to global supply chains. In Karnataka
are currently 24 business plans in progress, with farmers state in India, Digital Green is using its participatory-video
working on a range of crops including soybeans, corn, approach to reach 1,600 gherkin farmers and improve their
beans, chilies, and cucumbers. CRS has also provided train- access to the supply chain of the multinational company
ing in Tanzania, Kenya, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, and Marcatus QED. In Ghana, Digital Green is training local part-
Bangladesh (CRS 2015). ners of the Cocoa Board and the World Cocoa Foundation to
improve the way they train 3,200 cocoa farmers on practices
The application enables field agents to help farmers plan required to effectively tap into the global cocoa market (Digital
their businesses and locate buyers more effectively in four Green 2016c).
primary ways. It enables collective sales (which increase
bargaining power) and tracks costs to assess the profitability Digital Green is also working to enhance the ability of farmers
of marketing strategies. It also upgrades production to meet to find the best price for their produce through an aggrega-
marketing needs and catalogues results from one season tion and transportation initiative in Bihar state in India called
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
252 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
Loop. Accessing local markets represents formidable barri- Aker, J. C. 2008. “Does Digital Divide or Provide? The Impact of
ers for many smallholder farmers, particularly with perishable Mobile Phones on Grain Markets in Niger.” Center for Global
Development Working Paper 154. http://www.cgdev.org/content
commodities like vegetables. In many cases, quantities are
/publications/detail/894410.
small, the quality is variable, and farmers have scant ability
Annamalai, K., and S. Rao. 2003. “Indiagriline by EID Parry.”
to bargain for better prices. Timing and logistics are also
Corporate Strategy and International Business, Case Study
challenges. Loop was launched in August 2015; and by using Series, Michigan Business School. Next Billion Net. http://
a trusted network of extension agents, Digital Green is man- www.nextbillion.net/lib / assets/documents/EIDParry_Case
aging the transportation and logistics of perishable produce _Study.pdf.
to local markets, increasing incomes for participating farmers Annerose, D. 2010. “ICT for Social and Economic Development.”
(Digital Green 2016). Presentation by Manobi at the World Bank, Washington, DC,
August.
Loop has sold over 500 tons of vegetables, like okra and Athawale, S., 2014. “APMC and E-Trading for Financial Inclusiveness
sponge gourds, that would have otherwise fetched a lower in Karnataka”. IBMRD’s Journal of Management and Research.
price, required more time and effort to sell, or gone to waste. BTRC (Bangladesh Telecommunications Regulatory Commission).
This has led to payments of around US$32,500 to farmers 2016. Mobile Phone Subscribers in Bangladesh, 2016. http://
since its launch. Digital technology in the form of e-receipts www.btrc.gov.bd/telco/mobile.
and ledger information is increasing transparency, speeding Banjo, G., H. Gordon, and J, Riverson. 2010. “Rural Transport:
payouts to farmers, and enhancing the ability of the aggrega- Improving Its Contribution to Rural Growth and Poverty
tor to assess price trends and choose the best destination Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa.” World Bank, Washington, DC.
each day (Digital Green 2016). Barrett, C. B., M. E. Bachke, M. F. Bellemare, H. C. Michelson,
S. Narayanan, and T. F. Walker. 2010. “Smallholder Participation
As it has proven to consistently deliver a large volume of in Agricultural Value Chains: Comparative Evidence from Three
produce to the market, Loop has also negotiated discounts Continents.” MPRA Paper, University Library of Munich. Econ
papers, http://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:pra:mprapa:27829,
from traders on the commissions they charge; dropping
accessed July 2011.
the costs per kilogram and increasing returns to the farmer.
CARE. 2008. “TIPCEE Program Profile Brief.” http://edu.care.org
Results have shown that overall, farmers save approximately
/Documents/Program%20Profile%20Brief%20TIPCEE.pdf.
50 percent of the cost of paying for transportation to a mar-
ket themselves and save up to eight hours of time per day, Central Intelligence Agency. 2016. The World Factbook. South-Asia:
Bangladesh. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world
enabling farmers to spend time on other duties. By focusing -factbook/geos/bg.html.
on the problem of logistics and transportation for perishable
CESS (Centre for Economic and Social Studies). 2007. “Preparatory
produce, Digital Green is finding it can increase farmers’ abil-
Study for the Multi-State Agricultural Competitiveness Project.”
ity to access untapped markets, increase their incomes, and Unpublished study, CESS, Hyderabad.
increase another precious commodity that all farmers have in
Chemonics International. 2006. “Trade and Investment Program
short supply: time (Digital Green 2016). for a Competitive Export Economy (TIPCEE): Annual Report for
Partners October 2005–September 2006.” USAID. http://pdf.
usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PDACJ151.pdf.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING ———. 2010. “FS Series #9: Enabling Mobile Money Interventions:
ACDI/VOCA (Agricultural Cooperative Development International/ Primer, Diagnostic Checklist, and Model Scopes of Work.” http://
Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Assistance). 2011. “India: pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADW294.pdf.
Growth-Oriented Microenterprise Development Program Chong, A., V. Galdo, and M. Torero. 2005. “Does Privatization
(GMED).” http://www.acdivoca.org/site/ID/indiaGMED. Deliver? Access to Telephone Services and Household Income
in Poor Rural Areas Using a Quasi-Natural Experiment in Peru.”
Action for Enterprise and USAID (United States Agency for
Inter-American Development Bank Working Paper 535. Inter
International Development). 2009. “Facilitating the Development
-American Development Bank, Washington, DC.
of Outgrower Operations: A Manual.” Arlington, VA: Action for
Enterprise. http://www.actionforenterprise.org/paper-usaid.pdf. Cropster. 2010. “USAID Profit.” Zambia Case Study. http://bit.ly
/fCPqHQ.
Adubi, A. 2016. “E-Wallet Program in Nigeria.” Presentation at ICT in
Agriculture Community of Practice event, February. ———. 2015. “Why We Developed Cropster Hub” (accessed
February 20, 2016), https://www.cropster.com/en/news/news
AECF (Africa Enterprise Challenge Fund). 2009. “AECF Portfolio and -detail/news/why-we-develop-cropster-hub/.
FAQ.” Africa Enterprise Challenge Fund. http://www.acismoz
.com/acisofala/UserFiles/file/Noticeboard/AECF% 205%20pager CRS (Catholic Relief Services). 2015. “ICT for Agribusiness and
%20November%202009.pdf. Rural Development” (accessed February 29, 2016), http://
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 253
www.ics.crs.org/resource / farmbook -suite-ict-agribusiness Fafchamps, M., and B. Minten. n.d. “Impact of SMS-Based
-and-rural-development. Agricultural Information on Indian Farmers.” Unpublished draft
report.
Digital Green. 2016a. “About Us” (accessed February 29, 2016),
https://www.digitalgreen.org/about/. FarmERP. n.d. “About FarmERP” http://farmerp.com/about-farmerp
.html.
———. 2016b. “Digital Green: Transforming Agricultural Extension
Systems with Market-Based Solutions.” Shared with author. Farmforce. 2016a. “About” (accessed February 24, 2016), http://
www.farmforce.com/en
———. 2016c. https://www.digitalgreen.org/connect/.
Dixie, G. 2007. “Marketing Extension: A Powerful Six-Step Process ———. 2016b. “Case Studies: Adisagua” (accessed February 24,
from Bangladesh.” Presentation at the University of Illinois at 2016), http://www.farmforce.com/case-studies/adisagua.
Urbana-Champaign. http://lightning.itcs.uiuc.edu/india2007/grahame FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2005. “Case Study:
_dixie.html. Community Based Information Systems, India, EID Parry
Ducker, M., and J. Payne. 2010. “Information Communication Indiagriline.” http://www.fao.org/rdd/doc/EID%20Parry%20%20
Technology as a Catalyst to Enterprise Competitiveness.” Indiagriline.pdf.
Business Growth Initiative / USAID. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf Ferris, S., P. Engoru, and E. Kaganzi. 2008. “Making Market
_docs/PNADU068.pdf. Information Services Work Better for the Poor in Uganda.”
Duflo, E., M. Kremer, and J. Robinson. 2009. “Nudging Farmers CAPRi Working Paper 77. CGIAR Systemwide Program on
to Use Fertilizer: Theory and Experimental Evidence from Collective Action and Property Rights (CAPRi), Washington, DC.
Kenya.” NBER Working Paper 15131. National Bureau of Finnpartnership. 2013. “Sibesonke’s Mobile Service to Help Millions
Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. Poverty Action Lab. http:// of Farmers in East Africa” (accessed February 29, 2016), http://
www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/publications/99 www.finnpartnership.fi/www/en/finnpartnership/success
_Understanding_Technology_Adoption.pdf. _stories/index.php?we_objectID=2452.
Dymond, A., and S. Esselaar. 2010. “Mobile Applications for
Financial Express. “Godrej Agrovet Empowers Rural India With
Rural Development.” Presentation for Intelecon, December 1,
SAP.” The Financial Express, August 18, http://www.financial
Washington, DC.
express.com/news/godrej-agrovet-empowers-rural-india -with
Economic Times. 2012. “Farmers Using Facebook to Discuss -sap/662088/0.
Prices and Plan Strategy” (accessed March 7, 2016), http://
Forbes. 2016. “In India, Fierce Opposition Builds against Facebook’s
articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-02-10/news
Free Basics” (accessed March 23, 2016), http://www.forbes
/31046360_1_turmeric-farmers-social-media-sangli-district.
.com/sites/saritharai/2016/01/04/in-india-fierce-opposition-builds
Egyir, I. S., R. Al-Hassan, and J. K. Abakah. 2010. “The Effect of -against-facebooks-free-basics/#2a663c3e7619.
ICT-Based Market Information Services on the Performance of
Gandhi, R., R. Veeraraghavan, K. Toyama and V. Ramprasad, 2009.
Agricultural Markets: Experiences from Ghana.” Unpublished
“Digital Green: Participatory Video for Agricultural Extension,”
draft report, University of Ghana, Legon.
Information Technologies for International Development, MIT
EID Parry. 2010. “Profit and Loss Account: Annual Report 2010.” EID Press.
Parry, http://www.eidparry.com/inc/P&L.pdf.
Gehlhar, M. 2009. “Global Food Markets: Global Food Industry
eMarketer. 2015. “Latin America Home to 155.9 Million Smartphone Structure.” United States Department of Agriculture (accessed
Users” (accessed March 8, 2016), http://www.emarketer February 11, 2011), http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing
.com /Article/Latin-America-Home-1559-Million-Smartphone /GlobalFoodMarkets/Industry.htm.
-Users/1012794#sthash.S1kOtTmt.dpuf.
Google. 2016. “How Loon Works” (accessed March 8, 2016),
Esoko. 2015. “About” (accessed February 25, 2016), https://esoko https://www.google.com/loon/how/.
.com/about/.
Goyal, A. 2008. “Information Technology and Rural Markets: Theory
Evaluation Cooperation Group. 2011a. “Evaluative Lessons for and Evidence from a Unique Intervention in Central India.”
Agriculture and Agribusiness.” ECG Paper 3. Washington, DC: University of Maryland, College Park.
World Bank. http://blogs.worldbank.org/files/developmenttalk
/Evaluative%20Lessons%20for%20Agriculture.pdf. GSMA Intelligence. 2014. “Country Overview: Bangladesh”
(accessed March 7, 2016), https://gsmaintelligence.com
———. 2011b. “Farmers and Beyond.” EID Parry, http://www /research/?file=140820-bangladesh.pdf&download.
.eidparry.com/EmployeeandBeyond.asp.
Guardian . 2016. “Project Loon: Google Balloon That Beams Down
———. 2011c. “Indiagriline.” EID Parry, http://www.indiagriline.com Internet Reaches Sri Lanka” (accessed March 8, 2016), http://
/english/corp/frame.html?pc/index.htm&2. www.theguardian.com/technology /2016 /feb/16/project-loon
Facebook. 2016a. “Announcing the Winners of the Internet.org -google-balloon -that-beams-down-internet-reaches-sri-lanka.
Innovation Challenge in India.” https://info.internet.org/en/2015
The Hindu. 2015. “Govt Allocates Rs. 200 Crore for National
/10/20/innovationchallengeindia/, accessed March 8, 2016.
Agriculture Market” (accessed 22 March 2016), http://www
———. 2016b. “Our Impact” (accessed 8 March 2016), https://info .thehindu.com/news/national/govt-allocates-rs-200-crore-for
.internet.org/en/impact/. -national-agriculture-market/article7378470.ece.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
254 MOD ULE 9 — STR ENGTH ENING AGR ICULTURA L MA RK ET ACC ES S W ITH IC T
Hildebrandt, N., Y. Nyarko, G. Romagnoli, and E. Soldani. 2015. “Price Labonne, J., and R. S. Chase. 2009. “The Power of Information:
Information, Inter-Village Networks, and Bargaining Spillovers: The Impact of Mobile Phones on Farmers’ Welfare in the
Experimental Evidence from Ghana.” New York University. Philippines.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4996.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development). 2013.
“Statement by Dr. Akinwumi Adesina, Honourable Minister Lokanathan, S., H. de Silva, and I. Fernando. 2010. Price Transparency
of Agriculture and Rural Development, Federal Republic of in Agricultural Produce Markets: Sri Lanka. Draft. ENRAP,
Nigeria, Governor from Nigeria, at the 36th Session of the IFAD http://www.enrap.org/research/icts-for-livelihoods-research
Governing Council” (accessed February 29, 2016), http://www /icts-for-livelihoods-research-papers/ICT4RLPaper_V6.doc/view,
.ifad.org/events/gc/36/speech/nigeria.htm. accessed February 2011.
IFC (International Finance Corporation). 2006. “Suguna—Summary McCarthy, S., K. Kumar, and A. Pavlovic. 2009. “New ICT Solutions to
of Proposed Investment.” http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/spiwebsite1 Age-Old Problems: Case of the IGP India Project.” SEEP Network,
.nsf/1ca07340e47a35cd85256efb00700cee/EE798D87DA090F Washington, DC. http://www.seepnetwork.org/Resources/ICT
BE852576BA000E28D5. _Solutions_Value_Chain.pdf, accessed January 2011.
Ilahiane, H. 2007. “Impacts of Information and Communication McGrath, B. 2010. “Mobile Transactions Overview Presentation.”
Technologies in Agriculture: Farmers and Mobile Phones CRS ICT4D Conference, September 23, Washington, DC.
in Morocco.” Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of
Minten, B., T. Reardon, and K. Chen. n.d. The Quiet Revolution of
the American Anthropological Association, December 1,
“Traditional” Agricultural Value Chains in Asia: Evidence from
Washington, DC.
Staple Food Supply to Four Mega-Cities. Unpublished draft,
ITC. 2010. ITC e-Choupal’s Agri Interventions. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC.
ITU (International Telecommunication Union). 2008. “2008 Global Mittal, S., S. Gandhi, and G. Tripathi. 2010. “Socio-Economic Impact of
SMS Prices.” ITU, Geneva. Mobile Phones on Indian Agriculture.” Working Paper 246. Delhi:
Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations
ITU and Cisco. 2016. Harnessing the Internet of Things for Global (ICRIER). http://www.icrier.org/pdf/WorkingPaper246.pdf.
Development. https://www.itu.int/en/action/broadband
/Documents/Harnessing-IoT-Global-Development.pdf Muddy Boots. 2007. “Muddy Boots: Greenlight.” http://www
.muddyboots.com/products/gl.aspx.
Jaleta, M., and G. Gardebroek. 2007. “Farm-Gate Tomato Price
Negotiations under Asymmetric Information.” Agricultural Muto, M., and T. Yamano. 2009. “The Impact of Mobile Phone
Economics 36 (2): 245–51. Coverage Expansion on Market Participation: Panel Data
Evidence from Uganda,” World Development 37 (12): 1887–96.
Jansen, H.G.P., S. Morley, and M. Torero. 2007. “The Impact of the
Central America Free Trade Agreement on Agriculture in Five myAgro. 2016. “Our Model” (accessed March 24, 2016), http://
Central American Countries.” Working Paper 26. San José, www.myagro.org/model/our-model/.
Costa Rica: Regional Unit for Technical Assistance (RUTA). NDAA (National Department of Agriculture). 2000. “The South
African Horticulture Market.” Training Papers 2 and 3. Pretoria.
Jensen, R. 2007. “The Digital Provide: Information (Technology),
Market Performance, and Welfare in the South Indian Fisheries Okello, J. 2010. “Effect of ICT-Based MIS Projects and the Use
Sector.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 122 (3): 879–924. of ICT Tools and Services on Transaction Costs and Market
Performance: The Case of Kenya.” Unpublished draft.
Kaganzi, E., S. Ferris, J. Barham, A. Abenakyo, P. Sanginga, and
J. Njuki. 2008. “Sustaining Linkages to High-Value Markets Oracle. 2006. “Suguna Goes Live on Oracle Applications.” Oracle,
through Collective Action in Uganda: The Case of the Nyabyumba India, http://www.oracle.com/global/in/pressroom/IN_310706
Potato Farmers.” CAPRi Working Paper 75. CGIAR Systemwide _SugunaGoLive.html.
Program on Collective Action and Property Rights (CAPRi),
Washington, DC. Overa, R. 2006. “Networks, Distance, and Trust: Telecommunications
Development and Changing Trading Practices in Ghana.” World
Kakunta, C. n.d. “Distributing Food Inputs via Mobile Phone.” Development 34 (7): 1301–15.
Zambia Daily Mail. http://www.daily-mail.co.zm/media/news
/viewnews.cgi?category=20&id=1277968851. Payne, J. 2010. “ICT Applications for Distribution and Supply
Chain Management in Sub-Saharan African Agriculture.”
Kumar, P.S.K. n.d. “Mapping and Preliminary Evaluation of ICT MicroLinks (December). http://www.microlinks.org/ev_en.php
Applications Supporting Agricultural Development: An IFC- ?ID=46725_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC.
Sponsored Study in Uganda, India, and Indonesia.” Presentation,
ACDI/VOCA, http://www.acdivoca.org/site/Lookup/ACDIVOCA Ratnadiwakara, D., H. de Silva, and S. Soysa. 2008. “Transaction
_ M a p p i n g E v a l u a t i o n o f I C TA p p s f o r A g / $ f i l e / A C D I V O C A Costs in Agriculture: From Planting Decision to Selling at
_MappingEvaluationofICTAppsforAg.pdf. the Wholesale Market: A Case-Study on the Feeder Area of
the Dambulla Dedicated Economic Centre in Sri Lanka.” 3rd
Kunaka, C. 2010. Logistics in Lagging Regions: Overcoming Local Communication Policy Research South (CPRsouth) Conference,
Barriers to Global Connectivity. Washington, DC: World Bank. Beijing. http://ssrn.com/abstract=1555458.
———. 2011. Logistics in Lagging Regions: Overcoming Local Reardon, T., C. B. Barrett, J. A. Berdegué, and J. F. M. Swinnen.
Barriers to Global Connectivity. Washington, DC: World Bank. 2009. “Agrifood Industry Transformation and Small Farmers
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AS S E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 255
in Developing Countries.” World Development 37 (11): http://microlinks.kdid.org/library/ict-application-distribution-and
1717–27. -supply-chain-management-african-agriculture.
Shaffril, H. A. M, M. S. Hassan, M. A. Hassan, and J. L. D’Silva. 2009. ———. 2013. “Using ICT to Enhance Marketing for Small Agricultural
“Agro-Based Industry, Mobile Phone, and Youth: A Recipe for Producers” (accessed February 26, 2016), https://agrilinks
Success.” European Journal of Scientific Research 36 (1): 41–8. .org/sites/default/files/resource/files/Using_ICT_to_Enhance
_Marketing_for_Small_Agricultural_Producers.pdf.
Sieber, N. 1999. “Transporting the Yield.” Transport Reviews 10 (3):
205–20. Virtual City. 2009. “Case Study: Virtual City AgriManagr Solution.”
http://www.virtualcity.co.ke/cases/agrimanagr_case.pdf.
———. 2009. “Freight Transport for Development Toolkit: Rural
Transport.” World Bank, Washington, DC. Vodafone India. 2009. “India: The Impact of Mobile Phones.”
Vodafone Policy Paper, No. 9. http://www.vodafone.com
SourceTrace. 2011. “Agricultural Commodity Solutions.” http://
/content/dam/vodafone/about/public_policy/policy_papers/public
www .sourcetrace.com/solutions_agricultural_commodity
_policy_series_9.pdf.
_firms.php.
Warner, M., D. Kahan, and S. Lehel. 2008. “Market-Oriented
Svensson, J., and D. Yanagizawa. 2009. “Getting Prices Right: The
Agricultural Infrastructure: Appraisal of Public-Private
Impact of the Market Information Service in Uganda.” Journal of
Partnerships.” Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. http://
the European Economic Association 7 (2–3): 435–45.
www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0465e/i0465e00.HTM.
Sysoptima. 2005. “Cost of ERP.” Sysoptima.com, http://www
World Bank. 2008. Agriculture for Development: World Development
.sysoptima.com/erp/cost_of_erp.php, accessed January 2011.
Report 2008. Washington, DC: World Bank.
TruTrade. 2015. “Giving Farmers a Better Deal” (accessed February
World Economic Forum. 2009. The Next Billions: Business
25, 2016), http://www.trutrade.net/about-us.
Strategies to Enhance Food Value Chains and Empower
USAID (United States Agency for International Development). 2009. the Poor. Geneva: World Economic Forum. http://www3
“TIPCEE GIS Work.” Cop Horti, http://www.cop-horti.net/IMG .weforum.org/docs/WEF _FB _FoodValueChainsAndPoor
/pdf/TIPCEE_GIS_Work_Feb_2009.pdf. _Report_2009.pdf.
———. 2011. “ICT Application for Distribution and Supply Chain Zachary, G. P. 2007. “Out of Africa: Cotton and Cash.” New York
Management in African Agriculture.” MicroLinks (January). Times, January 14.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 257
Module 10 ICT APPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL
RISK MANAGEMENT
SOHAM SEN (World Bank) and VIKAS CHOUDHARY (World Bank)
IN THIS MODULE
Overview. Risk and uncertainty are ubiquitous and varied in agriculture. They stem from uncertain weather, pests and
diseases, and volatile market conditions and commodity prices. Managing agricultural risk is particularly important for
smallholders because they lack resources to mitigate, transfer, and cope with risk. Risk also inhibits external parties from
investing in agriculture. Timely information is essential for managing risk. Information and communication technology (ICT)
has proven highly cost-effective instruments for collecting, storing, processing, and disseminating information about risk.
Topic Note 10.1: ICT Applications for Mitigating Agricultural Risk. ICT has reduced the costs of gathering, process-
ing, and disseminating the information that helps farmers mitigate risk. Information services using mobile phones and
radios can direct early warnings of inclement weather, market movements, and pest and disease outbreaks to farmers.
With an early warning, steps can be taken to limit potential losses. Farmers can also access advisory services remotely
to support their decisions related to risk-mitigating activities or to choose the most appropriate action in response to an
early warning. These decision support systems are critical for transforming information into risk-mitigating action.
Through mKRISHI, Farmers Translate Information into Action to Mitigate Risk
Topic Note 10.2: ICT Applications to Transfer Agricultural Risk. Applications of ICT to transfer agricultural risk through
instruments such as insurance and futures contracts are still quite limited. The widespread use of these instruments
seems to be hampered by low levels of institutional development, high costs, inability to customize products to meet
smallholders’ requirements, and poor financial literacy rather than by the information constraints that ICT can address.
In a few instances, ICT applications are facilitating the design and delivery of index insurance. Although ICT has made it
easier for smallholders to access and participate in spot commodity exchanges, their use of ICT to participate in futures
contracts to hedge price risks remains a distant dream.
ICT Enables Innovative Index-Based Livestock Insurance in Kenya
Kilimo Salama Delivers Index-Based Input Insurance in Kenya through ICT
Topic Note 10.3: ICT Applications for Coping with Agricultural Risk. While there have been few applications of ICT
to cope with agricultural shocks, those that exist are proving important and potentially transformative. Mobile phones
enable ground personnel or affected persons to report more easily to whoever is coordinating a response to the shock.
This communication leads to better-targeted relief efforts. In the event of a shock, ICT facilitates transfers and remit-
tances to farmers from state and relief agencies as well as from farmers’ extended social networks. Finally, disaster
management is using more sophisticated applications to collect and synthesize information from the field. In the future,
these disaster management applications might be applied to respond to agricultural shocks.
Electronic Vouchers Are a Targeted, Traceable Lifeline for Zambian Farmers
Community Knowledge Workers in Uganda Link Farmers and Experts to Cope with Risk
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
258 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
OVERVIEW The module begins by distinguishing among the kinds of
Risk and uncertainty are ubiquitous in agriculture and have risks that affect agriculture and then describes three major
numerous sources: the vagaries of weather, the unpredictable strategies for managing risk: risk mitigation, risk transfer, and
nature of biological processes, the pronounced seasonality coping. The crucial role played by information and ICT in each
of production and market cycles, the geographical separa- major risk management strategy is described, along with les-
tion of producers and end users of agricultural products, sons from experience to date. Topic notes and innovative
and the unique and uncertain political economy of food and practice summaries detail specific applications, their lessons,
agriculture within and among nations. Managing agricultural and principles for success.
risk is particularly important for smallholder farmers, who
are usually already vulnerable to poverty and lack the
Defining and Describing Risk
resources to absorb shocks. Typical shocks, such as a drought
(image 10.1) or a pronounced drop in market prices, prevent The terms “risk” and “uncertainty” indicate exposure to
poor households from acquiring assets or making the most of events that can result in losses. Although the terms are often
the assets they have (Cole et al. 2008). They push families into used interchangeably, they have slightly different meanings.
poverty and cause extreme hardship for those already living Risk can be defined as imperfect knowledge where the prob-
in poverty. abilities are known; uncertainty exists when these probabili-
ties are not known. Many of the losses expected from the
Exposure to risk prevents farmers from easily planning ahead risks inherent in modern agrifood systems are in fact related
and making investments. In turn, risk inhibits external parties’ to uncertain events for which there are no known prob-
willingness to invest in agriculture because of the uncertainty abilities, although subjective probabilities can be conjured by
about the expected returns. Improved management of agri- expert opinion (Jaffee, Siegel, and Andrews 2010).
cultural risk has significant potential to increase productivity-
enhancing investments in agriculture (World Bank 2005). The “traditional” risks to agriculture in developing countries
include inclement weather of all kinds (floods, droughts, hail,
This module discusses experiences with emerging ICT snow, windstorms, hurricanes, cyclones), pest and disease
applications that channel critical information for mitigating outbreaks, fire, theft, violent conflict, and hardships of the
agricultural risk in developing countries, reduce the costs sort that farmers have always feared. “Newer,” less familiar
of delivering insurance to remote rural users, and deliver risks have appeared with the commercialization and global
vouchers to farm households affected by droughts and integration of commodity chains, including commodity price
floods. Although unproven, such applications offer glimpses volatility, input price volatility, sanitary and phytosanitary
of how ICT is likely to be used to manage agricultural risk. risks, the risk of social compliance, and so forth. Regardless
of whether these risks are old or new, their
IMAGE 10.1. Unexpected Changes in Climate Contribute to Risk sudden occurrence and the inability to man-
age them can push millions of farmers into
poverty traps and undermine the econo-
mies of countries that depend heavily on
agriculture.
Risk in agriculture can be further classi-
fied according to whether it predominantly
affects the immediate production environ-
ment, markets, or the broad institutional
context in which commodities are produced
and supplied:
Production risks include bad weather,
pests and diseases, fire, soil erosion,
other kinds of environmental degrada-
tion, illness and loss of labor in the farm
family, and other events that negatively
Source: World Bank. affect the production of agricultural
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 259
commodities. These risks have a direct, immediate Although ex ante measures allow farms and firms to elimi-
impact on local agricultural production, but it is essen- nate or reduce risks, reduce their exposure to risk, and/or
tial to understand that their effects are transmitted mitigate losses associated with risky events, they present
from the farm all along the supply chain. real and/or opportunity costs before a risky event actually
Market risks can include volatile prices of agricultural occurs. In contrast, ex post risk management measures
commodities, inputs (fertilizer, pesticide, seeds, and respond only to losses that actually occur, but they can have
so on), and exchange rates, as well as counterparty very high real and opportunity costs when that happens.
risks, theft, risk of failure to comply with quality or Farmers make decisions based on their evaluation of risks
sanitary standards, or risks imposed by logistics. and the resources at their disposal.
These risks usually emanate from market actors
Each strategy for managing risk can be carried out through
(such as traders and exporters), and their effects
a variety of instruments, each with different private and
are transmitted back to the farm.
public costs and benefits, which might either increase or
Enabling environment risks can include political
decrease the vulnerability of individual participants and the
risks, the risk that regulations will suddenly be applied,
supply chain. When selecting a mix of risk responses, it
risks of armed conflict, institutional collapse, and other
is essential to consider the many links between risk man-
major risks that lead to financial losses for stakehold-
agement strategies and instruments (Jaffee, Siegel, and
ers all along agricultural supply chains.
Andrews 2010).
Risks can be idiosyncratic—affecting only individual farms
To sum up, agricultural risk management strategies can be
or firms (for example, illness of the owner or laborers, acidic
classified into three broad categories:
soil, particular plant and animal pests and diseases); or
Risk mitigation. These actions prevent events from
covariate—affecting many farms and firms simultaneously
occurring, limit their occurrence, or reduce the sever-
(major droughts or floods, fluctuating market prices). The
ity of the resulting losses. Examples include pest and
high propensity for covariate risk in rural areas is a major
disease management strategies, crop diversification,
reason that informal risk management arrangements break
and extension advice.
down and that formal financial institutions hesitate to pro-
vide commercial loans for agriculture (Jaffee, Siegel, and Risk transfer. These actions transfer risk to a willing
Andrews 2010). third party, at a cost. Financial transfer mechanisms
trigger compensation or reduce losses generated by
a given risk, and they can include insurance, reinsur-
Risk Management Strategies ance, and financial hedging tools.
Agrarian communities have traditionally employed various Risk coping. These actions help the victims of a
formal and informal strategies to manage agricultural risk, risky event (a shock such as a drought, flood, or pest
either before or after the effects of risk are felt. Ex ante strat- epidemic) cope with the losses it causes, and they
egies (adopted before a risky event occurs) can reduce risk can include government assistance to farmers, debt
(by eradicating pests, for example) or limit exposure to risk restructuring, and remittances. Government and
(a farmer can grow pest-resistant varieties or diversify into other public institutions, through their social safety
crops unaffected by those pests). Risk can also be mitigated net programs, play a big role in helping farmers cope
ex ante by buying insurance or through other responses to with risk.
expected losses, such as self-insurance (precautionary sav-
ings) or reliance on social networks (for access to community There is a distinct role for both public and private insti-
savings, for example). tutions in helping smallholders manage agricultural
risk. Private interventions include individual actions and
Ex post strategies (adopted to cope with losses from risks private arrangements among individuals (either informal
that have already occurred) include selling assets, seek- arrangements or formal, contractual arrangements).
ing temporary employment, and migrating. Governments Governments have a supporting role to play here, which
sometime forgive debts or provide formal safety nets such may include providing infrastructure, information, and a
as subsidies, rural public works programs, and food aid to suitable framework for private institutions. As noted, gov-
help farms and firms (and their laborers) cope with negative ernments and civil society also have a role as providers of
impacts of risky events. safety nets.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
260 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
Central Role of Information and ICT in Risk are the latest in a long line of technologies (the newspaper,
Management telegraph, telephone, radio, and television) that support risk
All of the above-mentioned strategies—risk mitigation, risk management practices by collecting, processing, distribut-
transfer, and coping—have limitations, and farmers often ing, and exchanging information (World Bank 2007).
deploy a combination of strategies to manage their risks. The
A survey of current ICT applications for managing agricultural
mix of strategies often depends on factors like the availabil-
risk suggests that they are valuable for two primary reasons.
ity and understanding of different risk management instru-
First, these applications channel information, advice, and
ments, institutional and physical infrastructure, a farmer’s
finance to farmers who are difficult to reach using conventional
capabilities and resource endowment, and a farmer’s social
channels. Second, they reduce the costs for organizations to
network. Information about what needs to be done—when,
provide risk management services, because they can greatly
how, and why—is fundamental for smallholders and other
reduce the costs of collecting, storing, processing, and dissemi-
stakeholders in the agricultural sector to implement actions
nating information.
to mitigate risk, transfer risk before it occurs, and determine
how to cope once those events have occurred.
These cost reductions have produced two effects that
encourage private investment in ICT to manage agricultural
Farmers’ information needs and sources are varied and change
risk. First, previously unprofitable activities have become
throughout the agricultural production cycle (table 10.1), but all
profitable. Second, reductions in operating costs can reduce
farmers require a comprehensive package of information to
prices for the end user. Products and services that were once
make decisions related to risk.
too expensive for the poor have come within reach, opening
Farmers typically have been poorly informed. As the founder a new market segment for risk management products.
of a market information service noted:
The use of ICT to manage agricultural risk is at such an early
Most [farmers] have long relied on a patchy network of stage that it is difficult to discern trends, but interesting devel-
local middlemen, a handful of progressive farmers, and opments are under way. Increasingly, the private and public
local shop owners to receive decision-critical informa- sectors are collaborating to invest in ICT applications that
tion, whose reliability, accuracy, and timeliness can have can deliver timely information to farmers. With continuing
a critical impact on their decision making and therefore improvements in technology, software, and infrastructure,
livelihood. These are fundamental decisions, such as the quality and richness of this information are improving
what price to sell the crop, where to sell (given the over time to address the specific needs of individual farmers.
numerous fragmented markets), when to harvest, and
Information services will allow farmers ever more interactive,
when to spray pesticides to save the crop.
two-way communication with agricultural experts and others
Mehra 2010 in the agricultural innovation system (see Module 6). With
the incorporation of ICT, supply chains are becoming far more
Research in Sri Lanka found that the cost of information, transparent and capable of including smallholders. The tech-
from the time the farmer decides what to plant until produce nology seems to help farmers avoid default risks and produce
is sold at the wholesale market, can be up to 11 percent to consistent quality specifications, which is an important step
of production costs. The study also found that information toward participating in more lucrative commodity markets.
asymmetry is an important contributor to overall transaction
costs (De Silva 2008). ICT applications—such as the Internet, As observed earlier, the encouraging trend in risk transfer
networked computers, mobile phones—and smart phones products is the use of ICT to design insurance contracts,
TABLE 10.1. Farmers’ Information Needs in Relation to the Crop Cycle and Market
BEFORE PLANTING BEFORE HARVEST AFTER HARVEST MARKET INFORMATION
Information on agricultural inputs Good agricultural practices Postharvest management Alternative market channels
such as seeds, fertilizer, pesticide Pest management Storage Commodity prices
Credit Harvesting time and techniques Grading and standardization Wholesale market price
Weather Packaging Logistics information
Soil testing Market information Consumer behavior
Source: Adapted from Narula and Sharma 2008.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 261
deliver insurance policies, assess crop damage, and deliver and telecommunications infrastructure for the cost-effec-
indemnity payments. Although the agricultural insurance mar- tive deployment of ICT. Where costs are sufficiently low
kets in developing countries are very small, ICT applications because mobile infrastructure is already available, more
clearly have features that should help broaden those markets. profitable opportunities may exist. Successful ventures will
offer insight into ways of ensuring sustainability and use on
With regard to risk coping, technologies that allow real-time a wide scale.
visualization and assessment of damage are beginning to
be applied to agricultural shocks such as floods. Two other Farmer capacity is also challenging. Rural areas, where risk
technologies—mobile money and electronic voucher management services are so desperately needed, also lack
systems—are expected to be more regularly incorporated into education services, financial services, and even agricultural
the operations of multilaterals and governments that must services. Many aspects of human capacity—such as finan-
transfer funds to beneficiaries without access to financial cial literacy, knowledge of best agricultural practices, and
institutions (see Module 7). familiarity with technology—are prerequisites for using risk
management tools successfully.
KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS Highly developed software programming skills and techni-
If it is difficult to ascertain trends from nascent activities such cal expertise are also critical for deploying ICT. Many risk
as those described in the topic notes, it is even more chal- management services were able to leverage the significant
lenging to assess outcomes and draw lessons. Many of these human resources of larger organizations, such as Reuters
activities should be evaluated rigorously to determine their and Tata Consulting Services, to develop their software (see
impacts and critique their approaches to using ICT in manag- Topic Note 10.1). This capacity is not universally available. In
ing agricultural risk. Despite these caveats, several prelimi- addition, providers must be able to assess and thoroughly
nary insights, crosscutting challenges, and key enablers for understand the needs of their clients; experience shows that
risk mitigation, risk transfer, and risk coping should be noted. most technology-driven projects that do not connect with
and address users’ needs have higher rates of failure.
First, in some instances, farmers will pay for risk manage-
ment services, particularly information services, customized Women and other vulnerable groups do not have equal
to their needs. However, before adequate customization access to risk management tools. Traditional cultural norms
occurs, most risk management services need public or pri- in many societies restrict women’s mobility, education,
vate funding to support farmers’ initial access. Thus partner- assertiveness, and awareness, all of which affect their
ships are central to assembling the combination of knowl- ability to acquire information or advisory services to help
edge, skills, and resources required to manage risk through manage agricultural risks. The underlying structural gender
the use of ICT. constraints make them passive recipients rather than active
seekers of information. Even when women proactively
Successful efforts display cooperation between software seek information, their access to information and ability to
developers, hardware manufacturers, agricultural experts, use it are hampered by gender norms and stereotypes (ILO
financial intermediaries, state governments and institutions, 2001,6).
donors, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), mobile
operators, and others in the private sector. These partners Theoretically, the impersonal nature of ICT overcomes some
might have different incentives for participation that may not of the traditional barriers and gender asymmetries that
always be compatible, and different stakeholders may have women face in accessing information. A mobile phone, for
different time horizons. To hold such partnerships together, example, does not differentiate between a female farmer
an appropriate balance must be struck between stakehold- and a male farmer, but a male extension worker might. It is
ers’ competing interests and short- and long-term gains. often difficult for women farmers to travel long distances
to ascertain market prices, but a short messaging service
Because partnerships, particularly with the participation (SMS) might deliver that information without breaking any
of the private sector, are so vital in risk management, an traditional stereotypes and gender norms. Very little data,
enabling policy environment and institutional framework disaggregated by the gender of beneficiaries, are avail-
supporting business and entrepreneurship are also critical able on the impact of ICT applications in agricultural risk
to incentivizing private investment to cope with or transfer management. Increasing gender-disaggregated data and
risk. Additional fundamental elements are adequate physical analyzing the effects of risk management instruments on
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
262 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
women’s agricultural experience over the long term could In nearly every instance in which investments in ICT have
provide useful guidance for improving women’s access to helped agricultural stakeholders to manage risk, external
such instruments. support has been critical for providing complementary public
goods, including:
Trust in information and trust in transfer products are also
Infrastructure, especially electricity delivery and
critical issues for risk management. The information delivery
mobile network coverage.
mechanism seems to influence farmers’ confidence and
Institutional and regulatory reform, especially with
trust in the information as well as how they use it. Farmers
regard to commodity markets that raise barriers to the
are more likely to act upon information received directly from
adoption of ICT for risk management.
an expert than on information provided by an automated
database. Farmers are also more likely to trust and act on Business climate reforms to encourage continued
information they receive from a person standing in front of participation and innovation from the private sector.
them than from somebody on the phone or an automated Donors can also encourage and foster cooperation
phone message. among public and private sector actors.
Technological, agricultural, and financial literacy
Because most initiatives discussed in this module have yet among smallholder farmers. Low literacy represents
to be studied rigorously, it is difficult to draw quantitatively a significant barrier to smallholders’ effective use of
sound causal relationships between ICT for risk management ICT to manage risk.
interventions and gains in risk reduction. Support is needed
for research to establish the impact of ICT in risk mitigation, Donors such as the World Bank can also monitor innovative
transfer, and coping systems. Such evidence would not only applications for risk management, evaluate their impact on
improve the interventions but also garner support to scale up small-scale farmers and the agricultural sector, and provide
effective innovations. research and technical support where necessary.
Topic Note 10.1: ICT APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATING
AGRICULTURAL RISK
TRENDS AND ISSUES alone is often not sufficient to manage risk. In Uganda, for
While agriculture will continue to be risky, many risks can be example, the Grameen Foundation found that even if a farmer
mitigated by timely action and through the application of best knew that a banana disease was spreading nearby, he or she
practices. Typical risk mitigation actions might be spraying crops required help in choosing the right action to prevent infection
with the appropriate pesticides in response to an early warning of the plants they owned (Grameen Foundation 2010a).
of a nearby pest outbreak or optimally altering cropping patterns
in response to news from commodity futures markets. In many cases, the early warning or decision support
information already exists. State meteorological services
Information is the most critical requirement for effective risk generally collect weather information and create forecasts.
mitigation, and farmers need a variety of information to make Similarly, agricultural institutes, research universities, or
choices to manage risk. Two types of information are most extension services are typically well aware of best practices
important for risk mitigation: in crop selection, production techniques, input use, pest
Early warnings about the likely occurrence of inclem- management, global commodity trends, and other topics
ent weather, pest and disease outbreaks, and market critical to smallholder farmers. International organizations
price volatility. also generate early warning and decision support informa-
Advisory information to help farmers decide upon a tion. USAID’s Famine Early Warning System (http://www
course of action to manage production risks optimally .fews.net) provides information for governments to manage
or to respond to early warnings. food security risk, for example. A similar system at FAO
helps to manage food security risk—the Global Information
The connection between agricultural advisory services and and Early Warning System (http://www.fao.org/giews
risk mitigation is an important one, because information /english/index.htm).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 263
One difficulty has been to collect and process this informa- BOX 10.1. Reuters Market Light Disseminates Early
tion so that it is relevant to individual farmers. Another has Warnings to Mitigate Risk
been to transmit the information to rural populations in poorly
connected areas in cost-effective ways. ICT applications The main task of Reuters Market Light (RML) is to give
have made it easier and cheaper to achieve these objectives. farmers price information to increase their bargaining
power in markets, but it also provides early warning
There is some doubt about whether an early warning alone information that can be used to mitigate risk. Two pieces
can help farmers mitigate risk. Many of these causal links of the service are particularly relevant here:
have not been tested empirically. Latent demand for advice Farmers receive daily SMS messages containing
in addition to warnings appears to exist, but it is not clear weather information for their particular locations.
whether farmers are willing to pay for such advice delivered This information includes predictions of rainfall,
using ICT or whether the private sector can deliver such humidity, and inclement weather.
information sustainably. Public sector and development insti-
Farmers receive three types of news for crops
tutions should remain active in this space and keep a close
specified when they subscribe to the Reuters
eye on pilots in countries such as India, Uganda, and Kenya.
service: (1) news regarding outbreaks of pests
or diseases, (2) news and analysis from global
markets, and (3) government policy information
RECENT ICT APPLICATIONS FOR RISK
regarding, for example, farmer support programs,
MITIGATION
schemes, and subsidies.
Farmers in many countries receive news of impending bad
That timely weather forecasts might help mitigate risk is
weather and catastrophic events, pest and disease out-
not difficult to ascertain, as this anecdote from Reuters
breaks, and price volatility in commodity markets. The use
indicates. A farmer is quoted as saying, “I got message
of ICT has reduced the cost and increased the profitability
on relative humidity going up to 70 percent. As a precau-
of providing this information, which has attracted private
tion, I put a spray of US$10. My friend did not know this.
sector participation in a space traditionally dominated by
He lost nearly US$8,000 of his crop that day.”
state extension services or agricultural institutes. The pri-
Source: Authors, drawing on Reuters 2007, Preethi 2009, and Mehra
vate sector originally developed services to provide market 2010.
price information, but most of these services have evolved
to deliver news about impending catastrophic and inclem-
ent weather.
13 Indian states in 8 local languages (Mehra 2010). The infor-
mation is delivered directly to farmers’ mobile phones through
Risk-Mitigating Information
SMS. RML subscription cards can be purchased from local
The quintessential example of applying ICT to agriculture shops, input suppliers, banks, and post offices.
is the Indian agribusiness giant ITC and its e-Choupal ser-
vice (http://www.itcportal.com/rural-development/echoupal Rigorous, empirical evaluations have yet to be carried out to
.htm), detailed in Module 9. This extensive network provides determine the quantitative relationship between information
approximately 4 million farmers with information on market availability and the implications for risk mitigation. A prelimi-
prices, the weather, pest and disease outbreaks, and expert nary study in Sri Lanka concluded that 40 percent of post-
advice. The service is free; ITC profits by using its informa- production losses could be mitigated with timely information
tion service kiosks to procure commodities and market agri- (Mittal, Gandhi, and Tripathi 2010). From an internal study,
cultural inputs to farmers (ITC 2010). Thompson Reuters claims that through information sharing,
an estimated 1 million farmers in over 15,000 villages have
Reuters Market Light (http://www.marketlight.org/), detailed in used the service and received high returns on their invest-
Module 3, modifies the information delivery model of e-Choupal ment, amounting to over US$4,000 from additional profits
by eliminating the kiosks and reaching out directly to farmers and US$8,000 on saved costs, far exceeding the service fee
(box 10.1). Developed by the Thompson Reuters information (International Chamber of Commerce 2010).
company, the service provides highly personalized, profes-
sional information to India’s farming community. It covers over Through the Esoko platform (http://www.esoko.com/)
250 crops, 1,000 markets, and 3,000 weather locations across described in Module 3, West African farmers and traders
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
264 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
receive targeted, scheduled text messages on commod- FIGURE 10.1. Ownership of Radios and Mobile Phones
ity prices or offers from buyers. The focus is on creating a in Ghana, Kenya, and Zambia, 2010
transparent, stable market and reducing transaction costs. 100% Radio
Similarly, the Kenya Agricultural Commodity Exchange (http:// 90%
www.kacekenya.co.ke/) makes prices on the exchange avail- 80% Mobile
70% phone
able by text message (KACE 2010). These services improve 60%
farmers’ ability to negotiate prices and serve to partially 50%
40%
mitigate price risk. Even so, they cannot mitigate the more
30%
significant price volatility that originates in global markets. 20%
10%
Research institutes are also innovating in the delivery of 0%
Ghana Kenya Zambia Total
information services. MTT Agrifood Research Finland is Source: InterMedia AudienceScapes Surveys 2010.
piloting the EVISENSE project (https://portal.mtt.fi
/portal/page/portal/mtt_en/ruralenterprise/tomorrowsfarm
/envisenseforecast) to provide 24-hour disease forecasts to best course of action to manage risks in production or respond
Finnish farmers using a combination of technologies such as appropriately to early warnings. For instance, weather infor-
weather sensors, databases, mobile phone SMS, GPS, and mation and advisory services are in place in many countries
online management systems. Sensor networks across the to help stakeholders make optimal decisions from crop plan-
country feed weather data to a centralized server. This central- ning to crop sale to manage risks. Again it is important to
ized database contains farmer-specific cropping information emphasize that such advisory services are important for risk
provided by the farmer. Computer models use the site-specific mitigation because they help farmers translate good informa-
data along with the weather data to predict pest outbreaks. If tion into practical actions that reduce their exposure to risk.
an outbreak is predicted, farmers receive messages on their
Such services enable farmers to interact in various ways
mobile phones and can then log onto the Internet to download
(such as voice interaction or SMS queries using mobile
additional information from a farm management information
phones) with an automated database containing best prac-
system. The online system recommends which spray agents
tices and recommendations to handle most routine queries.
to use and when to combat the impending attack.
Common queries might include ideal planting times, optimal
Through EVISENSE, farmers can mitigate the risk of disease input applications, or suggestions on which crops to plant
by spraying their crops with the appropriate pesticide ahead based on market trends. In unique cases, queries are referred
of an outbreak. The spraying plan can be sent to the computer to agricultural experts. In other cases, the farmer is able to
on the tractor’s sprayer to carry out the spraying. Once it is speak directly with extension personnel.
entered into the tractor’s system, the plan can be fine-tuned
The mKRISHI service, recently piloted by Tata Consulting
using GPS on the tractor and location-specific data on mois-
Services in India, is a prototypical example of remote exten-
ture, wind, and predicted rainfall from MTT’s SoilWeather
sion services that allow two-way interactions. (“Krishi” is
system. For example, if rain is predicted within three hours
“farming” in Hindi.) A farmer uses the platform to access
of spraying, the spraying will be discontinued. This informa-
best practices and query agricultural experts through low-
tion prevents expensive inputs from being washed away and
cost mobile phones, mostly using SMS (Banerjee 2010).
damaging the environment (MTT 2009).
MKRISHI is not the only program of its kind to offer remote
Mobile phones are not the only way to deliver early warning
extension services heavily reliant on ICT. Other countries
information. Radio remains very important: More farmers
have experimented with slightly different ways of linking the
are likely to receive information from the radio than from any
farmer to extension information. The Kenya Farmers Helpline
other source. Recent data show that in Sub-Saharan Africa,
(“Huduma Kwa Wakulima”) (http://www.kencall.com/index
even among more developed nations, the penetration of
.php/site/kenya_farmers_helpline/) was launched in 2009 by
radio still exceeds that of the mobile phone (figure 10.1).
KenCall, a Kenyan business process outsourcing company,
with support from the Rockefeller Foundation. Instead of
Decision Support Systems using SMS, farmers call the Helpline and speak to an agricul-
Besides fostering the delivery of timely and accurate informa- tural expert in English or Swahili (Lukorito 2010). Kisan Call
tion to mitigate risk, ICT applications also act as decision sup- Centre (India) and Jigyasha 7676 (Bangladesh) are similar
port systems. These systems help stakeholders choose the operations that provide customized, expert advice to farmers.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 265
Radio (a traditional source of extension advice) is becom- LESSONS LEARNED
ing a more interactive source of advice with the advent of A number of insights emerge from recent experiences in
mobile phones and call-in (or text-in) programs. The African using ICT to mitigate agricultural risk. One important insight
Farm Radio Research Initiative (http://www.farmradio.org is that the missing link in providing risk-mitigating information
/english/partners/afrri/) of Farm Radio International (http://www to farmers was not the information itself but the challenge of
.farmradio.org/) creates content that can be broadly described aggregating, personalizing, and disseminating it in a timely
as agricultural extension information, including weather and cost-effective way. The content that farmers need is
forecasts, price news, and early warnings about pests and already produced by universities and government institutes.
diseases. (For details, see Topic Note 6.2.)
Any use of ICT applications to mitigate agricultural risk must
ensure that the fundamental requirements described above
Supply Chain Integration and Traceability
are present or can be developed easily. For example, farmers’
ICT applications are also helping supply chains become more
familiarity with ICT should be assessed before initiating an
vertically integrated. Better cooperation between farmers and
intervention. Similarly, there should be a baseline understanding
buyers along the supply chain mitigates default risk. Amul in India
of whether farmers have the capacity to make good use of the
has installed Automatic Milk Collection Unit Systems in village
information. Do farmers have access to rural finance, markets,
dairy cooperatives. These systems enhance the transparency of
transportation, technology, inputs, and so on? If not, consider
transactions between the farmer and the cooperative and have
awareness and education programs regarding risk-mitigating
lowered processing times and costs. The application uses com-
strategies or appropriate responses to early warnings.
puters connected to the Internet at the milk collection centers to
document supply chain data such as fat content, milk volumes One difficulty in providing early warning or advisory services
procured, and amount payable to the member (Bowonder, Raghu to farmers was not that the information was lacking, but that
Prasad, and Kotla 2005) (for considerably more detail, see IPS “IT it could not be delivered effectively. ICT applications make it
Tools for India’s Dairy Industry,” in Module 8). easier to collect information from the universities and insti-
tutes that produce it and then to personalize it and provide it
Dairy Information Services Kiosks at collection centers
directly to farmers. The medium matters, however. A radio
describe best practices in animal care to enhance milk yield
announcement is different from a phone call, which is again
and quality and assists dairy cooperatives to effectively
different from a text message.
schedule and organize veterinary, artificial insemination,
cattle feed, and related services (Rama Rao 2001). Delivery Collaboration between the private and public sectors is increasing.
of such comprehensive information helps to improve inte- The public sector generates early warnings and provides expert
gration of the supply chain, thus reducing default risk. The advice, while the private sector has found that it can leverage ICT
early detection of production volatility makes it possible to applications (particularly mobile phones and back-end data collec-
take preemptive measures to address the underlying risk. tion and processing systems) to deliver this content to farmers
quickly. Profitability remains a challenge. In many instances, the
ICT applications, particularly GIS and RFID technologies, have had upfront investment and capital costs (such as the cost of invest-
an impact in mitigating two additional forms of risk in the sup- ing in weather and ICT infrastructure), as well as the operational
ply chain: sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) risk and default risk. costs, are high. A longer-term horizon and significant economies
Larger aggregators and traders use software systems to collect of scales are required to break even.
and track information about who is growing what and whether
farmers are adhering to the food safety and quality standards The ability to deliver highly personalized information is another
imposed in Europe and North America, especially for perishable key to earning revenue. Farmers naturally want information
foods. Traceability technologies and software to increase integra- relevant to themselves—their crops, their plant and livestock
tion in supply chains, such as Muddy Boots (http://en.muddyboots disease, their markets—in the language they speak. It is difficult
.com/) (see Module 10), help to mitigate default risk when suppli- to elicit direct payment for services from farmers, but if farmers
ers rely on large numbers of small-scale farmers. Fruiléma (http:// see a value proposition, they are often willing to pay for a service.
www.fruilema.com/), an association of fruit and vegetable produc-
ers and exporters in Mali, launched a Web platform for potential As a result, private participation in delivering information
buyers to track the entire mango production chain and enables should be encouraged where possible, but the commercial
Fruiléma to comply with Global G.A.P. standards (see IPS “Mango sustainability of such initiatives should be analyzed rigor-
Traceability System Links Malian Smallholders and Exporters to ously. Information service providers should be encouraged to
Global Consumers” in Module 11). partner with the public sector to source content. It is difficult
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
266 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
to imagine that the private sector would find IMAGE 10.2. The mKRISHI Interface
it profitable to invest in generating content
as well as delivering it (unless delivering
it to farmers they contract). State-funded
institutions have been critical partners in
sharing their knowledge and resources
without cost. Cooperation and connectivity
are critical between information distributors
(mobile application developers) and informa-
tion creators (universities, news organiza-
tions, meteorological services, government
data services). Source: TATA Consulting Services.
Technology considerations are also critical. Even though farm- Through the advisory service, farmers might inquire how
ers can get weather information from the radio, those reports much fertilizer or pesticide to use, so they can optimize their
come only at a certain time and are easily missed, because use of these costly inputs. Similarly, farmers might inquire
farmers are often in transit or working in the field away from about when to harvest to avoid inclement weather. Farmers
the radio. Text messages, which can be stored and accessed with cameras in their phones can submit photographs to
at any time, are preferred because they ensure that farmers supplement their messages. While responding to farmers’
receive the critical early warning. Mobile infrastructure is vital queries, experts are able to incorporate soil information by
for most services that transmit risk-mitigating information to accessing the soil sensor nearest to the caller’s location
farmers (except for services relying on radio). (Pande et al. 2009). Farmers can also request a voice- or
SMS-based expert response.
New capacities in technology may lead to even better risk miti-
gation strategies. The growing sophistication of mobile phones
and falling costs of weather sensors make it likely that farmers Growth and Development
will soon have access to a richer variety of information that is MKRISHI was conceived and developed at the innovation lab
even more tailored to their location, crop choice, and general of Tata Consulting Services (TCS). The first pilot was deployed
information needs. Java-enabled phones, for instance, are in 2010 to an estimated 500 farmers in Uttar Pradesh and
cheaper and allow farmers to access information using menus Punjab, who pay US$1–2 per month to use the service. The
instead of simply sending SMS queries back and forth. Two-way service is being provided at a subsidized cost, as farmers were
interaction between farmers and advisers, in which farmers unwilling to pay the unspecified higher cost at which the ser-
can ask and receive answers to specific questions, are likely to vice was initially offered (Pande 2010). However, mKRISHI has
increase but also to command a premium. A direct connection found that farmers may be more willing to pay if information
overcomes literacy and language barriers, though these barriers on market linkages and the facilitation of credit is offered along
should also ease as voice recognition technology improves. with the advisory services.
Like RML, mKRISHI disseminates a wide range of person-
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY alized information; the critical difference is that experts can
Through mKRISHI, Farmers Translate Information respond to farmers’ queries. To provide the early warning
into Action to Mitigate Risk
and news information, the system relies on a Web-based
MKRISHI is innovative because it enables farmers to trans- mobile platform that ties into many information sources.
form information into risk-mitigating actions (“TCS’ mKRISHI Data are gathered from commodity exchanges, agricultural
on Pilot Run in Maharashtra,” Financial Express 2009). The research institutions (often state supported, such as Punjab
mKRISHI platform, developed by Tata Consultancy Services Agricultural University), banks, weather servers, local mar-
in 2007, enables farmers to access best-practice information kets, and solar-powered weather and soil sensors distributed
and agricultural experts through low-cost mobile phones throughout the areas where the service is offered (figure
using SMS (Banerjee 2010) (image 10.2). The connection 10.2) (Pande et al. 2009).
between agricultural advisory services and risk mitigation
is an important one, because information alone is often not To respond to farmers’ queries, mKRISHI relies on an auto-
sufficient to manage risk. mated database of frequently asked questions. The database
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 267
FIGURE 10.2. The mKRISHI Infrastructure
Source: TATA Consulting Services.
Note: CDMA = Code Division Multiple Access, a standard used by mobile phone companies.
can handle most questions, which are usually generic, but 1991,643). Again, however, the implication of delivering such
more specific or sophisticated questions are forwarded to 10 services remotely is still to be tested.
experts with Internet access. These experts interact with a
system that resembles email; they are able to see attached As noted, mKRISHI was made available to 500 farmers in
photos and soil sensor information with each message, and two Indian states as of 2010, and there are plans to offer
their response is sent back to the farmer by SMS. the service across India. There are also discussions about
launching similar services in the Philippines and Ghana
(Banerjee 2010).
Impact, Scale, and Sustainability
The sustainability of the mKRISHI platform is still questionable.
Farmers reportedly use mKRISHI to choose planting strate- The complexity of the platform and the numerous pieces that
gies, optimize fertilizer use, and time the harvest to avoid bad are tied together, from people to technologies to automatic
weather. Such choices surely contribute to risk mitigation, sensors, imply a difficult and expensive challenge to sustain-
and some early data from the pilot studies and interactions ability. Another challenge is posed by the inability to collect the
with farmers show promise in this regard. full marginal cost of the service from farmers (Pande 2010).
If productivity increases can be partially attributed to supe- The independent development and implementation of the
rior risk mitigation, then indirect quantitative research sug- project by a large private company suggests, however,
gests that an agricultural advisory service such as mKRISHI that the program might be able to sustain itself until it can
improves risk mitigation. Much evidence supports the idea resolve operational challenges to profitability, which seems
that effective delivery of traditional extension services to to be occurring. Much of the basic information comes from
farmers improves productivity. Returns to extension services public sources, and mKRISHI has been able to organize and
vary by crop and by geography, but studies show them to be personalize it through a large consortium of partners. The
quite high: “75–90 percent in Paraguay, 13–500+ percent in ready availability of the basic information (a public good) thus
Brazil, and 34–80+ percent in a group of countries in Asia, becomes one of the prerequisites for building and sustaining
Africa, and Latin America” (Birkhaeuser, Evenson, and Feder such operations.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
268 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
Topic Note 10.2: ICT APPLICATIONS TO TRANSFER
AGRICULTURAL RISK
TRENDS AND ISSUES BOX 10.2. How Does Insurance Work?
Farmers face many important risks that they can do little to
Insurance allows risk to be transferred to a third party
mitigate through better agronomic practices or the use of
for a fee. In exchange for this fee (premium), a farmer
early warning information, as described in Topic Note 10.1.
receives an policy or insurance contract that is likely to
Among these risks, price volatility and bad weather risk can
have the following features, among others: (1) a speci-
be particularly devastating. Low prices at harvest can sig-
fied time period during which the risk is partially or wholly
nificantly reduce a farmer’s income, while weather risk in the
borne by the third party; (2) the events that are covered
form of floods or droughts can reduce yields or destroy crops.
(a single peril such as hail, for example, or multiple perils
Farmers (or farmer groups) in developed nations can use such as drought, hail, fire, and theft); and (3) the payout
specific instruments to transfer their risk to a third party in in the event that the risk event occurs (indemnity), and
exchange for a fee. The third party can be a public or private possibly some gradation of the payout depending on the
insurance company in the case of weather risk, or a com- severity of the loss.
modity futures exchange in the case of price risk. In develop- The insurance company profits by pooling risk across
ing countries, the availability of such instruments is limited, large numbers of clients and charging a premium that
although pilot projects are starting to introduce them. exceeds the likelihood of the peril occurring, multiplied
by the losses that will accrue as a result. For a peril to be
ICT devices are playing a critical role in these pilot studies
insurable, the resulting loss has to be definite, accidental,
on risk transfer. Advances in mobile phone applications for
large, and calculable or able to be estimated; and the total
money transfers, improvements in the resolution and cost
payout must be limited in the event of a catastrophe.
of satellite imagery, and the pyramiding of multiple ICT tools
Source: Greene 2010.
(mobile phone, GIS, remote sensing data) to create newer
applications are all promising trends that could be leveraged
to transfer agricultural risks.
The heightened volatility of international commodity prices
and the threat of climate change have increased developing- problems of moral hazard and adverse selection; insufficient
country stakeholders’ interest in risk transfer instruments. data; high administrative costs in delivering the product,
Now the bigger challenge is to make risk transfer instru- assessing damages, collecting premiums, and making pay-
ments such as insurance and price hedging more relevant ments; and weak institutional and policy environments
and affordable for smallholders. The ability of ICT applications (Wenner and Arias 2003). Low trust and financial literacy
to reduce transaction costs, deliver information and financial have also limited the effective demand for insurance and
transactions, provide real-time data about hazards, and per- limited the willingness to pay for policies (Giné, Townsend,
form remote damage assessment can also help in piloting and Vickery 2008). In recent years, a modified form of insur-
and scaling up risk transfer instruments. ance, weather-based index insurance, has been piloted in
several parts of the world to address the moral hazard and
adverse selection challenges and to lower the costs of dam-
Instruments to Transfer Risk age assessments (box 10.3).
Transferring risk through insurance has several important
benefits. Insurance stabilizes asset accumulation by reduc- Farmers can use other means of transferring risk to avoid
ing the negative impact of weather shocks. Insurance also the problems caused by large fluctuations in the prices of
fosters investment, because it reduces the uncertainty of the commodities they produce. By transferring risk through
returns (Mude et al. 2009) (box 10.2). futures contracts traded on commodity futures exchanges,
farmers gain a means of managing the price volatility of
Insurance contracts are complex, however, and profitable agriculture commodities, which lends greater certainty to
insurance operations face numerous challenges. These chal- their production planning and farm investment decisions
lenges include the difficulty of designing contracts to avoid (UNCTAD 2009,17–18) (box 10.4).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 269
BOX 10.3. What Is Index Insurance? knowledge that most farmers or farmer cooperatives do not
have. Even in the United States, fewer than 10 percent of
The unique feature of index insurance is that it reduces farmers interact directly with commodity futures exchanges.
the cost of assessing damage by substituting individual They do make use of futures prices to make planting and
loss assessments with an indicator that is easy to mea- production decisions, however (Cole et al. 2008). Efforts are
sure as a proxy for the loss. Weather events or visible under way in China (UNCTAD 2009,13) and India to teach
vegetation have served as typical indicators. Besides farmers how to make use of futures markets, but ICT applica-
reducing transaction costs, another advantage of index- tions do not play a central role (Cole et al. 2008).
based insurance is that it reduces problems of adverse
selection, because the insured cannot influence the
ICT Applications and Risk Transfer Instruments
index or the loss assessment.
Although ICT applications have made it easier for farmers to
The disadvantage is basis risk: the imperfect relationship
access information from commodity futures markets, such
between the policy holder’s potential loss and the index
applications have not served to facilitate greater interaction
behavior. It is not always possible to perfectly match
with the futures markets to transfer price risk.
one farmer’s loss from drought to that of all others.
Undoubtedly, some farmers will lose more and some With respect to insurance, however, ICT applications seem
less. to be easing constraints arising from the lack of data and high
Source: Mude et al. 2009. administrative costs. Data requirements can be intensive; for
example, weather insurance contracts require time-series data
on weather and associated losses for farmers. High-resolution
BOX 10.4. Commodity Futures Markets satellite imagery has made data available to design insurance
contracts that once would have been impossible to develop,
A recent report by the United Nations Conference given the lack of data in many countries. Advances in ICT can
on Trade and Development describes a commodity help overcome gaps in weather data by creating synthetic data
exchange as: based on satellite information. Together, new data and lower
costs have facilitated the development of innovative index insur-
. . . a market in which multiple buyers and sellers
ance products that are currently in various stages of testing.
trade commodity-linked contracts on the basis of
rules and procedures laid down by the exchange. For example, AGROASEMEX (http://www.agroasemex.gob
Such exchanges typically act as a platform for trade .mx/), a Mexican national insurance institution focused on the
in futures contracts, or for standardized contracts rural sector, was a pioneer of indexed weather insurance (and
for future delivery. Often, in the developing world, a now offers catastrophic risk insurance). In 2007, the institution
commodity exchange may act in a broader range of began to offer an insurance product for pasture land based
ways, in order to stimulate trade in the commodity on an analysis of vegetation detected by satellite (called
sector. This may be through the use of instruments Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, or NDVI) (IFAD and
other than futures, such as the cash or ‘spot’ trade WFP 2010,65–73). Satellite data also allowed the International
for immediate delivery, forward contracts on the Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and its partners to over-
basis of warehouse receipts, or the trade of farm- come data limitations and create an index-based livestock
ers’ repurchase agreements for financing. insurance program in which damage is assessed through
Source: UNCTAD 2009,17. remote sensing (see IPS “ICT Enables Innovative Index-Based
Livestock Insurance in Kenya,” later in this note).
In Nicaragua and Honduras, synthetic data were created through
Like insurance, commodity futures exchanges have signifi- a public-private partnership in collaboration with the local
cant requirements, particularly with regard to policies, regula- meteorological agency. Three insurance companies (Equidad in
tion, and financial literacy. Exchanges must be governed by Honduras and LAFISE and INISER in Nicaragua) currently use
clear rules, operated transparently, and regulated properly to these data to design index insurance contracts for farmers.
ensure the level of confidence that traders demand. Such
institutional capacity is often limited in developing nations. Another novel insurance scheme, Kenya’s Kilimo Salama
The trading of futures contracts also requires specialized (http://kilimosalama.wordpress.com/), is described in the
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
270 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
innovative practice summary at the end of this note. It uses providers need to be regulated to ensure that they can
weather indicators as a proxy for input losses. deliver on payouts.
The application of ICT to risk transfer products has yet
LESSONS LEARNED to mature, and interventions should be undertaken with
extreme caution. This topic note describes promising
Compared to the range of applications for risk mitigation, ICT
examples, but any attempt to replicate them should take
applications to transfer weather and price risk to third parties
the local context into account. Furthermore, the current
are limited. Risk transfer instruments such as insurance and
pilot programs should be subject to impact analysis to
futures contracts have fared poorly in developing countries in
quantify their value. In the meantime, efforts can focus on
general. Such instruments often require well-developed insti-
improving the coverage and quality of ICT infrastructure,
tutions and high levels of financial literacy, which are often
improving the institutional framework required to support
lacking in rural areas of developing countries.
risk transfer products, and improving the awareness of
transfer products and their proper use among farmers and
The critical message here is that ICT applications reduce the
cooperatives.
cost of delivering insurance and improve the dissemination of
prices from international futures markets, but by themselves
they are unlikely to foster widespread use of risk transfer
instruments. Before ICT tools can be used to transfer risk, INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
the environment must be conducive. Appropriate infrastruc- ICT Enables Innovative Index-Based Livestock
ture, institutional structures, and policies for developing and Insurance in Kenya
delivering such instruments must be in place. Farmers must ICT has enabled International Livestock Research Institute
exhibit sufficient demand for the instruments. High levels (ILRI) and its partners to overcome data limitations and pro-
of financial literacy and technical skills are also required. hibitive administrative costs to create an index-based livestock
Technical expertise is absolutely vital for accessing and inter- insurance product. Damage is assessed by remote sensing,
preting satellite data and designing actuarially sound policies. and the insurance is distributed through wirelessly connected
point-of-sale systems deployed across the country.
Unique partnerships are essential to incorporate ICT into
risk transfer products such as index insurance. The array of ILRI, part of the Consultative Group on International
partners must have the vital technical skills just described Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (www.cgiar.org), developed
and must be able to access distribution channels, provide its Index-Based Livestock Insurance product (http://www.ilri
financial support, and assist with implementation. There is .org/ibli/) in 2009 in collaboration with a wide array of part-
a role for the public sector to develop and disseminate basic ners, including private and government players (ILRI 2009).
information about risk, because such information in the public Initiated in 2010, the pilot program provides farmers with
domain facilitates the creation of risk markets. Governments livestock insurance for 6–8 animals per year for a premium of
can also have a role in planning emergency response to infre- US$50–100 (Waruru 2009).
quent but catastrophic risks, while allowing private markets
to handle insurance. Partners must also be willing to collect Index-based livestock insurance seeks to interrupt the downward
data and make it available for insurance companies to price spiral of vulnerability, drought, and poverty in northern Kenya—a
policies correctly or, in the case of index insurance, to create process that is exacerbated by climate change. Northern Kenya
the index that links weather events to specific losses. is home to 3 million pastoralist households and is prone to severe
droughts (Mude et al. 2009). Pastoralists earn a livelihood by
An enabling regulatory and policy environment is funda- grazing cattle (also sheep, pigs, and poultry) on semiarid to arid
mental for risk transfer tools to work and is characterized land and by selling meat, milk, and eggs (image 10.3). Livestock
by such traits as the rule of law, contract enforcement, and account for 95 percent of family income in an area where the
private property rights. For commodity markets, a rules- or incidence of poverty is 65 percent, the highest in the country
principles-based approach to regulation and governance, (FAO–AGAL 2005,3). If a drought occurs, the vegetation that the
instead of a discretionary approach, is essential for success cattle graze upon is lost. Cattle starve, depriving vulnerable pasto-
(UNCTAD 2009). In the case of insurance, the insurance ral families of their sole source of income.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 271
Livestock insurance allows IMAGE 10.3. Pastoralism in Africa Is a Critical Means to Rural Livelihoods
farmers to pay a premium to
transfer the risk of livestock
dying in a drought to an insur-
ance company. If a drought
occurs, the policy indemnifies
the pastoralists’ loss. Previous
insurance programs were not
sustainable. The administrative
costs of assessing the losses
of remote pastoral communi-
ties, collecting premiums, and
paying out indemnities were
prohibitive.
It is unclear whether the advent
of ICT will make such programs
more sustainable, because
other factors affect sustainabil- Source: Curt Carnemark, World Bank.
ity, such as creating effective
demand or minimizing basis risk. Programs such as index- Statisticians used data on livestock losses for Marsabit
based livestock insurance are being attempted, however, District, the pilot region, to create an index to predict live-
because ICT applications greatly reduce the administrative stock mortality based on the remotely collected vegetation
costs that crippled previous programs. As noted, ILRI’s data (image 10.4). This procedure allowed for actuarially fair
index-based program was designed using satellite data; pricing of the index insurance (Mude et al. 2009).
damages are assessed by satellite; and delivery, premium
collection, and indemnity payments are all done through The project is being implemented with Equity Insurance Agency,
wireless point-of-sale systems. UAP Insurance Limited, Financial Sector Deepening Kenya,
and three government departments: the Kenya Meteorological
Growth and Development Department, the Ministry of Development of Northern Kenya
and Other Arid Lands, and the Ministry of Livestock (ILRI 2009).
Much of the technical work on the insurance product was
done by Cornell University and the University of Wisconsin
Two significant operational challenges arose: creating
BASIS program in collaboration with Syracuse University
effective demand and delivering the insurance cost-
and the Index Insurance and Innovation Initiative. As with
effectively. Education by way of experimental games
the design of any index insurance, the challenge was to
proved critical to generate effective demand. Before a
find sufficient data on both the peril as well as the indicator.
farmer would pay for an insurance program, he or she
Both kinds of data are necessary; data on the indicator are
would need to understand what value the product added
used to statistically predict the peril and price the insurance
and how it would work. The challenge was exacerbated
correctly.
by low literacy (Mude et al. 2009).
The innovation in this case was to use vegetation as the
In a vast region with so few market channels, cost-effective
indicator, because vegetation can be measured objectively
delivery of the insurance product was also a significant chal-
by satellite to indicate the level of drought. Fortunately,
lenge. Policies were sold through Equity Bank’s point-of-sale
the United States’ National Oceanic and Atmospheric
system based on handheld mobile devices, which have been
Administration has collected the high-quality imagery nec-
rolled out to 150 areas across northern Kenya. This channel
essary to construct a Normalized Difference Vegetation
was primarily developed for another program (DFID’s Hunger
Index since 1981, and the imagery is available free of
Safety Net Program).
charge.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
272 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
IMAGE 10.4. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, commercially viable premium loadings. Because willing-
Marsabit District, Kenya, February 2010 ness to pay is especially price sensitive among the most
vulnerable pastoralists (i.e., those not currently caught in a
poverty trap, but on the verge of falling into one) for whom
the product is potentially most beneficial, subsidization of
asset insurance as a safety net intervention may prove
worthwhile. Simple simulations find that relatively inexpen-
sive, partial subsidization targeted to households with herd
sizes in specific ranges can significantly increase average
wealth and decrease poverty, at a rate of just $20 per capita
per one percent reduction in the poverty headcount rate.”
Chantarat et al. 2009
This last point has implications for sustainability, which faces
substantial financial hurdles if the product cannot be com-
mercially viable. The development and pilot of the program
were funded by Financial Sector Deepening Trust in Kenya,
the UK Department for International Development (DFID),
and USAID (Waruru 2009), but plans to expand nationally
would require substantial private investment.
There are also questions of dependency on other programs.
The satellite data, for example, are critical. If they are
lost, there would be sustainability concerns. Similarly, the
point-of-sale system used to deliver the insurance is funded
Source: ILRI. by a separate program; any changes to that program might
threaten the insurance program.
Impact, Scalability, and Sustainability
It is too early in the pilot stage to assess the program’s actual
effectiveness in managing risk and ultimately reducing pov- INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
erty. An evaluation is to be conducted by the University of Kilimo Salama Delivers Index-Based Input
Wisconsin at the end of the pilot. The results will help design Insurance in Kenya through ICT
any modifications in the insurance program and influence The Kenyan insurance scheme Kilimo Salama (http://
decisions on scaling up the pilot to other areas. The plan is to kilimosalama.wordpress.com/) (its name means “safe farm-
expand the program throughout the country if it proves suc- ing” in Swahili) innovates by using mobile phones to collect
cessful in Marasabit District (Mude et al. 2009). Meanwhile, premiums and distribute payouts, thereby reducing assess-
an ex ante assessment of the insurance found that: ment and administrative costs. Weather indicators are used
as a proxy for the loss of inputs. Under Kilimo Salama’s
. . . household initial herd size—i.e., ex ante wealth—is the “pay-as-you-plant” model, agrodealers sell insurance policies
key determinant of IBLI [index-based livestock insurance] according to the quantity of inputs purchased.
performance, more so than household risk preferences or
basis risk exposure. IBLI works least well for the poorest, Kilimo Salama was developed by the Syngenta Foundation for
whose meager endowments effectively condemn them Sustainable Agriculture in partnership with Safaricom, UAP
to herd collapse given prevailing herd dynamics. By con- Insurance, MEA Fertilizers, and Syngenta East Africa Limited.
trast, IBLI is most valuable for the vulnerable nonpoor, for The program specifically insures the cost of inputs in case of
whom insurance can stem collapses onto a trajectory of poor weather over the planting season. Plans are in place to
herd decumulation following predictable shocks. offer a crop loss product in addition to the input loss insurance.
District-level aggregate demand appears highly price The premium amount is 10 percent of the input cost, which
elastic with potentially limited demand for contracts with is shared equally by farmers and the input companies
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 273
(50 percent each). The farmer thus pays a premium of the payout was 30 percent of the investment (“First Micro-
11 cents on a bag of higher-yielding corn seeds that costs Insurance Plan Uses Mobile Phones and Weather Stations to
US$2.20 or 31 cents on a 10-kilogram bag of fertilizer that Shield Kenya’s Farmers,” Science Daily, 2010).
sells for US$6.20 (Kilimo Salama n.d.)
The value of the insurance generally is not disputed, but
When the products are sold, the seller activates the insurance Kilimo Salama has just finished the pilot program and impact
policy using the Kilimo Salama application on the seller’s hand- has yet to be rigorously assessed. Even so, the business
set by (1) scanning a product-specific bar code with the camera model, privately cofinanced by input sellers, seems to be
phone, (2) entering the farmer’s mobile number, and (3) linking growing on its own. In 2010, 12,000 farmers had registered
the farmer to the local weather station (image 10.5). The buyer for the insurance, and there were plans to make the product
receives an SMS confirming the insurance policy (“First Micro- available to 50,000 farmers in Kenya by 2011 (Ogodo 2010).
Insurance Plan Uses Mobile Phones and Weather Stations to
IMAGE 10.5. Weather Station in Kenya
Shield Kenya’s Farmers,” Science Daily, 2010).
ICT applications are used in every part of the operation. Thirty
solar-powered weather stations automatically monitor the
weather; paperless channels are used to sell product; the
Safaricom 3G network is used to cheaply and quickly transmit
monitoring, sales, and payout data; and M-PESA (owned by
Safaricom) is the platform used to make indemnity payments
electronically. The Kenya Meteorological Department provided
the supporting weather data to create the index and correlate
it to crop losses and therefore to input-investment losses
(Ogodo 2010).
Each insurance policy sold requires the farmer to be registered
to the nearest weather station (Ogodo 2010). If there is excess
rain or insufficient rain, as measured by the weather report-
ing stations, the index correlating rainfall and crop growth
defines the payout due. Then the payment is made straight
to the farmer’s handset using M-PESA (see IPS “M-PESA’s
Pioneering Money Transfer Service,” in Module 2).
The insurance program was piloted to 200 farmers linked to
two weather stations in 2009 in Laikipia District. There was
a drought in both areas, and 80 percent of the input invest-
ment was returned to farmers linked to one weather station,
whereas the other station reported a less severe drought and Source: Syngenta Foundation.
Topic Note 10.3: ICT APPLICATIONS FOR COPING
WITH AGRICULTURAL RISK
TRENDS AND ISSUES activities, disrupt them, or, in the worst case, shut them
Regardless of the best efforts to mitigate or transfer risk, agri- down (Jaffee, Siegel, and Andrews 2010,21). Coping involves
cultural production is inevitably susceptible to risks of floods, responding to a shock in ways that immediately curtail further
droughts, and disease, among others. Such risks, when they losses in the short term, protect remaining life and assets in
materialize, can force farmers to deviate from their agricultural the medium term, and enable recovery in the long term.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
274 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
Left to their own devices to cope with unmitigated risks, India created an SMS-based reporting service to track animal
farmers typically employ strategies that are expensive in the health. Fieldworkers collected information about the health
long run. They may quickly sell productive land and other of animals and reported it to the directorate for analysis via
assets at below-market prices to generate cash; deplete per- text message (E-Agriculture 2008). MKRISHI helps farmers
sonal savings, if they have any; pull children out of school; cope with similar shocks. If an outbreak occurs, farmers
or borrow at high interest rates (Cole et al. 2008). Farmers can submit photos or describe the outbreak through SMS
also turn to their social networks for support, but this strat- to receive assistance in identifying the disease or pest and
egy does not work when entire villages are affected. When recommendations for managing the outbreak.
a farmer loses crops to floods, he or she may not be able to
rely on family members in the same village who have suf- The Community-Level Crop Disease Surveillance Project
fered the same fate. (CLCDS), discussed in an innovative practice summary fol-
lowing this note, takes this activity a step further. Piloted in
To prevent people from resorting to expensive coping strate- Uganda by the Grameen Foundation, the project employs
gies, governments and relief organizations attempt to quickly community knowledge workers to help identify diseases and
identify and assist those affected by shocks. Timely assistance advise on control methods.
can stem further losses and begin the recovery process.
Assistance might be provided in the form of food vouchers, Another significant challenge in coping with shocks is the
low-interest loans, technical assistance to resume productive need to disburse transfers and remittances rapidly to affected
activity, subsidized fertilizers, and loan cancellations. farmers, many of whom have limited access to formal finan-
cial services. The advent of mobile money has dramatically
eased this constraint, making it faster for farmers to receive
remittances from their social networks or receive transfers
RECENT APPLICATIONS
from governments and relief agencies.
A few ICT applications are used to cope with agricultural
shocks such as droughts, floods, and disease outbreaks, but The leader in this space is Safaricom’s M-PESA (http://www
they are proving important and potentially transformative. .safaricom.co.ke/index.php?id=745), a money transfer system
First, ICT applications such as mobile phones (particularly that allows individuals to deposit, send, and withdraw funds
those equipped with GIS and cameras) can be used to collect using SMS. M-PESA has grown rapidly, and is currently reach-
information after a shock about the extent of the damage, ing approximately 38 percent of Kenya’s adult population.
numbers of individuals affected, and who needs relief. These The M-PESA model has been copied with little modification
field data have proven vital to relief efforts, especially for bet- worldwide (Jack and Suri 2009,6), but it has yet to be applied
ter targeting and coordinating an effective response. Second, specifically to agricultural risk. (See IPS “M-PESA’s Pioneering
ICT tools (particularly mobile phones) have been used to Money Transfer Service,” in Module 2, for an overview.)
address the problem of disbursing remittances or aid vouch-
ers to individuals affected by agricultural shocks. Farmers are A Zambian company, Mobile Transactions (http://www
difficult to reach and lack access to financial institutions, but .mtzl.net/), delivers electronic payments, vouchers, and loan
increasingly they have mobile phones. disbursements using mobile phones, scratch cards, and
a countrywide agent network (see the innovative practice
The use of ICT applications to assess the nature and extent summary following this topic note). The voucher system
of risks and improve the coordination and targeting of cop- primarily targets organizations that regularly make transfers
ing strategies has been particularly noteworthy for disease to a large number of beneficiaries, such as the World Food
outbreaks. Rapid assessment and response are critical to Programme.
controlling disease outbreaks. Only after a farmer has recog-
nized the symptoms and identified the disease can he or she Another promising approach is the combined application
adopt the appropriate control methods. of remote sensing, GIS applications, and crowdsourcing
technologies to allow real-time damage assessment. Aside
Mobile technologies are being used to collect information from improving the identification of affected areas, real-time
from the field to assess damage or monitor outbreaks. assessments reduce the time lag between the shock and the
For example, to monitor the threat of bird flu, the Animal delivery of assistance. These tools have not yet been used
Husbandry and Veterinary Services of the Government of in response to agricultural shocks, but their use in response
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 275
IMAGE 10.6. Map of Flood Reports, Pakistan The combination of trained person-
nel and information services delivered
through various ICT channels might be
the most effective way to help farmers
cope with disease outbreaks that require
a rapid response. The ICT applications
serve to reduce the training required,
which in turn reduces the administra-
tive costs of such programs. Reducing
the required qualifications also expands
the supply of people eligible for the job.
Public institutions, governments, and
NGOs often play a big role in helping
farmers cope with risks. ICT applications
can equip these institutions with better
tools to manage their social safety net
programs. Mobile money and electronic
vouchers seem to have matured suffi-
ciently to be replicated in other contexts
and incorporated into plans to transfer
Source: A screenshot of the Pak Relief homepage.
funds to farmers affected by a drought
or flooding. Similarly, information ser-
to catastrophic floods in Pakistan suggests that agricultural vices that empower people without formal education in
applications are worth examining. agriculture to serve as agricultural extension workers might
also be a replicable approach, provided that the infrastruc-
Crowdsourcing has become more sophisticated through
ture and human capacity are present. Their effectiveness,
platforms such as Ushahidi (http://www.ushahidi.com/),
however, should be determined first. Finally, because ICT
which have the capacity to aggregate, synthesize, and visu-
applications for risk coping are still maturing, their incorpo-
alize data on a map. The software allows anyone with access
ration into a risk coping strategy should ensure that alterna-
to the Internet or mobile technologies to submit reports of
tive coping mechanisms can be used in the event that the
damage or requests for assistance. These reports are veri-
technology fails.
fied manually or automatically using computer programs.
The data are then synthesized onto a GIS map, which relief
and recovery agencies use to target and coordinate their
response. Ushahidi is open source software and has been
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Electronic Vouchers Are a Targeted, Traceable
quickly set up following catastrophic events such as the
Lifeline for Zambian Farmers
earthquakes in Haiti and Chile and the floods in Pakistan
(IRIN 2010) (image 10.6). Mobile Transactions (http://www.mtzl.net/) is a private
Zambian company that began operating in January 2010.
Through mobile phones (image 10.7), scratch cards, and a
national network of agents, the company provides access to
LESSONS LEARNED
banking services for rural Zambians. It has also designed a
There is much to learn regarding the robustness or effective- voucher system for organizations that regularly make trans-
ness of applying ICT to cope with risk. Based on the limited fers to a large number of beneficiaries, such as food vouch-
experience to date, early preparation and deployment seem to ers that help rural people cope with shocks such as droughts
be the keys to success. Damage assessment tools, electronic and floods.
voucher systems, or disease response advisory services can-
not be deployed quickly after a shock occurs; they must be in The vouchers are quickly delivered through the Mobile
place beforehand as a part of a robust disaster response plan. Transactions system in a targeted, transparent, and traceable
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
276 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
IMAGE 10.7. Transactions Using Mobile Phones The remaining step is to register benefi-
ciaries, who are identified by their national
identification cards and assigned a unique
number. The unique reference number on
each voucher card can be linked to any
registered beneficiary number. This link-
age is made using a mobile phone when
the beneficiary collects the voucher by
presenting his or her national identification
card.
Redemption of the voucher requires the
following steps: (1) the farmer takes
the scratch card to an authorized retail
agent; (2) the Mobile Transactions system
validates the card against the farmer’s
beneficiary PIN on the voucher, which
is revealed by scratching; and (3) if the
Source: Mobile Transactions Zambia.
system responds with a national identifi-
cation number that matches the identifi-
way. Between January and August of 2006, the World Food cation card the farmer presents, the retailer provides the
Programme used the system to deliver food subsidies worth subsidized product. The retailer, in turn, (4) receives an
US$500,000 to 32,000 Zambian recipients. FAO used Mobile electronic payment into his or her account in the Mobile
Transactions to subsidize the purchase of agricultural imple- Transactions system. Finally (5), this transaction becomes
ments worth US$600,000 for 6,000 recipients (Hesse 2010). visible to the client immediately through the Internet-based
system.
How the Voucher System Works
The electronic money service is simpler than paper vouch-
Operationally, there are two key aspects to the mobile ers. Agents throughout the country who have gone through
voucher system: (1) setup and voucher distribution, and the setup process are able to accept money from individual
(2) voucher redemption. Farmers themselves do not need payers and transmit the payment to the recipient using the
phones; nor is continuous mobile coverage necessary mobile phone and a unique code. The recipient can use that
(McGrath 2010). unique code to redeem his or her payment from a nearby
agent for cash.
Mobile Transactions clients sign a contract and an account is
set up for them to deposit the funds they wish to disburse.
They are also given access to an Internet-based system that Impact, Scalability, and Sustainability
indicates the level of funds disbursed, when, and to whom The World Food Programme has not yet used the Mobile
(WFP 2010). Transactions system to help people cope after a shock.
The infrastructure is there, however, in the event that
Vouchers can be redeemed only for subsidized items (food, food rations need to be increased to allow farmers to
farm implements, and so forth) at previously authorized retail cope with threats to food security. Most such threats in
locations. The participating retailers are given a phone and a Zambia are agricultural: floods, droughts, and cattle dis-
Mobile Transactions account and are trained to use the sys- ease (WFP 2010).
tem. Retailers are also familiarized with the paper vouchers.
Once the client and retailers are set up, the client deposits No rigorous impact evaluation of this electronic voucher
funds into the Mobile Transactions account at a regular bank. system has been conducted. Though quite different in
This money is credited to the client’s account within the some respects, the impact of mobile money might be
Mobile Transactions system. used to approximate the impact of the Mobile Transactions
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 277
FIGURE 10.3. Value and Quantity of Electronic Voucher issues. This summary is concerned largely with their role
Transactions in Zambia, 2010 in helping communities cope with risk.
Electronic vouchers
25,000 $800,000 The Community-Level Crop Disease Surveillance Project
$700,000 (CLCDS) provides Ugandan farmers with real-time advice
20,000 for coping with pest and disease outbreaks. CLCDS
$600,000
$500,000 was piloted in Bushenyi and Mbale districts between
15,000
$400,000 December 2008 and August 2009 as part of the Grameen
10,000 $300,000 Foundation’s larger Community Knowledge Workers
$200,000 project (http://www.grameenfoundation.applab.org/section
5,000 /community-knowledge-worker-project).
$100,000
– $–
Primary funding for the pilot came from the Bill & Melinda
0
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
r-1
-1
g-
ay
ar
b
n
n
Gates Foundation. Community knowledge workers in the
l
Ap
Ju
Au
Fe
Ja
Ju
M
M
pilot districts used mobile phones equipped with extension
Number of transactions Value (US$) information to identify diseases and offer advice about con-
Source: McGrath 2010.
trol methods (image 10.8). The workers were also trained to
collect disease outbreak data and transmit it to experts. With
system. Studies of Kenya’s M-PESA indicate there are the data, experts can recommend appropriate responses. If
significant impacts. Those relevant to risk are: (1) more this can be done quickly, individual outbreaks can be con-
efficient risk sharing though the expanded geographic tained before they become epidemics (Grameen Foundation
reach of social networks; and the (2) facilitation of timely 2010a,66).
transfers of small amounts of money, which enable sup-
port networks to keep shocks manageable (Jack and Suri
2009,11). Development and Growth
CLCDS responds to the gap between scientific recom-
Mobile Transactions has grown rapidly over its brief exis- mendations and on-farm practices in controlling crop dis-
tence, from 2,500 voucher transactions worth US$60,000 eases. The difficulty of collecting timely data on spreading
in January 2010 to about 23,000 transactions worth diseases and the limited effectiveness of on-farm control
US$700,000 in August 2010 (figure 10.3). The company is methods aggravate disease epidemics, which reduce crop
working to replicate the model internationally through part- yields, quality, and income at the household, community,
ners in Zimbabwe. and national levels (Grameen Foundation 2010a,58). In
Uganda, three diseases threaten banana production. Of
Mobile Transactions earns revenue from fees charged,
these, banana bacterial wilt alone is responsible for losses
which are approximately 5,000 kwacha (ZMK), or about
of US$70–200 million in Uganda (Grameen Foundation
US$1.08 per transaction. The company is searching for
2010a,59).
additional capital to supplement the financing it has already
received from venture capital firms and grants. It also hopes For CLCDS, Grameen Foundation partnered with the
to begin transferring payments on behalf of the Government International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), the
of Zambia. National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO), and
MTN-Uganda (a mobile network operator) to develop and
test a disease surveillance system. They used several ICT
tools to bridge the gap between agricultural experts and
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY farmers: mobile phone applications, a centralized database
Community Knowledge Workers in Uganda Link
of disease information, and GIS. The community knowledge
Farmers and Experts to Cope with Risk
workers tie all of these people and pieces together.
Community knowledge workers are also discussed in
detail in Module 4, which considers gender implications; To respond comprehensively to farmers’ queries, knowl-
as well as in Module 2, which focuses on regulatory edge workers had access to seven information services
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
278 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
IMAGE 10.8. Community Knowledge Workers
Source: Grameen Foundation.
(Gantt and Cantor 2010), several of which offer the kinds interactions with smallholder farmers (Gantt and Cantor
of information needed to mitigate or cope with risk. See 2010). The initial group of 38 CKWs has now grown to 98
box 10.5 for details. operating in eastern Uganda (Grameen Foundation 2010b).
By the end of the pilot, knowledge workers had trained over
Impact, Scalability, and Sustainability 3,000 farmers in the appropriate methods for banana disease
The CLCDS team recruited and trained 38 community identification, preventive measures, and control procedures.
knowledge workers, who completed over 6,000 surveys The CKWs were estimated to have reached 500–1,000 farm
(2,991 related to banana disease) and had more than 14,000 households in their communities (Grameen Foundation
BOX 10.5. Information Services Used by Community Knowledge Workers in Uganda
Google SMS Farmer’s Friend. A database of locally relevant, organic tips and advice, plus a three-day and
seasonal weather forecast. The knowledge worker searches the database through codes sent via SMS. (See IPS
“Farmer’s Friend Offers Information on Demand, One Query at a Time,” in Module 2.)
Google SMS Trader. A user-generated trading bulletin that provides farmers with the contact details of trad-
ers and vice versa through SMS posting and notifications. Developed in partnership with MTN-Uganda and
Google.
AppLab Question Box. Community knowledge workers phone this service to speak to an operator with access
to an Internet database and expert agricultural advice from NARO. This tool was developed in partnership with the
NGO Open Mind and NARO.
CKW Search. A series of forms, presented in Java, guides community knowledge workers through a menu to
search for agronomic techniques for banana and coffee production. Content was provided by NARO, the Uganda
Coffee Development Authority, and IITA.
(continued)
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 279
BOX 10.5. continued
Input Supplier Directory. An SMS-based keyword search service gives the location and contact details of shops
offering specific agricultural inputs such as seeds, pesticide, and fertilizer. Content was provided by the Uganda
National Input Dealer Association.
Banana Disease Control Tips. Preloaded HTML pages show control measures for specific banana diseases.
Content was provided by IITA.
Market Prices. An SMS-based keyword search service gives retail and wholesale prices for 46 commodities in
20 markets. Information provided by FIT Uganda, a local market price provider.
The AppLap Question Box and CKW Search draw from a database that the project team has built and continues to
expand and refine. This database of actionable agricultural information is populated by agricultural research organiza-
tions and other experts and reviewed by an Expert Review Board for further dissemination to farmers through knowl-
edge workers.
Sources: Author; Grameen Foundation 2010b.
2010b). Farmers reported increased revenue and decreased develop a plan of preventive measures and allow the rapid
losses upon using the helpline information to treat livestock dispersal of information that would decrease the spread
and plant diseases (Gantt and Cantor 2010). of the disease. The GIS data could then help scientists to
pinpoint sites to collect plant samples of new or suspicious
CLCDS also showed how a mobile survey system could disease reports for subsequent diagnosis in the laboratory
enhance scientists’ ability to monitor disease outbreaks in (Gantt and Cantor 2010).
real time and deliver information to farmers in remote areas
through the knowledge workers, particularly to areas where Given the pilot’s success, CLCDS will be scaled up with
extension officers and agricultural researchers do not regu- additional support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
larly visit (Grameen Foundation 2010a,66). Once CKWs sub- over four years to provide the service to 200,000 farmers
mitted their survey results, scientists could access and view across Uganda (Grameen Foundation 2010a). The bottle-
the data directly from the Web and download the results neck is the limited number of knowledge workers. Grameen
for analysis. The surveys provided data showing the spatial Foundation is training new ones and attempting to partner
distribution of banana disease in the communities. The team with existing extension services (Grameen Foundation
of scientists viewed thousands of digital photos of disease 2010b). Farmers are not currently charged for the service
symptoms, which knowledge workers submitted with their (they are compensated for participating in surveys, how-
surveys (Gantt and Cantor 2010). ever), and it is not yet clear how the program will continue
when external funding ends.
With this information, scientists could map disease incidence.
Over time, they began to better understand the spread of dis- The operational success of the CLCDS to date has depended
eases, the adoption of control techniques in different areas, on the ability to (1) recruit excellent knowledge workers;
and how these and many other factors intersect to impact (2) make information accessible to them through mobile
farmers’ livelihoods. This information is used to prioritize phone applications; (3) train them in disease identification
actions and communicate recommendations to farmers via and control; (4) train them in the use of ICT tools for data
the knowledge workers (Grameen Foundation 2010a,67). collection and effective dissemination of information; and
(5) maintain partnerships with experts to verify and analyze
Having up-to-date information that included details of the information to provide actionable advice to support the
exact locations of a disease, agricultural experts could knowledge workers.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
280 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ECX (Ethiopian Commodity Exchange) Operations. 2010. http://
www.ecx.com.et/Operations.aspx, accessed September 2010.
The author thanks the following people for their time on the
phone and over email: Jeff Groesbeck at MIT’s Legatum FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2006. “About US.” FAO
Rural Radio. http://www.fao.org/sd/ruralradio/en/23589/index
Center; Professor Tavneet Suri at MIT Sloan; Brad McGrath .html, accessed September 2010.
and Hans Hesse at Mobile Transactions in Zambia (McGrath
FAO–AGAL (Food and Agriculture Organization Livestock Sector
2010; Hesse 2010); and Roy Tubb at MTT Agrifoods Research
Analysis). 2005. “Livestock Sector Brief: Kenya.” Rome.
Finland.
Farm Radio International. 2010. “African Farm Radio Research
Initiative (AFRRI).” http://www.farmradio.org/english/partners
/afrri/, accessed September 2010.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING Financial Express. 2009. “TCS’ mKRISHI on Pilot Run in
Banerjee, D. 2010. “Mobile-Phone Farming.” Wall Street Journal, Maharashtra.” December 22. http://www.financialexpress.com
August 24. http://bit.ly/cB2Ofn, accessed September 2010. / news/tcs-mkrishi-on-pilot-run-in - maharashtra/557468/,
accessed July 2011.
Barrett, C. B., E. Aryeetey, A. Quisumbing, A. Ahmed, J. Hoddinott,
F. Naschold, J. Vanderpuye-Orgle, and T. Woldehanna. 2007. Gantt, W., and E. Cantor. 2010. “Direct Data on Demand:
“Local Risk Management: Protecting Houshold Asset Building Mobile Apps Deliver a Broad Range of Information to
and Farm Productivity from Idiosyncratic Shocks.” BASIS Brief, Ugandan Farmers.” ICT Update 53, January. http://ictupdate
BASIS CRSP, BASIS, Madison. http://www.basis.wisc.edu/live .cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/Direct-data-on-demand, accessed
/amabrief07-03.pdf, accessed September 2010. September 2010.
Birkhaeuser, D., R. Evenson, and G. Feder. 1991. “The Economic Giné, X., R. Townsend, and J. Vickery. 2008. “Patterns of Rainfall
Impact of Agricultural Extension: A Review.” Economic Insurance Participation in Rural India.” World Bank Economic
Development and Cultural Change 39: 607–50. Review 22 (3): 539–66.
Bowonder, B., B. R. Raghu Prasad, and A. Kotla. 2005. “ICT Grameen Foundation. 2010a. “Community Knowledge Worker
Application in a Dairy Industry: The e-Experience of Amul.” Pilot Report.” http://www.grameenfoundation.applab.org/ckw
International Journal of Services Technology and Management 6 /uploads/pdf/Grameen%20Foundation%20Community%20
(3/4/5): 241–65. Knowledge%20Worker%20Pilot%20Report%204.24.2010.pdf,
accessed October 2010.
Chantarat, S., A. G. Mude, C. B. Barrett, and C. G. Turvey. 2009.
“The Performance of Index-Based Livestock Insurance: Ex Ante ———. 2010b. “Community Knowledge Worker: The Farmer’s
Assessment in the Presence of a Poverty Trap.” Cornell University. Oracle.” http://www.grameenfoundation.applab.org/ckw/section
International Livestock Research Institute. http://www.basis /about-ckw, accessed October 2010.
.wisc.edu/i4/barrett.pdf, accessed September 2010. Greene, M.R. 2010. “Insurance.” Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Cole, S., R. Chattopadhyay, S. Hunt, J. Tobacman, and P. Topalova. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/289537/insurance,
2008. “Weather Insurance, Price Information, and Hedging: accessed September 2010.
Helping the Poor Manage Risk.” BASIS Brief, BASIS CRSP, Hesse, H. 2010. Interview by Soham Sen, manger of Voucher Unit at
BASIS, Madison. http://www.basis.wisc.edu/live/amabrief08-01 Mobile Transactions, October 6.
.pdf, accessed September 2010.
IFAD and WFP (International Fund for Agricultural Development
De Silva, H., and D. Ratnadiwakara. 2008. “Using ICT to Reduce and World Food Programme). 2010. The Potential for Scale and
Transaction Costs in Agriculture through Better Communication: Sustainability in Weather Index Insurance for Agriculture and
A Case-Study from Sri Lanka.” LIRNEasia. http://lirneasia.net Rural Livelihoods. Rome: IFAD.
/wp-content/uploads/2008/11/transactioncosts.pdf, accessed
January 2011. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 2009. “Index-
Based Livestock Insurance.” http://www.ilri.org/ibli/index.php,
E-Agriculture. 2007. “Mobile Phone Network and Pest Warnings accessed October 2010.
in Finland.” December 17. http://www.e-agriculture.org
/ 240 . html?&tx _ ttnews%5btt_news%5d=455&tx _ ttnews% ILO (International Labour Organisation). 2001. “Information Technology:
5bbackPid%5d=325&no_cache=1, accessed September Bridging the Digital Divide.” World of Work 38 (January/February).
2010. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/ public/@dgreports/@dcomm
/documents/publication/ dwcms_080617.pdf, accessed July 2011.
———. 2008. “SMS Helped Check Bird Flu in Orissa.” October 15.
http://www.e-agriculture.org/240.html?&tx_ttnews[tt _news] InterMedia AudienceScapes Surveys. 2010. “InterMedia Audience-
=743&tx_ttnews[backPid]=204&cHash=1852b8404a, accessed Scapes: Data Analysis Tool.” http://www.audiencescapes.org,
October 2010. accessed October 2010.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 281
International Chamber of Commerce. 2010. “Winners of 2010 World Narula, S., and N. Sharma. 2008. “Implementing ICTs in Indian
Business and Development Awards.” http://www.iccwbo.org Agribusiness.” I4D (Information for Development). http://www
/WBA/id7032/index.html, accessed October 2010. .i4donline.net/articles/current-article.asp?articleid=2162&typ
=eagriculture., accessed October 2010.
IRIN Integrated Regional Information Network. 2010. “Pakistan
Using SMS to Pinpoint Humanitarian Needs.” Reuters AlertNet, NRI (Natural Resources Institute). 2006. “Warehouse Recipt
September 28. http://mobile.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk Systems.” http://www.nri.org/projects/wrs/index.htm, accessed
/IRIN/d9dcececdbcbc4d3440ad5b0d1ba1edc.htm, accessed September 2010.
October 2010.
Ogodo, O. 2010. “Kenyan Farmers Get Micro-insurance.” Science
ITC. 2010. “ITC’s E-Choupal Movement.” ITC Portal. http://www and Development Network News, March 22. http://www
.itcportal.com/ruraldevp_philosophy/echoupal.htm, accessed .scidev.net/en/news/kenyan-farmers-get-micro-insurance.html,
September 2010. accessed September 2010.
Jack, W., and T. Suri. 2009. “Mobile Money: The Economics of Pak Flood Incident Reporting System. 2010. “Pak Flood Incident
M-PESA.” Stanford University. http://hci.stanford.edu/courses Reporting System.” http://pakreport.org/ushahidi/, accessed
/cs379l/readings/M-PESA.pdf, accessed October 2010. October 2010.
Jaffee, S., P. Siegel, and C. Andrews. 2010. Rapid Agricultural Pande, A. 2010. “mKRISHI: Connecting India’s Rural Farmers.”
Supply Chain Risk Assessment: A Conceptual Framework. CSR360 Global Partner Network. http://www.csr360gpn.org
Washington, DC: World Bank. /magazine/feature/mkrishi-connecting-indias-rural-farmers,
accessed September 2010.
KACE (Kenya Agricultural Commodity Exchange Ltd). 2010.
“KACE Faqs.” http://www.kacekenya.co.ke/faqs.asp, accessed Pande, A., et al. [anon.]. 2009. “mKRISHI: Mobile Based Agro Advisory
September 24, 2010. System.” Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
IIT Bombay. www.cse.iitb.ac.in/~gise/abstracts/arun_pande
Kilimo Salama. n.d. “Sample Farmer Brochure for Embu.” Syngenta
.pdf, accessed October 2010.
Foundation. http://www.syngentafoundation.org/__temp/Sample
_farmers_brochure.pdf, accessed October 2010. Preethi, J. 2009. “Reuters Market Light Goes Pan-India with Nokia.”
MediaNama. http://www.medianama.com/2009/04/223-reuters
Lukorito, C. 2010. “Kenya Farmers Helpline.” KenCall. http://www
-market-light-goes-to-himachal-pan-india-with-nokia-txt-vs-gprs
.kencall.com/news/ICPAC_review.pdf, accessed September
-vs-voice/, accessed October 2010.
2010.
Rama Rao, T. P. 2001. “Dairy Information Services Kiosk and Dairy
Manobi Development Foundation. 2008. “Manobi Fresh Food
Portal.” IIMA Center for Electronic Governance. http://www
Trace Solution to Boost European Market Access to Malian
.iimahd.ernet.in/egov/documents/disk-and-dairy-portal.pdf,
Mango Growers.” http://www.manobi.net/foundation/index
accessed October 2010.
.php?M=5&SM=1&IDComm=4, accessed September 2010.
Reuters. 2007. “Reuters Launches SMS Crop Service for Indian
McGrath, B. 2010. “Mobile Transactions Overview.” Presentation at
Farmers.”http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL0134842920071001,
CRS ICT4D Conference, Washington, DC, September 23.
accessed September 2010.
Mehra, A. 2010. “Small Technologies Fuel Big Results in the
Reuters Market Light. 2009. “IDEA Partners with Reuters Market
Developing World.” Huffington Post, September 13. http://
Light to Launch a Unique Service for Rural Markets.” Press
www.huffingtonpost.com/amit-mehra/small-technologies-fuel
Release. http://www.1888pressrelease.com/idea-partners-with
-b_b_715274.html, accessed October 2010.
-reuters-market-light-to-launch-a-unique-s-pr-148099.html,
Mittal, S., S. Gandhi, and G. Tripathi. 2010. “Socio-Economic Impact accessed October 7, 2010.
of Mobile Phones on Indian Agriculture.” Indian Council for
Santana-Boado, L. 2010. “Introduction to Commodity Markets.”
Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER), New
United Nations Development Programme. http://www.et.undp
Delhi.
.org/ecxknowledge/Looking_forward_What_Are_The_Stakes
Muddy Boots. 2007. “Muddy Boots: Greenlight.” http://www _For_Africa.pdf, accessed September 2010.
.muddyboots.com/products/gl.aspx, accessed September 2010.
Science Daily. 2010. “First Micro-Insurance Plan Uses Mobile
Mude, A., C. B. Barrett, M. R. Carter, S. Chantarat, M. Ikegami, Phones and Weather Stations to Shield Kenya’s Farmers.”
and J. McPeak. 2010. “Index-Based Livestock Insurance for Science Daily, March 4. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases
Nothern Kenya’s Arid and Semi-Arid Lands: The Marsabit Pilot.” /2010/03/100304202242.htm, accessed September 2010.
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi.
Spence, R., and M. Smith. 2009. “ICTs, Human Development, Growth,
Mukhebi, A., and J. Kundu. 2009. “KACE: Linking Farmers to Markets.” and Poverty Reduction: A Background Paper.” International
UNCTAD. http://www.unctad.info/upload/SUC/LusakaWorkshop Development Research Centre. http://www.idrc.ca/ict4d/ev
/KenyanCommodityExchanges.pdf, accessed September 2010. -139409-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html, accessed September 2010.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
282 MOD ULE 10 — IC T A PPLIC ATIONS FOR AGR ICULTURA L RISK MANAGEM ENT
Thompson Reuters. 2007. “RML Now Available in Local Post Offices Wenner, M., and D. Arias. 2003. “Agricultural Insurance in Latin
across Maharashtra.” http://thomsonreuters.com/content/press America: Where Are We?” BASIS-CRSP. www.basis.wisc.edu
_room/reuters/reuters_pr_3112, accessed October 2010. /live/rfc/cs_03b.pdf, accessed September 26, 2010.
Tollens, E. 2006. “Market Information Systems in Sub-Saharan WFP (World Food Programme). 2010. “Zambia: Mobile Delivery
Africa: Challenges and Opportunities.” Poster presentation, and Tracking System.” http://www.wfp.org/countries
International Association of Agricultural Economists Conference, /Zambia/Media/Mobile-Delivery-and-Tracking-system, accessed
August 12–18, Gold Coast, Australia. October 2010.
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development). World Bank. 2005. “Managing Agricultural Risk, Vulnerability, and
2009. Development Impacts of Commodity Exchanges. Geneva: Disaster.” In Agriculture Investment Sourcebook. Module 11.
UNCTAD. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Waruru, M. 2009. “Satellite Insurance to Pay Farmers If Land Turns ———. 2007. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for
Brown.” Science and Development Network. http://www Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.
.scidev.net/en/news/satellite-insurance-to-pay-farmers-if-land
-turns-b.html, accessed October 2010.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 283
Module 11 GLOBAL MARKETS, GLOBAL CHALLENGES:
IMPROVING FOOD SAFETY AND
TRACEABILITY WHILE EMPOWERING
SMALLHOLDERS THROUGH ICT
TINA GEORGE KARIPPACHERIL (World Bank), LUZ DIAZ RIOS (World Bank),
and LARA SRIVASTAVA (Webster University)
IN THIS MODULE
Overview. The market for safe and traceable food can exclude small-scale producers who lack the resources to comply
with strict standards. Wider access to information and communication technology (ICT) may lift some of these barriers.
The proliferation of mobile devices, advances in communications, and greater affordability of nanotechnology offer poten-
tial for small-scale producers to implement traceability systems and connect to global markets. This module examines
the effects of food traceability requirements and describes traceability systems implemented in the developing world.
For small-scale producers, group systems development and certification may ease some of the constraints in imple-
menting traceability systems, along with capacity strengthening in selecting appropriate technologies for traceability.
Networks and partnerships with public, private, or nonprofit organizations can help finance and build traceability systems.
Traceability technologies implemented for high-value crops may also expand smallholders’ ability to reach key markets.
Topic Note 11.1: The Importance of Standard Setting and Compliance. Traceability is becoming an increasingly com-
mon element of public (both regulatory and voluntary) interventions and of private systems for monitoring compliance
with quality, environmental, and other standards. Stringent food safety and traceability requirements trigger new transac-
tion costs for small-scale producers without adequate capital investment and public infrastructure. This note provides an
overview of the wide and growing array of public and private standards, domestic and international standards, and data
standards, with special attention to issues that impinge on developing countries’ capacity to comply with them.
Mango Traceability System Links Malian Smallholders and Exporters to Global Consumers
Topic Note 11.2: Traceability Technologies, Solutions, and Applications. Smallholders face serious challenges in
complying with standards, particularly with tracking requirements. The mobile wireless and nanotechnology revolution
offers the potential to change all that as remote producers and smallholders gain access to ICT. Mobile phones, radio-
frequency identification (RFID) systems, wireless sensor networks, and global positioning systems (GPS) are some
technologies that enable compliance with food safety and traceability standards. They also make it possible to monitor
environmental and location-based variables and communicate them to databases for analysis.
ShellCatch in Chile Guarantees Origin of the Catch from Artisanal Fishers and Divers
OVERVIEW Traceability is an increasingly common element of public1
Food production and distribution systems are becoming and private systems for monitoring compliance with quality,
more interdependent, integrated, and globalized. At the environmental, and other product and/or process attributes
same time, escalating and heavily publicized outbreaks of related to food. Small-scale farmers may lack the resources
foodborne diseases have raised awareness of the need to to comply with increasingly strict food safety standards,
ensure food quality and safety. This need drives much of the particularly traceability requirements. Given the role of
technological innovation to trace food consistently and effi-
ciently from the point of origin to the point of consumption. 1 Both regulatory (mandatory) and nonregulatory (voluntary).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
284 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
traceability in protecting consumers, ensuring food safety, The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
and managing reputational risks and liability, it is vital to inte- ISO/DIS 22005 (November 20, 2006, N36Rev1) has largely
grate and empower small-scale agricultural producers in the adopted this definition; however, it is a bit broader in scope
food supply chain through ICT. as traceability is viewed not only as a tool for meeting food
safety objectives but also for achieving a number of other
objectives in other sectors—for instance, in forestry for chain
Defining Traceability
of custody traceability, sustainable certifications, geographi-
“Traceability” is a concept developed in industrial engineer- cal indicators, or animal health.
ing and was originally seen as a tool to ensure the quality
of production and products (Wall 1994). Economic literature The EU General Food Law, Article 18 Regulation (EC)
from supply-chain management defines traceability as the No 178/2002, defines traceability as “the ability to track food,
information system necessary to provide the history of a feed, food-producing animal or substance intended to be, or
product or a process from origin to point of final sale (Wilson expected to be used for these products at all of the stages
and Clarke 1998; Jack, Pardoe, and Ritchie 1998; Timon and of production, processing, and distribution.”3 In comparison
O’Reilly 1998). to some international and commercial standards for trace-
ability, the EU does not require internal traceability4 (that is,
Traceability (or product tracing) systems differentiate prod- it does not require all inputs to match all outputs) (Campden
ucts for a number of reasons. Food traceability systems BRI 2009).
allow supply chain actors and regulatory authorities to iden-
tify the source of a food safety or quality problem and initi- For food products that are genetically modified, many coun-
ate procedures to remedy it. While traceability in the food tries use identity preservation schemes, but only the EU
sector has focused increasingly on food safety (Smyth and requires traceability. The EU (Directive 2001/18/EC) addition-
Phillips 2002), agrifood and nonfood sectors such as forestry ally defines traceability in relation to genetically modified
and textiles (particularly cotton) have instituted traceability organisms (GMOs) and products as:
requirements for product identification, differentiation, and
. . . the ability to trace GMOs and products produced
historical monitoring. Specific standards for food traceability
from GMOs at all stages of the placing on the market
have been mandated internationally; by law in the European
throughout the production and distribution chains facili-
Union (EU), Japan, and more recently the United States; and
tating quality control and also the possibility to withdraw
by private firms and associations.
products. Importantly, effective traceability provides a
In the context of agricultural policy, traceability refers to full “safety net” should any unforeseen adverse effects be
traceability along the supply chain, with the identification of established.
products and historical monitoring, and not just the separa-
As noted in CAC (2006), traceability can also help identify a
tion of products under specific criteria at one or more stages
product at any specified stage of the supply chain: where the
of the chain. The Codex Alimentarius Commission2 (CAC
food came from (one step back) and where the food went
2006) defines traceability as:
(one step forward). Simply knowing where a food product
can be found in the supply chain does not improve food
the ability to follow the movement of a food through
safety, but when traceability systems are combined with
specified stage(s) of production, processing and distri-
safety and quality management systems, they can make
bution. . . . The traceability/product tracing tool should
associated food safety measures more effective and effi-
be able to identify at any specified stage of the food
cient (CAC 2006).
chain (from production to distribution) from where the
food came (one step back) and to where the food went
By providing information on suppliers or customers involved
(one step forward), as appropriate to the objectives of
in potential food safety issues, traceability can enable tar-
the food inspection and certification system.
geted product recalls or withdrawals. Similarly, the imple-
mentation of food safety management systems can support
2 Established in 1963 by the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations and the World Health Organization, the
Codex Alimentarius (Latin for “food code” or “food book”) is a 3 “Food Safety,” Europa (official EU website), http://europa.eu/pol
collection of internationally recognized standards, codes of prac- /food/index_en.htm, accessed July 2010.
tice, guidelines, and recommendations on food, food production, 4 See “Objectives of Food Traceability Systems” in the next sec-
and food safety. tion for a definition of internal traceability.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 285
efficient, consistent traceability. For example, prerequisite 2.2 million people die from diarrheal diseases largely attrib-
programs such as good agricultural and management prac- uted to contaminated food and water (WHO 2007a). The
tices and the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point global burden of foodborne illness caused by bacteria,
(HACCP) system include requirements for recordkeeping viruses, parasitic microorganisms, pesticides, contaminants
that can support requirements for traceability. The areas of (including toxins), and other food safety problems is unknown
animal identification, disease prevention and control, nutrient but thought to be considerable (Kuchenmüller et al. 2009).
management, production safety, and certification for export
all include practices that contribute to the efficacy of trace- Food safety issues have human, economic, and political
ability systems. In summary, traceability can: costs. These costs are exacerbated by animal husbandry
practices that increase the numbers of human pathogens,
Improve the management of hazards related to
antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and zoonotic pathogens in meat
food safety and animal health.
and dairy products; unsafe agricultural practices involving the
Guarantee product authenticity and provide reliable
use of manure, chemical fertilizer, pesticide, and contami-
information to customers.
nated water on fresh fruits and vegetables; the progressive
Enhance supply-side management and improve influence of time and temperature on globally traded prod-
product quality. ucts such as seafood, meat, and fresh produce; the contami-
nation of processed food by bacteria, yeast, mold, viruses,
The benefits of traceability for consumers, government
parasites, and mycotoxins; the presence of foreign objects
authorities, and business operators are widely recognized.
causing injury to the consumer such as glass, metal, stones,
Yet for small-scale farmers in developing countries, espe-
insects, and rodents; and the threat of bioterrorism (Safe
cially farmers producing horticultural and other fresh food
Food International 2005).
products, traceability requirements can represent barriers to
trade. The market for safe and traceable food can exclude Cases recorded in WHO’s epidemiological records, medical
small-scale agricultural producers who lack the resources to journals, and other record systems over several decades
comply with increasingly strict standards, particularly require- demonstrate the extent of the problem (table 11.1). The
ments for tracking and monitoring environmental and supply Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated
chain variables through sophisticated technologies. that 48 million cases of foodborne illness occur each year
in the United States, including 128,000 hospitalizations and
Wider access to ICT may lift some of these barriers. The
3,000 deaths.5 The three primary avenues of contamination
proliferation of mobile devices, advances in communications,
are production, processing, and shipping and handling. In
and greater affordability of nanotechnology offer potential for
light of global food safety concerns, the WHO Global Strategy
small-scale producers to implement traceability systems and
for Food Safety, endorsed in January 2002 by the WHO
connect to global markets. Mobile phones, radio-frequency
Executive Board, outlined a preventive approach to food
identification (RFID) systems, wireless sensor networks, and
safety, with increased surveillance and more rapid response
global positioning systems (GPS) make it possible to monitor
to foodborne outbreaks and contamination incidents (WHO
environmental and location-based variables, communicate
2002). This approach substantially expands the ability to pro-
them to databases for analysis, and comply with food safety
tect food supplies from natural and accidental threats and
and traceability standards. In the context of food safety and
provides a framework for addressing terrorist threats to food
smallholders’ participation in global markets, this module
(WHO 2008).
explores incentives for investing in traceability systems and
the prospects for traceability to empower small-scale pro-
ducers in the value chain. It includes detailed information on Components of Food Traceability Systems
standards, technical solutions, and innovative practices. Not only foodborne illnesses but also globalization, con-
sumer demand, and terrorism threats have impelled the dif-
Food Safety: A Challenge of Global Proportions fusion and growth of traceability systems in supply chains
for food and agriculture. Food is a complex product (Golan,
Foodborne disease outbreaks and incidents—including those
Krissof, and Kuchler 2004), and modern food production,
arising from natural, accidental, and deliberate contamina-
tion of food—have been identified by the World Health
5 “Estimates of Foodborne Illness in the United States,” CDC,
Organization (WHO) as major global public health threats http://www.cdc.gov/foodborneburden/2011-foodborne-estimates
of the 21st century (WHO 2007b). WHO estimates that .html, accessed February 2011.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
286 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
TABLE 11.1. Examples of Food Safety Outbreaks, 1971–2008
YEAR CASE
2008 294,000 children affected by adulterated formula tainted with melamine. More than 50,000 were hospitalized and 6 died. (China)a
2004–05 Aflatoxin contamination of maize caused more than 150 deaths. (Kenya)
2001 Cases of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), which is caused by the same agent as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), stood at 117 world-
wide. A number of animal studies suggest a theoretical vCJD risk from human blood donors in countries associated with the use of BSE-contaminated
meat and bone meal and recycling of animals into the animal feed chain.b The BSE (“mad cow”) outbreak was highly publicized by the media. It
remains etched in consumer consciousness as an example of an acute breakdown in food safety and quality in the developed world.
E. coli O157:H7, various animal foods, 20,000 cases, 177 deaths in Jiangsu and Anhui provinces. (China)
2000s Contaminated olive oil. (Spain)
Staphylococcus in milk. (Japan)
E. coli in spinach, carrot juice. (United States)
Listeria in ready-to-eat meat. (Canada)
Salmonella in peanut butter. (United States)
2000 WHO noted the presence of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella bacteria in food animals in Europe, Asia, and North America, which have caused diar-
rhea, sepsis, and death in humans, as well as Enterococci infections, which present severe treatment problems in immunocompromised patients.c
1990s E. coli in hamburgers. (United States)
BSE. (UK)
Cyclospora in raspberries. (United States/Canada)
Avian influenza. (Southeast Asia)
Dioxin in animal feed. (Belgium)
1999 Salmonella typhimurium, more than 1,000 cases, meat products, Ningxia. (China)
1998 Statistics from the Ministry of Health showed a marked increase in food poisoning attributed to Vibrio parahaemolyticus, from 292 incidents (5,241
cases) in 1996 to 850 incidents (12,346 cases) in 1998. One large outbreak of 691 cases was caused by boiled crabs in 1996; another involved 1,167
cases traced to catered meals in 1998 (Japan). Outbreaks were also documented in Bangladesh, India, Thailand, and the United States.d
1980s Beef hormones. (EU)
Salmonella in eggs and chicken. (UK)
Alar in apples. (United States)
Hepatitis A in raw oysters, 300,000 cases, Shanghai. (China)
1971–82 Safe Food International, a global consumer organization, cited cases of foodborne illness arising from accidental or intentional adulteration: “During
the winter of 1971–1972, wheat seeds intended for crop planting and treated with methylmercury were accidentally distributed in rural areas of
Iraq. An estimated 50,000 people were exposed to the contaminated bread, of which 6,530 were hospitalized and 459 died. In Spain in 1981–1982,
contaminated rapeseed oil killed more than 2,000 people and caused disabling injuries to another 20,000 many permanently.”e
Sources: Compiled by Tina George Karippacheril and Luz Diaz Rios; data on specific cases from (a) Ingelfinger 2008, (b) WHO 2001, (c) WHO 2000, (d) WHO
1999, and (e) Safe Food International (2005).
processing, and distribution systems may integrate and detectable in the product. They are also useful for capturing
commingle food from multiple sources, farms, regions, product premiums. Segregation systems are used to prevent
and countries (Cannavan n.d.). Food products covered by the mixing of novel varieties in the handling of like varieties
traceability standards include fresh produce such as man- or to discourage the mixing of a segregated product with like
goes, avocados, and asparagus; bulk foods such as milk, products if potential food safety concerns exist. Traceability
soybeans, specialty coffee, and olive oil; fish and seafood; systems, on the other hand, allow sources of contamina-
and livestock for meat and dairy. This module also touches tion in the supply chain to be identified (Smyth and Phillips
on the role of ICT in animal identification, a prerequisite for 2002), which enables a transparent chain of custody, raises
implementing livestock traceability in the meat and dairy credibility, and makes it possible to transfer information on
sectors. the steps taken to alleviate food safety concerns (McKean
2001). Unsafe food can be recalled because information on
Food products may be differentiated through systems of all possible sources and supplies of contaminated food can
(1) identity-preserved production and marketing (IPPM), be traced one step forward, one step back, or end to end.
(2) segregation, and (3) traceability. IPPM systems are impor-
tant for providing information to consumers about the prov- Traceability systems can be classified according their capac-
enance of a product when the attributes may not be visible or ity for (1) internal traceability and (2) chain traceability.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 287
“Internal traceability” refers to data recorded within an orga- called critical tracking events. Data captured in critical track-
nization or geographic location, whereas “chain traceability” ing events are vital to linking products, both simple and com-
involves recording and transferring data through a supply chain plex, within a facility and across the supply chain (IFT 2009).
between various organizations and locations involved in the
provenance of food. Food contamination may occur at the farm, Traceability data can be static or dynamic, mandatory or
during processing or distribution, in transit, at retail or food ser- optional. Static data do not change, whereas dynamic data can
vice establishments, or at home. Fundamentally, traceability change over time and through the chain of custody (Folinas,
systems involve the unique identification of food products and Manikas, and Manos 2006). “Trace back” implies that a sys-
the documentation of their transformation through the chain of tem can identify production/processing steps that resulted in
custody to facilitate supply chain tracking, management, and the creation of the product. “Trace forward” implies that a
detection of possible sources of failure in food safety or quality. system can identify all derivatives of the product used as an
ingredient in numerous other products. Food traceability sys-
The smallest traceable unit will vary by food product and tems and definitions in standards, laws, and regulations are
industry. Some of the data elements may include the physi- broadly conceptualized to permit producers to determine the
cal location that last handled the product, as well as the type breadth, depth, and precision of systems based on specific
of supply chain partner (producer, processor, or broker, for objectives (Golan et al. 2004). (For definitions and standards,
example); incoming lot numbers of product received; amount see Topic Note 11.1.) “Breadth” denotes the amount of infor-
of product produced or shipped; physical location where mation a traceability system captures, “depth” refers to how
cases were shipped; lot number of the product shipped to far backward or forward the system tracks an item, and “pre-
each location; date/time when the product was received cision” shows the degree to which the system can pinpoint
or shipped; date/time each lot was produced or harvested; food characteristics and movement. Figure 11.1 illustrates
ingredients used in the production of the product, along with these concepts for the attributes of interest in the stages of
corresponding lot numbers; and immediate source of ingre- coffee production.
dients and when they were received.
Traceability data are recorded through media including but not
Good practices in traceability entail making the lot number limited to pen/paper, barcodes, RFIDs, wireless sensor net-
and name of the production facility visible on each case of works, mobile devices and applications, enterprise resource
product and recording the lot number, quantity, and shipping planning (ERP) applications, and Internet-based applications.
location on invoices and bills of lading. Traceability requires Information related to product tracing may be recorded and
each facility to record data when a product is moved between transmitted through management information systems or, in
premises, transformed/further processed, or when data cap- the case of smaller operations, paperwork such as invoices,
ture is necessary to trace the product. Such instances are purchase orders, and bills of lading. Traceability data may also
FIGURE 11.1. Coffee: Attributes of Interest and Depth of Traceability
Attributes of interest
Decaf Fair trade Fair wage Shade grown Non-GE Safety
• Processing
• Sale from producer
Stages of production
??
to wholesaler/retailer
• Transporation
• Storage
• Harvest
• Cultivation
• Bean/seed
Necessary depth of traceability
Source: Golan et al. 2004.
Note: GE = genetically engineered.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
288 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
be captured directly from products such as fresh produce, sea- standards led producers to reorient their operations (Jaffee
food, and livestock. Products may be tagged with barcodes and Henson 2004b).
or RFIDs, which store product and associated data. Wireless
sensors may transmit data on temperature, spoilage, or loca- Any application of product traceability systems must take into
tion to RFIDs tagged to products. Topic Note 11.2 provides account the specific capabilities of developing countries. If
detailed information on traceability technologies and systems. an importing country has objectives or outcomes of its food
inspection and certification system that cannot be met by
an exporting country, the importing country should consider
Implementing Food Traceability Systems in Developing providing assistance to the exporting country, especially if it
Countries is a developing country. Assistance may include longer time
Nearly 500 million people reside on small farms in developing frames for implementation, flexibility of design, and technical
countries (Hazell et al. 2006). Their participation in markets assistance (CAC 2006). In recent years, a variety of traceability
typically is constrained by inadequate farm-level resources, systems have been implemented in the developing world,
farm-to-market logistical bottlenecks, and more general including systems for fresh fruit, vegetables, grain, oilseeds,
transaction costs in matching and aggregating dispersed bulk foods, seafood, fish, and livestock (table 11.2). Aside from
supplies to meet buyer and consumer demand. These the examples in the table, the Republic of Korea has imple-
“traditional” constraints have been amplified and in some mented systems for agricultural product tracing, and Jordan
cases surpassed by “new” challenges related to complying has established a framework for product tracing and uses a
with product and process standards, including strict trace- national digital database to track and investigate product and
ability requirements, set and enforced by governments and disease movement (Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan 2004).
private supply chain leaders (Jaffee, Henson, and Diaz Rios,
forthcoming).
TABLE 11.2. Traceability Systems Adopted in
The implementation of traceability systems and assurance Developing Countries
standards is controversial (Schulze et al. 2008), but it can TRACEABILITY
CATEGORY COUNTRY
be especially so in the context of small-scale producers. SYSTEM
Weinberger and Lumpkin (2009) have expressed concern Fresh produce
that traceability requirements and sanitary and phytosanitary Mangoes Mali
issues will increasingly constrict exports of food products Avocados Chile
from developing countries, where poor regulation of chemi- Bulk foods
cal use, pollutants, and a steep learning curve in traceability
Specialty coffee Colombia
capacity restrict growers’ and processors’ participation.
Green soybeans Thailand
Many developing countries lag in developing and implementing Olive oil Morocco
food safety and traceability standards, but some have selec- Olive oil Palestine
tively met demands in high-income export markets thanks to Seafood
regulatory, technical, and administrative investments. From Seafood Chile
1997 to 2003, more than half of the List 1 countries recog- Seafood Vietnam
nized by the EU as having equivalent standards of hygiene in Shrimp Thailand
the capture, processing, transportation, and storage of fish
Livestock
and fish products were low- or middle-income countries.
Dairy India
Jaffee and Henson (2004b) suggest that some countries use Meat Botswana
improved food quality and safety standards as a catalyst to Meat China
reposition themselves in the global market; the key for devel- Meat Korea, Rep.
oping countries is to “exploit their strengths and overcome Meat Malaysia
their weaknesses such that they are overall gainers rather Meat Namibia
than losers in the emerging commercial and regulatory con-
Meat South Africa
text.” As an example, the value of Kenya’s fresh vegetable
Source: Tina George Karippacheril.
exports increased from US$23 million to US$140 million Note: These examples from the agrifood sector include but are not limited to
between 1991 and 2003 after stricter food safety and quality issues of food safety.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 289
Support for traceability projects designed to connect small- and linkages to traders, other farmers, or market groups
scale producers to global markets comes from a variety of for quality assurance, marketing, and sales. Empowering
sources: (1) nonprofit organizations and development agen- Smallholder Farmers in Markets,6 a research project, found
cies (such as IICD for Fresh Food Trace in Mali and IFC for that international trader-led linkages can empower smallhold-
olive oil tracking in Palestine); (2) governments (Botswana ers to supply high-quality, traceable produce and gain from
and Korea for livestock tracking; Thailand and Vietnam for quality-linked awards funded by the trader. For example,
seafood); and (3) the private sector (ShellCatch for seafood Italian coffee roaster Illycaffè increased its procurement of
tracking in Chile). The sections that follow provide examples superior Brazilian green coffee from smallholders by invest-
of how food traceability systems have been implemented, ing significantly in quality assurance training and market
particularly in low-income economies. information for smallholders. The company has won com-
petitions and awards for best growers and for commanding
In addition to support systems for developing countries, mobile above-market prices for the product (Onumah et al. 2007).
technology provides new opportunities for smallholders to
connect with export markets. Mobile technologies have not Fresh Produce Traceability for Quality Control
only alleviated asymmetries in the flow of information from
Fresh produce must move quickly through the supply chain
the market to smallholders (Muto and Yamano 2009), but also
to avoid spoilage. After harvest, fresh produce is handled and
hold great potential for enabling the counterflow of informa-
packed by a shipper or by a grower-shipper and exported or
tion from small-scale producers to markets to meet traceability
sold directly or through wholesalers and brokers to consum-
requirements (figure 11.2). For example, farmers may use a
ers, retailers, and food service establishments. Traceability
mobile device to input information on the variety grown, plant-
systems track fresh produce along the supply chain to iden-
ing and harvest dates, and use of farming inputs. Data captured
tify sources of contamination, monitor cold chain logistics,
by smallholders can be integrated with information systems
and enhance quality assurance.
and centralized databases to provide greater transparency to
supply chain partners and consumers on the farming process, A good example is the use of RFID technology by an avocado
inputs, and output. The integration of wireless sensor net- producer in Rio Blanco, Chile, for temperature and cold chain
works, RFIDs, and mobile technology could yield sophisticated monitoring. RFID tags called “paltags” (palta is the Chilean
means to capture data during farming and minimize the need word for “avocado”) are attached to the fruit on the tree, and
for manual data input through mobile devices. after harvest, the fruit and tags are sorted, washed, waxed,
and transported on pallets. The pallets are tagged to monitor
By fostering more linkages, socialization, and networks
temperature during transport, and should the temperature
between small-scale producers, the diffusion of mobile
rise above standard levels, the pallets are put back into cold
technology can address issues of geographic dispersion
storage by quality inspectors at the harbor. Once the pal-
lets arrive at the port in California, the temperature is read
by handheld readers to ascertain whether the temperature
FIGURE 11.2. Mobile Technology as a Key Enabler of has risen above acceptable levels, thus checking quality and
Information Counterflow from Farmers safety before shipping the avocados to marketers (Swedborg
to Markets 2010; “Awards Honor RFID Innovators,” RFID Update, 2007).
Traditional
agricultural Fresh produce exporters may also be offered centralized
information cooling and shipping services. The Fresh Produce Terminal
systems: Provide
market information
in South Africa tracks fruit into the warehouse and onto ship-
to farmers ping vessels, deploying 250 vehicle-mounted computers and
100 mobile computers from Symbol Technologies (Parikh,
Patel, and Schwartzman 2009).
Traceability
systems: Provide
farming 6 This research project is implemented through the International
information to Federation of Agricultural Producers, European Consortium for
markets Agricultural Research, and International Fund for Agricultural
Source: Tina George Karippacheril. Development (IFAD).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
290 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
Bulk Produce Traceability for Product Authenticity distributed to farmers with a farm identification number and
Bulk produce is more challenging to trace than fresh pro- a specialty coffee program code. The coffee is sold to one of
duce. Products such as grain, coffee, olive oil, rice, and milk 35 cooperatives and transported to one of 15 warehouses,
from multiple farms are combined in silos and storage tanks, where tags are read by two RFID antennas on either side of
making it difficult to trace them back to their sources (IFT a conveyor belt with 99.9 percent accuracy for data and deliv-
2009). ery time. Tags are read at each step of the process, and if
the coffee does not meet quality standards, it is rejected and
Yet traceability systems for bulk products have been imple- the database is updated. In 2008, the federation extended its
mented in developing countries, even among smallholders. program with a pilot to help adapt its traceability model to the
For example, the National Federation of Coffee Growers in Tanzanian coffee supply chain.
Colombia, a nonprofit organization for 500,000 small farm-
ers, identifies and markets high-quality Colombian coffee Consumers may demand systems to trace fertilizer and
from unique regions or with exceptional characteristics pesticide in bulk products. In Thailand, for example, export-
(“Finalists Unveiled for the Fourth Annual RFID Journal ers require farmers to provide product information regarding
Awards,” RFID Journal, 2010). The federation commands a the farm, crop varieties, planting, irrigation, fertilizer applica-
200 percent premium transferred entirely to its growers. Its tion, insect or disease emergence, pesticides or chemicals
subsidiary, Almacafe—which handles warehousing, quality used, harvest date, costs incurred, problems, and selling
control, and logistics—implemented a traceability system price (Manarungsan, Naewbanij, and Rerngjakrabhet 2005).
using RFID tags in 2007 for specialty coffee for its internal Figure 11.3 shows traceability activities carried out along the
supply chain, from farms to warehouses and during pro- supply chain for green soybeans, from farmer to broker to
cessing, bagging, roasting, and trading for export. Although processor.
barcodes were considered first, RFID tags were eventually
used because barcodes require line of sight and clear labels Traceability systems for bulk goods are also implemented
to be read, which might have been a problem, considering for chain of custody monitoring and quality assurance based
that coffee sacks weigh more than 40 kilograms and tend to on consumer demand. Olive oil, a high-value food, is some-
be thrown around. times blended and sold by distributors and marketers, and
traceability helps identify the source, method, variety, and
The RFID tags each cost about US$0.25 (paid by the fed- farm where the crop was harvested, so it becomes easier
eration), are encased in a wear-resistant capsule, and are for consumers to determine if the olive oil they are buying
FIGURE 11.3. Soybean Traceability System in Thailand
Farmer Record activities on the company-provided
form
Broker With the company’s technician, monitor farmer’s
activities
Processor Weigh
Receive harvested soybean with farmer’s
name, quantity, date, variety, area
Transfer green soybean to pallet. Prepare
label with code
Processing
Random testing for:
Finished product • Standard quality
• Pesticide residue
Shipping
Consumer
Source: Manarungsan, Naewbanij, and Rerngjakrabhet 2005.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 291
is genuine. In North Africa, a combination of GPS, mobile Council certification7 requires shrimp farmers to notify the
devices, electronic security bolts, and sensors are used for Department of Fisheries five days before harvesting, to
end-to-end, real-time monitoring of perishable olive oil ship- facilitate tracing shrimp back to their origin (Manarungsan,
ments from Spain and Morocco by Transmed Foods, Inc., Naewbanij, and Rerngjakrabhet 2005).
the United States distribution arm of Crespo Foods, and Savi
Technologies (Savi Technology 2009). In another example, The Vietnamese State Agency for Technological Innovation
an IFC project to improve the competitiveness and export has collaborated with the Vietnamese Association of
prospects for West Bank olive oil assists small and medium- Seafood Exporters and Producers and private firms (IBM and
sized enterprises in implementing a basic traceability pro- FXA Group) to implement a seafood traceability system. The
gram to maintain quality, including managing data related to system is based on RFID technology (“Vietnamese Agency
the sources of oil, pressing, handling, storage, and packing Seeks Seafood Traceability,” RFID News, 2009).
operations.
Livestock Traceability for Disease Control and Product
Seafood Traceability for Safety and Sustainability Safety
Seafood traceability enhances the value of suppliers’ brands Unlike other food industries, the livestock industry has a long
and consumers’ confidence in those brands. For traceabil- history of implementing animal identification and traceability
ity, monitoring, and control, data about the farm of origin, systems to control disease and ensure the safety of meat
processing plant, current location, and temperature are col- and dairy products. Lessons from livestock traceability sys-
lected and made available to participants in the supply chain, tems may apply to other areas of food safety.
including wholesalers, shippers, and retailers. If a problem
Namibia was an early adopter of such systems in 2004.
arises, this information enables a targeted market recall
Botswana maintains one of the world’s largest livestock
and limits the impact on consumers. Seafood traceability
identification systems and had tagged 3 million cattle by
is implemented to comply with the EU’s zero tolerance of
2008. Botswana’s livestock identification and trace-back
residues of banned antibiotics (chloramphenicol and nitrofu-
system uses RFID technology to uniquely identify livestock
ran). Thailand, one of the world’s largest shrimp exporters,
throughout the country. The system enables access to lucra-
saw exports drop steeply to US$1.72 billion in 2002 from
tive markets in the European Union, where traceability is a
average annual revenue of US$2.3 billion between 1998
requirement for beef from birth to slaughter. A bolus inserted
and 2001 (Manarungsan, Naewbanij, and Rerngjakrabhet
into the animal’s rumen contains a passive RFID (it has no
2005). The decline caused the Thai private and public sec-
battery or moving parts) microchip with a very hard ceramic
tors to tighten sanitary measures on chemical antibiotic
coating, which does not interact with stomach enzymes or
residues in shrimp and adopt probiotic farming techniques,
acids. Fixed readers placed at 300 locations scan the bolus
disease-resistant shrimp, and laboratory diagnostics and
of every animal in the herd to obtain identification numbers,
testing. Farmers and cooperatives must register to facilitate
information on new registrations, and the status of disease
traceability, and quality management systems have been
treatments in the herd. The information is relayed to a central
implemented to isolate quality and safety issues along the
database and on to 46 district offices. Aside from traceability,
value chain. The Department of Fisheries has been working
the tagging system enables weight and feed to be moni-
with farmers to introduce GAP (Good Agricultural Practice),
tored, yield to be managed, breeding history to be tracked,
a code of conduct for sustainable shrimp aquaculture, and
and animals to be selected for breeding (Burger 2003).
HACCP standards and to improve product documentation
and traceability. Animal identification and traceability systems have numerous
applications, such as tracking animal movement, monitoring
The department requires farmers to fill out a “shrimp catch-
health, controlling disease, and managing nutrition and yield.
ing form,” which includes the catch date, total shrimp
RFID tagging systems for livestock contain unique identi-
weight, name of the farmer, and ID number. Some central
fication data and information on the animal’s location, sex,
markets also require suppliers and buyers to complete this
name of breeder, origin of livestock, and dates of movement.
form to enhance traceability. Registering for traceability gives
Handheld readers are used to register vaccination informa-
cooperative members access to laboratory test services,
tion and dates; the data are relayed to a central database.
training, and information and experience sharing through
networking. They also receive funding of US$1,160 and kits 7 The Marine Stewardship Council develops standards for sustain-
to perform their own diagnostic tests. Marine Stewardship able fishing and seafood traceability.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
292 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
The Malaysian Ministry of Agriculture’s Veterinary Figure 11.4 illustrates the 2001 Scottish Borders full trace-
Department has introduced a government-run system to ability system for cattle. The system uses RFID ear tags
control disease outbreaks among 80,000 cattle. The sys- for unique identification and a portable transceiver and data
tem was implemented to increase the competitiveness of logger that transfers data to a farm computer or a central
Malaysia’s livestock industry by meeting international import computer for farmers who do not have a personal computer.
standards and domestic halal market standards (“Malaysia
Begins RFID-Enabled Livestock Tracking Program,” RFID In dairy farming, RFID technology enables unique identification
News, 2009). China has a pilot RFID program for 1,000 pigs and monitoring of cattle, their feeding habits, health issues, and
in Sichuan Chunyung to track epidemics and enable trace- breeding history to improve yield management. The technology
ability from birth to slaughter for consumers (“China Fixes is integrated with feeding machines to determine the correct
RFID Tags on Pigs to Track Epidemics,” ICT Update, 2003). amount of nutrition for individual animals. The RFID chip sends
In South Africa, the Klein Karoo Cooperative tagged 100,000 data about the animal’s feeding habits, dietary needs, and other
ostriches to comply with traceability requirements for meat information to a sensor on the farm. The data are stored in cen-
exports to the EU (“Project Klein Karoo Cooperative in South tral databases and analyzed by farm managers and supervisors
Africa,” ICT Update, 2003). to monitor the animals’ health and nutritional mix.
Korea was another early adopter of animal identification tech- India has introduced cattle tagging for dairy farming in the
niques and technologies, using general ear tags from 1978 states of Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. The BG Chitale Dairy in
to 1994, barcodes in 1995, and RFID since 2004. Korea intro- Maharashtra has tagged 7,000 cows and buffalo and plans to
duced a full beef traceability system in 2008, in the wake of extend tagging to about 50,000 animals (“Milk Tastes Better
the BSE scare, to promptly identify food safety problems and with RFID,” RFID News, 2010). (See IPS “RFID Facilitates
ensure end-to-end traceability. Korea also uses DNA markers Insurance Credit for India’s Livestock Producers,” in Module 7.)
to trace components of carcasses. Markers recommended
by the International Society for Animal Genetics are used for Traceability systems may be implemented to improve the
verification (Bowling et al. 2008). global competitiveness of livestock and meat exports, the
FIGURE 11.4. Scottish Borders TAG Cattle Tracing System
38-bit code = 12 digit number
EID code Matching ear tag number
078594789870
189073940789 UK 123456 380034
067854885888 IE 564871 376896
Activation at 078594789870 UK 345623 734568
134.2 kHz 056714588577 UK 432679 279000
Cattle with RFID 512346778527
transponder in ear tag
789413546048
012453786899 214397869090 UK 674958 578699
Local look-up table held
Portable transceiver
in portable data-logger
and data-logger
Data transfer Data link by wire
Central as required or modem
cattle
database
189073940789 UK 123456 380034
067854885888 IE 564871 376896
078594789870 UK 345623 734568
056714588577 UK 432679 279000
Electronic mail messages 214397869090 UK 674958 578699
to national government
Identical look-up table held in farm computer
database
Complete scheme table held in scheme computer
Farm computer (or central scheme computer
for farmers without a personal computer)
Source: From Pettitt 2001, World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) Scientific and Technical Review.
Note: EID = electronic identification; RFID = radio-frequency identification.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 293
quality of meat, and the chain of custody traceability. Beef is In traditional societies, traceability is inherent, because produc-
placed in refrigerated trucks and containers and sealed with a tion and consumption occur in the same place, but comply-
sensor bolt and a tag for identification. Shipments are tracked ing with modern traceability requirements for faraway global
to ensure that they do not remain in one place for too long. markets poses a challenge for small-scale producers with
At key points in the supply chain, such as when the beef is few resources. For example, complying with recordkeeping
unloaded after it has been shipped from the port, the tag is read arrangements associated with food safety assurance through
with a mobile reader to check for evidence of tampering prior HACCP-based systems, with their detailed traceability systems,
to unloading, and tag data are stored in supply chain databases. requires widespread education and cooperation throughout the
supply chain (Unnevehr and Jensen 1999). To understand trace-
Namibia, which started tracking beef in 2004, was one of ability applications for fresh produce and horticultural products,
the earliest emerging market adopters of advanced technolo- bulk produce, seafood, and livestock, small-scale producers will
gies to ensure quality and traceability (Collins 2004). A pilot need to master a considerable range of skills and information.
program executed through a public-private partnership with
Savi Technology involved the application of RFIDs and sensor Although traceability capacity might have some positive
bolts to containers of chilled and frozen beef shipped from effects on domestic markets in developing countries, by and
Namibia to the UK as part of the Smart and Secure Tradelanes large traceability systems are unidirectional—they track the
initiative extended to African ports. In March 2009, Namibia chain of custody of food exported from developing countries
issued new animal identification regulations, which required to developed countries. Developing-country farmers who are
livestock producers to identify cattle with one visual ear tag unable to meet traceability requirements run the risk of being
and one RFID ear tag. Cattle must be individually registered marginalized. Jaffee and Masakure (2005) found that produce
in the Namibian Livestock Identification and Traceability export markets in Kenya relied on the exporters’ own farms
System. Namibia has also set up a veterinary fence to avoid for products that required traceability; products demanding
contamination: Cattle from northern Namibia cannot be less traceability came from small-scale outgrowers.
exported and must be consumed locally, and cattle from
southern Namibia are protected from diseases and exported Some evidence indicates that the global movement toward
to Europe. Namibia also sources non–genetically modified stricter food safety and traceability requirements has trans-
(GM) maize from South Africa at a premium to ensure that lated into stricter demands in domestic markets in develop-
beef sold in Europe is considered non-GM. ing countries. For example, the rise of supermarkets in Latin
America, with their quality and safety procurement standards
Basic technologies for animal identification and traceability and associated recordkeeping requirements, had a negative
have applications other than food safety and food security. impact on smallholder participation, although some cases of
Cattle rustling threatens human security in East Africa, a region success were noted where there was public or private tech-
characterized by nomadic movements of people with livestock nical assistance (Reardon and Berdegué 2002).
over vast and hostile terrain. The Mifugo Project (mifugo is
Swahili for “livestock”)—ratified by Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, The costs associated with implementing traceability systems
Tanzania, and Uganda—seeks to prevent, combat, and eradi- include investments in capital and infrastructure, recordkeep-
cate cattle rustling in East Africa (Siror et al. 2009). Traditional ing, and improvements in harvesting and processing. Unlike
methods of identifying cattle are harmonized with technologi- small-scale producers, large-scale producers and industry
cally advanced approaches for unique identification, tracking, associations are better equipped to upgrade their operations
and recovery of stolen animals. Livestock tags may be queried in compliance with traceability standards; the added cost of
remotely using the Internet, SMS, and wireless communica- recordkeeping is small compared with the potential financial
tion through mobile phones to track and monitor animals. damages of a product recall (Spencer 2010). The questions that
remain, then, are who pays for the cost of implementing food
traceability systems, particularly in the case of smallholders,
and how sustainable those systems can be in the long run.
KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS
Implementing traceability technologies for food safety and other With respect to business processes, an important challenge
purposes does not come without its challenges. Broadly speak- involves the poor integration of organizations in the value
ing, the main challenges lie in data collection, processes, techno- chain. Proprietary tracking systems allow tracing one step
logical solutions, business models, costs, and learning. Some of forward or back, but they rarely allow traceability through the
these challenges are discussed in more depth in the topic notes. full life cycle of a product. Organizations in a value chain may
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
294 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
be reluctant to share proprietary commercial data about a in most developed countries, are small but advanced with
product, with the exception of requirements for recalls. respect to traceability, a situation that could lend itself well to
sharing experiences with small-scale farmers in developing
Studies from the industrial sector, where traceability systems countries (Setboonsarng, Sakai, and Vancura 2009). It could
and techniques originated, emphasize that the main difficul- provide insights into the most effective ways to implement
ties lie in the design of an internal traceability system for a traceability systems and the internal and external capacities
given, complex production process (Moe 1998; Wall 1994). A and resources needed for smallholders to upgrade success-
study of traceability in the United States, undertaken by the fully and comply with safety and traceability requirements.
International Institute of Food Technologies (IFT), found that
challenges are related to both external and internal traceabil- Incentives to invest in traceability systems also act as
ity. External traceability requires accurate recording and stor- key enablers for their development and use. Investments
age of information on products and ingredients coming into are often driven by regulation and access to markets, the
a facility and information on products leaving a facility. This long-term costs associated with public product recalls, the
requirement frequently proves problematic, because industry proliferation of certification systems and standards (Heyder,
partners in a food supply chain may not consistently record Hollmann-Hespos, and Theuvsen 2009), and pressure from
and store the lot number of the incoming product or case. influential external stakeholders such as retailers, consum-
For internal traceability, data on ingredients and products that ers, lenders, and NGOs.
may undergo transformation within a facility must be tracked.
In some cases, there may be confusion in the assignment of Yet investments in traceability systems offer viable benefits
new lot numbers for products that do not match the incom- and incentives for actors in the supply chain, including swift
ing lot number for products that enter a facility and undergo and precise recalls of unsafe food; premium pricing for safe,
transformation. Industry practices on data capture, recording, sustainable, and traceable food; cost savings and business
storage, and sharing also vary widely. Paperwork is often process efficiencies; and greater consumer confidence,
inconsistent or incomplete, individual products or lots may among others (figure 11.5). It is worth exploring some of
not be labeled with unique identifiers, and standardized defi- these incentives in detail, because they offer potential
nitions for data elements may be lacking (IFT 2009).
For small-scale producers, group systems development and FIGURE 11.5. Incentives for Investment in Traceability
certification may ease some of the constraints in implement- Systems
ing traceability systems. The GlobalGAP standard (www
.globalgap.org), for example, allows group certification for
smallholders to facilitate their access to markets. Small-
Legislation
scale farmers and producers may also benefit from capac- Food safety
ity strengthening in assessing and selecting appropriate Quality certification
improvements systems and
technologies for traceability; building networks and partner-
standards
ships with public, private, or nonprofit organizations that can
help finance and build traceability systems; and traceability
schemes facilitated through smallholder cooperatives or Cost savings Costs and risks
and business
the public or private sector. Finally, traceability technolo- Investment of product
process
in recall
gies implemented specifically for high-value crops may also efficiencies
traceability
expand smallholders’ ability to reach key markets. systems
Golan, Krisoff, and Kuchler (2004) have argued that mandatory Global
Price competition /
traceability requirements that allow for variations in traceabil- premiums access to
ity or target specific traceability gaps may be more efficient markets
than systemwide requirements. They may be better suited
Rise of Consumer
to varying levels of breadth, depth, and precision of traceabil-
supermarkets confidence
ity in different firms.Developed countries’ experiences with
traceability may in some cases be useful for building similar
capacity in other countries. Japanese farms, unlike those Source: Tina George Karippacheril.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 295
insights for preventing the adoption of systems that exclude outbreak, and in the absence of traceability capabilities,
smallholders. Among smallholders, clearly the benefits of the United States Food and Drug Administration issued an
establishing or investing in traceability systems should be import alert, denying all Guatemalan raspberries entry into
balanced in relation to the associated costs, with consider- the United States. The number of raspberry growers declined
ations for the long-term sustainability of those investments. dramatically, from 85 in 1996 to 3 in 2001. Producers around
the world noted the devastating effects of the ensuing trade
Preventing Recalls of Unsafe Food restrictions on the entire industry and the role traceability
systems could have played in reassuring the public and
Food traceability systems make it possible to take a proac-
containing the problem to a few growers (Calvin, Flores, and
tive approach to food safety and prevent the reputational
Foster 2003).
and economic damage—to producers, products, firms, and
nations—inflicted by product recalls. For example, the com-
Gaining Premium Prices for Safe, Traceable Food
plex recall of contaminated peanut products in the United
States is estimated to have been one of the most expensive As noted, traceability systems and technologies are also used
in that country (figure 11.6). to certify geographical origin, certify sustainable production
processes, monitor the chain of custody, facilitate identity pres-
A well-known case of the potential damage of a recall for ervation and product marketing, and manage supply chains.
a young industry in a developing country occurred with Some of these applications enable producers to earn price
raspberries in Guatemala. Following reports of a Cyclospora premiums for sustainable, certifiable, and identifiable specialty
FIGURE 11.6. Peanut Corporation of America Recall
National
food chain
Ice cream Ice cream Ice cream
Store
shop shop shop
Store Store Store
Peanut
Ingredient
granules manufacturer
& distributor
Peanut
meal
Food
manufactuer
Dry
roasted Distributor Bakery Bakery Bakery
peanuts
Bakery
Store Store Store Store Vending
Oil Food machine
roasted manufactuer
peanuts
Distributor
Store Store Store
Food Vending
manufactuer machine
PCA
Vending
Food machine Vending
manufactuer Distributor
company machine
Peanut
butter Food Store Store Store
Distributor manufactuer Distributor
Peanut
Food
paste Distributor manufactuer Distributor Store Store Store
Nursing homes Caterers Restararnt
Source: Adapted from U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
296 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
food products. The Almacafe model, discussed earlier, enables Building Consumer Confidence
smallholders to command a 200 percent premium for specialty Traceability not only ensures food quality but also builds
coffee from unique regions in Colombia—strong motivation for consumers’ trust by making the supply chain more trans-
farmers to adopt traceability technologies. parent (Bertolini, Bevilacqua, and Massini 2006). Consumer
confidence builds demand for products. Studies suggest
In Honduras, the ECOM Agroindustrial Corporation, whose that consumers in developed countries may be willing
customers are willing to pay high prices for high-quality, to pay more for safe and traceable food. A study in Korea
traceable products, supports farmers through technical assis- (Choe et al. 2008) found that consumers were willing to
tance and training (Pfitzer and Krishnaswamy 2007). With pay a premium for traceable food and to purchase it in
initial technical support, women belonging to a shea butter greater quantities. A consumer preferences study of trace-
cooperative in Burkina Faso learned to use GPS to document ability, transparency, and assurances for red meat in the
the source of the shea fruit they processed and gain certifica- United States suggests that consumers are willing to pay
tion under Bio-Ecocert and Bio-NOP, which guarantee that a for traceability and that the market there for traceable food
product is 100 percent natural and has been manufactured may be profitable (Dickinson and Bailey 2002). Although
under conditions that respect human and environmental traceability systems tend to be unidirectional, consumers
health. Certification enabled them to enter more lucrative in domestic markets in the developing world may also
export markets—despite the fact they that are small-scale, benefit from their countries’ adoption of traceability tech-
predominantly illiterate producers. (See Module 8 for details.) niques and systems.
Topic Note 11.1: THE IMPORTANCE OF STANDARD
SETTING AND COMPLIANCE
TRENDS AND ISSUES (Senneset, Forås, and Fremme 2007), especially smaller-
Increasing concerns about global food safety have positioned scale operations, which tend to record traceability data on
traceability as an important component of food safety and paper. Data standardization is vital for end-to-end traceabil-
quality regulations, management systems, and certification ity. There are multiple, globally recognized standards but no
processes. Stringent food safety and traceability requirements standard nomenclature to describe how the data should look
trigger a new set of transaction costs for small-scale produc- or be organized, and software applications vary. Many parts
ers without adequate capital investment and public infrastruc- of the food supply chain do not use standardized formats for
ture (Pingali, Khwaja, and Meijer 2007; McCullough, Pingali, data. The variety of traceability software in use makes data
and Stamoulis 2008). As a result, one of the main challenges integration difficult (Bechini et al. 2005). A unified approach
in designing food traceability systems—and ensuring small- to traceability across supply chains would promote rapid
holder participation—is the development of fair, adequate, and and seamless traceability, including Web-based, open, and
broad food safety standards. Some studies have found that interoperable standards for end-to-end tracking systems.
the introduction of safety standards associated with traceabil-
ity requirements may lead smallholder farmers to switch to Public Standards
products with fewer transaction costs. It has also been argued
Public sector interventions in food safety view it as a public
that stringent safety standards introduced in Kenya’s fresh
good. Regulatory (mandatory) or nonregulatory (voluntary)
green bean industry were responsible for smallholders’ deci-
public interventions are designed to provide consumers with
sion to switch to processed green beans (Narrod et al. 2008).8
basic food safety and provide information about the nature
of the food. Public sector interventions usually take the form
An additional issue is data standardization. Although trace-
of product or process standards but also comprise analytical
ability implies an end-to-end process in the supply chain,
procedures, inspection and certification systems, and the
only a few links in supply chains actually use software for
provision of public information. Food safety standards cover
traceability. Many organizations exchange data manually
a wide range of parameters, including harmful substances in
food (additives, pesticide residues, veterinary drug residues,
8 More recent work has found mixed effects on stricter food
safety and traceability requirements in this industry (Jaffee, Hen-
and other contaminants) and residues in animal feed. Process
son, and Diaz Rios forthcoming). standards—establishing how food is produced, prepared,
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 297
treated, and sold—include standards for genetically modified agreements to prevent misuse of standards as barriers to
organisms (GMOs), food hygiene, labeling, packaging, and trade. Private food safety standards do not fall under harmo-
requirements on traceability. nized World Trade Organization guidelines. Their legitimacy
and transparency are the subject of intense debate owing to
Private Standards their proliferation, prescriptive nature, potential to undermine
public food safety, and potential economic development
In recent years, stricter public standards and regulations for
impacts, particularly for small-scale producers in developing
food safety have been accompanied by a growing set of stan-
countries. Many of the difficulties that small-scale producers
dards developed by the private sector. Private food safety
reportedly encounter in applying private food safety stan-
standards, frequently characterized as surpassing require-
dards relate to traceability, which is an area in which private
ments imposed through public standards, have emerged as
food safety standards exceed Codex recommendations
a strategy to assure consumers that products meet a high
(CAC 2010).
level of regulatory compliance.
As mentioned, traceability is mandated by law in the EU
For example, private standards for particular attributes of
and Japan (for specific commodities). Until recently, exten-
food products might be higher and therefore perceived as
sive traceability was stipulated in the United States by the
more stringent or more extensive than public standards.
private sector for reasons including improved supply chain
Some private voluntary standards incorporate requirements
management, differentiation of products in the market, and
related to traceability. Examples include standards dealing
product recall (Golan et al. 2003). With the passage of food
with social and environmental goals (fair trade, sustainably
safety regulations HR2749 and S.510, the United States has
harvested products), as well as geographical indications and
strengthened recordkeeping and traceability requirements.
certification marks, which are generally applied to differenti-
ate products (often as part of a marketing, branding strategy,
The participation of developing countries in setting standards
or sustainable development strategy). These standards are
and assistance from developed countries in implementing
not discussed in detail here.
them are particularly important. Traceability systems are
by and large unidirectional, and exporting countries must
Domestic and International Standards accommodate different systems for verification and control
Although food safety standards may be set nationally, World from major importing countries. This situation increases the
Trade Organization agreements on technical barriers to trade administrative burden and costs of compliance (CAC 2009).
for testing, inspection and certification, and sanitary and Table 11.3 lists examples of food traceability requirements
phytosanitary matters form an international framework of related to food safety and/or security.
TABLE 11.3. Examples of Food Traceability–Related Regulations and Standards, with Particular Application in Food
Safety and Security
CLASSIFICATION ORGANIZATION DEFINITION OF STANDARD AND REQUIREMENTS
International agreement Codex Alimentarius Commission Codex defines traceability as “the ability to follow the movement of a food
through specified stage(s) of production, processing, and distribution.” Movement
can relate to the origin of the materials, processing history, or distribution of feed
or food, forward or backward. Traceability is referenced in several Codex texts,
such as the Codes of Practice on good animal feeding and Codes of Practice for
fish and fish products.
Domestic regulation Food Safety Act, 1990 (UK) The law radically transformed food safety management in the UK and provided a
strong stimulus for private sector management of food safety by including “due
diligence” requirements, making firms responsible for the safety and quality of
food inputs, the conduct of suppliers, and the safety of consumers.
Domestic regulation EU General Food Law, Article 18 of “The ability to track food, feed, food-producing animal or substance intended to
Regulation (EC) No. 178/2002 be, or expected to be used for these products at all of the stages of production,
processing and distribution.”
Domestic regulation Bioterrorism Preparedness Act, 2002 Requires the maintenance of records of manufacture, processing, packing, trans-
(United States) portation, distribution, receiving, holding, and importation of food to allow iden-
tification of immediate previous sources and immediate subsequent recipients of
food, including its packaging, to address threats of adverse health consequences
or death of humans or animals.a
(continued)
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
298 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
TABLE 11.3. continued
CLASSIFICATION ORGANIZATION DEFINITION OF STANDARD AND REQUIREMENTS
Domestic regulation Food Sanitation Law, 2003 (Japan) The 2003 law requires full traceability for beef. A recent bill (2010) requires trace-
ability for rice and rice products.
Domestic standard French National Organization for “Traceability in agriculture and the food industry sector is applied mainly to two
Standardization (AFNOR, Association combinations, i.e., product/process (progress), and product/localization (loca-
Française de Normalisation) tion). Traceability can be described, as it were, as a combination of the flow of
substances and that of information.”b
Domestic regulation Food Safety Enhancement Act, HR 2749, The act, which passed the House in 2009 and the Senate in 2010, gives the Food
2009; S.510, 2010 (United States) and Drug Administration greater regulatory powers to ensure food safety, including
establishing a national food traceability system, and imposes specific requirements
on foreign suppliers. Each person who produces, receives, manufactures, processes,
packs, transports, distributes, or holds such food would be required to maintain records
to identify the immediate previous sources of such food and its ingredients and the
immediate subsequent recipients of such food. Restaurants, grocery stores, and farms
would also be required to keep records, with some exemptions as provided by the act.c
International standard ISO 22000:2005 Establishes requirements for food safety management systems based on HACCP
principles, as well as traceability requirements.
International standard ISO 22000:2007 International standard for traceability in the food and feed sectors.
Complementary to ISO 22000:2005.
Private standard Produce Traceability Initiative* Produces a common framework and standards to help the fresh fruit and vegetable
industry maximize the effectiveness of trace-back procedures through consistent
nomenclature and protocols for end-to-end connectivity and traceability.d
Private standard GS1 Global Traceability Standard (GTS) Supports implementation of traceability systems across the supply chain both locally
and Programme (GTC) and globally, including the requirements of ISO 9001, ISO 22005, HACCP, British
Retail Consortium Global Standard, International Food Standard, and GlobalGAP.
Private standard for primary GlobalGAP (Formerly EurepGAP)† HACCP-based reference standard for good agricultural practices, with traceability
production as a key obligation. “A traceability system is referred to as the totality of data
and operations that is capable of maintaining desired information about a product
and its components through all or part of its production and utilization chain.
Traceability systems contribute to the search for the cause of nonconformity and
the ability to withdraw and/or recall products if necessary. The objective of these
requirements is to ensure that any product sold as certified is produced from
material that originates from certified farms.”
Global Food Safety Initiative Includes: British Retail Consortium Standards or schemes benchmarked by GFSI must comply with the “GFSI Guidance
(GFSI) benchmarked standards Global Standard, International Food Document” (GFSI 2007), which contains commonly agreed-on criteria for food
(private initiative)‡ Standard, Dutch HACCP, Safe Quality safety standards against which any food or farm assurance standard can be
Food (SQF) 1000 and 2000 Codes, FS22000 benchmarked. With respect to traceability, the GFSI guidance document indicates
in 6.1.17 that the standard shall require the supplier to develop and maintain
appropriate procedures and systems to ensure: identification of any outsourced
product, ingredient, or service; complete records of batches of in-process or
final product and packaging throughout the production process; and a record of
purchaser and delivery destination for all products supplied.
Source: Tina George Karippacheril and Luz Diaz Rios with information from (a) FDA 2009, (b) FMRIC 2007, (c) Johnson et al. 2010, and (d) Produce Traceability
Initiative 2010.
* Sponsored by the Canadian Produce Marketing Association, GS1 US, Produce Marketing Association, and United Fresh Produce Association.
† Standard benchmarked by GFSI.
‡ GFSI was launched by the Consumer Goods Forum in 2000. GFSI brings together the chief executive officers and senior management of around 650
retailers, manufacturers, service providers, and other stakeholders across 70 countries. One of the GFSI’s objectives is “convergence between food safety
standards through maintaining a benchmarking process for food safety management schemes.” GFSI (2007) contains commonly agreed-on criteria for food
safety standards, against which any food or farm assurance standard can be benchmarked. According to the CAC (2010), as of June 2010, 13 schemes were
recognized by GFSI.
Data Standards product identification code and a company prefix, assigned
As discussed, data standardization is vital for end-to-end by GS1. GLNs usually are assigned to a company, which
traceability. A key player in data standardization and open then assigns a unique GLN for each of its facilities. A GLN
systems for product traceability is GS1, a global nonprofit is typically associated with GPS coordinates for the facility
organization with more than 1 million member organizations or plant. RFID applications use the serialized GTIN standard,
in 108 countries. The GS1 Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) sGTIN, developed by EPCglobal. The United Nations Standard
and Global Location Number (GLN) are assigned to identify Product and Services Code (UNSPSC) is a global classification
the product and location. The GTIN has two components—a system for information on products and services, including
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 299
FIGURE 11.7. Fresh Food Trace Web Platform
Source: Annerose 2010.
food products. Access to UNSPSC is free and included as a information on mangoes on mobile devices at every step
classification option in ERP systems such as SAP and Oracle. (image 11.1), thereby offering complete traceability to end
markets. Importers, retailers, and customers are willing to
pay US$0.09 more per pound for individual farm sourcing
and compliance with food safety standards (Annerose 2010).
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
The traceability system also serves to enhance the market’s
Mango Traceability System Links Malian
Smallholders and Exporters to Global Consumers reputation for supplying safe and traceable Malian mangoes
sourced directly from smallholders.
A produce traceability initiative is helping mango growers
and exporters in Mali enhance traceability and comply with
GlobalGAP standards, connecting smallholder trade to global IMAGE 11.1. Mango Growers in Mali Use Mobile
markets. Previously, Malian mango growers relied on import- Devices to Log Traceability Data
ers in global markets who did not bear the risk associated
with transporting perishable produce, and the market sys-
tem had not yet earned a reputation for high-quality produce
in export markets. The partners in the initiative included
Manobi (http://www.manobi.net/worldwide/, the mobile data
services operator), Fruiléma (http://www.fruilema.com/, an
association of fruit and vegetable producers and exporters in
Mali), and IICD (http://www.iicd.org/, a nonprofit that special-
izes in ICT for development).
The partners developed the Fresh Food Trace Web platform
(figure 11.7), which automates and visualizes data for track-
ing mango production, conditioning, transportation, and
export (IICD 2008). Growers log traceability data and product Source: Annerose 2010.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
30 0 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
Topic Note 11.2: TRACEABILITY TECHNOLOGIES,
SOLUTIONS, AND APPLICATIONS
TRENDS AND ISSUES could prove cheaper (and easier to use) in nano form. The
Systems for tracking products through supply chains range following sections review the technologies that may be used
from paper-based records maintained by producers, proces- in a variety of contexts in developing countries, depending on
sors, and suppliers to sophisticated ICT-based solutions. In the associated costs and business models employed.
addition to supporting product traceability, ICT may also sup-
Document-Based Solutions (Paper/Electronic Documents)
port data capture, recording, storage, and sharing of trace-
ability attributes on processing, genetics, inputs, disease/ Smaller organizations and producers constrained for
pest tracking, and measurement of environmental variables. resources typically use pen and paper to record, store, and
Table 11.4 describes some aspects of how traceability is communicate data to partners in the supply chain. Paper
used in agricultural and agrifood systems. invoices, purchase orders, and bills of lading, as well as
electronic file formats (MS Word, PDFs, or others), may be
The costs associated with putting traceability systems into used to store alphanumeric codes and other data on prod-
place are seen as barriers even among established actors uct lot number, harvest date, product receipt/shipping date,
and appear even more daunting to small-scale produc- quantity, or ingredients. Document-based systems, whether
ers from less developed countries. Paper is still used as a physical or electronic, store data in an unstructured form.
cheaper option for traceability, although it limits the ability to Searching through paper records is done by physically brows-
record data accurately, store it, and query it to identify and ing through papers that are at best categorized and filed in
trace products. Digital databases for traceability are seen as shelving space. Searching through electronic documents
more expensive to implement, operate, and maintain, requir- requires users to locate the document and then perform full
ing investments in hardware and software, skilled human text or metadata searches within it.
resources, training, and certification.
Because document-based systems take time and effort to
RFID tags are still relatively expensive for widespread adop- query, they increase the time needed to locate the precise
tion in the supply chain compared with the much cheaper and source, location, or details of a suspected contaminated
more widely available barcodes (Sarma 2004). Tags priced at product. Data recorded on paper cannot be exchanged eas-
less than US$0.01 apiece could offer lower-cost mass market ily among partners in the food supply chain. They also have
options for the technology. Commercialization of advances drawbacks related to illegible handwriting and human trans-
such as those driven by nanotechnology may also push prices position errors when data are transferred from manual to
down by enabling RFID tags to be printed on paper or labels database systems. Data may be inaccurate and quite difficult
(Harrop 2008). RFID in its current form is a microchip and to verify through cross-checking.
TABLE 11.4. Traceability Applications in Agriculture and Agrifood Systems
APPLICATIONS DESCRIPTIONS
Product Tracking the physical location of a product for supply chain management and to facilitate recall—e.g., through barcode labeling, RFID tags and
readers, mobile devices, GIS, GPS, and remote sensing systems.
Process Determining the types and sequencing of activities affecting the product during cultivation and after harvest, such as mechanical, chemical,
environmental, and atmospheric factors, and the absence or presence of contaminants—e.g., through sensors and instrumentation devices that
transmit and store information to RFID tags.
Genetic Determining the types, source, and origin of GM ingredients and planting materials affecting a product—e.g., through DNA testing and nuclear
medicine.
Inputs Determining the types and origin of inputs such as fertilizer, chemicals, irrigation water, livestock, feed, and additives involved in the processing
of raw materials into a food product—e.g., through instrumentation devices, nanotechnology, sensors, electronic tags, and handheld devices for
data collection, storage, and transfer.
Disease and pests Tracking the epidemiology of pests, bacteria, viruses, pathogens, and zoonosis in raw materials—e.g., through GIS, GPS, and mobile devices.
Measurement Tracking and calibrating product data against national or international standards throughout the supply chain—e.g., through measurement and
instrumentation systems, sensors, and laboratory equipment for analysis of chemical and physical attributes.
Source: Opara 2003.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 301
Structured Database Solutions which can be read upstream and downstream through a sup-
Some organizations capture and store traceability data in their ply chain.
management information systems and other databases, such
An even more precise system of barcode traceability is
as ERP systems for inventory control, warehouse manage-
reduced space symbology. This system uses 14-digit GTIN
ment, accounting, and asset management. They may also
barcodes on individual items, boxes, and pallets, which can
rely on homegrown custom solutions and legacy information
all be linked by product and producer or distributor codes,
systems. The advantage of capturing product traceability
allowing trace-back from the level of an individual item
data in structured database systems is the ability to rapidly
(Golan, Krisoff, and Kuchler 2004).
and precisely query data elements to isolate the source and
location of products that may be contaminated. ERP systems
The Produce Traceability Initiative requires produce tracking
such as SAP can read standardized data from barcodes and
via barcoded case labels with traceability information such
RFIDs, including GTINs and GLNs.
as the GTIN and lot/batch number. The European Article
Numbering–Uniform Code Council standard has a set of 62
Electronic data interchange systems allow vendors and busi-
product attributes for barcodes to track input, production,
ness partners to exchange data such as GTINs and GLNs.
and inventory along the supply chain, permitting open real-
Businesses may also exchange information via ebXML
time updates of information to all systems in the network
(extensible markup language), which defines the structure of
when producers enter new information in the system.
data and security for the transfer. Database solutions such as
ERPs may be supplemented by Web-based portals for data
input and data exchange with business partners in the supply RFID-Based Solutions
chain. In legacy systems and custom solutions, data used to RFIDs offer promising capabilities for traceability in the devel-
identify products may not follow traceability data standards oping and the developed world and are seen as an alternative
such as product lot number. Multiple data standards cause to older barcode systems. Passive RFID tags use an initial
errors and confusion and impede accurate product tracing. signal from an RFID reader to scavenge power and store data
on an event at a specific point in time. Passive RFID tags do
Emerging trends in ICT, such as the use of cloud computing
not use a power source and are less expensive than active
and SaaS (software as a service) solutions, have reduced the
RFID tags. Grain-sized RFID tags or transponders incorpo-
cost of owning ERP and database management solutions to
rated as particles or attached as labels to food products can
capture, record, store, and share traceability data.
identify the food item and become connected to the Internet
as uniquely identified nodes.
Barcode Technologies
Conventional methods of traceability through a chain of Products tagged with RFID may also be fed with data though
custody involve the use of barcodes and labels. Barcodes an interface with wireless sensor networks. Sensors, also
are commonly and recognizably used for inventory control called motes, may transmit data on motion, temperature,
management and global logistics of people and goods, such spoilage, density, light, and other environmental variables
as air travel tickets or parcel shipping and delivery. Barcodes sliced by time to the RFID tag (“Organic RFID to Cut Waste
represent data to uniquely identify a product. Barcodes can on Produce,” RFID News, 2009). GPS, low Earth orbit sat-
be scanned by an electronic reader to identify and interpret ellites (Bacheldor 2009), and motion sensors may interface
key data elements stored in the barcode. The data can be with RFID tags to communicate variables on location and
used to trace the product forward and backward through the position coordinates (latitude/longitude). RFID readers to
supply chain. read data from RFID tags may be integrated as an application
on a mobile device. Thus an “ecosystem”9 built by combin-
Barcode solutions require a printing component to print bar- ing RFIDs, wireless sensor networks, GPS, mobile devices,
codes on labels or products and a scanning technology to and applications can make it possible to manage traceabil-
read barcoded information. Barcode labels may also contain ity across the supply chain. Product traceability recorded
some information below the barcode to allow for human veri- through such an ecosystem-based solution may range from
fication and cross-checking of data. Storage of data elements data on logistics and postharvest practices surrounding the
on a barcode depend on the type of barcode technology used. trees of the small-scale producer right up to the table of the
The GTIN uses a 14-digit barcode with information about
companies, products, and product attributes worldwide, 9 Also described as the “Internet of Things” (ITU 2005).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
302 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
end consumer (Ampatzidis et al. 2007). Lower costs per the scale of a nanometer. One nanometer is one-billionth of
device, nanotechnology advances that permit greater stor- a meter, or about 1/80,000 the width of human hair.”10 Nano
age and smaller size, increased ruggedness in extreme tem- solutions can help food security by decreasing input costs,
peratures and moisture, and rapid growth in wireless cellular increasing yields, and decreasing postharvest loss.
network and device availability have led smaller producers in
developing countries to use RFIDs, GPS, GIS, wireless sen- In the field of traceability, nano solutions enable food safety
sor networks, and mobile phones to implement traceability and food preservation. Nano materials may be used in
systems, paving the way for connectivity to global markets. smart packaging and in food handling to detect pathogens,
gases, spoilage, and changing temperature and moisture.
RFIDs have been used for unique animal identification, Traceability requirements for food safety may present a
storage of data on breeding history, animal health, disease lower-risk, higher-benefit area for the application of nano
tracking, animal movement, and nutrient and yield manage- solutions. (Froggett 2009, 2010). Current technologies to
ment. RFID-tagged animals are tracked from birth through detect pathogens in food require considerable time, money,
slaughter to check and monitor disease, to meet the needs and effort. Nano solutions can detect contamination in real
of global markets for safe meat, and to enable product recall. time. Azonano, an online journal of nanotechnology, reported
in 2005 that researchers at Kraft Foods, Rutgers University,
The advantage of electronic traceability systems based on and the University of Connecticut were developing a nano
RFID is their staggering capacity to store data on product solution called an “electronic tongue.” (“Food Packaging
attributes. Barcodes permit only limited data storage. Unlike Using Nanotechnology Methods,” Azonano, 2005). An array
barcode systems, which are read-only, RFID systems pos- of embedded nanosensors in the electronic tongue detect
sess read/write capability. Barcodes require the item and the the presence of pathogens in packaged food and change the
scanner to be in the direct line of sight, and items must be color of the tongue to signal spoilage to consumers. The EU
physically moved to collect data on the product, whereas Good Food Project has developed a portable nanosensor to
data are automatically collected via RFID without line of sight detect chemicals, pathogens, and toxins in food at the farm
(Cronin 2008; Nambiar 2009; Sarma 2004; Stokes 2010). and slaughterhouse and during transportation, processing,
and packaging. Nanotechnologies are also enabling the pro-
The disadvantages of RFID solutions include their cost,
duction of cheaper and more efficient nanoscale RFIDs for
complexity, and environmental sustainability (IFT 2009).
tracking and monitoring food through the supply chain for
RFID signals are affected by environmental conditions such
traceability (Joseph and Morrison 2006).
as moisture, which absorbs electromagnetic waves; metal
packaging, which scatters waves; and physical damage to Nano solutions can help increase farm sustainability while
the chipset in harsh conditions. Studies of RFID applications decreasing environmental impact. Nanoscale sensors in fields
summarized by Nambiar (2009) identify challenges such as enable targeted minimal application of nutrients, water, and/
a lack of expertise, resistance to change, lack of systems or pesticides (Froggett 2009). Encapsulation and controlled-
integration (Attaran 2009), inconsistent information, lack of release methods are used to deliver doses of pesticide and her-
supporting tools for implementation (Battini et al. 2009), and bicide. Particle farming yields nanoparticles for industrial use
integration difficulties as a result of the proliferation of RFID by growing plants in specific types of soil (one example is the
readers (Floerkemeier and Fleisch 2008). In practice, the harvesting of gold particles from alfalfa plants grown in gold-
implementation of RFID technologies is hampered by prob- rich soil). Nano solutions such as NanoCeram (2-nanometer-
lems with tag detection, tag coverage, and reader collision diameter aluminum oxide nanofibers developed by Argonide in
(Carbunar et al. 2009). Other technological hurdles include the United States) filter viruses, bacteria, and protozoan cysts
protecting the privacy and security of data stored on the RFID from groundwater. Altairnano is working on Nanocheck (which
tag from unauthorized access and tampering (Langheinrich contains lanthanum nanoparticles) to absorb phosphates from
et al. 2009). aqueous environments such as fish ponds. Research at the
Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology
Nano Solutions for Traceability and Precision Farming shows that nanoscale iron oxide particles are effective at bind-
ing with and removing arsenic from groundwater (Joseph and
Transformative technologies such as nano solutions are creat-
ing new pathways for food security and precision agriculture.
10 “The A to Z of Nanotechnology,” Institute of Nanotech-
“Nanotechnology” is “the ability to engineer new attributes nology, March 19, 2004, http://www.azonano.com/Details
through controlling features at a very small scale—at or around .asp?ArticleID=631, accessed February 2011.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 303
Morrison 2006). An emerging trend in agriculture and food DNA Techniques
security is the convergence of nanotechnology, biotechnol- While conventional methods of traceability work for labeling
ogy, information technology, and cognitive science, referred and tagging food products that are not genetically modified
to by the United States government as “NBIC.” or engineered, DNA traceability offers a more precise form
of traceability for animals and animal by-products derived
The potential impact of nano solutions on smallholder farmers
through biotechnology. DNA traceability works on the
and agricultural producers is beyond the scope of this mod-
principle that each animal is genetically unique, and thus
ule but merits research and discussion. Investments in nano
by-products of the animal can be traced to its source by iden-
research and approaches to regulation continue in OECD
tifying its DNA (Loftus 2005).
countries such as Australia, Canada, EU member countries,
Japan, Korea, New Zealand, and the United States, as well as
non-OECD countries such as Brazil, China, India, the Russian Nuclear Techniques for Traceability
Federation, and South Africa. Figure 11.8 depicts the use A joint research project of the Food and Agriculture
and convergence of information, communication, electron- Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency
ics, and nanotechnologies to enable information to flow from (Cannavan n.d.) seeks to establish analytical techniques to
farmers to markets. determine the provenance of food by assessing its isotopic
FIGURE 11.8. ICT Enables Information Flow from Farmers to Markets
Data throughput/output methods
Barcodes Wireless
communications
Radio-frequency
identification
GPS/GIS
Enablers of information
Web-based flow from farmers to markets
ERP/database systems
Wireless sensor systems
networks
Farmers
Markets
Data input methods
Web Mobile
based
Information flow from
markets to farmers
Manual: pen/ Social media/
paper/documents crowdsourcing
Source: Tina George Karippacheril.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
304 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
and elemental fingerprints.11 These techniques are also used GPS-equipped fishing boats transmit data on origin of
to identify the geographical origin of food and to identify catch to a Transdata center in Santiago to monitor fish-
sources of contamination. ing from legal fishing areas. When the catch is brought
to port, a ticketing system cross-checks the origin of
the catch via GPS data transmitted from the boats, then
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY weighs, certifies, and labels bags of catch with traceability
ShellCatch in Chile Guarantees Origin of the data in a barcode label. After ticketing, the certified catch
Catch from Artisanal Fishers and Divers is sent to processing plants and on to domestic and inter-
In Chile, ShellCatch (http://www.shellcatch.com/english national markets for consumption. Figure 11.9 illustrates
/index.htm) allows buyers to pinpoint the origin of shellfish this process.
and the condition of catchment areas in the Tubul, Arauco
Gulf, and Bio-Bio regions. ShellCatch shifts the responsibil-
ity for daily monitoring of catch origin, including detection ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
of extraction from legal catchment areas, from processing The authors gratefully acknowledge helpful comments and
plants to harvesters—that is, artisanal fishers and divers. guidance received from colleagues Tuukka Castren, Aparajita
Goyal, Steven Jaffee, Tim Kelly, Eija Pehu, and Madhavi Pillai
11 Joint FAO/IAEA Program, 2010, “Implementation of Nuclear of the World Bank: Andrew Baird of RTI; Steve Froggett of
Techniques to Improve Food Traceability,” http://www-naweb
.iaea.org/nafa/fep/crp/fep-improve-traceability.html, accessed Froggett & Associates; Guillaume Gruere of IFPRI; and Lucy
February 2011. Scott Morales of EEI Communications.
FIGURE 11.9. Embayment Management and Shellfish Traceability in Chile
Transforming the Shellfish Sector
Satellite
2 Monitoring
Automated monitoring of
shellfish boats
Monitor in Santiago
GPS
1 Artisanal fishing
GPS location device
GPS 3
GPS 2
International
4 Shellfish processing market
5 Certified shellfish
Catch goes to processing Local and international
plant consumers receive shellfish
3 Labeling system Product
After catch, generate
a barcode label to
certify catch Shellfish processing plant
Source: “Transforming the Shellfish Sector, Appropriate Technology for Coastal Management,” Shellcatch, http://www.shellcatch.com/english/index.htm,
accessed February 2011.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 305
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING Campden BRI. 2009. Traceability in Food and Feed Chain: General
Principles and Basic System Requirements. Guideline No. G60.
Ampatzidis, Y. G., S. G. Vougioukas, D. D. Bochtis, and C. A. Tsatsarelis.
Chipping Campden, UK: Campden BRI.
2007. “A Yield Mapping System for Hand-Harvested Fruits Based
on RFID and GPS Location Technologies: Field Testing.” Precision Cannavan, A. n.d. “Food Traceability and Authenticity: Global Issues.”
Agriculture 10 (1): 63–72. Presentation to Queen’s University, Belfast. http://www.qub.ac
.uk /research-centres/ASSET/FileStore/Filetoupload,170711,en.
Annerose, D. 2010. “Manobi: ICT for Social and Economic Development.”
pdf accessed July 2010.
Presentation to World Bank, August 12, Washington, DC.
Carbunar, B., M. K. Ramanathan, M. Koyuturk, S. Jagannathan, and
Attaran, M. 2009. “Keeping the Promise of Efficiency.” Industrial
A. Grama. 2009. “Efficient Tag Detection in RFID Systems.”
Engineer 41 (3): 45–49.
Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing 69 (2): 180–96.
Bacheldor, B. 2009. “Hybrid Tag Includes Active RFID, GPS, Satellite
“China Fixes RFID Tags on Pigs to Track Epidemics.” ICT Update No.
and Sensors.” RFID Journal. http://www.rfidjournal.com/article
32 (2003). http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/content/search?SearchText
/view/4635, accessed April 2010.
=RFID&x=0&y=0, accessed May 2011.
Battini, D., M. Faccio, A. Persona, and F. Sgarbossa. 2009. “A New
Choe, Y. C., J. Park, M. Chung, and J. Moon. 2009. “Effect of the
Methodological Framework to Implement an RFID Project and Its
Food Traceability System for Building Trust: Price Premium and
Application.” International Journal of RF Technologies: Research
Buying Behavior.” Information Systems Frontiers 11 (2): 167–79.
and Applications 1 (1): 77–94.
Collins, J. 2004. “African Beef Gets Tracked: Namibia Beef Tracking
Bechini, A., M. G. C. A. Cimino, B. Lazzerini, F. Marcelloni, and
by Savi Technologies.” RFID Journal, December 10. http://www
A. Tomasi. 2005. “A General Framework for Food Traceability.”
.rfidjournal.com/article/articleprint/1281/-1/1/, accessed May 2011.
Proceedings of the 2005 Symposium on Applications and the
Internet Workshop, Trento, January 31–February 4. Cronin, R. 2008. “RFID versus Barcode.” Pharmaceutical Technology
32 (11): 177–78.
Bertolini, M., M. Bevilacqua, and R. Massini. 2006. “FMECA
Approach to Product Traceability in the Food Industry.” Food Dickinson, D. L., and D. Bailey. 2002. “Meat Traceability: Are U.S.
Control 17 (2): 137–45. Consumers Willing to Pay for It?” Journal of Agricultural and
Resource Economics 27 (2): 348–64. http://ageconsearch.umn
Bowling, M. B., D. L. Pendell, D. L. Morris, Y. Yoon, K. Katoh,
.edu/bitstream/31128/1/27020348.pdf, accessed May 2011.
K. E. Belk, and G. C. Smith. 2008. “Review: Identification and
Traceability of Cattle in Selected Countries Outside of North Disney, W. T., J. W. Green, K. W. Forsythe, J. F. Wiemers, and
America.” Professional Animal Scientist 24: 287–94. http://pas S. Weber. 2001. “Benefit-Cost Analysis of Animal Identification
.fass.org/content/24/4/287.abstract, accessed May 2011. for Disease Prevention and Control.” Scientific and Technical
Review (Office International des Epizooties) 20: 385–405.
Buhr, B. 2002. “Electronic Traceability in European and U.S. Meat
Supply Chains (2002).” Presentation at the National Pork Industry “Finalists Unveiled for the Fourth Annual RFID Journal Awards.”
Forum, Denver, February 28. 2010. RFID Journal, March 18. http://www.rfidjournal.com
/article/view/7467, accessed May 2011.
Burger, T. 2003. “Africa: Livestock Identification and Traceback
System (LITS).” ICT Update No. 15. http://ictupdate.cta.int/en Fletcher, A. 2004. “Coke Recall Highlights Need for Complete
/Feature-Articles/LITS-tracking-Botswana-s-livestock-using-radio Traceability.” Food Quality News.com, March 23. http://www
-waves, accessed May 2011. .foodqualitynews.com/Innovation/Coke-recall-highlights-need
-for-complete-traceability, accessed May 2011.
CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commission). 2006. “Principles for
Traceability/Product Tracing as a Tool within a Food Inspection Floerkemeier, C., and E. Fleisch. 2008. “RFID Applications:
and Certification System.” CAC/GL 60-2006. Rome. http:// Interfacing with Readers.” IEEE Software 25 (3): 67–70.
www.codexalimentarius.net/web/more_info.jsp?id_sta=10603,
accessed May 2011. FMRIC (Food Marketing Research and Information Center). 2007.
Handbook for Introduction of Food Traceability Systems
———. 2009. Report CAC/32 INF/14. “International Seminar (Guidelines for Food Traceability). 2nd edition. Tokyo: FMRIC.
on Setting Food Safety Standards, Effects on International http://166.119.78.61/j/syouan/seisaku/trace/pdf/handbook
Trade, Particularly for Developing Countries: The Hague, The _en.pdf, accessed May 2011.
Netherlands, June 9–12, 2008.” CAC, Rome. http://www.fsis.usda
.gov/PDF/codex_if32_14e.pdf, accessed May 2011. Folinas, D., I. Manikas, and B. Manos. 2006. “Traceability Data
Management for Food Chains.” British Food Journal 108 (8):
———. 2010. “Considerations of the Impact of Private Standards.” 622–33.
33rd Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission, Geneva,
July 5–9. Food and Drug Administration (United States). 2009. “Title III—
Protecting Safety and Security of Food and Drug Supply.” http://
Calvin, L., L. Flores, and W. Foster. 2003. “Food Safety in Food www.fda.gov/RegulatoryInformation/Legislation/ucm155769
Security and Food Trade. Case Study: Guatemalan Raspberries .htm, accessed May 2011.
and Cyclospora.” International Food Policy Research Institute
(IFPRI) Washington, DC. http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files “Food Packaging Using Nanotechnology Methods: An Overview of
/publications/focus10_07.pdf, accessed May 2011. ‘Smart Packaging’ and ‘Active Packaging.’” 2005. Azonano, July 25.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
306 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
http://www.azonano.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1317, accessed of Bonn, Innsbruck-Igls, February 16–20. http://ageconsearch
May 2011. .umn.edu/bitstream/59118/2/Heyder.pdf, accessed May 2011.
Froggett, S. 2009. “Nanotechnology and Agricultural Trade.” IFT (Institute for Food Technologists). 2009. “Traceability (Product
OECD Conference on the Potential Environmental Benefits of Tracing) in Food Systems: An IFT Report Submitted to the FDA,
Nanotechnology: Fostering Safe Innovation-Led Growth, U.S. Volume 1: Technical Aspects and Recommendations / Food and
Department of Agriculture, July 17, Washington, DC. Drug Administration.” Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science
and Food Safety 9(1): 92–158. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/1
———. 2010. “Nanotechnology in Agriculture.” Presentation to the
0.1111/j.1541-4337.2009.00097.x/pdf, accessed May 2011.
World Bank, Washington, DC, October.
IICD (International Institute for Communications and Development).
GFSI (Global Food Safety Initiative). 2007. “GFSI Guidance Document.”
2008. “ICTs Help to Boost Mali Mango Exports.” March 17.
5th edition. GFSI, Paris. http://www.ciesnet.com/pfiles
http://www.iicd.org/articles/icts-help-to-boost-malis-mango
/programmes/foodsafety/GFSI_Guidance _Document_5th%20
-exports/, accessed February 26, 2011.
Edition%20_September%202007.pdf, accessed May 2011.
Ingelfinger, M. D. 2008. “Melamine and the Global Implications of
Golan, E., B. Krissoff, and F. Kuchler. 2004. “Food Traceability: One
Food Contamination.” New England Journal of Medicine 359:
Ingredient in a Safe and Efficient Food Supply.” Amber Waves
2745–48. http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp0808410,
(April). Economic Research Service, http://www.ers.usda.gov
accessed May 2011.
/AmberWaves/April04/Features/FoodTraceability.htm, accessed
May 2011. ITU (International Telecommunication Union). 2005. ITU Internet
Reports 2005: The Internet of Things. Geneva.
Golan, E., B. Krissoff, F. Kuchler, L. Calvin, K. Nelson, and G. Price.
2004. “Traceability in the U.S. Food Supply: Economic Theory Jack, D., T. Pardoe, and C. Ritchie. 1998. “Scottish Quality Cereals
and Industry Studies.” Agricultural Economic Report No. 830. and Coastal Grains: Combinable Crop Assurance in Action.”
Economic Research Service, United States Department of Supply Chain Management 3: 134–38.
Agriculture, Washington, DC. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publica-
Jaffee, S., and S. Henson. 2004a. “Food Exports from Developing
tions/aer830/, accessed May 2011.
Countries: The Challenges Posed by Standards.” In Global
Golan, E., B. Krissoff, F. Kuchler, K. Nelson, G. Price, and Agricultural Trade and Developing Countries, edited by M. A.
L. Calvin. 2003. “Traceability in the US Food Supply: Dead End Aksoy and J. C. Beghin. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
or Superhighway?” Choices, Second Quarter. Farmdoc, http://
———. 2004b. “Standards and Agro-Food Exports from Developing
www.farmdoc.illinois.edu/policy/choices/20032/2003-2-04.pdf,
Countries: Rebalancing the Debate.” Policy Research
accessed May 2011.
Working Paper No. 3348. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Gruère, G., and D. Sengupta. 2009. “Biosafety Decisions and http://elibrary.worldbank.org/content/workingpaper/10.1596
Perceived Commercial Risks: The Role of GM-Free Private /1813-9450-3348, accessed May 2011.
Standards.” IFPRI Discussion Paper No. 00847. International
Jaffee, S., S. Henson, and L. Diaz Rios. Forthcoming. Making the
Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC. http://
Grade: African Smallholder Farmers, Emerging Standards, and
www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp00847.pdf,
Development Assistance Programs in Africa. Washington, DC:
accessed May 2011.
World Bank.
Harrop, P. 2008. “Printing Electronics on Food Packaging,” Asian
Jaffee, S., and O. Masakure. 2005. “Strategic Use of Private
Food Journal, October 1. http://www.asiafoodjournal.com/article
Standards to Enhance International Competitiveness: Vegetable
-5609-printingelectronicsonfoodpackaging-Asia.html, accessed
Exports from Kenya and Elsewhere.” Food Policy 30: 316–33.
May 2011.
Johnson, R., S. A. Lister, E. D. Williams, V. K. Burrows, H. F. Upton,
Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. 2004. “Strengthening Official Food
and J. Monke. 2010. “Food Safety in the 111th Congress: H.R.
Safety Control Services: Risk Management Approach—Imported
2749 and S. 510.” Washington, DC: Congressional Research
Food Control—A Success Story.” Paper presented at the
Service. Foreign Agricultural Service, http://www.fas.org/sgp
FAO/WHO Second Global Forum for Food Safety Regulators,
/crs/misc/R40443.pdf, accessed May 2011.
Bangkok, October 12–14. http://www.fao.org/docrep/meet-
ing/008/AD875E.htm, accessed May 2011. Joseph, T., and M. Morrison. 2006. “Nanotechnology in Agriculture
and Food.” Report. Nanoforum.org European Nanotechno-
Hazell, P., C. Poulton, S. Wiggins, and A. Dorward. 2006. “The
logy Gateway. May. http://www.nanoforum.org/dateien/temp
Future of Small Farms.” Synthesis paper prepared as back-
/nanotechnology%20in%20agriculture%20and%20food.pdf,
ground for World Development Report 2008 by Rimisp–Latin
accessed May 2011.
American Center for Rural Development, Santiago. http://www
.rimisp.org/getdoc.php?docid=6444, accessed May 2011. Kuchenmüller T., S. Hird, C. Stein, P. Kramarz, A. Nanda, and A. H.
Havelaar. 2009. “Estimating the Global Burden of Foodborne
Heyder, M., T. Hollmann-Hespos, and L. Theuvsen. 2009.
Diseases—A Collaborative Effort.” Eurosurveillance 14
“Agribusiness Firm Reactions to Regulations: The Case of
(18): 191–95. http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle
Investments in Traceability Systems.” Proceedings of the
.aspx?ArticleId=19195, accessed May 2011.
3rd International European Forum on System Dynamics and
Innovation in Food Networks, organized by the International Langheinrich, M. 2009. “A Survey of RFID Privacy Approaches.”
Center for Food Chain and Network Research of the University Personal and Ubiquitous Computing 13 (6): 413–21.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 3 — AC C E SSING MARKE T S AND VAL UE CH A INS 307
Loftus, R. 2005. “Traceability of Biotech Derived Animals: Application Agricultural Value Chains.” Paper presented at the International
of DNA.” Scientific and Technical Review (OIE), 24 (1): 231–42. Conference on Information and Communication Technologies
and Development, Bangalore, December 15–16, http://citeseerx
“Malaysia Begins RFID-Enabled Livestock Tracking Program.”
.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.113.4811&rep=rep1
2009. RFID News, April 6. http://www.rfidnews.org/2009/04/06
&type=pdf, accessed May 2011.
/malaysia-begins-rfid-enabled-livestock-tracking-program?tag
=Animal_Tagging, accessed May 2011. Pettitt, R. G. 2001. “Traceability in the Food Animal Industry
and Supermarket Chains’: Traceability of Animals and Ani-
Manarungsan, S., J. O. Naewbanij, and T. Rerngjakrabhet. 2005.
mal Products (H. A. MacDaniel & M. K. Sheridan, eds).”
“Shrimp, Fresh Asparagus, and Frozen Green Soybeans in Thai-
Revue scientifique et technique (International Office of
land.” Discussion Paper No. 16. Washington, DC: Agriculture and
Epizootics), 20 (2): 584–97. http://web.oie.int/boutique/index
Rural Development, World Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank
.php?page=ficprod&id_produit=77&fichrech=1&lang=en.
.org/INTARD/Resources/ThailandCountrySurveyF_final.pdf,
accessed May 2011. Pfitzer M., and R. Krishnaswamy. 2007. “Role of the Food & Beverage
Sector in Expanding Economic Opportunity.” Corporate Social
McCullough, E. B., P. L. Pingali, and K. G. Stamoulis, eds. 2008.
Responsibility Initiative Report 20, 33–35, Kennedy School of
The Transformation of Agri-Food Systems: Globalization, Supply
Government, Harvard University, Cambridge MA.
Chains, and Smallholder Farmers. London: Earthscan.
Pingali, P., Y. Khwaja, and M. Meijer. 2007. “The Role of the Public and
McKean, J. D. 2001. “The Importance of Traceability for Public
Private Sectors in Commercializing Small Farms and Reducing
Health and Consumer Protection.” Scientific and Technical
Transaction Costs.” In Global Supply Chains, Standards, and
Review (OIE) 20: 363–71.
the Poor, edited by J. F. M. Swinnen. Wallingford, UK: CABI
“Milk Tastes Better with RFID.” 2010. RFID News, April 1. http:// International.
www.rfidnews.org/2010/04/01/milk-tastes-better-with-rfid,
Produce Traceability Initiative (PTI). 2010. “PTI Action Plan
accessed May 2011.
Implementation Toolkit.” http://www.producetraceability.org,
Moe, T. 1998. “Perspectives on Traceability in Food Manufacture.” accessed May 2011.
Trends in Food Science and Technology 9: 211–14.
“Project Klein Karoo Cooperative in South Africa.” 2003. ICT Update
Muto, M., and T. Yamano. 2009. “The Impact of Mobile Phone 32. http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/content/search?SearchText=RFID
Coverage Expansion on Market Participation: Panel Data &x=0&y=0, accessed May 2011.
Evidence from Uganda.” World Development 37 (12): 1887–96.
Reardon, T., and J. A. Berdegué. 2002. “The Rapid Rise of
Nambiar, A. N. 2009. “RFID Technology: A Review of Its Supermarkets in Latin America: Challenges and Opportunities
Applications.” Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering for Development.” Development Policy Review 20 (4): 317–34.
and Computer Science 2009 Vol. II, 1253–1259, International
RFID News. 2009a. “Organic RFID to Cut Waste on Produce.”
Association of Engineers San Francisco, August. http://www
December 16. http://www.rfidnews.org/2009/12/16/organic-rfid-
.iaeng.org/publication/WCECS2009/WCECS2009_pp1253-1259
to-cut-waste-on-produce?tag=Sensors, accessed April 2010.
.pdf, accessed May 2011.
———. 2009b. “Vietnamese Agency Seeks Seafood Traceability.”
Narrod, C., D. Roy, B. AvendaÒo, and J. Okello. 2008. “Impact of
May 18. http://www.rfidnews.org/2009/05/18/vietnamese-agen
International Food Safety Standards on Smallholders: Evidence
cy-works-toward-seafood-traceability, accessed May 2011.
from Three Cases.” In The Transformation of Agri-Food Systems:
Globalization, Supply Chains and Smallholder Farmers, edited by RFID Update. 2007. “Awards Honor RFID Innovators.” March 27.
E. B. McCullough, P. L. Pingali, and K. G. Stamoulis, 355–72. http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/view/6702, accessed May 2011.
London: Earthscan.
Roberts, M. T. 2004. “Mandatory Recall Authority: A Sensible and
Onumah, G. E., J. R. Davis, U. Kleih, and F. J. Proctor. 2007. “Empowering Minimalist Approach to Improving Food Safety.” Food and Drug
Smallholder Farmers in Markets: Changing Agricultural Marketing Law Journal 59: 563–84.
Systems and Innovative Responses by Producer Organizations.”
ESFIM Working Paper 2. Empowering Smallholder Farmers in Safe Food International. 2005. Global and Local: Food Safety
Markets (ESFIM). http://www.esfim.org/wp-content/uploads/ around the World. Washington, DC: Center for Science in the
ESFIM_Working_Paper_2.pdf, accessed May 2011. Public Interest. http://safefoodinternational.org/local_global.pdf,
accessed May 2011.
Opara, L. U. 2003. “Traceability in Agriculture and Food Supply
Chain: A Review of Basic Concepts, Technological Implications, Sarma, S. 2004. “Integrating RFID.” Queue 2 (7): 50–57.
and Future Prospects.” Journal of Food, Agriculture, and
Savi Technology. 2009. “Savi Networks’ Wireless Tracking
Environment 1 (1): 101–06.
Service to Help Transmed Cut ‘Total Landed Cost’ of Food
Overby, C. S., with C. P. Wilson and J. Walker. 2004. “Retailers Need Inventory Shipped from Africa to U.S.” Press release, October 21.
an RFID Code of Conduct.” Forrester Research, March 31. http:// http://www.savi.com/about/press-releases/2009-10-21.php,
www.forrester.com/rb/Research/retailers_need_rfid_code_of accessed May 2011.
_conduct/q/id/34185/t/2, accessed May 2011.
Schulze, H., F. Albersmeier, J.-C. Gawron, A. Spiller, and
Parikh, T. S., N. Patel, and Y. Schwartzman. 2007. “A Survey of L. Theuvsen. 2008. “Heterogeneity in the Evaluation of
Information Systems Reaching Small Producers in Global Quality Assurance Systems: The International Food Standard
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
308 MOD ULE 11 — GLOBA L MA RK ETS , GLOB A L CH A LLENGES
(IFS) in European Agribusiness.” International Food and Unnevehr, L. J. 2000. “Food Safety Issues for Fresh Food Product
Agribusiness Management Review 11 (3): 99–139. http:// Exports from LDCs.” Agricultural Economics 23: 231–40.
ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/53727/2/20081010_Formatted
Unnevehr, L. J., and H. H. Jensen. 1999. “The Economic Implications
.pdf, accessed May 2011.
of Using HACCP as a Food Safety Regulatory Standard.” Staff
Senneset, G., E. Forås, and K. M. Fremme. 2007. “Challenges General Research Paper 1631. Iowa State University, Ames.
Regarding Implementation of Electronic Chain Traceability.”
Unnevehr, L., and T. Roberts. 2002. “Food Safety Incentives in a
British Food Journal 109 (10): 805–18.
Changing World Food System.” Journal of Food Control 13: 73–76.
Setboonsarng, S., J. Sakai, and L. Vancura. 2009. “Food Safety and
Wall, B. 1994. “Quality Management at Golden Wonder.” Industrial
ICT Traceability Systems: Lessons from Japan for Developing
Management and Data Systems 94 (7): 24–28.
Countries.” ADBI Working Paper 139, Asian Development
Bank Institute (ADBI), Tokyo. http://www.adbi.org/working Weinberger, K., and T. A Lumpkin. 2005. “High-Value Agricultural
-paper/2009/05/28/3012.ict.food.traceability.system/traceability Products in Asia and the Pacific for Small-Holder Farmers:
.systems.in.japan/, accessed May 2011. Trends, Opportunities, and Research Priorities.” Paper presented
at the workshop, How Can the Poor Benefit from the Growing
Siror, J. K., S. Huanye, D. Wang, and W. Jie. 2009. “Use of RFID Markets for High Value Agricultural Products? Cali, October 3–5.
Technologies to Combat Cattle Rustling in the East Africa.” http://www.zef.de/module/register/media/3ced_weinberger
Paper presented at the Fifth International Joint Conference on _lumpkin_2006.pdf, accessed May 2011.
Networked Computing, Shanghai, August 25–27.
WHO (World Health Organization). 1999. Weekly Epidemiological
Smyth, S., and P. W. B. Phillips. 2002. “Product Differentiation Record 74 (43): 357–364. http://www.who.int/docstore/wer/pdf
Alternatives: Identity Preservation, Segregation, and /1999/wer7443.pdf, accessed May 2011.
Traceability.” AgBioForum 5 (2): 30–42. http://www.agbioforum
.org/v5n2/v5n2a01-smyth.htm, accessed May 2011. ———. 2000. Weekly Epidemiological Record 75(33):268. http://
www.who.int/docstore/wer/pdf/2000/wer7533.pdf, accessed
Spencer, J. 2010. “Small Farms Balk at Food Safety Bill.” Wall Street May 2011.
Journal, April 9. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB1000142405270
2304172404575168232140548698.html?mod=WSJ_newsreel ———. 2001. Weekly Epidemiological Record 76 (50): 398.
_us, accessed May 2011. http://www.who.int/docstore/wer/pdf/2001/wer7650.pdf,
accessed May 2011.
Stokes, T. 2010. “Revealing the Food Identification Code.” FoodInfo
Online Features April 30. http://www.foodsciencecentral.com ———. 2002. Global Strategy for Food Safety: Safer Food for
/fsc/ixid15885, accessed May 2011. Better Health. Geneva: WHO. http://www.who.int/foodsafety
/publications/general/global_strategy/en/, accessed May 2011.
Sugahara, K. 2009. “Traceability Systems for Agricultural Products
———. 2007a. “Food Safety and Foodborne Illness.” WHO Fact
Based on RFID and Mobile Technology.” Computer and
Sheet 237. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs237
Computing Technologies in Agriculture II, Volume 3. IFIP
/en/, accessed May 2011.
Advances in Information and Communication Technology 295:
2293–301. ———. 2007b. The World Health Report 2007: A Safer Future.
Geneva: WHO. http://www.who.int/whr/2007/en/index.html,
Swedberg, C. 2007. “RFID Keeps Avocados Fresh.” RFID
accessed May 2011.
Journal, April 2. http://www.evidencia.biz/RFID_Journal
_-_ Evidencia _RFID_Helps_Keeps_Avocados_Cold_Chain ———. 2008. Terrorist Threats to Food: Guidance for Establishing
_Fresh_(Radio_Frequency_Identification).htm, accessed May and Strengthening Prevention Response Systems. Geneva:
2011. WHO. http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/general/en
/terrorist.pdf, accessed May 2011.
Timon, D., and S. O’Reilly. 1998. “An Evaluation of Traceability
Systems along the Irish Beef Chain.” In Long-Term Prospects Wilson, N., and W. Clarke. 1998. “Food Safety and Traceability
for the Beef Industry, edited by C. Viau, 219–25. Paris: Institut in the Agricultural Supply Chain: Using the Internet to Deliver
National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA). Traceability.” Supply Chain Management 3: 127–33.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
SECTION 4
Improving Public Service Provision
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 311
Module 12 STRENGTHENING RURAL GOVERNANCE,
INSTITUTIONS, AND CITIZEN
PARTICIPATION USING ICT
CORY BELDEN (World Bank) and REGINA BIRNER (University of Hohenheim)
IN THIS MODULE
Overview. Well-functioning public institutions in rural areas are critical to agricultural development and sustainability.
However, these public institutions are often neglected as a result of underfinancing, isolation, a lack of technical support,
and low levels of human capital. This module focuses on how information and communication technology (ICT) can help
governments, line departments, and civil society groups provide public services to the agriculture sector.
Topic Note 12.1: Public Agencies and the Provision of E-government. ICT helps governments decrease bureaucracy,
cut transaction costs, and spread information to other stakeholders. While improving service provision and rural liveli-
hoods, these technologies also form more efficient relationships between the government and citizens, producers,
private enterprise, civil society, employees, and other public agencies.
Building Public Service Provision through Internet Applications
Agricultural and Rural Information through Ministerial Websites
Using Biometrics to Provide and Target Rural Services
E-Government to Business
E-Government to Government
Topic Note 12.2: Civil Society and the Provision of E-Services. Civil society organizations provide many digitized
services similar to those of public agencies. Yet they also perform the important function of using ICT in more sensitive
activities such as publishing information on political figures, political parties, or new legislation. They can more easily
direct their efforts to more specific groups or needs and fill voids in public agriculture services.
Providing ‘Hubs’ for ICT Innovation
E-Learning through the Web and SMS
Collecting Data to Protect Local Knowledge and Ecosystems
Topic Note 12.3: Increasing Citizen Participation through E-Democracy. Citizen participation and demand for public
goods is incredibly important in the agriculture sector: Because so few resources are available in remote locations, the
quality of governance often depends on citizen involvement. ICT holds great promise for enhancing democracy in rural
areas, providing people with faster, real-time capacity to involve themselves in democratic initiatives, meaning that more
stakeholders can affect local governance processes.
Information Kiosks in India
Virtual Communities
Government Responsiveness through Citizen Participation in Digitized Political Processes
Digital Media Forums in Developing Countries
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
312 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
OVERVIEW Electronic voting, online complaint lines, and mobile legisla-
The widespread use of ICT in developing countries arrives at tive consultation are some of the most innovative forms of
a critical time. Food insecurity, poverty, malnutrition, environ- democratic participation occurring around the world.
mental degradation, and state failure are daunting trends that
Because less than 25 percent of the population living in devel-
need to be slowed and quickly reversed. One of the foremost
oping countries is online, the benefits of using the Internet
ways to reverse these trends is enlarging and improving the
as the only tool for e-governance are limited. Initial invest-
agricultural sector. Already, using ICT, the sector has reduced
ment costs pose the most significant challenge to increas-
transaction costs, increased rural participation in the value
ing broadband accessibility: In 2009, an entry-level fixed
chain, and raised producer incomes. Seeing the widespread
broadband connection cost on average US$190 purchasing
benefits of ICT, development institutions and governments
power parity per month in developing countries compared to
are now investing heavily in ICT opportunities, expanding the
only US$28 per month in developed countries (International
possibilities and scalability of interventions.
Telecommunication Union 2010). Yet given that broadband
Like ICT for agriculture, ICT for governance holds incredible Internet networks will continue to expand into rural areas,
potential and has already proved successful in many coun- this module discusses public service provision using the
tries. Governance—defined by the World Bank as the “tradi- Internet alongside mobile phones, the radio, and other
tions and institutions by which authority in a country are exer- devices. It aims to highlight and describe the most promising
cised for the common good” (World Bank n.d.)—is a vital examples (both in developed and developing countries) of
component of rural development. How governments, civil ICT for governance and institutions as infrastructure catches
society groups, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) up, with a specific focus on rural and agriculture issues.
offer their services in rural areas determines the quality of
life for community members, including the extent to which Framing the Governance and Accountability Challenge
improvements in agriculture raise farmers’ incomes and Figure 12.1 illustrates the services that public agencies, non-
reduce poverty. “Good governance”—which is participatory, governmental organizations (NGOs), and civil society groups,
consensus-oriented, effective and efficient, accountable and as well as private enterprise, offer citizens, producers, or
responsive, transparent, inclusive, and follows the rule of law producers’ organizations. The relationships that define these
(ESCAP 2011)—is most difficult to provide in unconnected stakeholders are those that can be enhanced through ICT.
and remote areas. It requires active citizen participation, gov- Services, partnership, regulations, and membership charac-
ernment attentiveness, functioning accountability mecha- terize these relationships and define how rural institutions
nisms, and the financial means to fulfill public demands. Yet function in remote communities.
the expansive reach of ICT has made the provision of good
governance more possible. For citizens and producers, public agencies provide services
such as agricultural extension, land administration, and infra-
Some of the earliest e-governance (electronic governance) structure; for civil society groups and NGOs, they provide
initiatives began around the mid-1990s. With the Internet as services such as legal frameworks. For private enterprises,
the principal device (in which information would eventually public agencies provide regulation services such as business
be disseminated through other mobile tools), governments registration. Civil society groups, NGOs, and private enter-
in developed countries began establishing technological win- prise can provide similar services to rural farmers. Because
dows of information and public services. As broadband Internet of distance, limited resources, low human capacity, and
service became more affordable and widespread, poorer widespread poverty, however, providing these services to
countries tapped into this type of electronic government. rural citizens is not easy in developing countries. As the gap
Innovative approaches to offering electronic services both in between public agencies and the agrarian sector continues,
the agricultural and public service sectors as well as for the service provision and good governance risk deterioration.
private sector are on the rise in Asia, Latin America, and even Four main governance challenges, most strongly felt in rural
Africa. Mobile phones, radio, geographic information systems government offices, are briefly described below. These chal-
(GIS), and other ICT applications expand government capac- lenges are addressed most effectively through the use of ICT.
ity to reach out, target, and provide appropriate services to
rural communities. Beyond service provision, governments, Human resource management challenges:
civil society groups, and development institutions are now Human capacity: Limited education results in
increasing rural public participation through electronic means. restricted human capital in public agencies.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 313
FIGURE 12.1. Relationships Between Key Stakeholders in the Agrarian Sector
NGOs /
Services, civil society groups
partnership,
and regulation
Membership
Membership
Services
Public Citizens and Producers / producer
Services
agencies consumers organizations
Employment, Business
products relations
Services,
partnership,
and regulation Private
enterprise
Source: Authors.
Low performance: Incentives like good wages are By digitizing its services, the public sector improves its ability
minimal in poorly resourced governments. to address the governance challenges listed above through
Poor supervision: Limited resources and staff reduce the mechanisms for transparency and accountability that ICT
employee oversight. devices automatically invoke. For example, financial trans-
actions through mobile phones or computerized systems
Corruption and procurement challenges: discourage bribery and corruption because of their built-in
Corruption: Loopholes and poor enforcement create traceability. Similarly, putting information online in a central
spaces for unwarranted financial gain. location ensures accurate and more equal knowledge trans-
Poor procurement: Unqualified staff and paper fer to all citizens, not just to those who are politically con-
accounting result in poor transactions. nected. Using biometric data to transfer inputs or services
to beneficiaries ensures that the targeted individuals are the
Rent seeking: Funds obtained unfairly by government
intended recipients. Short messaging service (SMS) mes-
through private assets.
sages containing prices for certain crops reduce intermedi-
Bribery: Lack of legal mechanisms motivates political
aries’ interference. As this module intends to demonstrate,
and financial cheating.
ICT applications adopted to improve only farm practices
Targeting challenges: and producers’ situations actually increase transparency in
government processes, hold elected officials more account-
Elite capture: Better-off and politically connected
able, reduce corruption, and boost citizen participation in
farmers capture public programs.
the agrarian sector (Katz, Rice, and Aspden 2001; Mercer
Assessment: Low capacity to assess whether targets
2004; Selwyn 2004). Table 12.1 summarizes the applications
are met.
described in this module.
Research: Low capacity to identify the most vulner-
able or their needs. This module follows the outline in table 12.1, splitting the dis-
cussion into three themes, with the most attention focused
Bureaucratic procedures: on the first: (1) how the public sector can use ICT to improve
High transaction costs for clients: Resources services and policies, (2) how civil society groups and NGOs
needed to travel to, wait for, and pay for services. can use ICT to reach beneficiaries, and (3) how democracy
High transaction costs for government: Resources and citizen participation can be improved through ICT. Each
needed for logistics and travel to remote places. thematic section presents current trends, lessons learned,
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
314 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
TABLE 12.1. Examples of ICT in E-Governance
E-GOVERNANCE
Organization E-services (examples) E-democracy
Public agencies E-government to citizens: Citizen report cards, complaint
Tax payment, biometric identification cards, government websites, irrigation management, lines, discussion forums, virtual
digitized land administration, SMS extension services, mobile or radio pricing information communities, participatory budget-
ing, chat rooms, mailing lists,
E-government to business: opinion polls, citizen juries, online
Regulatory information, procurement, automated tax payments, electronic toll collection focus groups, petitions, blogs,
online media, social networks,
E-government to employees or government: online video or news broadcasts
Knowledge management systems, intranets, financial management systems, automated payroll,
online timesheets
Civil society and NGOs E-services to citizens:
Agriculture websites, e-learning, radio broadcasts, online petitions, video-based information
dissemination, SMS alerts, innovation hubs
Source: Authors.
and benefits of using ICT, followed by summaries of innova- interoperability is critical in infrastructure development.
tive practices from countries at a variety of electronic readi- India’s choice to pursue a government-wide centralized
ness levels. administrative system reduces financial burdens over the
long term and ensures that data and management systems
are integrated over multiple departments. However, imple-
KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS menting a centralized system is much more difficult than
The following sections highlight key challenges related to implementing singular systems. Oversight and technical sup-
using ICT in efforts to improve the efficiency and overall port across diverse departments is a prerequisite, as are staff
functioning of governance. They also discuss the enablers support, national leadership, and ample financial resources
that can help to ease these challenges as interventions are (Reidl 2001).
designed and implemented.
Education and training: Computer literacy, outside of lit-
Internal e-readiness: Human resources pose challenges
eracy itself, is one of the biggest challenges to ICT devel-
to e-government success. Staff and bureaucrats in public
opment in rural areas. Countries implementing ICT for poor
agencies often resist e-government development because
communities must remember that training and education are
they see it as a threat to job security (Jiang, Muhanna,
likely to be a necessity in the initial stages. Without them,
and Klein 2000). Internal e-readiness helps calm employ-
users may struggle to use the Internet or other ICT appli-
ees’ fears and prepares them for ICT interventions. The
cations. The resulting frustration and reduced enthusiasm
number of full-time IT employees and a firmly established IT
about new technologies can spread quickly. For new users,
department appear to be robust indicators of success-
education increases both accessibility and confidence. Public
ful e-government adoption (Norris and Kraemer 1996;
extension services can help meet the need for education and
Schwester 2009). To ensure internal e-readiness, countries
training in the use of ICT.
introducing e-government should try to condition staff
through training and conferences.
Privacy and security: Privacy and security are also major
Interoperability: The ability of a government website to challenges to e-government development (OECD 2003;
connect people to information or to other websites is impor- Schwester 2009). Even in developed countries, securing
tant to e-government development. As well as frequently citizens’ profiles, credit information, addresses, and prefer-
updating their Web pages, government agencies must pro- ences becomes a critical issue. Before implementing an
vide clear, functioning links to other relevant information. e-government initiative, practitioners should consider privacy
Interoperability can extend to culture relevancy and content. protection programs and inform the public about the risks
Language is a major challenge. Providing government infor- and safety concerns related to using ICT. Leaks in personal
mation in only one language, or even two, may not suffice information and increases in identity fraud are serious threats
to reach citizens in the most rural and poor areas. Finally, to e-government success.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 315
Matching e-government projects to local infrastructure: Social access: Creating access for women (and other
Investing in an e-government website when Internet access vulnerable groups) is usually the most difficult social task
is limited for most households and businesses may not be a in ICT development. Democratic forms of participation
smart financial commitment. E-government projects should like blogging often are unavailable to females who do not
match the infrastructure capacity of the country or region. A have the time or cultural access to participate. If kiosks
project aimed at connecting rural farmers to buyers through are intended to reach women, they should be placed in
the Web is ineffective if the rural communities do not regu- women-centric locations like weekly markets or hospitals.
larly have electricity. A kiosk, perhaps powered by a genera- Similarly, broadcasts for farmers should be run late in the
tor, or SMS alerts may be more appropriate. The Kosovo case evening when farmers have returned from their activities.
demonstrates that ICT for governance does not have to be Even more important is that leaders and donors must
an all-or-nothing proposition. Building ICT requires creative reflect on their intended objective. Is the ICT truly reach-
solutions and gradual progress. Developing e-government in ing disadvantaged groups? Do observations prove that the
step with expanding technology capacities will sustain the ICT contributes to a wide range of smallholder produc-
effectiveness of the ICT. tivity? If not, strategy, targets, and objectives should be
reconsidered.
Sustained leadership: Strong leaders are crucial for consis-
tent e-government development. Public officials or leaders Content analysis: Content analysis is another crucial ele-
that are frequently “seen” are most effective in mobilizing ment of successful delivery of e-services by government and
citizen support for ICT. Increased and active leadership could civil society. The Internet, SMS alerts, newsletters, and other
help institutionalize the ICT in business development. Yet ICT applications must be relevant to the user. Content that
this type of “campaign support” for e-government initiatives may seem relevant may in fact not be relevant, depending on
is not the only important leadership role. Country leaders the need. Technologies, climate change, and markets con-
must also consistently and strategically prioritize ICT ahead stantly shift the importance of messages. During a drought,
of other development needs so that e-government attempts radio broadcasts on collecting water for irrigation might be
are not “stop-and-go” (InfoDev 2002). more appropriate than others. These analysis activities are
particularly important in e-government because the informa-
Investment and public-private partnerships: Financial tion provided by governments (such as market price informa-
planning and long-term revenue inflows are important to tion) is not often up to date. Private sector initiatives offer
e-government as they develop (OECD 2003; Relani 2004; more accurate and timely agriculture information compared
Schwester 2009). Generating revenue is crucial to sustain- to the public sector. Thus one of the first steps in improv-
able ICT and public-private partnerships should be pursued ing e-government services should be enhancing the quality
in order to maintain long-term growth and expansion. of the information provided. Routine checks for information
Governments can charge small fees to private enterprises accuracy are also critical.
or citizens who use their services, yet modicum fees
require many years to pass before returns on investment Userability: Userability is user-friendliness. Text options
are significant. and clear links to other sites create this friendliness. The
Cereal Knowledge Bank does an excellent job of fostering
Interorganizational collaboration and coordination: A userability. Buttons like “home” and “back” make it easy
major challenge to e-government success is coordination for people of all ages and skill sets to access information.
between multiple public agencies. Almost all e-government The site offers downloadable printable information as well.
services require interagency collaboration, particularly for Users can click on “small,” “medium,” or “large” text
financial management. Yet this collaboration is difficult to options, providing reading material for a variety of eyesight
encourage and facilitate. Simply computerizing internal capacities. Giving the user options is also part of usability.
processes will not result in integration and flow if govern- Lack of options and links to nonexistent websites frustrate
ment agencies have a history of performing their duties users.
in “rigid silos of departments” (Fuchs and Horak 2008).
Haphazard computerization can actually worsen govern- Active participants and institutionalization: Participants
ment effectiveness. Shared infrastructure like the same matter in ICT development for governance. Just because
intranet or knowledge management system may ease the an organization delivers an e-government website, virtual
ICT transition. community, or radio broadcast does not mean citizens will
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
316 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
actually use it, so community involvement and buy-in are Political and cultural environment: Institutions introducing an
critical to success. For example, while a virtual community ICT should consider the political and cultural environment dur-
or extension service may have hundreds of members, only ing design and implementation. This consideration is particularly
a few of those members may contribute to the knowledge important in e-democracy projects. For example, if women do
base or discussion (Kim n. d.). Requiring participation in mes- not normally participate or have a voice in government issues or
saging, radio programs, and virtual communities in order politics, introducing an ICT for women without proper prepara-
to maintain membership, or rewarding contributions, may tion, like training and community meetings, may have minimal
incentivize participants to comment, respond to queries, positive effect. Saxena (2005) puts it well, stating that “while
and add value to the community or cooperative. To further e-government is an automated government, the reverse does
activate wide participation, practitioners must obtain com- not inevitably hold true. Introduction of automation into the
munity acceptance and buy-in, secure links to sustainable public sector will not automatically create better or more open
revenue flows, and maintain government support (Madon governance unless it is based on open and democratizing prin-
2004). Stimulating valuable social interaction and interest ciples.” In other words, simply computerizing government or
with relevant groups and leaders will increase the prospects services is not the same as improving e-governance (Fuchs and
of successful ICT integration. Horak 2008).
Topic Note 12.1: PUBLIC AGENCIES AND THE
PROVISION OF E-GOVERNMENT
TRENDS AND ISSUES to export markets. While improving service provision and
Public agencies need to provide a wide array of public ser- rural livelihoods, these technologies also form more efficient
vices to rural producers and citizens. However, providing relationships between the government and citizens, produc-
agricultural services like irrigation and drainage systems, ers, private enterprise, civil society, employees, and other
market assistance, extension and advisory services, or other public agencies.
services like health and education is extremely complicated
One way to clarify the opportunities and steps in an e-
due to poor roads, few human resources, and corruption in
government project is through the stages of e-government.
rural areas. The public sector must also create a friendly busi-
The simple framework outlined below shows how the public
ness environment for small and medium-sized businesses,
sector can improve its digitized services over time. The stages
foreign investors, and innovative producers seeking to capi-
in this e-government framework—publish, interact, and
talize on a business idea.
transact—are as follows (InfoDev 2002):
Through ICT, government agencies can provide services to In the publish stage, a government might start with
producers and private enterprise while enhancing the quality a website or two offering static information regard-
of governance. E-government, or a government’s use of ICT ing public services. Hours of operation, addresses of
to enhance public services, initially began as an intragovern- public agencies, and basic regulations or laws might
mental communications tool (Moon 2002). Administrative be posted online.
ICT applications—like knowledge management systems, In the interact stage, interests groups and citizens
financial decision support systems, and intranets—were and can interact online with government officials, receive
are still used to improve the internal workings of public agen- market information via SMS, and assist in irrigation
cies. As technologies developed, the boundaries of ICT in projects through ICT.
government expanded. Governments found that they could In the transact stage, producers can make financial
decrease bureaucracy, cut transaction costs, and spread transactions through point-of-sale terminals, busi-
information to other stakeholders like citizens and businesses nesses can obtain licenses online, and citizens can
by digitizing public services. These advantages are quite pro- buy or sell land through digital land administration.
nounced in the rural sector. For example, sending real-time
price information through SMS increases producers’ bargain- Table 12.2 provides examples of e-government ICT with ref-
ing power with traders, and tracking cattle through sensor erence to the publish, interact, and transact stages. Country
technologies traces the health of the animals, opening doors examples are also included.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 317
TABLE 12.2. E-Government Stages
STAGE TYPE OF ICT COUNTRY EXAMPLE
Publish Website with ministry information Nigeria
http://www.nigeria.gov.ng/
Market information systems India
http://agmarknet.nic.in/
Databases and resources Brazil, EMBRAPA
http://www.embrapa.br/english
Interact Irrigation management Afghanistan
(See Module 5, page 107)
Email communication with government Singapore
http://ele.ecitizen.gov.sg/news.htm
Transact Rural finance system M-PESA, Kenya
(See Module 7)
Digital land administration Indonesia
(See Module 13)
Source: Authors.
The e-government sector has continued to grow with the sector’s sources of information, efficiency, and scaling
expansion of ICT and infrastructure. A number of key trends opportunities.
should be noted: A change in legacy. Governments and development
A major trend toward a central interministerial institutions are recognizing that electronic public
committee. These committees, often housed by services are not improved through ICT if they sup-
the head of state or in the cabinet, lead and cre- port rather than redesign dysfunctional policies and
ate national e-government policies and strategies. procedures. E-government is being viewed as a more
E-government committees at the national level help complex overhaul in public service provision and gov-
generate significant visibility, funding opportuni- ernment function rather than as a series of individual
ties, and push both public and governmental digital departmental projects (Hafkin 2009).
transformation. Designating an ICT national leader
also helps ease state and local governments into the Finally, it is important to note that ICT projects specifically
national strategy and is now occurring more broadly purported to resolve agriculture development also address
in developing countries. However, these committees governance challenges. Rather than repeat the examples
have a tendency to stagnate, existing more for show covered in other areas of the Sourcebook, table 12.3 cross-
rather than progressive ICT action. references ICT interventions from the public, private, and
development sectors that are described in other modules.
A shift from a computerized, technological
Their components are highlighted to demonstrate the
approach to a more service-driven approach.
positive effects that ICT-enabled agriculture has on rural
Governments are now looking into how technolo-
governance even, when the intended objectives are strictly
gies can integrate with public services and institution
agricultural.
building, rather than the opposite. The service-driven
approach is much more effective than the technologi-
cal approach, because it taps into public demand,
which is often latent owing to limited access to new LESSONS LEARNED
technologies and education about them. Public service providers and development institutions
An increase in private-public partnerships. Private assisting in the development of government-sponsored ICT
firms are increasingly involved in e-government proj- projects should be aware of the challenges associated with
ects due to the technical features involved as well as them. Though impact studies are limited, there is some evi-
the profitability of some services. This participation dence of the difficulties that may present themselves dur-
is critical to financing infrastructure that the govern- ing or after implementation. These effects can weaken the
ment cannot afford, as well as to refining the public relationship between the rural sector and the government,
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
318 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
TABLE 12.3. ICT-Enabled Agriculture Interventions and Their Impact on Rural Governance
CORRUPTION AND
BUREAUCRATIC HUMAN RESOURCE TARGETING PROCUREMENT
INTERVENTION CHALLENGES CHALLENGES CHALLENGES CHALLENGES
Risk ILRI created index-based For private firms and govern- Human discretion, which A lack of data reduces When government agents
Management livestock insurance to ment alike, it is too costly is often used for assess- the chances of targeting collect premiums or pay
Module 10 provide insurance to 3 mil- to assess the damages and ing damages, is highly the right farmers during indemnities without a
lion pastoralist households collect premiums in remote fallible. Satellite images a disaster. To ensure the digital system, opportuni-
in northern Kenya. Satellite areas. Administrative and improve the capacity to insurance was priced ties for bribery or theft
images that captured the logistical costs are mini- analyze and accurately fairly and would reach the increase significantly. Using
amount of vegetation on mized by satellite imagery assess damages. It most vulnerable, analysts point-of-sale systems not
the ground were used to and point-of-sale systems also creates opportuni- created an index that only reduces the logistical
assess damages. Premiums as government workers ties for long-term data predicted livestock mortal- costs of providing insurance
and payments are collected no longer have to travel to collection, which could ity based on the amount of but also monitors financial
by a rural agent through remote locations. improve environ- vegetation on the ground. transactions, prevent-
point-of-sale systems. mental or production This was used in tandem ing both government and
projections. with the satellite images to producer losses.
ensure fairness.
Market Esoko is a market informa- Providing market informa- Incentivizing the private Users have the option of Through mobile applications,
Information tion service in Africa set up tion through bulletins and sector to advertise customizing the technology farmers can observe price
Module 9 through mobile phones that other conventional means through mobile tele- to meet their needs. By fluctuations and financial
(1) delivers a wide range takes considerable financial phones and Internet tracking harvest activities transactions. Even without
of market information and resources and time and is significantly increased or selecting market infor- a subscription, farmers can
(2) serves as a platform for often unreliable. Esoko.com the sharing of informa- mation for certain products, request market data for the
buying and selling agricul- allows any farmer with an tion on prices, market farmers are finding cost of one SMS message.
tural commodities. Internet connection to reg- preferences, supply, and relevant information faster Removing intermediar-
ister for a free account and demand. The burden of than a traditional extension ies’ opportunities to take
access 800,000 prices from sending trained govern- service could provide. advantage of uninformed
a diverse set of markets. ment staff to collect this Governments can use data farmers drastically reduces
Users can also connect with information is lightened; on farmers’ digital interests the need for government
buyers and advertise their more resources and staff to target individuals or intervention.
products. time can be allocated to areas for specific types of
other needs. training or input programs.
Land The Indonesian National Land titling, an often Using computers Digitizing the land system Digital systems raise red
Administration Land Agency has created centralized service in and laptops reduces allows more people to flags when companies or
Module 13 an SMS-based property developing countries, is not paperwork burdens access land and make persons obtain land without
inquiry service and a accessible for citizens living for staff. Entering data transfers, even in remote going through proper legal
remote land titling program in the periphery. Insecure directly into an electronic locations. Agencies can channels. It is also easier
called the People’s Land land rights are problematic system connected to ascertain which properties to prevent discrimination
Title Service (LARASITA). in rural locations, resulting the central database are not included in the land against certain groups as
The service, which uses a in lower yields and poor also reduces the time it system and go about reach- rural awareness of rights
vehicle and a laptop with farming practices. Mobile takes to complete these ing them. Using the mobile increases. Web portals and
wireless connectivity, has land titling allows citizens service-related tasks. system also improves tar- digital land systems provide
brought land services to do not have to spend unnec- Data entries should also geting, particularly because tighter accountability
five rural provinces that essary time and financial reflect the rural situation rural inhabitants are most mechanisms that prevent
would otherwise not have resources to travel to the accurately. prone to exclusion in land corruption, which also
access to them. main city to register their titling systems. enhances citizen trust.
property.
Irrigation The Program for the Digitized irrigation manage- DOQs can be used over Using ICT in irrigation Local users, who are active
Management Management of Irrigation ment systems reduce the time to anticipate water systems improves public in monitoring the irrigation
Module 5 Systems by Water Users, in time spent in the field challenges like increas- agencies’ ability to target. networks, can hold contrac-
collaborations with others, for M&E. DOQs capture ing salinity. Creating Satellite images such as tors accountable and reduce
used digital orthophoto information to help public a database with these DOQs can distinguish land waste in financial resources.
quads (DOQs) to help the agencies plan and imple- images allows users to plots, water sources, and In addition, water fees are
government and local com- ment better-functioning be more active in the which producers have the easier to assign if there is
munities manage address irrigation systems. Where irrigation network. Active most or least access to a more accurate picture of
problems of maintenance, GPS cameras and mobile participation usually water from the system. the water situation in rural
drainage, canal structuring, phones are used, water increases public demand With this information, areas. DOQs can prevent
system monitoring, and users can send pictures for good services, and public agencies can adjust public agency discrimination
payment in the Dominican of maintenance issues or it may lead to better water subsidies and infra- in prices and water access.
Republic. system breakdowns, also staff performance and structure to better target
reducing staff travel. oversight. those farmers with the
fewest water resources.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 319
worsen situations for farmers, and reverse positive trends in areas are much less likely to have access to mobile phones
the development of sound governance. or computers than men. In general, this disparity occurs
because women do not have the income (often controlled
Because ICT applications are “disruptive technologies” that by men in the household) to purchase mobile phones or gain
restructure bureaucracies, redistribute power, and alter the the education to use them effectively. Contributing to the
confidentiality of information (Hanna 2009), practitioners challenge are social norms in rural communities. One study
should be wary of political apprehension. ICT is not a pana- found that men put restrictions on how women use mobile
cea for development challenges, especially those relating to phones, further decreasing women’s freedom to use phones
good governance. In fact, studies assert that the introduc- economically. Women’s incomplete understanding of how
tion of digital services into certain bureaucracies is prone phones and even radio broadcasts could be used for agricul-
to overlooking manifestations of “neopatrimonial” behavior tural and innovative purposes is a chief barrier to integrating
(patronage taking place behind the facade of a modern state) women as users of ICTs. Most women see phones as secu-
that could render ICT ineffective in improving governance rity measures, not ways to access public services or improve
(Berman and Tettey 2001). livelihoods (E-Agriculture 2010). Evidence suggests that the
gender disparity in ICT access decreases when women and
Strained resources and an unstable state or emerging democ-
men have similar educational backgrounds and incomes.
racy can make the productivity of ICT even more difficult to
Projects focused on increasing women’s primary education
achieve. For example, because the results are not immedi-
and basic computer skills should thus increase their effective
ate, politicians do not always support e-government projects:
use of ICT (Gillwald, Milek, and Stork 2010).
Incentives to develop and begin implementing ICT are some-
times limited in terms of reelection or political clout. Using
Beyond these challenges are others related to infrastructure
ICT in societies with thin models of citizen participation
and cost. As noted, initial costs for mobile and broadband
may produce minimal change (Dahlberg 2001). As a result,
Internet networks are so high that the public sector cannot
e-government projects should be dependent on the institu-
extend them to rural areas. Incentivizing the private sector
tional, political, and administrative capacity of the country.
to finance infrastructure can reduce this burden. In addi-
The use of ICT can also increase class divisions (Selwyn tion, public agencies might want to further consider how to
2004). The “digital divide” is a global, national, and local link mobile phone applications into online service systems,
phenomenon, even in developed countries (Jung, Qui, and as many development institutions and private firms have
Kim 2001; Loges and Jung 2001; Bonfadelli 2002). This done. Increasing the number of applications that can be used
divide is most clearly visible between the wealthy and poor. through mobiles may improve rural access, as most rural pro-
For example, traders or wealthy farmers, who typically have ducers do not have access to the Internet. (See Module 2 on
higher incomes compared to producers, also have more affordability and accessibility for more information on these
access to mobile phones, which can put poorer producers connectivity issues.)
at an even greater disadvantage. Recent studies show that
where citizens with higher levels of education and income
use employment-related ICT like databases and bookkeep- INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
ing, those with lower education and less income use ICT Building Public Service Provision through
for games and entertainment (van Dijk 2006). As a result of Internet Applications
these social challenges and others, institutions evaluating Government portals are one of the most prominent forms
ICT for governance should examine “effective access,” or of e-public services that agencies provide. Most government
the users’ “actual engagement with, or use of, the technol- agencies begin their ICT development with these websites
ogy” (Selwyn 2004). and, over time, develop their capacity to provide more ser-
vices electronically or simultaneously through SMS. Some
Gender disparities in levels of ICT adoption are an additional initiatives are designed and implemented in all ministries at
social and economic concern (see Module 4 for more details once; others are designed and implemented one by one.
on gender issues). Evidence shows that women in rural At first, government websites may provide only bits of
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
320 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
information, but after years of sustained investment (includ- The National e-Governance Service Delivery Gateway (http://
ing adequate investment in rural infrastructure), these portals www.nsdg.gov.in/administration/index.jsp), which serves as
can offer hundreds of transaction services. a data exchange board between all government agencies,
will help the Indian government track, monitor, store, and
Website development is a continuous process in all quickly reply to citizen inquiries. Whereas many government
countries, developing and developed. Those involved in portals develop with singular infrastructure, India chose an
e-government initiatives in countries with few resources and infrastructure system that would allow for standards-based
low capacity can look to other public agency websites for interoperability between agencies (see figure 12.2). A cen-
ideas on how to improve or enhance their own efforts to tral system that acts like a behind-the-scenes routing ser-
reach citizens through ICT. Both http://www.regulations.gov/ vice eases the transition from paper to electronic services,
in the United States and http://ec.europa.eu/ in the European reduces the amount of overlap in agency efforts, minimizes
Union are good references for governments trying to dis- costs, and improves information sharing between depart-
seminate information on policy and law in their countries. ments. Of particular importance, integrated infrastructure
benefits the citizen: services should look similar and follow
the same types of procedures in all government agencies.
India’s E-Governance Initiative
India, revered as one of the most progressive countries As NeGP moves forward, citizens will be able to access
in e-government, began the National e-Governance Plan public services from each relevant ministry through depart-
(NeGP) in 2006. In the past five years, the project has seen mental websites with the gateway portal. Grievance redress,
substantial national growth in providing electronic informa- online permits and applications, and other relevant services
tion and services online. The NeGP includes both telecom- are currently being implemented, along with programs that
munication and internal government systems infrastructure allow people to track the status of their submission and
development, simultaneously building electronic public ser- protect their privacy. The project has also made substantial
vice delivery and strengthening rural access to the Internet. efforts to reach out to the large rural populations. E-District
NeGP is composed of almost 50 projects, spread out over is a service that allows rural citizens without computers or
all ministries and line departments at the federal, state, and Internet to access services through community centers. In
local levels. Each state also has the ability to select five addition, the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation and
e-government projects, which are dependent on and tailored the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (http://agricoop
to the state’s economic and social development needs. .nic.in/ and http://agmarknet.nic.in/) have developed impres-
These services are being generated through public (51 per- sive agricultural public services, including a market infor-
cent) and private funds (49 percent) funds (see http://www mation system, pages with technical advice, and even a
.nisg.org/index.php). public grievance program dealing with agricultural issues.
FIGURE 12.2. Singular Infrastructure versus Centralized Infrastructure in India
NSDG
Source: http://www.nsdg.gov.in/administration/.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 321
Finally, mobile government through SMS is an additional systems—both the Internet availability and computer train-
e-government initiative. ing programs—benefit over 3 million people. Women and
young adults with low incomes have preferential access to
the services. In fact, over 50 percent of the users are female
Success in Singapore
(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Singapore’s e-government portal provides another useful 2009).
example of e-government development. Now in the trans-
act stage, the country’s e-government program is among
the best in the world. Government workers were trained
in ICT as early as 1981, starting with a civil service portal
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Agricultural and Rural Information through
through IBM. By 2006, data were shared across 13 minis-
Ministerial Websites
tries that were connected through an integrated central ser-
vice system. Internet technology and penetration increased
Making It Work in Malaysia
rapidly in Singapore. Even 10 years ago, 90 percent of the
population already had Internet access. The expansion of Government websites can be specifically related to agricul-
government-sponsored “Citizen Connect” centers—placed ture as well. The Malaysian Ministry of Agriculture’s Third
in multiple strategic rural locations around the country—are National Agricultural Policy for 1998–2010 was formed to
partly responsible for this broad access. Singapore, through improve agricultural productivity and competitiveness fol-
its efforts to connect all citizens to the Internet, even despite lowing price increases in imported commodities. The use of
resource and infrastructure constraints, has experienced ICT was a major aspect of the 12-year plan (Mathison 2002),
impressive ICT gains. For example, it only takes 20 minutes which has made substantial progress over the last decade.
to register a business online, and the government offers In one of its major projects, the Ministry of Agriculture,
almost all of its 2,600 public services online, making govern- along with farmers’ organizations, developed a portal that
ment interaction easier and possible in remote locations. allowed agriculturalists to share information. The website
(now at http://www.doa.gov.my/web/guest/home) provides
The 2,600 services range widely in scope and subject. Rather a wide array of services, including technical information on
than printing documents to turn in to public agencies, people Malaysian agriculture, registered agriculture service provid-
can complete most services fully through the Web. For exam- ers (like fumigators), pricing information for producers, open
ple, they can apply for maternity leave, pay taxes, register forums through Agribazaar, permits, and archives. It also
for university, make appointments with doctors, and search provides a bulletin service for advertisements and events.
for information regarding housing (Hachigian and Wu 2003; All of the information can also be accessed by listening to a
Riley 2003). Citizens can also apply for passports, change voice recorder easily visible on the website. Farmers can also
addresses, and even register small court claims online (see contact officials to locate experts for technical assistance.
http://www.smallclaims.gov.sg). Through SMS or through the website, farmers can also con-
tact extension agents and report paddy pest outbreaks to the
ministry.
BiblioRedes in Chile
Because of literacy and limited computer education, pro- The development of the now quite advanced Web (and
grams that help educate farmers and other citizens are SMS) portal was done carefully. The ministry did a baseline
crucial once network connections are available. Chile’s survey in certain rural areas before implementation. This
Digital Equity Fund subsidizes broadband infrastructure survey included questions on farmers’ economic status,
in remote areas and funds a project called BiblioRedes. A electronic education, literacy, and agricultural challenges.
product of the Digital Literacy Campaign, the BiblioRedes Upon collecting the data, the leaders of the project found
project connected 101 of 121 public libraries in munici- that 30 percent of respondents felt that they did not receive
pal districts with low connectivity rates to the Internet. adequate agricultural information (through media, television,
With this connection, even in isolated regions, a 14-hour radio, and other types of ICT). They also found that only
“Digital Literacy” training program is available for new 15 percent of respondents owned a computer and 20 per-
users to learn basic computer skills. A complementary cent were computer literate. Not only did this survey help
course allows users to learn about other IT applications. shape the website and its services, but it also confirmed
Chilean libraries are used often, and as a result, these that farmers would need additional support. The ministry
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
322 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
continues to survey farmers, which helps to update Web IMAGE 12.1. Online Access to Public Data, Such as the
designers, experts, and the ministry on agricultural issues Ghana Living Standards Surveys, Can
in rural areas. Stimulate Research and Development
Aggregating Research Information in Ghana
Making research results available to the public is also essen-
tial to fostering innovative solutions to poverty and eco-
nomic growth. Much internal research done in developing
countries sits in an office, restricting dissemination. Some
countries are now actively posting data and country analy-
sis on their websites and open access software (See Topic
Note 6.1 in Module 6 for more discussion on the dissemina-
tion of research results.) For example, the Ghana Statistical
Service, which is closely linked with the Ministry of Finance
and Economic Planning, created a website for in-country
research and data. The website offers aggregate informa-
tion on macroeconomic variables, national surveys, and Source: Ghana Statistical Service (http://www.statsghana.gov.gh
/Publications.html).
downloadable publications like the Ghana Living Standards
Surveys (http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/Publications.html)
(image 12.1). Many of these survey results focus specifi-
cally on rural demographics, such as households engaged identification. Identity theft or fraud is a common problem
in agriculture, household income, assets, credit, expendi- in all countries and poses many challenges to providing pub-
ture, seasonal patterns, and home processing of agricultural lic services. For example, a sick person might try to access
products. The data serve as a resource for development health care under a relative’s plans by using the relative’s
partners and universities trying to address rural challenges. identification, or a farmer who takes a loan one year might
They also inform local governments and actors, as well as try to pass as another person to receive another loan the
donors looking for new areas for investment. following year. Today, credit markets, voting, and targeting
public service delivery are prominent identity challenges in
It should be noted that Web portals specifically purposed to agriculture development.
help rural farmers are often largely ineffective due to lack of
access and regularly updated information. This is even more
pronounced for government websites attempting to provide Bangladesh Takes on Biometrics
market and price information (more information on these Biometric ID cards, which are like laminated identification
government challenges can be found in Module 9). Rather cards but with a microchip or barcode, are being used in
than abandon Internet portals that do provide worthwhile developing countries like Brazil, the Republic of Korea, India,
and open-access information to some farmers, governments Senegal, and Bangladesh for public services like voting and
should pursue SMS dissemination through Web-to-phone employment programs (image 12.2). In Bangladesh, the
software, while continuing to build regularly updated and reli- Bangladesh Election Commission, the Bangladesh Army, and
able content. international organizations took part in designing, funding, and
implementing a biometric identification system for 80 mil-
lion Bangladeshi voters in just three years. During this time,
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY huge training activities took place to build capacity in election
Using Biometrics to Provide Rural Services workers, and more than 15,000 computers were delivered to
Websites offering research, services, and information are voting registration centers. The Bangladesh project had 14
not the only type of ICT that government can use to improve stages, including but not limited to form distribution and data
the provision of public services in rural areas. Biometric cards collection, data verification, data export to server, proofread-
are up-and-coming examples of government-sponsored ICT ing/editing, preparation of proof voter list and verification,
tools in developing countries. Fingerprints, iris scans, and card preparation and handing over for distribution, card dis-
electronic passports are all useful applications for accurate tribution, correcting mistakes in cards, and data safeguarding
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 323
and distribution (Islam and IMAGE 12.2. Biometric Identification Can Replace Traditional Forms of Identification
Grönlund 2010). The proj-
ect used an Automated
Fingerprint Identification
System, as well as a multi-
biometrics Face-Fingerprint
Recognition System that has
proven to be very effective in
capturing human traits (Jain
and Ross 2006). The combined
software package produced
a two-dimensional barcode
with fingerprint templates,
along with a card including the
person’s name, gender, birth
date, photo, and signature.
While the project had no
shortages of trials, overall,
the biometric card initiative in
Bangladesh was considered Source: Simone D. McCourtie, World Bank.
a success. Strategic planning
and innovative methodolo- The use of these cards is expected to extend (and has
gies helped the project deal with challenges like geography. already, in some pilot areas) and improve agricultural and rural
Enumerators reached even the most rural areas using vari- employment programs. An example of this is the National
ous types of transportation, including walking, human haul- Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA), established in
ers, speedboats, and helicopters (Islam and Grönlund 2010). 2006, which guarantees 100 days of annual employment at
The UN stated that the biometric project produced the most minimum wage rates to all rural adults who are willing to
credible election in the history of Bangladesh (UNDP 2008), perform unskilled manual work. The act involves all levels
maintaining a 98 percent accuracy rate (UNDP 2009). The of government, including the local (panchayat) institutions
success of these biometric identification cards has also that are primarily responsible for registering households,
generated discussion about future uses. Although use of the issuing and distributing job cards, allocating employment,
cards is now limited to conventional means (e.g., matching a and monitoring the job sites. Applicants to the program must
person’s card to his or her features through physical exami- be issued a job card: Once it is issued, recipients can seek
nations), the World Bank is exploring new and cost-effective employment from a local NREGA program officer (Raabe
ways to use the cards for broader purposes, like agriculture et al. 2010) (http://nrega.nic.in).
or rural public services, through electronic means.
Despite the benefits resulting from the program (including
the fact that more than half of the program’s beneficiaries
Biometric Innovation in India belong to Scheduled Castes and Tribes, and more than half
Over the next few years, over 1.2 billion people will be issued are women), it has also had its fair share of challenges.
personal biometric cards that include simple data like birth Corruption by job card issuers, electoral politics that limit
dates and sex; and in the future, more complex data like crimi- citizens’ ability to get access, misappropriations in pay-
nal records, credit histories in India (image 12.2) (see http://uidai ment, and substantial delays in issuing cards are only some
.gov.in/ for more information). Called “Aadhaar,” the unique of the problems experienced. In the last four years, more
12-digit identification numbers, which cost around US$3 than 1,200 complaints regarding program irregularities have
each, will allow all citizens to gain access to public services come to the Ministry of Rural Development (“Biometric
like banking and education anywhere in the country through Cards to NREGA Workers on Anvil,” 2010). However, bio-
the biometric data and online verification systems. Already, metric cards and devices provide opportunities to address
30 million people have been given a number (Polgreen 2011). these challenges. Biometric cards, instead of job cards, are
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
324 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
being piloted in Andhra Pradesh and Bihar to better identify Many one-stop shops facilitate business start-ups. Business
and ensure payments and accessibility. Wage dispersion will start-up involves numerous formalities—registration for
also improve through the use of biometric ATMs (Patowary taxes, pensions, and insurances, screening procedures,
2009). These ATMs require fingerprint authentication so opening bank accounts, and obtaining environmental cer-
rural employees can receive wages by way of a thumbprint tificates (de Sa 2005). Even in developed countries, these
scanner instead of a personal identification number. This formalities take time.
procedure will help to reduce delays, improve transparency,
and reduce irregularities. One-stop shops are most effective online, but some
countries can provide only start-up information and docu-
Some issues in using biometric data should be noted. Aging ments online; entrepreneurs must travel to a city to com-
or accidents that cause burning or deformities reduce the plete their business registration. In 2005, Kosovo provided
biometric software’s ability to accurately capture all citizen e-government services in this manner. Forms could be down-
groups (Giné, Goldberg, and Yang 2010). Costs can also be loaded from an e-government website that also specified the
underestimated. The London School of Economics found sequence of procedures and costs, but the transactions had
that in India, the government grossly underestimated the to be completed at a central location in the capital. Now the
10-year rollout costs (Giné, Goldberg, and Yang 2010). Also, Kosovo government is establishing completion locations in
some societies do not support the use of biometrics. A sur- each of the municipalities. Reform efforts like these, along
vey in the United Kingdom concerning biometrics found that with others aiming to expand business capacity, led to a
55 percent of respondents felt that biometrics infringed on 47 percent increase in registered businesses from 2005 to
civil liberties (Giné 2010). Another problem is rollout costs. 2009 (World Bank 2009).
For just this fiscal year alone, Aadhaar will cost around
US$326 million (Polgreen 2011). Vietnam has worked for many years to develop quality
e-commerce systems. In 2000, the Ministry of Planning
and Investment began building a useful website for busi-
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY nesses, particularly foreign investors. The first experiments
E-Government to Business with e-commerce technology occurred in Ho Chi Minh City
E-government to business is also important to ICT develop- and Hanoi (Desai and de Magalhaes 2001). Working to sim-
ment and economic growth. Public agencies can use ICT to plify administrative procedures, the government created an
bring foreign investment, expand small businesses, and link online, one-stop shop for private enterprise (Vasavakul 2002).
farmers to buyers. Financial transactions like paying taxes can This website (in English and Vietnamese) now includes
be carried out online. Electronic markets can facilitate sales license and permit applications as well as standardized
and purchases. Businesses can also obtain regulatory informa- forms for the various departments with which firms must
tion and permits or licenses through government-sponsored interact during or after registration (Wescott 2003) (For one-
ICT. Often, businesses already conduct online transactions stop shop information, see http://www.dpi.hochiminhcity
(e-commerce) with other firms. If the government also pro- .gov.vn/invest/index.html and http://www.business.gov.vn
vides online services to businesses, many of the same ben- /mastertop.aspx?LangType=1033.)
efits are gained. E-government services for firms diminish red
While this one-stop shop certainly expanded capacity for for-
tape and improve regulatory clarity. As a result, businesses are
eign investors, small businesses in rural locations struggled to
more competitive and efficient—qualities that are particularly
access similar e-government services. A survey conducted in
important to the agricultural sector.
2006 (five years after the one-stop shop was implemented)
showed that most users living outside of the main cities had
Providing Regulatory Information to Small and poor telecommunications services; one interviewee stated
Medium-Sized Enterprises that the “connection in the rural Internet shop is very slow.
Between 2003 and 2008, 24 governments created websites Many times I wanted to send a message but had to drop since
dedicated to serving private enterprises, which use these “one- waiting so long” (Nguyen and Nguyen 2006). This rural/urban
stop shops” to register, pay taxes, obtain licenses, and com- and domestic/foreign disparity increases the digital divide and
plete other business processes (today, there are even more). reduces the participation of rural smallholders. Though foreign
The service is often very efficient, cutting delays in bureaucratic firms have access to one-stop shops, rural owners of small
procedures like registration by 50 percent (Djankov 2008). and medium-sized enterprises must resort to slow, costly,
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 325
IMAGE 12.3. One-Stop Shops Using ICT Can Increase Efficiencies in SME Start-Ups but not limited to corporate
income tax, value-added tax
(VAT), national pension scheme,
and company registrations. The
automated payment software
facilitates a computerized rela-
tionship between the banks,
business, and government.1
Mauritius uses a Value-Added
Network, which is a secured
private network between
banks and the government,
operated by a trusted domestic
service provider. When a firm
registers for the service, the
bank will remove cash from
the businesses and send it to
the government. The govern-
ment will then send an email
receipt to the business. Identity
Source: Tran Thi Hoa, World Bank.
management software is also
used, offering syntax checks,
bureaucratic procedures. Development partners like the user validation, and integrity checks, all of which are important
World Bank have been working to expand the one-stop shop to building user confidence.
service to Vietnam’s small and medium-sized enterprises
by providing specific electronic and physical contact sites This transaction scheme has a number of outstanding ben-
(image 12.3). (See http://www.business.gov.vn/index.aspx efits. Taxes and business fees are crucial to economic devel-
for government efforts to help small and medium-sized enter- opment; in fact, in Mauritius “income taxes and VAT consti-
prises and IPS “Vietnam’s One-Stop Shop for e-Government tute around 34 percent of government recurrent revenue”
Services,” in Module 13 for application to land administration.) (Lollbeharree and Unuth 2001). The benefits of this faster
electronic process include:
Easing pressure on government during busy times like
Securing Efficient Payment Systems and Tax Services
tax periods.
Automated payment software systems are very useful
Reducing employee numbers on government payrolls
e-government technologies. In 2000, the Contribution Network
and preventing staff from making multiple data entries
Project (http://mns.mu/index.php) was implemented as a
for records (even in developing countries, paper tax
public-private partnership between the Mauritian Government,
forms typically enter a computer system at some point).
Bank of Mauritius, and the World Bank. As an e-government
to business service, the Contribution Network Project pro- Speeding up cash flow.
vides one channel for all payments that Mauritian firms need Generating revenue for sustainability.
to make to a variety of departments (Heeks 2002). A decade
later, the Mauritius Revenue Authority (http://www.gov.mu Initial investment costs can be quite high for automated pay-
/portal/sites/mra/index.htm), a product of the Contribution ment systems like these, but the returns on the investment can
Network Project, in collaboration with the Companies Division surpass them. Setting up the main facility for the Contribution
(http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/compdivsite/menuitem Network Project required a capital investment of around
.e24cd2cc6b820a052eada 810f6b521ca/), collects revenue US$250,000. Employers then bear the costs for hardware,
from both business and citizens electronically. connection to the network, and training (this totals around
Businesses small and large can set up an account to automati- 1 For more on automated payment systems, see Sumanjeet (2009)
cally pay a variety of government-required expenses, including and Frederick (2009).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
326 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
US$1,410). There are communications fees based on the monitors traffic volumes, which help to predict potential
volume of data transmitted—currently, employers are charged maintenance needs.
about US$0.18 per kilobyte (Lollbeharree and Unuth 2001).
Indian businesses face serious obstacles to smooth transporta-
tion. The logistics of getting people and goods from Point A to
Increasing Efficiency in Transportation and Logistics Point B constitute almost 10 percent of the country’s GNP, out
Businesses, particularly agribusinesses, face major chal- of which almost 40 percent is transportation (Sriraman 2009).
lenges in transportation infrastructure. Poor road conditions Moreover, the use of vehicles to transport goods has grown in
like potholes and soft shoulders cause terrible accidents and past decades. Road quality and accessibility are important fac-
traffic. The resulting high transaction costs reduce firms’ tors in transportation development, but another challenge is
and growers’ international competitiveness (Sriraman 2009). the speed of transport. Truck drivers carrying goods, especially
Import costs rise and trade declines when road infrastructure over state lines, are stopped and checked, fined, taxed, and
is poor; studies have shown that a 10 percent increase in questioned. These activities slow traffic and increase transac-
transportation costs lead to a 20 percent decrease in trade tion costs for both the government and the agribusiness.
volumes (Limao and Venables 2000). Transportation costs can
reduce the market value of rural producers’ goods to such an India is one of the first developing countries to implement elec-
extent that it is not cost-effective for businesses to purchase tronic tolling systems. The National Highways Development
them for export. Similarly, transportation costs for imported Project, chiefly funded by toll fees, began a long-term invest-
commodities can double shipping charges and make them ment in improving road conditions on the country’s National
unaffordable for rural citizens. In both cases, private enter- Highway Network. The primary initiative of the project was
prises are deterred from reaching out to rural locations. to expand automated tollbooths. The government chose
radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology, which uses
Developing countries have adopted toll roads to overcome electromagnetic waves to exchange data between a terminal
some of these challenges. Toll roads provide funding to and an object, like a vehicle, and costs less than other options
maintain and expand roads, but collecting tolls and fines is (table 12.4). (For more information on RFID, see Shepard
quite difficult. Toll operators can pocket fees and bribe driv- 2005 and Banks et al. 2007.) A number of activities can be
ers for still more cash. Drivers can refuse to pay, and with- tracked with RFID, such as activities involved in supply chain
out strong vehicle identification schemes, governments management, passport or other identification control, and
cannot ensure that they are properly fined. Electronic toll animal identification. For India’s toll roads, RFID is coupled
collection is a more efficient way of collecting road fees. It with a national, unified, central management system; a legal
reduces the scope for bribery and loss of revenue by track- framework to handle violators; vehicle classifications; and a
ing cash and vehicle flow, decreases waiting times, and prepaid system for interested users (Nilekani 2010). Users
TABLE 12.4. Comparing Costs for Electronic Toll Collection, India
ETC TECHNOLOGY COST SUPPLIERS IN USE COMMENTS
Active Microwave 5.8 About Rs 2,000 per OBU Limited Yes (Japan) Due to higher bandwidth and data speed, sup-
GHz About Rs 5 Lac per Reader ports many ITS applications
DSRC
Passive Microwave 5.8 Rs 1,000 for OBU Multiple Yes (Europe) Very Simple OBU
GHz Rs 2L for Reader
Infrared ISO-CALM Rs 1,000 for OBU Limited Yes (Austria and Can be easily extended to a contactless card
Rs 2L for Reader Malaysia) and useful for other ITS applications
Passive RFID About Rs 100 per Tag Multiple Yes (South America, Allows tamper resistant “stickers”
About Rs 2 Lac per Reader Georgia, U.S.) Small, light, very cheap, almost unlimited life
RFID
Active RFID About Rs 1,000 per On Board Unit (OBU) Limited Yes (Florida) On-board transmitter, higher range, expensive
Finite life, as the battery has to be replaced
GNSS/CN About Rs 2 Lac per Reader Limited Yes (in Germany) Too sophisticated and due to absence of toll plazas,
About Rs 2000 per OBU enforcement on violations is very difficult in India.
Source: Nilekani 2010.
Note: ETC = electronic toll collection; OBU = on-board unit; DSRC = dedicated short-range communication; GNSS/CN = global navigation satellite system and
cellular network; Rs = rupees; 1 lac = 0.1 million; ITS = intelligent transportation systems.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 327
can also pay their bill through mobile phones and credit cards. transactions like procurement. In the long run, the systems
Technologies like RFID are not limited to the federal govern- should be able to interface with other financial software like
ment. In India, for example, Gujurat State has computerized payroll. Financial systems have extensive applications—they
its 10 internal checkpoints, a step that dramatically increased track incoming revenue, monitor debt, and enable resource
state tax revenue and reduced corruption (ADB 2003). management and audit operations (USAID 2008). An impor-
tant feature is that they can also help federal agencies inte-
Not only do technologies like RFID dramatically reduce trans- grate with local ones to monitor financial flows.
action costs for travel; they also create more opportunities to
extend e-government to businesses and citizens. Once RFID is A recent in-depth, qualitative study (Ezz, Papazafeiropoulou,
established, it can be applied for tracking stolen vehicles, paying and Serrano 2009) conducted on an IFMIS in Bezuck2 illus-
vehicle taxes, and paying driving or parking fines (Nilekani 2010). trates the challenges in implementing integrated financial
systems. The IFMIS included a variety of public agencies—
Even more important, these technologies benefit rural sec- the Central Bank, a number of ministries, and the Bezuck
tors. If businesses have smoother transportation facilities Information Support Center (ISC), a prominent think tank
and reduced road costs, they are more likely to travel further that guides cabinet leaders on economic, social, and politi-
to buy or sell agricultural products. Similarly, the revenues cal decisions. In the early 2000s, these agencies were man-
gained from toll collection can be applied to infrastructure for dated to interact and collaborate with the ISC to improve
rural feeder roads. financial decision making. The ISC introduced an IT sys-
tem to facilitate this process by tracking and documenting
the various agencies’ transactions. As financial processes
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY became digitized, the historical challenges to collaboration
E-Government to Government became more apparent. Roles of certain ministries were
This section discusses internal e-operations concerning not clear, and many employees did not understand the new
government-to-government interactions. These ICT initia- system’s capabilities. Some traditional decision-making pro-
tives are equally important to e-government–citizen and cesses were interactive, some were sequential, and others
e-government–business relationships, because public agen- depended on another person’s completed tasks. Because of
cies that use ICT to service other organizations or people this complexity, ministries struggled to use the new ICT to
usually are required to use it themselves to make the ICT make financial decisions. Another challenge was overlap in IT
effective. E-government to government involves “agency to support. Ministries have their own IT departments with their
agency” interactions mentioned briefly in the NeGP exam- own procedures to deal with technology troubleshooting
ple. E-government to government or employees is essen- (Ezz, Papazafeiropoulou, and Serrano 2009). Despite these
tially an advancement of human resource and administration difficulties, the agencies’ attempt at financial integration led
capabilities. For employees within a government agency, ICT to training for over 50,000 government employees (United
projects can include human or knowledge management sys- Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2009).
tems, purchasing requisitions, payroll processing, position
applications, and department transfers (Fang 2002). It is vital
Decentralizing E-Government to Local Levels
that internal e-government projects integrate service delivery
Established in 2005, the Ministry of Local Government in
channels and common interministerial infrastructure and do
Uganda, in collaboration with DFID and the International
not continue to reinforce fragmented ones (OECD 2003).
Institute for Communication and Development, began to
pilot e-government at district headquarters and subcounties.
Improving Internal Public Financial Systems Called DistrictNet, the digital system aimed to improve data
Integrated financial management information systems (IFMIS), and voice communications between district-level officials
or the computerization of public expenditure management, are and the sublocal government actors below them. The sys-
designed to support and track budget decisions and execu- tem was implemented in 76 districts in all regions, initially
tion, fiduciary responsibilities, and financial reports in various focusing on 11 subcounties. Before the ICT was introduced,
government bodies (USAID 2008). They help lock agencies subcounties collected data through hard-copy forms in the
into a single, common platform for data storage and sharing.
IFMIS involves standard data classification, internal controls 2 Bezuck is a name invented to preserve the country’s anonymity,
over data entry and reporting, and common processes for because of the challenges in implementing ICT.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
328 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
communities and sent the forms to district headquarters. volume of data exchanges, use of IT systems, and informa-
This process yielded little data, caused backlogs of three to tion requests by citizens (United Nations Department of
six months in paperwork, and caused data to be lost during Economic and Social Affairs 2009).
paper shuffles (United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs 2009). Data are still collected on paper at the community level, but
they are digitized by the subcounty and electronically for-
The objectives of digitizing some of these processes warded to district planners, who analyze them and provide
included increased coordination between district headquar- feedback to their local government counterparts. Impact
ters and subcounties, reduced travel between these loca- studies show that feedback is better and timelier, owing
tions, improved technical skills, and increased availability of to more accurate, digital data transmission. Because the
information. To meet these goals, voice and data links were Ministry of Local Government is no longer involved in the
established between district headquarters and subcounty district analysis, staff can focus their energy elsewhere.
governments. Because many subcounties lacked electricity, Significant challenges to implementing the system included
other energy sources were used to create the links. A valu- low levels of professional technical knowledge and low
able aspect of the project was that it measured the initial computer literacy within the local government (Jager and
results through a variety of indicators, such as the time it Reijswoud 2003).
took subcounty officials to respond to district queries, the
Topic Note 12.2: CIVIL SOCIETY AND THE
PROVISION OF E-SERVICES
TRENDS AND ISSUES more specific groups or needs and fill voids in public service,
Civil society organizes in groups that are not part of the local, whereas government must sometimes function as a public
state, or federal government. These groups include a wide service catchall. The environment, gender, agriculture, and
range of institutions, such as unions, trade associations, education are all important niches for civil society operations,
self-help groups, and NGOs. They can operate on a local, depending on the context.
grassroots scale with a small, restricted membership or
Civil society groups are a growing presence in rural areas; of
have a presence in multiple countries and communities.
these groups, the most active are domestic and international
Their serious involvement in economic, social, and political
NGOs. The innovative practice summaries focus on these
development makes them important participants in the rural
organizations because they have been so active in rural agricul-
governance discussion. Moreover, ICT tools are important to
ture. Over the last decade, other civil society organizations—
their efficiency and ability to contribute to growth.
producer groups and self-help groups, particularly in relation
Civil society groups can use ICT tools to improve the lives of to agriculture—have become increasingly involved. Their use
beneficiaries and internal management, especially given that of ICT, though related, is addressed in Module 8 on farmers’
these tools are widely recognized for their role in promoting organizations.
democracy, fostering compliance with human rights accords,
and improving livelihoods (Ganie-Rochman 2002; Hadiwinata
2003). They provide many digitized services similar to those LESSONS LEARNED
of public agencies. Civil society groups can facilitate the Civil society groups can improve rural governance dramati-
interactions between producers and extension agents or cally, especially through ICT. Civil society groups, which
traders. They can partner with government and contribute are often present in their beneficiaries’ communities, have
to electronic voting and toll collection systems, or they can more opportunities to influence cultural and social dynamics
independently broadcast radio programs on agricultural tech- than federal or even local government. This role is important,
nology or business. Yet civil society also has the opportunity because culture, upbringing, values, and norms influence the
to use ICT in more sensitive activities. These organizations extent to which a person or farmer may desire to use ICT. For
can publish information on political figures, political parties, example, younger people are usually more adept with new
or new legislation. They can more easily direct their efforts to computer technologies, the Internet, or SMS applications,
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 329
yet in rural societies where senior staff or family members ideas transform into tangible tools, they struggle to gain
have authority and the most access to information, younger attention and capital, limiting their viability as a business or
citizens with the ability to learn these new technologies service. mLabs seeks to improve this situation. In five differ-
often are not permitted to do so (Mercer 2004). At other ent regions (East Africa, Southern Africa, the Caucasus, East
times, older people are not confident enough to experiment Asia, and South Asia), infoDev is establishing centers with
with new technologies. Civil society groups, especially if the tools needed to experiment with and expand innovation,
they are local organizations, can facilitate the knowledge including agriculture innovation.
transfer from youth to senior community members. Again,
ICT to enhance governance or even agricultural productivity mLabs (image 12.4) will provide entrepreneurs with high-
is not just a matter of physical access and ownership, but quality equipment, stable Internet connections, and techni-
also a matter of obtaining social access (Flor 2001; OECD cal and business training. These services will allow users to
2003; Madon 2004). test ideas, scale up software capabilities, expand scope, and
hone the skills needed to capitalize on their tool or applica-
The most positive institutional reforms have grown out of tion. Through events, competitions, and business mentoring,
public demand. Limited understanding of ICT applications innovators will also have easier access to investors. mLabs
and their economic usefulness can restrict the demand for provides an innovative civil service: a hub that allows cre-
and success of these technologies in the agrarian sector. ativity, risk, failure, and success, coupled with the necessary
Creating demand for ICT is often easiest when community tools and support needed to build new instruments that can
leaders take a stand and engage both local citizen groups and service the population. This kind of hub is critical to develop-
local politicians. Local civil society organizations can nurture ment, particularly because local entrepreneurs know their
leadership figures and create forums for citizen education communities’ needs better than external providers.
and awareness.
mLabs are in incipient stages, starting with an investment of
approximately US$380,000 each. This suggests that mLabs
are largely unsustainable without additional and regular
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Providing ‘Hubs’ for ICT Innovation financing. While uncertain, mLabs does have a business
model that may address common financial constraints. First,
NGOS can offer dynamic services by creating ICT hubs “to
depending on the business model used in that location, local
channel the information that the farmers need or use to
programmers, entrepreneurs, developers, or designers can
help their work” (Mercer 2004) into one place. When NGOs
become members of the mLab. Membership is based on the
and development partners offer Internet or ICT support in
services desired—some memberships are free and others
a central rural location, many people, including farmers, can
access e-services more easily. These hubs not only increase
farmers’ knowledge communication with others, but they
IMAGE 12.4. mLab in East Africa Assists Agricultural
also help the government achieve results. Governments can-
Entrepreneurs
not provide overly ambitious public services in developing
countries. The participation of development organizations
in providing e-services may help to reduce the pressure on
underresourced public agencies and promote innovation
in rural communities while providing relevant and context-
specific information to local people.
InfoDev, in collaboration with a variety of other partners,
has very recently developed an innovative hub: the mobile
applications lab (or mLabs) (http://www.infodev.org/en
/TopicBackground.34.html). Considering the rapidly expand-
ing telecommunications infrastructure, mobile applications,
and electronic public services, spaces that allow innovation
and entrepreneurship to thrive are critical resources. In many
developing countries, innovation is thwarted by financial,
human, and technological constraints. Even where good Source: Tim Kelly, World Bank.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
330 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
are fee based. “Incubatees,” which are at the highest level of systems and various cropping methods. Useful for nutrition
membership, are members who are actually pursuing a busi- and crop development, the website contains a glossary on
ness idea. Incubatee fees will vary based on location—some rice as well as downloadable handbooks on disease, hybrid
will charge a monthly fee, and others will allow free use of the production, rice morphology, and natural disasters. The Cereal
lab under the conditions that the lab receives an equity stake Knowledge Bank provides information on extension, such as
in the company. These incubatees will have full use of the lab how to create an extension system, needs and opportunity
and its services; they can also work for a paid salary within assessments, and a checklist for extension start-ups.
the mLab. Without going into great detail on the remain-
ing levels of membership, mLabs expects to collect fees The site demonstrates a high degree of user-friendliness, or
or receive income from companies that land in commercial usability, a critical aspect of successful ICT implementation.
markets. Additionally, mLabs will reach out to the private and Text options and clear links to other sites create this friendli-
public sectors. Due to their entrepreneurial nature and mobile ness. Useful buttons (“back,” “home,” and “help”) are at the
focus, the mobile applications generated in mLabs are likely top of each page and clearly marked, making it easy for people
to attract seed investment (for more information on mLabs’ of all ages and skill sets to access information. Moreover, the
business plan and sustainability prospects, see http://www Knowledge Bank maintains information on 13 countries. By
.infodev.org/en/Article.705.html). clicking on the country flag, users can access the information
in the country’s official language. Giving the user options is
mLabs East Africa is currently the furthest along in develop- also part of usability; a lack of options and links to nonexistent
ment. The lab has recently selected its first set of incubatees, websites frustrate users.
which includes entrepreneurs focused on agriculture and
market information systems (see http://www.ihub.co.ke Through ICT, development organizations can also provide
/blog/2011/06/first-set-of-incubation-clients-selected-for-mlab online networking opportunities to citizens and farmers to
-east-africa/ for further information on these start-ups, which increase their learning. Networking leads to empowerment,
include mFarm and Zege Technologies). These start-ups, while gives citizens a voice, and makes it easier to disseminate
receiving the opportunity to gain visibility, capital, and techni- technology in agricultural communities. The Indian Society of
cal assistance, also receive the benefit of contributing to their Agribusiness Professionals (ISAP) is a civil society institution
communities, country, and social and economic development that was established in 2001. A network of agricultural profes-
(with the caveat that these hubs and technologies become sionals in India and other developing countries, it now hosts
popular and widely known). mLabs, and the few similar to them over 15,000 associate members, including 1,500 agri-experts,
(see Grameen AppLabs for innovative approaches on applica- 525 partner NGOs, 1,050 researchers, and over 824 individual
tion development: http://www.grameenfoundation.applab.org users (according to its website, http://www.isapindia.org
/section/index), have the potential to improve agriculture public /Default.aspx). One of the world’s largest agricultural networks,
services and others by giving underresourced and contextually ISAP aims to serve farmers, rural entrepreneurs, and gradu-
based entrepreneurs the opportunities to grow. ate students who do not find appropriate employment (Singh
2006). Its goals, as summarized on its website, include improv-
ing the livelihood pattern of smallholders through improving
access to affordable technologies and market-related informa-
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
tion, extension services and advice, access to market capital
E-Learning through the Web and SMS
and risk management tools, as well as network development.
Like government, civil society groups can also provide agri-
culture information through websites tailored to particular The network has a number of projects to achieve these goals.
technologies or needs. The Cereal Knowledge Bank is an It offers training and conferences on commodity futures and
innovative, interactive website on rice, wheat, maize (corn), trading; to date, ISAP has trained almost 80,000 farmers at
and cropping systems (http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/). 2,064 locations in India. The network also offers programs to
The International Rice Research Institute and International upgrade skills. The most innovative aspects of ISAP are its
Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, which launched the membership program and network solutions. For free, individ-
website in January 2008, offer useful tools for improving rural uals can apply for basic registration, which gives them access
agricultural productivity. Users can click on a large button to Web sources like “Ask the Expert,” job search engines,
named “Maize Doctor” to receive diagnostic tips. The Cereal an online query redress service, and technology assistance
Knowledge Bank also offers information on rice evaluation for commercializing products. For Rs 600, an individual can
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 331
receive an annual subscription to Weekly Market Newsletter A user interface that uses words and icons (image 12.5)
in Hindi, access peer-to-peer networks, and obtain a 15 per- allows nonexpert civil society groups to record a variety of
cent discount on advertisements (posted on the ISAP site) and important data. The software can be installed on either a
conference fees. These individuals can also participate in the PDA or smartphone to collect large amounts of field observa-
ISAP consortium for consulting to receive or obtain referrals. tions, with spatial references through a GPS. Using a touch
For various prices, other development agencies, academic screen, the technology can be customized to fit users’ needs
institutions, government agencies, agribusinesses, and over- and improve efficiency in data collection (for example, users
seas organizations can receive the same access. can select which icons or lists they would like shown on
the screen). The software can also be customized to local
Finally, the ISAP network connects producers to buyers. languages. With an icon-based, simple screen, local people
The organization involves producers, traders, NGOs, and can use the technology to collect complex data. When the
farmers groups, thus obtaining end-to-end solutions in sup- data are transferred to computers, interactive maps show
ply management. Through its networks online and activities detailed patterns of ecological features like animal traffic or
on the ground, ISAP provides training on markets and gives agricultural areas. Analyzing these patterns has high potential
technical advice on production and postharvest management to project future trends, especially if data are collected in a
to farmers. By tracking these farmers, private enterprises variety of locations (CTA n.d.).
are assured of quality products because they know that the
farmer or cooperative in question attended ISAP training. CyberTracker is used all over the world for many purposes.
In Africa, it is used primarily to track animals and plants, with
the intention of monitoring ecosystem changes caused by
climate change. The technology can also be used to monitor
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY crop growth and livestock movement. Local people, even if
Collecting Data to Protect Local Knowledge they have little or no education, can be paid to track ecological
and Ecosystems change using the technology, because the interface is so user
Public agencies are limited in their ability to collect relevant friendly. Aside from creating jobs in the rural sector, the technol-
data in all rural locations, but new ICT tools make easy data ogy captures invaluable local knowledge that is being lost as
collection possible through civil society groups. CyberTracker indigenous populations disperse and new technologies enter
(http://www.cybertracker.org/), originally created to track rural areas. Rural, indigenous populations gain a more effective
animals and plants for conservation, has created opportu- position and voice in policy dialogue. Civil society groups work-
nities for poor, rural, and illiterate people to collect useful ing to improve understanding of local needs in agriculture can
information on a variety of subjects. The technology is open use CyberTracker to capture relevant data cost-effectively, with
source software developed in South Africa by CyberTracker few outside resources. They can also use the technology to
Conservation in collaboration with the European Commission. capture social data through digitized surveys (CTA n.d.).
IMAGE 12.5. CyberTracker Gives Users Icon and Word Options
Source: CyberTracker (http://www.cybertracker.org/).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
332 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
Topic Note 12.3: INCREASING CITIZEN PARTICIPATION
THROUGH E-DEMOCRACY
TRENDS AND ISSUES Digital democracy—a “collection of attempts to practice
Waves of new ICT applications have opened opportunities democracy without the limits of time, space, and other physi-
for citizen participation in various types of regimes and loca- cal conditions, using ICTs” (Nugent 2001, cited in Schwester
tions. In fact, experts feel that one of the most promising dig- 2009)—is not synonymous with electronic voting (as per-
itized applications of ICT is to foster broad participation, local ceived in the past). Considering the taxonomy described
innovation, and social learning (Hanna 2009). This potential, earlier, ICT can help citizens influence government decisions
coupled with citizens’ recent ability to increase their voice in in many ways (Macintosh 2004). With ICT, institutions can
state affairs and organize more effectively through ICT tools disseminate information faster through cell phones, radio, or
(like those recently witnessed in the Arab Spring), motivates online. To participate in a policy meeting with the Ministry of
this discussion, as does the fact that citizen participation Agriculture, farmers can use an ICT application like Skype and
and demand for public goods is incredibly important in the eliminate typical logistical concerns (such as organizing hous-
agrarian sector. The quality of governance in remote loca- ing and travel reimbursements for 30 participants). Virtual
tions often depends on citizen involvement, because so few communities, Web complaint lines, email correspondence
resources are available to reach those locations. between government officials and citizens, participatory bud-
geting, online media, and Web-based political information
Electronic democratic projects can be designed and sharing are all vectors of digital democracy. Fostering citizen
implemented by a wide array of institutions. Using ICT to participation through ICT allows citizens to form and find
improve democracy is just like using more traditional media groups that have similar interests; for example, agrarian
to improve democracy. Town hall meetings, complaint communities can share information on crop diseases, pests,
call lines, public surveys, petitions, and newspapers are prices, and technologies. In addition, these communities can
all communications media. Residents of a village facing discuss and subsequently act on policies that directly affect
an economic downturn can meet in a central location to their activities and livelihoods. Though ICT for citizen partici-
discuss possible community-based options. Political parties pation is most heavily concentrated in wealthier countries,
can organize a petition, and newspapers can present useful these tools are proliferating to poor countries. Botswana is
facts on the activities of politicians or proposed legislation. in the top 25 percent of all countries using electronic means
Each of these media has improved its methods through of participation, and five African countries have open Web
technologies such as the Internet and SMS. Now people forums to discuss political topics (Hafkin 2009).
around the world have faster, real-time capacity to involve
themselves in democratic initiatives, meaning that more
stakeholders can affect governance processes (Heeks LESSONS LEARNED
2001).
The challenges faced by institutions trying to use ICT to
The ICT tools used to foster citizen participation can involve a improve citizen participation are similar to those faced by pub-
variety of complex processes. A practical taxonomy of these lic agencies and civil society. Technical and infrastructure chal-
processes, or what ICT can help to create, is as follows lenges are especially strong for voice conversations, because
(Macintosh 2004): poor network connections hamper effective dialogue.
Information: One-way relationship; institutions Unlike e-government and civil society projects intended to
produce and deliver political information to citizens improve public services, institutions using ICT to enhance
through ICT. democracy may need to address more serious social and
Consultation: Two-way relationship; institutions invite political difficulties. For example, increasing citizen participa-
citizens to give feedback on issues; public agencies tion shifts the relationship between government and citizens
set the agenda and manage the process through ICT. from vertical relationships to horizontal ones (Ndou 2004).
Active participation: Partnership relationship; citizens Even decentralized and democratic governments have a fairly
actively engage in setting the agenda and creating vertical power hierarchy, or a top-down structure. In many
content for policy making through ICT. instances, ICT changes this structure rapidly (Fang 2002).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 333
Giving citizens increased access to govern- IMAGE 12.6. Rural Kiosks Can Lead to Information Sharing Between
ment information, allowing quick transfer of Agrarian Communities
knowledge through cell phones or email,
and providing space for a real-time public
forum reduces the vertical structure found
in most governments and increases the
horizontal one. This horizontal shift can
dramatically challenge a societal structure
(Saxena 2005). While this shift is generally a
positive step toward citizen representation,
it may provoke a far-reaching backlash from
politicians, policy makers, elitists, traditional
authorities, and others, reducing the effec-
tiveness of the ICT for citizen participation.
Some of these negative consequences are
currently being witnessed in the regime
changes occurring in the Middle East and
North Africa.
Using ICT for democratic projects also Source: Ray Witlin, World Bank.
increases the visibility of cultural chal-
lenges. Teaching rural citizens how to use ICT is a challenge employment news, and a landholder’s book of land rights
in itself, as is fostering their understanding of participation. and loans. Yet Gyandoot also provides ICT that enhances
If digital exercises in participation are meant to be inclusive, democracy, partly because it is an intranet system—all of the
addressing perceptions of equality within the community is kiosks are connected to allow citizens to share information.
also necessary. Women, youth, and other vulnerable groups An online rural newspaper updates citizens with local political
are often excluded from political decision making within information like public expenditures and raises awareness in
communities. Extending their participation to higher levels their villages. Complaint lines, expert opinions on legal mat-
with new technologies is not effective unless root societal ters, and email are also available.
dynamics are explored and addressed.
Gyandoot has had its successes and challenges.3 First, pro-
viding services like price information and village auctions
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY online and directly to farmers removes the intermediar-
Information Kiosks in India ies who commonly take advantage of rural impoverished
The Gyandoot project (see http://www.gyandoot.nic.in/) citizenry (Meera, Jhamtani, and Rao 2004). Second, kiosk
in drought-prone, rural Madhya Pradesh in India is a solid operators performed well. Third, almost 80 percent of users
example of both e-government services and e-democracy. were satisfied with Gyandoot’s services. Finally, high rates of
Thirty-eight government-owned telekiosks were established satisfaction match the fairly high rates of government action.
in central locations like village markets and major roads in Sixty percent of complaints put forth through the Gyandoot
Dhar District (Cecchini and Raina 2004), where 60 percent of system were addressed within one week; according to one
the population lives below the poverty line (Jafri, Dongre, and survey, district administrators felt that officials’ performance
Tripathi 2002) (image 12.6). Rather than using expensive local improved dramatically and immediately because they knew
area networks and very small aperture terminal technologies, citizens could file complaints (Jafri, Dongre, and Tripathi
the kiosks, which each serve approximately 25–30 villages 2002).
through cybercafés (Meera, Jhamtani, and Rao 2004), oper-
ate through a dial-up network with modems from existing
telephone lines. E-government services within the cyber-
3 Though some of these figures are dated, they are worth includ-
cafés include regularly updated price information, computer ing because the real effects of many ICT e-governance initiatives
training, application for income and domicile certificates, have not been widely studied.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
334 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
On the other hand, individual access to Gyandoot kiosks generating information on politicians, candidates, and policy.
is fairly low. One survey showed that many kiosks served The United States has numerous websites that provide politi-
only one to four people per day (Cecchini and Raina 2004). cal information and express views on elected representa-
Electricity outages and distance to the kiosk often caused tives. DNet (http://dnet.org/) and Project Vote Smart (http://
this problem. Socioeconomic factors also posed challenges www.votesmart.org/) are led by NGOs. DNet provides infor-
for Gyandoot. All surveys cited here found that most users mation about candidates’ positions on election issues. It also
were wealthier male community members. Start-up and gives media reports, and encourages candidates themselves
intranet costs of more than Rs 2.5 million (Bhatnagar and to post statements, biographical data, and endorsements. In
Vyas 2001) were also high. Compared to user fees at Rs 5 some cases, citizens can communicate directly with candi-
to Rs 25 per service, incoming revenues could not cover the dates via email and host live interviews. Discussion boards
initial expenses. can also be generated for citizen-to-citizen communication.
In developing countries, political communities like these
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY are slowly coming online and may help generate more
Virtual Communities public awareness and participation. As early as 2004, the
The proliferation of virtual communities is another result of Tanzanian National Assembly introduced a website for par-
expanding Internet connectivity. Presently, tens of thousands liamentary decisions and data. Called POLIS, the site pro-
of virtual communities interact via Web-based technology. vides citizens with the proceedings of parliament and other
Virtual communities are groups of people who join and par- government activities (http://parliament.go.tz/POLIS/Bunge
ticipate in online organizations, usually for a specific purpose, /Polis.asp?Menu=0). Full texts of legislation, fact sheets, and
practice, circumstance, or interest (Kim n.d.). The people information like parliamentarians’ voting records are housed
in the community may never interact with one another in in this portal. Easy navigation tools—including the MP Profile
person, yet with open source technology they can connect, Database, Bill Tracking System, Session Management
discuss, and act on local, national, and international issues. System, and the Act and Documents Management System—
help citizens find information (United Nations Department
Types of virtual communities range widely. People create of Economic and Social Affairs 2009). To achieve further
communities for commerce (such as eBay and Craigslist). transparency in rural areas and for illiterate citizens, future
Development organizations create databases that members initiatives could include mobile phone applications or POLIS
can access for research. Political groups can create websites radio broadcasts.
for activists to sign petitions or receive information on events.
Practitioners can also set up “communities of practice” and INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
organize continuous dialogue on projects or provide useful Government Responsiveness through Citizen
job-related material. These communities can help sustain Participation in Digitized Political Processes
conversation. For example, after a conference or workshop, Government responsiveness is one of the foundations of
interactions between participants usually cease. Yet some effective democracy. Innovative ICT tools give governments
have found that forming an online community of practice the opportunity to respond more efficiently and broadly
after the event helps to retain long-term participation (Kim through issue-based and policy-based forums. Participation in
n.d.). Online communities could have potential for public political processes ranges from expressing online grievances
agencies and civil society groups in developing countries. to electronic consultation to participatory budgeting. This
Often, participants in meetings organized through ministries section provides an example for each of these interventions.
are required to travel to the capital. After the meeting or
workshop adjourns, they return to their rural communities. If The Government Information Agency in Korea is considered
ministries could create a portal, or community of practice, for the best-practice example for implementing this type of ICT.
these participants, facilitating future meetings and continu- Even before 1990, Koreans could access a number of online
ing conversation over a sustained period of time might be services, including registering births and locating relevant
easier. economic statistics (Sang, Tan, and Trimi 2005). In addition to
a frequently updated webpage, secure e-signature system,
Political virtual communities are also shaping democ- and personnel management system, the website also pro-
racy, holding great potential for creating transparency and vides transparent and timely responses to citizens’ inquiries.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 335
(For more information on electronic signatures, see Gupta, Results were promising. After votes were in, public expen-
Tung, and Mardsen 2004.) If someone requests information ditures were allocated from the central government to the
related to a specific government policy, public officials collect provincial government and were then used in local projects
the applicable information and post results within the week determined by the citizens within the given district. In some
(Holzer and Manoharan 2004), demonstrating fast and reli- cases, over US$80,000 was invested in an intervention such
able government responsiveness. as a school building, health clinic, roads, or irrigation struc-
tures. In most cases, this was the first time that any real
In addition, Korea has created e-People (see http://www
investment was made in the districts.
.epeople.go.kr/jsp/user/on/eng/intro01.jsp), an anticorruption
portal that uses cloud computing, complaint lines, petitions, Despite the success of the pilot, there are many challenges
and discussion forums to reduce corruption and boost citi- ahead. Implementing construction efficiently is challenging
zen engagement in the country. All government ministries in rural areas because the work is often done in remote areas
and local government departments, along with 448 public with few qualified staff. SMS hotlines or phones with cam-
sector organizations are on e-People. The site receives era capacity could be an option to address this challenge.
over 100,000 hits per day, and over 8,000 complaints were Scalability is also in question: once initial donor support
documented in 2010 alone. When a complaint is made, it is ends, public and governmental support for the project (which
categorized and forwarded to the relevant agency, where requires time and capital) may fade. SMS messaging is too
the agency has an opportunity to respond. Citizens (and expensive for citizens to afford, and public subsidization may
foreigners or diasporas, who are also allowed to use the be necessary for a number of years. (Source for all informa-
site) can check the status of their complaint and evaluate tion: Weber, Maketa, and Tiago 2011).
the response given as well. Users can also view a record
of the complaints sent by others, allowing them to choose
whether to withdraw or submit a similar complaint. This INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
option reduces the amount of petitions going to the agen- Digital Media Forums in Developing Countries
cies while also helping the government assess the magni- Media outlets also provide space for ICT initiatives to enhance
tude of the problem. good governance. Traditional newspapers that have created
online websites generate real-time public participation through
Participatory budgeting, which is gaining traction around
comments and letters. Live chat sessions are also possible
the world, occurs when communities and citizens directly
through online newspapers, and experts or writers can respond
determine how a portion of the public expenditure will be
to readers’ comments to carry on discussions about the topic.
used. The first phase of a pilot project recently completed in
These online and interactive news sources and chats are not
the Democratic Republic of Congo has had remarkable suc-
limited to more technologically capable countries. Zimbabwe,
cess, despite what would appear to be great hurdles. The
Bolivia, Nicaragua, the Philippines, and Ghana are only a few of
World Bank, in partnership with the provincial government,
the many developing countries providing media online.
forged a partnership with Airtel, the largest cell provider
in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Airtel provided geo- Online independent newspapers can be effective in strict
graphic information and premium numbers to the team. After political regimes with little freedom of speech. One such
districtwide deliberations, where discussants debated and newspaper, Malaysiakini (http://malaysiakini.com/), made
selected five to six main priorities for their district, a short list an enormous impact on governance in a country where the
of numbered priorities was created. Before voting day, SMS ruling party dominated the media. The newspaper provides
messages were sent to the district’s Airtel users (almost information in four languages. Information includes alterna-
300,000 people), directing voters on how to participate. On tive views on local politics (Pang 2006), and articles explore
voting day, users sent a four-digit code that represented their trade issues, government budgets, mining, foreign direct
district to the premium number. Once they received the short investment, migration, religion, and agricultural develop-
list of priorities for their district and responded, they received ment. New legislation, politics, and corruption are frequently
a confirmation of their vote. Their votes were documented debated. When serious news arises, the online news source
in real time in an online database, which was connected to also sends subscribers SMS alerts.
a GPRS modem with a very low bandwidth. Conventional
means of voting were also made available for those without In the last few years, the website has received almost
cell phones or an Airtel subscription. 40 million page views and 800,000 video downloads per
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
336 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
month (Malaysiakini 2008). Its success stems largely from to improve public access to information and opinion. Blogs
the fact that it is only online. Online media cost less than provide writers a space to express personal views or experi-
print media (Pang 2006), and the site is subscription based. ences and give readers the opportunity to learn from first-
Users pay approximately US$40 to access the daily content. hand accounts. Most bloggers live in wealthier countries, but
This fee may be high for rural citizens, yet civil society groups blogging is becoming more common in poorer ones.
could help to pay this price to make the information available
to poorer people through a hub like a telecenter. A significant Global Voices, an international nonprofit, offers a space for
limitation is that because the newspaper is not produced in a bloggers and readers in almost 20 languages. With a com-
traditional print format, it cannot receive press accreditation, munity of over 300 bloggers and translators, the organization
so its journalists cannot enter political spaces and attend aims to “aggregate, curate, and amplify the global conver-
potentially important meetings (Pang 2006). sation online” (http://globalvoicesonline.org). Global Voices
partners with authors to produce relevant, region-specific
An organization in Tanzania, Daraja (http://www.daraja.org/), is blogs in countries all over the world. Readers can access
also experimenting with ICT and media to achieve improve- blogs written on specific subjects like agriculture. Of course,
ments in local government and boost citizen inclusion in many bloggers on Global Voices tend to be urban and more
political processes. The new organization intends to build educated than rural farmers. As a result, the organization
links between government and communities on critical topics began an outreach project called Rising Voices. Twice a year,
in Tanzania. One such project involves water services: over the initiative holds a microgrant competition to select new
half of Tanzania’s rural water points are malfunctioning despite media outreach projects. Recipients of these grants teach
increases in government funding and population growth. ICT techniques to communities that are poorly positioned to
The three-year “Raising the Water Pressure” program uses take advantage of tools like blogging.
local populations and the media to place political pressure on
government officials in rural areas. Through mobile phones, There are certainly constraints to blogging in developing
citizens can send feedback or grievances about their local countries, especially rural areas; lack of electricity and low
water supply. This information is forwarded to the appropri- bandwidth are typical challenges. Blog tools are often in
ate district officials and the local media. Local media can then English, which limits who can use them, but the number
interact with district officials to determine their plan of action of blog tools is expanding quickly. A number of providers
regarding the poor water service (image 12.7). like Wordpress, Google, and Aeonity offer free hosting and
troubleshooting help for users. In fact, Weebly has a “drag
The use of mobile phones also increases
the voice of the common citizen or vulner- IMAGE 12.7. ICT Can Support Well Water Infrastructure Monitoring
able group that may not receive access
to the government. Since its inception,
500 texts have been sent to the water
database, of which 100 have been for-
warded to district officials. Only 100 have
been forwarded due to challenges with
illegibility; illiteracy is a major barrier to
the program’s success. However, in the
cases where grievances were passed to
government officials, reactions have been
positive. Daraja also plans to assist local
governments in technical capacities, in
order to build a positive relationship with
local officials (Taylor 2011). (For more infor-
mation on this project, see http://www
.daraja.org/our-work/rtwp.)
Blogging is another innovative and inex-
pensive form of ICT used internationally Source: Curt Carnemark, World Bank.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 337
and drop” editor, so users can simply drag pictures and text Working Paper 05/196, International Monetary Fund,
onto their Web pages. Washington, DC.
Djankov, S. 2008. “A Response to ‘Is Doing Business Damaging
Business?’” World Bank, Washington, DC.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Doctor, S., and W. Dutton. 1999. “The Social Shaping of the
ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2003. Case Studies. Manila: ADB. Democracy Network (DNet).” In Digital Democracy: Discourse
Banks, J., M. Pachano, L. Thompson, and D. Hanny. 2007. RFID and Decision Making in the Information Age, edited by B. Hague
Applied. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. and B. Loader, 222–42. London: Routledge.
Becker, T., and T. Ohlin. 2006. “The Improbable Dream: Measuring Donner, J. 2009. “Mobile-Based Livelihood Services in Africa:
the Power of Internet Deliberations in Setting Public Agendas Pilots and Early Deployments.” In Communication Technologies
and Influencing Public Planning and Policies.” Journal of Public in Latin America and Africa: A Multidisciplinary Perspective,
Deliberation 2 (1): 1–22. edited by M. Fernandez-Ardevol and A. Ros Hijar, 37–58.
Barcelona: IN3.
Berman, B., and W. J. Tettey. 2001. “African States, Bureaucratic
Culture, and Computer Fixes.” Public Administration and E-Agriculture. 2010. “Gender, Information, and Communication.”
Development 21 (1): 1–13. www.e-agriculture.org, accessed January 2011.
Bhatnagar, S., and N. Vyas. 2001. “Gyandoot: Community-Owned ECA (Economic Commission for Africa). 2004. Economic Report on
Rural Internet Kiosks.” World Bank eGovernment website. http:// Africa 2004: Unlocking Africa’s Trade Potential. Addis Ababa: ECA.
go.worldbank.org/V5YKYDSRE0, accessed February 2011. Economic Times. 2010. “Biometric Cards to NREGA Workers on
Blakely, R. 2009. “India to Issue All 1.2 Billion Citizens with Anvil.” May 30. Accessed February 2011, http://economictimes.
Biometric ID Cards.” Sunday Times, July 15. http://www indiatimes.com/news /economy/policy / Biometric -cards-to-
.timesonline .co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6710764.ece, NREGA-workers-on-anvil/articleshow/5990480.cms.
accessed October 2011. ESCAP (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
Bonfadelli, H. 2002. “The Internet and Knowledge Gaps: A and the Pacific). 2011. “What Is Good Governance?” http://www
Theoretical and Empirical Investigation.” European Journal of .unescap.org/pdd/prs/ProjectActivities/Ongoing/gg/governance
Communication 17 (1): 65–84. .asp, accessed February 2011.
Cecchini, S., and M. Raina. 2004. “Electronic Government and the Ezz, I., A. Papazafeiropoulou, and A. Serrano. 2009. “Challenges
Rural Poor: The Case of Gyandoot.” Information Technologies and of Interorganizational Collaboration for Information Technology
International Development 2 (2): 65–75. Adoption.” Information Technology for Development 15 (3):
209–23.
Chantarat, S., A. Mude, C. Barrett, and C. Turvey. 2010. “The
Performance of Index Based Livestock Insurance: Ex Ante Fang, Z. 2002. “E-government in Digital Era: Concept, Practice,
Assessment in the Presence of a Poverty Trap.” International and Development.” International Journal of the Computer, the
Livestock Research Institute. http://www.ilri.org/ibli/images Internet, and Management 10 (2):1–22.
/stories/files/IBLI_2_January2010.pdf, accessed November 2010. FARA (Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa). 2009. “GCARD-
Chapman, R., and T. Slaymaker. 2002. ICTs and Rural Development: Africa E-Consultation Report.” Food and Agriculture Organization.
Review of Literature, Current Interventions, and Opportunity for http://www.fao.org/docs/eims/upload/270028/GCARD
Action. London: Overseas Development Institute (ODI). %20Africa%20econsultation%20report%20final.pdf, accessed
February 2011.
CTA (Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation). n.d.
“Educational video on CyberTracker.” http://pgis.cta.int/completed Flor, A. 2001. “ICT and Poverty: The Indisputable Link.” Paper
-initiatives/73-educational-video-on-cybertracker, accessed January prepared for the 3rd Asia Development Forum on Regional
2011. Economic Cooperation in Asia and the Pacific, organized
by the Asian Development Bank, Bangkok, June 11–14.
Dahlberg, L. 2001. “The Internet and Democratic Discourse: http:// kambing.ui.ac.id/onnopurbo/library/library-ref-ind
Exploring the Prospects of Online Deliberative Forums Extending / ref-ind-1 / application/poverty-reduction/!%20ICT4PR/ICT%20
the Public Sphere.” Information, Communication, and Society 4 and%20poverty%20-%20the%20link%20(WB%20Report).pdf,
(4): 615–33. accessed February 2011.
de Sa, L. 2005. Business Registration Start-Up: A Concept Note. Frederick, L. 2009. “Information Technologies That Extend Rural
Washington, DC: International Finance Corporation (IFC), World Microfinance Reach.” Chapter 10 in New Partnerships for
Bank. Innovation in Microfinance, edited by I. Matthäus-Maier and
J. D. von Pischke, 173–94. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Desai, M., and N. de Magalhaes. 2001. “Vietnam’s Tale of Two Cities.”
World Bank, accessed February 2011. http://go.worldbank.org Fuchs, C., and E. Horak. 2008. “Africa and the Digital Divide.”
/ANV1MDO1C0. Telematics and Informatics 25: 99–116.
Diamond, J., and P. Khemani. 2005. “Introducing Financial Ganie-Rochman, M. 2002. An Uphill Struggle: Advocacy NGOs
Management Systems in Developing Countries.” IMF Under Soeharto’s New Order. Jakarta: Lab Sosio FISIP UI.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
338 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
Gillwald, A., A. Milek, and C. Stork. 2010. Gender Assessment of ICT ———. 2010. The World in 2010: The Rise of 3G. ICT Facts and
Access and Usage in Africa. Ottawa: International Development Figures. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/material/FactsFigures2010
Research Centre (IDRC). .pdf, accessed February 2011.
Giné, X. 2010. “Biometric Technology in Rural Credit Markets: The Islam, S. M., and A. Grönlund. 2010. “The Bangladesh National
Case of Malawi.” Innovations in Rural and Agriculture Finance, Biometric Database: A Transferable Success?” In Proceedings of
Brief 9, International Food Policy Research Institute and World the First International Conference on Electronic Government and
Bank, Washington, DC. the Information Systems Perspective, edited by K. N. Andersen,
E. Francesconi, A. Grönlund, and T. M. van Engers, 189–201.
Giné, X., J. Goldberg, and D. Yang. 2010. “Identification Strategy: A
Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Field Experiment on Dynamic Incentives in Rural Credit Markets.”
Policy Research Paper 5438, World Bank, Washington, DC. IWS (Internet World Stats). 2010. Internet Usage Statistics. http://
www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm.
Gupta, A., A. Tung, and J. Mardsen. 2004. “Digital Signature: Use and
Modification to Achieve Success in Next Generational E-Business Jafri, A., A. Dongre, and V. Tripathi. 2002. “Information Communication
Processes.” Information and Management 41 (5): 561–75. Technologies and Governance: The Gyandoot Experiment.” ODI
Working Paper 160, Overseas Development Institute (ODI),
Hachigian, N., and L. Wu. 2003. “Political Implications of the
London.
Information Revolution in Asia.” Chapter 2 in The Information
Revolution in Asia, edited by N. Hachigian and L. Wu, 55–91. Jager, A., and V. Reijswoud. 2003. E-governance: The Case of
Santa Monica: RAND Corporation. DistrictNet in Uganda. The Hague: International Institute for
Communication and Development (IICD).
Hadiwinata, B. 2003. The Politics of NGOs in Indonesia: Developing
Democracy and Managing a Movement. London: Routledge Jain, A., and A. Ross. 2002. “Learning User Specific Parameters in
Curzon. a Multi-Biometric System.” In Proceedings of the International
Conference on Image Processing (ICIP 2002), New York 57–70.
Hafkin, N. J. 2009. “E-government in Africa: Progress Made
and Challenges Ahead.” Presentation for Electronic/ ———. 2006. “Biometrics: A Tool for Information Security.” IEEE
Mobile Government in Africa: Building Capacity in Knowledge Transactions on Information Forensics and Security 1 (2): 125–43.
Management through Partnership, sponsored by the
United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs Jiang, J., W. Muhanna, and J. Klein. 2002. “User Resistance and
(UNDESA), United Nations Public Administration Network Strategies for Promoting Acceptance across System Types.”
(UNPAN), and United Nations Economic Commission for Information and Management. 37 (1): 25–36.
Africa (UNECA), Addis Ababa, 17–19 February. http://unpan1 Jung, J., J. Qui, and Y. Kim. 2001. “Internet Connectedness and
.un.org/intradoc /groups /public /documents/un/unpan033526. Inequality: Beyond the Divide.” Communication Research 28 (4):
pdf, accessed February 2011. 507–35.
Hanna, N. K. 2009. “National E-government Institutions: Functions, Kamssu, A., J. Siekpe, and J. Ellzy. 2004. “Shortcomings to
Models, and Trends.” In Information and Communications for Globalization: Using Internet Technology and Electronic
Development, Extending Research and Increasing Impact, Commerce in Developing Countries.” Journal of Developing
edited by T.W. Bank, 83–102. Washington, DC: World Bank. Areas 38 (1): 151–69.
Heeks, R. 2001. Building E-governance for Development. Katz, J., R. Rice, and P. Aspden. 2001. “The Internet 1995–2000:
Manchester: Institute for Development Policy and Management Access, Civic Involvement, and Social Interaction.” American
University of Manchester. Behavioural Scientist 45 (3): 405–19.
———. 2002. “E-government in Africa: Promise and Practice.” Kim, R. n.d. “Virtual Communities and ‘Low-Tech’ Tools: Lessons
Information Polity 7: 97–114. Learned at the World Bank.” World Bank. http://go.worldbank.org
Holzer, M., and A. Manoharan. 2004. “Global Trends in Municipal /E62FVAM8S0, accessed November 2010.
E-government: An Online Assessment of Worldwide Municipal Klein, J. 2000. “User Resistance and Strategies for Promoting
Web Portals.” In Foundations of E-government, edited by Acceptance across System Types.” Information and
A. Agarwal and V. V. Ramana, 178–188. International Congress Management 37 (1): 25–36.
of E-government, accessed February 2011. http://www.iceg
.net/2007/books/1/19_303.pdf. Komarinski, P. 2005. Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems.
Burlington, MA: Elsevier.
Hong, L., and A. Jain. 1998. “Integrating Faces and Fingerprints for
Personal Identification.” IIEI Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Layne, K., and J. Lee. 2001. “Developing Fully Functional
Machine Intelligence 20 (12): 1295–307. E-government: A Four Stage Model.” Government Information
Quarterly 18 (2): 122–36.
InfoDev. 2002. The E-government Handbook for Developing
Countries. InfoDev and Center for Democracy and Technology. Limao, N., and A. Venables. 2000. Infrastructure, Geographical
Washington, DC: World Bank. Disadvantage, and Transport Costs. Washington. DC: World Bank.
International Telecommunication Union. 2001. The E-city: Loges, W., and J–Y. Jung. 2001. “Exploring the Digital Divide:
Singapore Internet Case Study. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/cs Internet Connectedness and Age.” Communication Research 28
/singapore/material/Singapore.pdf, accessed February 2011. (4): 536–62.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 339
Lollbeharree, M.B., and R. Unuth. 2001. “Contributions Network in Policy Brief. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/60/60/2502539.pdf,
Mauritius.” World Bank. http://go.worldbank.org/QA6A26S3R0, accessed February 2011.
accessed November 2010.
Palanisami, K. n.d. E-learning and Its Approach in TNAU. Centre for
Macintosh, A. 2004. “Characterizing E-participation in Policy-Making.” Agriculture and Rural Development Studies (CARDS), Tamil Nadu
Proceedings of the 37th Hawaii International Conference on Agricultural University (TNAU). http://akicb.ifas.ufl.edu/pdf/e
System Sciences, IEEE. -learning%20at%20TNAU%20%20by%20K.Palanisami.pdf,
accessed February 2011.
Madon, S. 2004. “Evaluating the Developmental Impact of
E-governance Initiatives.” Electronic Journal on Information Pang, A. 2006. “Managing News in a Managed Media: Mediating
Systems in Developing Countries 20 (5): 1–13. the Message in Malaysiakini.com.” Asia Pacific Media Educator
1 (17): 71–95.
Mahmood, K. 2005. “Multipurpose Community Telecenters for Rural
Development in Pakistan.” Electronic Library 23 (2): 204–20. Parajuli, J. 2007. “A Content Analysis of Selected Government
Web Sites: A Case Study of Nepal.” Electronic Journal on
Malaysiakini. 2008. “About Us.” http://weblog.malaysiakini E-government 5 (1): 87–94.
.com/?page_id=2, accessed November 2010.
Patowary, D. 2009. “Assam to Use Biometric Cards for Wage
Manasian, D. 2003. “Digital Dilemmas: A Survey of the Internet Disbursement under NREGA.” Hindustan Times, December 2.
Society.” Economist, January 23. http://www.economist.com http://www.hindustantimes.com/Assam-to-use-biometric-cards
/node/1534303?story_id=1534303, accessed December 2010. -for-wage-disbursement-under-NREGA/Article1-482176.aspx#,
Marcelle, G. 2003. “Reconsidering Technology Transfer.” International accessed December 2010.
Journal of Technology Transfer and Commercialisation 2 (3): 227–48. Polgreen, Lydia. 2011. “Scanning 2.4 Billion Eyes, India Tries to
Mathison, S. 2002. Digital Dividends for the Poor: ICT for Poverty Connect Poor to Growth.” New York Times, September 2.
Reduction in Asia. Malaysia: Global Knowledge Partnership. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/02/world/asia/02india
.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&hp, accessed September 2, 2011.
Meera, S. N., A. Jhamtani, and D. Rao. 2004. “Information
Communication Technology in Agricultural Development: A Raabe, K., R. Birner, M. Sekher, K. Gayathridevi, A. Shilpi, and
Comparative Analysis of Three Projects from India.” Agricultural E. Schiffer. 2010. “How to Overcome the Governance Challenges
Research and Extension Network (AGREN) Paper 135. London: of Implementing NREGA.” IFPRI Discussion Paper 963,
Overseas Development Institute (ODI). International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington,
DC.
Mercer, C. 2004. “Engineering Civil Society: ICT in Tanzania.” Review
of African Political Economy 31 (99): 49–64. Reidl, R. 2001. “Limitations for Interstate E-government and
Interdisciplinary Projects.” In 12th International Workshop on
Moon, M. 2002. “The Evolution of E-government among Database and Expert Systems Applications, edited by A. M. Tjao
Municipalities: Rhetoric or Reality?” Public Administration and R. Wagner, 377–82. Washington, DC: IEEE.
Review 62 (4): 424–33.
Relani, A. 2004. “G2G E-Government: The Big Challenge for Europe.”
Ndou, V. 2004. “E-government for Developing Countries: Master’s thesis, Department of Informatics, University of Zurich.
Opportunities and Challenges.” Electronic Journal on Information
Riley, C. G. 2003. “The Changing Role of the Citizen in the
Systems in Developing Countries 18 (1): 1–24.
E-governance and E-democracy Equation.” Commonwealth
Nguyen, Tuyen Thanh, and Hai Thi Thanh Nguyen. 2006. “Grounding Center for E-Governance, Tanzania Development Gateway.
E-government in Vietnam: Bringing More Government Services http://www.tanzaniagateway.org/docs/Changing_role_of_the
to Citizens.” Paper presented at the Vietnam E-Government _citizen_in_the_E-governance_E-democracy_equation_2003.
Symposium 2006, Centre for Community Networking Research, pdf, accessed February 2011.
Hanoi. http://ccnr.net/system/files/Grounding+egovernment+in
Sang, L., X. Tan, and S. Trimi. 2005. “Current Practices of Leading
+Vietnam.pdf, accessed February 2011.
E-government Countries.” Communications of the ACM 48 (10):
Nilekani, N. 2010. Review of Electronic Tollbooths. New Delhi: Unique 99–104.
Identification Authority of India.
Sardi, X. C., and K. Mlikota. 2002. “Overview on E-governance.”
Norris, D., and K. Kraemer. 1996. “Mainframe and PC Computing Working paper prepared in the framework of the ICT cross-
in American Cities: Myths and Realities.” Public Administration cutting project “ICTs as Tools for Improving Local Governance,”
Review 56 (6): 568–76. United Nations Economic, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), Paris.
Nugent, J. 2001. “If E-democracy Is the Answer, What’s the
Question?” National Civic Review 90 (3): 221–23. Saxena, K. 1995. “Informatization and Infocrats.” DATAQUEST 12
(37): 154–6.
Nugroho, Y. 2008. “Spreading the Word, Broadening Perspectives:
Internet, NGOs and Globalisation Discourse in Indonesia.” ———. 2005. “Towards Excellence in E-governance.” International
Manchester Business School Working Paper 544, Manchester. Journal of Public Sector Management 18 (6): 498–513.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). Schwester, R. 2009. “Examining the Barriers to E-government
2003. “The E-government Imperative: Main Findings.” OECD Adoption.” Electronic Journal of e-Government 7 (1): 113–22.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
340 M O D UL E 12 — ST RE NGT HE NING RURA L GOVER NA NC E, INSTITUTIONS, A ND C ITIZEN PA RTIC IPATION US ING IC T
Selwyn, N. 2004. “Reconsidering Political and Popular Understandings United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2009.
of the Digital Divide.” New Media and Society 6 (3): 341–62. Compendium of Innovative E-government Practices. New York:
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
Shepard, S. 2005. Radio Frequency Identification. New York:
McGraw-Hill. USAID (United States Agency for International Development). 2008.
Integrated Financial Management Information Systems, A
Singh, S. 2006. Selected Success Stories on Agricultural Innovation
Practical Guide. Washington, DC: USAID.
Systems. Thailand: Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural
Research Institutions. van Dijk, J.A.G.M. 2006. The Network Society: Social Aspects of
New Media. 2nd ed. London: Sage.
Sriraman, S. 2009. “The Role of Transportation and Logistics in
India: Emerging Issues and Prospects.” RITES Journal 11 (1): Vasavakul, T. 2002. Rebuilding Authority Relations: Public
18.1–18.10. Administration in the Era of Doi Moi. Hanoi: Asian Development
Bank.
Somolu, O. 2007. “‘Telling Our Own Stories’: African Women
Blogging for Social Change.” Gender and Development 15 (3): Warren, M. 2004. “Farmers Online: Drivers and Impediments in
477–89. Adoption of Internet in UK Agricultural Businesses.” Journal of
Small Business and Enterprise Development 11 (3): 371–81.
Sumanjeet, S. 2009. “Emergence of Electronic Payment Systems in
the Age of Electronic Commerce: The State of the Art.” Global Wescott, C. G. 2003. “Hierarchies, Networks, and Local Government
Journal of International Business Research 2 (2): 17–36. in Vietnam.” International Public Management Review 4 (2):
20–40.
Sustainable Initiatives. 2003. “Gyandoot, Madhya Pradesh:
A Network of Empowerment for Rural People through Wolcott, P., and S. Goodman. 2000. “The Internet in Turkey and
Self-sustainable Use of Information and Communications Pakistan: A Comparative Analysis.” Report for the Center for
Technology.” Gamos and Big World Research Project International Security and Cooperation, Stanford University.
for the Department for International Development (UK). http://iris.nyit.edu/~kkhoo/Spring2008/Topics/GlobalIS/Internet
http://www.sustainableicts.org/Gyandoot%20F.pdf, accessed _Turkey-Pakistan_2000.pdf, accessed February 2011.
February 2011.
World Bank. 2000. “OPEN: Seoul’s Anticorruption Project.”
UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2008. World Bank eGovernment website. http://go.worldbank
“Celebrating the End of Photo Voter Registration: Challenges .org/8ODMJL3JV0, accessed February 2011.
Overcome.” UNDP, Bangladesh.
———. (n.d.). What Is Governance? http://go.worldbank.org
———. 2009. PERP Evaluation Report. Bangladesh: UNDP. /G2CHLXX0Q0, accessed February 2011.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 341
Module 13 ICT FOR LAND ADMINISTRATION
AND MANAGEMENT
ROBIN MCLAREN (Know Edge Ltd) and VICTORIA STANLEY (World Bank)
IN THIS MODULE
Overview. This module identifies how ICT is more effectively supporting land markets and land reform activities, explores
how more open approaches to public sector Information policy and innovative business models are making investments
in ICT more sustainable, recognizes how ICT is an essential component of good governance, and details how interoper-
able ICT approaches to land information infrastructure extend and integrate land administration services into the wider
e-government arena.
Topic Note 13.1: Supporting Land Markets with ICT. Innovative and competing public and private property informa-
tion services help buyers and sellers make intelligent decisions and allow policy makers to monitor market trends. These
services also provide transparency and thereby discourage corruption.
ICT-Based Property Value Estimate Information Services
European Land Information Service
Topic Note 13.2: ICT Support for Land Management, Planning, Development, and Control. Governments have
established e-planning portals that allow citizens to access land-use control information, including access to zoning devel-
opment plans and planning regulations. Public participation GIS is being applied to participatory community planning to
help neighborhood community groups and individuals use mapping and spatial analyses in community development and
public participation.
E-Planning Portal in Denmark
Virtual Landscape Theatre
Topic Note 13.3: ICT Support for Land Reform. Using GIS to manage the spatial complexities of managing, analyzing,
deriving, and communicating new, fair distributions of parcels has become an important tool for land reform. ICT sup-
ports the entire life cycle of land reform, from identification of current owners and patterns of tenure through analysis of
reallocation options to the provision of registration.
Sweden’s Large-Scale Land Consolidation Projects
Turkey Land Consolidation Project
Topic Note 13.4: ICT Support for Good Governance in Land Administration. ICT significantly supports good gov-
ernance in land administration by facilitating open, transparent access to land records for all. These records can now
be obtained through mobile phones, either through Web- or SMS-based information services, greatly improving the
outreach of land administration services, especially to groups that were long excluded from such information. The World
Bank’s Land Governance Assessment Framework offers guidance on the role of ICT.
ICT and the Land Governance Assessment Framework
Improving Public Access to Land Administration Services in Indonesia
(continued)
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
342 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
Topic Note 13.5: Public-Sector Information Policy Supporting Effective ICT-Based Information Services. Land
administration agencies and policy makers must ensure the maximum exposure and reuse of land administration infor-
mation in the public domain. Progress has been made in making copyright, licensing, and pricing arrangements as simple
and consistent as possible. Governments have also developed open government licenses, which provide a single set of
terms and conditions for anyone wishing to use or license government information.
A Policy Framework to Support the Lao People’s Democratic Republic’s National Land and Natural
Resource Information System
Vietnam’s One-Stop Shop for E-Government Services
Topic Note 13.6: Sustainable Funding of ICT in Land Administration. A number of countries have found that land
registration systems and even the cadastre can finance themselves. Public-private partnerships are also being employed
to spread the cost of development and maintenance more equitably among those who benefit from the systems.
ICT-Derived Efficiencies in the Kyrgyz Republic’s Benefit Land Office Staff
The Philippines: A Public-Private Approach to ICT Financing and Risk Sharing
Topic Note 13.7: Designing Scalable and Interoperable Land Information Infrastructures. Data model standards
help ensure that land information can be easily ported across generations of ICT, open interoperability standards allow
same-generation systems to work well with each other, and Web services provide a standard means of interoperation
among diverse software applications.
Combining Open Source Solutions with Open Geospatial Consortium Standards
The Kyrgyz Republic’s Open Source Strategy and GIS Solutions
Social Tenure Domain Model
OVERVIEW Weak land markets, conflicts over ownership, land
Good land administration creates accurate, accessible, grabs, and social disharmony.
interoperable, timely, secure, and complete information Reductions in yields, diminished food security, nega-
about land and property in an affordable and efficient way tive impacts on the environment.
that promotes confidence between the public, its commer- Lack of an essential policy tool that can assist gov-
cial enterprises, and government. The records commonly ernments in creating a civil society with democratic
held for land administration are also the foundation for inte- norms.
grated spatial information systems that link multiple users in Reduced potential for economic growth as the large
the provision of government services by electronic means amount of capital typically invested in real property
(e-government). They often provide the key data needed by is never formalized and integrated into the financial
all local and central government organizations and, to a lesser system.
extent, by the public.
Figure 13.1 illustrates examples of the benefits of good land ICT has an increasingly fundamental role to play in improving
administration (UNECE 2005), ranging from guarantee of the operation of land administration and in making informa-
ownership and security of tenure through support for envi- tion services more readily available in support of land mar-
ronmental monitoring to improved urban planning, infrastruc- kets and urban and rural economic development. ICT can
ture development, and property tax collection. Agriculture provide innovative outreach channels to the poor and disad-
productivity, though not explicitly featured, is also greatly vantaged to ensure that land administration and its benefits
increased where good land administration practices exist. are more inclusive and can be pro-poor. Significantly, land
administration information is providing fundamental refer-
Where countries lack robust and tested land administration ence information, such as property addresses and transpor-
systems, significant dysfunctions can occur, including the tation networks, which enables the integration of wider spa-
following examples: tial information systems managed by the public and private
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 343
FIGURE 13.1. Benefits of Good Land Administration of determining, recording, and disseminating information
about ownership, value, and use of land, when implementing
Improved land management policies” (UNECE 1996). Typically, it is the
Improved environment Improved formal governance structures within a nation that define and
housing stewardship security of
delivery tenure protect rights in land. Recognition is growing, however, that
Improved Facilitated
public land
nonformal or customary institutions can and should play a
safety reform role in defining and protecting land rights, and that they need
Improved Improved to be included in the ongoing development of land adminis-
service land resource tration. The following subsections describe the elements of
delivery management
Modern land administration systems, with an emphasis on the range
Improved land of information they encompass.
administration Land
spatial disputes
land-use system
reduction
planning Land Tenure Systems
Improved Land
management market The term “land tenure” refers to the way in which land
of state stimulation rights are held. There are both formal systems, laid down
lands Improved
Improved public in statutes, and informal systems, conducted in accordance
land market confidence in with custom and tradition. All formal systems are subject to
monitoring Increased conveyancing
Credit state-imposed restrictions, such as planning legislation that
security revenue
generation limits the use rights associated with any area of land and
restriction of ownership by foreigners (McAuslan 2010). The
Source: Adapted from UNECE 2005.
most common formal systems include what in some jurisdic-
tions is called “freehold” or “fee-simple” or “full title” (titulo
sectors. This integration facilitates the building of spatial or dominio pleno), which represents the fewest restrictions
data infrastructures (SDI) linking multiple users and allow- on the landowner’s ability to do what he or she likes with the
ing the delivery of a wide range of integrated e-government land, and “leasehold,” under which these rights are held for
services. (See http://inspire.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ on the Europe- a limited period.
wide SDI program; http://www.anzlic.org.au/ on Australia-
New Zealand SDI; and http://www.fgdc.gov/nsdi/nsdi.html Informal systems operate in traditional areas and where
for U.S. SDI information.) formal systems have not been put in place or have broken
down, as in squatter camps and other informal settlements.
This is an unprecedented moment for ICT in support of land Traditional systems often impose restrictions on the dis-
administration and management as geospatial information posal and use of land, which according to custom is usually
improves and increases worldwide. The three core ICT regarded as belonging as much to deceased ancestors and
technologies for land—the Internet, global navigation satel- future generations as to the present stewards of the land
lite systems (GNSS), and geographic information systems and therefore is not a commodity that is open to market
(GIS)—are converging and creating huge opportunities to forces. Customary law is, in general, not written but is estab-
manage land and property using ICT in much more thor- lished through long usage (Delville 2010). Sometimes, as
ough, inexpensive, and effective ways. It is still early in this in Uganda, customary law is recognized in formal statutes,
process, and most countries are not fully prepared to take although in many countries this is still not the case. The inclu-
advantage of ICT and this convergence in technology; nor are sion of informal systems of land rights is a challenge for land
countries fully ready to embrace the bottom-up potential of administration agencies.
the emerging technology. This module provides some guid-
ance and examples of how some jurisdictions are increas-
Land Registration
ingly taking advantage of the new technology.
A major component of any land administration system is a
record of land ownership. Because of the uncertainties that
Elements of Land Administration can arise over who owns the land and under what condi-
Land administration has been defined by the United Nations tions, in many societies it became customary to document
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) as “the process the transfer of land rights in the form of legal deeds and
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
344 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
certificates. To provide additional security, official copies of The Cadastre
these records were kept in deeds registries, or what in some Records of land parcels began to be collected long before
countries are called land books. Historically, the deeds sys- the invention of land titling. They were known as cadastral
tem was inefficient, in that it did not prove who the owner records and were designed principally as an aid to tax col-
was; it merely showed that two parties had exchanged a lection. They identified each taxable parcel of land with the
deed of sale. Today, many deeds registries and land book name of the taxpayer on a cadastral map. The taxpayer is not
systems have been computerized, with data on land rights necessarily the owner, and hence in much of Europe there
linked to records of the land parcels, their addresses, and was and still is a dual system: The data on land ownership
owners. appear in land books under the Ministry of Justice and are
often managed by the courts, whereas the data on location,
To improve on the deeds system, two versions of what is shape, and size of parcels are registered in the cadastre,
known as a land titling or title registration system emerged usually managed under the Ministry of Finance. In the great
in the nineteenth century, one in England and the other in majority of countries in Latin America, registries are under
Australia (where it was known as the Torrens system). A the judiciary, whereas cadastres are under the executive.
title is a proof of ownership. In both countries the basis for
the register became the parcel of land, to which the name The original meaning of the term “cadastre” has been
of the owner was attached. Given the address or other extended to include a variety of land records, with the land
reference to any particular parcel, plot, or lot of land, one parcel, lot, or plot at the heart of the systems. For example:
could look for it in the register and find the owner, and vice
Fiscal cadastre, a register of properties recording
versa. The certificate issued when this process is complete
their value.
is known as the certificate of title and is normally guaranteed
Juridical cadastre, a register of parcels of land
by the state.
according to their ownership or use rights.
Although quick and easy to do, the registration of title does Land-use cadastre, a register of land use based on
assume that there has been a survey of the land so that its individual parcels.
physical location, size, and shape can be described. It also Multipurpose cadastre, a register that includes many
assumes that prior to compiling the register, the true owner attributes of land parcels and addresses the wide
of the land and the nature and extent of the land rights range of issues identified in figure 13.1.
have been established. The process for doing this is known
as adjudication, which is a legal procedure that may entail Increasingly, the cadastral and land book records are com-
investigations on the ground. Surveying and adjudication can puterized and linked electronically, though not necessarily
be time-consuming, expensive processes. Once the informa- institutionally. In some cases—as in the Netherlands, where
tion has been compiled, however, the mechanics of handling land records are integrated fully under the Dutch Kadaster—one
the records can be fully computerized, and the system can organization manages both types of records. Similarly, in Albania,
operate cheaply, efficiently, and effectively. the Czech Republic, El Salvador, Honduras, Indonesia, the Lao
People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), Lithuania, Romania,
The registration of deeds, land book systems, and registra- Serbia, the Slovak Republic, and Thailand, one agency—typically
tion of title are often referred to as “land registration.” While the Department of Lands or a cadastre agency—undertakes
many registration systems focus on the private ownership of base mapping for cadastral purposes, the development of
land, either in outright ownership or in long-term leasehold, standards for adjudication, cadastral surveying, registration
they can also include other forms of tenure such as land-use functions, and policy coordination. Many other countries, such
rights and shorter-term leases. These variations are impor- as Croatia and Slovenia, have retained separate organizations.
tant for countries where immovable property is technically
“owned” by the government but where there are privately In Latin America, a lack of institutional integration is often
held land-use rights. As a result of modernization and com- regarded as the single most significant challenge for achieving
puterization, combined with rigorous quality control proce- ICT improvements to land registration. Land registration services
dures, the distinction between these systems is now mini- are often a major source of revenue for the judiciary, which are
mal, each mirroring the conditions on the ground, no longer often extremely autonomous and reluctant to hand over their
requiring investigation of the history of a parcel, and giving in earnings to another part of government. In some cases, such as
effect a guarantee of ownership. Brazil and Haiti, these services are carried out by private agents
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 345
who are similar to, but more powerful than, notary publics and telecommunications. In the context of land administration,
are equally reluctant to surrender their autonomy. the terminology may be even a little broader and also covers
surveying and positioning technology, including global naviga-
Land Valuation and Taxation tion satellite systems (GNSS), such as the Global Positioning
As noted, the cadastre has been most commonly used to System (GPS); measuring equipment, such as total stations
support a system of land and property taxation. A land- and and electronic theodolites; Light Detection and Ranging
property-based tax is cheap to administer, transparent, hard (LiDAR), digital aerial photography, and satellite data acquisi-
to avoid, and imposes political accountability at the local level. tion systems and imagery processing; GIS; land data records
In many countries, taxes on land and property provide a sig- management systems built on relational database manage-
nificant source of revenue for local government, accounting, ment systems; workflow management systems; wide and
in some cases, for as much as 40 percent of all subnational local area networks; wireless technology; data storage sys-
tax revenue. tems, including data warehouses and Data as a Service on
the Internet; and Web services delivered by Internet. The
Land is both a cultural and an economic asset. In an eco- diversity of uses for ICT in land administration is remarkable.
nomic sense, its value is determined from market informa-
tion in countries where formal land markets exist. Land The evolution of ICT and location information infrastructures
information infrastructures and GIS technology are used (also known as land information systems or services) in
increasingly to support valuations and mass appraisals in underpinning land administration is illustrated in figure 13.2.
which comparisons can be made between all properties in The initial phase focuses on large-scale programs for captur-
a country. Aside from recording and transmitting relevant ing data by scanning records or conducting field surveys, with
information, ICT tools can provide transparency, leading to a corresponding computerization of internal land administration
reduction in the amount of fraud that can occur. Much of the processes. The next series of phases are all outward facing,
cost of compiling land registers can be more than recouped improving the level of customer services and increasingly
using enhanced tax collections. providing online services. Initially, this effort involved provid-
ing extranet services to key customers; as Internet services
Land Management and Development Control matured, they supported an increasing number of information
Many land administration systems are regarded as a sup- services and e-transactions. Finally, as interoperability among
port for land management and planning/development con- government agencies improves, radical changes and efficien-
trol, which are seen as separate functions. Others see land cies will be achieved in delivering e-government services
management as the end product of a process in which the based on land administration.
resources of land are put to good use, and hence, as an
Several key ICT applications support land administration.
integral part of land administration. Often, land administra-
Database management systems, usually of the relational
tion officials will check and record building permits and notify
variety, provide robust and secure repositories to manage
the relevant authorities when regulations are breached. With
the significant volumes of land information (textual and
the growth of the multipurpose cadastre and extensions to
geospatial) in a distributed environment and to support
the use of the information recorded in land administration sys-
efficient searching and querying of the information. The
tems, the line of responsibility between agencies is becoming
associated digital record management systems efficiently
blurred. In land consolidation projects, for example, where the
store and retrieve raster-scanned documents such as
shape and size of parcels are redesigned, close cooperation
paper deeds. Last, GIS supports the capture and editing
between the recording agencies and the implementing agen-
of geospatial information such as parcel boundaries and
cies is essential and is helping to make land consolidation part
interfaces to the land information repositories and wider
of the wider rural development agenda. ICT has a crucial role
national spatial data infrastructures (NSDIs) to support
to play in sharing and analyzing land information among agen-
spatial analysis and visualization, including a map-based
cies and in communicating and testing change scenarios with
interface for Web information services.
the citizens involved.
Location Information Infrastructure Land Administration Supporting Business
“ICT” is an umbrella term that encompasses all forms Since 2005, 105 economies have undertaken 146 reforms
of computing, information technology, the Internet, and making it easier to transfer property (table 13.1 provides
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
346 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
FIGURE 13.2. Evolution of ICT in Land Administration half as much time. Twenty-nine of 30 high-income OECD
ICT in land administration Surveying and data capture economies have electronic registries, and 85 percent allow
online access to information on encumbrances, either for
1970 Manual Traditional surveying all or for professionals such as notaries. Eleven—including
France, the Netherlands, and New Zealand—offer electronic
1980 Internal data capture Scanning and digital registration.2
and computerization records management
DBMS/DRMS Total stations
1990 Internet-based TABLE 13.1. Where Registering Property Is Easy
GNSS
information services
and Where It Is Not
2000 Transactions with High-resolution satellite MOST BUSINESS LEAST BUSINESS
customers over Internet imagery and digital FRIENDLY RANK FRIENDLY RANK
aerial photos Saudi Arabia 1 Angola 174
2005 Interoperability Open data sources Georgia 2 Guinea-Bissau 175
with other government
New Zealand 3 Liberia 176
agencies (e-gov/NSDI)
United Arab Emirates 4 Belgium 177
2010 Web and mobile-phone- Armenia 5 Eritrea 178
based services and Belarus 6 Nigeria 179
e-transactions with
customers and suppliers Lithuania 7 Timor-Leste 180
Source: Authors. Norway 8 Micronesia, Fed. Sts. 181
Note: DBMS = database management system; DRMS = digital record man-
Slovak Republic 9 Marshall Islands 182
agement systems, NSDI = national spatial data infrastructure; GNSS = global
national satellite systems. Azerbaijan 10 Brunei Darussalam 183
Source: Doing Business database, http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/
exploretopics/registering-property.
examples of countries ranked by the ease of such transac- Note: Rankings are the average of the economy’s rankings on the proce-
tions). Globally, the time to transfer property fell by 38 per- dures, times, and cost to register property.
cent and the cost by 10 percent. The most popular feature of
property registration reform in those six years, implemented
Emerging Trends in ICT for Land Administration
in 52 economies, was lowering transfer taxes and govern-
Recent advances and convergence of technologies applied
ment fees. This reform reduced the cost by 3.1 percent of the
to land administration are creating new opportunities to gen-
property value on average. Sub-Saharan Africa was the most
erate greater efficiencies in delivering land administration
active, with 22 economies lowering costs. The second most
services, to reach out to excluded segments of society, and
popular feature, implemented in 32 economies, was stream-
to integrate land administration information into the wider
lining procedures and linking or improving agencies’ systems
e-government arena. This section summarizes some emerg-
to simplify registration. These measures reduced interactions
ing opportunities.
between customers and agencies—saving two procedures
on average—while maintaining security and controls.1
Surveying and Satellites
Worldwide, 61 percent of economies have an elec- Advances in global positioning, mapping, and imaging tech-
tronic database for encumbrances, including almost all nology present some of the most promising opportunities
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development for ICT to support land administration services. By 2015,
(OECD) high-income and Eastern European and Central multiconstellation GNSS will provide around 100 satellites
Asian economies. But in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, for global positioning. These new GNSS signals and constel-
more than 80 percent retain paper-based systems. This lations will provide better accuracy and reliability, leading to
lag in automation makes a difference. In economies with positioning to within centimeters in a mobile environment.
computerized registries, transferring property takes about This capacity opens up the potential for GNSS technology to
reach a wider range of stakeholders, including citizens.
1 “Registering Property.” Doing Business, http://www
.doingbusiness.org/data/exploretopics/registering-property,
accessed May 2011. 2 Ibid.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 347
The costs of surveying (and the time it takes) have prevented for free; examples include Google (http://earth.google.com/
many poor communities from being surveyed—the cost of and http://maps.google.com/) and Microsoft (http://www
the survey surpassed the value of their land. Fortunately, this .bing.com/maps/). Prior to investing in ICT to update land
situation is changing. National mapping agencies are intro- administration services, it is essential that legislation and
ducing continuously operating reference stations, networks policies surrounding information transparency and access
of geodetic-quality GNSS receivers that make data available are updated, wherever possible. This step will ensure more-
for precise positioning for national survey and mapping efficient investments in ICT and the delivery of effective land
programs, including cadastral surveying. This positioning administration services by removing many current restric-
infrastructure increases the efficiency and consistency of tions, such as restrictions on involving foreign firms in valida-
cadastral surveys and has multiple applications. A new gen- tion or requirements that all orthophotos must be produced
eration of ground-based LiDAR, mounted on vehicles, is also within a country.
emerging as the next “big” advance in surveying. Boundary
features can be captured very quickly, to an accuracy of Integration with Wider Agendas for E-Government
around half of a centimeter, just by driving around. Normally, and National Spatial Data Infrastructure Initiatives
such precision is not required, although some surveyors may
Most countries are developing initiatives to widen access to
claim that it is necessary. However, the location of physical
and use of geospatial information, but their maturity and suc-
features does not necessarily coincide with the location of
cess vary across the regions. In Latin America, for example,
legal boundaries, which means that adjudication supported
Chile, El Salvador, and Honduras are more advanced than
by human interpretation is still needed and can be costly and
others. A good example of this type of initiative is Australia
time consuming.
and New Zealand’s Spatial Information Council, which is
Finally, although aerial photographs have been used in responsible for coordinating the collection and transfer of
recording boundaries since the 1950s (in Kenya, for exam- land-related information between the different levels of gov-
ple), digital cameras, high-resolution (less than 1 meter) ernment; and promoting the use of that information in deci-
satellite imagery, digital terrain models, and new software sion making. NSDIs involve the cooperation of public and pri-
techniques are increasing the availability of reasonably vate organizations to implement interoperable technologies,
priced orthophotos, presenting opportunities for more cost- data standards, and business approaches within a policy
effective, efficient, and participatory ways of registering the framework that facilitates the sharing and reuse of geospa-
boundaries of land rights. These approaches have been used tial information (Williamson et al. 2010). This effort normally
successfully in Ethiopia (Lemmen and Zevenbergen 2010), supports the discovery of geospatial information at first
Rwanda, Thailand, and Namibia. In Namibia, however, the but eventually supports Web-based services based on that
systematic registration of communal land rights was 32 per- information—in other words, Data as a Service. Over time,
cent cheaper than surveying with handheld GPS (Kapitango the myriad versions of similar data sets will be harmonized
and Meijs 2010). to generate and to reference common base themes in the
data—such as transportation networks, property addresses,
administrative boundaries, and land ownership—substantially
Information Transparency
increasing interoperability. Land administration information is
Under governments’ transparency, accountability, and citizen
a fundamental component of NSDIs. Participation in NSDIs
participation agendas, public sector information policy is
promotes the culture shift for government agencies to share
changing (see Module 12 on governance for more examples
interoperable land and property information and leads to
of e-government interventions). Increasingly, public sector
more integrated and effective e-government services for
data sets once intended for internal consumption, accessed
land administration, as experienced in Vietnam (Warnest and
for a fee, or restricted owing to security concerns are pro-
Bell 2009d). GIS technology provides the framework within
vided as open data, free to be used for other purposes,
NSDI to manage, integrate, and spatially analyze multiple
under “data.gov” initiatives (see http://www.data.gov.uk/
sources of geospatial information.
for an example). Although few countries currently release
land ownership and rights information under their open data
initiatives, primarily because of concerns related to revenue More Sources of Open Data, Both Formal
generation and privacy, it is just a matter of time until the and Crowdsourced
wider economic benefits are understood by more countries. “Crowdsourcing” is the term for citizens contributing con-
The private sector already makes much mapping available tent, and its roots lie in the increasing convergence of three
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
348 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
phenomena: (1) the widespread use of GPS and image-based Zealand’s University of Otago. The initiative—involving the
mapping technologies by professionals and expert amateurs; extension of the Open Source Cadastre and Registration
(2) the emerging role of Web 2.0, which allows more user software development concept (FAO and FIG 2010) and its
involvement and interaction (for example, “wikis,” which follow-on project, Solutions for Open Land Administration—
allow any number of interlinked Web pages to be created will eventually offer governments a choice between licensing
and edited via a Web browser; and standards-based authen- often restrictive and costly proprietary software and promot-
tication processes to contribute information to the Web); and ing the development of free, nonproprietary applications and
(3) the growth of social networking tools, practices, and communication software. (See the Solutions for Open Land
culture. Within land administration, there is growing recogni- Administration, http://www.flossola.org.)
tion that the current surveyor-based paradigm is not scalable
to meet demand. Around 70 percent of land and property Open source GIS solutions are being implemented in land
is unregistered, and this figure is increasing as urbanization administration in Bavaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia,
generates ever-higher levels of informal settlements and Ghana, the Kyrgyz Republic, and Samoa, and in Solothurn,
slums. One option to fill this gap is for surveyors to partner Switzerland. They underpin the initial prototyping of the
with citizens and communities to provide crowdsourced land Social Tenure Domain Model (Lemmen et al. 2007). Open
administration information. For example, community-sup- source land registration and cadastral solutions are likely to
ported mapping recently occurred under the OpenStreetMap succeed in countries where the government embraces the
(http://www.openstreetmap.org/) initiative in Nairobi’s Kibera idea of using open source software for its information sys-
neighborhood, one of Africa’s largest slums. (See “Audio tems and supports its use in education and research. Such a
Slideshow: On the Map,” BBC, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ national context makes it easier to find local ICT specialists
technology-12164081.) Different levels of authentication who are familiar with free, open source products and form
can be applied to crowdsourced data, from simple conflict the human resource base to maintain systems.
checks to legal validation, to ensure that citizens obtain some
Although the total ownership costs—including license,
level of security of tenure along the continuum of rights.
maintenance, and support costs—will probably be lower
than costs for proprietary systems, the costs are not to be
Free, Open Source Systems
underestimated, especially the costs surrounding software
Proprietary software has traditionally supported land admin-
integration. Open source software may make maintenance
istration systems, even though they have recently embraced
easier (problems can be solved without external support and
open standards. Over the past decade, however, free, open
with advice from international user and developer communi-
source systems have come to prominence. Licenses for
ties) and cheaper (the absence of license fees releases funds
these programs give users the freedom to run the program
to maintain and further develop the system). The use of free,
for any purpose, to modify the program, and to redistribute
open source software will not change the fact that a proper
copies of either the original or modified program without
business plan is the key requirement for introducing ICT sys-
having to pay royalties to previous developers. The promise
tems for land administration (FAO and FIG 2010).
of open source software is better quality, higher reliability,
more flexibility, lower cost, and an end to proprietary vendor
Risk-Sharing Relationships Between Clients and Suppliers
lock-in. (See the Open Source Initiative, http://opensource
.org/docs/osd, and the Open Source Geospatial Foundation, Under the traditional approach to investing in ICT to support
http://www.osgeo.org.) The development of systems based land administration, the client assumed all of the risk: The cli-
on open source software also encourages local capacity ent issued a tender for ICT and selected the best value propo-
building. The obvious advantages of open source develop- sition; the chosen supplier would deliver and provide support
ment can be seen in the emergence and success of major for the ICT solution. If the delivered solution defined by the
projects like the Apache HTTP server (now running more client is delivered satisfactorily to specification but is subse-
than half of all websites globally). quently found to be inappropriate or ineffective in operation,
then the fault lies solely with the client. Under a number of
The use of open source solutions for land administration will new partnership arrangements, however, risk is shared more
increase in developing countries that cannot afford the high equitably. For example, the Government of the Philippines
costs of licensing commercial solutions. A cooperative effort is engaging the private sector under public-private partner-
among IT experts to foster open source software develop- ships and outsourced service provision models to build
ment and accessibility is led by FAO with support from New computerized land information infrastructure, applications,
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 349
and land-related e-services. A private consortium is deliver- of the Internet and mobile phones, the implementation of
ing a build/own/operate system that government will fully fully Web-based conveyancing, more local participation in the
own after an agreed-on “concession” (payback) period is planning and development dialogue, and support for custom-
concluded (Warnest and Bell 2009c). These private-sector- ary land rights.
delivered solutions may increasingly consist of some open
source components. Web- and Mobile Phone-Based Information Services
Online access to information services related to land admin-
Cloud Computing for Land Information Infrastructure istration is expanding with the expansion in broadband infra-
Cloud computing is a set of services or resources offered structure and the use of mobile phones to deliver Internet and
by different providers through the Internet. Characteristics of SMS-based services; Indonesia is one example of a country
the cloud are (1) the cloud provides storage space for your that had taken this approach (Warnest and Bell 2009a).
files; (2) the cloud provides software to process files (word Agencies that previously excluded many people, especially
processor, photo editing, email, contact management, calen- in rural areas, are becoming more open and rapidly building
dar); (3) the cloud automatically backs up files, and copies of public trust through the provision of simple, transparent, and
files are stored in different geographical areas; and (4) data accessible services.
can be accessed by multiple users at the discretion of the
creator of the data. Within the land administration context, an Mobile phones have made a bigger difference to the lives
agency could place its entire land information infrastructure, of more people, more quickly, than any previous com-
including data, on the cloud and directly manage and main- munications technology, and their use is growing most
tain it over the Internet through Web services. Customers significantly in developing countries. Mobile phones are
would also access it over the Internet and be unaware that it connected to phone networks at ever-higher bandwidths,
was on the cloud. The cloud is the next computing paradigm, which has opened real-time access to the Internet and
and many land administration agencies will start to adopt information services. For those living outside of the main
it over the next five years, once confidence in security and cities, mobiles may be their only means of accessing the
portability is built. Internet.
The main advantages of this approach are that clients can
E-Conveyancing
outsource the burden of maintaining servers and applica-
Many land administration agencies are transforming paper-
tions, scale systems up or down on demand, access their
based conveyancing systems into a fully electronic proce-
data and services from anywhere with an Internet con-
dure, using electronic documents, applications, and signa-
nection, and substitute regular, predictable operational
tures. (Developments in England and Wales are described
expenditures for occasional heavy expenditures on ICT (for
at http://www.landreg.gov.uk/e-conveyancing/.) The aim is
servers, for example). Cloud computing requires a robust,
to reduce the delays and anxiety that can be experienced
high-bandwidth broadband connection to the Internet and
in current land and property transactions. Fully electronic
has real benefits; but there are also reasons for caution.
conveyancing procedures are enabled by encouraging open
Risks include loss of service and data if the provider has
access to property information and providing a mechanism
downtime or goes out of business, regulatory problems
for all payments relating to the transactions in a chain of
when personal data are stored internationally, security
property transfers to be paid simultaneously and electroni-
concerns when users lose control of how their data are
cally, with automatic registration on completion. The imple-
protected, one-sided service agreements that give users
mentation of this kind of system assumes that stakeholders
little redress in the event of a calamity, and lock-in depen-
have the capability to support all aspects of their transactions
dency on proprietary cloud applications (Thompson and
electronically, however.
Waller 2011).
Fostering Citizen and Community Participation
Extended Scope of Land Administration Solutions Greater involvement of citizens in a dialogue with plan-
In many countries, land administration services have been ning officials and property developers around development
notoriously difficult for some segments of the population opportunities and development control should legitimize
to reach and have focused exclusively on supporting formal political decision making and ensure that it is combined with
land rights. ICT has changed this scenario through the rise responsibility for the financial, social, and environmental
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
350 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
IMAGE 13.1. Women Use GIS Instruments to Map Land and Measure Soil Qualities KEY CHALLENGES
AND ENABLERS
Work on improving land
administration systems goes
back many years. As a result
of all this activity, a number of
lessons have been learned,
as discussed in the following
subsections.
A legal framework is needed
to underpin ICT-based land
administration services. As
ICT and e-government services
are introduced into land admin-
istration, the legal framework
underpinning land administra-
tion needs to change to allow
for electronic signature and
new electronic services, such
Source: Work funded by AgCommons, a program executed by the CGIAR. that computerized information/
records are accepted as being
consequences of development. Many governments have legal and valid. Significant legal changes will also be required
established e-planning portals that allow citizens to access to support the recognition and inclusion of customary tenure
information related to land-use control, including zoning within the formal land markets and land tenure systems. This
development plans, planning regulations, and general land- transition needs to be well planned, as passing new legisla-
use information. A new generation of Web-based GIS initia- tion can be time consuming. The capacity within countries to
tives in public participation provides citizens with tools to implement legal framework reforms is also necessary and may
analyze proposals, suggest and evaluate alternatives, and affect the design of legal reform strategies.
frame an online discussion of alternatives (Zhao and Coleman
2006) (image 13.1). It is necessary to create a land policy framework to let
the land administration function more effectively. Land
administration products and services must be aligned with
Support for Social and Customary Tenure a country’s current needs. These requirements must be
Until recently, land information infrastructure supported only defined in land policy, describing how governments intend
the management of formal land rights, but a recent initia- to deal with the allocation of land and land-related benefits
tive led by UN-HABITAT and the International Federation of and how land administration systems are supposed to facili-
Surveyors (FIG) has developed a Social Tenure Domain Model tate the implementation of the policy. Such implementation
(Lemmen et al. 2007), which was piloted in Ethiopia. The includes the rules for land tenure and land tenure security,
Social Tenure Domain Model is a specialization of the Land the functioning of the land market, land-use planning, devel-
Administration Domain Model, which is in its final stage of opment, land taxation, management of natural resources,
reaching the status of a global International Organization for land reform, and so on. The formulation and subsequent
Standardization (ISO) standard (Lemmen and Zevenbergen monitoring of land policies require access to appropriate land
2010). (See http://www.gdmc.nl/publications/2010/Spatially_ information. ICT in land administration has a key role in sup-
Enabled_Society.pdf.) The inclusion of social tenure support porting and informing policy makers.
in land information infrastructures will result in more secure
tenure for many, and it directly supports the UN-HABITAT The poor do not necessarily benefit. Computerization
“continuum of land rights” approach, which advocates reg- of land administration without outreach to otherwise-
istering a range of informal rights rather than formal rights disconnected segments of the population can further disad-
alone (UN-HABITAT 2008). vantage the poor. However, innovation in ICT and modeling
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 351
of customary tenure is supporting outreach to rural areas, Insist that the land administration change program has
for instance in Indonesia. In many countries, although the political support and a sufficient time horizon to deal
middle classes, entrepreneurs, and rich have benefited with the existing problems.
from relatively easy and cheap methods to transfer land
and secure title, the poor have been excluded by the costs Existing problems with land administration information
and, more often, insufficient understanding of the ben- can greatly increase system modernization costs. The
efits. Hardly anyone disputes the need for secure tenure costs of implementing modern land administration solutions
and that citizens in both rural and urban areas should have in countries of the former Soviet Union have been greatly
guaranteed rights to the land that they legitimately use. Not reduced compared to others since they were starting with
everyone, however, agrees that state-backed certificates of fewer legacy issues to contend with. In other regions exist-
title provide the best solution. Even where land titling is ing land administration systems are being modernized, with
required to support a formal land market, titling may benefit inherent problems that significantly increase the costs and
the rich but not the poor. Some form of land titling along time frames for implementation. One of the most serious
the continuum of land rights may be necessary to bring issues is the poor quality of the data on immovable prop-
about all the potential benefits that land administration can erty, with textual and geospatial data out of date. This can be
provide, but land titling alone will not suffice to do so. Other further compounded by the number of land disputes in the
institutional arrangements and social and economic support courts, and the number of potential disputes that are lying
need to be in place. dormant, which might be triggered by the process of adju-
dication. Simply eliminating the existing land administration
Modernizing land administration can be challenging. system is usually not an option. The modernization program
Significant legacy issues often exist, and professional and must be built around data upgrading and quality maintenance
political biases are normally encountered. These can have mechanisms, along with streamlined processes for resolving
serious detrimental effects on the modernization program disputes, preferably through dedicated land dispute resolu-
unless the associated risks are understood and mitigated tion structures. Automation by itself brings less transforma-
effectively. Here are some general principles for designing tive change in these cases, but can be the start of a long
new land administration modernization programs: process of evolutionary improvement.
If there is a no possibility to reduce multiple agencies
involved, focus on improving coordination among Governments should accept and plan for high costs and
them with formal memorandums of understanding long time frames. The implementation of a fully operational
agreed on. land administration system involves high costs and can take
Begin the land administration change program with many years before the majority of properties are registered.
a business case and associated business cases to For example, the early Thailand project involved loans of
sustain it. US$183 million over 18 years, covering capacity building,
surveying and mapping, and the high costs of early ICT
Adopt an approach that uses the same land admin-
solutions. More recent initiatives have been less expensive,
istration regime for urban and rural land, even if the
especially when starting from scratch—where the cost
institutions must be different. However, there may
impacts of poor quality of the data on immovable property
be variations in the precision of cadastral surveys and
and large numbers of active and dormant land disputes can
development control standards, for example, between
be mostly avoided. In the Kyrgyz Republic, more than 2.5
city centers and remote rural areas.
million properties (more than 90 percent of private proper-
Build in an effective and dedicated dispute resolution
ties in the country) were entered into a new registry system
system that leaves the courts as a last resort.
under a seven-year project costing less than US$12 million.
Try to ensure that the land administration system A second four-year project costing about US$7.5 million is
benefits all and that barriers to entry are low. currently making further improvements in the quality of the
If the existing data are in poor condition and decades spatial data and overall ICT capacity, but the registry system
out of date, there needs to be a plan and budget for is already highly functional. The process of surveying and
data improvement and ongoing maintenance. registering each individual land parcel can be expensive and
Bring land professionals (surveyors, lawyers) into the time consuming and, in some countries, open to corruption.
process as partners and try to mitigate their inclination There is a need to understand the local context, to assess
to lobby against introducing pragmatic change. existing judicial capacity, to prioritize implementation, adopt
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
352 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
faster and more innovative ICT techniques, reduce red tape Planners should avoid the fallacy that ICT is a silver
and multiple procedures, and engage communities in the bullet. ICT is an enabling infrastructure requiring appropriate,
process. Changes in ownership due to transfers or inheri- significant, full-life investment. Technology is changing rap-
tance must be undertaken at the same time as new titles idly, and what was appropriate five years ago may not satisfy
are being brought into the registers, so that as the project today’s demands. Land records may need to stand the test
progresses, more staff can be taken off first registration and of time over centuries, so sustainable methods for archiving
put onto record maintenance. Certificate of title holders do material are essential. Simply investing in new technology
not necessarily report changes, for instance, in areas where without understanding citizen, state, and commercial cus-
customary tenure still operates alongside the formal title tomer requirements; training staff; adequately testing and
system. Failure to carry out record maintenance at the same piloting solutions; building capacity; and simplifying the busi-
time as new titles are being added will cause records to be ness processes may not achieve the desired effect and can
outdated before the system is complete. Full-life costs of a lower staff morale and customer satisfaction. ICT may also
land administration system must include its maintenance. fail to achieve some of its objectives if delivered in isolation.
Although significant evidence has been gathered around
Business models should support continual investment the world that property titling and registration will enhance
in ICT. Business models for land administration systems access to credit, it does not always do so (box 13.1).
must directly generate revenue, obtain guaranteed state
funding, or share the financial investment and risk with the
private sector to ensure that ICT is sustainably maintained BOX 13.1. Outcomes of Automating Land Registration
and replaced. However, choosing the appropriate business in Andhra Pradesh
model is not easy, as it may change over time as the land
Did the gradual computerization of land registry systems
market matures. Guarantees of funding over the long term
across Andhra Pradesh’s 387 subregistry offices influ-
are unlikely from governments. The generation of revenue
ence access to credit? Quarterly data on credit disbursed
depends on information policies for the public sector, which
by all commercial banks over 11 years (1997–2007) were
often restrict access to land information, thus reducing
aggregated at the subregistry office level and examined
potential benefits and income streams as well as transpar-
in light of the date when the land registry system shifted
ency. The recent financial crisis has precipitated crises in
from manual to digital records. Computerization had no
property markets around the world, significantly reducing
credit effect in rural areas but led to increased credit
the number of land administration transactions. The result
supply in urban areas. A marked increase of registered
has been reduced revenue streams for many land admin-
urban mortgages following computerization supports
istration agencies and their ICT partners, leaving them in a
the robustness of the result. At the same time, the esti-
financial predicament. Projects need to start with a strategy
mated effects of a reduction of the stamp duty (a tax lev-
and a corresponding, robust business case, updating it as
ied on legal instruments and transactions such as those
needed.
involved in sales of land or mortgages) are much larger,
Effective and mature land administration systems need suggesting that, without further changes in the property
computerization. The driving rationale behind the increas- rights system, the impacts of computerization will remain
ing use of ICT for land administration is that the volume, marginal.
complexity, and expected processing times of transac- Source: Deininger and Goyal 2010.
tions can no longer be handled in an efficient and trans-
parent manner through manual processes. The increasing
demand by the general public and the private sector for Home-grown ICT solutions should be used where
open access to land administration information cannot be possible. Within World Bank–financed projects in Europe
met without ICT. For example, ICT can support greater and Central Asia, land information infrastructures have been
access to and sharing of information, improve data quality developed either through large contracts bid out to the pri-
and completeness, increase security and transparency of vate sector or through building systems in house. The inter-
operations and information (potentially reducing the risk nal approach has generally been more successful, because
of corrupt dealings in land), increase revenue generation systems can be built in a modular form as agencies build their
around new services, and provide a basis for monitoring own capacity to use and manage the different modules and
and evaluation. technology. Another advantage of in-house development is
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 353
that agencies can retain their own specialists (or use local FIGURE 13.3. Sustainable Development Needs Both
companies) to amend and maintain the software rather than Urban and Rural Inputs
being locked into their supplier’s source. Large, internationally
bid contracts have proven very difficult to manage, very time Sustainable urban/rural
living conditions
consuming to tender, and very slow to produce a functioning
system. Moldova was one of the first countries in the region
to establish a system developed by the cadastre agency’s
own staff with technical support, packaged software, and
equipment financed by a World Bank loan. As it upgraded Urban/rural
the system, the agency used part of the credit to hire interna- Urban Rural
interrelationship
tional consultants for advice on the design and latest technol-
ogy, yet the agency remained in the leading role (World Bank
2009a). Successful in-house development processes for ICT Good governance Good land policy
solutions have also been implemented in El Salvador and
Honduras. Where in-house capacity is not available, the work Land & natural
Institutions & Capacity building
resource
can be outsourced, but it is necessary to assess the capacity governance & development
infrastructures
of land agencies to manage large contracts and the capacity Source: FIG 2004.
of the private sector to handle the work. Another option is to
complete the work incrementally as capacity is built.
Public Access to Land Administration Services in Indonesia,”
Professional and institutional compartmentalization in Topic Note 13.4) that can provide land administration ser-
must be eliminated. Professional and institutional com- vices to remote rural communities (Warnest and Bell 2009a).
partmentalization can lead to a fragmented view of land.
Cooperation, especially between ministries responsible for Significant investment is needed in capacity building. To
land registration and those for the cadastre, often has been realize the full benefits of ICT investments in land administra-
lacking. The lack of institutional cooperation reflects a lack of tion, countries must implement an effective program to build
cooperation between professions, notably lawyers and the technical and management capacity across the public and
surveyors, with each group taking a different view of the land private sectors and civil society. The public sector has signifi-
and hence of priorities. Failure to take a holistic view and fun- cant issues with building the capacity of, and retaining, ICT
damentally change business processes leads to inefficien- professionals, especially in developing countries. Younger
cies, higher costs, and time delays, and ultimately heightens professionals, having received ICT training in government
the cost and complexity of offering services to citizens. It service, often move to the private sector, where the short-
is important to keep institutional arrangements as simple as term rewards tend to be higher. The rollout of ICT in land
possible (World Bank 2009a), because simplicity will enable administration can strongly benefit from partnership with
more integrated and effective ICT and e-government solu- the local private sector and corresponding capacity building
tions. Single cadastre and registration agencies work best, for professionals. Finally, government needs to coordinate
but they are not always politically feasible, and failure to awareness and capacity-building programs for the public, as
agree on a single agency should not prevent projects from an increasing number of government services are electronic.
going forward. Human capacity to carry out and sustain reforms in land
administration, including the management of large ICT con-
Land administration must operate efficiently in various tracts, is a long-term activity and should be built into project
settings. From a land administration perspective, there design from the start.
should be a unified land system for both urban and rural areas
(see figure 13.3). There should be one land law and one set Early investment is the key to positioning infrastructures
of procedures to accommodate the needs of all regions in a to realize benefits in a wide range of land applications.
country, including customary tenure in rural areas. Many rural Historically, national triangulations (measurements) have
communities, which make up the agrarian sector of a coun- formed the basis for consistency in land surveying. Today,
try, are geographically excluded from land offices, reducing sophisticated positioning infrastructures not only constitute the
levels of registrations in rural areas. Innovative ICT solutions basis for land surveying and place-based land information in all
are supporting mobile land offices (see IPS “Improving its forms, but also support a wide range of land applications.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
354 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
The performance of land administration has proven to be perspective has led, for example, to multiple purchases of
enhanced strongly by applying appropriate ICT tools, includ- the same remote-sensing imagery by different agencies and
ing satellite imagery, aerial photographs, and GNSS. Early the generation of multiple base maps with varying specifi-
investments in this positioning infrastructure are crucial and cations. Apart from the simple collaboration approach, the
significantly reduce the cost of data capture. adoption of interoperability standards and Web services is
promoting the implementation of shared services, leading to
ICT investments should be shared through interagency the creation of national spatial data infrastructures (NSDIs).
collaboration. Too often, investments in ICT are isolated This approach allows different agencies to access and use
within projects and do not consider the possibility of the the same geospatial information, reducing the initial and con-
wider sharing and reuse of the resources. This narrow tinuing maintenance costs.
Topic Note 13.1: SUPPORTING LAND MARKETS WITH ICT
TRENDS AND ISSUES variety of forms of taxation on what is essentially wealth. The
Land markets allow capital to be released, and hence influ- market can also encourage changes in land use and stimulate
ence productivity and efficiency in agriculture and the level moves toward the optimal use of resources. In theory, market
of investment in industry. An efficient land market underpins forces should result in the “highest and best use” of the land,
the capacity of banks and other financial organizations to lend although in practice other factors may prevent this outcome.
money and for landowners to invest. The form and success
ICT plays a key role in providing information to stimulate,
of any land market depend on a number of external factors
support, and monitor land markets. ICT can be used for the
(figure 13.4). The relationships between these elements and
following purposes:
the market operate in two directions: They influence the day-
Provide a single point of access to all the relevant land
to-day activities within the market, and they in turn are influ-
and property information.
enced by it. A successful market stimulates economic growth
for individual landowners by releasing capital for investment Record and analyze all land held by the state. In many
in other fields. It can also benefit government by facilitating a countries, the state is the largest landowner; but all
too often, it fails to manage its assets in an efficient
FIGURE 13.4. Influences on the Land Market and effective manner.
Monitor the performance of property prices and make
relevant information available to public and private
Politics land and property companies, and to policy makers.
(For examples on residential property, see http://www
People & Sustainable
.zillow.com/ for the United States and http://www
culture development .zoopla.co.uk/ for the United Kingdom.)
Map the location of formal property sales.
Compare property values as part of a mass appraisal
for land and property taxation (UNECE 2002), and
Land
market The economy monitor changes in land use that may affect the tax-
Tenure &
legal & financial able value of property.
framework services
Provide transparency, and thereby discourage corrup-
tion in the land market.
Monitor the gender and other demographics of those
Land use & taking part in land transactions to discourage prejudice
Fiscal
environment policies against women and minority groups.
controls
Following the initial phase of computerization in land
Source: Dale, Mahoney, and McLaren 2010. administration agencies, when land records are digitized
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 355
BOX 13.2. Augmented Reality in Real Estate Marketing
Smartphones deliver innovative, location-based services Example of Augmented Reality in Real Estate Marketing
for mobile real estate marketing. Using a smartphone,
a person can walk up to the front of a house for sale, aim
the phone’s camera at it, and within seconds view and
capture all the information about the real estate listing.
The viewer can see pictures of the property, watch a
video walkthrough of the property, browse information
about the property (such as the selling price), email the
information, and contact the listing agent. This kind of
mobile marketing is achieved using an augmented real-
ity browser such as Layar (http://www.layar.eu/). The
mobile phone opens a window into the virtual real world
where you can directly point at features and obtain the
associated information.
Source: McLaren 2010; source for figure, http://buildar.com/.
and land and property transactions are supported, land INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
administration agencies normally start to provide informa- ICT-Based Property Value Estimate Information
tion services on land market activities and trends, such as Services
statistical trends in house prices by geographical region. In mature land markets, a number of innovative land and
In many countries this land and property information is property information services allow users to identify proper-
then made available to the private sector for other uses, ties for sale or rent that meet their specific requirements,
either under a chargeable license or free. The release of obtain an estimated market value, and select and contact a
this information usually requires amendments to public range of professional and financial services to support their
sector information policy and associated legislation. Once transaction. Good examples can be found at http://www
the information is in the public domain, the private sector .zillow.com/ in the United States and http://www.zoopla
innovates and starts to deliver new information services .co.uk/ (figure 13.5) in the United Kingdom.
to the land market. These services include locating a prop-
erty to buy or rent in a specific area, identifying the price FIGURE 13.5. A Property Information Service in the
paid for properties sold in an area of interest, estimating United Kingdom
the market value of a property, and receiving an email or
SMS alert if a property of a certain type, cost band, and
location comes on the market. Some information services
encourage owners of properties to enter more detailed
information about their properties so that more accurate
valuations can be estimated. GIS technology is also used
to determine the amenities in an area of interest to support
property-buying decisions. These applications are increas-
ingly available on mobile phones, and some are starting
to use augmented reality, in which a user can point the
device at properties and obtain corresponding information
(see box 13.2). These innovative and competing public and
private information services reflect an open, transparent,
and competitive land market that needs to be supported
by effective ICT within land administration. Source: Zoopla.co.uk.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
356 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
At the heart of these information services are computer-based INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
value estimate systems, often known as automated valuation European Land Information Service
models. The Zoopla valuation algorithm, for example, continu-
The European Land Information Service (EULIS) (http://eulis
ously analyzes property data from multiple sources—includ-
.eu) is an online portal for professionals to access land and
ing government, real estate agents, surveyors, and users—on
property information from land registries across Europe. It is
all 27 million homes in the United Kingdom. The model looks
also a hub of information on land registration conditions in
at the relationships between transaction prices and property
each country. EULIS’s long-term mission is to underpin a sin-
characteristics (type, style, number of bedrooms, and other
gle European property market through cross-border lending,
variables) and uses these patterns and trends to estimate
involving 23 organizations representing the land registries
present values. The algorithm uses previous sale prices for
of 20 member states. Currently, the land registries of five
the specific property and recent transactions nearby, changes
countries are connected to EULIS: Austria, Ireland, Lithuania,
in market values for similar local properties, various character-
the Netherlands, and Sweden.
istics of the property in question and those around it, current
asking prices for specific properties and others in the local
The main applications of this cross-border land and property
area, the size of the property in question relative to those
information service are as follows:
around it, and the current values of comparable properties.
Second home searches. Europe is becoming smaller
The model works on an extremely local level and adapts to the because it is easier to travel, live, and work across
specific information available for each property, thereby creat- borders. EULIS makes it possible for solicitors and real
ing a custom approach to valuing each property. In effect, tens estate agents to check out property and land in other
of thousands of models work together, each optimized for the countries for their clients, paving the way for second
accuracy of the small set of properties they exist to serve. New home purchases.
data are received continuously from a variety of sources, and Business acquisition. EULIS investigates premises
the systems are built to absorb this information quickly into and land on behalf of international businesses seeking
the valuation process, allowing estimates to take advantage of to acquire sites for their operations.
the most recent data. Each day, the valuation algorithm knows Credit checks. A risk assessment is required when
more than it did the day before. Estimates are found to be within citizens request credit or make other financial commit-
10 percent of the actual transaction price in the majority of ments. Lending institutions can use EULIS to confirm
cases. The estimated valuations allow users to identify proper- ownership of any assets such as land and property
ties within their price range and support their property bid price. proposed as collateral for such commitments.
Topic Note 13.2: ICT SUPPORT FOR LAND MANAGEMENT,
PLANNING, DEVELOPMENT, AND CONTROL
TRENDS AND ISSUES A new generation of GIS-based tools is now available, sup-
In countries fortunate to have mature ICT infrastructures, ported by maturing spatial data infrastructures, to enhance
governments have established e-planning portals that allow the interaction experience and effectiveness with the citizen.
citizens to access land-use control information, including Public participation GIS (PPGIS) is being applied to participa-
tory community planning (Zhao and Coleman 2006) to help
access to zoning development plans, planning regula-
neighborhood community groups and individuals use map-
tions, and general land-use information;
ping and spatial analyses in community development and
submission of development applications;
public participation. A new generation of Web-based PPGIS
access to proposed developments, associated draw- initiatives is providing users with tools to analyze existing
ings, and their current status; proposals, suggest and evaluate alternatives, and frame an
submission of comments associated with proposed online discussion of alternatives within a geospatial context.
developments to be used as material evidence in the
decision-making process; and The ease and increasing use of mashups (websites or applica-
access to the results of development control decisions. tions that seamlessly combine content, typically sourced from
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 357
third parties via a public interface, into an integrated experi- areas and coastal protection zones Once the citizen has iden-
ence) and wider access to open geospatial data allows com- tified the development plan of interest, the system provides
munities, citizens, or pressure groups to create an accessible direct access to an electronic copy of the lokalplan and can
simulation of the proposed development. This environment display and generate a list of all properties (cadastral parcel
can then form the basis for dialogue among stakeholders. numbers) affected by the development plan. The e-planning
portal also allows citizens to provide direct feedback on pro-
Mobile phones are also opening channels for citizen participa- posed development plans during the statutory eight-week
tion in the development control process and have significant consultation period. Citizens preparing to build or extend
potential to increase constituents’ participation. For example, their house can use the system to determine what plan-
citizens can register for mobile phone alerts on specific types ning restrictions apply in their area. This open, transparent
and/or locations of new development proposals and can text e-planning portal also serves as an authoritative legal
objections to development proposals to the planning authorities register. It is an excellent example of land registration and
with associated authentication (Enemark and McLaren 2008). cadastral information services being integrated into wider
e-government services.
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
E-Planning Portal in Denmark INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
One of the most advanced and participatory e-planning por- Virtual Landscape Theatre
tals is in Denmark (see http://plansystemdk.dk). The solution For many citizens, the use of PPGIS environments is either
provides public access to all statutory land-use plans, such as too advanced for their use or they are on the wrong side of
municipal plans and development plans (called a lokalplan), the digital divide. However, there are emerging virtual and
both adopted or proposed, across Denmark. The map-based augmented reality techniques that allow citizens to access
interface provides a range of navigation tools, including sophisticated GIS and visualization technology through medi-
address, cadastral parcel number, municipality, and area poly- ators. One such example is the Virtual Landscape Theatre,
gons (see figure 13.6, showing the region of Aalborg). The developed by the Macaulay Institute in Scotland, which uses
areas of the development plans can be displayed in combi- cutting-edge virtual reality technology to recreate landscapes
nation with cadastral maps, topographic maps, orthophotos, and provide a forum for people to visualize and assess impacts
and other kinds of land-use constraints, such as conservation of proposed change (Macaulay Institute 2011). By allowing
FIGURE 13.6. Example of E-Planning Portal
Source: http://plansystemdk.dk.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
358 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
groups of people the opportunity to view, debate, and offer which people can be immersed in computer models of their
informed opinions, the planning process benefits from a environment to explore landscapes of the past, present, and
greater understanding of what is really valued in the land- future. Small groups have the opportunity to experience land-
scape and what is not. The Virtual Landscape Theatre is scapes by moving around the virtual world and can provide
composed of a mobile, curved-screen projection facility in feedback by means of a voting handset.
Topic Note 13.3: ICT SUPPORT FOR LAND REFORM
TRENDS AND ISSUES Map informal settlements, using aerial photography or
The term “land reform” has different meanings in differ- satellite imagery, to plan any upgrades.
ent regions or countries. At its simplest level, land reform Support the creation of forest inventories and associ-
refers to the various processes involved in altering the ated valuations by using laser scanning.
pattern of land tenure and land use of a specified area. It
Land reform is costly and time consuming. There must be a
is most often applied to rural areas to allocate more land
strong business case or political driver for its implementation.
for settlement by landless people, to provide stability in
For example, large cooperative farms in Ukraine were broken up
the pattern of land settlement through land tenure reform,
and distributed to citizens as part of political and market reforms,
or to consolidate land holdings and increase agricultural
but it is still forbidden to buy and sell agricultural land, and there
efficiency by redistributing an existing pattern of land par-
is no formal land market. Prior to land reform in Moldova, parcels
cels. For example, in Latin America it typically means land
were so fragmented that agriculture was very inefficient, and no
redistribution from large haciendas or latifundia to smaller
active land market existed; now the land market is very active.
farms, while in South Africa land reform also involves res-
titution of lands and land tenure reform. The procedures
Land consolidation is becoming an integral part of rural devel-
adopted for land reform can be applied to urban areas and
opment. ICT enables a more holistic approach that takes into
used to address some of the problems of informal urban
account broader environmental requirements, leisure and other
settlement.
social needs, rural business development, and other factors.
Now it is also common to include land consolidation in urban
ICT supports the entire life cycle of land reform, from identifi-
settings to promote business districts and urban development.
cation of current owners and patterns of land tenure through
For example, Germany currently does more urban land consoli-
the analysis of reallocation options to the provision of land
dation than rural consolidation. The FAO advocates a voluntary
registration. ICT can be used to:
approach to land consolidation based on buying, selling, and
Identify owners, extent of ownership, land use, and land
exchanging parcels in a coordinated way (for a recent successful
values in areas where land consolidation is planned.
example, see Republic of Moldova 2009). Other approaches are
Design new parcels using GIS, in which all landown- more formal and involve significant, compulsory intervention, as
ers voluntarily trade land parcels or are allocated an in the examples from Sweden and Turkey that follow.
area that is as equivalent as possible to the size and
quality of their existing holdings. The GIS is also used
to support citizens’ participation in the design and INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
evaluation of reallocation options, speeding up the Sweden’s Large-Scale Land Consolidation Projects
consultation and decision process. Sweden consolidates land through formal, large-scale proce-
Calculate levels of compensation when necessary as dures that rely on compulsory rules in the Property Formation
a result of adjustments to the status quo or when land Act. An intervention can cover 2,000–54,000 hectares, can
has to be expropriated for state purposes. involve up to 2,000 participating landowners,3 and normally
Help in planning new infrastructure, such as roads, takes five years to implement. Appeals of the principal deci-
underground services such as drainage, and other sions are rare; since 1990, only 33 landowners have appealed
subsurface and above-surface utilities. to the court and only seven appeals have been upheld. This
Assist in the preparation of plans for land allocation to positive result comes from strong mediation and negotiation
landless or otherwise-dispossessed people. with landowners and effective use of ICT.
Maintain records of state land that is being held in 3 The information in this section was provided through personal
anticipation of future needs. communication with Mats Backman, Telia.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 359
In 1995, Sweden introduced a customized GIS to help imple- of the parcels have access to irrigation and transportation
ment its land consolidation reforms. The system, GISOM, networks.
is based on ESRI products and other database and analysis
tools; it manages layers of information from the land registry, Land consolidation was initiated in the 1980s, when legisla-
cadastre, cadastral index map, and photogrammetric and tion was passed to support the Ministry of Agriculture and
field data. Additional GIS applications have been developed Rural Affairs in its responsibility to prepare and implement
to match the requirements of the authorities and landown- land consolidation projects. Further land consolidation legis-
ers, including valuation methodology, reallotment design, lation was passed in 2005 to empower other government
and decision support. The valuation methodology in forest ministries to implement land consolidation projects involving,
land consolidation projects ranges from the complete enu- for example, irrigation and transportation infrastructure. The
meration of trees to the use of aerial photointerpretation private sector is involved in implementing the projects.
combined with laser scanning, which is now very successful.
Turkey faces the tremendous challenge of consolidating
The use of GIS allows landowners to view proposed reallot- approximately 8 million hectares in eight years. The govern-
ment designs and show them the consequences of changes ment plans to meet this challenge through a major national
in geographical location and size of the proposed reallotment. It land consolidation program, primarily intended to resolve agri-
also allows changes to the reallotments to be made in real time. cultural issues. Under a project with the Netherlands, Turkey
Normally, landowners wish to decrease the monetary compen- has developed a land consolidation approach, supported by
sation in land consolidation as much as possible. The use of GIS ICT, which can be scaled to meet the ambitious targets of the
has made it possible to match their desires to a great extent. national land consolidation program. A key component of the
approach is a GIS-based solution, called TRANSFER, to support
reallotment design within project areas. TRANSFER uses a
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY variety of data sets to support reallotment, including soil maps,
Turkey Land Consolidation Project productivity maps, digital terrain models, proximity to villages
and roads, ownership boundaries, and owners’ preferences for
Turkey’s rural population is growing rapidly. Because most
new allocations. Figure 13.7 shows a project area before and
rural dwellers cannot pursue livelihoods in sectors other
after land consolidation. The result features a new parcel pat-
than agriculture,4 agricultural land is often split into succes-
tern, minimizing parcel transfer in accordance with the wishes
sively smaller farms. Consequently, most farmers operate
of villagers (the average parcel size is bigger than before); new
on highly dispersed parcels whose small size is not suitable
roads (placed to minimize the impact on agriculture and provide
for irrigation and mechanization. On average, only 50 percent
access to all new parcels); a new irrigation scheme accessible
to all new parcels; and a reduction in the number of parcels per
4 This section draws on information from Jansen et al. (2010). farmer, which reduces transportation between parcels.
FIGURE 13.7. Parcels Before and After Land Consolidation with New Irrigation Network
Before After
Source: Jansen et al. 2010.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
360 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
Topic Note 13.4: ICT SUPPORT FOR GOOD GOVERNANCE
IN LAND ADMINISTRATION
TRENDS AND ISSUES BOX 13.3. Reducing Corruption in Land Offices
The need for good land governance is reinforced by three
The mobile phone can play an important role in reducing
broad global trends. First, increased and more volatile com-
corruption associated with financial transactions in the
modity prices, population growth, and the resulting increased
land sector. For example, in Pakistan’s Jhang District, all
demand for rural and urban land make it all the more impor-
clerks were asked to submit a list of their daily transac-
tant to define and protect rights over land resources as a
tions, giving the amount paid and the mobile numbers of
precondition for the broad sharing of benefits from economic
the buyers and sellers. Supervisors then called buyers
development. Second, climate change is likely to have
and sellers at random to find out whether they had been
particularly damaging effects on land in areas traditionally
asked to pay any extra bribes or commissions. After
considered hazardous or marginal. Adequate land-use plan-
charges were brought against one clerk who had asked
ning, together with geospatial tools that use land administra-
for a bribe, service improved markedly. This two-way
tion information to manage disasters, can help mitigate or
interaction with clients opens opportunities for essential
adapt to these problems. Finally, global programs to provide
feedback and quality checks.
resources for environmental services (for example, reduced
Source: “A Special Report on Telecoms in Emerging Markets,” The
deforestation) are likely to affect behaviors at the local level Economist, 2009.
and thus accomplish their objectives only if local land rights
are recognized and resources are transferred effectively to
right holders (Deininger et al. 2010).
Aside from investing in broadband and mobile phone infra-
Good governance requires a legal framework and a will to
structures to extend coverage, land administration agencies
enforce it. Legislation that, for example, outlaws gender dis-
need to ensure that the national public sector information
crimination is often flouted in practice when it comes to land
policy supports open and transparent land records. They
ownership and inheritance, which is why organizations such
must also launch awareness programs to raise interest in and
as the Huairou Commission were established (see http://
knowledge of the new information services. These informa-
huairou.org/issue and http://huairou.org/land-housing). Good
tion service initiatives are good opportunities for leveraging
governance is essential, because land administration is often
investment and knowledge from the private sector through
perceived as one of the most corrupt sectors of government.
public-private partnerships.
Although individual amounts may be small, petty corruption
on a wide scale can add up to large sums. In India the total
amount of bribes paid annually by users of land administra-
tion services is estimated at US$700 million (Transparency
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
ICT and the Land Governance Assessment
International India 2005), equivalent to three-quarters of
Framework
India’s total public spending on science, technology, and the
environment. For an example of how ICT can stem corrup- Guidelines on how to achieve good governance have
tion in land transactions, see box 13.3. been prepared by the World Bank. The Land Governance
Assessment Framework (World Bank 2010) addresses five
ICT significantly supports good governance in land admin- thematic areas: legal and institutional framework; land use
istration by facilitating open, transparent access to land planning, management and taxation; management of public
records for all. Until recently, land records were available only land; public provision of land information; and dispute resolu-
on paper in land offices or to a few large customers over the tion and conflict management. Given that ICT in land admin-
extranet. These records can now be obtained through mobile istration generates statistics to determine many of the Land
phones, either through Web- or SMS-based information Governance Indicators, land administration computerization
services. As the example from Indonesia indicates, ICT can projects need to be guided by the role of ICT in the Land
greatly improve the outreach of land administration services, Governance Assessment Framework. The following are
especially for groups that were long excluded from such some of the areas where ICT can support Land Governance
information, and the cost of providing services has fallen. Indicators (LGIs) within this framework.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 361
LGI-2(iv): A high percentage of land registered to physical LGI-12(v): All the information in the public land inventory is
persons is registered in the name of women, either individu- accessible to the public.
ally or jointly.
ICT can provide efficient Internet access to public registers
ICT can increase the involvement of the so-called Third Sector that are transparent and searchable following a number of
of nongovernmental and local organizations, including those criteria, including map-based searches.
representing women. Transparency and analysis of land
administration information will highlight any gender imbal- SMS-based property enquiry services via mobile phone
ances in ownership across a country. Online communities remove the need for intermediaries to access land adminis-
(for example, http://www.womenandhumansettlements.org/ tration services and provide simple, transparent, and acces-
and http://www.huairou.org/) allow grassroots women’s orga- sible services that can rapidly build public trust.
nizations to share experiences and advance their capacity to
LGI-16(i): Most records for privately held land registered in
collectively influence local to global political spaces on behalf
the registry are readily identifiable in maps in the registry or
of their communities.
cadastre.
LGI-5(iv): Information related to rights vis-à-vis land is avail-
ICT can provide efficient access, including Internet informa-
able to other institutions that need this information at reason-
tion services, to public registers that are transparent and
able cost and is readily accessible, largely due to the fact that
searchable following a number of criteria, including map-
land information is maintained in a uniform way.
based searches.
ICT can overcome the historic separation between the land
LGI-18(iii): There is significant investment in capital in the
registry and the cadastre by providing electronic linkages
system to record rights in land so that the system is sustain-
between both organizations. ICT can also be a catalyst for
able but still accessible by the poor.
better interoperability and integration with other departments
of government, although there must be the political will to ICT can provide innovative channels to deliver services to
make this happen. ICT can also reinforce links between the many who had previously been excluded, especially in rural
public and private sectors. In recent years, many land admin- areas. Mobile phones can be used to deliver Internet- and
istration functions and activities—from surveying through the SMS-based services, and remote access to the Internet can
provision of ICT to the delivery of various land information support mobile land offices.
services—have been shared with the private sector, often
through formal public-private partnerships.
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
LGI-7(i): In urban areas, public input is sought in preparing
Improving Public Access to Land Administration
and amending changes in land use plans, and the public Services in Indonesia
responses are explicitly referenced in the report prepared
With World Bank support, Indonesia’s National Land Agency,
by the public body responsible for preparing the new public
Badan Pertanahan Nasional (BPN), has set out an exciting
plans. This report is publicly accessible.
and ambitious plan for land reform, with ICT at the center.
ICT, and especially GIS, can provide effective forums for pub- Improving public access to land services is a priority of the
lic consultation, allow more scenarios to be presented, and BPN Karanganyar office in Central Java, where involvement
extend the normal outreach of the consultations. in the land office computerization project triggered innova-
tive uses of ICT to build public trust in land administration.
LGI-10(i): The assessment of land / property values for tax The office has expanded its services to include an SMS-
purposes is based on market prices, with minimal differences based property inquiry service, known as Interactive Land
between recorded values and market prices across different Information. This service removes the need for intermediar-
uses and types of users; and valuation rolls are regularly updated. ies to access BPN’s services. It is simple, transparent, and its
accessible services rapidly build public trust.
ICT can compare property values as part of a mass appraisal
for land and property taxation, monitor changes in land uses The BPN Karanganyar office has also developed the People’s
that may affect the taxable value of property, and compare Land Titling Service (LARASITA), a mobile land office (see
prices paid for similar properties. image 13.2) that travels to villages to provide to BPN’s property
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
362 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
services to previously disconnected IMAGE 13.2. LARASITA: A Mobile Land Office in Indonesia
communities. The mobile office (a
modified van) is equipped with lap-
tops connected to the main database
in BPN’s Karanganyar office through
wireless connectivity (WLAN), and a
2.4 GHz wireless antenna installed on
top of the van and on top of a 60-meter
tower behind the BPN office. This
infrastructure enables the LARASITA
van to operate in real time within a
20-kilometer radius of the tower. The
head of the BPN Karanganyar office
observed that “as long as we can
bring BPN presence and services
closer to the people, and provide the
right information, then LARASITA has
achieved its mission.” BPN rolled out
LARASITA to an additional five prov-
inces in 2009, increasing its outreach
significantly. Source: Warnest and Bell 2009a.
Topic Note 13.5: PUBLIC SECTOR INFORMATION
POLICY SUPPORTING EFFECTIVE
ICT-BASED INFORMATION SERVICES
TRENDS AND ISSUES index.html.) This change involved close dialogue with
Since open, transparent access to land administration infor- partners in the private sector and reduced the over-
mation is a prerequisite for developing effective land mar- heads of public-private partnerships.
kets, reducing corruption, and building a trusting relationship A number of governments recently introduced
with civil society, it is essential that land administration agen- transparency agendas that emphasize the need for
cies work closely with policy makers to ensure the maximum governments to be accountable to taxpayers and have
exposure and reuse of land administration information in the driven programs to publish key government data sets
public domain. Recent progress in making copyright, licens- through the establishment of a single access point for
ing, and pricing arrangements as simple and consistent as government data. In parallel with this development,
possible includes the following developments: governments have also developed open government
Many countries release land administration infor- licenses, which provide a single set of terms and
mation, at a charge, to the private sector to allow conditions for anyone wishing to use or license freely
innovative information services to be created. Such available government information. This form of licens-
services require robust copyright, licensing, and pric- ing allows developers and entrepreneurs wishing to
ing arrangements; but if these arrangements are too use government data to create new applications with-
complex and too variable across customers, they will out any formal application for permission. It is normally
deter uptake, innovation, and potential revenues. The interoperable with other internationally recognized
National Mapping Agency of Great Britain recently licensing models, such as Creative Commons
overhauled and greatly simplified its licensing agree- (box 13.4). Although these government open data
ments with partners. (See “Licenses and Agreements initiatives have not yet influenced land administration
Explained, Ordnance Survey (United Kingdom), http:// domains, inevitably they will come under increasing pres-
www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/licensing/ sure to release their data as open data. This move will
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 363
BOX 13.4. Creative Commons Supports Open GIS and mapping applications, and in many instances still rely
Government Licenses on paper-based processes. However, new approaches to
computerizing land records and delivering e-government ser-
Creative Commons (http://creativecommons.org) devel- vices are helping expand the land information services offered
ops, supports, and stewards a legal and technical infra- to the Lao PDR’s urban and rural communities.
structure that maximizes digital creativity, sharing, and
innovation. The infrastructure consists of a set of copy- In 2004, with support from UNDP, the Lao PDR’s Science,
right licenses and tools that create a balance inside the Technology, and Environment Agency (STEA) developed the
traditional “all rights reserved” setting that copyright law ICT for Development Project under the Office of the Prime
creates. The tools give everyone from individual creators Minister. The project’s main objectives were to develop a
to large companies and institutions a simple, standard- policy framework for the management, standardization, and
ized way to keep their copyright while allowing certain exchange of national digital information to implement the
uses of their work—a “some rights reserved” approach government’s ICT master plan and strategy for 2006–10.
to copyright—which makes their creative, educational,
A critical component of a national information base is infor-
and scientific content instantly more compatible with the
mation on land and natural resources. The Lao PDR’s com-
full potential of the Internet. This combination of tools and
prehensive strategy for land information coordination and
users is a vast and growing digital commons, a pool of
management centers on the development of the Lao Spatial
content that can be copied, distributed, edited, remixed,
Data Infrastructure, a framework of land information, access
and built upon, all within the boundaries of copyright law.
policies, data standards, and ICT infrastructure that will ben-
A recent example of an open government license was
efit a range of users and agencies. Two key organizations are
created by the National Archives in the United Kingdom,
building the LSDI: the National Geographic Department, and
where it is now being adopted by agencies providing
STEA. LSDI is being piloted in Vientiane Capital City.
open geospatial information services.
Source: “Open Government License for Public Sector Information,”
National Archives (United Kingdom), http://www.nationalarchives.gov
As part of this effort, the second phase of the Lao Land Titling
.uk/doc/open-government-licence/, accessed May 2011. Project (2004–09) developed a computerized national land
information service to serve as the backbone for an efficient
land administration system. The planned national information
service will give registry officials access to a complete, reli-
test the sustainability of their business models, as rev- able land inventory linked to information on who has rights
enue streams from selling data and information services over land. This information will be stored in an interoper-
will be challenged. Land administration agencies must able database available online, seamlessly linking textual
work closely with their governments to ensure the fine and mapping information. The land information service will
balance between supporting the transparency agenda free government agencies from paper-based processes and
and the financial sustainability of their organizations. make it possible to deliver the full range of land services in
each land office and online. Kiosks in rural districts will enable
Policies ensuring that copyright, licensing, and pricing arrange- communities to access government land services online.
ments are kept as simple and consistent as possible will
enable strong business interoperability and generate coop- LSDI is viewed as an increasingly important factor in the Lao
eration and shared services among government agencies PDR’s socioeconomic development. Integrating land use, own-
and their partners. Two examples—one from the Lao PDR ership, planning, agricultural, and environmental data themes,
and the other from Vietnam—emphasize the important role the LSDI will eventually support all land-related governance and
of public information policy in e-governance. Information for management activities at the central and local levels. The far-
the examples comes from Warnest and Bell (2009b, 2009d). reaching benefits will include improved natural resource man-
agement and environmental protection, which are vital, given the
increasing pressure on the Lao PDR from international investors.
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY Success in implementing the comprehensive strategy for land
A Policy Framework to Support the Lao information coordination and management has been achieved
PDR’s National Land and Natural Resource by consolidating responsibilities for land under one organization,
Information System formulating and approving land policy, implementing institu-
In the Lao PDR, land registry officials, decision makers, and tional and regulatory reform, building institutional capacity, and
urban planners use a variety of ad hoc and often nonstandardized strengthening project management mechanisms.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
364 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY each department in the province is connected via fiber-optic
Vietnam’s One-Stop Shop for E-Government networks to the provincial Data Integration Center.
Services
The government of Vietnam views land reform as a core com- The integrated land and house management information sys-
ponent of its gradual market reforms (doi moi), which are rec- tem established in Nam Dinh City is a successful example of
ognized as one of the most important drivers of Vietnam’s rapid the synergy between land administration, house management,
growth and poverty reduction. The Vietnam Land Administration and ICT. The city’s new Center for Land and House Information
Project (VLAP), approved in March 2008, will develop a land and Registration is a one-stop shop for critical and highly
information system and deliver government land services demanded land services, extending from land titling and urban
online. In this way, VLAP will provide greater accessibility and land plans to construction permits, management, and taxation.
community participation in Vietnam’s land administration sys- ICT removed the walls between the local government agen-
tem, improving transparency and strengthening accountability. cies involved in these procedures—such as the departments
VLAP focuses particularly on modernizing the land registration for land, house management, and taxation and the people’s
system and improving the delivery of land registration services. committees—in 25 wards. They have been able to review and
streamline their business processes and maintain close collab-
One of the most active e-government initiatives, the Bac oration through online data exchanges and process monitoring.
Ninh land information system, is providing online services and
electronic service centers in rural districts. Just 30 kilometers The prime minister has approved a Strategy for Information
from Hanoi, Bac Ninh Province is Vietnam’s smallest and most Technology Application and Development for Natural
densely populated province, with an estimated population of Resources and Environment to Year 2015 with a vision to
1 million. Twenty-one local area networks have been estab- 2020. A central element of the proposed reforms is the
lished to serve government agencies, and an additional seven development of a system for accessing, retrieving, and dis-
to serve rural districts outside the capital city. Remarkably, tributing land information nationwide.
Topic Note 13.6: SUSTAINABLE FUNDING OF ICT
IN LAND ADMINISTRATION
TRENDS AND ISSUES Sustainable Business and Organizational Models
Land administration systems need to be a revenue-generating, The experience of a number of Western countries and increas-
self-sustaining activity. Most land administration agencies ingly of countries in Eastern Europe, Latin America, and Asia
have adopted computerized technology, the life span of which (including Central Asia) shows that land registration systems
is rarely more than four years and often less. The more an and even the cadastre can finance themselves. These agencies
agency becomes capital intensive, the more it needs to spend can achieve full cost recovery by charging for the goods and
on maintaining and replacing its ICT. services they provide, once the necessary basic investment
has been made and services have been made more efficient.
It is generally agreed that the state has primary responsibil-
ity for ensuring that appropriate policy, legal, and institutional There are two elements in financing a land information
frameworks for land administration are in place and that infrastructure: the building of the infrastructure, and its main-
the formal land market operates efficiently. But should land tenance. Building a national cadastre and land registration
administration be operated only by the state, and should it be solution is expensive. The cost of rebuilding an out-of-date
paid for wholly by the state? Should there not, for example, cadastre can run into many millions of dollars, depending on
be a partnership with the private sector to charge for ser- the size of the country and the precision of the survey data.
vices based on the concept that those who benefit most Such an investment is hard to justify unless it can be shown
contribute most to the cost? Strategic and business planning to generate sufficient revenue when it has reached a critical
are needed to develop modern business models for land mass of transactions. For this reason, one of the first tasks in
administration and for services to be provided in a business- modernizing land administration is to understand the differ-
like, cost-effective manner. ent types of users, determine their specific requirements for
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 365
services, and create a business case for the corresponding consortium has been contracted to deliver a build/own/
investments in ICT. This type of strategic planning is often operate system for the Land Registration Authority over
anathema to traditionally state-funded, output-based organi- an estimated 10-year project period. In such partnerships,
zations such as land administration agencies. after the agreed-on concession (payback) period is con-
cluded, the government fully owns the land administration
It is generally accepted that building a land administration infra- infrastructure. Until that time, revenue generated through
structure needs a substantial level of support from the state an agreed fee structure will be retained by the consortium
or external funding sources. Maintaining the system is a dif- (Warnest and Bell 2009c).
ferent story, and experience suggests that self-sufficiency is
possible. Where there is no attempt at cost recovery and all There are risks associated with these long-term public-private
operations are paid for by the state, there is always a risk that partnerships, as the assumptions underpinning the agree-
the funds needed to improve service and replace equipment ments will inevitably change over the extended time frames.
will not be provided, especially when government funds are in A good example is the recent global financial crisis, which
short supply. With governments currently trying to reduce the depressed land and property markets and reduced the rev-
burden of public services on their state treasuries, there is a enue streams that support ICT investments and service
good opportunity to establish self-funding, autonomous, busi- provision. It is therefore essential that these public-private
ness-oriented agencies. El Salvador, the Kyrgyz Republic, the partnerships have flexibility for change over their life cycle to
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, and Singapore accommodate new business realities.
have all planned autonomous, self-financing land administration
agencies, while Lithuania, Moldova, and Georgia have attained When setting fee rates within a self-sustaining business
self-financing agencies. The registration agency in Kazakhstan model, the danger is that the cost of transactions will deter
was obliged to be self-financing from the day it was established. some people from registering property transfers, with the
result that an informal land market runs in parallel with the
formal one. The cost of transactions needs to be kept at a
Leveraging Knowledge and Finance from the Private level that will encourage citizens to engage with and benefit
Sector from land administration. While underpricing may encourage
New models are being adopted for involving the private use of the data and generate volumes sufficient to achieve
sector in sharing the investment and risk in designing, lower unit costs through economies of scale, there will come
implementing, and sometimes operating land administra- a time when nonusers, including the poor, are effectively
tion infrastructure and associated services. The complexity subsidizing the rich.
and management requirements of these large, lengthy ICT
programs are frequently underestimated. As discussed,
Behavioral Change Requirements
some of the earliest investment in ICT for land administra-
tion featured large, internationally bid contracts that proved The idea that a government agency should operate as a
difficult to manage, involved lengthy tendering periods, business making at least a marginal profit has required a
and ultimately were slow to deliver operational solutions. significant cultural shift that is often very difficult for those
In-house development has generally proven more success- who have been accustomed to a central government
ful and allows agencies to either retain their own specialists service-driven environment. In reality, it should improve
or use local companies to build and sustain local capacity. the provision of services, based on what people want and
This approach is easier to manage; is more compatible with need rather than on what those in authority think is good
incremental implementation; and, of particular importance, for the general public. Agencies become more accountable
is very effective at amending and maintaining the solution to the public and develop an improved understanding and
downstream. identification of those products and services that are of a
commercial nature and those that are essentially a public
An innovative approach is to engage the private sec- good. The downside of the commercial approach is that
tor under public-private partnerships. For example, the financial incentives that benefit individual agencies may be
Register of Scotland (http://www.ros.gov.uk/) has formed incompatible with “joined-up” government and attempts to
a 10-year partnership with a technology provider under encourage cooperation between government departments.
which it shares the ICT investment; but the agency still Yet if each department works to its own business plan and
delivers the services. Another model of public-private part- the maximization of its own income, the common good can
nership has emerged in the Philippines, where a private become marginalized.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
366 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY private organizations or consortia.6 The Philippines has
ICT-Derived Efficiencies in the Kyrgyz Republic adopted this approach for a 10-year project to computerize
Benefit Land Office Staff 159 local and provincial Registries of Deeds, 16 regional
Kant Registration Office is one of the Kyrgyz Republic’s most Registers, and the central Registry of Deeds office in
successful land registration offices and is financially self- Manila. The project is implemented by the private consor-
sufficient, with the status of a state enterprise.5 Growth in busi- tium LARES, which will deliver a build/own/operate sys-
ness increased revenues from its services (land transactions, tem for the Land Registration Authority. The International
information, and other services) from around US$90,000 in 2005 Finance Corporation, part of the World Bank Group, is one
to US$265,000 in 2008. Fees are the standard (low) fees set by of the financiers, providing US$22 million. The project aims
Gosregister, the national coordinating agency. Despite the low to digitize all Land Registration Authority records. Local and
fees, the revenues cover all operating costs, including salaries, wide area network infrastructure will be installed to enable
utilities, materials, and renewals of equipment and furnishings. interagency and public online access to land information
(Start-up investments, however, were financed by the Land and and land titles. The revenue generated by the new system
Real Estate Registration Project.) The land registration office will accrue to the consortium until the agreed-on conces-
itself has funded the progressive digitization of old paper records. sion period ends, at which time the government will fully
own the system.
Kant Registration Office pays its staff well above government
rates and adds bonuses quarterly and on special holidays. The The Philippines has also been successful with ICT innova-
director has nearly tripled staff members’ salaries in the last four tions for e-government and online land services. Outsourcing
years. She believes that such salaries develop trust and provide service provision to the private sector is the Philippines’ lead-
incentives for quality work. As fees are modest in comparison ing strategy for harnessing ICT to communicate with citizens
to those charged in most countries, financial self-sufficiency has and conduct business effectively. The telecommunications
been achieved primarily through gains in efficiency. company SMART developed an innovative “I-Connect” SMS-
based customer management service. The potential benefits
of I-Connect are many when coupled with land information
infrastructure technologies such as those in Leyte, Quezon,
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY and the longer-term Land Administration and Management
The Philippines: A Public-Private Approach to ICT program. It is anticipated that readily accessible online land
Financing and Risk Sharing services and property inquiries via mobile phone will improve
One approach for the public sector to finance ICT is to public perceptions of government and confidence in land
share the risks and rewards of ICT investments with administration.
Topic Note 13.7: DESIGNING SCALABLE AND INTEROPERABLE
LAND INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURES
TRENDS AND ISSUES prematurely obsolete. A robust, extensible architecture
Implementing land information infrastructures to support should be defined, tested, and available early in the project.
land administration is a complex process, normally achieved
There are no turnkey solutions. However, there is a great
over a number of years. Many countries will take up to 10
deal of practice and experience worldwide on implementing
years to achieve comprehensive coverage with a rich set of
ICT for land administration, and there is no need to rein-
e-services. Over this period, a number of disruptive technolo-
vent the wheel. The following issues have been dealt with
gies will arrive to challenge and potentially change the choice
in other countries, and there is much to learn from those
of ICT. This note aims to identify approaches to ensure that
experiences. An ICT solution should never be developed in
investments in ICT possess the scalability and interoper-
isolation from trends and experience worldwide.
ability that will potentially sustain the solution over the life
cycles of new technology and reduce the risk of becoming
6 Information in this section is drawn from Warnest and Bell
5 Information in this section is drawn from World Bank 2010. 2009c.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 367
Data Model Standards platforms and/or frameworks. Web services are character-
The major investment component in land information ized by their great interoperability and extensibility, as well
infrastructure is in the collection and maintenance of land as their descriptions, thanks to the use of XML (Extensible
registration and cadastral information. It is imperative that this Markup Language). Today, XML is one of the most widely
information be easily ported across generations of ICT. This used formats for sharing structured information—between
possibility is gradually being achieved through interoper- programs, between people, and between computers and
able data model standards. For example, European countries people, both locally and across networks. Web services can
implementing the EU INSPIRE Directive must be able to make be loosely coupled to achieve complex operations. Programs
specific data themes discoverable and accessible through providing simple services, which can be built on different
adherence to data specifications (that is, data model standards). hardware and software platforms, can interact with each
One of these themes is “cadastral parcels.” (See http://inspire other to deliver sophisticated added-value services (see
.jrc.ec.europa.eu/documents/Data_Specifications/INSPIRE http://www.w3.org/standards).
_DataSpecification_CP_v3.0.pdf.) Another initiative in setting
As an example of how Web services can be used, a message
data model standards is the Social Tenure Domain Model under
could be sent from a home location application to a Web-
the wider Land Administration Domain Model developed by
service-enabled properties-for-sale search website, such as
UN-HABITAT and FIG (Lemmen et al. 2007), which provides a
a real estate price database, with the parameters needed for
standard model for social/customary tenure that ISO is ratifying
a search. The property-search website would then return an
and adopting. The Land Administration Domain Model is being
XML-formatted document with the resulting data, such as
used to support the Solutions for Open Land Administration
prices, location, and features. Because the data are returned
(SOLA) Project (see http://www.flossola.org ).
in a standardized format, they can be integrated directly into
the application. The home location application could then send
Open Interoperability Standards
messages to other Web-service-enabled sites to obtain other
The implementation of shared information services within the property information on local amenities, crime statistics,
concept of an NSDI has only been possible through the agree- public transportation facilities, and similar parameters. The
ment on and adoption of open standards. ICT has a vast array information could be integrated easily into the home loca-
of open standards, but within the geospatial domain, the Open tion application to support decision making. Service-oriented
Geospatial Consortium, Inc. (OGC) is a nonprofit, international, architecture and Web services are increasingly used in
voluntary, consensus standards organization that is leading the designing modern land information infrastructures to support
development of standards for geospatial and location-based ser- incremental development, extension, and ease of integration
vices (http://www.opengeospatial.org/). OGC standards are tech- with other Web-based information services.
nical documents that detail interfaces or encodings. Software
developers use these documents to build open interfaces and
encodings into their products and services (see IPS “Combining INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Open Source Solutions with Open Geospatial Consortium Combining Open Source Solutions with Open
Standards”). Ideally, when OGC standards are implemented Geospatial Consortium Standards
in products or online services by two software engineers
GeoServer, MapServer, and Deegree are open source map
working independently, the resulting components “plug and
server products focusing on Internet mapping applica-
play” with other components compliant with the same OGC
tions using Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) WebGIS
standards. OGC works closely with the ISO TC 211 Geographic
standards. These OGC interoperability standards—such as
Information / Geomatics and submits OGC standards for ISO
WMS, WFS, and WFS-T—allow the cross-platform exchange
approval and adoption (see http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue
of geographic information over the Internet.7 Using these
/catalogue_tc/). When bidding for land administration ICT, it is
standards, map data stored in ArcSDE or Oracle Spatial and
essential that the statement of requirements explicitly specifies
PostGIS databases, for example, can be accessed over the
the use of the appropriate OGC/ISO standards in the design of
Internet with a standard Web browser or GIS client software.
the solution to ensure interoperability of the solution.
With WMS, map data can be accessed and displayed as an
image that can be overlaid with GIS data from other data
Service-Oriented Architecture and Web Services sources to produce composite maps. With WFS, users can
Web services provide a standard means of interoperation
among diverse software applications, running on a variety of 7 Information in this section drawn from FAO and FIG 2010.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
368 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
access the actual geographic features in vector format, while systems. Starting from a base of a few projects, the process
WFS-T allows features to be created, deleted, and updated. should result in consistent economic growth.
MapServer, GeoServer, and Deegree are server-based “map For example, the Land and Real Estate Registration Project
engines” that display spatial data (maps, images, or vector in the Kyrgyz Republic was implemented to support the
data, depending on the OGC Web service) over the Internet development of markets for land and real estate through
to users based on their requests. MapServer has proven to be the introduction of a reliable and well-functioning land and
a very mature and reliable product for distributing maps from real estate registration system. The open source approach
GIS data sources over the Internet through the WMS, WCS, adopted by the project appears to be successful. For exam-
and other OGC interoperability standards. GeoServer and ple, open source GIS software piloted by the Bishkek Land
Deegree are more recent projects built with Java technology. Registration Office is being rolled out to the other 46 land reg-
While comparable to MapServer in many ways, GeoServer and istration offices (World Bank 2011). The project has also been
Deegree go further by supporting transactional WFS services, successful in the sense that the value of annual property sales
allowing users to insert, delete, and modify geographical data rose from US$120 million in 2002 to US$1.5 billion in 2007,
at the source from remote locations. In land administration and the annual value of new mortgages increased from less
solutions, this functionality would allow notaries to sketch than US$100 million in 2002 to US$1.3 billion in 2008.
new parcel boundaries resulting from property transactions
on a digital map in their preferred GIS client software and From this experience, the open source initiative appears to
send this new boundary information in the GML data format have potential to focus implementation of the national ICT for
to the cadastral database on the WFS-T server. Development strategy and enable rapid ICT development in
the Kyrgyz Republic. This model may be applicable in other
A number of European cadastres already use WMS and/or developing countries that view ICT as a strategic tool for eco-
WFS to give citizens access to public cadastral data sets over nomic development.
the Internet, and are thus following the INSPIRE principles to
provide public access to spatial data sets that are collected
by the government. With the availability of high-quality, open
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Social Tenure Domain Model
source Internet mapping tools, other national cadastre agen-
cies are expected to follow this trend. In developing countries, large portions of land remain
untitled, with less than 30 percent of cadastral coverage
conforming to the situation on the ground.9 Where there is
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY little land information, there is little land administration and
The Kyrgyz Republic’s Open Source Strategy management. Conventional land information systems cannot
and GIS Solutions
adequately serve areas that do not conform to the land par-
The Kyrgyz Republic has adopted a national strategy, “ICT cel approach applied in the developed world. A more flexible
for Development,” that envisions ICT as an engine for eco- system is needed for identifying the various kinds of land
nomic development throughout the country.8 The major tenure in informal settlements. This system has to be based
components of the strategy are e-commerce, e-government, on a global standard, and the local community must be able
e-education, and the public sector. In all of these areas, open to manage it. The Social Tenure Domain Model (STDM) intro-
source technologies provide a mechanism for achieving duces new, unconventional approaches in land administra-
strategic goals and overcoming the digital divide. ICT-based tion by providing a land information management framework
development requires active growth in the local community that integrates formal, informal, and customary land systems
of IT professionals, and open source projects provide local IT as well as administrative and spatial components.
professionals with very effective opportunities to accumu-
late and share experience. As local capabilities develop and STDM relies on tools for recording all forms of land rights,
as support for open source systems grows, government and all types of rights holders, and all kinds of land and property
industry can rely more on local firms to build cost-effective objects or spatial units, regardless of the level of formality. The
open source solutions. In this iterative process, the more thinking behind STDM goes beyond established conventions.
open source systems a country uses, the greater the growth For example, traditional or conventional land administration
of the local ICT industry and the greater the possible savings systems relate names or addresses of persons to land parcels
for government and industry in building more open source via rights. An alternative option provided by STDM relates
8 Information in this section is drawn from Abdrisaev et al. (2005). 9 Information in this section is drawn from FAO and FIG (2010).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 369
personal identifiers, such as fingerprints, to a coordinate point Stoter, J. E. 2004. 3D Cadastre. Delft: Netherlands Geodetic
inside a plot of land through a social tenure relation such as Commission.
tenancy. The STDM thus provides an extensible basis for an UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 1998. “Capacity
efficient and effective system for recording land rights. Assessment and Development in a Systems and Strategic
Management Context.” Technical Advisory Paper 3, New York.
FURTHER READING Williamson, I., A. Rajabifard, and M-E. Feeney. 2003. Developing
Spatial Data Infrastructures: From Concept to Reality. London:
Bell, K. 2005. Land Administration and Management: The Need for Innovative
Taylor & Francis.
Approaches to Land Policy and Tenure Security. Expert Group Meeting
on secure land tenure, ESCAP, Bangkok, December 8–9. http://www Williamson, I., and J. Wallace. 2006. “Spatially Enabling Governments:
.fig.net/commission7/bangkok_ 2005/, accessed May 2011. A New Direction for Land Administration Systems.” Proceedings
of the 23rd FIG Congress, Munich, October 8–13. https://www.fig
Cornia, G., and J. Riddell (eds.). 2008. Towards a Vision of Land in
.net/pub/fig2006/papers/ts23/ts23_05_williamson_wallace_0261
2015. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
.pdf, accessed May 2011.
Dale, P., and J. McLaughlin. 1999. Land Administration. Oxford:
World Bank. 2006. “Investment in Land Administration, Policy, and
Oxford University Press.
Markets.” Module 10 in Agriculture Investment Sourcebook.
Deininger, K. 2003. Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://go.worldbank.org/CZLWF648O0,
World Bank Policy Research Report 26384. Oxford and accessed May 2011.
Washington, DC: Oxford University Press and World Bank.
Deininger, K., C. Augustinus, S. Enemark, and P. Munro-Faure. 2010. REFERENCES
“Innovations in Land Rights Recognition, Administration, and
Abdrisaev, B. D., Z. S. Djusupova, and A. I. Semyonov. 2005. “Case
Governance.” Joint Organizational Discussion Paper, Issue 2,
Study: Kyrgyzstan’s Experience in Promoting Open Source
World Bank, Global Land Tool Network (GLTN), Fédération
for National ICT Development.” Systemics, Cybernetics, and
Internationale des Géomètres (FIG), and Food and Agriculture
Informatics 3 (2): 19–22.
Organization (FAO), Washington, DC.
Bhutta, A. R. 2007. “Punjab: Land Records Management and
Deininger, K., H. Selod, and T. Burns. 2009. “Using the Land
Information Systems.” State Bank of Pakistan, Islamabad. http://
Governance Assessment Framework (LGAF): Lessons and Next
www.sbp .org .pk/sbp_bsc/BSC/DFSD/Workshop/Land-Records
Steps.” World Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTARD
-Automation-Punjab.pdf, accessed May 2011.
/Resources/336681-1236436879081/5893311-1271205116054
/SelodNewPaper.pdf, accessed April 2011. Dale, P., R. Mahoney, and R. McLaren. 2007. Land Markets and
the Modern Economy. London: Royal Institution of Chartered
Economist. 2009. “A Special Report on Telecoms in Emerging
Surveyors (RICS).
Markets.” September 24.
Deininger, K., and A. Goyal. 2010. “Going Digital: Credit Effects
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2003. “The Design of Land
of Land Registry Computerization in India.” Policy Research
Consolidation Pilot Projects in Central and Eastern Europe.” FAO
Working Paper 5244, World Bank, Washington, DC. http://www
Land Tenure Studies 6, Rome.
-wds .worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P
———. 2004. “Operations Manual for Land Consolidation Projects /IB/2010 /03/29/000158349_20100329110509/Rendered/PDF
in Central and Eastern Europe.” FAO Land Tenure Manuals 1, /WPS5244.pdf, accessed May 2011.
Rome.
Delville, P. L. 2010. “Registering and Administering Customary Land
———. 2007. “Good Governance in Land Tenure and Administration.” Rights: Can We Deal with Complexity?” In Innovations in Land
Land Tenure Studies 9, Rome. Rights Recognition, Administration, and Governance, edited
by K. Deininger et al., 28–42. Washington, DC: World Bank,
———. 2009. “Towards Voluntary Guidelines on Responsible Global Land Tool Network (GLTN), Fédération Internationale des
Governance of Tenure of Land.” Land Tenure Working Paper 10, Géomètres (FIG), and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
Rome.
Economist. 2009. “A Special Report on Telecoms in Emerging
GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit). 2009. Markets.” September 24.
Geographic Information System (GIS): The Spatial Dimension to
Development Cooperation. Eschborn: GTZ. Enemark, S., and R. McLaren. 2008. “Preventing Informal
Development – through Means of Sustainable Land Use Control.”
Krishna Murthy, Y. V. N. 2010. “A State-wide Land Information System FIG Working Week Proceedings, Stockholm, June.
for Natural Resource Management and Disaster Mitigation:
Scope for Land Administration.” In Innovations in Land Rights Enemark, S., R. McLaren, and P. van der Molen. 2010. Land
Recognition, Administration, and Governance, edited by Governance in Support of the Millennium Development Goals:
K. Deininger et al., 83–95. Washington, DC: World Bank, Global A New Agenda for Land Professionals. FIG Publication 45.
Land Tool Network (GLTN), Fédération Internationale des Copenhagen: Fédération Internationale des Géomètres (FIG).
Géomètres (FIG), and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) and FIG (Fédération
Quan, J. 2006. “Land Access in the 21st Century: Issues, Trends, Internationale des Géomètres). 2010. FLOSS in Cadastre and
Linkages, and Policy Options.” LSP Working Paper 24. FAO Land Registration: Opportunities and Risks. Rome: FAO. http://
Livelihood Support Programme, Rome. www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1447e/i1447e.pdf, accessed April 2011.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
370 MOD ULE 13 — ICT FOR LA ND A D MINISTR ATION A ND MA NAGEM ENT
FIG (Fédération Internationale des Géomètres). 2004. Marrakech ———. 2005. Land Administration in the UNECE Region:
Declaration: Urban-Rural Interrelationship for Sustainable Development Trends and Main Principles. Geneva.
Development. FIG Publication 33. Copenhagen: FIG.
UN-HABITAT. 2008. Secure Land Rights for All. Nairobi: United
Jansen, L. J. M., M. Karatas, M. Küsek, C. Lemmen, and R. Wouters. Nations Human Settlements Programme.
2010. “The Computerised Land Re-allotment Process in Turkey
———. 2011. The State of Asian Cities 2010 / 2011. Nairobi: United
and the Netherlands in Multi-purpose Land Consolidation
Nations Human Settlements Programme.
Projects.” Proceedings of the 24th FIG Congress, Sydney, 11–16
April. http://www.fig.net/pub/fig2010/papers/ts09h/ts09h_jansen Warnest, M., and K. C. Bell. 2009a. “Country Focus Indonesia.”
_karatas_et_al_4574.pdf, accessed May 2011. Information and Communications Technology (ICT) Utilization in
Land Administration in the East Asia Region, Land Administration
Kapitango, K., and M. Meijs. 2010. “Land Registration Using Aerial
in EAP—Issues and Experiences with Information and
Photography in Namibia: Costs and Lessons.” In Innovations
Communications Technology, ICT and Rural Access Workshop,
Land Rights Recognition, Administration, and Governance, edited
Sustainable Development Network Week, World Bank,
by K. Deininger et al., 60–72. Washington, DC: World Bank,
Washington, DC, February 26.
Global Land Tool Network (GLTN), Fédération Internationale des
Géomètres (FIG), and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). ———. 2009b. “Country Focus Lao PDR.” Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) Utilization in Land
Lemmen, C., C. Augustinus, P. van Oosterom, and P. van der Molen. 2007.
Administration in the East Asia Region, Land Administration
“The Social Tenure Domain Model: Design of a First Draft Model.”
in EAP—Issues and Experiences with Information and
FIG. http://www.fig.net/pub/fig2007/papers/ts_1a/TS01A_01_lemmen
Communications Technology, ICT and Rural Access Workshop,
_augustinus_oosterom_molen_1373.pdf accessed May 2011.
Sustainable Development Network Week, World Bank,
Lemmen, C., and J. Zevenbergen. 2010. “First Experiences with High- Washington, DC, February 26.
Resolution Imagery-Based Adjudication Approach in Ethiopia.”
———. 2009c. “Country Focus Philippines.” Country Focus
In Innovations in Land Rights Recognition, Administration, and
Indonesia, Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
Governance, edited by K. Deininger et al., 96–104. Washington,
Utilization in Land Administration in the East Asia Region,
DC: World Bank, Global Land Tool Network (GLTN), Fédération
Land Administration in EAP—Issues and Experiences with
Internationale des Géomètres (FIG), and Food and Agriculture
Information and Communications Technology, ICT and Rural
Organization (FAO).
Access Workshop, Sustainable Development Network Week,
McAuslan, P. 2010. “Ensuring Access to Land for Private Investors.” World Bank, Washington, DC, February 26.
In Innovations in Land Rights Recognition, Administration, and
———. 2009d. “Country Focus Vietnam.” Information and
Governance, edited by K. Deininger et al., 149–57. Washington,
Communications Technology (ICT) Utilization in Land
DC: World Bank, Global Land Tool Network (GLTN), Fédération
Administration in the East Asia Region, Land Administration
Internationale des Géomètres (FIG), and Food and Agriculture
in EAP—Issues and Experiences with Information and
Organization (FAO).
Communications Technology, ICT and Rural Access Workshop,
McLaren, R. A. 2010. “Can the Innovative Use of Mobile Phones Sustainable Development Network Week, World Bank,
Support More Effective Land Administration Services?” Washington, DC, February 26.
Proceedings of the 24th FIG Congress, Sydney, 11–16 April. http://
Williamson, I., S. Enemark, J. Wallace, and A. Rajabifard. 2010. Land
www.fig.net/pub/fig2010/papers/ts03b/ts03b_mclaren_4447.pdf,
Administration for Sustainable Development. Redlands: ESRI Press.
accessed May 2011.
World Bank. 2006. “Investment in Land Administration, Policy, and
Republic of Moldova. 2009. Implementation of Land Re-Parceling
Markets.” Module 10 in Agriculture Investment Sourcebook.
Pilots in Six Villages (Moldova Land Re-Parceling Pilot Project)
Washington, DC: World Bank. http://go.worldbank.org/CZLWF648O0,
Final Report. Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry, Republic
accessed May 2011.
of Moldova, February.
———. 2009a. Thailand Land Information System Project. Technical
Macaulay Institute. 2011. Virtual Landscape Theatre. http://www
Report. Washington, DC: World Bank.
.macaulay.ac.uk/landscapes/, accessed June 2011.
———. 2010. Land Governance Assessment Framework:
Thompson, B., and A. Waller. 2011. The Role of Cloud Computing
Implementation Manual for Assessing Governance in the Land
in Commercial Property. Coventry: Royal Institute of Chartered
Sector. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Surveyors (RICS).
———. 2011. “Kyrgyz Republic: Second Land and Real Estate
Transparency International India. 2005. India Corruption Study 2005.
Registration Project (SLRERP).” Project Implementation
New Delhi: Transparency International India.
Support Mission, March 7–17, Internal World Bank report,
UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe). 1996. Washington, DC.
Land Administration Guidelines. Geneva: UNECE.
Zhao, J., and D. J. Coleman. 2006. “GeoDF: Towards a SDI-
———. 2002. “Mass Evaluation Systems of Land (Real Estate) for Based PPGIS Application for E-Governance.” Proceedings
Taxation Purposes.” Proceedings of the UNECE Working Party on of the GSDI 9 Conference, Santiago, November. http://
Land Administration Workshop, Federal Land Cadastre Service of www.gsdidocs.org / gsdiconf/GSDI-9/papers/TS9.3paper.pdf,
Russia, Moscow. accessed May 2011.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 371
Module 14 USING ICT TO IMPROVE FOREST
GOVERNANCE
TUUKKA CASTRÉN (World Bank) and MADHAVI PILLAI (World Bank)
IN THIS MODULE
Overview. Information and communication technology (ICT) applications can be harnessed to enhance public participa-
tion and transparency, make law enforcement more efficient, and improve forest management. This module uses the
World Bank’s Framework for Forest Governance to assess the potential of ICT applications to address different aspects
of forest governance.
Topic Note 14.1: Pillar 1—Transparency, Accountability, and Public Participation. Approaches to increasing transpar-
ency, accountability, and public participation for forest management through ICT include e-government services and open
government applications, advocacy campaigns through text messaging and Internet social networking sites, community
radio, crowdsourcing, and collaborative and participatory mapping.
Participatory Mapping in Cameroon
The Central Vigilance Commission Website in India
PoiMapper in Kenya
Topic Note 14.2: Pillar 2—Quality of Forest Administration. Comprehensive forest management information systems
have been seen as the ideal solution, yet it is possible to deploy smaller-scale ICT solutions to manage information
requirements in key areas, such as the management of fires, inventories, and wildlife tracking.
Fire Alert Systems Integrating Remote Sensing and GIS
Kenya: Solving Human/Elephant Conflicts with Mobile Technology
Topic Note 14.3: Pillar 3—Coherence of Forest Legislation and the Rule of Law. Effective law enforcement systems
in the forest sector usually follow the steps of prevention, detection, and suppression. Technology has an important part
to play in each of these steps in the efforts to curb illegal logging, transportation, and processing of timber and illegal
trade in wildlife.
Ghana National Wood Tracking System
Liberia: LiberFor Chain of Custody
Topic Note 14.4: Pillar 4—Economic Efficiency, Equity, and Incentives. ICT applications can promote business trans-
actions with the private sector, as with the online auction of public timber, or e-auction. ICT applications such as RFID
chips can increase productivity and improve efficiency in the supply chain.
RFID Chips for Efficient Wood Processing
OVERVIEW focus is on institutions, their interaction with stakeholders,
The management of forests is very dependent on informa- and how their performance can be strengthened. It does
tion, knowledge management, and the capacity to process not cover forest inventories and technical resource assess-
information. This module presents lessons learned on the ment. While the module is intended to be comprehensive
use of ICT to promote good forest governance.1 The main on particular subjects, it does not present all possibilities
and current practices of ICT use in forest governance.
The objective is to demonstrate the range and diversity of
1 The module builds on the 2011 World Bank report “Forest Gov-
ernance 2.0—A Primer on ICTs and Governance,” available at approaches and feasibility of using technology in forested
http://www.profor.info. areas (see image 14.1).
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
372 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
Forest Governance as a Development Challenge IMAGE 14.1. Scanning Barcodes in Forests Enhances
Good governance is a vital ingredient in development and Forest Management
sustainable resource management (Collier 2007); invest-
ments in sustainable development are widely recognized to
yield better development outcomes within conducive gover-
nance environments. Poor governance in the forest sector
manifests itself in several ways. Forest crime—such as ille-
gal logging, arson, poaching, or encroachment—is a problem
in many areas. In many countries, corruption in the forest
sector and rent seeking have caused forest agencies to lose
both revenue and credibility. They have created an uneven
playing field for legitimate private sector actors due to price
undercutting and unreliable access to forest resources. The
unpredictable business environment has also led to short-
term profit maximization and has discouraged socially and
environmentally responsible long-term investments in the
forest sector.
The Impact of Poor Forest Governance
Poor governance in the forest sector is an impediment to
achieving good development outcomes within the sector.
In developing countries, an estimated 1 billion rural poor
depend at least partially on forests for their livelihoods, and
about 350 million live in and around forests and are heavily Source: Helveta Ltd.
dependent on them for economic, social, and cultural needs.
importance of good governance. Forests ensure the sustain-
In developing countries, illegal logging in public lands alone ability of environmental services—biodiversity conservation,
causes estimated losses in assets and revenue of more carbon sequestration, and watershed protection. All these
than US$10 billion annually, more than eight times the total services are at risk if forests are not managed in a sustain-
official development assistance dedicated to the sustainable able manner.
management of forests. As much as US$5 billion is lost to
governments annually because of evaded taxes and royal- Pilot projects around the world are currently testing differ-
ties on legally sanctioned logging. In addition to financial and ent approaches to REDD+. Some projects are focusing on
economic costs, the equity impact of poor forest governance increasing the involvement of and benefit sharing with indig-
and illegality is considerable. These rough global estimates enous and local communities, especially in terms of mapping
give an idea of the magnitude of the problem but mask coun- and measuring forest boundaries, degradation, and carbon
try-specific variations. Despite the grim global estimates, levels. Interesting examples are the Community Carbon proj-
the situation has improved in some countries. For example, ect in Mexico (Peters-Guarin and McCall 2010) and the Surui
a recent Chatham House mapping shows that illegal log- Indigenous Peoples project in the Brazilian Amazon.3 Both
ging has fallen more than 50 percent in the past 10 years in projects experiment with smartphones/PDAs with preloaded
Cameroon, the Brazilian Amazon region, and Indonesia.2 software for data collection on biomass from sample plots
and boundary demarcation using global positioning system
Using ICT to Reduce Emissions from Deforestation (GPS) functions. These projects are training local communi-
and Forest Degradation ties to update data and use simple interfaces on the devices
All schemes to reduce emissions from deforestation and to convert the data into carbon estimates.
forest degradation (REDD+) emphasize the fundamental
3 Amazon Conservation Team, Google Earth Outreach, and Moore
Foundation (http://www.amazonteam.org/index.php/233/The_Sete
2 Information in this section was drawn from World Bank 2006a _de_Setembro_Indigenous_Reserve) & (http:// www.google.org
and Lawson 2010. /earthengine/).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 373
A pilot project in Ethiopia4 also tried to have farmers access BOX 14.1. The Building Blocks of Forest Governance
the international carbon offsets market and receive payments and Their Principal Components
directly, through a mobile phone. In this case, smallholders
near Bahir Dar were asked to measure the diameters of Pillar I: Transparency, accountability, and public
trees on their land twice a year and put the information into participation
a text message, which was sent, along with each farmer’s Transparency in the forest sector
unique identification code, to the regional Watershed Users’ Decentralization, devolution, and public participa-
Association office. Standard software computed the amount tion in forest management
of carbon stored on each farm as well as the change from the
Accountability of forest officials to stakeholders
previous measurement; any increase in stored carbon diox-
Accountability within the forest agencies
ide was converted into cash using the going rate of carbon
dioxide on international markets, and farmers were paid by Pillar II: Stability of forest institutions and conflict
their local association. management
General stability of forest institutions
The Pillars of Forest Governance Management of conflict over forest resources
It needs to be recognized that even legal activities may lead
Pillar III: Quality of forest administration
to unsustainable management of resources and that good
Willingness to address forest sector issues
governance and legality do not always deliver sustainability.
The opposite also holds true: not all technically illegal activi- Capacity and effectiveness of forest agencies
ties are unsustainable. Development outcomes in forestry Corruption control within the forest sector
depend on many factors both inside and outside the sector. Forest monitoring and evaluation
To help improve forest governance, the World Bank has
Pillar IV: Coherence of forest legislation and the rule
developed a conceptual framework for forest governance
of law
that consists of five pillars or building blocks, each with
Quality of domestic forest legislation
two to seven subcomponents (World Bank 2009) (see
box 14.1). This module analyzes each principal component Quality of forest law enforcement
and assesses how information management and ICT can be Quality of forest adjudication
used to promote the specific dimension of forest governance. Property rights recognized/honored/enforced
It is clear that governance cannot be promoted by knowl-
Pillar V: Economic efficiency, equity, and incentives
edge management and technology alone; fundamentally, it is
Maintenance of ecosystem integrity—sustainable
a matter of political choice and the capacity to implement
forest use
those choices. Therefore, the mere introduction of informa-
tion technology will not lead to reforms and good governance Incentives for sustainable use and penalties for
if the overall environment is not conducive. violations
Forest products pricing
Commercial timber trade and forest businesses
Information Management, Development,
and Governance: The Role of ICT Equitable allocation of forest benefits
New technologies have dramatically changed the way this Market institutions
information is collected and applied in the forest sector. For Forest revenues and expenditures
example, World Bank experiences in Eastern Europe and Source: World Bank 2009.
South Asia demonstrated the importance of appropriate
management and generation of information and the need for
These lessons gradually resulted in forest management infor-
information on financial and operational issues, as well as
mation systems (FMIS) becoming an essential element in for-
performance assessment of state agencies. Public access
est sector institutional reform programs. These systems were
to this information is a prerequisite for greater accountability
tried in forestry projects in countries as diverse as Argentina,
(World Bank 2008, 2005).
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation,
Romania, Vietnam, and several states in India (World Bank
4 Personal communication, project team. 2008). The systems focused on forest administration in the
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
374 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
narrow sense and lacked cross-sectoral linkages.5 Information “back office” processes largely remained unaltered. Based
system development has also been integrated into wider on these findings, it would be easy to assume that forestry
forest sector reform programs, as described in the following departments did not need information technology to improve
section and box 14.2. their functions. However, it would be more appropriate to con-
clude that information management needs were insufficiently
Experience of World Bank Support for Forest assessed before executing such a large-scale introduction of
Management Information Systems new technologies. Other important reasons these projects
Implementation completion reports for a sample of recent were not as effective include the following:
World Bank forestry projects show that the introduction of FMIS components were too big and complex.
computerized information management systems to facilitate Government staff were less familiar with the technical
institutional reform had limited success. side of information management, and thus drawing up
specifications for consultants to develop the systems
For three forestry projects in India, the report notes that
was difficult.
the project objectives for FMIS implementation were not
Delays in award of contracts meant that the systems
achieved or were limited in their success due to delays in
could not be tested by the client until the end of the
assigning the consultancy contracts and a lack of technical
project period.
capacity.6 More positive outcomes have been noted in proj-
ects in Romania and in Bosnia and Herzegovina.7 In Romania, Insufficient attention to “change management” to
the report found that “the full system has been installed and generate “buy in” from staff at all levels.
tested in headquarter and field office.” The project in Bosnia
has had a positive outcome, and the reason for this seems BOX 14.2. Vietnam: Management Information System
to be a phased approach. The initial focus was on develop- for the Forestry Sector
ing overall IT capacity, followed by the introduction of more
specialized capabilities such as geographical information sys- The Management Information System for the Forestry
tems (GIS) mapping tools. Sector (FORMIS) aims to introduce modern approaches
to information management in the Vietnamese forest
While forestry administrations seem to have welcomed com- sector. This includes technological solutions for informa-
puters, the link between technology, information manage- tion integration, remote-sensing technologies, and mobile
ment, and institutional reform was not always maintained. The technologies. FORMIS will contain a number of subsys-
most important reason often was the lack of clarity on how to tems and modules to provide information for steering and
get the best from the technology. There was inadequate anal- managing the forestry sector toward sustainable forest
ysis of how technology could be used to improve information management. The FORMIS information strategy will also
management to improve core business processes. Technology guide the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
was seen as a means to spruce up the “front office” while in aligning IT investment in other development projects to
obtain a harmonized, cost-effective system.
5 See, for example, the Bosnia and Herzegovina case study in
World Bank (2008). FORMIS is expected to reduce the fragmentation of infor-
6 The report for the Andhra Pradesh Forestry Project notes that
“the project has, in the latter stages, obtained up-to-date GIS mation by harmonizing standards within the Agriculture
hardware and software and established a new Geomatics Cen- Ministry. The project will come up with consistent data
tre . . . However, the system has only been fully operational in structures, standardized and consistent data collection
the latter stages of the project.” The report for Uttar Pradesh
Forestry Project notes that “the main weaknesses at (project) methodologies, and centralized coding systems. The frag-
entry were . . . an expectation that the implementing agency mented nature of existing forestry information is partially
would manage large consultancies (such as the Forest Manage- caused by a case-by-case approach when planning and
ment Information Systems, FMIS) when its capacity in this area
was limited. Other shortcomings were in the development of the building information systems, without having a strategic
FMIS which was rudimentary and not a full-fledged planning tool overview. The project pays particular attention to the ini-
at project closure.” The Madhya Pradesh Forestry Project report
tial planning of the information strategy and the informa-
found that “another shortcoming in sector management was the
failure to deliver an improved macro-level planning process sup- tion system architecture of the systems to be built.
ported by a FMIS and associated capacity building.” Sources: “Development of Management Information System for
7 Romania Forest Development Project (P067367) and Bosnia- Forestry Sector (FORMIS): Overall Work Plan” (March 3, 2010,
Herzegovina Forest Development and Conservation Project unpublished); Fowler et al. 2011; Vietnam Development Report 2011.
(P079161).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 375
ICT in Forest Governance: Experience hand, the growth of mobile phone connectivity in the country
from Three Countries is being exploited by illegal loggers and poachers.
Three detailed country reports were prepared to analyze what
The experience in Uganda also demonstrates how linking
lessons could be drawn from the experiences of countries with
ICT and e-readiness assessment with extensive governance
different forest governance challenges and different stages of
diagnostics provides a good basis for reform.
advancement in the application of ICT in development. The
country reports are from Finland, Ghana, and Uganda.
The important example from Uganda is the spontaneous
development of ICT applications through radio and SMS in
Finland is one of the world’s leading countries in applying ICT
response to governance challenges (see box 14.5). Other
across all levels of society and different economic sectors.
initiatives led by the private sector are using technologies
Forests have held a remarkable role in Finnish society for
to optimize plantation management and processing. Thus,
over a century. Alongside the rapid overall development of
Uganda is an example where the government has created the
ICT, forest sector actors have actively developed and applied
space for ICT applications to be widely used, but has not really
different ICT solutions to improve efficiency. Conventional
provided direct support. It is an environment where low-cost,
ICT applications have been developed to support decision
innovative applications would thrive and where radio is still
making and to improve the efficiency of the wood supply.
the most influential technology to reach the rural population.
During the past decades, the importance of communication
between forest actors and the general public has become
In the case of Ghana, while the country has made a lot of prog-
an emerging requirement, and new solutions have been
ress with Internet and mobile connectivity in general, appli-
introduced in response. ICT solutions in Finland are currently
cations in the forest sector are lacking. The National Wood
in a transition period to second-generation solutions, with a
Tracking System, which aims to establish a system for tracing
large proportion of solutions and e-services being revised
the chain of custody, is a notable exception. The system is
and improved. The major drivers for this are the changes
still being piloted and when complete will enable the forest
in the operating environment and the rapid development of
department to trace timber slated for exports all the way back
hardware and communication possibilities.
to the stump, thus meeting its requirements to certify legal
timber under the Voluntary Partnership Agreement with the
In general, the readiness for ICT solutions in the Finnish for-
European Union. However, it is a donor-driven system, which
est sector is very high, which reduces the need for capacity
does raise questions regarding its sustainability after external
building and technical support in introducing new solutions.
funding ends.8
The key success factors for ICT solution development and
application processes are the involvement of stakeholders,
adequate capacity, and a high level of trust between the gov- Developing a More Integrated Approach
ernment and private forest owners. For developing countries, The three main interlinked drivers of change toward a more
the Finnish model presents two important lessons: (1) good integrated approach in forest sector information manage-
outcomes from ICT solutions can be expected only through ment are as follows:
a good communication strategy and upfront involvement of
1. Technological change and convergence: Enables
stakeholders; and (2) piloting with a smaller user group is
exploring data from anywhere in the world and col-
beneficial for the final product quality.
laborating with others.
The Uganda report shows that the country has put in place 2. Increased openness, transparency, and partici-
the legal and policy architecture for expanding the role of pation: The forest sector can no longer work in
ICT in all spheres of development. However, in general, isolation and needs to share information with other
the forest sector has been lagging behind in adopting these stakeholders.
technologies. The high cost and specialized technical skills 3. National e-strategies and e-development pro-
needed for traditional remote sensing and GIS applications grams: Forest sector information systems develop-
have been a limiting factor. However, corruption, illegal log- ment needs to have a whole-government approach.
ging, and other forest crimes are notable governance prob-
lems in the country. The lack of avenues for citizens to hold 8 Information in this section is drawn from country reports for
Finland, Uganda, and Ghana—unpublished consultant reports,
their public office bearers accountable has been cited as one available at http://www.profor.info/profor/knowledge/information-
of the governance challenges in the sector. On the other management-and-forest-governance.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
376 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
ICT experiences in the forest sector have not been sys- summarizes the relationship of ICT to the five pillars. The
tematically studied, but new applications are being piloted only pillar in the World Bank’s framework that has not been
in various countries, and there is a wealth of experience specifically addressed is “Stability of Forest Institutions and
from the field. Experience with ICT tools in other sectors— Conflict Management.” This is closely related to the four
such as banking, agriculture, fisheries, and public sector other pillars. If issues such as transparency, quality of admin-
governance—has also generated lessons on how ICT can be istration, and economic efficiency are ensured, conflicts in
effectively used to improve governance and service delivery. the sector can be reduced.
This module explores the range of ICT applications available
and relevant for forest governance, using a sample of field
experiences. While most of the cases are directly from the KEY CHALLENGES AND ENABLERS
forest sector, nonforestry cases have been included for their Though there is great potential for using ICT to improve for-
relevance to the forest sector. The discussion is focused est governance, there are no ready-made or easy solutions.
on understanding what works under real-world conditions, This section looks at the operational challenges that confront
the potential for replication and scaling up, and what can be national forest agencies and practitioners when using ICT for
learned from other sectors. forest governance. It also reviews the key enablers that can
help to overcome these challenges. Some of the following
To understand how ICT can best serve forest governance discussions address issues generic to all agricultural ICT and
needs, this module uses the World Bank’s framework for e-government initiatives, while others deal with issues spe-
forest governance (see box 15.1) to classify the selected cific to forestry.
examples. Information is a key crosscutting requirement for
all the pillars of forest governance. The role of ICT in improv- Be familiar with national ICT policies and e-readiness.
ing information management under each pillar is explored Projects can be developed in countries with low readi-
with the help of field examples through the subsequent ness, but they must be designed accordingly. E-readiness
topic notes (each topic note represents a pillar). Table 14.1 is an essential factor ensuring that e-services can be used
TABLE 14.1. Pillars of Forest Governance and ICT
PILLAR OF
GOVERNANCE WHAT IS THE INFORMATION MANAGEMENT PROBLEM? WHICH ICT APPLICATIONS CAN HELP?
I. Transparency, Insufficient access to key information on forest management, land E-government and open government applications
Accountability, and tenure, concessions, etc. Advocacy and awareness campaigns through text messaging
Public Participation No forums for public to share ideas, alert forest managers, or and Internet social networking sites
register complaints. Community radio
Lack of information or public consultations on planned development Crowdsourcing to increase public participation
projects and major land use changes. Collaborative and participatory mapping
II. Stability of Forest (Applications presented under other pillars.)
Institutions and Conflict
Management
III. Quality of Forest Costly and difficult to gather detailed information for forest invento- Forest cover and carbon stock assessment with CLASlite and
Administration ries and carbon estimation. airborne LiDAR
Extensive damage from forest fires and insufficient advance infor- Real-time fire alerts
mation for forest managers to take action. Wildlife tracking and conflict management
Conflicts between humans and wildlife; wildlife poaching.
IV. Coherence of Forest Difficult to monitor movement of logs from forest areas. Technologies for surveillance and deterrence—computerized
Legislation and the Information for legality verification is easily tampered with. check posts and GPS
Rule of Law Technologies for tracking timber—chain of custody systems
Lack of awareness of forest laws.
Surveillance of all critical areas for illegal activities is expensive. Legal information management systems: Global Legal
Information Network
Mobile and online crime reporting services
V. Economic Efficiency, Lack of transparency in auctions, sales, and allocations of licenses Online timber sales, licenses, and auctions
Equity, and Incentives for planting. Logistics
Accurate information on distance and time needed to optimize Mobile phone or PDAs for carbon estimation and receipt of
timber transportation and increase cost-efficiency. payments
Source: Authors.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 377
and that investments in new systems provide the desired public agencies or voluntary nongovernmental organizations
outcomes. The existing and potential capacity needs to be (NGOs). Working at the local level ensures that applications
assessed and mapped, and applications need to match the are responsive to local needs and that there is uptake of the
capacity. Development programs may also have components models being developed.
to strengthen the e-readiness in partner forest organiza-
tions; this needs to happen in full alignment with national Information and communication technologies can
e-government development strategies. Particularly in envi- improve forest governance, but operation, maintenance,
ronments with weak capacity, there is a risk of systems and project design issues must be addressed. All cases
being developed independent of each other, adding to the show that if planned properly, both mobile and Internet appli-
difficulties associated with building e-government systems cations can be developed to improve various aspects of gov-
across sectors. ernance. Moreover, these systems can be combined with
others to provide a full range of services to public and forest
Define the problem clearly, assess the information needs, professionals. But having appropriate technology alone is not
and compare possible solutions. Defining the problem to adequate. One needs to consider two issues crucial to the
be addressed is a fundamental requirement for any project, long-term sustainability of the applications: (1) Project design
and ICT projects are no exception. ICT applications are tools has to be appropriate and focused on meeting demand; and
or enablers, and having good devices alone is no assurance (2) operational and maintenance issues must be addressed.
that forestry management will be improved. Therefore, it Recurrent issues like power supply (for recharging laptops,
is essential to properly identify the underlying causes and mobile phones, and PDAs), spare parts (such as replacement
effects before looking for a technological solution. The objec- batteries), and service also need to be addressed.
tive is also to find the most cost-efficient and feasible solution.
Mobile and Internet applications provide many benefits, but Some services are consumer driven and can become
traditional communication channels may also be appropriate. financially self-sustaining, while others are public goods
Particularly in environments where access to information and need to be financed from public sources. In designing
networks and electricity is limited, lower-tech solutions may projects, consider costs, long-term financial sustainability,
be needed. If no systematic feedback systems are required and scalability. Many pilot studies and applications are funded
or the information is not time sensitive, conventional strate- and subsidized by international donors, NGOs, or national
gies like public posters, community meetings, or radio can governments. However, particularly for commercial services,
also help disseminate important information. the long-term sustainability of an application depends mainly
on end user participation and out-of-pocket expenditures.
Determine the best entry points and the appropriate These costs arise from the purchase of various information
technology. In ICT, the gradual introduction of new services technology services, such as sending responses to text mes-
based on existing ones can be also beneficial. In particular, sages, in which cases the total cost depends on the cost of
systems that are aimed at the public and where extensive a text message. Very few pilot projects have focused on the
end user training cannot be provided should be based on financial sustainability of the models, including how much
familiar user interfaces. Another decision that needs to be investment is required. To be sustainable, programs need
made when selecting entry points is the type of technol- to consider scaling up and replication. This is exceptionally
ogy to be used. Technology choice depends heavily on the important for forestry because the sector is inherently public
existing capacity; mobile phones and even smartphones are service oriented. For example, law enforcement is a public
much more common in poorer developing countries than good and should be financed from public resources. Well-
Internet-connected computers. functioning business models and reliable revenue streams
are critical to public forest management (image 14.2).
Design culturally appropriate and relevant content.
Services provided have to be locally adapted and relevant and Address data security and privacy issues, and develop
meet the requirements of the target audience. The key ele- risk mitigation to prevent the misuse of technology and
ment is to ensure that applications do not require language inaccurate data. Having access to ICT to track illegal activities
skills that are not widely available. Particularly in areas with facilitates better law enforcement; the converse could also be
low literacy rates, it is essential that e-applications form part true. Loggers and wildlife poachers may intercept communi-
of a more extensive service package where illiterate users cations between forest authorities and voluntary informers,
can also access the information through various agents that and text messages can be used to mislead law enforcement
help them with the applications. This can be arranged through agencies. Consequently, law enforcement bodies need to be
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
378 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
IMAGE 14.2. Long-Term Investments Are Critical to Scaling Up Interventions indigenous communities, which may
have little formal knowledge of the
sector and poor or no access to
information networks. Also, within
the communities, access may be
unequal and women or the poor
may be excluded, even if local elites
have some access and knowledge.
To avoid any potential unintended
exclusion of key stakeholders, it
is essential that any information
system development plan include
comprehensive stakeholder or client
mapping. This should assess what
the information needs are and how
to provide the required information
services, including training.
Ensure buy-in from forest authori-
ties at all levels. Ensuring adoption
Source: Douglas Sheil, CIFOR. of an e-governance agenda in forest
agencies may also happen through
prepared to counter disinformation, have at least comparable other means. It may require strong normative guidance from
resources, and be capable of investigating criminal activities. national e-government programs and agencies and may also
If ICT applications are developed to encourage public partici- require the provision of financial incentives. Often, increased
pation in forest law enforcement—for example, by opening use of new technology is driven by efficiency gains and cost
hotlines for reporting corruption, illegal logging, poaching, or savings. If these can be clearly analyzed and demonstrated,
other forest sector crimes—it is critical that the identities of agencies have incentives to stay engaged and expand the
sources not be disclosed, as this could jeopardize their per- use of ICT. Even if many NGOs and international organiza-
sonal safety. tions have been developing innovative models, if the right
authorities are not involved, the new systems will have lim-
Ensure that there is adequate information on the ited value if their operators do not have access to relevant
resource (for example, forest inventories and resource information and data. Frequently, donor-funded projects have
assessments) or readiness to improve data collection. been able to equip the project implementation units with
Having adequate data to be processed in the system is a modern hardware and software while other departments
precondition for transparent information sharing. The lack of remained much more poorly equipped. If wide-scale ICT
data cannot be overcome by any investment in technology. reforms are expected to happen, it is essential that relevant
Nevertheless, these investments do not need to be sequen- agencies be upgraded in a way that allows for their participa-
tial. In most cases it is possible to collect inventory informa- tion. This requires adequate investment funding for upgrad-
tion while developing ICT applications. ing hardware, system development, and human capacity
building.
Identify the right stakeholders and ensure their par-
ticipation and avoid local elite capture; include indig- Users are able and willing to use new technologies, but
enous peoples, women, and the rural poor. The forest they need to be aware of the service and motivated to
sector, by its nature, has diverse stakeholders with varying use it. Even models that are fully functional from a technical
levels of competence. Large enterprises, senior manage- perspective may fail to deliver or perform below expectations
ment, and technical specialists in forest administrations and if users are not aware of them or do not have the right incen-
international NGOs have better knowledge than rural and tives. It is essential for clients to be able to provide feedback
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 379
and to be genuinely involved. Making information available support. In many cases, the underlying technology already
by the forest authorities serves several purposes: informa- exists and only applications need to be developed. The
tion is a basis for public consultations and inclusive decision examples discussed in the topic notes clearly demonstrate
making. However, even limited dissemination is beneficial; that many of the forest applications have been developed
if the authorities disseminate information through websites, on existing platforms based on a demand-driven innovation.
for example, the information is available to the media and These have been used in a number of ways to increase public
NGOs for scrutiny, even if the public only has limited access participation and surveillance of forest areas, to monitor fires,
to the information. and to reduce human/wildlife conflicts around protected areas.
Applications using mobile phones, radio, and the Internet Additional observations and practical implications from the field
can be deployed quickly with minimal technological examples in the topic notes are summarized in table 14.2.
TABLE 14.2. Summary of Field Examples
PILLAR OF GOVERNANCE SUITABLE ICT APPLICATIONS ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED
Transparency, Accountability, E-government and open data initiatives Applications are mostly Internet and mobile phone based, technologically
and Public Participation Advocacy and awareness campaigns through text less challenging, and cheaper to deploy. Cell phone applications would be
messaging and internet social networking sites more useful in forested areas.
Community radio Legal and political support is necessary for e-government and open data
initiatives, and these applications are best led by government agencies.
Crowdsourcing to increase public participation
NGOs and civil society can establish and manage mobile phone applica-
Collaborative and participatory mapping
tions, community radio, and participatory mapping.
Costs to users/communities need to be offset through funding from donors /
private sector. Community radio (FM) stations can be set up for US$5,000–
US$15,000 and managed by community members; SMS can be purchased
at bulk rates from cell phone companies.
For mapping applications, GPS capability is necessary; PDAs (US$800–
US$1,200) or smartphones (US$150–US$200) can be used, depending on
how rugged the device needs to be.
Quality of Forest Forest cover and carbon stock assessment with These applications are for government agencies.
Administration CLASlite and airborne LiDAR Satellite imagery is now available at lower or no cost; recent developments
Real-time fire alerts through MODIS have simplified software for interpretation. However, technical training is
Wildlife tracking and conflict management through essential to interpret images and generate maps.
mobile phone applications The LiDAR approach for carbon assessment is still in the early stages, and
costs are estimated at US$0.10/Ha. Currently, the Carnegie Institution for
Science (Department of Global Ecology) is the main provider of the LiDAR
technology for forest cover and carbon assessment.
CyberTracker software is free to download onto PDAs and can be tailored
for different uses: tracking wildlife, movement of logs, location of specific
tree species, etc. It is a good technology for working in collaboration with
communities.
Fire alerts from MODIS and through Fire Alert system are free text and
email services.
Coherence of Forest Technologies for surveillance and deterrence: com- Comprehensive chain of custody systems are expensive operations. They
Legislation and Rule of Law puterized checkpoints and GPS tracking of vehicles are useful where the benefits of legality assurance outweigh the costs,
Technologies for tracking timber—chain of custody such as in timber exporting countries. Costs of these systems could be
systems shared between industry and government as benefits accrue to both.
Legal information management systems: Global Less expensive crime reporting hotlines could be set up to work through
Legal Information Network voice and text messages. All crime reporting systems need to assure
citizens anonymity and safety.
Mobile and online crime reporting services
Economic Efficiency, Equity, Online timber sales, licenses, and auctions These applications would work well in situations where the forest sector is
and Incentives Logistics fairly advanced in the use of information technology. While the government
agency may need to set up and maintain the applications initially, some
services such as online auctions and inventory data, which are used by the
industry can have a user fee to offset the cost to the public sector.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
380 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
Topic Note 14.1: PILLAR 1—TRANSPARENCY, ACCOUNTABILITY,
AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
TRENDS AND ISSUES to receive information from the site’s users. A very advanced
Information availability is a precondition for transparency, example is the website of the Forestry Commission of the
accountability, and efficient public participation. Enhancing United Kingdom. This site provides users with information,
the accountability of the government and its institutions, access to relevant policies and procedures, and links to wider
including forestry institutions, is a key issue in all countries. e-government applications in the country (see box 14.3).
Transparency and access to information are essential if pub-
lic sector forest institutions are to be held accountable for
BOX 14.3. Website of the Forestry Commission, United
their performance. Making the public aware of forest sec-
Kingdom
tor’s policies, laws, and the rights and responsibilities of citi-
zens and the state is the first step in increasing transparency
The Forestry Commission of the United Kingdom is one
and accountability. Public participation and support for forest
of the best examples of e-government in action in the
activities can be increased by actively seeking public opin-
forest sector. The commission’s website (http://www
ion and suggestions on government actions through easily
.forestry.gov.uk/) not only disseminates information
accessible avenues. Approaches to increasing transparency,
on the forests under its jurisdiction but also serves as
accountability, and public participation through ICT include
a platform for interaction with citizens, including
the following:
e-commerce services. The site is user friendly and, from
e-government services and open government a governance perspective, has a number of features:
applications
Information on all aspects of forestry (educational,
advocacy campaigns through text messaging and recreational, scientific, and industrial).
Internet social networking sites
Up-to-date statistics on timber production, sales,
community radio and inventory.
crowdsourcing—mapping for the people, by the Information search feature through the land infor-
people mation search, which is a map-based tool giving
collaborative and participatory mapping. information about land designations.
Information on grants and licenses for planting
E-Government and Open Government / Open Data and felling, with a feature for online comments on
Applications individual applications.
Open government, open data, and e-government initiatives Environment impact assessment register shows
are meant to increase access to government-owned informa- details of the decisions that the commission
tion and increase transparency and accountability in general. makes after assessing the potential environmental
Open government and open data initiatives are giving more impact of work to carry out afforestation or defor-
access to information that would otherwise be out of bounds. estation or to build forest roads or quarries.
On the other hand, e-government solutions are designed Online auctions through the e-timber sales portal.
from the perspective of increased efficiency, reduced corrup- In addition to these interactive features, the site provides
tion, and better service delivery. While open government / data the commission’s policies and standards for sustainable
may not strictly be the same as e-government, all of these forest management, the government’s policies on free-
approaches use ICT to make governments more transparent dom of information, the rights of citizens to information
and efficient. held by state agencies, and the process of consultation
the commission follows before planting or felling in any
Websites are the first and simplest point of communication
woodland. The commission also carries out an annual
with the public in the digital world. Several ministries of for-
survey where public opinion on forestry is gathered and
ests and the environment have websites with information on
posted on its site.
key policies, programs, and organizational responsibilities;
Source: http:www.forestry.gov.uk.
however, only a few have interactive features that allow them
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 381
Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom have open BOX 14.4. Advocacy and Awareness Tools
government or open data policies to share information with
the public. There are numerous benefits of having access to FrontlineSMS is free, open source software that turns a
such large volumes of public data. For example, budget infor- laptop and a mobile phone into a central communications
mation for the forest sector could be used to monitor the per- hub. Once installed, the program enables users to send
formance of state agencies’ projects; and data on harvesting and receive text messages with groups of people through
volumes and area could be used by interested civil society mobile phones. Its features include the following:
organizations to monitor whether harvest levels are sustain- No Internet connection is required.
able and whether critical ecosystems are being protected. A phone and SIM card can be attached, and the
local mobile phone service operator paid per SMS
While open data policies are primarily initiated by govern-
as usual.
ment agencies, the Open Budget Initiative demonstrates
All phone numbers and records of all incoming and
that it is possible for civil society organizations to generate
outgoing messages are stored.
demand for open data policies. The Open Budget Initiative
is a global advocacy program to promote public access to Data are stored on the user’s computer, not on
budget information and the adoption of accountable budget external servers.
systems. It is anchored in a biennial Open Budget Survey Messages can be sent to individuals or large
that evaluates whether governments give the public access groups and can be replied to individually, which is
to budget information and opportunities to participate in the useful for fieldwork or during surveys.
budget process at the national level. To measure the overall Easy to install and requires little or no training to
commitment of the countries surveyed for transparency and use.
for comparisons among countries, the Open Budget Index Developers can freely take the source code and
(OBI) was developed, which is a score assigned to each add their own features.
country based on the information it makes available to the
It can be used anywhere in the world by switching
public throughout the budget process. The OBI was initiated
the SIM card.
by the NGO International Budget Partnership. The OBI could
Source: http://www.frontlinesms.com/.
also be applied in the forest sector, and NGOs could initi-
ate an OBI for the forest sector in their country. The role of
ICT in this case could be to increase access to information
through websites or mobile phones.9 The Central Vigilance
Commission in India is another example of a “partial” open
government initiative. Advocacy and Awareness Campaigns through Text
Messaging and Social Networking Sites
E-government services have been high on the agenda of The large number of mobile phone subscribers in develop-
many countries for over a decade. The primary motive for ing and developed countries and the relatively simple tech-
launching e-government services, from the perspective of nology for setting up mass text messaging systems (see
the government, is often to improve the efficiency and cost- box 14.4) are helping NGOs and advocacy groups reach out
effectiveness of operations; reducing corruption is often to greater numbers than is possible through traditional mass
not stated as one of the objectives. However, studies have media. NGOs have used text messages effectively in their
shown that e-government programs have a great impact on campaign for a new forest law in Argentina and to generate
user perception of corruption and transparency. For example, public pressure on a food company to stop it from sourcing
the World Bank (2009) found that in India, users’ perception palm oil from companies that cut down primary rain forests
of corruption in the electronic land registration and records to make room for oil palm plantations. Sites such as http://
services called Bhoomi, CARD, and Kaveri was lower when www.mobileactive.org connect NGOs and advocacy groups
compared to the older manual systems. (For a discussion of using mobile technologies for social change and help them
ICT in land management, see Module 13.) with information on the latest trends, do-it-yourself guides,
and reviews of mobile applications.
9 http://www.internationalbudget.org/what-we-do/open-budget- The growth of text messages in advocacy campaigns could
initiative/. be attributed to the following:
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
382 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
Mobile phones are carried everywhere as a personal BOX 14.5. Uganda—Environment Alert: Civil Society
accessory and are kept switched on almost 24 hours Organizations Use ICT in Advocacy
each day, so the target audience is almost always Campaigns
accessible.
Messages targeted at individuals are more likely to In 2007, the government of Uganda wanted to give
generate a response than those broadcast to a mass away a third of the Mabira Central Forest Reserves to
audience. a sugar company after the government was asked to
remove the reserve status of the forest and allocate the
Responding to a text message is easier and quicker
land to the company. At the same time, sensitivity to
than making phone calls or sending letters, especially
environmental matters had been heightened in Uganda
when the responder does not have to pay for sending
by the campaigns about the impact of the loss of forests
the message.
on floods, unpredictable weather, and rising food prices.
Mobile phones allow two-way interaction, and feed-
back can be received almost instantly. As a result, civil society organizations used ICT to alert
individuals about official actions that would affect them
NGO campaigns have started using Internet social networks adversely and to mobilize them to save the Mabira
such as Facebook and Twitter to target the youth, who are Forest. Environmentalists took their fight to discussion
the primary users of these networks. For example, an inter- groups on FM radio stations and used text messages to
national NGO carried out a two-month campaign through campaign against buying the company’s sugar until the
Twitter, Reddit, Facebook, and online video against an inter- plan to grab part of Mabira Forest was dropped.
national food company during 2010 for its use of palm oil
The text messages were particularly effective. The com-
from suppliers linked to rainforest destruction. As a result
pany saw a decline in sales, and some retail businesses
of the campaign, the food company announced in May 2010
withdrew their products from store shelves entirely.
that it would partner with the Forest Trust, an international
Environmentalists argued that apportioning part of the
nonprofit organization, to rid its supply chain of any sources
Mabira Forest would bring more adverse effects than
involved in the destruction of rain forests.10 This approach
the sugar shortage. Opposition politicians also picked
may be more feasible in medium- and high-income coun-
up the slack and started criticizing the government for
tries, where there is more access to the Internet, than in
its lack of concern. In this particular example, text mes-
low-income countries. In many developing countries, text
sages helped by alerting people what would happen
messaging is still the primary means of data collection
next if they did not join the movement to stop the forest
and dissemination. A combination of media can be used
giveaway. The campaign of the civil society organiza-
successfully, as the example from Uganda demonstrates
tions was complemented by other actions in the country
(see box 14.5).
and strong reaction from the international development
partners. Eventually, the plan was withdrawn.
Community Radio Source: Uganda country report (available at http://www.profor.info/
profor/knowledge/information-management-and-forest-governance).
The use of radio to broadcast development issues is not
new. However, community radio is relatively new, and over
the past decade several community radio stations have been
established around the world to help women and marginal-
areas of the globe, radio is the medium of choice, far out-
ized groups to build networks and gain access to information
stripping other mass media in terms of audience numbers.
on health, livelihoods, farming, weather, and markets, as well
For instance, in West Africa, radio ownership dwarfs that of
as to educate communities on democracy, citizen rights, and
all other communication equipment, including TV and mobile
gender issues.
phones. In Africa in general, between 80 and 90 percent of
Radios are relatively cheap and easily repaired and widely households have access to radio.11
available, even in the poorest regions. In several African
Radio programs can be combined with other media as well.
countries, radio broadcasts are the primary medium for com-
Radio browsing of the Internet is a more recent format that
municating political and religious messages. In the poorest
11 Statistics for 11 countries for which consistent data were avail-
10 http://www.mongabay.com and http://www.greenpeace.org. able, Myers (2010).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 383
combines the power of the Internet with the reach of the radio. were presented in the form of drama in several local dialects
During the program, the presenter browses the Internet with and were listened to in community meetings, where the
a local expert (for example, a forestry or agriculture extension questions raised by the key characters were discussed by
official or a community development expert), and together they the gathering. This technology could serve forest communi-
describe, explain, and discuss the information in the languages ties in other countries as well, to keep them aware of policy
used by the community. This has been successfully demon- changes and developments that can affect their resources
strated by the community media centers piloted by UNESCO in and their lives. Box 14.6 summarizes how community radio
Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Nepal, among others. Similarly, mobile can help promote better forest governance. (See IPS “Farm
technology is being combined with radio programming, where Radio International Involves Men and Women Farmers,” in
listeners can call or text message the program. Module 6, for more on participatory radio.)
With the availability of bandwidth on WorldSpace satellite
radio subscription through First Voice International or RANET, Crowdsourcing to Increase Public Participation
community radio stations in remote locations can access news Combining a Web-based platform with inputs from text
and entertainment programs on other stations. However, the messages increases the versatility of information gathered.
main benefits of community radio are in programming that is Information can be instantly geo-referenced and provide an
in local languages, in formats that communities relate to, and overview to a decision maker on where activities should be
on issues of local importance. For example, in Papua New prioritized. In addition to increasing transparency and public
Guinea, a mix of community radio and digital audio program-
ming has been used to convey messages on forest manage- 12 http://ictupdate.cta.int/en/Feature-Articles/Digital-audio-in-
ment and sustainable land management.12 The programs Papua-New-Guinea.
BOX 14.6. How Can Community Radio Benefit Forest Governance?
Fighting corruption and increase awareness of citizens’ rights: In Malawi, the Development Communications Trust
broadcasts “village voice” recordings from a network of radio clubs around the country. These programs report (among
other things) on local-level delays, corruption, malpractice, and mismanagement by service providers, including interna-
tional NGOs and local authorities and politicians. These problems are then broadcast on national radio, and the ministry,
individual, or organization responsible is invited to reply on air in a context of a mediated dialogue with the community in
question. The Development Communications Trust says that 70 percent of radio club problems are resolved satisfacto-
rily after they have been aired nationally. It is currently supported by UNDP, Oxfam, and the Malawi national AIDS body.
Reporting on corruption and governance: In Sierra Leone, KISS-FM in Bo and SKY-FM started a series called “Mr.
Owl” to report on local police corruption. This resulted in increased pay for the police and the establishment of a commu-
nity affairs department. A voter education program, “Democracy Now,” resulted in higher voter turnout in the station’s
listening area compared to other parts of the country.
Increasing women’s empowerment: USAID’s Women in Governance pilot program in Mali distributed more than 500
Freeplay radios to women’s listening groups in April 2004. The radios were designed for rural African conditions and can
function without batteries. Instead, batteries can be charged manually by winding or through solar power.
Increasing awareness of environmental issues and public participation in policy development: In September 2009,
Developing Radio Partners (DRP), a U.S. NGO, launched a year-long pilot project called “Our Environment, Our Future”
that brings residents the information they need in the way they can best use it. DRP is working with 99.6 Breeze-FM, a
community-oriented private station in Chipata, Zambia, to help six radio stations in rural Zambia and Malawi create and
broadcast local environmental programming. It also encourages innovative use of mobile phones to expand the stations’
interaction with listeners, using the text messaging software FrontlineSMS (box 14.4). The project is helping build skills
in environmental reporting and in developing relevant content on topics such as the impact of deforestation on local
agriculture, sustainable farming methods, and many others.
Sources: Myers 2010; USAID 2005; http://developingradio.org.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
384 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
participation, it can also serve as a means to track account- Technologies (IT) in Combating Illegal Logging” was started
ability of civil servants. This application gained popularity in 2008 by developing a broad network of active citizens and
after Ushahidi became a success story in the aftermath of NGOs to support the integration of a Web-based platform for
the Kenyan riots in 2008, as a means of keeping citizens information alerts about instances of illegal logging into the
informed on safety and security through information reports work of Bulgaria’s forestry administration.
from individuals. The success of Ushahidi has led to its rep-
lication in other countries for other purposes (see box 14.7). Crowdsourcing can be used for many different purposes.
While it is a useful and cost-efficient way of collecting infor-
A similar application by the Blue Link Information Network in mation, there needs to be a way to ensure that the data
Bulgaria was initiated to gather information on illegal logging, entered are valid and have not been fabricated. The manag-
which was simultaneously posted on the website, to show ers of the urban forest map in San Francisco, California, have
the authorities where the illegal activities were concentrated. built in some specific algorithms to raise red flags in case of
The project “Expose and Improve—The Power of Information dubious data inputs. They also propose carrying out random
verifications in the field (box 14.8). Alerta Miraflores in the
BOX 14.7. Public Participation and Crowdsourcing
municipality of Miraflores in Peru is an expansive system for
of Data
tracking and reporting incidences of crime.
Ushahidi, which means “testimony” in Swahili, is a
platform designed to take input from hundreds of people
by mobile phone or e-mail. It uses free software called BOX 14.8. Citizen-Powered Urban Forest Map
FrontlineSMS that turns a laptop and a mobile phone of San Francisco
into a text-broadcasting hub. As an SMS is sent from
An example of crowdsourcing, this project is a collaboration
a hot zone, the message syncs with the Ushahidi soft-
of the government and nonprofits and businesses and citi-
ware and shows up in a Web administrator’s inbox. The
zens of San Francisco to map every tree in the city. Citizens
Web administrator can decide to send a text message
can create an account and upload a tree’s location, its diam-
back to the sender to verify the information, send out
eter, and a photo of the tree following instructions on the
a blast alert to large numbers of people, or post the
website. There is a link to an online guide called “Urban
information onto a Web page with location information
Tree Key” to help in the identification of the trees.
from Google Maps (or do all three). Ushahidi is free,
and although it was primarily developed as a quick The project is the first of its kind, and there has been
information-gathering and broadcasting tool during the concern regarding the quality and authenticity of the
riots in Kenya in 2008, it has quickly been adapted for data entered by the public. The collaborators intend to
uses other than crisis response. The following programs overcome this challenge by carrying out field verification
use the Ushahidi platform to gather information from of random samples of data.
people and then show on a map where the events are Sources: http://www.urbantreekey.org; http://www.urbanforestmap
.org; Friends of the Urban Forest (http://www.fuf.net).
happening and how large an area is affected:
Wildlife Trackers is a citizen science project in
Kenya. Collaborative and Participatory Mapping
Stop Stockouts is an initiative to track near-real-time Maps are vital for decision making in forestry. While public
stockouts of medical supplies at pharmacies (in a sector forestry institutions prepare maps to record changes in
medical store or health facility) in Kenya, Uganda, cover with data from satellites, day-to-day changes at a smaller
Malawi, and Zambia. scale are often not recorded or not available in easily acces-
The Ushahidi platform combines the benefits of the sible formats to a wider audience. Mapping devices and soft-
Internet and mobiles phones and could be used to gen- ware have been out of reach for nonspecialists until recently.
erate near-real-time information on forest crimes, fire, However, new software makes it possible to put the power of
wildlife sightings, and so on. The advantage of mobile creating and updating spatial information in the hands of field
SMS-based data inputs is immense in remote and rural staff and local communities (see image 14.3). Open source
areas. programs make this more affordable for application develop-
Source: http://www.ushahidi.com/. ers. Communities can partner with forest agencies to help
create and update information on forest maps. Information
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 385
IMAGE 14.3. User-Friendly Tools Allow Local Participation in Forest Mapping Moabi is a collaborative mapping
system that enables groups and
individuals to build a large database
for sharing, viewing, editing, and dis-
cussing spatial information relevant
to REDD+. The system has been
developed by the World Wildlife Fund
(USA) and is current being applied in
the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Moabi allows policy makers, research
institutions, and carbon project devel-
opers to view, download, and edit
relevant spatial data. It will facilitate
on-the-ground monitoring of activi-
ties such as illegal logging, mining,
and the bush-meat trade. By using
mobile mapping devices, data can be
collected and directly uploaded to the
system either through the Internet
or mobile phones. To compensate
for slow Internet connectivity, data
Source: Helveta Ltd. can be sent to proxies who will
upload the data, making it available
on boundaries, use rights and planned developments, and to global users. The site is built on open source, widely used
small-scale logging or clearing for agriculture have implications free software such as Google Maps and Drupal, which is a
for land-use management and governance. Information pre- Web content management system. This helps ensure that
sented on maps is a powerful visual tool for decision making. the design is flexible, easily customizable, and functional on a
It also increases transparency, which is essential when the wide variety of computers and Web browsers.
interests of several stakeholders are involved.
Any registered user in Moabi can post data to the website,
Collaborative mapping is a tool to facilitate spatial data collection but the data can only be approved by a peer review mem-
and analysis. This tool is more appropriate for the forest sector ber. Users will be able to view both approved and unap-
than basic crowdsourcing, as it allows mapping of points of inter- proved data in the system and provide ratings on comments
est and other geo-referenced information such as specific routes on any material posted. The system provides users with
and areas. It can be useful for the staffs of forest departments, incentives to contribute information by recognizing regular
NGOs, and national-level planning and policy-making bodies. contributors through elevated status or promotion to the
peer review panel. For mobile phone contributors, incen-
With the availability of open source and simpler software for
tives may be offered through phone credit awards. Moabi
desktop computers, even nonspecialists can view and upload
is being developed with funding from a donor. However,
data to maps. Greater accessibility to data is expected as a
once the first pilot is successfully tested in the Democratic
result of high-speed Internet services around the world, and
Republic of Congo, it is thought that subsequent replica-
data on forest cover, deforestation rates, density, and so on
tions can be developed with a smaller budget of US$30,000
are now accessed by a wide range of audiences. Collaborative
to US$50,000.13
mapping has the potential to increase and widen the scope
of stakeholder participation in project design and manage- Moabi has a high level of utility in forest governance, to
ment and to facilitate the viewing and updating of project increase transparency and public interest and participation in
data. Three applications relevant for forestry are discussed: development activities that could lead to deforestation and ille-
PoiMapper gal logging and to promote law enforcement. This application
World Wildlife Fund’s Moabi
CI Earth’s Participatory Mapping 13 WWF (USA), pers. comm.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
386 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
will be more useful when it allows data collection and uploads computers with the specially developed icon-driven software
via mobile phones to offset the lack of Internet connectivity CI Earth, which requires no literacy skills, to create forest inven-
in rural areas. However, the peer review process for informa- tory maps. Data are captured using CI Mobile and GPS reader
tion displayed on the portal may become a point of contention technology. CI Mobile combines handheld data entry with
between different stakeholder groups, and it would be impor- data from GPS, RFID, and barcode readers to gather accurate
tant to ensure the integrity of the peer review process. records of how assets are being managed and processed in
the forest or factory. CI Earth uses a CI Mobile interface config-
Participatory mapping is used extensively by development ured to record data types that are relevant to the particular user
agencies and NGOs around the world. However, custom- or region. CI Earth data are synchronized with CI World through
izing a handheld PDA with icons and images and training any locally available means of Internet connection, ranging
members of local and indigenous communities in its use from satellite to dial-up modem. GPS-referenced data are then
are important advances in this area. Helveta Ltd., an inter- made available within CI World in chart form and through GIS
national corporation that develops and deploys supply chain applications such as Google Earth and ESRI’s ArcView.
and asset management software for timber and agrocom-
modities has pioneered the use of its Control Intelligence (CI) The communities are meant to use the devices during their
Earth software to create maps of forest inventory in an online daily expeditions to the forest, recording their use of the
environment accessible by all registered users. resources and their observations of illegal logging activi-
ties. These data are then transferred to a secure website
This innovative project is not without its share of problems. via satellite to a data center in the United Kingdom and can
An interim review pointed out a number of concerns, mainly be accessed by authorized users and translated into maps.
with project management and coordination between project Accurate manipulation of these devices will thus create
partners and improvements in technology, such as more reliable data and maps that can define resource use, docu-
appropriate methods of recharging the GPS batteries, for ment customary areas, and expose illegal logging practices.
which the communities currently travel long distances, and So far, data have been collected south of Dimako in eastern
to improve the icon designs.14 Cameroon. Logging activities were monitored both in and
outside communal forest areas where Baka Pygmies cur-
The use of handheld computers by local communities shows
rently reside or hunt. Forest communities in the Mbalmayo
that technology can be customized for all needs, and that
region recorded bulldozer tracks that indicated industrial
it need not be a barrier for illiterate members of the com-
logging activities near illegally felled trees found outside of
munity. However, the handheld devices currently used in the
the legal commercial logging boundaries. Data gathered by
project cost between US$800 and US$1200, putting them
local communities assisted a logging company operating in
out of reach for most forestry departments. The need for
the area in identifying which communities it should consult
such expensive devices may be justified by the nature of the
over management plans for local forest areas as part of their
task—extensive data collection in remote locations neces-
Forest Stewardship Council certification process.
sitating the need for rugged devices—but the appropriate
technology has to be selected on a case-by-case basis. The CI Earth software with handheld computers has also
been used in Nigeria to monitor biodiversity in the Afi
Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary, which is home to a subpopula-
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
tion of the critically endangered Cross River gorilla.15
Participatory Mapping in Cameroon
This project has been implemented in a partnership between
local and indigenous forest communities across the southern INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
forest zone of Cameroon and the Forest Peoples Programme, The Central Vigilance Commission Website in India
University College London, Centre pour l’Environnement et The Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) was designed to
le Développement, and Helveta Ltd. Local forest-dependent be India’s top vigilance institution, free of control from any
communities were trained in using GPS-enabled handheld
14 Interim evaluation report of project, “Enabling Independent 15 The source of information within this section is http://corpo-
Monitoring of Forest Resources by Local and Indigenous Forest rate.helveta.com/uploads/news/20100107015150-Helveta%20
Communities” (unpublished, November 2009). Cameroon%20CaseStudy_2009.pdf.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 387
executive authority. It monitors all vigilance activity under the INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
central government and advises various authorities in central PoiMapper in Kenya
government organizations on planning, executing, reviewing,
PoiMapper (“Poi” stands for “point of interest”) is being
and reforming their vigilance work. The CVC is a statutory
piloted by Plan in Kenya to develop a geospatial database
body, and its website (http://cvc.nic.in/) contains the follow-
for project planning and management. Plan Kenya field staff
ing sections and features:
upload answers to preloaded questionnaires on mobile
Information on its role, responsibilities, and strategies phones and take photos to record the status and use of
to combat corruption. development infrastructure such as schools, drinking water
Communication directly with the public through sources, and clinics. Information collected includes the num-
messages and speeches to bolster confidence in the ber of school-age children and population without access to
institution. sanitation facilities; each point of interest, such as a school,
Instructions for how any citizen can lodge a complaint is tagged with GPS referencing. This information is uploaded
against corruption, without fear of disclosure or reprisal. to the PoiMapper portal, where it is overlaid on a digital map
Central vigilance officers list: Each organization is to provide the agency with a spatial overview of its projects.
expected to nominate a senior officer to whom an This database provides the management of Plan Kenya a
employee can take a complaint on corruption. comprehensive overview of its projects in the field, and facili-
tates better planning for available resources. One feature of
Statistical reporting of the achievements of the CVC
this application is that it allows organizations to share their
and its annual report.
data, especially when working in the same region.
Details of convictions of public servants by the courts,
along with information on officers against whom PoiMapper is a mobile geomapping, data management,
an inquiry has been initiated or a penalty imposed. visualization, and sharing solution that can be integrated
This section also highlights the performance of with open source portal tools such as Drupal or Vaadin and
various departments responsible for conducting map engines such as Google Maps or Geoserver. It runs on
investigations. standard low-end GPS-enabled phones as well as on smart-
phones. It enables mapping of
A decade ago, publishing the names of officers undergoing
places, such as locations of schools and water points;
inquiries on charges of corruption on the CVC website cre-
ated a stir in the media, but it quickly caught the public’s routes, such as roads and water pipes;
attention. Despite the low level of access to computers and areas, such as community boundaries, forests, and fields;
the Internet, the information was widely disseminated by structured survey data, such as numbers, text,
radio and print media throughout the country. Thus, the site exclusive, and multiple choice; and
has had a wider impact than what could be expected based multimedia.
on India’s computer density alone.
PoiMapper can be used in offline mode for work in locations
Given the explosion in mobile phone ownership and wide- where connectivity is unavailable and allows viewing data on
spread use of the Internet, the CVC has stepped up its digital maps on a Web browser. It eliminates the need for
use of ICT. The “Blow Your Whistle” site is a technology- expensive hardware and license investments or the need
supported anticorruption initiative of the CVC. The site for software licenses. The application allows open access of
allows citizens to report through mobile phones and the the stored data and the possibility to integrate open source
Internet by uploading text, audio, and video files. Known as analytics tools such as Pentaho for data mining (image 14.4).
Project Vigeye, the system requires registration, and once
a complaint is filed, the complainant can log in and check The system requires a subscription fee and registration for
the status of the complaint. The “Blow Your Whistle” site users to download the software and upload their data to the
also has discussion forums and podcasts on corruption in portal. It will be tested for use in the forest sector through a
the country, videos, and links to other resources.16 pilot in Vietnam. Having offline and online capabilities is an
advantage in the forest sector, where access to the Internet
16 The source of information within this section is http:// or cellular networks is often erratic. The cost of the application
blowyourwhistle.in/pages/about-us/. as a software-as-a-service is a monthly fee per active user. The
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
388 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
IMAGE 14.4. POIMapping in Kenya required and US$150 with embedded
GPS, making them affordable for cer-
tain project-specific applications. Field
staff already use mobile phones, and
the application, if useful for project
management, is no more compli-
cated than text messaging.
Multiple users can browse and
update the same information, and
previous versions of data are main-
tained for tracking purposes. Data
are accessible via a Web browser,
with appropriate authorization.
Once an organization registers
on the PoiMapper website and
creates its account, the software
can be downloaded to the mobile
phone. Questionnaires relevant
to the organization’s work can be
created and downloaded to the
Source: Plan Kenya. mobile phones. Existing data from
a particular location on the portal
price depends on volume, whether a project is associated with can be downloaded, and only new fields can be updated,
it, and in which country it is used. The current default pricing which makes the system fast and efficient. The applica-
is US$15 for NGOs and local users in developing countries tion is available for a monthly subscription fee per user,
and US$30 for commercial organizations and users in devel- which allows the organization to store its data and edit
oped countries. The developer currently requires a minimum them on the PoiMapper portal. At this stage, PoiMapper
monthly engagement of US$750 (25 users) to set up a new does not have options for data input through icons, which
database and support agreement. The price of mobile phones can be developed if needed, but this would restrict the
on which the system works starts from US$50 if GPS is not type of data that could be collected or monitored.17
Topic Note 14.2: PILLAR 2—QUALITY OF FOREST
ADMINISTRATION
TRENDS AND ISSUES to input data, how to perform regression analysis, and how
High-quality professionals and good information manage- to generate reports in the program.18
ment are key requirements for effective forest management.
Not all online training courses have been sustainable. For exam-
Distance learning programs are now available on the Internet
ple, in Chile, the Catholic University of Chile developed exten-
from a wide range of universities around the world. In addi-
sive online professional development courses and modules for
tion, some public sector forest service websites host custom-
forestry professionals called UC Virtual. After some time, these
ized training packages online. For example, the U.S. Forest
had to be discontinued due to lack of user demand.19
Service has several online training programs for a number
of technical tasks, ranging from basic statistics to cruising
and scaling. One application on this site is the “Timber Theft 17 The source of information within this section is http://www
.pajatman.com.
Program,” which uses regression analysis to estimate stand- 18 http://www.fs.fed.us/fmsc/measure/index.shtml.
ing tree volumes from stumps. Demonstrations include how 19 Gurovich (2006) and pers. comm.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 389
Information management—and, more specifically, spatial and images that make the presentations more appealing and
information management—is the second key requirement for make it easier for nonspecialists to comprehend the long-
forest administration. In Finland, MESTA is a free, Internet- term outcomes of the proposed management actions.
based software application that is used to prepare and discuss
forest management plans with communities (see box 14.9). The quality of forest administration also depends on good
Similarly, in the United Kingdom, the Forestry Commission policy and administration, financial and human resource man-
found that discussions about management plans with com- agement, law enforcement and land tenure, and timber sales
munities were more productive when the commission was and revenue management—all of which require unhindered
able to present digital plans with three-dimensional maps information flows both within the forestry department and
with other parts of the government, as well as with the pri-
vate sector and citizens. Comprehensive forest management
information systems have been seen as the ideal solution
BOX 14.9. MESTA: Participatory Forest Management
to enhance the capacity of public sector forestry institutions
Application
to manage these information flows. However, it is possible
MESTA is open access Internet software developed and to deploy smaller-scale ICT solutions to manage information
funded by Metla (a Finnish forest research institute). It requirements in key areas, such as the management of fires,
was first developed to serve as a tool for Metsähallitus inventories, and wildlife tracking, without investing thou-
(a state entity that manages state forests and most pro- sands of dollars in hardware and software. Four such applica-
tected areas) for participatory forest management, but it tions are discussed below:
has become available to private forest owners for evalu- Real-time fire alerts
ating different management strategies. Developed for Forest cover and carbon stock assessment with
holistically evaluating different decision alternatives, it is CLASlite and airborne LiDAR
based on the definition of so-called acceptance borders Google Earth Engine
for decision criteria (for example, the minimum income Wildlife tracking
from the forest cuttings).
The strength of the software is that it can facilitate the Real-Time Fire Alerts
illustration of the effects of different strategy alterna- One innovation in forest management is the near-real-time
tives at stakeholder meetings. A better understanding fire alert system that has been developed by combining
of the different alternatives and corresponding results NASA’s Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer
can help one stakeholder group in accepting the needs (MODIS) data with GIS. The Fire Information for Resource
of another stakeholder group. Through the evaluating Management System (FIRMS) by the University of Maryland
process, the stakeholders will get information concern- analyzes the data from MODIS and presents it in a form that
ing potential costs and benefits. is easy to use by field personnel. The system can deliver
MESTA has been used in participatory forest manage- email alerts to subscribers with information on likely fires in
ment by Metsähallitus in eastern and western Lapland, their area of interest.
where decision making often requires difficult compro-
mising on different objectives and needs, such as com- A more focused alert system is being developed by
bining logging with nature-based tourism. Conservation International. The Fire Alert System has been
developed for use in specific biodiversity hot spots around
Compared to other methodologies for evaluating differ- the world and is currently being piloted in Madagascar,
ent management alternatives, MESTA allows the study Bolivia, Peru, and Indonesia. This system delivers alerts on
of alternatives with less input information and knowl- fires within a few hours after the NASA satellites sweep the
edge on the subject. Therefore, it is considered to be Earth. The Fire Alert System is a fully automated analysis and
efficient, especially when used in communicating with alert system that delivers a range of products tailored to a
stakeholder groups that have less direct contact with user’s specific needs.
forestry.
Sources: Finland country report (available at http://www.profor.info/ There are some other highly advanced fire management sys-
profor/knowledge/information-management-and-forest-governance);
http://mesta.metla.fi/index_eng.cfm. tems, such as the one used by the New South Wales Rural
Fire Service in Australia, which received a Meridian Award
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
390 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
in 2007 (http://www.meridianawards.com). HeliFIRE turns 1. Mapping of vegetation type and forest condition
MapInfo Professional into a purpose-built application for the using freely available satellite data and CLASlite.
airborne mapping of fires. Using a GPS connection, HeliFIRE 2. Large-area mapping of forest canopy three-
becomes a moving map application, showing the user’s dimensional structure using airborne LiDAR.
current position. Fire features such as active/non active fire 3. Conversion of LiDAR structural data to above-ground
edge, fire trails, threatened properties, water sources, and carbon density estimates using LiDAR-carbon met-
firefighter locations can be recorded accurately as the aircraft rics along with a tactical use of field calibration plots.
flies over the features. This information is transmitted imme-
4. Integration of the satellite map with the airborne
diately via the Internet to users on the ground who make the
LiDAR data to set a regional, high-resolution baseline
response decisions.
carbon estimate.
A second application, MapDesk, turns this information into
CLASlite runs on standard Windows-based computers and
updated fire maps. This custom application from MapInfo
can map more than 10,000 km2 (at 30 m spatial resolution)
Professional has several features that have been standard-
of forest area per hour of processing time. While CLASlite
ized to allow the quick generation of maps with minimal
is highly automated, its user guide recommends a level of
training. Information derived from these applications is deliv-
training corresponding to the complexity of the forest area.
ered to all 70,000 personnel, many of whom are volunteers,
as well as to other agencies and the broader community.20
These custom systems are expensive to build and maintain. IMAGE 14.5. Satellite Imagery Can Map Levels of
But the email and text message updates such as the ones Vegetation, Forest Cover, and Forest
sent by FIRMS are free. Degradation
Forest Cover and Carbon Stock Assessment
with CLASlite and Airborne LiDAR
The Carnegie Institution for Science’s CLASlite (Carnegie
Landsat Analysis System-lite) is a software package designed
for highly automated identification of deforestation and forest
degradation from satellite imagery. Outputs from CLASlite
include maps of the percentage of live and dead vegetation
cover, bare soils, and other substrates, along with quantitative
measures of uncertainty in each image pixel (see image 14.5).
CLASlite converts satellite imagery from its original (raw)
format—through calibration, preprocessing, atmospheric
correction, and cloud-masking steps—and then performs
a Monte Carlo Spectral Mixture Analysis to derive high-
resolution output images. Its algorithms easily identify and
accentuate areas where clearing, logging, and other forest
disturbances have recently occurred. CLASlite does not pro-
vide a final “map” but rather a set of ecologically meaningful
images identifying forest cover, deforestation, and forest
degradation that can be readily analyzed, processed, and
presented by the user.
The new approach involves four steps undertaken in con-
cert to produce a rapid high-resolution assessment of forest
carbon:
20 http://www.meridianawards.com/hall-of-fame/view/combating-
bushfire-wild-land-fires-in-the-state-of-nsw-australia/. Source: CIFOR.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 391
According to the developers of the system, the cost of using New features that will make analysis easier, such as
a combination of commercial and free data sources is approxi- tools that preprocess the images to remove clouds
mately US$0.10 per hectare and is likely to fall further. Free and haze.
licensing of CLASlite is granted to nonprofit/noncommercial Collaboration and standardization by creating a com-
organizations in Latin America following completion of techni- mon platform for global data analysis.
cal training. The CLASlite website21 reports that as of June
2010, more than 150 governmental institutions, NGOs (non- Google Earth Engine can be used for a wide range of
commercial), and academic or research institutions had been applications—from mapping water resources to ecosystem
trained in the use of CLASlite. services to deforestation. Initial use of Google Earth Engine is
most likely to support the development of systems to moni-
The developers of CLASlite have also tested airborne Light tor, report, and verify efforts to stop global deforestation.
Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) in conjunction with remote
sensing and ground mapping to carry out carbon stock During the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
assessments, to establish it as a low-cost and efficient Change, COP 16, in Cancun in December 2010, it was
method of assessing carbon in different types of tropical announced that 10 million CPU-hours a year over the next two
forests (see Module 5 on productivity for more on LiDAR).22 years would be donated on the Google Earth Engine platform
to strengthen the capacity of developing-world nations to
track the state of their forests, in preparation for REDD. The
Mapping in the Cloud: Google Earth Engine
Earth Engine was developed in collaboration with the Gordon
Google Earth Engine is a technology platform that puts an and Betty Moore Foundation, the U.S. Geological Survey,
unprecedented amount of satellite imagery and data— Mexico’s state forest agency (CONAFOR), scientists at the
current and historical—online for the first time. It enables Carnegie Institution for Science, the Geographic Information
global-scale monitoring and measurement of changes in Science Center at South Dakota State University, and Imazon
Earth’s environment. The platform will enable scientists to to develop and integrate their desktop software to work
use Google’s extensive computing infrastructure to ana- online with the data available in Google Earth Engine.23
lyze this imagery. The images of Earth from space contain a
wealth of information. Scientific analysis can transform these
images into useful information—such as the locations and Wildlife Tracking and Management
extent of global forests, detecting how forests are changing
Conflicts between humans and wildlife are common where
over time, directing resources for disaster response, or map-
communities live in or near wildlife sanctuaries and parks.
ping water resources. The challenge has been to cope with
The following applications prove that ICT can be used for
the massive scale of satellite imagery archives and the com-
wildlife tracking and management with the assistance of
putational resources required for their analysis. As a result,
communities. Even simple mobile text messages sent on
many of these images have never been seen or analyzed.
a regular basis to communities to keep them updated on
Now scientists will be able to build applications to use these
the movement of wild animals can go a long way in helping
data on Google Earth Engine and will be able to take advan-
people stay safe and in turn not harm the wildlife. “Push to
tage of the following features and benefits:
talk” is a rather infrequently used feature of mobile phone
Landsat satellite data archives over the last 25 years networks in developing countries. However, there is an
for most of the developing world available online, interesting example of its use to alleviate conflicts between
ready to be used together with other data sets, includ- humans and elephants in the Laikipia District of Kenya. This
ing MODIS. A complete global archive of Landsat is case demonstrates that park management, communities,
expected to be available soon. and the private sector can, assisted by the innovative use of
Reduced time to do analyses, using Google’s comput- mobile phones, come together to find a viable solution for
ing infrastructure. By running analyses across thou- management of wild elephants and crops.
sands of computers, for example, unthinkable tasks
are now possible for the first time.
21 http://claslite.ciw.edu/en/index.html. 23 Information in this section is drawn from Google Blog (http://
22 The sources of information within this section are Asner et al. googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/12/introducing-google-earth-
2009, http://claslite.ciw.edu/en/index.html, and http://claslite engine.html) and http://www.unep.org/stap/Portals/61/docs/
.ciw.edu/documents/CLASlite_PeruREDD.pdf. SFM/20.Moore.pdf.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
392 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
Another example of ICT being employed to track wildlife is location represents the center of a 1-kilometer (approx.) pixel
CyberTracker, a free software application that was developed flagged as containing one or more hot spots or fires within
to enable indigenous communities with little or no literacy that pixel. FIRMS is currently being transitioned to an opera-
to track wildlife in game parks. The software uses icons and tional system at the United Nations Food and Agriculture
pictures to guide data inputs and works on handheld comput- Organization.
ers with GPS capability. One of the longest ongoing uses
of CyberTracker is at Kruger National Park in South Africa,
Conservation International’s Fire Alert System
where rangers collect vast amounts of data on, among
other things, the movements and behaviors of key species, The Center for Applied Biodiversity Science at Conservation
fires, availability of water, illegal presence and activities of International, International Resources Group, Madagascar’s
humans, and the presence of new or invasive species of Ministère de l’Environnement, des Forêts et du Tourisme,
plants. CyberTracker has been piloted in several countries in and USAID have teamed up with the MODIS Rapid
Africa, mainly for recording and monitoring wildlife and biodi- Response System and FIRMS to develop an email alert
versity data to aid research and management (CyberTracker system for fires in or around protected areas and areas of
Conservation 2007). high biological importance. This system currently focuses on
four biodiversity hot spots: Madagascar, Bolivia, Peru, and
Indonesia. The Fire Alert System is a fully automated analysis
and alert system that delivers a range of products tailored
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Fire Alert Systems Integrating Remote Sensing to a user’s specific needs. These include simple text-based
and GIS emails containing the coordinates of active fires within pro-
tected areas, areas of high biodiversity, different vegetation
Remote sensing and GIS are now being integrated to pro-
and land cover types, administrative units, or user-defined
vide timely information on large-scale fires in the tropics. The
regions. The emails can include JPEG attachments show-
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer (MODIS)
ing a satellite image of a protected area with the active fire
that orbits on NASA’s Aqua and Terra satellites as part of the
depicted as red squares, ESRI shape files for importing into
NASA-centered international Earth Observing System pro-
GIS software, and KML files for importing data into Google
vide the data. Both satellites orbit Earth from pole to pole,
Earth. Each email alert also provides information on the time
seeing most of the globe every day.24
and date of satellite observations and a confidence value for
each fire detected. Subscribers may select from a range of
The Fire Information for Resource Management System background images and maps. The next phase of this sys-
While NASA’s MODIS Rapid Response system provides tem will include multivariate/multicriteria analysis, which
near-real-time images and data on global fires in the public enables more flexible user customization, and an advanced
domain on the Internet, forest managers in the field would report generator.
be unable to find the time and technical skills to analyze the
In addition to fire response and management, the Fire Alert
data quickly. The University of Maryland developed the Fire
System is now being extensively used to monitor and inform
Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS) to
enforcement officials of suspected illegal activity, such as ille-
serve MODIS fire observations to this community. FIRMS dis-
gal logging and encroachment taking place in protected areas.
plays active fires detected in near-real time using thermal and
mid-infrared data from the MODIS instruments; this means
the data are processed and available on the Web four to six
hours after the satellite passes over. Subscribers can sign up INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
for email alerts on fires in their area of interest. The Web Fire Kenya: Solving Human/Elephant Conflicts
Mapper of FIRMS is an open source, Internet-based mapping with Mobile Technology
tool that delivers locations of hot spots and fires. These can The Laikipia District is home to the second-largest population of
be viewed on an interactive world map showing hot spots wild elephants in Kenya. There is competition for land between
or fires for a specified time, combined with a selection of the wealthy farmers who own large ranches and private con-
GIS layers and satellite imagery. Each hot spot / active fire servancies, small agriculturists, and the elephant herds whose
natural habitat and corridors have been made inaccessible by
24 Information within this section is drawn from Davies et al. 2009 human activity. The frequent encounters between people and
and https://firealerts.conservation.org/fas/home.do. elephants have caused human and elephant deaths.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 393
To find a viable solution to this situation, the GSMA elephant conflict: 73 percent of the users in the pilot said that
Development Fund—in collaboration with the University the technology provided early warning of elephant raids and
of Cambridge Laikipia Elephant Project, the Laikipia Nature allowed the farmers to take preventive actions. Sixty-five per-
Conservancy, Laikipia Wildlife Forum, Safaricom, Wireless cent of the users also reported that the system helped prevent
ZT, Nokia, and Nokia Siemens Networks—devised a closed- theft of livestock and recover stolen livestock. Twenty-one per-
group communication network between the park staff, ranch cent also reported that the management response improved,
owners, and farmers in the district with special push-to-talk especially by the Wildlife Service staff. An important obser-
mobiles. This technology combines the functionality of a vation by one user was that group communication increased
walkie-talkie or two-way radio with a mobile phone and pressure on the government staff, because several members
enables communication between two individuals or a group listen in to a request for intervention. Thus, accountability of
of people, as needed, with the push of a single button. With the Wildlife Service staff seems to have increased. The use of
stakeholder consultations and training, the pilot project initi- this technology was also appreciated by the Wildlife Service,
ated communication between the Kenya Wildlife Service which reported that receiving reliable information over a larger
staff, ranch owners, farmers, and NGOs that normally would area helped it to be more effective in the job.
not take place in a systematic way. The pilot was meant to
reduce human/elephant conflict by facilitating early commu- While the results of this pilot were very encouraging, the
nication between the stakeholders regarding elephant move- service was not rolled out on a larger scale. Cellular operators
ment and seeking the help of wildlife rangers when needed. did not find this technology commercially attractive in Kenya.
Nevertheless, the pilot proves that “push to talk on cellular” has
The results of this pilot proved that improved communication benefits in specific situations and could be used in other loca-
between the various stakeholders significantly reduced human/ tions where similar challenges in wildlife management exist.25
Topic Note 14.3: PILLAR 3—COHERENCE OF FOREST
LEGISLATION AND THE RULE OF LAW
TRENDS AND ISSUES usually follow the steps of prevention, detection, and sup-
In the forest sector, various types of resource use, both com- pression. Technology has an important part to play in each of
mercial and noncommercial, are governed by various laws. these steps in the efforts to curb illegal logging, transporta-
At the same time, forests have several characteristics that tion, and processing of timber and illegal trade in wildlife. A
make them prone to timber theft and other illegal activities:26 variety of ICT applications can be used to improve deterrence
and response measures, and these have been discussed in
owner absent
detail in previous World Bank reports.27 A few innovative
potential witnesses indifferent or hostile to owner
ones are reviewed here:
easy to bribe way out of trouble
asset unsupervised/unguarded prevention—e.g., crime mapping, corruption hotlines
loot easy to sell detection—e.g., timber tracking, chain of custody sys-
owner/manager unaware of inventory and value tems, checkpoints, satellite images, GPS surveillance
police untrained, underequipped, uninterested suppression—e.g., crime databases, case manage-
ment systems
staff untrained and underpaid
lax business practices/procedures
Mobile and Online Crime Reporting Services
Many of these vulnerabilities can be addressed through Governments around the world are increasingly involving
ICT. Effective law enforcement systems in the forest sector citizens in crime reporting through e-government services
25 Information within this section is drawn from Graham et al. 2009.
26 William Magrath, “Presentation at the World Bank–FAO Workshop
on Forest Law Enforcement and Governance in the Asia-Pacific,” 27 See, for example, Magrath et al. 2007, Asia-Pacific Forestry
Kuala Lumpur, November 2009, unpublished. Commission 2010, and Dykstra et al. 2003.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
394 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
to report incidences of corruption and crime. Members of in the system since its launch in July 2009) and by support-
the public can send text messages, leave a voice message, ing NGO experts in the preliminary checks on the registered
or send emails to report incidences of corruption and crime. alerts. Alerts are checked against a checklist of indicators
Allowing citizens to report crime to the authorities is a cost- to verify the criminal character of the case before submit-
effective and reliable way of preventing crime. The website ting it to the authorities. Established environmental NGOs in
of India’s Central Vigilance Commission has a similar sys- Bulgaria have demonstrated their genuine interest and active
tem, where anonymous callers can report corrupt officials support of the project by providing expert advice on forestry
of state agencies. The example from a crime prevention issues, participating in preliminary checks, and lobbying for
project in Peru shows how citizens can effectively contribute the integration of the online platform into the work of the
to law enforcement and crime reduction in a municipality. Bulgarian forestry administration. While this project was
The municipality of Miraflores in Peru and has developed a developed and executed by an NGO, it could be easily under-
system called Alerta Miraflores to manage crime, using an taken by forest law enforcement agencies. The system could
Internet- and phone-based system that does the following: enlist the services of interested NGOs and citizens to report
gives citizens a way to report incidents to local secu- suspicious activities that can trigger additional investigation
rity officials to record and take action by the forest agency. The ability to receive information via
captures data electronically and displays the informa- mobile text messages or voice messages helps the system
tion on reports and maps to let public safety officials to be used by anyone.28
pinpoint the areas from which citizens are calling,
A key issue to be solved is the confidentiality of information
define priorities, and dispatch the closest officers
and safety of the informants. It is essential that all information
allows municipal officials to manage citizen security is dealt with very carefully both to ensure the safety of the
proactively, respond more rapidly, and analyze results individuals who report crimes and to ensure that the report-
ing system is not used for spreading unfounded allegations.
By improving its ability to rapidly respond to reported inci-
dents, providing timely feedback to citizens, and capturing Tracking and suppressing illegal logging and trade in endan-
detailed crime information, the municipality was better gered wildlife often needs information beyond the borders
able to prevent crime and increase citizen security. Alerta of a single country. The United Nations Office on Drugs and
Miraflores has reported a 68 percent drop in robberies since Crime has developed a series of software applications to
2003, a 30 percent reduction in assaults, and a significant help countries collect, analyze, and share intelligence and
reduction in overall crime. information on international crime (see box 14.10).
The tools and methods used in this project have a lot to
offer to the forest sector. One application was used by Technologies for Surveillance and Deterrence
the Blue Link Information Network’s project in Bulgaria While there are several sophisticated technologies available
called “Expose and Improve—The Power of Information for crime detection, only some are specific to the forest
Technologies (IT) in Combating Illegal Logging.” Individuals
participate by registering alerts (30 alerts have been logged 28 http://www.spasigorata.net/ and http://www.bluelink.net/en/.
BOX 14.10. UNODC’s “Go” Family of Products
The Information Technology Service of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) specializes in the devel-
opment, deployment, and support of software applications for use by member states in a range of UNODC’s program
areas. The Government Office (“go”) family of products is part of UNODC’s strategic response to crime, particularly seri-
ous and organized crime. The “go” family includes integrated investigative case management and intelligence analysis
tools for financial intelligence units, law enforcement, investigative, intelligence, regulatory, prosecution, and asset recov-
ery agencies, and for courts and other government agencies involved in the criminal justice process. All the software
products include multifaceted integration and can function as stand-alone applications or together to form one global
system, depending on the needs of the country. The application of systems able to interface with each other encourages
interagency and cross-border cooperation and information sharing at the national, regional, and international levels.
(continued)
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 395
BOX 14.10. continued
Intelligence And Investigative
Case Management System
- Develop general criminal
- Collect data intelligence
- Identify targets
- Develop financial intelligence
on identified target(s) - Initiate parallel financial
investigation (s)
- Identify possession of illicit
assets - Document case proceedings
- Prosecute the suspect
- Disseminate the intelligence
- Document the assets
- Obtain conviction(s)
Anti-Money Laundering
And Counter Terrorist
Financing System
DETECT – INVESTIGATE – FORFEIT/RECOVER
COMPLETE MULTI-AGENCY SYSTEM
Source: http://goidm.unodc.org/goidm/en/products.html.
sector. The computerization of checkpoints in Gujarat, India, in a position to monitor vehicle movement inside forests, the
is a good example of how technology can lead to better law forest authorities could use similar means to track vehicle
enforcement and increased revenues for the state. movement in unauthorized locations.
A slightly different approach to surveillance—with the help
of GPS—has been tried with success in fisheries in West Technologies for Timber Tracking and Chain of Custody
Africa under the Sustainable Fisheries Livelihoods Program, Systems
sponsored by FAO and the UK Department for International Radio-frequency identification (RFID) holds considerable
Development. Community surveillance of fishing grounds in promise for use in systems tracking the timber supply chain.
Guinea has succeeded in reducing illegal incursions by indus- RFID uses radio waves to exchange data between a reader
trial trawlers by 59 percent. Members of the fishing commu- and an electronic tag attached to an object, for the purpose
nity on Guinea’s northern coast use GPS technology to track of identification and tracking. Some tags can be read from
poachers. The fishermen can calculate the exact location of several meters away and beyond the line of sight of the
a poaching trawler using a handheld GPS receiver and radio reader.
the information to the nearest coast guard station. The GPS
coordinates generate an alert if the trawler is in within the On average, an appropriate RFID chip costs from US$0.07
prohibited zones.29 The fisheries example has a lot of rel- to US$0.15. An important advantage of RFID systems for
evance for the forest sector; while communities may not be log tracking is that signals can be read rapidly, remotely, and
under difficult conditions. RFID labels can potentially store a
large amount of data with a high level of security. The labels
are difficult to counterfeit or tamper with and can provide a
29 Peter Lowrey, 2004. “SFLP: Arming Fishermen with GPS to high level of covert security. These devices can significantly
Combat Poachers.” ICT Update No. 16, February 2004 (http://
ictupdate.cta.int/en/(issue)/16); http://www.fao.org/english facilitate data capture, data processing, and security audits.
/newsroom/focus/2003/sflp4.htm). It is possible to encode RFID labels at all stages of the wood
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
396 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
supply chain from the field to the end user. RFID labels can More technologies and two examples of timber tracking are
enhance logistics and inventory functions. discussed in IPS “Ghana’s National Wood Tracking System”
and IPS “Liberia: LiberFor Chain of Custody.”
Microtaggant tracers are microscopic particles composed of
distinct layers of different colored plastics that can be com-
bined to form a unique code. Millions of permutations are Legal Information Management Systems: Global Legal
possible by combining several colors in different sequences. Information Network
Codes can be read in the field with 100-power pocket micro- The Global Legal Information Network (GLIN)31 is an electronic
scopes. These tracers can be used together with other labels online tool that gives access to authentic and updated official
to provide additional security and to aid investigations of log legal information at a low maintenance cost. The system was
theft or log laundering. They do not represent a stand-alone developed by the U.S. Library of Congress to improve access
labeling technology. to original legal texts. In Gabon, GLIN has been used by the
government to publish the primary sources of the law and all
Chemical and genetic fingerprinting offer promise for the environmental legal information. The government chose to
future but are currently too expensive and have not been become a member of GLIN to provide the stakeholders (forest
fully developed for routine use in wood supply chain track- administrations, the private sector, donors, civil society, NGOs,
ing systems. They are likely to prove most useful in prov- and so on) with a modern legal archiving system. The system
ing the origin of wood in investigations of log theft or log helps to strengthen the rule of law and to start a discussion
laundering. among stakeholders. Experience in courts and government
institutions has shown that the Internet was their only source
GPS tracking devices for vehicles can be used to track the
of access to reliable, up-to-date legal information.
movement of vehicles and can quickly point to vehicles in
unauthorized locations. The GPS vehicle tracking unit can
have a wireless modem that is able to communicate with INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
global tracking systems30 (image 14.6). Ghana’s National Wood Tracking System
The Ghana National Wood Tracking System (WTS), devel-
30 Information in this section is drawn from http://gpstrackit.com/
faq and Dykstra et al. 2003. oped by Helveta Ltd., provides a timber legality assur-
ance system that is an important
IMAGE 14.6. Tracking through Barcodes, RFID, GPS, and Other Technologies tool in reducing illegal logging—a
Improves the Chain of Custody key initiative under the EU–Ghana
Voluntary Partnership Agreement.
The system addresses the trace-
ability of wood in on-reserve areas
destined for export. However, a
chain-of-custody system should
track all wood and wood products
in circulation in a given market.
Otherwise the system makes it
easy to “launder” illegal wood—
that is, mix it with legitimate
sources. The system uses hand-
held computers in remote forest
areas in conjunction with plastic
barcoded tree and log tags to cap-
ture data such as species, diam-
eter, length, and geospatial loca-
tion. WTS is based on an existing
31 http://www.glin.gov and PROFOR
Source: Tuukka Castrén. (2010).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 397
system from Helveta Ltd. called CI World. It consists of INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
four main components: Liberia: LiberFor Chain of Custody
identification and tagging of individual products or LiberFor is a public-private partnership developed in 2007
consignments using barcoded labels or RFIDs to implement a tracking system for the forest product sup-
incorporation of these tag numbers onto the statutory ply chain. The chain extends from the stump to the point of
forms used for declarations, inspections, and other export to prevent illegal timber from entering the supply chain
relevant records and reports and being exported. The system is currently managed by a
use of electronic technology for data collection and private international company, but management will be gradu-
transmission ally transferred to the Liberian Forest Development Authority.
development of a database to receive, analyze, and
The system will be able to monitor all timber flows in Liberia
report on all wood production and movements
and ensure the integrity of regulatory documents and sam-
WTS allows Ghana to demonstrate compliance and control across pled field checks. It will also prepare all the timber sales and
to their timber supply chains and secure access to premium taxation invoices and monitor payments made by logging
markets in the European Union and the United States. Trees are companies to the government. Ultimately, after checking that
numbered (engraved on the tree), and next to the numbering is all requirements have been met and payments have been
a white tag that has a barcode with the corresponding number. made, LiberFor issues an export permission for the timber.
A PDA equipped with GPS, scanner, camera, and data input is Forests cover 45 percent of the total land area in Liberia,
handed out to the enumerators, who venture into the reserve and they are an essential source of revenue and economic
with the field rangers and supervisors. The stock enumera- development for the country. After coming out of a 14-year
tion involves numbering and tagging the yet-to-be-harvested civil war, the country needed to build a system to manage
timber with a barcode near the base of the tree. When its forest resources professionally and in an sustainable way.
harvested, the timber will also have a replica number and Previously, illegal logging had been a key driver of corruption
barcode, allowing tracking of the timber through the process and financial, social, and legal problems. For example, in 2006
to export. Information collected includes the following: approximately US$64 million of logging revenues were in
arrears and only 14 percent of revenues were accounted for.
Allocation of reserves, compartments, and lots
Consortium holding The new chain-of-custody system has been designed to
Consortium harvesting schedule and by whom ensure that there is no return to the past uncontrolled log-
Plant species and how harvesting is done ging in the country. Like WTS in Ghana, LiberFor is based on
the Helveta platform. Its main components are as follows:
Where to mill
CI Earth—mapping
Due diligence on taxes
• block maps
GPS position of trees
• stock surveys
The timber flows monitored and verified are standing • plantation compartment maps
trees in the lots or compartments in the forest reserves; TracElite—chain of custody
the system has not yet proceeded to tracking the timber
• tree felling
through logging and processing, import to processing,
• crosscutting, dressing, and log registration
and local sales or export. WTS will enable the tracking of
individual logs and consignments of processed products. • transporting of logs and wood products
It will include product labeling, physical inspections, and Performance management
documentation checks electronically. The use of ICT in • data reconciliations
this case allows a more comprehensive review of all wood • data verifications
movements than paper-based systems alone can provide,
• random samplings and inspections
which is the current method.32
Document management
• concession registrations
32 Information in this section drawn from the Ghana country
report, available at http://www.profor.info/profor/knowledge/ • invoicing and regulatory document
information-management-and-forest-governance. • management tag control
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
398 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
The system has tagged and located approximately 440,000 trees, base in the forest, which is a precondition for sustain-
verified approximately180,000 trees in the system, and invoiced able forest management.
more than US$11 million in revenue, mainly from areas fees.
The LiberFor chain-of-custody system is being operated on
With the new system, the Liberian Forest Development a build/operate/transfer basis by SGS Liberia. While the sys-
Authority will be able to do the following: tem is technically functioning and able to meet the require-
Manage the supply chain for all wood products from the ments of law enforcement and revenue collection, there are
point of origin to the export gate or domestic markets. severe concerns regarding the sustainability and feasibility of
the system. Both public and private sector stakeholders have
Manage the conditions for release of timber export permits.
raised concerns that the system is extremely complicated,
Ensure that taxes and fees related to timber produc-
has increased transaction costs unnecessarily, and is inap-
tion and trade are collected.
propriate for the Liberian context. The main concerns were
Invoice and monitor payments by logging companies based on the need to have a 100 percent inventory (above a
to the government through an information sys- threshold size) of the logging sites (as opposed to only col-
tem involving the forest administration, Ministry of lection information on commercial species), inappropriate
Forestry, and Central Bank. design of the tags, and dependence on LiberFor inspectors.
Strengthen the capacity of the Liberian Forest One issue of concern is that the system runs on Helveta
Development Authority. servers in the United Kingdom rather than in Liberia. Long
Help both the Forest Development Authority and pri- distances and limited international bandwidth may lead to
vate concession holders to better know the resource reliability issues.33
Topic Note 14.4: PILLAR 4—ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY,
EQUITY, AND INCENTIVES
TRENDS AND ISSUES has a help feature that tackles most of the common problems
Timber sales and auctions and concession-allocation pro- faced by users. The site explains the different types of auctions
cesses are prone to unfair practices, collusion, and nontrans- and allows bidders and nonbidders to view sales events, which
parent decision making. This ultimately has an impact on increases transparency. All terms and conditions are posted, so
both state revenues and private sector competitiveness. In that bidders are fully informed before bidding. In addition, there
general, participatory design and proper enforcement of the are links and phone numbers to provide help. As a truly online
law should result in more equity and economic efficiency. auction, the sale closes automatically when the bidding closes
Thus, technologies aiding law enforcement could be consid- and the winner is informed, with no further need for paperwork.
ered tools for enhancing equity and efficiency as well. Bidders cannot see other bidders’ quotations, and losing bidders
are only given the name of the winning bidder on request. The
system has been operational since 2004, and about one-third of
Online Timber Sales, Licenses, and Auctions the Forestry Commission’s annual production of about 6 million
There are examples of ICT applications that are designed to m3 is sold on the open market, indicating that electronic sales
promote business transactions with the private sector. One are an effective model. Cost-benefit analyses carried out by the
such example is the online auction of public timber, or e-auction. commission reveal that approximately £100,000 is being saved
Most forest agencies in developing countries do not have inte- annually as a result of electronic sales.34
grated and well-functioning forest management and informa-
tion systems that would enable e-auctions. Even in developed The commission also operates an online grants and licenses
countries there are only a few instances of fully online systems. system that provides private forest and farmland owners an
opportunity to apply for grants to plant trees or seek per-
The Forestry Commission of the United Kingdom has an mission to fell trees on their lands. The system enhances
advanced online auction system (image 14.7). The auction transparency by displaying all applications on the website,
process is fully online and integrated into the e-government
33 Information within this section was provided by the LiberFor team.
service of the United Kingdom. This site is simple to use and 34 Pers. comm.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 399
linking each application by a case number to the map, which methodology. According to this methodology, each felled tree
shows the location of the proposed activity. has a unique code through an embedded microchip connected
to a database. The chip or tag can also include information about
the log parameters, felling location, and time of felling. This infor-
Logistics
mation is used in subsequent stages of the production chain to
Two examples from Finland demonstrate the use of track- optimize process exploitation. Within the project, a new type of
ing devices to improve efficiency and productivity. One proj- RFID tag was developed. By using new, pulping-compatible raw
ect, called Indisputable Key, used RFIDs to reduce waste material, the tag does not affect any of the processing options.
and increase the usable volume of wood from the harvest, The project also resulted in the development of transponders
while the Metka project was aimed at reducing transporta- that could read and modify tag data in harvesters and in tools
tion costs to increase productivity. Transportation costs are such as large metallic saws, which had been problematic with
optimized when only those piles of bioenergy wood that the old transponders. The system was designed to be usable in
have dried to the right moisture content are transported all possible field conditions within the European Union, from the
by the company. Both examples could be adapted to any northern icy conditions to the southern warm and dry conditions.
wood-processing unit around the world.
The increased efficiency of the timber supply is achieved
through the ability to source the raw material from the har-
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY vesting point all the way to the most profitable producing unit.
RFID Chips for Efficient Wood Processing Currently, the forest industry consumes timber in bulk without
The multinational development project Indisputable Key was a taking full advantage of the different characteristics of wood
three-year, EU-funded endeavor with a total budget of €12 mil- harvested from different origins. By being able to identify dif-
lion. It was launched in 2006 and held its final seminar in March ferent sources, manufacturers can take into account the dif-
2010. The primary objective of the project was to decrease the ferences in timber quality in the processes. The quality aspect
proportion of timber that is wasted or used for lower-value end is noticed in market transactions through premiums for better
products than the initial timber quality would have warranted. timber quality. The methodology and technology behind the
The data management is based on Individual Associated Data system are fully transferable to any geographical area.
IMAGE 14.7. Online Timber Sales in the UK
Source: UK Forest Commission.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
40 0 MOD ULE 14 — USING ICT TO IMPR OVE FOR EST GOV ER NA NC E
Metka and Distributing MODIS Active Fire Data.” IEEE Transactions on
Geoscience and Remote Sensing 47 (1): 72–79.
Metka is a development project that uses an RFID tracking
system. The project’s objective is to develop an operational Dykstra, Dennis P., George Kuru, Rodney Taylor, Ruth Nussbaum,
William B. Magrath, and Jane Story. 2003. “Technologies for
tracking system for local bioenergy supplier Vattenfall; the
Wood Tracking: Verifying and Monitoring the Chain of Custody
client benefits from increased profitability of wood-based and Legal Compliance in the Timber Industry.” World Bank,
bioenergy production. The software developer Protacon Washington, DC.
built the information database, basing the system on exist-
European Commission. 2007. FLEGT Briefing Notes: Forest Law
ing Oracle-based stock management software. The tracking Enforcement, Governance and Trade. Briefing note number 01.
system is built on RFID tags attached to the bioenergy wood
Fowler, M., P. Abbott, S. Akroyd, J. Channon, and S. Dodd. 2011.
piles when harvested. The cost-efficiency of the system is “Forest Sector Public Expenditure Reviews: Review and
achieved by using cheap, low-capacity bulk tags. This makes Guidance Note.” Program in Forests (PROFOR).
it possible to track low-value items as well. The tag allows Graham, M. D., C. Greenwood, G. Kahiro, and W. M. Adams. 2009.
the company to follow the chain of custody more carefully “The Use of ‘Push to Talk’ Mobile Phone Technology to Reduce
and to optimize the processes to reduce transportation Human Elephant Conflict, Laikipia District, Kenya.” Working
costs. Another benefit of the information in the tags is the Paper 2, Laikipia Elephant Project, Nanyuki.
ability to optimize the drying time of harvested wood in order Gurovich, Luis A. 2006. “UC Virtual: A New Educational ICT Based
to minimize transportation costs and maximize the calorific Platform for Professional Updating of Knowledge and Abilities for
Agricultural and Forestry Engineers in a Virtual University Campus.”
value per transported unit. This has a remarkable effect on
Journal of Information Technology in Agriculture 1 (1): 1–9.
the chain’s profitability. The system has been taken into
operational use by Vattenfall. At the moment, the system is ICT. 2004. Update No. 16, February. Wageningen: Technical Centre
for Agriculture and Rural Cooperation.
in use in the areas of two forest management associations
and by two operators. The total number of vehicles and for- Lawson, Sam. 2010. “Illegal Logging and Related Trade: Indicators of
the Global Response.” Chatham House briefing paper, Chatham
est tractors using the system is about 10.35
House, London.
Magrath, William B., Richard Grandalski, Gerald L. Stuckey, Garry
B. Vikanes, and Graham R. Wilkinson. 2007. Timber Theft
REFERENCES Prevention: Introduction to Security for Forest Managers.
When the source is a personal communication, website, or Washington, DC: World Bank.
unpublished report, it is mentioned in the footnotes and not Myers, M. 2010. “Why Radio Matters.” Developing Radio Partners,
listed in the references. Washington, DC.
Peters-Guarin, Graciela, and Michael K. McCall. 2010. Community
Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission. 2010. Forest Law Enforcement Carbon Forestry (CCF) for REDD: Using CyberTracker for
and Governance: Progress in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: UN Mapping and Visualising of Community Forest Management in
Food and Agriculture Organization. the Context of REDD. Think Global, Act Local (K:TGAL) Report,
Asner, G. P. 2009. “Tropical Forest Carbon Assessment: Integrating Kyoto. http://www.communitycarbonforestry.org.
Satellite and Airborne Mapping Approaches.” Environment Program on Forests (PROFOR). 2010. Rapport de Fin de Mission—
Research Letters 4. GLIN Gabon. http://www.profor.info.
Asner, G. P., D. E. Knapp, A. Balaji, and G. Paez-Acosta. 2009. “Automated USAID (U.S. Agency for International Development). 2005. Women’s
Mapping of Tropical Deforestation and Forest Degradation: Participation in Decision-Making at the Local Level Increased.
CLASlite.” Journal of Applied Remote Sensing 3: 1–11. Final report. Washington, DC: USAID.
Collier Paul. 2007. The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Vietnam Development Report 2011: Natural Resources Management.
Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. World Bank. 2005. “Forest Institutions and Transition: Experiences
and Lessons from Eastern Europe.” ECSSD, World Bank,
CyberTracker Conservation. 2007. “CyberTacker Monitoring Washington, DC.
Programme.” CyberTracker Conservation, Cape Town. http://
www.cybertracker. ———. 2006. Strengthening Forest Law Enforcement and
Governance: Addressing a Systemic Constraint to Sustainable
Davies, D. K., S. Ilavajhala, M. M. Wong, and C. O. Justice. 2009. Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.
“Fire Information for Resource Management System: Archiving
———. 2008. Forests Sourcebook. Washington, DC: World Bank.
35 Information in this section is drawn from the Finland country
study (available at http://www.profor.info/profor/knowledge ———. 2009. Roots for Good Forest Outcomes: An Analytical
/information-management-and-forest-governance) and http://www Framework for Governance Reforms. Washington, DC: World Bank.
.indisputablekey.com).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 401
Module 15 USING ICT FOR REMOTE SENSING,
CROWDSOURCING, AND BIG DATA
TO UNLOCK THE POTENTIAL OF
AGRICULTURAL DATA
JOSH WOODARD (FHI 360), with contributions from MECHTELD ANDRIESSEN (eLEAF),
COURTNEY COHEN (aWhere), CINDY COX (IFPRI), STEFFEN FRITZ (IIASA), DREW JOHNSON
(TechnoServe), JAWOO KOO (IFPRI), MORVEN MCLEAN (ILSI Research Foundation), LINDA SEE
(IIASA) TARAH SPECK (aWhere), and TOBIAS STURN (IIASA).
OVERVIEW Virtually all of these paths to offsetting current trends and
By 2050, the global population is projected to reach approxi- increasing the growth of agricultural productivity can benefit
mately 9 billion. Population growth will be concentrated in from revolutionary changes in how data are collected, gener-
poorer countries, particularly the low-income countries of ated, shared, analyzed, and visualized. Agriculture is notori-
Sub-Saharan Africa. By some estimates, agricultural produc- ously complex, characterized by wide variation across time and
tivity will need to double to meet everyone’s needs for food space in terms of producers, production systems, biophysi-
(Foley 2014). For instance, if current trends continue, yields cal conditions, and myriad other variables, at scales smaller
of the world’s foremost food crops—maize, rice, wheat, than the smallest plot or larger than multiple agroecologies.
and soybeans, which supply roughly two-thirds of calories Advances in information and communication technology (ICT)
consumed globally—appear likely to grow significantly more over the past 20 years have enabled individuals to gather,
slowly than required to meet the projected global demand in analyze, and share data more effectively, as well as to visual-
2050 (Ray et al. 2013). Some productivity growth will come ize and understand, as never before, what this information
from using more of the world’s arable land for agriculture, but means for agriculture. The capacity to capture and analyze
most of the available arable land is unevenly distributed, and data has been growing exponentially with the global spread
about half of it is found in only seven countries. of relevant ICT tools, including geospatial statistical methods.
Big data (the proliferating types and amounts of data being
If agricultural productivity is to grow sufficiently to meet
collected), together with advanced ICT capabilities (such as
the world’s expanding demand for food, producers must be
more sophisticated computer processors and algorithms),
able to increase yields and cropping intensity (Alexandratos
are providing a more accurate understanding of existing
et al. 2012), improve the productivity of their livestock, and
conditions and generating better predictions of future con-
quite possibly diversify their portfolio of economic activities
ditions, enabling more informed (often real-time) decision
on and off of the farm. At the same time, producers are
making. In agriculture, ICT and big data are helping to lever-
only too aware of the challenges and risks presented by a
age the global engagement of development practitioners,
changing climate and growing population pressure. Multiple
researchers, scientists, and producers across borders. New
approaches are needed to support their efforts, including
approaches combining enhanced productivity with environ-
those to improve natural resource and farm management,
mental sustainability are being developed.
to develop better crop varieties and animal breeds, to devise
and use innovations in crop and livestock production (such as For example, since the 1990s, commercial producers in high-
technologies for precision agriculture or livestock identifica- and middle-income countries have increasingly taken advantage
tion and tracking), to generate and share knowledge, and to of precision farming technologies such as global positioning
improve access to markets, among others. systems (GPS), geographic information systems (GIS), remote
sensors, and satellite imagery to improve productivity (box 15.1).
This module was originally written in 2015, with minor revisions in Such technologies are increasingly within reach in low-income
early 2016. All content was accurate at the time of writing.
economies. In 2005, the median price of a computer was
The reviewers of this module were Lyudmila Bujoreanu (World Bank US$1,500 and a GPS device cost more than US$2,000 (Martin
Group), Terhi Elisa Havimo (World Bank Group), Holger Kray (World
Bank Group), Trevor Monroe (World Bank Group), and Eija Pehu et al. 2005); a decade later, a smartphone with a GPS receiver
(World Bank Group). and more computing power than a computer available in 2005
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
402 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
cost less than US$100. The array of sensors in smartphones BOX 15.1. The Intersection of Remote Sensing,
has expanded to include barometers and thermometers that Crowdsourcing, and Big Data
can collect hyperlocalized weather information. Small-scale pro-
ducers with access to mobile phones are beginning to benefit In the United States, the agricultural firm John Deere
from improved tools also for networking, decision making, and exemplifies how remote sensing, crowdsourcing, and
analysis based on these technologies. big data can be combined to offer farmers precise
insights to increase efficiency and productivity. The
The same big data sets are used by a wide array of stakehold- company’s online portal pulls in data from farmers’ sen-
ers in distinctly different ways. With hyperlocalized weather sors. The aggregated data from thousands of farmers
data, for instance: are combined with external data sets (such as weather
data) and, powered by big data analytics, used to advise
Farmers can make better planting decisions based on farmers on what to plant on certain areas of their land.
more accurate weather predictions and better prepare The system can also predict when machinery is likely
themselves to adapt to changing conditions. to break and notify a nearby parts distributor to stock
The Ministry of Agriculture can use more accurate that part. Despite the obvious benefits to farmers,
information on local weather patterns and disease and some farmers have questioned whether they should
pest populations to tailor the extension messages it be compensated for how John Deere uses their data
provides to producers. to enhance its commercial services.a This question
Government agencies responsible for disaster risk needs to be addressed as similar types of services and
reduction and response can use this information to the business models that support them are rolled out
better allocate resources based on hyperlocalized throughout the world, especially in middle- and low-
weather events. income countries where producers have far more lim-
Donors can use this data to design programs that are ited potential to pay for subscription services.
better attuned to local needs. Source: Authors.
a. Marr 2015.
The private sector can use these data to offer a whole
range of services that it could not deliver previously,
such as weather insurance for smallholder farmers.
Two examples are the Agriculture and Climate Risk
BOX 15.2. Visualizing Data Sets for Development
Enterprise Ltd. (ACRE) in East Africa and the weather-
based crop insurance offered by private insurance
The World Bank’s Spatial Agent app enables users to
providers in India (Greatrex et al. 2015).1
access global data sets in the public domain and to dis-
play the data in a graphic or other pictorial format that
Big data analytics makes it increasingly possible to combine
makes the implications easier to understand. The Spatial
multiple types of data in a single interface, often referred to as a
Agent app includes spatial and temporal data from a
mashup, which improves the prospects of gaining insights that
number of global institutions and is available for free for
would not have been accessible before. A growing community
Android and iOS mobile operating systems.
of scientists and agricultural development practitioners is able
Source: Authors.
to perform more complex analyses using different types of data
generated in very different ways and assembled in global data
sets, which are increasingly available to the public (box 15.2).
For example, analyses combining data from the World Bank’s
Living Standards Measurement Study–Integrated Surveys on Both the public and private sectors clearly recognize the
Agriculture (LSMS–ISA) with satellite or aerial images could potential value of investing in big data aggregation and analy-
potentially help policy makers to develop a more robust picture sis for agriculture. The agricultural technology sector, which
of the challenges facing various types of producers than they includes the ICT applications highlighted in this module,
could derive from either set of data alone.2 received more than US$2.3 billion in investments in 2014,
surpassing investments in financial technology and clean
technology in that same year. The level of investment in 2014
1 ACRE was previously known as Kilimo Salama.
2 To learn more about LSMS-ISA, see http://go.worldbank.org represented an increase of 170 percent over the previous
/BCLXW38HY0. year, and this strong growth trend appears likely to continue
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 403
BOX 15.3. Separating the Hype from Reality
It is easy to understand why some people are skeptical about the potential of remote sensing, crowdsourcing, and big
data to improve the lives of the poorest producers. The reality is that even as global mobile phone penetration rates
continue to grow, a significant number of poor producers, especially women, do not own a phone, much less any way of
accessing the benefits of remote sensing and big data.
To some, these technologies represent a luxury reserved for high-income countries and affluent producers, rather than tech-
nologies with practical applications for less thriving economies and producers. There is some truth to that sentiment. The
World Economic Forum’s 2014 Networked Readiness Index identifies a number of countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan
Africa, that are lagging in leveraging the potential of ICT.a
Because advances in some technologies tend to move faster than many can imagine, they may become more readily
available throughout the world over the next few years. Smallholders may not actually use remote sensors and big data
analytics themselves, yet it is very likely that—at the very least—the institutions that support those producers will be able
to access such technologies and use them to benefit the individuals they serve.
Policy makers and donors who ignore these factors and simply write off the technologies mentioned in this module as
a pipe dream do so at the risk of exacerbating the digital divide. It is important to examine how smart investments can
leverage these technologies over the short and long terms to benefit the agricultural sector as a whole and especially
poorer producers, many of whom have yet to benefit. This module should be seen as the beginning, not the end, of
examining the prospects for applying these technologies, given that their evolution and deployment are so dynamic.
Source: Authors.
a. Bilbao-Osorio et al. 2014.
(Leclerc and Tilney 2015). Notable investments since 2013 of a National Agricultural Information System
have included: decision-support tool.3
The Government of India’s launching of the Digital
Monsanto’s US$1 billion acquisition of the Climate
India initiative. Although not specific to agriculture,
Corporation, an agriculture analytics and crop insur-
it includes a crowdsourcing platform (mygov.in) to
ance company that uses weather data (Tsotsis 2013).
gather citizens’ feedback.
An investment of US$95 million in Planet Labs,
which operates a legion of Earth-imaging microsatel- A strong case can also be made for public investments in
lites used by several sectors, including agriculture big data as a public good. These kinds of innovative invest-
(Lawler 2015). ments have a strong history of success that includes Landsat,
Qualcomm Ventures’ US$50 million investment into the Global Agricultural Monitoring system, the Famine Early
3D Robotics, a drone manufacturer whose products Warning Systems Network, and ALEXI—and that belies
are used, among other things, for precision agriculture skepticism that remote sensing, crowdsourcing, and big data
(Burns 2015). analytics can benefit low-income economies and the poorest
Google Ventures’ US$15 million investment in the producers (box 15.3). Given the very large investment required
Farmers Business Network, a massive farming data- to support some types of remote sensors and big data ser-
base and decision-making tool (Reader 2015). vices, it may be some time before commercially available ser-
vice providers find that it pays to target small-scale producers
The £12 million invested by the UK government in
in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Deeper analysis may reveal
the Centre for Agricultural Informatics and Metrics of
particular opportunities for public investment to yield positive
Sustainability, which will focus on using big data ana-
returns for society—for example, investments in services that
lytics to support agricultural development (Crawford
are highly likely to improve smallholders’ productivity but rela-
et al. 2015).
tively unlikely to be commercially viable.
Uruguay’s investment of US$55 million, with
support from the World Bank, in the Sustainable
Management of Natural Resources and Climate 3 Learn more here: http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P124181
Change Project, which includes the development /sustainable-management-natural-resources-climate-change?lang=en.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
404 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
Key Challenges and Enablers now has over 100 partners from the public and private sectors.
The world currently produces a lot of data, and this amount GODAN advocates for open data and open access policies in
will continue to grow exponentially over the coming the public and private sectors, as well as for the release and
decades. In 2013, the world’s stock of digital data was esti- reuse of data for social, economic, governance, and environ-
mated to be around 4.4 zettabytes.4 By 2020, that amount mental benefit.7 Another example is the Open Ag Data Alliance,
is expected to increase tenfold, to 44 zettabytes, with launched in 2014 to help farmers access and control their data
most of those data coming from emerging markets. Part of “by building an open source framework and a community of
that growth is expected to come from data from embedded commercial vendors, farmers, academics, and developers
systems, as more and more devices begin communicating upon which the emerging ag data market can rapidly grow.”
directly with each other.5 This phenomenon—referred to as Some of the world’s largest agricultural companies support the
the Internet of Things (IoT)—enables devices to share data Open Ag Data Alliance, which can potentially serve as a model
directly, without a human intermediary, although by 2020 for the types of collaboration required to overcome the chal-
the vast majority of data (90 percent) will still come from lenges of fragmented and unusable data.8
humans (IDC 2014). Aside from the technical barriers to using data, there are sig-
nificant skill barriers. Many organizations find it challenging
Access to data also remains a challenge. Many governments
to hire individuals with the right experience to fully harness
and organizations, including the World Bank, have promoted
the value of data. The information technology research firm
open data, yet much of the world’s data remains proprietary
Gartner has estimated that 4.4 million jobs would be created
or exists in inaccessible formats.6 Despite efforts to promote
in 2015 to support big data, but that only one-third of those
the opening of data for the public good, significant portions
positions would actually be filled due to limited talent within
of the world’s digital data are likely to stay outside the realm
the industry (Gartner 2012).
of public use for some time.
Agriculture is no stranger to this challenge. The collection Both the public and private sectors have important roles in
and management of agricultural data is often fragmented helping to bridge these gaps in human and technological
among government agencies, development practitioners, resources. Public and private educational institutions, with
and agribusinesses. Centralized and comprehensive agricul- encouragement from governments where necessary, need
tural databanks remain the exception rather than the rule. to be preparing more students to take on the development
A recent commentary on data-driven agriculture in Nigeria of next-generation remote sensors and build a robust big
notes that “the dearth of information is making it difficult to data analytics ecosystem (figure 15.1 provides more detail
translate data into useful information for producers and other on the components of a big data ecosystem). Organizations
players in the value chain” (Essiet 2015). and companies will need to provide on-the-job training to
ensure that their employees are equipped to use the new
While a reluctance to share data sometimes adds to this chal-
systems and processes introduced as a result of the trends
lenge, it is important to recognize that the problem stems
highlighted in this module.
largely from barriers related to data standards and the lack of
interoperability. Hardware and software systems for collecting Informed consent and fair compensation for data collection
agriculture-related data are not all interoperable, meaning that are two other significant challenges. The issue of informed
they use incompatible formats. In some instances, standards consent is particularly thorny when data are collected without
that would facilitate interoperability between different systems a human intermediary—for example, through a crowdsourc-
are lacking as well. Public institutions can play a significant role, ing platform or via a short messaging service (SMS) survey in
as they have already done, by promoting the use of open data which participating individuals may not fully read the lengthy
sharing and standards. The Global Open Data for Agriculture terms of service that convey this information. The develop-
and Nutrition (GODAN) initiative was launched in 2013 and ment community is only just beginning to explore these
issues seriously. In late 2014 in Nairobi, for instance, the
Responsible Data Forum hosted an event in partnership with
4 One zettabyte is the equivalent of just under 1 trillion gigabytes. Amnesty International on “Consent and Crowdsourcing.”
5 Embedded systems are computing systems within a device,
such as a computing system within a refrigerator.
6 Open data are defined as data that are made freely available for
use, reuse, and distribution, for any purpose, without restriction. 7 To learn more about GODAN, see http://www.godan.info/about
The World Bank’s Open Government Data Toolkit is a good starting /statement-of-purpose/.
point for learning more about open data in practice. It is available 8 To learn more about the Open Ag Data Alliance, see http://
for free online at http://opendatatoolkit.worldbank.org/en/. openag.io.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 405
FIGURE 15.1. Example of a Big Data Analytics Ecosystem
External ecosystem
Customers
Data Extended ecosystem
providers
Data
customers
Executive sponsor
Core ecosystem
Data
owners End user tools
and dashboards
Social
networks CAO
and blogging
Rugulators
Operational Discovery and Business
Data repository:
data stores advanced analytics users
Big data and EDW
tools
Internet of
things, Analytics Data
mobile,car, architect Infrastructure steward
and home
SME Business
applications
Data scientist and systems
and/or analysts Vendors and
consultants
Developers
Analyst
Crowdsourcing
Cloud, analytics
platform as a service (APaaS),
business analtyics as a
service (BAaaS)
Source: IBM Big Data & Analytics Hub.10
Note: Used with permission. Further permission required for reuse.
In examining that topic, participants attempted to address Can ethics-based and consent requirements be built
some of the following questions:9 right into software, or do these responsibilities always
Do organizations that collect and use crowdsourced lie with the organization using the software?
information have a responsibility to disclose those Is consent more appropriate as a precondition for data
facts to users? If so, might disclosure affect the collected for “research” versus other purposes?
quality and quantity of information collected?10
Not all companies or organizations that offer data-enabled
services to farmers are explicit about how they seek informed
9 For details on this event, see https://responsibledata.io/forums
/consent-and-crowdsourcing/. The outputs of the event should
eventually appear at https://wiki.responsibledata.io/RDF_Nairobi.
10 This graphic originally appeared in the article “Going Beyond Fattah, which was published on the IBM Big Data & Analytics
Data Science toward an Analytics Ecosystem: Part 2” by Ahmed Hub Blog on March 14, 2014.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
406 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
BOX 15.4. Monitoring and Evaluating Investments in Remote Sensing, Crowdsourcing, and Big Data for Analytics
The monitoring and evaluation of investments in any of the three big data trends covered in this module will vary, depend-
ing on the extent of the investment and anticipated outcomes. Even so, the following common indicators of outputs and
outcomes are likely to be useful:
Remote sensing
ÿ Outputs: Amount of data collected.
ÿ Outcomes: Impact of remote sensing on productivity and/or cost.
Crowdsourcing
ÿ Outputs: Number of people engaged; number of contributions; amount of data collected.
ÿ Outcomes: Impact of contributions on overall outcome being tracked; cost-benefit comparison between
crowdsourcing and traditional methods.
Big data for analytics
ÿ Outputs: Number of insights gained; number of insights deemed accurate.
ÿ Outcomes: Impact of insights on efficiency or cost of overall outcome; changes in policy.
Source: Authors.
consent from farmers to use their data. Plans for using individu- As the emphasis on using data and evidence on crafting
als’ data might be contained in a service agreement that mar- development interventions is relatively recent but growing,
ginally literate farmers cannot read or understand. It behooves we have pooled together a few key questions to support the
any development practitioner who promotes the use of ICT by monitoring and evaluation of data-centered approaches in
farmers to understand exactly how farmers’ data will be used box 15.4.
and who owns their data, and in turn to clearly explain these
issues to farmers so that they can give their truly informed
consent. ORGANIZATION OF THIS MODULE
The related question is what rights individuals have to receive The topic notes that follow cover three ICT trends that
some portion of the value generated from their data. For are enabling producers, agribusinesses, policy makers,
instance, a hypothetical weather service could generate researchers, and agricultural development practitioners to
millions of dollars in revenue from the sale of its hyperlocalized optimize resources, connect people, and overcome data
weather data. The data that were fed into the service’s algo- fragmentation: (1) remote sensing, (2) crowdsourcing and
rithms were crowdsourced from local farmers, who received crowdmapping, and (3) big data for analytics. Although dis-
free weather information in exchange for their participation. cussed separately, these trends are interrelated. The first
Should those farmers also have some right to compensation two trends are driving the production of massive amounts
for the revenue generated by the service, or is the value of of raw agricultural data, and big data analytics is the process
free weather information a fair exchange? through which these data is meshed, refined, and analyzed.
Each topic note is followed by one or more innovative prac-
Resolving these and other questions related to informed con- tice summaries highlighting a particular application or aspect
sent, privacy, and ownership rights must be at the center of of the topic at hand. Box 15.5 defines some key terms cov-
organizational policy discussions in relation to data collection ered in this module.
from crowdsourcing and remote sensors.11
Topic Note 15.1, “Remote Sensing for Sustainable
Agriculture,” focuses on the different types of geographi-
cal solutions that producers and others in agricultural
11 The book Ways to Practise Responsible Development Data is value chains can use to increase efficiency, reduce waste,
a great resource for learning more about responsible data prac-
tices. Download it for free at https://responsibledata.io/ways-to and ultimately bring about more sustainable agricultural
-practise-responsible-development-data/. practices.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 407
BOX 15.5. Key Terms Used in This Module
Remote sensing technologies are used to collect both spatial and temporal data. For comprehensive definitions of the
most common types of remote sensing technologies, see Module 5.
Crowdsourcing is the process of obtaining data from a large group of people over a digital connection—for example,
by broadcasting a call on the radio for farmers to send an SMS to report whether they have experienced any crop failure
that season.
Crowdmapping is a subset of crowdsourcing. Data collected from a crowd are plotted onto a map using georeferencing,
meaning that the data are associated with a particular point on a map. For example, farmers participating in the crowd-
sourcing example mentioned above could be asked to include their location in their response so their location can be
associated with their response on a map. If farmers respond by SMS, this georeferencing may have to be done manually.
If respondents use a mobile app or website combined with the GPS receiver on their phones, their geographical informa-
tion can be collected automatically and tagged to the information they supply with a fairly high degree of accuracy (often
within a few meters). GPS receivers are available primarily on smartphones and newer feature phones; georeferencing is
not possible on basic and older feature phones.
Big data analytics has an evolving definition but generally refers to mining and analyzing data for improved decision mak-
ing using software and hardware (using complex algorithms and artificial intelligence, for instance) that are much more
sophisticated than those used by traditional databases. Some of the techniques used to process big data are defined in
Module 5.
Source: Authors.
Topic Note 15.2, “Crowdsourcing and Crowdmapping: The Topic Note 15.3, “Big Data for Analytics,” focuses on how
Power of Volunteers,” focuses on how advances in social all of these agriculture-related data collected globally can be
networking and data collection are enabling individuals to mined and analyzed in ways that lead to meaningful insights
share hyperlocalized data in ways that have the potential to about how agriculture can be made more sustainable and
benefit society more broadly. productive.
Topic Note 15.1: REMOTE SENSING FOR
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
TRENDS AND ISSUES Since most remote sensors are digital devices, they collect
Remote sensing covers a range of technologies, many of a lot of data, and the potential impact of their data can be
which are described in detail in Module 5. This topic note enhanced significantly through integration with big data
focuses on the types of data collected by remote sensing analytics (see Topic Note 16.3). While remote sensors can
devices and on how such data can be used to assist pro- (for instance) be used to monitor crop growth and identify
ducers, policy makers, and researchers. In simplest terms, anomalies, the technologies are even more powerful when
remote sensing refers to the use of devices to remotely they are paired with systems that can identify issues auto-
monitor information from fields, grazing areas, storage matically and offer advice on actions to mitigate them.
containers, irrigation plots and alike, and in some cases to
Generally speaking, remote sensing devices can be classified
remotely take specific actions. For example, remote sensors
into three types: ground, air, and space.
are integral to precision agriculture, which aims to maximize
farming efficiency and minimize waste through data to guide Ground sensors capture data based on circumstances on
hyper-localized agricultural practices. the ground. They can be embedded in farm equipment, such
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
408 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
as sensors that track yield data, or they can be stand-alone BOX 15.6. The Future of Drones for Smallholders
devices, such as soil and water monitors, normalized differ-
ence vegetation index (NDVI) sensors, and weather stations. Will drones enable remote sensing to become a less
Some of these sensors are controlled by producers them- remote prospect for smallholders? The International
selves, although others (portable soil sensors, terrestrial laser Potato Center received a grant from the Bill & Melinda
scanners, or weather stations) are managed by a third party. Gates Foundation in late 2014 for local institutions to pilot
As mentioned in the overview, farmers also increasingly use the use of drones for remote monitoring of sweet potato
smartphones as on-the-ground sensors. The sensors and GPS fields planted by smallholders in Tanzania and Uganda.a
receivers embedded in smartphones are making it easier to In addition, new firms such as Raptor Maps in the United
collect certain types of climatic and location data. States and CI-Agriculture in Indonesia are combining big
data analytics with data from drones and other remote
Scientists, including breeders, are also benefiting from a sensors to provide farmers with precise information on
new wave of ground sensors. High-throughput plant pheno- their farms. It is too soon to tell whether either firm will
typing, for example, uses a combination of spectral imaging succeed, but they are a bellwether of what is to come.b
cameras and other sensors to provide data for develop- Source: Authors.
a. Quinn 2014.
ing improved crop varieties (Fahlgren, Gehan and Baxter b. Lavars 2015; Freischlad 2015.
2015; Thomasson 2015).
Aerial sensors consisted until recently of small aircraft
armed with tools such as GPS, light detection and ranging IMAGE 15.1. Different Spectral Bands for Satellite
(LiDAR) laser sensors, and digital still, multispectral, and Imagery
thermal-imaging cameras. Flying low over a field, aerial
sensors could obtain high-resolution images capable of pro- Slash pine
Jack pine
viding farmers with information about weed growth, water
Spruce pine
stress, and even the locations of anthills (USDA 2005). This Pitch pine
type of sensing is out of reach of the majority of the world’s Pine
farmers, although it has applications for governments Cedar
Spruce
and larger agribusinesses. The commercial availability of
Fir
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs, or drones) is removing
Evergreen
some of the limitations on using aerial sensors and may Deciduous
eventually give many more producers, including those in Trees
middle- and low-income countries, a cheaper alternative to Minerals
aircraft (box 15.6). Buildings
Cars
Even more removed from the field are space-based
satellites. Any ground or aerial sensor that uses GPS relies
on satellites to calculate its positioning. Satellites also have a Source: DigitalGlobe.
range of other imagers and sensors. Different spectral bands
can capture different types of information. For instance, ther-
mal infrared can measure surface temperatures, whereas Landsat data). A satellite or a constellation of satellites will also
green can be used to assess plant vigor. Spectral bands also vary in the frequency with which complete coverage of the
provide different levels of information about specific physical globe can be provided, which in turn affects how frequently
objects that are seen. Image 15.1 illustrates how different they capture new data on a specific location. For example,
spectral bands provide different levels of granularity about Landsat 8 and Landsat 7 take 16 days to cover the globe.
trees, ranging from identifying an object as a tree with pan- Microsatellite firms, such as Planet Labs, on the other hand,
chromatic (black-and-white) imagery to indicating what class aim to provide daily coverage of the world’s entire landmass.
of tree it is and even identifying the specific species with
short wave infrared (SWIR) imagery. In many cases, certain levels of skill and expertise are still
required to analyze and make sense of satellite data. This
Not all satellites capture data across all spectral bands, and only situation is changing, however. Advances in satellite tech-
some satellite data are made publicly available (for instance, nologies and increased competition are making it possible for
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 409
even small-scale producers to receive insights from satellite Possibly other types of basic ground sensors and potentially
sensors that are pertinent to their farms, or at least to their even small drones could find their way into the hands of
general geographic area, directly on their mobile phones. poor, small-scale producers. In the short term, however,
Farmers generally do not access the satellite data directly; it remains likely that most of the world’s farmers will
they subscribe to a mobile service that makes use of it. have access to these types of devices at best through an
intermediary.
For example, coffee farmers in Rwanda can use the
WeatherSafe app, which combines satellite and farm- Researchers and policy makers potentially have much to gain
specific data, to receive localized weather information and from advances in remote sensing, which should significantly
farming recommendations (European Space Agency 2014). increase the amount of precise agricultural data available to
While eLEAF, which is based in the Netherlands, uses a them (box 15.7). These data, combined with big data analyt-
combination of meteorological and remote sensing data to ics (discussed in Topic Note 15.3), could drive the future of
monitor crop growth and water use on farms in real time (see agricultural research and also guide the design of more pre-
the innovative practice summary below). Another interesting cise interventions by governments and development orga-
example of expanding access to satellite information is the nizations seeking to support specific subsets of producers
partnership between the Food and Agriculture Organization (poor smallholders, transhumant livestock producers, women
(FAO) and Google to increase the accessibility of its geo- diversifying into horticultural crop production, and so on).
spatial tracking and mapping products (Graziano da Silva The potential for increased precision at the farm level to
2016). One recent output from this partnership is the Water improve the efficiency of resource use will be particularly
Productivity Open-access Portal (WaPOR), which currently important for the ability of all producers and for all types of
has 250m spatial resolution data on agricultural water pro- agriculture to adapt to climate change.
ductivity for all of Africa and the Near East.12
Of course, the policy implications of some of these technolo-
The trend toward increasingly sophisticated and in some cases gies must be addressed first to ensure that benefits can be
miniaturized remote sensors will undoubtedly continue in the gained from them without undermining broader public inter-
coming decades, and prices for many of them will almost ests. For instance, many countries have yet to resolve legal
certainly continue to fall. It is estimated that the precision issues related to the use of personal drones for agriculture.
farming market will see a compound annual growth rate of Some have opted to control personal drone use from a public
over 13 percent from 2015 through 2022 (BIS Research 2014). nuisance perspective, while others approach the issue from
a national security perspective. Many governments also
It is important to understand that even though remote sens- restrict the use of satellite imagery. Until recently, the U.S.
ing technologies are becoming more accessible, access to government restricted the sale of satellite images at resolu-
those technologies will not be distributed evenly. The major- tions sharper than 50 centimeters. Those restrictions have
ity of producers, especially smallholders, are likely to benefit been eased somewhat, and now black-and-white images
from remote sensors that are built into or are accessible up to 25 centimeters in resolution and color images up to
via mobile phones, although their use will depend partly on
whether producers have access to smartphones capable
of using the technology. GSMA Intelligence calculated
BOX 15.7. Advances in Remote Sensing
that 43 percent of people in developing countries owned a
mobile phone in 2014, a figure that they expect to grow to At the ICT for Ag conference in Washington, DC, in
only 55 percent by 2020. Over that same period, however, 2015, presenters noted that a couple of trends in remote
GSMA anticipates that smartphone ownership will grow sensing for agriculture could greatly unlock the value of
from around 25 percent to over 60 percent.13 Those trends their data (Zoltner 2015):
are both positive but clearly show that significant portions of
Free and open source platforms for interpreting
the population will remain without direct mobile access.
the data are becoming more available.
High numbers of low-cost sensors can match the
12 WaPOR can be accessed online at http://www.fao.org/in-action accuracy of high-end sensors through a greater
/remote-sensing-for-water-productivity/database/database-
number of data points.
dissemination-wapor/en/.
13 Accessed on https://gsmaintelligence.com/. All data © GSMA Source: Authors.
Intelligence 2015.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
410 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
1 meter in resolution may be sold to non-U.S. customers use it. In turn, FAO will train its staff and technical experts in
(Ferster 2014). member countries on how to use this technology (Graziano
da Silva 2016).
Measuring the impact of remote sensing for sustainable agri-
culture depends entirely on the type of sensing that is used Expand the Capacity to Interpret Data
and its purpose. Broadly speaking, though, farmers using The next step beyond understanding how to use remote
remote sensors are anticipating seeing improvements in pro- sensing tools is to understand how to interpret the resulting
ductivity and/or reductions in costs, not to mention a reduction data and translate those insights into action. The data tend to
in negative effects on the environment. be highly technical and potentially difficult for someone with
a basic level of education to understand. Any remote sensing
tool that aims to benefit such producers will need to closely
LESSONS LEARNED
consider this reality during its design.
Until recently, even in high-income economies, full use of
the spectrum of remote sensing technology required tens
Ensure Interoperability and the Adoption of Standards
of thousands of dollars in investment, meaning that large
numbers of farmers often could not benefit. In low-income A major impetus for creating the Open Ag Data Alliance was
countries, producers’ use of remote sensing remains in an the lack of interoperability between precision agriculture
extremely nascent phase. The world is embarking on a new technologies and data standards. The Open Ag Data Alliance
era of more affordable remote sensing, however. In moving was particularly concerned with the fragmentation of data
forward, policy makers, researchers, and practitioners can across the different devices and platforms used by a typi-
benefit from applying some lessons gained from using these cal U.S. farmer.14 The lack of application program interfaces
technologies to date. (APIs) connecting different software applications prevented
producers from easily seeing all of their data in one place.
As development organizations begin to promote the use of
Clarify Legal Limbos remote sensing technology among producers, especially
Precision agriculture technologies, including remote sensing, disadvantaged producers, it is crucial to avoid these pitfalls
will remain on the cutting edge of technological capabilities by partnering with providers that adhere to open standards
for some time. As new technologies emerge or previously and interoperability—or to encourage providers that do not
restricted technologies are made commercially available, adhere to open standards to do so.
governments will need to move quickly to address any legal
issues that could impede their use. The legal uncertainty
Strike an Appropriate Balance between Privacy
surrounding drones is the current case in point, although
and the Public Interest
undoubtedly other technologies will find themselves in the
This lesson is explored in more detail in the Lessons Learned
same situation.
section of Topic Note 16.3 on big data. In short, while access
to all of the hyperlocalized data generated by ground and
Expand Digital Literacy aerial sensors could be of huge value to researchers, it may
Remote sensing relies on a variety of digital hardware and not be in producers’ best interest to share those data. While
software. Producers, especially poor producers, will benefit providers of remote sensor software may embed their right
from these tools only if they understand how to use them. to sell user data to third parties in their terms and condi-
Fostering digital literacy is potentially no small feat, and may tions, practitioners should ensure that producers are asked
require continuous training and support for some groups for explicit informed consent to do so. In some cases, this
of producers. In the short term, since many producers approach will mean resisting the temptation to enable indi-
will not have direct access to remote sensing tools, there viduals to opt in by default in order to ensure a rich data
is an opportunity to acquaint them with these tools via an set. At the same time, researchers, practitioners, and policy
intermediary, such as an extension agent or lead farmer. makers should promote strong data privacy standards to
One such example of strengthening intermediary capacity
comes from the partnership between FAO and Google men-
tioned earlier. As part of that partnership, 1,200 FAO staff 14 Two figures on the Open Ag Data Alliance website clearly illus-
trate the current disconnectedness of remote sensing systems
and partners will receive trusted tester credentials on the and the envisioned future interoperable state; see http://openag
Google Earth Engine, as well as receiving training on how to .io/about-us/principals-use-cases/.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 411
protect the personal data of producers, including their farm- Union Sentinel satellites in 2015, resolutions as high as
or enterprise-specific data. In some instances, it may be 10 meters are within reach. The lower-resolution data can
necessary to explore standards that promote unlinking farm- be used for monitoring large areas at a regional or national
related data from exact geographic coordinates—providing scale, such as entire river basins. The higher-resolution data
them at the village or district level instead—to balance pro- allow identification of individual fields to monitor crop growth
ducers’ interests in protecting their specific farm data with changes on individual farms.
researchers’ and policy makers’ desires for access to some
level of aggregate information to use in their research and Using eLEAFs FieldLook-platform, individuals can access
decision making. a range of PiMapping data, including biomass produc-
tion, evapotranspiration, transpiration, evaporation, bio-
mass water productivity, leaf area index (LAI), NDVI, and
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY fractional vegetation cover (FVC). In addition, by delivering
Using Multispectral Satellite Images and Energy both historical and real-time data, users can use PiMapping
Surface Balance Models to Calculate Crop and data to monitor changes over time as well as to check on
Water Productivity current conditions.15
The Netherlands-based firm eLEAF has developed a series
In Sudan, the Hydraulics Research Center (HRC), with fund-
of algorithms that use a combination of meteorological and
ing from CTA, used eLEAF’s technology to monitor the
remote sensing data to monitor crop growth and water use
Gezira Irrigation Scheme, which is one of the world’s largest
on farms in real time. A technology called Pixel Intelligence
Mapping (PiMapping) delivers data at a range of spatial reso-
lutions (image 15.2). Widely used are 250-meter data and 15 Information taken from eLEAF’s Company Profile on its website
20–30-meter data; however, with the launch of the European (http://www.eleaf.com/) and confirmed by eLeaf staff.
IMAGE 15.2. Examples of Low- and High-Resolution Pimapping Data
Source: eLEAF.
Note: Images are used with permission; further permission required for reuse. On the left: Evapotranspiration in mm/year for the entire Nile Basin at a
resolution of 250m; on the right: 30m resolution biomass production makes growth variations within individual grain fields visible in South Africa.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
412 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
irrigation schemes. Specialists from HRC used the data to Helpful resources
send registered farmers SMS notifications to let them know Remote Sensing Technology Trends and
the best time to irrigate their fields and to apply fertilizer. The Agriculture, https://dg-cms-uploads-production
service was piloted with 44 farmers during the 2014/15 plant- .s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/document/file/31
ing season. All of the farmers increased their productivity as / DG-RemoteSensing-WP.pdf.
a result of participating in the pilot. One farmer, for instance,
International Society of Precision Agriculture,
saw wheat production increase to 12 sacks per acre, up from
https://www.ispag.org/.
3 sacks per acre in the previous year (CTA 2015).
Topic Note 15.2: CROWDSOURCING AND CROWDMAPPING:
THE POWER OF VOLUNTEERS
TRENDS AND ISSUES From a data collection perspective, crowdsourcing can be
This topic note explores how volunteers are contributing combined with georeferenced data (often referred to as
agricultural data to larger and broader data sets, as well as crowdmapping), which often come from GPS coordinates
helping to ground truth the accuracy of maps and underlying collected via a mobile phone—although, in some cases, the
data sets. It explores the implications of this practice for indi- location is reported by the respondent. Through this pairing,
vidual producers as well as for implementers, researchers, an individual with access to the data can see exactly where
and policy makers. In particular, it provides a perspective on in the world these data came from. Another advantage is that
how organizations are capitalizing on ICT-enabled approaches because these data can be processed in real time by data col-
to collect data from a wider population than would have been lection platforms, the parties collecting the data can access
feasible using traditional data collection methods, such as them almost immediately. The only delay occurs when data
surveys conducted by enumerators. The note also examines are input into a mobile data collection tool in offline mode,
how organizations are using those same ICT applications to when the phone is out of network range. In those instances,
share insights gleaned from analysis of the raw data with the the data will not be synchronized to the main database until
respondents who provided that data. the phone is connected to the Internet again.
The term “crowdsourcing” was coined in Wired magazine Crowdsourcing can also be used in combination with
in 2006 but its origins may date as far back as the early geospatial images, calling on the power of the crowd to
18th century, when the British government put out an open help identify changes to a specific location. For example,
call to find a reliable method to calculate the longitude of DigitalGlobe released images before and after Typhoon
a ship (Dawson and Bynghall 2012). Crowdsourcing in the Haiyan struck the Philippines in 2013. The images covered
modern sense of the word tends to refer to information that 100,000 kilometers. More than 4,600 individuals tagged
is collected or tasks that are performed by a large group of over 400,000 items, including 143,155 damaged buildings
people, often in different locations, via some form of digital and residences.16 This example is not specifically related to
device (such as a computer or mobile phone). Crowdsourced agriculture, but it clearly demonstrates the power of crowd-
data are collected primarily via SMS, websites, mobile apps, sourcing and crowdmapping.
social media, email, and voice calls. In the context of devel-
opment, crowdsourcing’s rise to global prominence can per- It is easy to see why this approach would appeal to anyone
haps be dated to early 2008, when a group of technologists who needs data from a wide geographic range. Unlike tra-
and activists developed a platform, dubbed Ushahidi, to track ditional data collection methods that require enumerators,
outbreaks of violence in postelection Kenya. Ushahidi was
not the first use of crowdsourcing in development, but the
international attention it garnered helped many more people 16 To learn more, see https://www.digitalglobe.com/sites/default/files
to realize the potential of this approach. /Crowdsourcing-DS-CROWD.pdf.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 413
often using paper forms, to be on the ground, crowdsourc- spread and take action accordingly. In 2012, Zambia’s
ing enables the collection of data from a significantly larger Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit created a
number of individuals, across a broader geographic area, crowdmap to track armyworm sightings, which could
in much less time and for less money. Crowdsourcing be submitted by SMS or voice calls using a short
services can also be designed to be bidirectional, giving code. Given this information, the government was
individuals, even if they have not contributed data, near- able to target resources and contain the outbreak
instantaneous access to the aggregate data and analysis. (Silversmith and Tulchin 2013).19 A similar approach
This immediacy is a positive shift from traditional methods was used in Uganda to monitor banana bacterial
of data collection, whereby it took months for data col- wilt using Ureport, an SMS-based polling service
lected from communities to make it back to those com- (Bujoreanu 2013).
munities, if at all. Collecting local weather information. For weather
forecasts to be useful to producers, they need to
Crowdsourcing is predicated on the fact that the target be hyperlocalized to their farms. Traditional weather
population has some form of digital connection—most forecasts, based on a blend of satellite data and
likely via a mobile phone. As discussed in the overview, ground-based weather stations, generally cannot
the reality is that only slightly more than two-thirds of provide that level of specificity. The next generation
the world’s adult population owns a mobile phone.17 Nor of weather forecasts is taking advantage of sensors
does simply owning a phone mean that an individual will built into smartphones to collect extremely localized
use it to provide information to a crowdsourcing initiative. weather information. Apps such as PressureNet,
Differences in literacy, numeracy, and digital literacy all Sunshine, and WeatherSignal all provide such ser-
affect the ability to use a mobile phone effectively. Users vices, although primarily for urban users. Eventually,
also need access to sufficient electricity18 to keep a phone these types of services will be practical for most
charged and sufficient income to purchase airtime to keep smallholders.
the phone number active. Collecting market prices. Market information
services (MIS) have long relied on enumerators
Given these variables, the feasibility of crowdsourcing will
reporting daily prices for select markets. Services like
depend on the local context. It is also important to be mind-
AGROAM are experimenting with the possibility of
ful of those without access to ensure that their opinions or
indirectly crowdsourcing market prices by offering a
inputs are included—or that if they are excluded, those limita-
buyer-seller matching service. By taking an average
tions of the data are clearly stated.
of what prices are paid for specific crops in specific
areas, they are able to provide a snapshot of actual
Assuming that the local context is conducive to crowd-
market prices. This method is highly dependent on
sourcing, the approach can be used in agriculture in a num-
volume, since low volumes of transactions for certain
ber of ways. Some of the most likely uses are as follows:
crops or in certain areas could skew the actual mar-
Tracking pest and disease outbreaks. Delays in ket price average. Esoko is doing something similar
traditional pest and disease reporting often prevent with its MarketPlace app, taking price data from
the authorities from taking decisive action to contain purchases made through the system to show price
outbreaks. By crowdsourcing information on the trends over time.
incidence of pests and diseases, governments and Facilitating access to markets. Among a number of
researchers may identify outbreaks before they other mobile services, the Connected Farmer Alliance,
highlighted in the innovative practice summary below,
is using mobile phones to enable smallholder farm-
17 This figure was roughly calculated at 69 percent as of June 1, 2015, ers to market their produce to prospective buyers in
based on total unique mobile subscribers from GSMA Intelligence
divided by the total global population over the age of 15, which
Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique.
was calculated from the Population Reference Bureau’s 2012 data Agriculture knowledge sharing. Agricultural knowl-
and U.S. Census Bureau data. As young people under the age of
edge has actually been crowdsourced for decades,
15 do own mobile phones, this estimate is likely to be higher than
the real number of adults with mobile phones.
18 Some estimates state that by 2030, almost 900 million peo-
ple globally will still lack access to electricity (Practical Action 19 The crowdmap from that outbreak can be found at https://
2012). armyworms.crowdmap.com/main?l=en_US.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
414 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
in the form of radio call-in programs on which farm- Monitoring food security. The UN Global Pulse has
ers direct their questions to experts. With mobile used numbers of tweets to track inflation in the rice
phones and social media, new channels are available price (Crimson Hexagon 2011). Although this type of
for individual producers to pose questions and receive social media sentiment analysis may not always be
responses from experts as well as their peers. One effective for determining whether changes in food
example is the Awaaz.De interactive voice response security are occurring, it is an area worth further
platform, which has been used by organizations exploration.
in India to provide agricultural information to farm-
How the success of a crowdsourcing initiative is mea-
ers. The service allows callers to record questions
sured will vary depending on how and why crowdsourcing
for experts to respond to, listen to questions and
is being used. At the output level, the number of people
answers from others, and also to record their own
engaged in the crowdsourcing effort and the total number
responses to questions.
of contributions made can be tracked. At the outcome
Facilitating land administration. Indigenous
level, two key indicators can help to measure the suc-
communities in some parts of the world have fallen
cess of a crowdsourcing initiative. The first is the impact
victim to land grabs by outsiders because they have
of crowdsourced contributions on the overall outcome
not been able to demarcate their traditional rights to
being tracked. For instance, if the overall project aims to
land on a map. The Rainforest Foundation UK has
increase farmers’ knowledge of a particular topic, what, if
been helping communities in the Congo River Basin
any, changes to that indicator can be attributed to farmers’
use GPS-enabled mobile phones to map the land
access to crowdsourced resources? Another method of
that they use for hunting and gathering. Module 14
measuring outcomes is to compare the cost versus ben-
contains more information on crowdsourcing for land
efit of crowdsourcing and traditional methods. When using
administration.
crowdsourcing to conduct research, ask how the cost of
Crop and livestock monitoring. One method for crowdsourcing and the benefit derived from it compare to
crowdsourcing crop and livestock data is to ask the costs and benefits of traditional methods of conducting
producers to submit information about the crops research.
that they are growing and their livestock numbers.
Results of such efforts have been uneven. For
instance, the Mauritius Breadfruit Sector Consortium
LESSONS LEARNED
tried to map all of the island’s breadfruit trees with
less than impressive results—fewer than 70 out of It is easy to get excited about crowdsourcing. This approach
an estimated 3,000 trees were mapped (Hosenally potentially facilitates engagement with a large and dispersed
2012). A more globally focused example, high- audience, often at a fraction of the cost of traditional meth-
lighted in the innovative practice summary below, is ods of engagement, and can deliver information in near-real
Cropland Capture, a game developed by Geo-Wiki time.
that shows players a satellite image and asks them
As great as all of this sounds, experience from the field
whether they see any cropland (Gustafson 2013).
reveals some challenges in using crowdsourcing effectively.
Conducting research. As noted, the proliferation Thankfully, good practices are emerging from the experiences
of mobile phones offer researchers opportunities of practitioners, including lessons on specific challenges and
to survey farmers without sending enumerators to specific actions that can be taken to mitigate them.
meet them in person. Short polls can be conducted
via SMS, while voice, mobile apps, and websites can
be used for longer polls, particularly those requiring Data Quality
qualitative responses. GeoPoll’s Food Security Service Since crowdsourcing tends to entail the collection of
is one example of a service that crowdsources data information from people who are not experts on the sub-
for research. The service has a database of 200 mil- ject, the likelihood of error is perhaps higher than what
lion users in roughly a dozen countries and currently one might expect from data that are input by trained
offers surveys to capture data on two indicators: enumerators. Sometimes participants can be intention-
Food Consumption Score (FCS) and Reduced Coping ally misleading; for example, AGROAM, which shares
Strategies Index (rCSI). market price information, encountered individuals who
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 415
were deliberately trying to game the system for their own users placed some trees in the sea or in the middle of the
benefit (Conor 2014). street (Hosenally 2012).
One approach to reducing data input errors is to design Understanding users in advance will help to mitigate this
and test the platform rigorously with the target audience challenge to some extent. Designing a platform or service
to ensure that the platform is intuitive and easy for them to aligned to users’ current capacity, as opposed to one that
use. Methods such as user-centered design can be helpful depends on massive amounts of user training, is always
for doing this. IDEO.org’s Field Guide to Human-Centered preferable. It will rarely be possible or cost-effective to train
Design is a great resource for learning how to employ this large amounts of people to use the platform. It also helps to
approach. design checks into the platform to catch errors and notify
users of the correct way to do something.
It is a bit more complicated to protect against people who
are gaming the system or simply sharing incorrect informa-
tion that they believe to be true. This issue is truly a chal- User Interest/Incentive
lenge only when the number of contributors is small. With Crowdsourcing initiatives can succeed only if they attract a
a large enough pool of contributors, such outliers can be sufficient number of people to participate. Limited participa-
identified and discarded—assuming that there are no large tion will likely yield data of limited value for analysis. If users
group biases. For that reason, the best protection against see no value in contributing, they are less likely to do so.
gaming is to have a large pool of contributors who can vali- In some cases, users may have an inherent interest to con-
date and crosscheck each other. Some technology providers tribute. In other cases, some level of incentivization may be
have also developed algorithms to determine the reliability of necessary. The incentive can be something as basic as offer-
contributors in order to weight inputs, such as DigitalGlobe’s ing points and badges in some cases, although it may also
CrowdRank. extend to small financial rewards, particularly if contributors
need to use their own airtime to participate. Younger, more
During the design phase, it is advisable to think about all of tech-savvy producers may also be more likely to participate
the reasons why someone would submit false or incorrect than older producers.
data so that checks can be devised for them. Devising a clear
data verification process will also help to mitigate data quality Again, start by developing an understanding of the target
issues. users. What are their interests? What are their needs? What
might incentivize them to participate? The Field Guide to
Human-Centered Design has good activities for learning
Accessibility
about users, both in the mainstream and at the extremes,
Because not everyone has access to mobile phones or the to design incentive systems and marketing campaigns
Internet, a subset of the population will probably be excluded appropriately.
from any crowdsourcing initiative. The issue of limited acces-
sibility is not one that any single project will be able to fix. At
Protecting Privacy
a minimum, however, it should be possible to learn about and
understand the access of the target audience. Remember Since individuals will be asked to share information, it is
to ask such questions as: What groups of people have less important to consider how their privacy will be protected.
access than others? How dependable is people’s access (to Privacy becomes an even more important issue when crowd-
electricity, network coverage, airtime)? How can access be sourced data are georeferenced and can reveal where people
extended to those without it (e.g., can the project promote live. When using a third-party provider, be clear on how they
device sharing)? use the data as well.
The U.S. Federal Trade Commission report, “Protecting
User Capacity Consumer Privacy in an Era of Rapid Change: Recommendations
Participants need to know how to use the crowdsourcing for Businesses and Policy Makers,” is a useful resource for
platform or service properly to input data. In the Mauritius starting to consider these challenges. Questions to ask, par-
breadfruit mapping initiative mentioned earlier, one of the ticularly when working with third-party providers, include:
main reasons for people’s failure to contribute was their How will the provider secure disaggregated data? Will the
limited ICT skills. Limited skills also reduced data quality, as provider sell data to other parties? If so, how will the provider
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
416 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
notify users that their data are being sold, and will users be create a better ecosystem for mobile services in the agri-
compensated in some way? cultural sector, affecting production throughout the supply
chain.
Unintended Consequences
One of the benefits of crowdsourcing is its potential to
democratize data and increase transparency, yet it is also pos- Data Generation
sible that the data can be used for nefarious purposes. For One of the main focus areas of the Connected Farmer
example, an unscrupulous government or company armed Alliance involves enterprise solutions that enable enterprises
with detailed information about a marginalized community to better source from small farmers and allow farmers bet-
might be able to use that information to take advantage of ter access to markets. The data are gathered and distributed
them. It is not farfetched to imagine a scenario in which small- through a suite of modules, including a registration module
holder farmers who have reported higher-than-normal pro- allowing an agent of an enterprise to register a farmer who
ductivity via a georeferenced crowdsourcing campaign find supplies a particular type of produce. Farmers may also regis-
themselves in the sights of land grabbers (McLaren 2015). ter themselves as suppliers. In this way, the service enables
the remote gathering of crowdsourced data to identify who
It is difficult to think about what types of unintended conse- and where farmers are and what types of crops they pro-
quences might arise. That said, it is important to try to iden- duce. The data are highly structured. They are referenced
tify potential risks, such as the misuse of any data that are temporally and spatially and clearly identify individuals so
made available, and to develop mitigation strategies based that participating enterprises can distinguish specific farmers
on the likelihood of those risks occurring. and their products. The typical participating enterprise is a
mid-sized national company that sources produce from small
Helpful resources farmers and seeks more detailed data and interaction with
Ushahidi Toolkits include a wealth of advice and guid- available suppliers.
ance, including 10 questions to ask before starting a
crowdsourcing initiative see https://wiki.ushahidi.com Building upon the crowdsourced supplier data are a series
/display/WIKI/Ushahidi+Toolkits of additional modules, including two-way communication
Crowdsourcing Applications for Agricultural Development that enables enterprises to share information with, or sur-
in Africa, http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00J7P7.pdf vey, farmers. A receipting module, integrated with M-PESA
ICT Update: Crowdsourcing and engagement, http:// (a mobile money service), allows enterprises to send
wayback.archive-it.org/3908/20150511072324/http:// receipts and pay farmers at the point of sale, identifying the
ictupdate.cta.int/(issue)/69 time, price, and volume of the purchase, which increases
transparency. Another module allows enterprises to offer
short-term loans through M-PESA, enabling cash advances
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY that are later deducted from payments for produce. The
Crowdsourcing Supplier Data via Mobile Phone
enterprise can use the data generated through the regis-
The Connected Farmer Alliance is a public-private partner- tration and receipting modules to assess farmers’ credit-
ship between Vodafone, the U.S. Agency for International worthiness, something that was not previously possible for
Development (USAID), and TechnoServe focused on the majority of agribusinesses. A tracking module enables
promoting commercially sustainable mobile agriculture enterprises to better track collection processes and points to
services for smallholder farmers in Kenya, Tanzania, and streamlined product collection. At this time, the size of the
Mozambique.20 The Alliance pilots initiatives aiming to crowdsourced data set does not yet approach big data, but
Vodafone is bringing this first suite of modules to commercial
markets for much broader deployment.
20 This innovative practice summary originally appeared in the World
Bank’s report Big Data in Action for Development. The original
case study can be found on pages 39–41 of that report, which
is available at http://live.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/Big%20 Data Interpretation
Data%20for%20Development%20Report_final%20version.pdf. Vodafone works with its subsidiary, Mezzanine, on the
It was slightly updated for this module based on inputs from Drew
Johnson, interim regional program director of the Connected development and management of the data collection plat-
Farmer Alliance, which were provided in February 2016. form, which is locally hosted in the Kenyan, Tanzanian, and
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 417
Mozambican markets and protected by high-level security one of the main challenges with current global land cover
mechanisms. Data are available only to the enterprise and data sets—the large discrepancies between them. The
participating farmers. For the surveys, enterprises receive project asks a network of volunteers to help identify,
only aggregated responses, not individual records. Vodafone among other things, human impact in satellite imagery of
is working with enterprise customers on the most conve- land cover (see image 15.3).
nient way for farmers to submit data while ensuring confi-
A good understanding of the location of the world’s cropland
dentiality for them and for businesses. The details of data
is important for a number of reasons, including identifying
privacy will be governed by Vodafone’s data privacy policies
where the best investments could be made to increase
to ensure ongoing protection.
production (Gustafson 2013). The good news is that experts
are not needed to identify cropland accurately, as research
Within the Connected Farmer Alliance partnership,
by IIASA has revealed. A comparison of 53,000 data points
TechnoServe is charged with analysis and interpretation
input by experts and nonexperts found that the nonexperts
of how the modules are performing for the enterprises
were just as good as experts at identifying human impact
and farmers. Insights are currently being gathered
(specifically, cropland) in satellite images (See 2013). A com-
through traditional survey methods. Those methods
parison of the accuracy of crowdsourced cropland maps to
include assessing goals for the participants at the outset
three major cropland maps (GLC [Global Land Cover]-2000;
of the project, determining areas of measurement, and
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, MODIS;
collecting input through questionnaires during the process.
and GlobCover) in Ethiopia found the crowdsourced data to
Additionally, the Connected Farmer Alliance supports
be the most accurate (See et al. 2013).
enterprise partners in their own data analyses of informa-
tion and outcomes.
IMAGE 15.3. Screenshot of Cropland Capture
Insights for Action
Although enterprises are just starting to adopt the technol-
ogy, some insights are emerging into the benefits of the
modules. Farmers who receive M-PESA for loans and pay-
ments reduced their costs by avoiding expensive, time-con-
suming, and risky trips to the enterprise office to collect cash.
The receipting module has reduced the costs of enterprises
by increasing their operational efficiency and transparency.
A key benefit of mobile solutions for farmers is the increased
access to information. It is difficult to make generic con-
tent services meaningful to small farmers whose local
realities may vary significantly within a distance of just a few
kilometers. The targeted information flow permitted by the
two-way information module appears to provide information
that is particularly relevant to the stakeholder farmers and
to enhance the face-to-face interactions among farmers and
enterprises.
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Combining Gaming and Crowdsourcing to
Identify and Monitor Cropland
The Geo-Wiki project was established by the International
Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), the
Source: Geo-Wiki Project.
University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, and the
Note: Used with permission. New request for permission is required if image
University of Freiburg (Germany) in 2009 to try to address is reused.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
418 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
With this information in hand, Geo-Wiki launched a The game was launched in 2013, followed by 25 weeks of
mobile and Web-based game called Cropland Capture that competition rewarding the top three players of the week with
transforms anyone in the world into a citizen scientist. prizes to incentivize participation. Although the game is still
The concept is quite simple. Players of the game are available for download, the lessons learned from the game
shown an image and asked if it shows cropland at a certain have been used to develop a more generic version of Cropland
site (answering “yes,” “no,” or “maybe”) (figure 16.4). Capture called Picture Pile, which is being used to gather infor-
Images contested by players are sent to an expert to mation on evidence of deforestation.21
make the determination. The resulting crowdsourced data
have been used to create a new global cropland map that
21 More information on Cropland Capture is available at http://www
Geo-Wiki hopes will be more accurate than other available
.geo-wiki.org/oldgames/croplandcapture/. Picture Pile can be
sources. found at http://geo-wiki.org/games/picturepile.
Topic Note 15.3: BIG DATA FOR ANALYTICS
TRENDS AND ISSUES As mentioned in the overview, no widely accepted standard
It is perhaps only mildly hyperbolic to state that big data will definition of big data exists, although many people talk about big
have a dramatic impact on the 21st century economy. In 2014, data as having the following characteristics, referred to as the
the big data market generated more than US$27 billion in rev- “3 Vs,” defined in 2001 by analyst Doug Laney (Laney 2001):
enue from the sale of hardware, software, and professional
Volume refers to the sheer volume of digital data
services. Within the next 10 years, it may generate more than
being produced globally.
US$80 billion in global revenues (Kelly 2015). Even that figure
pales in comparison to the potential revenue that might be Velocity refers to the speed at which data can be
generated and costs saved from the application of big data. captured and analyzed.
The McKinsey Global Institute, for instance, estimated in 2011 Variety refers to all of the different types and formats
that big data could have a value of more than US$1 trillion of data being produced.
annually from just three sectors: the U.S. health care system,
European public sector administration, and personal location Since then, some people have opted for additional Vs.
data (McKinsey Global Institute 2011). For instance, SAP Business Innovations has added veracity,
which refers to the quality of the data, and value, which refers
to the potential business value derived from it (Saporito 2014).
Within the next five years, big data will become the
norm, enabling a new horizon of personalization for both
Figure 15.2 shows the full life cycle of data from creation to
products and services. Wise leaders will soon embrace
consumption. Numerous types of digital devices and software
the game-changing opportunities that big data affords
amass data from a variety of places, including individuals, the
for their societies and organizations, and will provide the
public sector, and the private sector. Data can be volunteered
necessary sponsorship to realize this potential. Skeptics
(explicitly shared), observed (captured by recording actions,
and laggards, meanwhile, look set to pay a heavy price.
such as Web browsing history or call detail records, CDRs), or
—“Big Data Maturity: An Action Plan for inferred (based on an analysis of volunteered and/or observed
Policy Makers and Executives.” Chapter 1.3 data) (World Economic Forum 2011). The data are stored and
in The Global Information Technology Report aggregated by a range of entities, including websites, mobile
2014 (World Economic Forum and INSEAD). network operators, and development organizations. The next
step is analysis, which is sometimes done by the same enti-
This topic note examines how agriculture could make use of big ties that store and aggregate the data and sometimes by third
data and discusses what has been learned so far. Topic Notes parties. A growing number of companies offer what is known
16.1 and 16.2 focus on sources of data—remote sensors and as BDaaS (Big Data as a Service). These providers offer
crowdsourcing—whereas this topic note focuses on how all of access to analytics tools and services for a fee, as opposed
these data can be more effectively analyzed and acted upon. to firms that sell insights based on analysis they conduct.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 419
FIGURE 15.2. Life Cycle of Digital Data
Source: Bain & Company.22
Note: Used with permission. New request for permission is required if image is reused.
The last step in the chain is the consumption of the insights Early warning—analyzing data in order to, for
and intelligence gleaned from big data analytics; the consum- example, identify disease or pest outbreaks before
ers can include governments, businesses, researchers, and they spread.
sometimes even individuals. Forecasting—using big data tools to predict future
Broadly speaking, big data can be used to support six areas trends, such as prices for specific crops in specific areas.
with potential applications in agriculture: Financial services—using big data to overcome bar-
riers to providing credit and insurance to people who
Awareness—learning that something is happening by
lack access to such financial services (for instance,
using sentiment analysis to identify potential trends
small-scale producers with no credit history and
in people’s opinions or concerns. For example, as
limited collateral). Big data could potentially transform
mentioned, the UN Global Pulse roughly tracked the
credit and insurance models by drawing in many more
inflation of the price of rice in Indonesia by analyzing
data sources about producers, their farm or other
tweets on Twitter.
enterprise, the climate, and other factors. For example,
Understanding—learning why something is happen- GroVentures has aggregated and analyzed dispersed
ing, such as why food prices have risen or why water data sets from several dozen countries, enabling busi-
shortages have arisen. nesses to evaluate risk more effectively, resulting in
Advice—providing targeted and specific advice, based more affordable crop insurance (World Bank 2015).22
on big data, to individual farmers based on their cir-
cumstances, or to decision makers based on a wider
22 This figure originally appeared in the report “Personal Data: The
geographic area to enable them to make more data- Emergence of a New Asset Class,” which was prepared by the
driven decisions. World Economic Forum and Bain & Company in January 2011.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
420 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
Some of these applications of big data will benefit producers Grameen Foundation’s Community Knowledge
directly, while others have the potential to help researchers Worker program, in partnership with Palantir, devel-
and policy makers form recommendations and policies that oped a platform that enables them, among other
will shape the future of farming in the face of climate change, things, to understand the link between the applica-
increasing population, yield lags, demographic shifts, and tion of good agronomic practices (GAP) and farm
depleting natural resources, among other challenges. productivity (World Bank 2015).
Box 15.8 describes studies of prospective applications for Predictive analytics uses predictive modeling to antici-
big data in Senegalese agriculture. pate what will happen next based on past and current
data. Back in 2007 agricultural consultancy firm
Making sense of the data for these purposes requires spe- Lanworth, now part of Thomson Reuters, was able to
cific analytical tools and methods. The five most common predict the volume of the U.S. corn crop with relative
types of big data analytics are23: accuracy, using a mix of data including satellite images,
weather forecasts, soil maps, crop conditions, and
Descriptive analytics, the most common and widely
rotation patterns. In contrast, the U.S. Department of
used form of analytics, tells what has happened in
Agriculture, which used old-fashioned farmer surveys,
the past and what is happening now. An example
overestimated that year’s crop (Paynter 2008).
in agriculture is Esoko’s MarketPlace service, which
provides historical price trends of crops. Prescriptive analytics takes the trends identified in
predictive analytics and recommends potential courses
Diagnostic analytics help explain why something
of action and their likely outcomes. It uses simulations,
has happened. This form of analytics includes
localized rules, and decision logic to identify options.
the analysis of correlations and relationships in
For example, in Colombia, the International Center
data to better understand causation. For example,
for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and the Colombian Rice
Growers Federation (FEDEARROZ) developed a com-
BOX 15.8. Big Data for Agriculture in Action puter model including an artificial neural network24 that
incorporated 10 years of agricultural data, seasonal
In 2014, Sonatel and Orange Group made anonymized
forecasts, and climate data. They predicted that a drought
call detail records of mobile subscribers in Senegal avail-
would occur and advised farmers against planting crops,
able to researchers as part of a Data for Development
saving those who adhered to their advice US$3.8 mil-
Challenge. Agriculture, one of the five priority areas, was
lion (Clark 2014). The initiative received a UN Big Data
the subject of four research papers analyzing whether
Climate Challenge award and has plans to scale up over
mobile network data could be used for:
the next one to three years to include other crops and to
Developing mobility profiles and calendars for food expand into other countries in Latin America and Africa.
security and livelihood analysis. Cognitive analytics uses a mix of artificial intelli-
Understanding the genesis of millet prices in gence, machine learning algorithms, and in some case
Senegal (including the roles of production, markets, natural language processing to, in essence, mimic the
and their failures). cognitive capacity of humans. Although in many ways
Improving disaster resilience through a visual experimental and not yet widely available, cognitive
analysis of call data records. analytics has the potential to completely change our
Unraveling correlations between agricultural events ability to make sense of massive amounts of data in
and phone traffic. ways that our unaided minds are simply not capable
of handling (Ronanki and Steier 2014).
The papers are available in the Data for Development Challenge
The best way to measure the effectiveness of big data analytics
Senegal Book of Abstracts: Scientific Papers, available at http://
in agriculture may be to determine how the insights revealed
www.d4d.orange.com/fr/content/download/43453/406503
by the service have contributed to changes in efficiency and in
/version/1/file/D4DChallengeSenegal_Book_of_Abstracts
_Scientific_Papers.pdf.
Source: Authors. 24 An artificial neural network is a type of machine learning algorithm
that mirrors the interconnectedness of neurons in the human brain.
These networks, which are helpful for analyzing complex and often
23 The five types of analytics cited here are based on IBM’s classifica- incomplete data, are used for such things as detecting potential
tions (see http://www.ibm.com/analytics/us/en/analytics-technology/). credit card fraud or the presence of explosives in airports (Kay 2001).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 421
the cost of the overall outcomes that the service was intended They have always been present to some degree in develop-
to deliver. The capacity for realizing any benefit from big data is ment—data collection is nothing new. With the advent of
predicated on two factors at the output level. The first is that big data, what has changed is the role of third parties. Given
the analytic tools being used actually generate insights based the complexity of the computer systems needed for big data
on the data available, so (at a very basic level) one output that analytics, third parties increasingly store and analyze the data
can be tracked is the number of insights generated. The sec- that organizations collect. Policymakers and practitioners need
ond, and more important, output is the number of insights gen- to think seriously about protections for these data, particularly
erated that are deemed to be accurate or worth acting upon. data related to individuals, and implement them.
The next section of this note highlights lessons and issues
One example (mentioned earlier) of the risks involved in failing
surrounding big data, and the three innovative practice
to protect data is the potential for individuals to be displaced
summaries that follow present more detailed examples of
from their land. In a context where land grabs are prevalent
how big data analytics is coming into its own in agriculture.
and rights to land are protected ineffectively, failure to prevent
The first two summaries describe open access resources:
detailed information about the quality of farmers’ soil and
HarvestChoice, with spatially explicit, harmonized data layers
production capacity from falling into the wrong hands could
on numerous major indicators for Sub-Saharan Africa, and the
put producers with high-quality land at greater risk. Anecdotal
Crop Composition Database (CCDB), with rigorously vetted
reports note that farmers in high-income countries have already
data on the nutritional composition of specific crop species.
expressed concern that they might be penalized if the govern-
The third summary describes aWhere, a service that collects
ment or environmental activists discover that they have applied
global meteorological data and matches them with informa-
fertilizer incorrectly (Gilpin 2014) or that traders might manipu-
tion from farmers; the resulting data can be analyzed not only
late market prices based on access to information about what
to develop personalized agronomic recommendations for
farmers are planting (Banham 2014). If producers perceive that
farmers but also to contribute significantly to development
their data are not secure or might be used against them, they
policy, especially with respect to climate change.
may resist using tools that ultimately could help them.
LESSONS LEARNED Crowdsourced data are particularly affected by the poten-
The case for using big data for analytics is pretty clear. The tial of people to report incorrect information based on their
world is increasingly interconnected, volatile, and complex. perceptions rather than fact. It turns out, for example, that
The sheer volume of data that the world produces makes Google Flu Trends was not actually that good at predicting
it simply impossible for humans to make sense of it all and the occurrence of influenza; instead, it reflected the inci-
react in real time. An added consideration is the inherent dence of illnesses with flu-like symptoms (Fung 2014). If this
cognitive biases in human brains, which can lead to illogical tool had been applied to agriculture and used, for instance, to
conclusions or associations (Kahneman 2011). predict outbreaks of avian influenza, policy and commercial
decisions based on such predictions could have mobilized
Given these trends and concerns, it is not hard to see why such resources to cope with an outbreak that did not exist.
excitement surrounds the potential for big data to play a major
role in contributing to the agricultural productivity gains that are Limitations in data sharing, compatibility, and availability also
needed to meet the world’s food needs by 2050. Of course, constitute barriers to fully realizing the potential of big data
realizing this potential is not as easy as simply turning on a in agriculture. In a number of countries, for example, cen-
switch. To maximize the impact of big data on agriculture, poli- suses and farm surveys are sporadic, incomplete, and often
cymakers and practitioners will need to consider and address a exclude smallholder farmers. The FAO’s Global Strategy to
number of issues, outlined here. In broad terms, these issues Improve Agricultural and Rural Statistics is attempting to
can be clustered into three groups: issues related to data address this challenge through the introduction of an inte-
ownership, access, and quality; issues related to analysis and grated survey system that countries can use to regularly col-
interpretation; and issues related to implementation capacity. lect and produce comprehensive agricultural data (Graziano
da Silva 2016).
Data Ownership, Access, and Quality For the most part, structures and standards for sharing propri-
Determining who owns the collected data and how those data etary data are also lacking. Unlocking those data will require
sets are protected are issues worthy of serious consideration. public-private partnerships; it will also require stakeholders to
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
422 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
understand how they will benefit, both individually and col- location of all calls made on their network. The analysis of
lectively, from doing so (World Economic Forum 2015). CDRs has been suggested as a way to track population move-
ments during times of conflict or disease outbreaks, but the
A strong open data movement, which the World Bank and network operators’ limited commercial interest in sharing
others are promoting, seeks to bring more of the world’s such data is often overlooked. The analysis of CDRs also gen-
data into the public domain, including agricultural data (see erally ignores principles of informed consent, since individual
box 15.9 and the innovative practice summary below). A vast callers have not consented to having their data analyzed for
share of these data remain closed to the public, however. Of those purposes (Letouzé and Vinck 2014).
the 1,290 data sets of public records surveyed from 86 coun-
tries by the Open Data Barometer in 2014, only slightly more
Analysis and Interpretation
than 10 percent met the definition of open data by being
“published in bulk, machine-readable formats, and under an The challenges related to analysis and interpretation can be
open license” (World Wide Web Foundation 2015). broadly classified into three types of limitations: data, human,
and machine. Data limitations refer to shortcomings in data
Even members of the development community, which sets that prevent their meaningful analysis, such as an insuf-
should have many incentives to share data with each other, ficient amount of data, erroneous data, or unreadable data.
have responded unevenly to the call for open data. Part of
Many of the human limitations relate to cognitive biases and
the challenge in making data public is to develop internal pro-
poor interpretation of the data or of their implications.25 Even in
cesses for managing data and to compile data sets that may
the case of cognitive analytics, which aims to reduce the poten-
be sitting on hundreds of different hard drives around the
tial effect of such limitations, ultimately it is still humans who will
organization. Another part of the challenge is to overcome
make decisions based on the outputs from the analytic tools. At
resistance to change among individuals who are simply used
least in the near future, human judgment will retain a significant
to handling their data in one way, and have yet to adjust
role in benefiting from analytic insights, because most big data
to new data management processes. Both of these issues
analytics will remain outside the realm of cognitive analytics.
speak to the need for organizations in the development com-
munity to put forward very clear guidance on open data set The supply/demand gap between the number of professionals
requirements and to implement clear data management pro- with the requisite skills to analyze and make decisions from
cesses that are effectively communicated to all employees. big data, and the number of professionals needed across all
industries with an interest in big data, has been reported by
Not surprisingly, gaining access to data in the private domain
a number of sources over the past few years. Governments,
is even more complicated. Many private businesses are reluc-
academic institutions, and development organizations, in
tant to share data with third parties without either selling the
addition to the private sector, need to address this talent
data to them and/or requiring legal agreements, such as non-
gap in the agricultural sector through capacity building and
disclosure agreements. CDRs are a good example. CDRs col-
education. Skills must be developed at the farm level as well
lected by mobile network operators indicate the approximate
as among development practitioners and researchers, all of
whom will benefit from better understanding how to make
sense of data and act upon that knowledge.
BOX 15.9. Suggestions for Unleashing the Power of
Data for Agriculture Although, one day, artificial intelligence, driven by machine
learning algorithms, may be virtually indistinguishable from
Participants in the 2015 International Open Data
human intelligence, machines—at least for the present—also
Conference (Canada) identified seven ways that data can
have limitations. Even Watson, IBM’s supercomputer—a
be made more effective in agriculture: (1) open up data,
system much more powerful by far than anything the reader
(2) identify data users, (3) bring intermediaries into the
is likely to access in the near future—made very basic mis-
game, (4) develop new tools for data collection, (5) look
takes in common sense during its triumphant run on the U.S.
beyond technology, (6) foster cross-sector collaboration,
television show Jeopardy! several years back (Hamm 2011).
and (7) address the need for disaggregated data. More
detailed information can be found online here.a
Source: Authors.
a. Halais 2015 (https://www.devex.com/news/7-challenges-the-agriculture 25 The UN Global Pulse’s Big Data for Development: Challenges
-sector-must -address-to-unleash-its-data-revolution-86310). & Opportunities has a thorough section on challenges in the
analysis of big data, mostly related to human limitations.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 423
Implementation Capacity For governments seeking to implement big data systems to
A 2013 worldwide survey by Gartner found that 64 percent support agricultural development, the challenges are likely
of organizations had invested in or were planning to invest to be even greater, given the scale. In an examination of the
in big data systems (Gartner 2013). Over the next few sources of the initial failure of the U.S. healthcare.gov web-
years, this figure is likely to continue to grow rapidly, as site, Clifford Winston of the Brookings Institution identified
an increasing number of medium-sized and large agribusi- four primary contributors: (1) limited technical expertise and
nesses in high- to low-income countries will probably invest an overreliance on contractors; (2) little, if any, rigorous and
in some form of big data solution. A good portion of those transparent ongoing assessment because of a fear of expos-
firms will also probably fall victim to at least one of the eight ing problems; (3) a status-quo bias and an inflexibility and
implementation challenges identified by Svetlana Sicular at inability to make important changes in managing a project;
Gartner (Sicular 2014): (1) management inertia, (2) selecting and (4) constraints that may affect budgeting and adoption
wrong use cases, (3) asking wrong questions, (4) lacking the of state-of-the-art technology (Winston 2013).
right skills, (5) unanticipated problems that are wider than All such factors should be considered and taken into
just a big data technology, (6) disagreement on the enterprise account in supporting and deploying any big data system.
strategy, (7) siloed big data, and (8) solution avoidance.26 The relevance of each factor depends somewhat on how
much the use of big data has advanced in a particular coun-
try or organization. Figure 15.3 provides a useful framework
for understanding the different stages of big data use in an
26 This figure originally appeared in the chapter “Big Data Maturity:
An Action Plan for Policymakers and Executives” within The
organization, as well as the internal capabilities and ecosys-
Global Information Technology Report 2014. tem enablers that need to be in place first.
FIGURE 15.3. Big Data Maturity Framework
Source: Strategy& (formerly Booz & Company), part of the PwC network of firms.26
Note: Used with permission. New request for permission is required if image is reused.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
424 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
Helpful resources Data are harmonized across domains and country borders,
Big Data in Action for Development, http://live allowing for complex spatial analyses and evidence-based
.worldbank.org/big-data-in-action-for-development. investment strategies. For example, HarvestChoice’s Spatial
Big Data, Big Impact: New Possibilities for Production Allocation Model (SPAM) uses a cross-entropy
International Development, https://www.weforum approach on a variety of inputs, from subnational crop produc-
.org/reports/big-data-big-impact-new-possibilities tion statistics to market information, to generate plausible,
-international-development. disaggregated estimates of crop distribution for 42 crops and
their performance around the globe (You et al. 2014). SPAM
Big Data for Development: Challenges &
results are useful for understanding production and land-
Opportunities, http://www.unglobalpulse.org
use patterns and for identifying geographical trends. They
/sites/default/files/BigDataforDevelopment
also provide a means for understanding the causalities of
-UNGlobalPulseJune2012.pdf.
cropping outcomes within disaggregated units. SPAM data
can be manipulated via Mappr or downloaded from www
.mapspam.info.
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
Generating Open Access, Spatially Explicit Pooled data from georeferenced household surveys,
Data Sets, and Analyses for More Productive
such as Demographic and Health Surveys29 (DHS) and the
Farming and Better Livelihoods in Africa
LSMS30, are filling critical information gaps with respect
A growing community of scientists is taking advantage of to nutrition, health, gender-related variables, wealth (con-
publicly available global data sets remote sensing imagery, sumer durables, housing characteristics), education, and
GIS, computer modeling, and georeferenced data pooled access to services (water, sanitation, health facilities,
from the bottom up (or crowdsourced) to capture the het- schools). When it comes to agricultural activities, income,
erogeneity of humans and agriculture and gain a better and infrastructure, however, the survey data are weak
understanding of the complex spatial relationships between (although improving). This is where the interoperability of
agriculture, the environment, climate change, and social harmonized data becomes important. By combining popu-
well-being.27 A problem in many settings, but especially in lation data from household surveys with HarvestChoice
low-income countries and among low-income and vulnerable spatial data on agriculture, biophysical characteristics, and
populations, is that critical data are difficult to obtain from market access, it is possible to produce a well-rounded set
administrative offices or to generate through experiments of variables and facilitate studies on nutrition and agricul-
and observations on the ground. The growing availability of ture across or within countries.
cross-harmonized data and geospatial tools is helping to alle-
viate some of those constraints. HarvestChoice currently holds many spatial layers on nutri-
tion and dietary outcomes based on crowdsourced surveys,
HarvestChoice is hub to a large number (more than 750 and allowing Mappr users to visualize the spatial distribution
growing) of spatially explicit, harmonized data layers for Sub- of diet quality and nutritional outcomes across subnational
Saharan Africa, including indicators of health and poverty regions in Sub-Saharan Africa. Such data can support analy-
variables, agricultural production and area, climate and soil, ses of how diet and nutrition are related to market character-
and access to markets (box 15.10). Web-based data analytics istics, the environment, and agricultural systems, and they
tools, such as HarvestChoice’s Mappr, allow development can provide the context for understanding the scalability of
practitioners and analysts to dip into HarvestChoice’s core research outcomes.
data holdings and visualize geographical impacts for invest-
ment and policy design at scale (HarvestChoice 2012). More Economic and crop modelers are also increasingly taking
advanced users can plug directly into HarvestChoice data advantage of granular data sets, especially those harmo-
through an open API28 (HarvestChoice 2014b). nized on high-resolution global grids in modeling analyses
that explore future consequences of climate change (Nelson
2014; Rosegrant 2014). Crop models such as Decision
Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) make
27 This innovative practice summary was developed by Cindy
Cox and Jawoo Koo at the International Food Policy Research
Institute (IFPRI). 29 Available at http://dhsprogram.com/data.
28 A publicly available application programming interface. 30 Available at http://go.worldbank.org/BCLXW38HY0.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 425
BOX 15.10. Aggregating and Visualizing Data in Mappr
Mappr users can aggregate ~10 × 10 kilometer pixels in meaningful ways, such as by farming system, watershed, or
agro-ecological zone. HarvestChoice uses remote sensing, GIS, open source subnational data sets, crop and economic
modeling (DSSAT and IMPACT), and georeferenced household surveys to generate over 750 layers of subnational socio-
economic and biophysical data for Sub-Saharan Africa; see, for example, images B15.10.1 and B15.10.2.
IMAGE B15.10.1. HarvestChoice’s Mappr
HarvestChoice’s Mappr (http://
apps.harvestchoice.org/mappr)
allows users to easily explore
+700 multi-disciplinary geospa-
tial indicators across SSA with-
out needing to use advanced
GIS software or spatial analysis
skills. Users can browse the data
catalog, select multiple indica-
tors of interest, visualize them
on the map, and execute a set of
spatial analysis. This screenshot
shows an example of spatial
domain analysis output gener-
ated from three user-selected
indicators (rural poverty, maize
harvest area, and growing
period) presented on the map
and a series of charts.
IMAGE B15.10.2. HarvestChoice’s grid-based multi-disciplinary indicator database (CELL5M)
Learn more about CELL5M, which
powers a suite of spatial target-
ing analyses and applications, at
http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000
research.9682.1. This tool (available
online at https://public.tableau.com
/profile/ifpri.td.hc#!/vizhome/cell5m
_a4nh_v2_ssa/CELL5M_A4NH) pro-
vides an easy-to-use, interactive
indicator-level mapping and filtering
interface to identify the areas meet-
ing multiple search criteria of agri-
culture and nutrition baseline.
Maize yield (kg/ha, 2005) Stunting, Moderate (z-score –6 to –2)
More than just pretty maps, georeferenced data can help development practitioners visualize where populations are most
vulnerable, the farming systems they most depend on, the biological and geophysical constraints and risks that limit farm produc-
tivity, the investments and innovations that could raise farm productivity most sustainably, and the broader impacts of such change.
Source: Authors.
Note: Images used with permission. New request for permission is required if image is reused.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
426 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
it possible to explore global changes in agricultural produc- consistency. Users can query the database to generate mean
tivity (Jones et al. 2003). Results from crop models can be levels and ranges of nutritional components in various crop spe-
integrated with economic models (such as the IMPACT cies. Environmental factors such as soil type and temperature
and DREAM models) to study alternative projections of can affect the levels of important nutrients in plants, and the
global food supply, demand, trade, prices, and food security moisture content can vary based on field conditions at harvest
(HarvestChoice 1995; Rosegrant 2008). Agritech Toolbox, a and when samples are handled. The database includes features
geo-tool available from HarvestChoice, allows users to explore that allow the user to retrieve a subset of data for samples pro-
simulation results from those two types of models and visu- duced in a specific year or location, and the analyst search filter
alize the impact of agricultural technologies around the globe can be applied to retrieve a predetermined subset of data.
(HarvestChoice 2014a). This analytical capacity is particularly
important in regions of the world where the effects of global The CCDB is accessible to scientists from academia, gov-
changes in the environment, including the effects of climate ernment agencies, and industry as well as to the general
change, are most pressing and consequential. public, and it is a well-used resource. From July 2014 to July
2015, the CCDB logged 81,838 unique site visits from users
in 122 countries around the world. It is referenced in peer-
INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY reviewed publications, regulatory guidance documents, and
The ILSI Crop Composition Database in many regulatory dossiers submitted in support of geneti-
cally engineered food safety assessments. This database
The CCDB (https://cropcomposition.org), launched in 2003, is
complements existing food and nutrient databases, and it
a curated, open resource that provides data on the natural vari-
is an important but probably underused resource for food
ability in the nutritional composition of specific crop species
scientists, nutrition practitioners, and others interested in
(e.g., information on nutrients, anti-nutrients, and secondary
the interface between agriculture and nutrition.
metabolites) (Alba et al. 2010; Ridley et al. 2004).31 These data
have multiple uses, although the CCDB was originally devel- One of the strengths of the CCDB—the completeness and
oped to provide information for risk assessors and regulators quality of the data sets for each of the subject crops—is
to undertake intraspecies comparative assessments of the also potentially one of its limitations, however. The analyti-
nutritional content of conventional versus transgenic crops cal rigor required for data submitted to the CCDB means
(CAC 2003). The non-profit International Life Sciences Institute that sample testing is expensive, so it is not surprising that
(ILSI) Research Foundation maintains the CCDB, and criteria most data has been provided (at no charge) by the private
for accepting data are overseen by the CCDB Working Group, sector, and for a very limited range of crops (currently
which comprises scientists from the public and private sec- canola, field corn, sweet corn, cotton, rice, and soybeans).
tors. The most recent version of the CCDB was released in The ILSI Research Foundation and the CCDB Working
2014 and includes more than 840,000 data points representing Group are committed to including data for other crop spe-
3,150 compositional components. cies, particularly of important staple foods. For such data
to become available, public sector breeding programs, as
Data in the CCDB are derived from numerous samples of
well as breeding programs run by small and medium-sized
hybrids and/or varieties cultivated in controlled field trials
private firms, must be able to submit data, but it is also
using standard commercial cultivation practices at various
imperative to ensure that data for new crops are verifiable
locations throughout the world. Representative plant samples
and robust. Resolving how to balance these imperatives
are obtained from field-grown crops with known production
remains a significant challenge.
locations and dates. The analytical methods used to generate
the data must be indicated, validated, and use certified or his-
torically verified standards. Data are uploaded in a standardized
format by an authorized provider using a secure data provider INNOVATIVE PRACTICE SUMMARY
tool. As the comma-delimited file is uploaded, it is checked for Using Big Data to Provide Localized
Weather and Agronomic Information to
format and duplication at the file and sample level. The content
Producers
of successfully uploaded data is then tested for validity and
Throughout the world, a great number of producers use
traditional knowledge of weather-related signs and con-
31 This innovative practice summary was written by Morven ditions to make their agricultural choices. This knowl-
McLean of the ILSI Research Foundation. edge—which has sustained countless generations of
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 427
producers—has become a less reliable guide as more and longitude of his or her farm and the crops planted,
variable weather patterns have brought less predictability, the information can be more tailored to that farmer’s
higher risk, and a growing sense of uncertainty to farmers circumstances. In practice, aWhere has found that farm-
and to agriculture.32 ers typically provide the name of a village, for which the
coordinates can be identified. Given that many farmers do
Uncertainty can affect behavior by making people even more not have GPS-enabled phones or, if they do, may not know
averse to risk. Farmers who are more risk averse may be less how to collect their coordinates, it may be necessary for
likely to experiment with or adopt new approaches, including someone else to collect that information on their behalf.
approaches that could increase agricultural and environmen- Once their specific information is input into the platform,
tal sustainability in an era of climate change and less pre- however, they can begin to receive crop-specific advice,
dictable weather. The connection between uncertainty and localized weather forecasts, details on nearby input provid-
subsequent environmental degradation can create a vicious ers, and local market prices.
cycle in which the impact of increased weather variability on
agriculture continues to grow. Services that tailor agricultural
Key Lessons from aWhere
information to highly local settings can help farmers adjust to
weather variability, increase the productivity and profitability Combining data from multiple sources provides a lon-
of farming, and create an opportunity to improve sustainable gitudinal view of climate effects and produces insights
food production. that can be extremely beneficial to farmers.
Simply collecting the data and generating insights is
By combining localized weather information with farmer- not enough; the use of technology to make sure that
specific tips, aWhere is seeking to address these issues. Its the message reaches the right stakeholders at the
predictive analytic platform collects over 1 billion data points right time is also important.
daily on temperature, rainfall, humidity, solar radiation, and
wind from satellites, weather aggregators, and drone opera- Most of a Where clients are based in the United States,
tors, resulting in a global meteorological data set that covers although the service is expanding into Africa, Asia, and the
all agricultural geographies. As a result, all weather data, from Caribbean, where it partners with agricultural information
a 20-year history to 8-day forecasts, are consistently available providers such as Esoko in Ghana, which makes aWhere’s
globally. At the same time, the platform is quite localized, weather data and agronomic models available to its clients
matching farmer-specific agricultural tips with growth stage (Storum 2015).
models that are specific to each region.
Access to this combination of weather intelligence and
agronomic recommendations is expected to help farmers
While aWhere provides historical weather information,
make more informed decisions—for example, to delay
forecasts, and agronomic models, the platform relies on
planting because of a projected delay in the start of the
data inputs from partners for other types of information,
seasonal rains. Policy makers, researchers, and develop-
such as cropping calendars and agronomic tips for each
ment practitioners can also use aWhere’s online platform
crop and variety. This information is generally acquired
for their own analysis and decision making (image 15.4).
through local resources such as agricultural extension ser-
By importing their own data sets into the platform, they
vices, universities, and local knowledge. The combination
can identify correlations that might be helpful, such as
of aWhere’s agronomic models and a well-defined crop
correlations between rainfall levels and market prices or
calendar effectively results in a personalized crop calendar
disease outbreaks.
for every farmer.
An added capability is that researchers and commercial
The relevance of the intelligence farmers receive from
practitioners can combine weather data with historical
aWhere depends, in turn, on how much information they
information on crop yields to generate field-specific agro-
provide to the service. If the farmer provides the latitude
nomic models, as well as management recommendations
for weather-smart agriculture. These models and recom-
32 The majority of the text provided in this summary was adapted mendations generate new agricultural intelligence that can
from content that came directly from Tarah Speck at aWhere. enhance traditional agricultural practices and provide guid-
Some of the text is from the module’s primary author, and was
drawn from publicly available information about aWhere. To learn
ance to farmers for mitigating the risks of adverse weather
more about aWhere, visit http://www.awhere.com/. events and climate variability. This new, real-time information
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
428 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
IMAGE 15.4. Screenshot of aWhere’s Online Dashboard
Source: aWhere.
Note: Used with permission. New request for permission is required if image is reused.
allows farmers and stakeholders across the world to make Bilbao-Osorio, Beñat. 2014. The Global Information Technology
evidence-based agricultural decisions and optimize farming Report 2014: Rewards and Risks of Big Data. World Economic
Forum, Cologny. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global
practices as the dynamics of agriculture change.
InformationTechnology_Report_2014.pdf.
All of aWhere’s weather and agronomic data can be deliv- BIS Research. 2014. Global Precision Agriculture Market Analysis
& Forecast (2015–2022) Technology (VRA, Soil Mapping, Yield
ered through RESTful APIs, allowing for their integration into
Monitoring, Precision Irrigation, Others), Components and
customized apps or widgets. More details, including samples Systems. http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/
and JavaScript visualizations, can be found on their devel- fk898n/global_precision.
oper’s portal (http://developer.awhere.com/). Bujoreanu, Luda. 2013. “The Power of Mobile: Saving Uganda’s Banana
Crop.” Information and Communications for Development (blog).
http://blogs.worldbank.org/ic4d / the-power-of-mobile-saving
REFERENCES -ugandas-banana-crop.
Alba, R., A. Phillips, S. Mackie, N. Gillikin, C. Maxwell, P. Brune, W. Ridley, Burns, Matt. 2015. “3D Robotics Taps Qualcomm for $50M
J. Fitzpatrick, M. Levine, and S. Harris. 2010. “Improvements to the Series C and Mobile Tech.” TechCrunch. http://techcrunch
International Life Sciences Institute Crop Composition Database.” .com/2015/02/26/3d-robotics-taps-qualcomm-for-50m-series-c
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 23: 741–48. -and-mobile-tech/.
Banham, Russ. 2014. “Who Owns Farmers’ Big Data?” Forbes CAC (Codex Alimentarius Commission). 2003. “Guideline for the
Brand Voice. http://www.forbes.com/sites/emc/2014/07/08/who Conduct of Food Safety Assessment of Foods Derived from
-owns-farmers-big-data/. Recombinant-DNA Plants.” CAC/GL 45-2003, Rome.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 429
Clark, Helen. 2014. “How Big Data Is Helping Farmers Save Millions.” Greatrex, Helen, James Hansen, Samantha Garvin, Rahel Diro, Sari
GizMag. http://www.gizmag.com/big-data-crops-climate-change Blakeley, Margot Le Guen, Kolli Rao, and Daniel Osgood. 2015.
/34400/. “Scaling Up Index Insurance for Smallholder Farmers: Recent
Evidence and Insights.” CCAFS Report 14, CGIAR Research
Conor, Anthony. 2014. “Benefits and Limitations of Crowdsourcing
Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security
Agricultural Data.” AGROAM (blog). http://www.agroam.org/blog
(CCAFS), Copenhagen. https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream
/benefits-and-limitations-of-crowdsourcing-agricultural-data/.
/handle/10568/53101/CCAFS_Report14.pdf.
Crawford, John, John Hutchins, Richard Tiffin, and Alistair Stott. Gustafson, Thomas Andrew. 2013. “I’m Not Just Gaming, Ma!
2015. “AIMS: Putting the UK at Heart of the Big Data Revolution I’m Helping the World’s Farmers.” NPR. http://www.npr.org
in Agriculture.” AgriTech Strategy (blog). https://agritech.blog / sections /thesalt/2013/11/25/247210031/i-m-not-just-gaming
.gov.uk/2015/03/27/aims-putting-the-uk-at-heart-of-the-big-data -ma-i-m-helping-the-world-s-farmers.
-revolution-in-agriculture/.
Halais, Flavie. 2015. “7 Challenges the Agriculture Sector Must
Crimson Hexagon. 2011. “Twitter and Perceptions of Crisis Related Address to Unleash its Data Revolution.” Devex. https://www
Stress.” UN Global Pulse. http://www.unglobalpulse.org/projects .devex.com/news/7-challenges-the-agriculture-sector-must
/twitter-and-perceptions-crisis-related-stress. -address-to-unleash-its-data-revolution-86310.
CTA. 2015. “Satellites and Mobile Phones Improve Crop Productivity Hamm, Steve. 2011. “Watson on Jeopardy! Day One: Man vs.
in Sudan.” http://www.cta.int/en/article/2015-06-17/satellites Machine for Global Bragging Rights.” A Smarter Planet (blog).
-and-mobile-phones-improve-crop-productivity-in-sudan.html. http://asmarterplanet.com/blog/2011/02/watson-on-jeopardy-day
-one-man-vs-machine-for-global-bragging-rights.html.
Dawson, Ross, and Steve Bynghall. 2012. Getting Results from
Crowds: The Definitive Guide to Using Crowdsourcing to Grow HarvestChoice.1995. Dynamic Research Evaluation for Management
Your Business. 2nd ed. Essen: Advanced Human Technologies. (DREAM) 3.1. Washington, DC: International Food Policy
Research Institute (IFPRI) and University of Minnesota. http://
Essiet, Daniel. 2015. “Combating Challenges of Poor Data-driven
hdl.handle.net/1902.1/18230.
Agriculture.” The Nation (Nigeria). http://thenationonlineng.net
/combating-challenges-of-poor-data-driven-agriculture/. ———. 2012. “Visualize HarvestChoice Indicators: MAPPR.”
International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC,
European Space Agency. 2014. “Mobile App Provides Weather and University of Minnesota, St. Paul. http://harvestchoice.org
Forecasts for Rwandan Coffee Farmers.” Phys.org. http:// /node/2258.
phys.org/news/2014-03-mobile-app-weather-rwandan-coffee
.html#jCp. ———. 2014a. “AgriTech Toolbox.” International Food Policy
Research Institute, Washington, DC, and University of
Fahlgren, Noah, Malia A. Gehan, and Ivan Baxter. 2015. “Lights, Minnesota, St. Paul. http://harvestchoice.org/node/9034.
Camera, Action: High-Throughput Plant Phenotyping Is Ready
for a Close-Up.” Current Opinion in Plant Biology 24: 93–99. ———. 2014b. “HarvestChoice Data Services.” International Food
http://www.sciencedirect .com/science/article/pii/S13695 Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, and University of
26615000266. Minnesota, St. Paul. http://harvestchoice.org/node/9025.
Hosenally, Nawsheen. 2012. “Mapping Trees for Food Security.” ICT
Ferster, Warren. 2014. “U.S. Government Eases Restrictions on
Update 69. http://ictupdate.cta.int/Feature-Articles/Mapping-trees
DigitalGlobe.” Space News. http://spacenews.com/40874us
-for-food-security/
-government-eases-restrictions-on-digitalglobe/.
IDC. 2014. “The Digital Universe of Opportunities: Rich Data and the
Freischlad, Nadine. 2015. “Drones over the Rice Paddy: Ci-Agriculture
Increasing Value of the Internet of Things.” EMC2. http://www
Brings Smart Tech to the Field.” Tech in Asia. https://www
.emc.com/infographics/digital-universe-2014.htm.
.techinasia.com/ci-agriculture-precision-farming-indonesia/.
Jones, J. W., G. Hoogenboom, C. H. Porter, K. J. Boote, W. D.
Fung, Kaiser. 2014. “Google Flu Trends’ Failure Shows Good Data >
Batchelor, L. A. Hunt, and J. T. Ritchie. 2003. “The DSSAT Cropping
Big Data.” Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2014/03/go
System Model.” European Journal of Agronomy 18 (3): 235–65.
ogle-flu-trends-failure-shows-good-data-big-data/.
Kahneman, Daniel. 2011. Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York: Farrar,
Gartner. 2012. “Gartner Says Big Data Creates Big Jobs: 4.4 Million Straus & Giroux.
IT Jobs Globally to Support Big Data by 2015.” http://www
.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2207915. Kay, Alexx. 2001. “Artificial Neural Networks.” Computerworld.
http://www.computerworld.com/article/2591759/app-develop-
———. 2013. “Gartner Survey Reveals that 64 Percent of ment/artificial-neural-networks.html.
Organizations Have Invested or Plan to Invest in Big Data in
2013.” http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2593815. Kelly, Jeff. 2015. “Executive Summary: Big Data Vendor Revenue
and Market Forecast, 2011–2026.” Wikibon. http://premium.
Gilpin, Lyndsey. 2014. “How Big Data Is going to Help Feed Nine wikibon.com/executive-summary-big-data-vendor-revenue-and
Billion People by 2050.” TechRepublic. http://www.techrepublic. -market-forecast-2011-2026/.
com/article/how-big-data-is-going -to-help-feed-9-billion-people
Laney, Doug. 2001. “3D Data Management: Controlling Data Volume,
-by-2050/.
Velocity, and Variety.” META Group (blog). http://blogs.gartner
Graziano da Silva, José. 2016. “Big Data, Small Farms.” Foreign Affairs. .com/doug-laney/files/2012/01/ad949-3D-Data -Management
https://www.foreignaffairs.com/sponsored/big-data-small-farms. -Controlling-Data-Volume-Velocity-and-Variety.pdf
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
430 MOD ULE 15 — USING ICT FOR REMOTE S ENSING, CR OWD S OUR C ING
Lavars, Nick. 2015. “MIT’s Crop-Saving Drones at the Ready.” of the International Life Sciences Institute Crop Composition
Gizmag. http://www.gizmag.com/mit-crop-drones/37526/ Database.” Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 17: 423–38.
Lawler, Ryan. 2015. “Planet Labs Nabs $95 Million and a New COO Ronanki, Rajeev, and David Steier. 2014. “Cognitive Analytics.”
to Cover the Earth with Flocks of Tiny Satellites.” TechCrunch. Tech Trends 2014. http://dupress.com/articles/2014-tech-trends
http://techcrunch.com/2015/01/20/planet-labs-95m/. -cognitive-analytics/.
Leclerc, Rob, and Melissa Tilney. 2015. “AgTech Is the New Queen Rosegrant, M. W., Msangi, S., Ringler, C., Sulser, T. B., Zhu, T., and
of Green.” TechCrunch. http://techcrunch.com/2015/04/01 Cline, S. A. 2008. “International Model for Policy Analysis
/the-new-queen-of-green/. of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT): Model
Letouzé, Emmanuel, and Patrick Vinck. 2014. “The Politics and Ethics Description.” 42, International Food Policy Research Institute,
of CDR Analytics.” Data-Pop Alliance White Paper Series. http:// Washington, DC.
static1.squarespace.com/static/531a2b4be4b009ca7e474c05/t/5 Rosegrant, M. W., J. Koo, N. Cenacchi, C. Ringler, R. D. Robertson,
4b97f82e4b0ff9569874fe9/1421442946517/WhitePaperCDRsEt M. Fisher, C. M. Cox, K. Garret, N. D. Perez, and P. Sabbagh.
hicFrameworkDec10-2014Draft-2.pdf. 2014. Food Security in a World of Growing Natural Resource
Marr, Bernard. 2015. “From Farming to Big Data: The Amazing Scarcity: The Role of Agricultural Technologies. Washington,
Story of John Deere.” Data Science Central (blog). http://www DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. http://dx.doi
.datasciencecentral.com/profiles/blogs/from-farming -to-big-data .org/10.2499/9780896298477.
-the-amazing-story-of-john-deere.
Saporito, Patricia. 2014. “2 More Big Data V’s—Value and Veracity.”
Martin, Steven W., James Hanks, Aubrey Harris, Gene Willis, and SAP Business Innovations (blog). http://blogs.sap.com/innovation
Swagata Banerjee. 2005. “Estimating Total Costs and Possible /big-data/2-more-big-data-vs-value-and-veracity-01242817.
Returns from Precision Farming Practices.” Crop Management.
See, Linda. 2013. “Citizen Scientists Rival Experts in Analyzing
http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/11889/PDF.
Land-Cover Data.” http://www.iiasa.ac.at/web/home/about/news
McKinsey Global Institute. 2011. “Big Data: The Next Frontier for Innovation, /PLOS_ONE__Citizen_scientists_rival_experts_in_analyz.en.html.
Competition, and Productivity.” http://www.mckinsey.com/insights
/business_technology/big_data_the_next_frontier_for_innovation. See, Linda, I. McCallum, S. Fritz, C. Perger, F. Kraxner, M. Obersteiner,
U. D. Baruah, N. Mili, and N. R. Kalitas. 2013. “Mapping Cropland
McLaren, Robin. 2015. Managing Unintended Consequences in Ethiopia Using Crowdsourcing.” International Journal of
of Democratizing Land Rights. http://www.fig.net/resources Geosciences 4: 6–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2013.46A1002.
/ proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig2015/papers/ts02b/TS02B
_mclaren_7687.pdf. Sicular, Svetlana. 2014. “Big Botched Data.” Gartner Blog Network.
http://blogs.gartner.com/svetlana-sicular/big-botched-data/.
Nelson, G. C., H. Valinb, R. D. Sands, P. Havlík, H. Ahammad,
D. Deryng, J. Elliott, S. Fujimori, T. Hasegawa, E. Heyhoe, Silversmith, Alex, and Drew Tulchin. 2013. “Crowdsourcing
P. Kyle, M. Von Lampe, H. Lotze-Campen, D. M. d’Croz, Applications for Agricultural Development in Africa.” USAID,
H. van Meijl, D. van der Mensbrugghe, C. Müllerk, A. Popp, R. Washington, DC. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pa00j7p7.pdf.
Robertson, S. Robinson, E. Schmid, C. Schmitz, A. Tabeau, and
Storum, Doug. 2015. “Farmers Stay Aware with aWhere’s Weather
D. Willenbockel. 2014. “Climate Change Effects on Agriculture:
Data.” Boulderopolis. http://boulderopolis.com/farmers-stay-awa
Economic Responses to Biophysical Shocks.” Proceedings
re-with-awheres-weather-data/.
of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America 111 (9). http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1222465110. Thomasson, Alex. 2015. “The Future of Farming: Drones, Robots,
and GPS.” The Conversation. http://mashable.com/2015/03/22
Paynter, Ben. 2008. “Feeding the Masses: Data In, Crop Predictions
/farmers-drones-robots/.
Out.” Wired Magazine. http://archive.wired.com/science
/discoveries/magazine/16-07/pb_feeding. Tsotsis, Alexia. 2013. “Monsanto Buys Weather Big Data Company
Practical Action. 2012. Poor People’s Energy Outlook 2012: Energy Climate Corporation for Around $1.1B.” TechCrunch. http://
for Earning a Living. Bourton, UK: Practical Action Publishing. techcrunch.com/2013/10/02/monsanto-acquires-weather-big
http://practicalaction.org/ppeo2012. -data-company-climate-corporation-for-930m/.
Quinn, Sara. 2014. “Creating a Community of Practice in Sub- United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Saharan Africa to Utilize Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-based Tools Population Division. (2015). World Population Prospects: The
for Agricultural Development.” International Potato Center. 2015 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables. ESA/WP.241.
http://cipotato.org/press-room/blogs/creating-practice-sub New York: United Nations.
-saharan-africa-unmanned-aerial-vehicle-based-tools-agricultural
USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture). 2005. “Agricultural Aircraft
-development/.
Offer a Different View of Remote Sensing.” AgResearch
Reader, Ruth. 2015. “Google Ventures Leads $15M Investment Magazine. http://agresearchmag.ars.usda.gov/2005/mar/remote.
in Big Data for Farmers.” VentureBeat. http://venturebeat.
Winston, Clifford. 2013. “Government Implementation of Large-Scale
com/2015/05/19/google-ventures -leads-15m -investment-in
Projects: Government Failure, Its Sources, and Implications for
-big-data-for-farmers/.
the ACA Website Launch.” Brookings Institution. http://www
Ridley, W. P., Shillito, R. D., Coats, I., Steiner, H-Y, Shawgo, .brookings.edu/research/testimony/2013/12/04-government
M., Phillips, A., Dussold, P., Kurtyka, L., 2004. “Development -implementation-large-scale-projects-winston
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
S E C T I O N 4 — I M P ROVING P UBL IC SE RVICE P ROVISION 431
World Bank. 2014. “Big Data in Action for Development.” http:// World Wide Web Foundation. 2015. Open Data Barometer Global
live.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/Big%20Data%20for%20 Report. 2nd ed. http://barometer.opendataresearch.org/assets
Development%20Report_final%20version.pdf. /downloads/Open%20Data%20Barometer%20-%20Global%20
Report%20-%202nd%20Edition%20-%20PRINT.pdf.
———. 2015. Big Data Solutions: Innovative Approaches to
Overcoming Agricultural Challenges in Developing Nations by You, L., S. Wood, U. Wood-Sichra, and W. Wu. 2014. “Generating
Harnessing the Power of Analytics. Washington, DC: World Bank. Global Crop Distribution Maps: From Census to Grid.” Agricultural
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/26436. Systems 127: 53–60.
World Economic Forum. 2011. “Personal Data: The Emergence of
Zoltner, John. 2015. “The Future Is Here with Sensors and
a New Asset Class.” http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_ITTC
Geospatial Analytics in International Development.” ICTworks.
_PersonalDataNewAsset_Report_2011.pdf.
http://www.ictworks.org/2015/06/15/the-future-is earlier-
———. 2015. “Data-Driven Development Pathways for Progress.” here-with -sensors-and -geospatial-analytics-in-international
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEFUSA _DataDriven -development.
Development_Report2015.pdf.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
G LO S SA RY 433
GLOSSARY
2G, 3G, 4G. Second-, third-, and fourth-generation [developments Chain traceability. Recording and transferring product or process data
in mobile wireless technology]. 2G mobile wireless has basic through a supply chain between various organizations and loca-
functionality: voice and short messaging service (SMS); 3G has tions involved in the provenance of food. See internal traceability.
advanced functionality: general packet radio service; and 4G has
Cloud computing. A model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient,
broadband functionality: long-term evolution (LTE).
on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable
Active infrastructure sharing. The shared use of electronic infra- computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applica-
structure such as network components (for example, access tions, and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released
node switches), radio transmission equipment, and core net- with minimal management effort or service provider interaction.
work software systems. See passive infrastructure sharing. Cloud computing permits organizations without the resources to
invest in extensive computing power to rent this service from a
Aerial photography and orthophoto mosaic. An image (once a
provider and access it remotely. (Based on http://en.wikipedia
photograph, now a digital image) of the ground taken from an
.org/wiki/Cloud_computing?oldid=0, accessed August 2011.)
airplane, helicopter, or radio-controlled aircraft at a given altitude.
Aerial images are presented as an orthophoto mosaic that is an Commercial supply chain. In agriculture, a supply chain in which
alternative to a map. These images are higher in resolution (deci- a private agribusiness is sourcing agricultural produce from
meter) than satellite images, proving useful for those who want farmers or selling products to farmers in accordance with a
more details of the terrain such as crop conditions or land use. profit-seeking business model. Often used interchangeably with
supply chain and value chain.
Agricultural innovation system (AIS). A network of organizations,
enterprises, and individuals focused on bringing new products, Commodity futures exchange. A market in which multiple buyers
new processes, and new forms of organization into economic and sellers trade commodity-linked contracts on the basis of
use, together with the institutions and policies that affect their rules and procedures set out by the exchange. Such exchanges
behavior and performance. typically act as a platform for trade in futures contracts (stan-
dardized contracts for future delivery of a commodity). (Based
Application. A software program or groups of programs enabling
on a definition by the United Nations Conference on Trade and
users to perform particular operations. They consist of systems
Development.)
software (operating systems for managing computer resources,
for example) and programs such as those for data processing, Crowdsourcing. Shorthand for leveraging mass collaboration
word processing, and a multitude of functions that run on systems through ICTs by distributing tasks to or requesting information
software. An IT application for managing dairy cooperatives, for from a large group of people or community (“crowd”) through
example, relies on numerous kinds of applications running on the an open call or message.
operating systems of any number of devices and the Internet. See
Data mediation. The process of using many data sets to produce
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/application.html.
a single, coherent set of information. Data mediation software
Basis risk. In index-based insurance, the imperfect relationship organizes different types of data (such as hourly versus daily) and
between the policy holder’s potential loss and the behavior of the synthesizes different approaches to classification (for example,
index. One farmer’s loss from drought may not perfectly match the use of a different classification vocabulary), helping to medi-
that of all others; some farmers will lose more and some less. ate differences between data sources—particularly those on the
Internet.
Biometric cards. Identification cards with a microchip or barcode
that contains information on the physical characteristics of the Data mining. The extraction of stories or patterns from large
holder. These cards can help prevent fraud and identity theft by amounts of data. Data mining can follow four major patterns:
providing a more accurate means of identification. clustering (discovering groups), classification (forming a struc-
ture), regression (finding a function), and associations (finding
Broadband. Specifically, a signaling method that handles a rela-
relationships).
tively wide band (spectrum) of electromagnetic frequencies.
More generally, the term refers to a telecommunications signal Digital divide. Differences in the capacity to access and use ICTs
or device of greater bandwidth than another standard or usual among individuals, men and women, households, geographic
signal or device (and the broader the band, the greater the areas, socioeconomic groups, ethnic groups, and so forth. The
capacity for traffic). The wider (or broader) the bandwidth of a capacity to access ICTs encompasses physical access as well as
channel, the greater its information-carrying capacity, given the access to the resources and skills to participate effectively as a
same channel quality. (Based on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki “digital citizen.” (Based on the definition in http://en.wikipedia
/Broadband#Internet_access, accessed July 2011.) .org/wiki/Digital_divide, accessed July 2011.)
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
434 GLOS SA RY
Digital orthophoto quads. Digital maps that combine the geometric that allows mobile phones to function smoothly with the fixed
information of a regular map with the detail of an aerial photograph. network infrastructure. FMC seeks to optimize transmission
of all data to and among end users, no matter their locations
Digital soil mapping. The creation and the population of a geo-
or devices. (Based on the definition in http://searchmobile
graphically referenced soil database generated at a given resolu-
computing.techtarget.com/definition/fixed-mobile-convergence,
tion through field and laboratory observation methods, coupled
accessed July 2011.)
with environmental data through quantitative relationships. A
variety of technologies—including satellite, remote sensors, and Genetically modified (GM). A genetically modified organism
cameras—can be used to survey soil and collect data to create (GMO) in which the genetic material has been transformed using
digital soil maps. the techniques of genetic engineering. Examples include cotton
that has been genetically transformed to resist a particular herbi-
Digital terrain model. A digital representation of an area’s terrain on
cide. Many countries strictly control the production, use, export,
a GIS that provides accurate position and elevation coordinates.
and import of GM plants and animals.
Such models can be used to meticulously engineer projects such
as roads, drainage, gravity-fed irrigation works, and detention Geographical information system (GIS). Geographic data col-
reservoirs. At the field level, digital terrain models can monitor lected through computer hardware and software to capture,
and improve areas affected by waterlogging or flooding. store, update, and display all forms of geographically referenced
information by matching coordinates and time to other variables.
e-government. A government’s use of ICT to enhance public services.
Data sets formed by a GIS constitute “layers” of information (for
e-Learning. is the use of electronic technologies to deliver, facili- example, on topography, population size, or agricultural house-
tate, and enhance both formal and informal learning and knowl- hold income) that can be merged and analyzed to establish rela-
edge sharing at any time, in any place, and at any pace. tionships and produce maps or charts that visualize geographical
traits.
Elite capture. When better-off or politically connected farmers cap-
ture public programs. Georeference. To establish the position of something through its
geographical coordinates.
Enterprise resource planning (ERP). Software integrates the many
functions of an enterprise into a single system. It centrally stores Global positioning system (GPS). A satellite-based navigation
many kinds of organizational data and manages data transmis- system with three basic components: satellites that orbit the
sion and use between departments within the organization and Earth, control and monitoring stations on the Earth, and the GPS
external partners, such as suppliers. ERP is more of a methodol- receivers owned by users. GPS receivers pick up signals from
ogy than a piece of software, although it does incorporate sev- the satellites, including precise orbital information (latitude, lon-
eral software applications under a single, integrated interface. gitude, and ellipsoidal GPS altitude) of a given object or location,
as well as the time.
e-readiness. The ability to use ICT to develop or improve one’s
economy or situation through proper preparation. ICT. Information and communication technology.
Farmer-led documentation (FLD). A process in which local communi- Index-based insurance. Insurance that substitutes individual loss
ties take the lead role in the documentation process. The results are assessments with an indicator that is easy to measure (such
used by community members for learning within the community as weather) as a proxy for the loss. Weather indices have been
(internal learning); exchange between communities (horizontal shar- used in insurance products protecting against drought and loss
ing); and cooperation between communities, development agents, of inputs. Vegetation has been used in livestock insurance prod-
and policymakers (vertical sharing). See www.prolinnova.net/fld.php. ucts as an indicator of livestock losses. See also weather-based
index insurance and basis risk.
Feature phones. A modern low-end phone that is not a smartphone.
Feature phones do not run a mobile operating system like smart- Infomediary. An infomediary works as a personal agent on behalf of
phones but run on specialized software enabling them to access consumers to help them take control over information gathered
various media formats in addition to offering basic voice and about them for use by marketers and advertisers. (Based on http://
SMS functionality. They substitute for multiple ICT devices that en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infomediary, accessed September 2011.)
are also available as stand-alone appliances (digital camera, voice Internal traceability. Data recorded within an organization or geo-
recorder, flashlight, radio, and MP3 player). Rural consumers pre- graphic location to track a product or process. See chain traceability.
fer the combined devices because of their affordability. (Based on
Laser scanning, or light detection and ranging (LiDAR). An active
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_phone, accessed July 2011.)
airborne sensor using a set of laser beams to measure distance
Financial inclusion. The delivery of affordable financial services to from an aircraft to features on the ground. Airplanes and helicop-
disadvantaged and low-income segments of society. Research ters can be used for laser scanning. The data from laser scanning
on financial exclusion and its direct correlation with poverty are three-dimensional at very high accuracy, and they also allow
has made the availability of banking and payment services to ground elevation under the tree canopy to be measured.
the entire population without discrimination a prime objective
Market intelligence. Information relevant to the markets that a
of public policy. (Based on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial
producer (or company) wishes to reach, which is gathered and
_inclusion, accessed July 2011.)
analyzed specifically for making strategic decisions that will help
Fixed-mobile convergence. The increasingly seamless connectiv- to maximize profits in relation to market opportunities, market
ity between fixed and wireless telecommunications networks, penetration, and market development. Market intelligence is
devices, and applications. Also refers to any physical network necessary when entering a new market (foreign or domestic).
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E
G LO S SA RY 435
Mobile application. Software on a portable device (such as a (3) animal or plant life from pests, diseases, and disease-causing
mobile phone handset, personal digital assistant, or tablet com- organisms; and (4) a country from other damage caused by the
puter) that enables a user to carry out one or more specific tasks entry, establishment, or spread of pests. Such measures include
that are not directly related to the operation of the device itself. national control of contaminants, pests, and diseases (vaccina-
Examples include the ability to access specific information (for tion programs, limits on pesticide residues in food) as well as
instance, via a website), make payments and other transactions, international controls to prevent their inadvertent spread (for
play games, and send messages. example, the rejection of insect-infested food shipments that
pose a risk to domestic food production).
Nanotechnology. The ability to engineer new attributes by control-
ling features at or around the scale of a nanometer (one-billionth Satellite imagery. An image of Earth taken from satellites in orbit.
of a meter, or about 1/80,000 the width of a human hair). Satellite imagery can be spatial (size of surface area); spectral
(wavelength interval); temporal (amount of time); and radiomet-
Passive infrastructure sharing. The sharing of nonelectronic
ric (levels of brightness). Each type of images captures a variety
infrastructure, equipment, and services at mobile network base
of variables about a given area of varying size. The resolution (in
stations, including the site space, buildings, towers, masts, and
meters) of these images depends on the satellite system used
antennas; power supply, back-up batteries, and generators;
and its distance from Earth; weather can interfere mainly with
security; and maintenance.
satellite systems utilizing visible wavelengths of light.
Precision farming (precision agriculture). Farming based on observ-
Side-selling. A farmer sells produce to a buyer other than the
ing and responding to variations within a field detected through
agreed-on buyer. Farmers may fail to honor contracts with buy-
ICTs, such as satellite imagery. Precision farming also makes use
ers for a number of reasons (buyers pay late, or prices in the
of GPS, GIS, and variable rate technology to match practices more
local market are higher than the original price agreed on with the
closely to the needs of crops, soils, animals, or fisheries.
buyer, for example).
Primary wholesale market. A market large enough to dominate trade
Smartcard. A pocket-sized (usually plastic) card with embedded
in some goods over a large area. (Based on http://www.merriam
integrated circuits containing volatile memory and microproces-
-webster.com/dictionary/primary%20market, accessed July 2011.)
sor components. They include credit cards, identification cards,
Radio-frequency identification (RFID). Uses radio waves to and the SIM cards used with mobile phones. As discussed in
transfer data between a reader and an electronic tag attached this sourcebook, one of their most influential roles has been to
to a product, animal, or person for identification and tracking. extend the use of mobile phones in financial transactions such
The technology uses hardware (readers) and tags (also known as purchases of subsidized inputs, conditional cash transfers,
as labels) as well as software. Most tags contain at least two agricultural credit, and agricultural information services. (Based
parts: one is an integrated circuit for storing and processing on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SmartCard#Cryptographic_smart
information, and the other is an antenna for receiving and trans- _cards, accessed July 2011.)
mitting the signal. (Based on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio
Smartphone. A high-end mobile phone that offers more advanced
-frequency_identification, accessed July 2011.)
computing ability and connectivity than a contemporary feature
Risk. Imperfect knowledge where the probabilities are known. phone. A smartphone runs a complete mobile operating system
Traditional risks to agriculture in developing countries include and combines the functions of a personal digital assistant (PDA)
inclement weather, pests, disease, outbreaks, fire, theft, and a mobile phone. Today’s models typically serve as portable
and conflict. Newer risks include commodity and input price media players and camera phones with high-resolution touch-
volatility. Risks can be idiosyncratic—affecting only individual screen, global positioning system (GPS) navigation, Wi-Fi and
farms or firms—or covariate, affecting many farms and firms mobile broadband access. (Based on http://en.wikipedia.org
simultaneously. /wiki/Smartphone, accessed July 2011.)
Risk coping. Actions that help the victims of a risky event (such as a SMS (short messaging service). A service to send text mes-
drought, flood, or pest epidemic) cope with the losses it causes. sages via mobile or fixed-line phones, usually limited to about
They include government assistance to farmers, debt restructur- 160 characters.
ing, and remittances.
Soil carbon sequestration. Transferring carbon dioxide from the
Risk mitigation. Actions that prevent events from occurring, limit atmosphere into the soil through crop residues and other organic
their occurrence, or reduce the severity of the resulting losses solids (like mulch), is one technique to restore carbon levels in
(for example, pest and disease management strategies). soils.
Risk transfer. Actions that transfer risk to a willing third party, at Soil organic carbon. Carbon held within the soil as a result of the
a cost. Financial transfer mechanisms trigger compensation or decay of once-living plants and animals. The amount of carbon
reduce losses generated by a given risk, and they can include within the soil is used as a measure of soil organic matter; soils
insurance, reinsurance, and financial hedging tools. with high levels of organic matter are better at holding water and
contain more nutrients.
Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) protection. Measures, includ-
ing regulations and agreements, to protect: (1) human or animal Spatial modeling (among other models). Closely related to spa-
health from risk arising from additives, contaminants, toxins, or tial analysis or statistics, models are an attempt to simulate real-
disease organisms in food, drink, and feedstuffs; (2) human life world conditions and explore systems using their geographic,
from risks associated with diseases carried by plants or animals; geometric, or topological properties.
I C T I N AG R I C U LT U RE
436 GLOS SA RY
Spectrum rights. Rights to specific parts of the radio spectrum communications networks somewhere, at a public place.
used for radio transmission technologies and applications. The (Generally, the goal is to have at least one point of access per
radio spectrum is typically regulated by governments, and in settlement over a certain population size.) As a policy objec-
some cases is sold or licensed to operators of private radio trans- tive, UA is used primarily in developing countries, which seek
mission systems (for example, cellular telephone operators or to expand geographic access to ICTs by the population at large,
broadcast television stations). (Based on http://en.wikipedia.org often for the very first time. UA obligations provide for a mini-
/wiki/Radio_spectrum#Broadcasting, accessed July 2011.) mum level of coverage, especially of remote communities.
Subscriber identity module (SIM). An integrated circuit that securely Universal service (US). A concept underpinning the definition of
stores the service-subscriber key used to identify a subscriber on access to ICTs, US occurs when every individual or household
mobile devices (such as mobile phones and computers). A SIM is can have service from communications networks, accessing ser-
held on a removable SIM card, which can be transferred between vices privately at home or increasingly through portable wireless
different mobile devices. (Based on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki devices. US focuses on upgrading and extending communication
/Subscriber_Identity_Module, accessed October 2011.) networks so that a minimum level of service is delivered, even
in the least accessible areas. As a policy objective, US is used
Supply chain. The set of buy-sell interactions as goods flow from
primarily in developed countries and generally pursued by impos-
raw materials through production to the final retailer where con-
ing universal service obligations on network operators. For some
sumers can buy them. Often used interchangeably with com-
services, a goal of US is too ambitious at present in a develop-
mercial supply chain and value chain.
ing country, because the services must be affordable as well as
Supply-chain management (SCM systems). Software running on available. Goals may be cast in terms of the proportion of the
networked computers and handheld devices to perform some or all population that can afford private service.
of the following functions: store information about suppliers; trans-
Userability. The degree to which an ICT application is user friendly—
mit an order to the supplier (in an agricultural supply chain, often
a critical aspect of successful ICT implementation.
the farmer); monitor production and quality; transfer payments; and
track goods from the farm gate to the warehouse or retailer. Value chain. The whole ecosystem of players involved in producing
and marketing an article, from the retailer back to the producer.
Technological neutrality. A leading regulatory policy principle for
Often used interchangeably with commercial supply chain and
ensuring the affordability of ICTs, technology neutrality is the
supply chain.
principle of refraining from specifying technology requirements
within telecommunications licenses. Variable rate technology. Technology enabling farmers to vary the rate
of an input applied to a crop. This technology uses a variable rate
Telecenter. A public place where people can use digital technolo-
control system in combination with application equipment to supply
gies (computers, the Internet, even mobile phones) to gather
inputs at the precise time and/or place where they are required.
information, create, learn, and communicate with others. Some
Components of the technology include a computer, software, dif-
centers are established specifically for people to learn these
ferential GPS receiver, and controller. See precision farming.
essential digital skills; others simply operate profit. But telecen-
ters often help to support community, economic, educational, Weather-based index insurance. Insurance that substitutes an
and social development—reducing isolation, bridging the digital indicator that is easy to measure for individual loss assessments
divide, and creating economic opportunities. (Based on http:// (in this case, weather) as a proxy for the loss. Weather events
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecenter, accessed July 2011). or visible vegetation have served as typical indicators. This
practice reduces the cost of assessing damage and problems
Traceability (product tracing system). The information system
of adverse selection, because the insured cannot influence the
necessary to provide the history of a product or a process from
index or the loss assessment.
origin to point of final sale. Traceability is used in the food sec-
tor primarily for food safety, but agrifood and nonfood sectors Web 2.0. Web 2.0 sites (unlike websites where users passively
such as forestry and textiles have instituted traceability require- view content) incorporate applications that facilitate participatory
ments for product identification, differentiation, and historical information sharing, interoperability, user-centered design, and
monitoring. For food products, traceability systems involve the collaboration through the Internet. Examples include social net-
unique identification of products and the documentation of their working sites, blogs, wikis, video sharing sites, and hosted ser-
transformation through the chain of custody to facilitate supply vices. (Based on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0, accessed
chain tracking, management, and detection of possible sources September 2011.)
of failure in food safety or quality.
WiFi. Wireless local area network that allows various devices to
Uncertainty. Imperfect knowledge, where the probabilities are not connect to the Internet remotely.
known. Many losses expected from risks inherent in modern
Wireless sensor network. A group of small sensing devices, or
agrifood systems are related to uncertain events for which there
nodes, that capture data in a given location and send it to a
are no known probabilities.
base station in the network, which transmits the data to a cen-
Universal access (UA). (also termed “public,” “community,” tral computer that performs analyses and extracts meaningful
or “shared” access) occurs when everyone can access information.
ICT IN AGR IC ULTUR E