'op -I NUMBjiERl 211 IntegratedNMa rtage,.'c1ment and Pesticide Regulation in Developing Asia Uwe-Carsten Wiebers _ _iiL = = === = .. = . = .=~~~~~R l !< 0 i' t tig,5f t ' n 0$t; w P o g t \~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I 7 rf,',''si,i' { {§ ,. I, ,f\()1#\ rf< ' !' 1 1t. '\L. '4]'S d ' ;' 21 I - - - k . e S; W . . S, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~RI ; g Intgrted ef.ft M-lttag3nzrl I and Pestifcide Regu:ll atioll ^ -~~~~~~0 ; nD vlpigA ia0 ,-,, 'iSl: ,~~~~ES ,llljl .... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ TU pXl9 U eCrtnVibr RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS No. 145 Ivanek, Nullv, and I lolcer. Alnatfctlurinig lelecoininuiiciwtions lEquipment in NeY'l du slluS/rialiizifi Counit rins: 7The EfftZ of Teeli,nlo..gical Proq..rss No. 146 Dejeneand O1ivares, hilegrathitn uiron mtrienial Issues i ni o a Slrite..i/forrSuisti,ialte 1Agriciltitrnil DJevelopineiTh: Te Cas.e- (if M lPiiIlJifte No. 147 The World Bank/UlNDP/CEC/lA0C lis.heri. anttdAquiaculinre Research Capabilities and Needs in Asia: Siluies of India, Tlailand', Malaysia, Indonesia tile Philippintes. nd tiheASEAN Region, No. 148 lhe World Bank/!UNDP/CEC/FAO0 Fisheries and Aquiaciatiire Research Capabilities and Needs in I,athin America: Studies of Uruguay, AryNetiila, Chile. Ecuador. aiid Perul No. 1419 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FA0, Fi.shzeries and Aquaciltlire Research, Capabilities and Needs in Afi-ica: Studies of Kenya, Mulazvi. Mozau:lbiqliu Ziniabnl.-t, Matritania, Morocco. and Senegal Noi. 150 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Interialiional Cxoperation in Fisheries Research No. 151 Thle World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Tropical Aqnacultitire Development: Research Needs No. 152 The World Bank/UN DP/CEC/FAO, Snmial-Scale Fisheries: Research Needs No. 153 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Siiall Pela,gic Fish, Utilization: Research Needs No. 154 Envirronment Department, Eniv'ironmnital Assessment Sou rceblok, vol. III: Guiidelines for Environimenial Assesswent rf Energy aid Industry Projects No. 155 Beot and Weigel, Prongranms in Inidustrial Countries to Promoti Foreign Direct InIv'estnment ill Developitig Co utntries No. 156 De Gevndt, Managing Health Expenditures iiiider Nalional Health Insurance: The Case of Korea No. 157 Critchlev, Reij, and Seznec, WVater Ha rvesiingfor Pla,it Prodiuctioi, vol. 11: Case St u,dies anAd Conclusions for Suib-Saiharai Africa No. 158 Hav and Paul, Regulation annd Taxation of Cononercial BanksLduring tie Internatioinal Debt Crisis No.J 159 Liese, Sachdeva, and Cochrane, Organizing 'nd Managing Tropical Disease Coiitrol Pro gramns: Lessons tf Success No. 160 Boner and Krueger, The Basics of Ant itrutst Policy: A Review of Ten Nationis and the Euiropean Comnimunities No. 161 Riverson and Carapetis, Intermediate Meais of Transport in Suib-Siaarani Africa: Its Poteential for Improving Rutral Travel aid Transport No. 162 Replogle, Non l-Motorized VehiicleCs inJ Asiani Cit ies No. 163 Shilling, editor, Btyond Syndicated Loans: Sources of Creditfor Developing Countries No. 164 Schwartz and Kampen, Agricultural Extensioni in East Africa No. 165 Kellaghan and Greaney, Using Exaninati',is to Impropte Educationt: A Study in Fourteetn African Countries No3. 166 Ahmad and Kutcher, Irrigatio,i Planning w.itih Environimental Considerations: A Case Stidy of Paidstan's Ii duis Basin No. 167 Liese, Sachdeva, and Cochrane, Organizing and Mainging Tropical Disease Control Progiramls: Case Studies No. 16S Barlow, McNelis, and Derrick, Solar Puzmping: An Initrodtiction anid Update on the Technology. Performance, Costs aid Economics No. 169 Westoff, Age at Marriage, Age at First BirthIr and Fertiity in Africa No. 170 Sung and TrEoia, Developments in Debt Conversion Programs amid Conversion Activpities- No. 171 Brown and Nooter, Succts.csful Snmall-Scale Irrikation in the Saihel No. 172 Thomas and Shaw, Issues in tIhe Devielopimmenlt Qf Mullti,grade Schools No. 173 Bvrnes, Water Users Association in World Bank--Assisted Irrigation Projects int Pakistan No. 174 Constant and Sheldrick, World Nitrovepi Survey (List continues on the inside back cover) WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 211 ASIA TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT SERIES Integrated Pest Management and Pesticide Regulation in Developing Asia Uwe-Carsten Wiebers The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright © 1993 The Intemational Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing December 1993 Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. Any maps that accompany the text have been prepared solely for the convenience of readers; the designations and presentation of material in them do not impiLy the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank, its affiliates, or its Board or member countries concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of the authorities thereof or concerning the delimitation of its boundaries or its national affiliation. The material in this publication is copynghted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to the Office of the Pubiisher at the address shown in the copyrigbht notice above. The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, when the reproduction is for noncommercial purposes, without asldng a fee. Permission to copy portions for classroom use is granted through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., Suite 910,222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, USA. The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications, which contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors, and countries and regions. ihe latest edition is available free of charge from th.e Distribution Unit, Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, US.A., or from Publications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'Idna, 75116 Paris, France. ISSN: 0253-7494 Uwe-Carsten Wiebers is a graduate of the University of California at Berkeley. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wiebers, Uwe-Carsten, 1963- Integrated pest management and pesticide regulation in developing Asia / Uwe-Carsten Wiebers. p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper, ISSN 0253-7494; 211. Asia Technical Department series) Includes bibliographical rfrences (p. ). ISBN 0-8213-2504-3 1. Pests-Integrated control-Asia. 2. Pests-Integrated control- Developing countries. 3. Pesticides-Government policy-Asia. 4. Pesticides-Goverrunent policy-Developing countries. 5. Pesticides-Environmental aspects-Asia. 6. Pesticides- Environmental aspects-Developing countries. I. Title. IL Series: World Bank technical paper; no. 211. IML Series: World Bank technical paper. Asia Technical Department senes. 5B950.3.A78W45 1993 632.9'095-dc2O 93-14149 CIP - iii - FOgBEUORD The Asia Technical Departm$nt has from time to time invited talented graduate students to prepare technical papers as part of their summer internship with the Bank. In this case, Uwe-Carsten Viebers, a graduate from the University of California, has extended his wide knowledge of pesticide use and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices to a review of the current status in Asia of pesticide regulation and IPM practices. Pest control is one of the key areas that effect the profitability of farming. It is therefore an important topic to farmers, environmental planners and regulators, and this review should provide valuable information to policy makers and project designers in Asia and elsewhere. Mr. Wiebers' conclusions are both enlightening and practical. Importantly, he points out that IPM, to be successful, is a knowledge intensive technology which means that users involved in pest control require detailed training in the field, and that extension services may well have to change the way that they operate. There are some useful appendices that provide a valuable compendium of current IPN state of the art in Asian countries. Daniel Ritchie Director Asia Technical Department - v - ABSTRACT This paper describes the technical aspects of Integrated Pest Management in the regulatory, economic, and institutional context of developing Asian countries. Following the introduction, the author explains Asia's plant protection policies and deficiencies and then turns the reader's attention to the regulation efforts for pesticides in Asia. The technical systems are then explored, as well as some of the economic and environmental aspects, and there is a discussion of pest management technology development and implementation. The author has attached a bibliography and glossary behind the conclusion. The appendix section includes a discussion about how California's pesticide regulation affects the user. There is also a detailed chart showing pesticide markets and regulation for twelve Asian countries and another table which lists the techniques and effects (by crop) of IPM in Asia. The last appendix debates the question of whether the adoption of IPM always increases welfare or not. The success and effectiveness of IPM depends on whether Asia growers expect that IPM practices will increase net benefits and if they are convinced of the advantages of implementing these practices. Developing and implementing training programs and specific management programs for different crops should then be high priorities. IPM programs will depend on chemical pesticides, but IPM technology will require a different approach to the application of them than the green revolution technology did. - vi - ACRONYMS BPH Brown Planthopper DBN Diamondback Moth ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific FADINAP Fertilizer Advisory, Development and Information Network for Asia and the Pacific FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GIFAP International Association of Pesticide Manufacturers GLH Green Leafhopper GTZ German Agency for Technical Cooperation (Gesellschaft fhr Technische Zusasmenarbeit) IOCU International Organization of Consumer Unions IPM Integrated Pest Management IRRI International Rice Research Institute kg kilogram PAN Pesticide Action Network Rp Rupiah UNEP United Nations Environmental Program USAID U.S. Agency for International Development USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency WBPH Whitebacked Planthopper - vii - TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 II. PLANT PROTECTION POLICIES AND DEFICIENCIES IN ASIA . . . . . . . . . . 2 Plant Protection Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Deficiencies in Plant Protection in the Region . . . . . . . . . . . 3 III. REGULATORY EFFORTS CONCERNING PESTICIDES IN ASIA . . . . . . . . . . 6 IV. TECHNICAL SYSTEMS OF PEST MANAGEMENT IN ASIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 The Range of Pest Nanagement Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Systems of Integrated Pest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1L Pest Management in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 V. SOME ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF PEST MANAGEMENT IN ASIA . . 20 Costs and Benefits of Pest Management at the Farm Level . . . . . . . 20 Aspects of Pest Management Policies at the National Level . . . . . . 28 VI. DEVELOPNENT AND IPLEMENTATION OF PEST MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY . . . . . 31 VII. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 BIBIIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .4 APPENDICES Appendix 1 Pesticide Use Regulation: Summary of Pesticide Regulation Affecting the Grower in California. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Appendix 2 Pesticide Markets and Pesticide Regulation in Tweive Asian Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Appendiz 3 Techniques and Effects of IPM in Asia . . .53 Appendix 4 Does the Adoption of IPN Always Increase Welfare? . . . . . . . 72 - viii - TABLES Table 1 Estimated Yield Loss or Yield Protection by Pesticide Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Table 2 Pesticide Poisoning and Deaths in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Table 3 Fertilizer and Pesticide Costs As Total Cash Costs of Rice Production In Selected Asian Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Table 4 Empirical IPH Evaluation Studies In the U.S., 1966-85 .... 27 Table 5 Increases in Net Return from Threshold Treatments in Rice . 28 FIGURES Figure 1 IPh and Pesticide Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Figure 2 Pest Management Systems and Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Figure 3 Costs of Pesticide Use .................... . 23 I. INTRODUCTION The "green revolution technology package" in developing Asia included pesticides as a standard, albeit minor, item. Rather than a tool to cure diseased or infested crops, pesticides often were viewed as an agricultural input designed to fully control the crop's insect environment. However, attempts to control the brown planthopper in Indonesian rice, in caterpillars in Malayan oil palm and in cotton in Andrah Pradesh, India, have shown that scheduled use of broad-spectrum insecticides fails to fully control and suppress insect populations in the field. In fact, the heavy use of insecticides has caused massive pest outbreaks and severe crop losses. Agrochemical pesticides are a modern, nonrobust technology. Incorrect use may result not only in actual yield loss caused, for instance, by outbreaks of secondary pests, but also in health and environmental damages. On the other hand, pesticides are often necessary to protect crops from loss or dAmage by insects, and if properly used, modern pesticides may be less hazardous than other agricultural practices. Two obstacles that limit the use of modern selective insecticides in Asia, particularly Southeast Asia, are the tropical and subtropical climatic conditions and the twelve-month cropping patterns. These factors make it possible for all insect life stages to appear simultaneously. Yield damages thus are substantial, ranging from 30% to 40% on average; total loss is not uncommon. However, although pests are considered a major, if not the main constraint to increased crop productivity, such severe yield damages are seldom a permanent threat requiring continued and scheduled use of pesticides as insurance against income loss. Rather, the task is to design a cropping system or to create a productive ecosystem that minimizes growers' economic, health and environmental risks. This requires a good understanding of the agroecosystem--the interaction of climatic and other site conditions with the crop and its insect, fungi and other plant populations. Pesticides should function as an instrument of last resort--comparable to pharmaceuticals in human health care. In the United States, California has legislated this idea, requiring an official recommendation for the application of an agrochemical pesticide and a report of each application (Appendix 1). This system actually goes beyond the system of prescription of pharmaceuticals, which does not follow up on use of medication. Such strict regulatory measures may be difficult to enforce in developing countries. Nevertheless, regulation is an important instrument to limit unacceptable health and environmental risks. Within the limits of agricultural production and pest control given by regulation, training growers in farming and pest management practices, generally called "integrated pest management" (IPM), is aimed at decreasing economic and environmental risks. Integrated pest management was developed in the 1960s but continues to face the criticism of being an immature innovation. This is due in part to differences of definition and in part to a question of the transparency of its results. This paper describes the technical aspects of IPM in the regulatory, economic and institutional context of developing Asian countries. UI. PLANT PROTECTION POLICIES AND DEFICIENCIES IN ASIA Plant Protection Policies Agriculture is still the most important sector of most economies in Asia, and agricultural policies continue to focus on increasing productivity. National governments both regulate and invest their financial resources in the agricultural sector to maximize benefits to growers and consumers. Regulations can affect input and output markets as well as agricultural production itself; investments may be in research and development, education, training and extension in addition to agricultural markets, production and enforcement. Regulation of and investment in pest management take several forms. (a) Regulation of Pesticide Markets and Pesticide Use (i) Pesticide markets are controlled by pesticide production, import restrictions and registration procedures. Requirements for registration include information about product quality, toxicology, efficacy (based on trials of two to three years), residues in harvested products, environmental effects, labelling, packaging, advertising, handling and storage. Pesticide distribution and prices can be regulated and controlled through taxation or subsidization. (ii) Pesticide use can be restricted by implementing registration procedures with restrictions governing pesticide application to specific crops and growth stages, type of application, dose rate, site, plant-back period and workers' reentry into the field. Use of a pesticide can be prohibited by cancelling its registration and withdrawing the product from the market or by prohibiting its import. Making decisions about pesticide use and application may be restricted to institutions other than those representing growers. (b) Investments In the Field of Pest Management (i) Investments are made in research and development of pest management techniques that can substitute for chemical pesticides or make their use safer to field workers, consumers and the environment while maintaining an optimal allocation of production inputs. Together, these methods are summarized referred to as Integrated pest management. (ii) Investments also are made in the education and interactive training of growers and pesticide applicators to generate and diffuse pest management technology improvements. Such investments may involve an agricultural school system, training programs, extension services and subsidizing private consulting firms. (iii) Regulating pesticide markets and use also requires investments, but this aspect is not a focus of this paper. To the grower, the concepts of (1) pesticide regulation and (2) invcstment in research, development and education in pest management have different characteristics and effects or, agricultural production. On the other hand, pesticide regulation restricts growers' options of pest management practices without offering alternatives to protect the crop against pest damages. Thus, from the farmer's point of view regulation imposes costs by restricting the optimal choice of production inputs. On the other hand, investments in research, development and education supply the grower with pest management technologies and increase his or her choice of pest management inputs. These two policies might seem to the grower to be opposite in character, but there are strong linkages between them because regulation can either foster or inhibit the development &aid adoption of pest management technology. For instance, restricting the registration of broad-spectrum insecticides like organochlorines may promote monitoring insect populations in the field for carefully timed pesticide application. Cancelling their registration may force the adoption of alternative control measures. Also, in highly regulated markets in developed countries, withdrawing the registration of certain pesticides--which might be essential to an effective IPM program--effectively stops development of that IPM program. Economic policies also play a major role in adoption of IPM. For example, subsidized pesticide prices distort the opportunity costs of the various pest control measures and often make the use of agrochemicals preferable to nonchemical measures. In another instance, the grower's cost for scheduled chemical applications is lower than the opportunity cost of time spent on field monitoring that would permit chemical applications only at economic threshold levels. Plant protection policy thus is about pesticide regulation on a macroeconomic scale and about development of integrated pest management on a microeconomic scale. In addition, it is important to consider the interaction of different policy strategies to efficiently develop an economically and environmentally sound pest management and production system. Figure 1 illustrates some of these relationships. Deficiencies in Plant Protection in the Region Problems of plant protection in the region can be summarized as follows (Amaritsut and others 1988): (a) Knowledge of pests and natural enemies is generally poor with the exception of some common rice insect pests. Pest damage identification is comonly incorrect; many farmers are attempting to control beneficial insects. (b) Chemical pesticides are usually the only means of commercial pest control. Availability and knowledge of nonchemical control agents is limited or unknown. In most countries, chemical pesticides are still subsidized, and control alternatives or training in the use of chemicals is much less promoted than sales of chemical products. Figure 1: IPM and Pesticide Regulation PEST MANAGEMENT POLICY 1PM ISIUIN EILTO UNIVERSITiES MINISTRIES OF CI (_RESEARCH INSTITUTAGRICULTURE, LEGISLATION HEALTH. OR l___________________ ENVIRONMENT w ; r ~~UNIVERSITIES. < ~~~~INSTITUTES,__ ~~~~~~SUBSIDIZED FIRMS. TEVELOPG AGRO-CHEMICAL GREEN POLICE, DEVELOPMENTINDUSTRIES. CUSTOMS et c. _ TNINT'NATIONAL P R ORM EXTENSION PROGRAMS, - GROCONSULTING FIRMS.WERS. MANUFACTURERS, FORMULATORS, IMPORTERS, =G) VDISTRIBUTORS. (c) Knowledge of pesticide groups and how to control pest resistance is lacking. Farmers often use only one type of chemical for all pests of all crops. (d) Use of chronic toxicity pesticides (organochlorines) that are registered for agricultural use or that have 'leaked in" from other uses such as malaria or termite control is not uncommon. (e) Use of acute toxicity pesticides by untrained farmers or applicators leads inevitably to poisoning incidents. (f) Pesticides are misused and/or overused causing excessive environmental damage, reduced effectiveness, excessive residues in harvested crops and resistance problems. Pesticides are often used at much higher or much lower rates than recommended by the manufacturer. Pesticide misuse also includes such practices as spraying without adequate protective clothing, infringement of harvest intervals and addition of pesticides to livestock rations for parasite control. (g) Poor application technology and techniques lead to the same problems as overuse and misuse. Poor application equipment results in poor coverage and inadequate applicator safety. (h) Toxicological laboratories to test harvested crops for pesticide residues are in short supply. (i) False product labelling, unsafe packaging in bottles, product adulteration and storage and transportation of pesticides in with food products are common problems. III. REGULATORY EFFORTS CONCERNING PESTICIDES IN ASIA Several problems of plant protection listed above are closely related to the regulation of pesticides. It is not very difficult to link the poisoning of a rice grower in Thailand by a highly toxic imported pesticide with the extent to which OECD members, for instance, follow their agreements about exporting these products. The link between national price policies in the agricultural sector for input products such as pesticides and growers' willingness to use selective and less toxic pesticides is equally clear. This section briefly describes the status and some trends of pesticide regulation in Asia. It draws on Oudejans' and Johnson's papers published in News in Brief 1990, both recommended for further reading. The use of pesticides demands a well-developed social infrastructure that is able to respond adequately and efficiently to the problems and risks involved. That the interests of several groups in the production and distribution sector are at stake calls for a strongly developed sense of responsibility on the part of all parties concerned and for a strong government presence. It is the responsibility of national authorities and international organizations to create the conditions for rational and safe pesticide use as well as for the diffusion of IPM technology. Countries in the Asia and Pacific region have introduced or are in the process of introducing the necessary legislation for regulating pesticides. Appendix 2 gives an overview of pesticide legislation, including regulation and its efficacy, for twelve Asian countries. Most countries adopted the international guidelines on the use of pesticides established by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Safe Use of Pesticides. Although it is the responsibility of the government to set the standards of plant protection policies, effective implementation is only possible if all parties involved, especially the private sector, share this responsibility. The suppliers of pesticides are primarily responsible for developing appropriate pesticide products and application equipment, for distributing them effectively and for making available adequate advice on safe management and effective use of those products and apparatus. A second group sharing the responsibility is pesticide users, including producers of agricultural products, professional applicators, distributors of agricultural products (e.g., grain storage operations), farmers' organizations, processing industries and individual households. A third group of highly critical nongovernment organizations is of increasing importance in Asia. They are giving voice to growing public concern about the excessive use of pesticides. FAO distributed a questionnaire to all member goverrments in the Asia and the Pacific region in December 1986 about the status of pesticide regulation. On the basis of their responses these countries can be considered importers of pesticides, although there is some local manufacturing and formulation. About 65% of the countries report that they observe the FAO code; about 15% reported that pesticide use is not regulated. However, this figure is misleading--a substantial percentage of countries also reported the absence of pesticide registration schemes and pesticide control legislation. Thus, more than 30% reported that there were no limitations on availability and/or that they were unable to enforce restrictions on highly toxic pesticide-.. About 75% also reported inadequate resources for enforcement. Some reported that this situation could be improved by legislation focusing on funding decisions or by levying fees to support the program. More than 40% of the countries reported unsatisfactory conditions in a variety of areas such as (a) follow-up of products by traders to users, (b) review of pesticides marketed and feedback on them, and (c) banning of unsafe products by industry. Although this shows that there is a need for the establishment of regulating authorities, it does not imply that all countries require the same level of regulation. Of particular interest among the responses is the reported nonreceipt of expert notices (i.e., the principle of "prior informed consent," PIC-/) for banned or severely restricted pesticides. Procedures for such notification were adopted by the OECD and UNEP in the early 1980s and in the FAO Code in 1985. A recent review by the OECD indicated that only a few OECD countries are actually implementing these procedures. It appears that exporting countries require to take significant steps in their implementation of the notification procedures of internationally agreed documents. Another interesting result of the FAO questionnaire is that despite the emphasis on IPK by international technical institutions, lending institutions and donor agencies for the recipients of such programs, IPM does not appear to be a major effort. The reported problems in labelling, packaging and advertising also are indicative of the need for increased regulation of pesticides in the region. It appears from responses that the presence of regulatory programs do lead to more satisfactory labelling and packaging of pesticides, but even countries with developed regulatory programs do not seem to be more satisfied with advertising than are those with less sophisticated or even no pesticide legislation. As shown in Appendix 2, most countries in the region are at some stage of establishing, changing or implementing legislation and registration procedures. Countries lacking basic laws and regulations are developing them, while those with more advanced pesticide regulation, such as the Philippines and Malaysia, are expanding programs into areas of worker protection and monitoring. It appears likely that all countries in the region will have basic regulatory structures in place in the next few years. Legislation and regulation, however, is only as good as its enforcement, which is a major constraint in most of the countries of the region. Points of control are places of manufacture, formulation, importation, distribution and use of pesticides and markets of agricultural products. High levels of technical skills and decentralized regulating agencies and, thus, considerable financial resources are required. Developed countries like Germany, for 1. PIC refers to those hazardous pestieldes that are baned or sewrely restrLeted in ezporting countrLes, and that may not be exported wlthout first notifyLng importing countrLes of thr hlth and environental hazards, and seokiln coansent that eport my take place. For a short reviev and discussLoc of PIC for Asia see also (N JvsmSn Brief 1g00, No. 2). instance, formed special police forces (known as 'green police" because of their green uniforms and motor bikes) to monitor the distribution, storage, use and disposal of pesticides and other environmentally hazardous products or activ'ities. These highly mobile forces monitor the field, but also inform growers, distributors, and so forth about existing and new legislation and regulations. An example of such a highly regulated pesticide market is California; the key points of this legislation as it affects growers is summarized in Appendix 1. Another principal problem the questionnaire identified is the lack of analytical capability to ensure the quality of pesticides marketed in the region. It is unlikely that most of these countries can easily establish and operate such laboratories. It appears that countries in the region will be trying to reduce the use of pesticides that fall under the WHO Hazard Category lAaf and lB (there are four categories for all pesticides). Mostly because there are significant resource requirements for training large numbers of growers, some countries are banning the use of very hazardous pesticides as and when less hazardous formulations become available. But the most significant force behind the change is that the countries themselves realize that pesticides need more regulation as use increases, as toxicity levels of products increases and as the patents of imported pesticides expire. Other stimuli come from international organizations including FAO, the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank, the International Association of Pesticide Manufacturers (GIFAP) and the Pesticide Action Network/International Organization of Consumer Unions (PAN/IOCU). The FAO is conducting a multiyear program to implement the Code of Conduct in Asia and the Pacific. This project, which is funded by the government of Japan, offers technical assistance and training to individual countries, assisting them in drafting laws and regulations and upgrading registration and postregistration activities. Bilateral agencies such as the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) provide assistance for activities that strengthen regulatory capability. An example is the Malaysian-German Pesticide Project that has helped develop regulatory procedures and has provided in-country and foreign training for Malaysian regulators. Despite this progress, it is generally agreed by the countries in the region that much more needs to be done in the regulation of pesticides. However, implementing and enforcing regulations will remain a limiting factor. Thus, education of growers in the safe and effective use of pesticides and in alternative means of pest management should be given equally important emphasis. 2. Ixiqle. of cLas IA and 13 ace aldicazb, captafol, fonophos, parathion, aldrln, carbofuras, asthamLdophoa, mtbyl,. monocrotophos and nicotin. For thu comlete list of postLelds categorLed by WOO0, see CRAD 1990. - 9 - IV. TECHNICAL SYSTEMS OF PEST MANAGEMENT IN ASIA The Range of Peat Management Regimes To discuss and design programs of improved pest management practices, it is necessary to understand the range of different pest management regimes. Otherwise what is meant by integrated pest management (Tait 1987) and how it differs from other pest control strategies may be unclear. Pest management practices can be categorized as follows: * Routine pest management or scheduled spraying; * Monitoring systems; * Integrated pest management; * Pest management in organic farming; and * Pest management in "philosophical agriculture." (a) Routine Pest Management Scheduled pesticide applications, or routine pest management, imply the use of pesticides as a prophylactic measure, regardless of pest incidence. It probably requires higher levels of pesticide use (Tait 1987) and a lower level of management than any other strategy in a given set of circumstances. Yield damage generally is low since scheduled pesticide applications attempt to fully suppress pest populations. However, incidences of pest resurgencel and outbreaks of secondary pestsA' have shown that yield damages can vary substantially. (b) Monitoring Systems Each pesticide application must be justified on technical and/or economic grounds--for example, an economic threshold--in monitoring systems. Pest observation using surveillance and sampling procedures determines infestation levels. 'When infestations reach previously determined thresholds, pesticides are applied. Monitoring systems are a common part of IPM programs, but are not IPM programs by themselves. (c) Integrated Pest Msnagement Integrated pest management "considers any and all combinations of techniques for the management of weeds, insects, diseases, and animal pest problems within the context of the farming system' (McCarl 1981). This definition permits consideration of any pest management technique, including pesticides. It states the concept of IPM, not its objectives. All living organisms that can cause yield damage are included, in contrast to the narrow focus on insect pests of early IPM research. The definition involves neither eradication of pests nor living with pests, but these are alternatives. Systems of integrated pest management are monitoring systems, cultural control, biological control, and expert systems (Figure 2). 3. Post resurgence occurs when an exLsting pest is susceptible to an insecticide, but Lts natural eumies are even more sevrely affected. Treatments may than give satis factory initial control, but in the absence of bLological control the pest population subsequetly may increas to even higber levl. than before treatmnt (GrahBa-Dryce 1987). 4. Secondary pest outbreaks are the trznforation of a pbytophagus speces no-ally mantained at low levls by natural enemies into an economic poSt by the use of Cbroad-spectrm) LnsecticLdes targeted at the primry post (Crsham-Bryce 1987). - 10 - Figure 2: Pest Maagement Systems and Effects >v*\\\\mE\\ onionn vMonitoring . "Organic farming' "Philosophical' Cheemiiical j Bioloical control, (A. Steiner et al) \\\\\\-RangIE of IPMAE Many techniques of integrated pest management, such as weeding, crop rotation, mixed cropping and mixing varieties, are as old as farming itself. What is new is the scientific method used to understand the effects of management practices on the crop and its environment and the development of management guidelines based on this information. While initial research objectives of IPM emphasized the economic improvement of pest management and production (profit maximization), recent efforts have been focused on finding 'economical, long term solutions to pest problems while minimizing hazards to human health and the environment." (UC 1990a). Since it is methodologically not possible to maximize profits and minimize environmental risk simultaneously, preference must be given to one objective while the other is held constant. This choice is reflected in the conflicting interests of the agricultural sector and consumer and environmental groups. (d) Pest Management in "Organic Farming" This holistic approach, based on interactions of the agroecosystem, is similar to the concept of IPM. Synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, however, are not used as agricultural inputs. Rather, pest control is restricted to cultural control, biological control and use of nonsynthetic pesticides like sulfur and copper products. Minimizing environmental risks rather than maximizing profits is the emphasis. Organic farming is not an important consideration in developing Asia. (e) Pest Management in "Philosophical Agriculture" This method is mentioned here only to present the whole spectrum of pest managemen. altarnative:. Management decisions are based on philosophical teachings like those of the anthroposophic school of Steiner ,ather than on - 11 - conventicnal agronomic science. Food products grown under these concepts are gaining identifiable market shares, especially in Switzerland and Germany. Systems of Integrated Pest Management Integrated pest management not only relies on the combining different crop protection measures but also requires a program integrating research, development and implementation. Prerequisites of an IPM program are the assessment of crop damages and yield losses and the analysis of commodity-pest interactions before actual techniques of IPM are developed. (a) Crop Damage or Yield Loss Assessment This should be the first step of plant protection at the farm and the national levels. Information about yield losses supports the grower's decision to manage the crop differently or to control a pest. On the macro level, yield loss assessment is needed to guide agricultural policy, particularly for the allocation of resources for research, development and implementation of cropping system technology and pest control practices. For a thorough discussion of the subject with extensive bibliography see Walker (1983). (b) Analysis of Commodity-Pest Interaction Research in this area focuses on quantifying when and how pests affect crop growth, quality and yield. Studies of this type are a necessary preliminary to developing sound management recommendations and monitoring programs for many pests (UC 1990b). Research on pest-crop interactions has shown that most organisms are an economic problem only during certain times in the growing season and under specific growing conditions. This type of research, which appears fairly basic at first, provides the necessary background information for formulating recommendations on elimination of pesticide sprays and for developing alternative management practices. Such crops as cotton and for processing tomatoes often can tolerate much higher leaf loss or leaf spotting than previously thought, thus reducing the need for pesticide applications. Other research has indicated that certain pests become serious problems only under specific conditions of soil saturation, planting density or temperature-humidity relationships, or when plantings are early or late or harvest is delayed. A better understanding of the life cycles of pests can help target chemical applications at a stage when the pest is most vulnerable. For instance, a better knowledge of the overwintering strategies of fungi allows more reliance on dormant sprays and a reduction of fungicide use later in the season--for example, Uncinula necator causing powdery mildew in California grapes (Flint 1989). The most prominent result of research on pest-crop interactions are pest control guidelines that quantify economically intolerable levels of pest infestation. There are three main phases in the relationship between crop loss and development of pest attack: (1) the plant is able to tolerate or compensate for injury, (2) crop loss occurs but is insufficient to justify control, and (3) the reduction in yield or quality at least equals the cost of modifying the cropping system to lower pest pressure and/or the cost of control (Cammell and Way 1987). The "action threshold" is the level of pest infestation where action must be taken to prevent it from rising to an - 12 - economically damaging level--that is, the "damage threshold" or "economic injury level" (Walker 1983)--that lies between phase 2 and 3. Once a damage threshold is reached, use of biological control may provide insufficient protection against infestation to reduce pest levels below the damage threshold. (c) Management Systems Practices of integrated pest management can be differentiated into two groups according to their objectives: * Pest prophylaxis practices aim to avoid the build-up of pest populations above economically damaging levels. * Pest control practices reduce yield-damaging pest activities below economically damaging levels. (d) Pest Prophylaxis Production of a crop requires many management decisions. One set of choices may promote the development of a pest while another set with equal or similar costs may prohibit and/or reduce the build-up of the pest population. These choices affect 3 resistant varieties 3 sanitation e agronomic practices 3 protection of natural enemies These measures individually may not be sufficient to create a micro-environment unfavorable to pests; each of them may allow pest populations at damaging levels. But utilization of the interaction effects of these measures or their combined use and practice may protect the crop from significant yield loss or damage. (e) Pest Control A variety of control measures can control one pest or a pest complex. As with prophylactic practices the integrated use of control agents may be more effective in protecting the plant than the sum of the individual techniques. These control measures can be categorized as follows: * manual and physical control • biological control * chemical behavioral insect control * botanical or microbial pesticides * selective use of chemical control (a) Examples of manual control are weeding, weed cultivations, removing pest egg masses and pests at other live stages, manipulating temperature and steam sterilization of soil in greenhouses. - 13 - (b) Biological controll ranges from "the use or encouragement of 'beneficial' living organisms for the reduction of pest organism populations" (DeBach 1964) to the use of any nonchemical control method that is biology-based, such as host resistance, insect pheromones, crop rotations, and the like (Doutt 1972). Encouraging "beneficials" is achieved by cultural practices and has little in common with what growers understand as biological control. In any case, it is a preventive rather than a control method. However, autocidal controli1 may be considered a method of biological control. Thus, biological control may be defined as the use of beneficial organisms as well as sterile or genetically altered insects for the reduction of pest populations. (c) Chemical behavioral insect control is the application of chemicals that alter such insect behavior as attraction, repellency, location of food, oviposition, mating, defense strategies, feeding behavior and social organization. (d) Microbial pesticides are usually categorized under biological control. However, the types of application in the field and the requirements for registration are the same as for chemical pesticides. The biological mode of action therefore is comparatively irrelevant for categorizing these products. The most prominent botanical pesticide is based on extracts of parts of trees of the Meliaceae family, one representative of which is the neem tree. One neem-based pesticide received registration in the United States for use in ornamentals. Neem products are widely used, especially in India, for agricultural and other purposes. Use and limitations of botanical insecticides are discussed in the next section. (e) Chemical pesticides can be chosen specifically for the pest and the area and time of application. The proper choice and application of 5. BLologlcal control agents can be classified as: Predators - actlve organasms that seek their food and consue a number of prey, e.g. ladyblrd beetles, many species of bugs, lacevings, Larvae of hovr fliss, atc. ParasitoLds - insects that develop parasLtLcally in a single host that is eventually killed. They consum one prey during their lifetime. Parasites - organisas that tend to weaken rather than kill their host. The exception is nei-atode parasites. vhilch so far have not been very useful. Antagonists - organlsms that decrease pest populations by coqpetitive exclusion but do not directly feed on them. They are important for the biologLcal control of plant pathogens. Organisms or woed control - plant-feeding insects that have high levels of host plant specLficlty--nematodes. microorganlsms and fungi. Ways to use biological control: Introduction or classical biolosical control - introductLon and permanent *stablisbment of exotic benefLcial organslms. Aummentation - release oi additional native natural enemLes that are i-ad quate in numbers. Inoculation - release of native natural enemies, vhich are absent from a partlcular area, at the beginning of the season or Ln a new crop. Imundatln - release of very large numbers of sterile insect pest males or geneticalLy altered Insect posts. The applLcatLn of aLcrobiLs. also applied inundtiLvely, is simLlar Ln Lts requirements of the grover to the applicatLon of botanLcal or chemical pesticides. It Ls categorized separately. 6. Autocidal insect control invoLves the rearing and release of Lnsects that are sterile or altered genetically in order to suppress zmmbers of their own species that are causing the pest problem" (Bottrell 1979). - 14 - pesticides can help conserve natural enemies, improve control and lower pest management costs and environmental risk. Pest Nanagement in Asia There are numerous crops in Asia, and the number of pests is vast. Pest management practices must be designed to fit each crop's characteristics given its specific cropping system, the climate, available farm resources, sociological issues, and so on. Because there are different techniques for different cropping and farming systems in different regions, it is impossible to list all information about pest management practices developed in Asia. Appendix 2 gives an overview of pesticide use in twelve Asian counties for the main crops treated, the percentages of insecticides, fungicides and herbicides used, and the main registered products. To the extent available information would permit, it summarizes various regulating agencies' regulatory efforts and their efficacy as well as the main prob'ems of pesticide use and plant protection. Appendix 3 describes practices of pest management and new developments in Asia, focusing on integrated management techniques. Special problems and prospects and limitations of individual pest management practices for important crops are briefly described here. (a) Pesticide Use The estimated value of pesticides used annually in agriculture in eight countries (China, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Ianka and Bangladesh) in the late 1980s is close to US$1500 million (prices at first distributor level). China and India account for about two-thirds of this amount. The Philippines, Halaysia and Thailand used pesticides valued between US$90 million and US$130 million a year. Pesticides for rice, costing around US$400 million a year in the eight countries, is the biggest single item. China alone spends US$218 milLion on rice pesticides (Jackson 1991). The Asia and Pacific region is predominantly an insecticide market. Of the total estimated consumption of 1esticides, about 75% of consumption is insecticides, 13% herbicides and 8% fungicides. Insecticides are used mainly for rice, cotton and vegetables; herbicides for rubber, oil palm, tea, coffee and cacao; and fungicides for tobacco, vegetables and bananas (Johnson 1990). Although these figures are an indicator of pesticide use, they give little information about whether there is over- or underuse of pesticides in the agricultural sector. Most developing countries are characterized by an extremely skewed distribution of pesticide use. This results mainly from differences of agricultural development in different regions within each country and depends on the scale of production. There are three stages of agriculture, each with a different demand for pest management: traditional agriculture, agriculture moving toward modernization and large-scale commercial agriculture. In traditional agriculture, small-scale farmers grow grain or root crops as subsistence crops. The size o' their plots is usually determined by the availability of family labor for land preparation and hand weeding. Diseases and pests generally are endemic, meaning that harmful organisms are present at all times but cause little damage because of their low population densities. They are effectively regulated by natural enemies, host plant resistance and weather conditions. Therefore, ttcc :_- little need for insecticides and - 15 - fungicides in traditional agriculture (Oudejans 1990). Labor-saving technology for weed control may substantially increase the productivity and household incomes of traditional farmers. Limiting factors for the use of herbicides include farmer illiteracy, cash requirements for herbicides and application equipment, and continuous market access. Better than herbicides might be manually operated mechanical weeders such as the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) developed for rice. A single-row weeder developed by IRRI requires about 40 to 50 person-hours/ha and easily can be operated by women and children. The two-row weeder requires about 25 to 35 person-hours/ha as compared to conventional single-row rotary weeders that require 80 to 90 person-hours/ha and are difficult to operate. Manual weeding requires an average of 120 person-hours/ha (IRRI no date). Growers who practice agriculture in transition have access to local markets and have cash incomes. They have gradually intensified their cultivation practices, decreased the number of crops grown in the rotation cycle, introduced new and more profitable crops, replaced traditional varieties with hnrizontal resistance with high-yielding and sometimes vertically resistant varieties, grow crops in monoculture instead of in varied cropping systems and manage water more efficiently through irrigation and drainage works. Examples of agriculture in transition are intercropping maize and soybeans, planting coffee, rubber or coconut trees as cash crops, and growing vegetables and fruit in addition to staple crops. Irrigation in rice-growing areas allowed year-round production. In effect, this doubled the rice-cropping area as rotations were intensified and rice yields increased by 25% compared to pre-green revolution levels. However, this also raised the pest carrying capacity of the environment by allowing year-round pest development (Litsinger 1989). Cash income made possible the purchase of pesticides, which became a necessary input to control pest outbreaks. The use of broad-spectrum insecticides disturbed the balance between insect pests and their natural enemies and caused pest resurgence amd secondary pest outbreaks as described earlier. Controlling rice insect pests through scheduled spraying is described for Sri Lanka by Jackson (1991): The common practice of insect control under a pesticide orientated regime is as follows. When paddy rice is broadcast-sown or to be transplanted, general practice is to spray an insecticide at 10 days (at present usually monocrotophos or dimethoate). However, in the case of transplanted paddy, if a granular insecticide treatment (carbofuran) is applied to the nursery the spray is not necessary. A second spray, usually of monocrotophos, is done 28-30 days after the first, i.e., closer to panicle initiation. A third spray, of BPMC, is applied between flowering and maturity if the population of brown planthopper (N. lugens) warrant it. Finally, insecticides are used against paddy bug, L. varicornis. Such a program can be implemented without much thought by the farmers, but provides far from optimal pest management. Large-scale commercial agriculture generally is the biggest user of agrochemicals. Important commercial production systems include irrigated field crops such as cotton and sugarcane; estate crops such as bananas, oil palm and coffee; horticultural fruit and vegetables; and protected crops such as ornamental plants and flowers. Crops are grown in monoculture or with little - 16 - rotation on estates or large farms. The efficacy of biological regulation of pests and pathogens is most drastically reduced if crops are genetically homogeneous, high-yielding cultivars with low natural host plant resistance, and when fertilizers and pesticides are used intensively. Pests get a chance to recover rapidly and to reinfest the crop if their natural enemies have been killed. Secondary pest problems are similar. Usually, estate companies and large-scale commercial farmers hire crop protection experts, or they themselves may have considerable experience in chemical plant protection. Economically attractive IPM methods can be introduced to this agricultural subsector on a commercial basis. Small-scale growers, who often produce commercial crops and use processing facilities and marketing channels of estate farms, may also benefit if they see IPM innovations adopted on the estates. Estates could both be targets for IPM programs of commercial crops and function as innovators. (b) Developments in Biological Pest Control and Botanical and Microbial Pesticides Integrated pest management's methods of monitoring, its cultural practices and biological control systems, and its botanical and microbial pesticides are listed for Asia in Appendix 3. Here, some limiting factors of the use of biological control and the use of botanical and microbial pesticides are discussed. Classical biological control is one of the cheapest and, if successful, one of the most lasting methods of insect control. Attempts at classical biological control have been numerous in Southeast Asia, but they have mainly failed. Although the predators and parasites that were introduced into the treatment region often are very effective in their native habitats, in this case they have been ineffective--partly because of over-use and improper use of pesticides by Southeast Asian growers. Biological control workers in the region also feel that failures were due to lack of interest, support, and expertise in research and development of biological control (Napometh 1988). There have been some successes: the introduction of a predator mite for mite control in apples in China and a parasitic wasp for the hispine beetle in Western Samoa. Other methods of biological control have been researched and used. The most widespread of these probably is associated with the parasitic wasp TrIchogramma spp. The international newsletter, "Trichogramma News," reports research results from China, the Philippines, India and Burma with emphasis on the first two. China reports treating about 1 million ha a year. There are two ways to apply Trichogramma. For release on the ground, insect eggs that have been parasitized by Trichogramma in an insectory and glued on cards can be hung in the crop. Wasps emerge from the eggs (anywhere from 10 to 260 wasps per egg) and parasitize freshly laid eggs of several insect pests. For aerial application, parasitized eggs are mixed with a material like corn cob grit to facilitate loading and dispersal. There is a large number of Trichogramma species, and selection is necessary to identify the one with the highest parasitization rate for the insect pest in the specific region. The fact that the wasp attacks only freshly laid pest eggs means that the frequency of release is more important than the number of released wasps. Release rates range from 40,000 to 250,000 eggs per season. Successful parasitization rates vary from around 50% to 75% of the insect pest eggs, but can be much lower. Besides the selection of the species and the timing of release, the parasitization rates depend also on the general - 17 - ecological environment. According to Everett Diet,ick of Rincon Vitova, Inc. (1990, personal communication), releases are most effective if the wasps occur naturally in the area. Depending on the crop, costs of Trfchogramma releases can be less expensive than a pesticide program. The wasp, however, does not achieve full control of the pest and is thus not a feasible method where cosmetic appearance of the agricultural product is important. Similarly, conservation and augmentation of lady beetles rarely provide complete control. They are usually seen as one component of an integrated system that may include other predators, parasitoids, horticultural and mechanical methods, and microbial and chemical pesticides (Olkowski, Zhang and Thiers 1991). One of the most limiting factors of Trichogramma use is cost-effective production. In addition to the wasp, host eggs have to be produced. In China, eggs of the oak silkworm, eri silkworm and rice moth are used as hosts. Chinese researchers recently developed "semi-artificial" diets to raise Trichogramma without using live hosts, but these dietb way be costs-effective only under Chinese conditions (Olkowski and Zhang l991a, 1991b). Botanicals offer another approach. DiLferent parts of trees of the Pleliaceae family have been used in Indian traditional agriculture for several purposes, one of them pest control. The most widely known of these trees is the neem. However, it has received little attention from researchers and is an undeveloped control option despite the registration of a neem-based pesticide in the United States. Neem-based pesticides have a broad insect pest spectrum but show low mammalian toxicity. They can be locally produced--the trees are common in India--and ground seeds need only to be diluted in water to produce an active solution. For a full description of the process see Radcliff and others (1991, p. 14). Factors limiting neem-based insecticides are that locally produced solutiors deteriorate relatively quickly and must be produced for each application; collecting and grinding seeds is very labor intensive; and the percentage of active ingredients in the seeds varies substantially (0% to 10%, with an avera-e of 3%), requiring relatively high rates of application. The following data on field trials in Niger illustrate the problem: Fifty grams of ground nuts per liter of water give 1.5 g of active ingredient (a.i.) per liter if 3% a.i. in the nuts is assumed. With an application rate of 400 1/ha of solution, 600 g a.i./ha are being applied. Thus one application requires 20 kg of seed, which is the average annual yield of a neem tree (based on data by E.B. Radcliff of the University of Minnesota, 1991, personal communication). Seeds can be stored for a year or longer; however, the development of highly toxic aflatoxin was observed in household storage. The recommended application rate for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's registered neem-based product is 20 g a.i./ha. If 3% a.i. in the seed again is assumed, 0.66 kg of seed are required for one application. A tree with an annual yield of 20 kg then supplies enough seed for one application on 30 ha compared to 1 ha in the Niger field trials. The low dosage rate recommended in the United States is possible - 18 - because the formulation of the neem product in the United States is consistent. The current market price for neem seed in Niger is equivalent to US$12/100 kg, which gives an annual return of US$2.4/tree (based on data by D. Walter of W.R. Grace, personial communication). The cost of US$2.4/ha is low compared to commercial pesticides. But the calculation does not include the opportunity costs of preparing the solution. From this brief discussion, it appears that increasing the productivity of neem trees and developing locally manageable formulations would enhance the use of neem-based pesticides. Microbial pesticides are unreliable because they sometimes work slowly and their mortality rates are low when used as the sole means of controlling their target pests. However, in combination with other control measures such as predator releases and cultural practices, they may be efficacious. The interaction effects between microbials and other control measures are worth studying. Among the most developed microbial pesticides are products based on the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). However, the success of Bt in Southeast Asia vill depend more on reducing its cost through local production and on effective IPM programs than on the failure of petroleum-based insecticides. As with chemical pesticides, it is necessary that key pests be identified, thresholds for these pests established and simple sampling methods developed (Tryon and Litsinger 1988). The standardization of Bt products has not been successfully completed due to difficulties in dealing with such a diverse group of target pests. Several insects have been tried as standard insects for production purposes including the silkworm, the Asian corn borer and the cabbage worm, but problems remain. Application techniques need refinement, and availability has been poor, indicating the need for improved supply and marketing channels (Li and Pang 1991). New viral insecticides have not been developed quickly, and large-scale disease outbreaks of most viruses are poorly understood. Multiplying viruses for insecticidal use has been limited by difficulties in mass-producing host-insects, due ma nly to a lack of available artificial diets for the hosts. The production of viruses on insect tissue cultures has shown great progress, but costs are still too high for practical application. In addition, viral insecticides are highly selective in their control, particularly when two or more pest species break out at the same time, and thus are of limited use (Li and Pang 1991). Fungal insecticides have been tested in China. Of the roughly 170 entomogenous fungi examined, about 10 have been produced for small- and large-sca'le field trials against various pests (see Appendix 3). The fungus with the widest use reported in China is Beauveria bassiana (Bb). In addition to its main use in corn and forestry, it has been applied against 57 other pests, including 21 agricultural pests, 27 forest pests, 5 tea pests and 4 fruit pests. It also has been used in rice on a small scale (hundreds of hectares) against pests such as the causarina tussockmoth, Lymantria xyllna, and the common rice leafhopper, Neephotettix cincticeps, a vector of rice viruses causing heavy rice loss. Hundreds of tons of Beauveria bassiana preparations have been produced in China, mainly by solid culture with simple - 19 - equipment and cheap materials (primarily wheat bran). The principal problem with fungal insecticides has been their unstable and unpredictable field efficacy, which depends on the humidity of the environment. Strain breeding has achieved little (Li and Pang 1991). Also, only the widespread disease outbreaks caused by A few fungal insecticides have been studied. Antagonists have characteristics unpleasant to pests. The roots of Vetiver grass (Vetiveria spp.) contain an oil that repeatedly has been reported to have insect repellant characteristics (Greenfield 1989). Although the production of insecticides using the vetiver root might not be cost-effective, there is some indication that planting the grass in sugarcane plantations (Levey 1940) or using it as mulch in orchards reduces pest attacks. The advantage of using antagonistic characteristics of plants like vetiver is that they do not create any selection pressure on insects. Since no insects are killed the selection of possibly resistant pest strains is reduced. - 20 - V. SOME ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF PEST MANAGEMENT IN ASIA The objective of pest management is to secure the quantity and quality of crop yields. It must be evaluated in the context of factors that negatively affect yield. Only then can resources of farmers, researchers and national and ir.ternational institutions be efficiently allocated to increase agricultural production. Pest management and pesticide use has had substantial publicity, but other factors like loss of fertile topsoils, erosion of large areas (estimated at 6 million hectares a year) and soil salinity (affecting, for instance, 80% of crop acreage in Egypt) may reduce productivity to a greater extent and for a longer time than do pest attacks. The benefits of pest management are not only productivity gains but also the beneficial environmental and health effects derived from pesticide use. Health hazards, however, are not caused by pesticides alone; they may be the result of other agricultural practices such as nitrogen fertilization. In Europe, for instance, the contamination of drinking water with nitrates originating primarily from natural fertilizers such as manure is a far greater problem than is contamination with pesticides. Again, policy efforts to decrease environmental and health hazards caused by pesticides should be seen in the broader context of the various sources of externalities in agriculture. The following discussion of the costs and benefits of pest management looks at internal and external costs and issues at the farm and national levels. It is not meant to analyze the various effects but rather to describe the complexity of the system and the factors that must be taken into account when designing plant protection policies. Costs and Benefits of Pest Management at the Farm Level Considering that substantial yield losses are often assumed to be caused by pests, there is little quantitative data available about the actual scale of the problem. General estimates for agriculture range between 30% and 40%, but these figures obviously depend on the assumed yield potential and the circumstances of production that determined it (e.g., experiment stations or on-farm trials). For a single pest, high two-digit figu.res are often reported as yield loss estimates. Since it is unlikely that only one pest affects yield rather than a combination of insects, fungi and other disease agents, weeds and rodents, the averages sum up total loss from all causes. In addition, the interaction effects of infestation of several pests often result in greater damage than the sum of the individual pest infestations. Table 1 shows some yield loss estimates for pests in developing Asia. (a) Benefits of Pesticide Use The use of agrochemicals has substantially lowered the risk of yield losses and has contributed to the increasing agricultural productivity of the Asia and Pacific region. Despite the growing population, several countries have achieved self-sufficiency in important food products over the last 10 or 15 years. Rice production in Indonesia is one example. However, in recent years controversy has arisen over the contribution of insecticides to rice yields. Some research indicates that the heavy use of broad-spectrum insecticides leads to pest resurgence (especially of the brown planthopper) - 21 - TABLE 1: ESIIMATED YIELD LOSS OR YIELD PROTEClION BY PESIDE USE Crop Country post Yield Loss Reference Estimfates Cocoa Malaysia mirlds can reach 85% Ho 1968 rodents 70-100% we common Wood 1962 Coconut Asb Rhinocero bete 20X la reducion - Zslazny 1979 3596 yield nut reducton Thailand, South rodents 3.13% Kaske 1986 Oil Paim Malaia ctpillabr 1236% after defoliation, Uau 1988 occalonel pet Rice Rep. Koe rice blast 84% Staring 1964 Sugarcane Thailand borer Complex B-40% Prachuabmoh and othe 19B88 stem boring grub 13-43% In Infeded area Prahuabmoh and othi 1988 Vegtble Asia peds 3040% FAO 1990 and actually has a negative effect on yields. These findings about negative yield effects of current insecticide use on rice should not be generalized to agriculture at large. Estimating yield protection from pesticides depends on the methods of analysis used, the variables explaining yield specified and the form of production functions chosen. Production functions often give unclear results about the productivity of pesticides or lead to overestimation of their effectiveness. They rarely show significant results for insecticides and fungicides when results are estimated from sample data (D. Zilberman, U.C. Berkeley, personal communication). The estimated productivity of pesticides also depends on the level of infestation, which is difficult to measure. High infestation may result in heavy use of pesticides, but yields still may be lower in these fields than in fields with lower infestation levels and thus lower pesticide use. In such a case, the heavy use of pesticides prevents further yield loss, but this is difficult to determine unless reliable infestation data is available. Where infestation of weeds is homogeneous within a cross section, measurement of infestation is less important, and thus the productivity of herbicides is easier to estimate. A recent study in California showed herbicides contribute significantly to yields but insecticides and fungicides do not (Wiebers 1991). For many crops, weed control is a substantial share of the costs of production. In the Philippines, an average of 120 person-hours per hectare are spent for weeding rice (IRRI nd). Herbicide expenses, however, account for only 1.8% of all cash costs (Waibel and Neenakanit 1988). With increasing development of nonagricultural sectors and rising wage rates, the use of herbicides may also gain more importance in Asia, releasing a substantial amount of labor for other areas of agriculture or other sectors. - 22 - As agricultural systems develop and household income increases in Asia, the quality of food products, especially of vegetables and fruit, will become increasingly important. Insecticides today are often sprayed right up to harvest to preserve the cosmetic appearance of the product. There may be other specific benefits of pesticide use as is the case with use of cotton defoliants, which allow mechanized harvest of the crop. A study in Egypt showed that defoliants shortened the growing period of cotton, which permitted obtaining an additional cutting of clover before the next cotton crop was planted. The use of cotton defoliants increased mainly the productivity of land (Wiebers 1987). (b) Costs of Pesticides Use Figure 3 gives an overview of the costs of pesticide use at the farm and national 1..els. The direct costs of pesticide use are expenses for the pesticide product, water and/or the transportation of water, labor for the application, application equipment and safety gear. The supply of safety gear is often inadequate and exacerbates growers' unwillingness to use protective clothing. In Kenya, for instance, growers complain that pesticide distributors do not offer protective gear such as masks (Wiebers 1989). The indirect costs to the grower of pesticide use include: * opportunity costs * health problems - environmental pollution - pest resistance * changes in the cropping pattern * new pest strains The opportunity costs of pesticide use involve time and money spent for pest control and time lost when entrance to a field is prohibited or when certain crops cannot be planted after an application of pesticide (plant-back period). Cash costs are incurred when growers--aware of the negative health effects--hire laborers to apply pesticides soon after earlier applications. In several countries in Asia, health damages are being transferred from those who can afford to hire labor or can delegate this work to those who cannot afford hired labor or who cannot reject the offered work. Table 2 sumarizes the results of four studies about pesticide poisoning. As the figures show, there is a large variation in the number of reported cases. It seems reasonable to assume that these differences come from different methods of collecting the data rather than from actual differences in the number of cases. The Indonesian figures, for instance, are cases where patients sought medication in health centers. The Malaysian figure is based on a survey of growers and estate workers, not on poisonings treated in health centers or hospitals. These levels of poisoning, which are intolerable from a human point of view, are a substantial cost to the grower if he or she is unable or less able to work and/or has to hire labor. - 23 - Figure 3: Costs of Pesticide Use. Coets of Pesticd1e fUs Fom Lml .ecr .l Dlrect Coat.t | Lrzt Costs Ineect Cto. | Post£iod s l Opportunity costs of: For[Lgn currency Health T- EIZ~~~oidea ~~Time and mnoney.,u PLaid rentry porlod. Plant-back period P | Water Pr£c subaidleJ Natural reaourca (wCter, moil, r) BEbLth t | AppiLc tlon Regulatory 'Y"t OpportunLty coats 2-ost r*sl.:t-:nc _nf of dLr ct costs Application | Enforcemnt Equ£pjmnt |jof odSulLtLon Chabga in fPrting resist system (e.g. loss of rice fish culture) Extensionn I I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~training Supply cb-n a b c--us of re2ltatnc- |Product pr£ce cban5g s TABLE ;2: PESTICIDE POISONING AND DEokH IN AL PHLNIPWOB 1 THLA 2 LVJ AYM 3 WDOME 4 (19M2401 ml95 Uge9b (19q can d c_e of cass of c_g of rMEOF poeg bg def pomno d polok p doa lnesdeides 1,434 280 3,045 210 Odr P"dcdes la2 6 1,00 79 54X of all agrkulkura No Irnormadon 268 38 workers TOW Z804 322 4,046 289 404 32 Sourcw. 1. CaWdnfd 1988, 2. Krblugasna 1988, 3. Aros1988, 4. Mustbmin 1988. - 24 - An excerpt (edited) from the Bangkok Post (3 February 1991) illustrates the problem: Farmers in rice growing areas Before, chemicals were sprayed have found that the use of every ten days, now every six chemicals has become less to seven days. A brand of effective and is taking its herbicide Chuam used on his toll on their health. Farmers farm was so poisonous that try several ways to avoid wading through the paddy fields exposure. Some hire laborers; made his feet burn and become those with large families take numb, he said. If he felt turns spraying. Others who can dizzy while spraying, he would do neither continue until they quit before poisoning became come down with chemical-induced acute, but he never went to see illness. "I have given up a doctor about it. Some of his spraying for good; my body is friends also suffered from unable to resist the effects acute contamination, vomiting anymore," said Chuam Harnphut and passing out. However, his of Ban Pongphlab. In 1977, he sons seldom cover their nose began to rely on heavy use of and mouth. They quickly tired pesticides to increase of masks. "One of my sons just productivity and it paid off. sprays against the wind. He 'It took a few years before it says it is too time-consuming (spraying) took its toll on me. to walk back every time, as one Early on I could do it all day is supposed to." Farmers not long and still be fine. Later only use formulas with greater I felt sick in less than an toxicity, but also use twice hour." Since 1982 there have the amount recommended on the been pest outbreaks of labels because moderately different sorts of insects. As poisonous chemicals are now the problem worsened, he less effective. brought more kinds of pest control substances to kill the insects. These statistics and reports deal only with acute poisoning. Poisoning causing cancer, mutations, sterility and other chronic health problems are not considered. Organochlorine insecticides like DDT are known to cause chronic problems and are still widely used in Asia. The National Research Council (NRC 1987) states that since many commonly used pesticides in rice cultivation, such as cypermethrin, benomyl and captan, are known as potentially mutagenic and carcinogenic in lab animals, it is likely that human health problems result from excessive exposure. An external cost of pesticide use--as environmental pollution --can be assumed considering the types of pesticides used in Asia. Besides negative effects on water, soils, air and wildlife, there are negative effects on populations of pest predators. The many attempts to introduce exotic natural enemies have probably failed because of the heavy use of broad-spectrum insecticides. Another problem of pest management mentioned in the Bangkok Post article is the need for more toxic products, higher application rates and shorter intervals between applications due to pest resistance. Pest resistance as it affects vegetable production in Asia is probably worse in the case of the diamondback moth infestations. - 25 - The diamondback moth (DBM) is perceived by farmers to be a very serious, if not the most important, insect pest of cruciferous vegetables. In Malaysia, at least 50% of the farmers apply insecticides two or three times per week. In all the countries the trend in pesticide use has been essentially the same - there has been a shift from the early botanicals to the organochlorines, then to the organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, and now to the insect growth regulators. This shift is due largely due to the development of resistance by DBM to insecticides. (Lim 1988) There can be indirect costs of pesticides caused by changes in the cropping system. Rice farmers in Northeast and Central Thailand have refused to use any recommended insecticides because of potential fish poisoning, but the reverse is true elsewhere: widespread use of insecticides in the Philippines has almost completely eliminated the rice-fish culture (Tryon and Litsinger 1988). Scheduled insecticide applications in resistant varieties of rice accelerated the evolution of new strains of pests able to overcome the host plant resistance. (c) Benefits of IPM The benefits of IPM are usually evaluated in terms of pesticides applied on a calendar-scheduled basis. The benefits of IPM are hypothesized as: * reducing pesticide expenses * increasing yields through improved plant protection * reducing external costs, that is, environmental and health hazards Cost reduction from adopting IPM techniques depends on the pesticide price policy in the market. The California study mentioned above (Wiebers 1991) shows that cost reduction is more important for the adoption of IPM than improved yields. The same pesticide program in many developing countries is subsidized, making it far Less costly to farmers. Thus, growers have less incentive to adopt IPM technology. An example from Bangladesh illustrates: Training farmers in IPM in s1c regions of Bangladesh resulted in pesticide cost savings of 60% while yields tended to increase. However, pesticide expenses accounted for only 4% of farmers' purchased inputs so that cost savings from IPM training were not substantial. Table 3 shows the cost shares of pesticide for other Asian countries. Increases in yield probably are associated with improved cultivation practices taught in training rather than with the substitution of IPM techniques for chemicals (Duloy and Nicholas 1991). This suggests that reducing external costs may be more important than reducing production costs. Even in developed countries, the true costs of pesticide use are not charged to the user. If the external costs of environmental and health damages were 'internalized" in the form of a pesticide tax, for instance, the - 26 - TABLE 3: FEMflIR AND PESTICIDE COSIS AS PERCENrAOE OF TOTrAL CASH 0013 OF RCE PODJCTION N SELECTED AN COWNES Thamid Phmpphe Srd LK" T_v Frtiltter 27.1 18.2 9.9 54.5 nsecoldes 2.4 6.1 3.1 2B.4 Fungicides 22 0 0 0 Herbicides 0.4 1.8 3.1 5.8 Source: Waibel and Moenakanit 1988 adoption of new pest management technologies would be relatively more attractive. This problem will be addressed in the next section. Since IPM is an improved pest management technology in comparison to scheduled spraying, it gives better prevention and control of pest infestations. Better crop protection results in higher yields on average and/or a reduced variation of yields on different fields or different years. The reduction of the expected variance of yield is synonymous with reduction in economic risk. Table 4 presents the results of empirical improved pest management studies evaluating the economic effects of IPM on the farm in the United States. The researchers found that IPM generally decreases pesticide use and economic risk (see also Figure 1) and increases yield and net returns. The adoption of IPM may increase net benefits if analyzed on the farm level. The effects can be different on an aggregate level, however, if the whole industry adopts the technology. This is discussed in the next section. The net benefits of applying the economic threshold concept to rice production in on-farm trials in Thailand and the Philippines is presented in Table 5. The threshold system is compared to prophylactic applications here called "farmers' practice." IPM treatment at economic threshold levels increased net revenues according to all four studies. The last column shows the percentage of cases where an insect pest has been successfully controlled. Profits, however, did not significantly increase from yield increases (Rola and Kenmore 1986) but rather from reduced pesticide expenses. Several studies have shown that 95% of the increase in profits is due to a reduction in pesticide expenses (Waibel and Neenakanit 1988). Litsinger (1984) concluded that rice production in the Philippines could be maintained at current levels with half the amount of insecticides then being used. More recent estimates consider even 10& of current levels of insecticide use sufficient (H. Waibel, Universitit Gottingen, Germany, personal communication). Since the benefits of IPM at the farm level come mainly from cost reduction, these benefits are limited to the cash spent for pesticides. These expenses are relatively small, so the incentive for the grower to adopt the threshold concept and take the time to obtain training and to monitor the fields might still be insufficient. (Appendix 4 briefly discusses the question of whether IPM, or any new technology, will increase farmers' welfare.) - 27 - TABLE 4: EPINAL PM EVALAllON SIUOES NTE UTS., 1ISU Pede Ue ndar BC ct d Cad d Producon Yid Nd Reuan Leve of H IPFM an (n. c dudle.O no d ie (mof i ebdi (no. of dii. Decreaing 35 2 0 7 No Impact 0 2 2 0 Increasing 0 13 24 2 Source: After VCES 1987. Three other factors negatively influence the adoption of the threshold concept: - Economic risk increases with the adoption of the threshold concept (Waibel and Meenakanit 1988). * Threshold treatments result in fewer insecticide applications than is the farmers' general practice; but since farmers often use lower dosages than recommended, the cost-saving advantage of changing to the threshold system is reduced (Bandong and Litsinger 1988). * Growers often overestimate the loss from one missed spraying (by 40% to 100%) and therefore overestimate the profitability of an application (Waibel and Meenakanit 1988). More relevant than cost-effectiveness is IPM's potential for reducing environmental and health hazards; but these are not internalized to the user. Also, reduced insecticide use in rice will promote activities of pest predators and stabilize the agroecosystem. This reduces the incidence of pest resurgence and outbreaks of secondary pests as described earlier and adds to the benefits of IPM. Savings in pesticide costs are valued as a benefit, but the real question is how will the grower spend the extra cash? If he or she spends it on fertilizer, for example, the benefits of the threshold system become more significant (Waibel 1988). (c) Costs of IPn The costs of IPM depend on the set of possible techniques chosen. Monitoring systems (e.g., the economic threshold concept) require the time to monitor populations of pests and their predators, soil humidity, temperature, precipitation and the like. However, the time spent for monitoring is an insufficient measure of IPM under the hypothesis of decreased pesticide use. The California study mentioned above (Wiebers 1991) has shown that the quality of monitoring better explains pesticide use reduction and is a better measure of IPM than is the quantity of monitoring. Monitoring quality measures growers' ability to identify pest predators as well as the pests. The use of herbicides and insecticides actually increased with an increasing amount of time spent for monitoring--growers who searched more for pests found more and eventually sprayed more. However, if they also monitored insect predators, their use of insecticides decreased. Training in these skills is an another cost to the grower in addition to the time he or she has to spend for monitoring. - 28 - TABLE 5: VNCFEASES IN NE1 RErURN FROM THRESHOLD TFlAlMS IN RCE Awag incrme of ftame' nd Stum () bed an C~oylSoWcs Famums P_rci c CounryMume nuow prcf- Thaol ucceedulcas Thailand - - 42 80 Philippines Utlsnger 1984 - -52 Waibel 1988 - - 33 61 Role and Konmoro 1986 - - 7.6 82 Bandong and Ultsinger 1988 11.7 8.0 7.1 Sources: Waibel and Moenaanki 1988; Bandong and Utsinger 1988. The costs of prophylactic IPM techniques are complex and cannot be listed here. Waibel and Meenakanit (1988) developed an interesting matrix that looks at possible negative effects of several agronomic IPM techniques on potential yield, crop prices, cash and labor resources. They conclude that the only IPM practice with no negative impact on economic factors is the use of economic thresholds, which is not an agronomic practice per se. Resistant rice varieties sometimes have a lower yield potential than highly susceptible ones--the highly susceptible rice vYariety RD1 with a yield potential of 750 kg/rai in Thailand is an example. More resistant varieties cannot match this yield. Also, highly resistant varieties do not always command as high a price as susceptible varieties. New, certified seed must be purchased for each planting irstead of using seed from the previous harvest. Changing planting methods can severely affect labor and, consequently, cash resources. For instance, more transplanters may be required if growers change from direct seeding (a trend in Thailand) to transplanting or if synchronized planting is adopted. The cost structures of an IPM program may be extremely complex and difficult to predict for researchers developing IPM methods. It is thus important to have a close interaction with growers on a local level and to develop these practices in close consultation with them. Aspects of Pest Management Policies at the National Level Some policy aspects were addressed above with regard to regulation of pesticide use and national costs of pesticide use (Figure 3). Additional policies to consider are price instruments and legal sanctions. The government can indirectly affect pesticide demand through price policy and/or directly by severely restricting or banning a pesticide. The common policy still remains price subsidization; taxation, that is, the 'internalization' of external costs of pesticides, is often discussed but has not been implemented. The low cost of pesticides is the dominant factor preventing growers from partially or fully substituting other pest management methods for chemical pesticides. Policies of subsidization and taxation are thus important parameters of an overall integrated pest management policy. - 29 - Types of pesticide subsidies may be categorized as obvious or hidden and direct or indirect (Waibel 1990). "Obvious" means the transfer of money or pesticides from the government to growers while "hidden" indicates growers' preferences for pesticides. "Direct" subsidies involve price reduction while "indirect" subsidies concern products and information. There are direct and obvious subsidies if the government sells pesticides, refunds pesticide companies' costs or provides pesticides on credit in a package of inputs. Direct but hidden subsidies may take the form of preferential rates for imports and local taxes, import credits or exchange rates. Or they may take the form of government tolerance of externalities. Indirect but obvious subsidies are the kind where governments supply pesticides to farmers under certain conditions, usually in relationship to the pest situation. Indirect and hidden subsidies are created by the information environment, which is believed to be strongly biased in favor of pesticides. Overestimation of crop losses in government surveys falls into this category, whether from an incorrect definition of loss and identification of pests by extension workers or from poor statistics. These instruments have differing importance in the region's countries. In Thailand, for instance, the dominant subsidy is the provision of pesticides to farmers during pest outbreaks. In addition, although import duties are levied on pesticides, they are only one sixth of the duty on urea (Waibel 1990). Bangladesh and Indonesia eliminated their pesticide subsidies between 1974 and 1979 and between 1986 and 1988, respectively. 'When farmers in Bangladesh received a 100% subsidy on pesticides during 1971 and 1974, the annual area of rice sprayed was 3 to 5 million ha. In 1974, when subsidies were reduced by 50%, the treated area fell within two years to less than 1 million ha. After the elimination of the subsidy in 1979, treated area fluctuated around 0.5 million ha (Duloy and Nicholas 1991). In Indonesia, the government eliminated subsidies in stages and also banned the use on rice of 57 registered brands of broad-spectrum insecticides, about 20 of which had been widely used by farmers. The scheduled use of these products was considered responsible for the alarming outbreaks of brown planthoppers (BPH). Within three years, the number of applications per season decreased from 4.5 to 0.5, dramatically decreasing the volume of pesticide used. Farmers' expenditure on pesticides decreased from 7,000 rupiah/ha to 2,500 rupiah/ha, and the government's expense for pesticide subsidy dropped from 27,000 rupiah/ha to 500 rupiah/ha. The Indonesian government reallocated these funds to an extensive national IPM program. It also imported narrow-spectrum insecticide that affects the brown planthopper but not its predators. Fifteen hundred new pest observers were recruited, and senior pest observers were provided with motorcycles to improve surveillance and training of farmers (Oudejans 1990). Since the introduction of the new policy in Indonesia, rice yields have increased and the BPH infestation remains at low levels (FAO 1991a). Pesticide subsidies must be evaluated in the larger economic context. Prices of agricultural commodities and thus farmers' income are often kept low to maintain low consumer prices. This forces farmers to intensify production to reach and maintain a certain level of income. Growers of such crops as cotton and vegetables can hardly afford the elimination of pesticide subsidies because pesticides are already a substantial part of their cost of production. Thus, the elimination of subsidies should coincide with implementation of IPM programs as in the Indonesian example. This strategy will ensure that growers are able to successfully control pest damage without substantially increasing groving costs. - 30 - Ideally, whether a pesticide product is subsidized or taxed should depend on the trade-offs between its contribution to the productivity of the crop and the sector and its actual or probable health and environmental effects. Not all pesticides are equally hazardous; not all have manageable alternatives. Therefore, a critical review of individual pesticides or groups of pesticides may result in price policies that cause very hazardous pesticides to be replaced by less hazardous ones and less selective pesticides by those that are more selective. This strategy requires a choice of pesticides in the short run, but not of chemical and nonchemical pest management techniques. This discussion has looked at price instruments as they affect pesticide demand. In developed countries, however, the common strategy to reduce demand is to severely restrict use of certain pesticides or ban them entirely. This strategy may not be effective in Asia. The government's capacity to implement bans or taxes is limited. Both require control over production facilities and the country's borders and, in the case of taxation over distribution points. Since this degree of control is unlikely, a ban or a tax would be only partially effective. The effect of each will be different, however. With a ban, a pesticide product becomes - illegal which creates a strong incentive to mislabel the product. Technical assistance from governmental agencies is highly unlikely, and the premium charged above import parity is accrued by smugglers and illegal importers. With the tax, the product is still legal. There is thus less incentive to mislabel, technical assistance from the government remains possible and the collected tax adds to public revenues. All of these factors make taxation the preferred instrument in developing countries. When the capacity to enforce regulation increases, the ban is preferred, however, as it eliminates the environmental risks caused by highly toxic pesticides (Duloy and Nicholas 1991). - 31 - VI. DEVEIDPENT AND INPLENENTATION OF PEST NANAGEXENT TECHNOLOGY Research in IPM has been conducted for many years in the Asia and Pacific region, and a great deal of IPM technology is already available. However, much of the technology has not yet reached the farmers of Southeast Asia (Heinrichs 1988). As just discussed, this is due in part to the complex cost structure of some IPM techniques, a factor that can be difficult for the researcher developing the technology to forecast. The solution may be greater interaction between researchers and growers. In the tradition of the linear technology transfer as characterized by the training and visit system (T&V), pest management guidelines were distributed unidirectionally from extension workers to growers. IPM guidelines were given to growers in the form of quantitative economic thresholds that they were supposed to remember and apply in the field. These guidelines are usually developed in research centers or on-farm trails and then generalized for the area of the extension service. Indonesia followed this method during its early attempts to introduce IPM as a national agricultural policy (RMling and van de Fliert 1991): Following the declaration of IPM as a national policy in 1986 the government requested the World Bank to allow use of US$4.19 million of loan funds for a national agricultural extension IPM training program. 32 principal trainers and 198 master trainers were trained, mass media produced, travel money and other funds provided, etc. Although the project had presidential priority, training funds did not reach training centers in time. Training materials often arrived midway through courses. Only 25% of trainees visited rice fields. The goal was to train 125,000 farmers in the T&V system, but only 10,300 actually received training. Yet the entire US$4.19 million was spent in seven months. The leakages amounted to over 91.5% of the allocated resources. Only 8.5% could be delivered to the field to train less than 10% of the farmers targeted. After these experiences, the Indonesian government with the support of the FAO IPM program for Southeast Asia changed its strategy. The program opted for a much more fundamental and penetrating approach consistent with dhe major turn-about in style and substance required for implementing IPM. It became obvious that considerable staff training is necessary to mak. an impact at the village level. The key elements of the new strategy were the same for training the trainers and the growers: individuals were motivated to ask questions rather than receive answers, and they were trained to make decisions on their own. The main training principle was, "A direct answer of a question is considered a wasted opportunity for learning. The key words of he educational process were: * discover the elements of the crop's agroecosystem * distinguish predators from pests * decide whether there are enough predators to keep pest levels low * practice and learn from experience * gain confidence to conserve natural enemies * manage the fields; do not siuply consume inputs - 32 - It is probably fair to say that there were two objectives of the IPM program--making growers aware of IPM prlnciples and training farmers so that they become "good" farmers. The management process listed above is applicable to the management of fertilization, irrigation and all other agricultural practices. The Indonesian government proceeded with the new training program as follows: Extension workers were not suitable for training growers in IPM since they already had many tasks and pest control extension is a relatively minor one. The new program chose the pest observers of the Directorate for Plant Protection for the training program. The directorate operates food crop protection centers at the provincial level and pest control field laboratories at the local level. The pest observers report to the labs, but they are assigned to the rural extension centers. Initially, 30 people formed the core of the program. These trainers trained other pest observers in batches of 50, divided in work groups of five each. Each observer receives 14 months of training in severil areas, each lasting three to four months: (1) induction training in rice IPM, (2) hands-on training of four groups of 25 farmers in the program's IPM farmer field schools, (3) training in dry season crops, and (4) a diploma course at the university (to allow them to reach a higher salary level). After training, the pest observers follow up with their four farmer groups and assist in the evaluation of the program. During this follow-up, they also train likely farmer candidates for farmer-to-farmer training. The pest obrervers maintain elaborate "insect zoos" and tend their own experimental fields. They carry out a set of experiments prescribed in the curriculum, working every morning like farmers in the field. Elaborate written manuals describe field and training methods. The goal of this training is to make the pest observers into confident IPM experts; self-teaching experimenters; and effective trainers of farmers and extension workers. The two main principles of the training are (1) agroecosystem analysis based on careful field observation and (2) dialogue (and not lecturing). The pest observer training reflects the methods they are expected to use with farmers. The central unit of the farmers' training is the IPM farmer field school, which consists of 25 farmers selected from farmers' .roups and working in groups of five. The training lasts most of the crop season. The groups meet once a week for some ten weeks to work with each stage of the rice plant development. Each group has a training field where pesticides are not automatically applied and a field where the recommended chemical package is applied. There is hardly any lecturing during the training. Trainers are not to answer questions directly but to make farmers think themselves. Farmers are being trained to become the "experts." The main activity of the groups is observing sample rice hills. Notes are made about numbers of pests and natural enemies, stage of the plant and weather conditions. Farmers often keep an 'insect zoo.' Participants receive Rp 1000 for each day for their expenses of participation. Many groups or active members begin to train other groups (farmer-to-farmer dissemination). - 33 - The present national IPM program has a two-year budget of US$10.5 million. FAO (1990) estimates that training 1,000 pest observers, 2,000 extension workers and 100,000 farmers, which is the expected accomplishment of the program after two years, will cost about US$4 million with no frills and excluding start-up costs. So far, the IPM program in Indonesia has resulted in an increase of net benefits of US$18 per farmer (US$60 per hectare) and a return (dollar for dollar) on training investment ranging from 4.6 to 8.6 (FAO 1991b). It has a great motivating effect on growers and administrators. For those reasons, it may serve as a model for farmers' training in integrated crop management in the region. There are questions about this system, however. R6ling and van de Fliert (1991) discuss whether it can train 2.5 million farmers. Also needing answers are the following: * Are there cheaper ways to train farmers on a large scale? * Is the program sustainable in the Indonesian feudal society? * Is it possible to train a farmer once and for all in IPM? * Is rice IPM training transferrable to other crops, or is additional training necessary? = Is face-to-face training necessary, or can mass media messages work as well? _ What are the criteria to select growers for the program? _ How can part-time farmers be trained in IPM? - 34 - VII. CONCLUSIONS Various factors affect pest management. In Asia, the most important are: * Increased transparency of information about pesticide markets. pesticide use, research results and programs in IPM. * Notification to pesticide-importing countries of the hazards of severely restricted or banned pesticides. * Appropriate packaging and labelling of pesticides, that is, text in the local language and scaled to the education of the end-user. * Formation of pesticide price policy--elimination of various obvious and hidden subsidies and introduction of taxes on highly hazardous pesticides and on pesticides that will require greater and greater use to maintain pest control. * Banning the use (i.e., importation and manufacture) of highly hazardous pesticides and pesticides that will require greater and greater use to maintain pest control. * Introduction, improvement and enforcement of pesticide legislation and regulation. Establishment of the necessary infrastructure, for example, field inspection stations, and laboratories for pesticide and residue testing. 3 Research and development of IPN techniques, for example, monitoring systems (thresholds), cultural practices (including resistant varieties, sanitation, protection of natural enemies, etc.), biological control, microbial and botanical pesticides and selective use of chemical pesticides. * Innovative implementation of integrated pest management and integrated crop management principles in the field. Pests are only one factor limiting agricultural development in Asia. Scarce resources for plant protection policies should be allocated according to how the following questions are answered: (a) What are the "right" IPM strategies and in what regulatory environment can IPM develop? (b) Which of the methods developed in (a) can be applied considering the status of the country, the region, the sector, the people, and the like? (c) Which of the programs identified in (b) can be undertaken given scarce resources? There is no single, regional plant protection policy. To answer each of the questions above, a considerable amount of additional data and information is necessary. The numerous examples of IPM research in China, for instance, have shown that information exists but is not readily available. The - 35 - establishment of an international data base and information retrieval network for pesticides and IPM could enhance, coordinate and help avoid duplication of research efforts. Despite the need for additional data and information, the following general conclusions can be made. The success of IPM and thus of safe and effective pest management depends on Asian growers and whether they expect IPM practices will increase their net benefits. Regulatory efforts can create a favorable environment for IPM, but in the end, growers must be convinced about the advantages of implementing concrete IPM practices. As pesticides often are a small share of the cost of production and regulation enforcement is insufficient in many countries, price policy, even taxation, and regulation will not do the job alone. Many of the alternatives to chemical pest control need additional development to compete with the well-established markets of chemical pesticides. Chemical pesticides have large financial resources for research, development and promotion, smoothly functioning distribution channels and numerous field representatives. All of these factors remain to be established for nonchemical pest control. The attempts of several national and international institutions to improve pest control by implementing monitoring systems and teaching economic thresholds have failed. There are no signs that Asian growers are applying economic thresholds. At the same time, pest problems in rice caused by outbreaks of planthoppers and in vegetables caused by pest resistance have increased dramatically. Pesticide use is increasing in most countries of the region. With the wider use of modern rice varieties, for instance, this development will continue under today's conditions. Expenditure per hectare on pesticides in Bangladesh is more than five times higher for modern varieties than for traditional varieties. If the national consumption of pesticides is to decrease, IPM programs would have to offset this increase. Whether a decrease of national consumption is desirable, however, cannot be answered with the data available. For many countries of the region, average use of pesticides per hectare is extremely low compared to developed countries. There may be regions and crops were there are no alternatives to pesticides. IPM programs will depend on chemical pesticides in the near future. However, IPM technology demands a different approach to their application than that used under green revolution technology. Successful IPM application is very knowledge-intensive. Growers must change their production behavior, that is, they must be attentative to crop development in the field and not simply apply inputs mechanically. These behavioral changes are impossible to mandate. As the Indonesian example has shown, growers must become part of the process, participating in the development of their own IPM programs. Further attention must be given to developing training programs for the majority of Asian growers and to developing specific management programs for different crops. Nonchemical pest management can then be integrated into these programs and will have a practical ground for development. - 36 - BIBLIOGRAPHY Amaritsut, W. and others. 1988. Crop protection and IPM in rainfed cropping systems in Northeast Thailand. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 135-44. Aquino, G.B., and E.A. Henrichs. 1979. Brown planthopper populations on resistant varieties treated with a resurgence-causing insecticide. International Rice Research Newsletter 4(5):12. Aros, N.M.T. 1988. Pesticide poisoning studies and data collection in Malaysia. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong,eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeasr Asia. Bandong, J.P., and J.A. Litsinger. 1988. Development of action control thresholds for major rice pests. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia pp. 95-102. BIRC, the Bio-Integral Resource Center. 1991. Least-Toxic Pest Management in China. Berkeley, California. Bottrell, D.G. 1979. Integrated Pest Management. Council on Environmental Quality. Washington, D.C. Browning, J.A. 1974. Relevance of knowledge about natural ecosystems to development of pest management programs for agro-ecosystems. Proc. Amer. PhytoDathol. Soc. 1:191-99. Burn, A.J., T.H. Coaker, and P.C. Jepson. 1987. Integrated Pest Management. London: Academic Press. Cammell, M.E., and N.J. Way. 1987. Forecasting and monitoring. In Burn, A.J., T.H. Coaker, and P.C. Jepson, eds., Integrated Pest Management. pp. 1-23. Castafieda, C.P. 1988. Pesticide poisoning data collection in the Philippines. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. CDFA, California Department of Agriculture. 1990. Food and Agriculture Code and Code of Regulation. Sacramento. CIRAD, International Co-operation Centre of Agriculture Research for Development. 1990. Regional Agro-Pesticide Index. Vol.l. Bangkok, Thailand. Clausen, C.P. 1978. Introduced parasites and predators of arthropod pests and weeds: A world review. USDA Handbook No. 480. DeBach, P. 1964. Biological Control of Insects Pests and Weeds. Reinhold, New York. pp. 844. Deng, Ziong and others. 1988. Methods of increasing the winter-survival of Metaseiulus occidentalxs [Acari: Phytoseiidae] in North West China. Abstracted in Chinese J. Bio. Control 4(3):101. - 37 - Djamin, A. 1988. Crop protection and pest management of oil palm in Indonesia. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 205-12. DouLt, R.L. 1972. Biological control: Parasites and predators. In: Pest Control Strategies for the Future. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. pp. 288-97. Duloy, J., and P. Nicholas. 1991. Controlling pesticide pollution: The choice between regulation and taxation. The World Bank. Washington, D.C. Discussion Draft. Fadeev, I.N., and K.V. Novozhilov. 1987. Integrated Plant Protection. New Delhi. Fan, Guanghua, and Jianfang Zhao. 1988. Effects of 12 commonly used pesticides on lady beetle Coccinella septempuncta. Journal of Plant Protection 14(6):20-21. (In Chinese.) FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1986. International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides. Rome. 1990. Status and management of major vegetable pests in the Asia Pacific region. RAPA Publ. No. 1990/3. Rome. 1991a. Rice IPM in Asia, Briefing Kit, April. Unpublished report. Rome. 1991b. Highlights in IPM implementation 1990-1991 in selected Asian national programs collaborating with the FAO Intercountry IPM Program. Prepared for the PPAB Meeting 22 May. Rome. Flint, M.L. 1989. Annual Report, Statewide IPM Project. University of California. Flint, M.L., ar-' R. van den Bosch. 1977. A source book on integrated pest management. Univ. Calif. Int. Center for Integrated and Biol. Control. Gaston, C.P. 1990. Promoting safe and efficient use of pesticides in the region. Agrochemical News in Brief 8(l):28-30. Graham-Bryce, I.J. 1987. In A.J. Burn, T. H. Coaker, and P.C. Jepson, eds., Integrated Pest Management. pp. 113-59. Granovsky, T.A. and others. 1985. Trainers Manual for Pesticide Users. Consortium for International Crop Protection, U.S. Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C. Greathead, D.J., and J.D. Waage. 1983. Opportunities for biological control of agricultural pests in developing countries. Technical paper 11. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Greenfield, J.C. 1989. Vetiver Grass (Vetiveria spp.): The ideal plant for vegetative soil and moisture conservation. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. - 38 - Griliches, Zvi. 1958. Research costs and social returns: Hybrid corn and related innovations. J. Polit. Econ. 66(1958):419-31. Grossman, Joel.. 1991a. Biological control of weeds in China. In: Least- Toxic Pest Management in China. The Bio-Integral Resource Center, Berkeley, California. 1991b. Good potential for botanical molluscicides. In: Least-Toxic Pest Management in China. The Bio-Integral Resource Center, Berkeley, California. Guangyu, Zhang. 1991. First commercial viral pesticide in China. In: Least-Toxic Pest Management in China. The Bio-Integral Resource Center, Berkeley, California. Han, Jingsheng. 1990. Use of antitranspirant epidermal coatings for plant protection in China. Plant Disease 74(4):263-66. Beijing Agr. Univ., PRC. Hasse, V., A. Drews, R. Corales, and A. Querubin. 1988. An approach to integrated pest management: Activities of the Philippine-German cotton project. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. Heinrichs, E.A. 1988. Role of insect-resistant varieties in rice in IPM systems. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. Heinrichs, E.A., and others. 1986a. Management of the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, with oarly maturing rice cultivars. Environmental Entomology, 15:93-95. Heinrichs, E.A., H.R. Rapusas, G.B. Aquino, and Palis, F. 1986b. Integration of host plant resistance and insecticides in the control of Nephotettix virescens (Distant) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), a vector of rice tungro virus. J. Economic Entomology 13:359-65. Heul-Rolf and Vungsilabutr. 1988. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. Ho, C.T. 1988. Pest management on cocoa in Malaysia. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds. Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 193-203. Ho, C.T., and K.L. Heong. 1984. Decision plans based on sequential counts for implementation of rat control programs in cocoa. Jour. of P1. Prot. in the TroDics 1(l):9-18. Huffaker, C.B., and P.S. Messenger. 1976. Theory and Practice of Biological Control. Londot;: Academic Press. IRRI, International Rice Research Institute. 1990. Workshop on the Environmental and Health Impacts of Pesticide Use in Rice Culture. Proceedings, March 1990, Los Banos, Philippines. No date. Rice machinery development. Los Banos, Philippines. - 39 - Jackson, G.I. 1991. Agrochemical usage in the Asia Region: A reference compendium. World Bank, Asia Technical Agriculture Division, Washington, D.C. Johson, E.L. 1990. Pesticide regulation in developing countries of the Asia and Pacific Region. Aurochemicals News in Brief. Special Issue, November 1990. FADINAP/ARSAP/ESCAP. Bangkok, Thailand. Kaske, R. 1988. IMP activities in coconut in Southeast Asia. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 181-86. Kritalugsana, S. 1988. Pesticide poisoning studies and data collection in Thailand. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. Levey, H.A. 1940. American vetiver and its production. The Drug and Cosmetic Industry Nov. 1940:47(3):334-38. Li, T.S., and J.G. He. 1988. Polistes wasps control cotton and wheat pests. Kun-chon_ Zhishi 28(2):108-09. Abstracted in: The IPM Practitioner 10(8):14. Li, Zengzhi, and Yi Pang. 1991. Microbial pest control in China. In: Least-Toxic Pest Management in China. Berkely, California: The Bio Integral Resource Center. Liang, D.R. 1987. In: Insecticidal Microbes, Vol. I. Beijing: Agr. Press, pp. 76-80. Liang, D.R. and others. 1986. In: Institute of Virology, Univ. Wuhan. Sci. Tech. ed. The Atlas of Insect Viruses in China. Changsha: Hunan Press. Liau, S.S. 1988. Pest management on oil palm in Malaysia. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds. Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 187-92. Lim, G.S. 1988. IPM of Pluetella Xylostella (L.) on vegetables in Southeast Asia: Rationale, need, and prospects. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 123-29. Lindner, R.K., and F.G. Jarrett. 1978. Supply shifts and the size of research benefits. Amer. J. Agric. Econ. 60(l):48-58. Litsinger, J.A. 1984. Assessment of need-based insecticide applications for rice. Paper presented at MA-IRRI Technology Transfer Workshop March 15, 1984. Litsinger, J.A. 1989. Second generation insect pest problems on high yielding rices. Tropical Pest Management 35(3):235-42. Liu, Hechang, and Lanping Qin. 1987. Mass rearing of Coccinella septem- punctata to control Aphis gossypii in Hebei Province. Chinese Journal of Biological Control 3(3):138. (In Chinese). - 40 - McCarl, B.A. 1981. Economics of integrated pest management. An interpretive review of the literature. Special Report 636. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis. Mwmford, J.D. 1986. Control of the cocoa pod borer (Acrocercops cramerella): A critical review. In E. Pushparajah and P.S. Chew, eds., Cocoa and Coconuts: Progress and Outlook. Incorporated Society of Planters. pp. 287-92. Kustamin, 1. 1988. Health hazards due to the use of pesticides in Indonesia: Data collection and surveys. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 301-09. Myint, M.M., H.R. Rapusas, and E.A. Heinrichs. 1986. Integration of vtarietal resistance and predation for the management of Nephotettix virescens (Homoptera:Cicadellidae) populations on rice. CroR Protection 5:259-65. Nakasuji, F. and K. Kiritani. 1976. Epidemiology of rice dwarf virus in Japan. Paper presented at a seminar on The Rice Brown Planthopper, Oct. 4-10, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region. Tokyo. Napometh, B. 1988. Status of biological control in non-rice crops in Southeast Asia. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 123-29. NAS, National Academy of Science. 1969. Principles of plant and animal pest control. Insect-Rest Management and Control (Nat. Acad. of Sci. Pub.) 1695(3). 508 p. News in Brief. 1990. Pesticides. PIC-Recent developments. Agrochemical News in Brief 8(2):23-25. NRC, National Research Council. 1987. Regulating Pesticides in Food. National Academic Press, Washington, D.C. Oka. 1988. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. Olkowski, H., and Z. Zhang. 1989. Masstrapping the poplar clearwing moth in China. The IPM Practitioner 11(8):15. Olkovski, W. 1991. Alternatives to toxic pesticides: Learning from China. In: Least-Toxic Pest Management in China. The Bio-Integral Resource Center, Berkeley, California. Olkowski, W., and S. Daar. 1989. Update: Chinese use insect-atticing nematodes against major pests. The IPM Practitioner ll(l1/12):1-8. Olkowski, W., and Anghe Zhang. 1991a. Ageratum cover crop aids citrus biocontrol in China. In: Least-Toxic Pest Management in China. The Bio-Integral Resource Center, Berkeley, California. 1991b. Trichogramma modern day frontier in biological control. In: Least-Toxic Pest Management in China. The Bio-Integral Resource Center, Berkeley, California. - 41 - Olkowski, W., Anghe Zhang, and Paul Thiers. 1991. Improved biocontrol techniques with lady beetles. In: Least-Toxic Pest Management in China. The Bio-Integral Resource Center, Berkeley, California. Oudejans, J. 1990. Plant protection policies and regulatory infrastructure. Agrochemical News in Brief (Special Issue) November. FADINAP/ARSAP/ESCAP. Bangkok, Thailand. Peng, Y.K. 1985. Field release of Chrysopa sinica as a strategy in the integrated control of Panonychus citri. Chinese J. of Bio. Control l(l):2-7. Abstracted in The IPM Practitioner 10(1l/12):17. Prachuabmoh, 0. and others. 1988. IPM activities in sugar cane in Thailand. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 174-80. Pu, Z.L., and Y. Pang. 1984. In Z.L. Pu, ed., Principles and Methods of Biological Control of Insect Pests. Beijing: Science Press, pp. 221- 62. Pu, Z.L., and others. 1980. In: Res. Inst. of Entomol. of Zhongshan Univ. Bulletin No. 1. pp. 1-34. Radcliff, E.B., and others. 1991. Neem in Niger: A new context for a system of indigenous knowledge. Entomology Dept., University of Minnesota. Draft. Rola, A.C., and P.E. Kenmore. 1986. Evaluating the integrated pest management technology in the Philippines: A case study of Calamba rice farmers (unpublished report.) Roling and van de Fliert. 1991. SAM, Sahabal Alam Malaysia. 1984. Pesticide Dilemma in the Third World: A Case Study of Malaysia. Penanag: SAM. Soekarna, D. 1988. The role of insecticides in rice IPM systems. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 67-72. Staring, W.D.E. 1984. Pesticides: Data Collection Systems and Supply, Distribution and Use in Selected Countries of the Asia-Pacific Region. Bangkok, Thailand: ESCAP, U.N.0. Tait, E.J. 1987. Planning an integrated pest management system. In A.J. Burns, T.H. Coaker, and P.C. Jepson, Integrated Pest Management. Teng, P.S. and K.L. Heong, eds. 1988. Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. Proceedings of the Southeast Asia Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management Workshop, February 23-27, 1987, Pattaya, Thailand. College Par, Md.: Consortium for International Crop Protection. Tong, X.W. and others. 1988. Enhanced egg parasitization of Dedro-limus punctatus (lep.: Lasiocampidae) by supplementing host eggs in the forest. Chinese J. of Bio. Control 4(3):118-22. Abstracted in The IPM Practitioner 11(2}:12. - 42 - Tran, L.C., R. Bustamante, and S.A. Hassan. 1988. Release and recovery of Trlchogramma evanescens Westw. in corn fields in the Philippines. In INRA (Paris), ed., Trlchogranwm and Other Egg Parasites. Second International Symposium, Guangzhou (China), Nov. 10-15, 1986. Tran-Gruber, L.C. 1988. Biocontrol of the corn stalk borer in the Philippines. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 131-34. Trichogramma News. Monthly newsletter by the Institute for Biological Pest Control of the Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Heinrichstr. 243, D-G100 Darmstadt, Federal Republic of Germany. Tryon, E.H., and J.A. Litsinger. 1988. Feasibility of using locally produced Bacillus thuringiensis to control tropical insect nests. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 73-81. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 1984. Integrated pest management for cotton in the western region in the United States. Publication 3305. Oakland. 1 l990a. Integrated pest management for tomatoes. Oakland. University of California, IPM Group. 1990b. Annual Report. Statewide IPM Project of the University of California. VCES, Virginia Cooperative Extension Service. 1987. The national evaluation of extension's integrated pest management (IPM) programs. VCES Publication 491-010. Waibel, H. 1988. Some new aspects on economic thresholds in rice. J. Pl. Prot. Tropics 5(l):31-37. 1990. Pesticide subsidies and the diffusion of IPM in rice in Southeast Asia: The case of Thailand. FAO Plant Prot. Bull. Vol. 38(2). Waibel, H., and P. Meenakanit. 1988. Economics of integrated pest control in rice in Southeast Asia. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated Pest Management in Southeast Asia. pp. 103- 11. Walker, P.T. 1983. Crop losses: The need to quantify the effects of pests, diseases and weeds an agricultural production. Agric.. Ecosystems and Environ. 9(1983):119-58. Wane,, H.K. 1988. Field trials of spraying Beauveria bassiana against Pyrrhalta aenescens on elm trees. Chinese J. of Bio. Control 4(2):89. Abstracted in The IPM Practitioner 10(6/7):13. WHO, World Health Organization. 1973. Technical Report Series No. 531. Geneva. - 43 - Wiebers, U.-C. 1987. Economic Evaluation of Cotton Defoliants in an Intensive Cropping System in Lower Egypt. Schering AG (internal publication), Berlin, Germany. 1989. Selected Pesticide Markets in Kenya. Schering AG, (internal publication), Berlin, Germany. 1991. Productivity, Demand, and Environmental Risk of Pesticides and Integrated Pest Management in Processing Tomatoes in California. USEPA Report. Berkeley, California. Forthcoming. Wirjosuhardjo, S. 1988. Overview of IPM infrastructure and implementation on estate crops in Indonesia. In P.S. Teng and K.L. Heong, eds., Pesticide Management and Integrated FAst Management in Southeast Asia. Wood, B.J. 1982. Progress in the control of tropical field rats. Proceedings of Int. Conf. P1. Prot. in the Tropics, Kuala Lumpur. pp. 423-48. Xu, Q.F. 1988. Some problems about the study of the application of Beauverla bassiana against agricultural and forest pests in China. Inyunwei Li and others, eds., Study and Application of Entomogenous Fungi in China. Vol. 1. Academic Periodicals Press, Beijing. pp. 1-10. Xu, Qinfeng and others. 1988. Experiments on the effect of Beauveria bassiana on some natural enemies. In Yunwei Li and others, eds., Study and Application of Entomogenous Fungi in China. Editors: Li, Yunwei et al. Vol 1. Academic Periodicals Press, Beijing. 255 pp. (in Chinese). Yu, J.H. 1988. Locust-eating birds and their recruitment in prairies of Tianshan Mt. Chinese J. of Bio. Control 4(2):68-70. Abstracted in The IPM Practitioner 10(6/7):18. Zelazny, B. 1979. Loss in coconut yield due to Oryctes rhinoceros damage. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin 27:65-70. Zhang and others. 1981. Agricultural Science Hubei (7):25-27. Zhang, L. and others. 1989. Biological control of a wood borer in China. The IPM Practitioner 11(5):5-7. Zhang, Y.Q. and others. 1987. In: Insecticidal Microbes, Vol. I. Beijing: Agricultural Press, pp. 48-54. Zhejiang Agricultural University, Entomology faculty, ed. 1982. Agricultural Entomology. 2nd edition, Vol. I. Shanghai: Shanghai Sci. and Tech. Publishing House. Also abstracted in The IPM Practitioner 10(10):14-15. Zhou, Mingzang and others. 1986. Studies on the integrated control of cotton insects in north China. Acta Phytoghylacia Sinica 13(4):251-58 (in Chinese). Zilberman, D., and J.B. Siebert (ed.). 1990. Economic Perspectives on Pesticide Use in California. Dept. of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of California, Berkeley. - 44 - GLOSSARY Active ingredient. The biologically active part of the pesticide present in a formulation. Banned. A Substance for which all registered uses have been prohibited by final government regulatory action, or for which all requests for registration or equivalent action for all uses have, for health or environmental reasons, not been granted. Carbamates. See Organophosphates. Common name. The name assigned to a pesticide's active ingredient by the International Standards Organization or adopted by national standards authorities to be used as a generic or nonproprietary name for that particular active ingredient only. Cross-protection. A method of protecting plants against damage from severe strains of a virus by infecting them with a mild strain of the same virus. Formulation. The combination of various ingredients designed to render the product useful and effective for the purpose claimed: the form of the pesticide as purchased by users. Hazard. The likelihood that a pesticide will cause an adverse effect (injury under the conditions in which it is used. Inasecticides. See Carbamates, Organochlorines, Organophosphates, Synthetic pyrethroids. Integrated pest management. Where pest management is coordinated with production practices to achieve economical protection from pest injury while minimizing hazards to crops, human health, and the environment. The emphasis is on anticipating and preventing problems whenever possible. Key pest. Regular pests under existing agricultural conditions at various growing stages. Key pests are best controlled by regular suppression of populations below economic levels by use of attrition methods (e.g., selective chemicals, sterile male techniques, biocontrol, cultural control, resistant strains). Label. Written, printed or graphic matter on or attached to the pesticide or the immediate container thereof and to the outside container or retail package of the pesticide. LDs. A dose lethal to 50% of the test animals (rats or rabbits) measured as milligrams of active ingredient of pesticide per kilogram of the test animal (mg/kg). Generally two values are given: "LD,o oral" (ingestion) and "LD,0 dermal" (absorption through the skin). These measures for acute toxicity provide guidelines for grower and worker safety. - 45 - Probable Oral Lethal Dose LD50 Categories for a 150 lb. woman less than 50 mg/kg I--Highly Toxic A few drops to a teaspoon 50-500 mg/kg II--Moderately Toxic More than a teaspoon to an ounce 500-5000 mg/kg III--Slightly Toxic More than an ounce to one pint or one pound more than 5000 IV--Relatively Non- More than one pint or one pound mg/kg Toxic Source: Granovsky 1985. Maxinum residue limit (hRL). The maximum concentration of a residue that is legally permitted or recognized as acceptable in or on a food, agricultural commodity or animal feedstuff. Occasional pests. Pests that are often found in small numbers under natural conditions, but that have the potential of outbreaks. It is possible to predict the necessity of intervention for control of outbreaks and often chemicals are the means of control. Organochlorines. Tend to build up in fatty tissues of the body over a long period of time. They are commonly the cause of chronic poisoning. Common organochlorines include: aldrin, dieldrin, BHC, endrin, chlordane, heptachlor, DDT. Organophosphates. With Carbamates, these chemicals are most commonly involved in acute poisoning cases. They are fast-acting and are considered more dangerous than organochlorines. Common examples of organophosphates are diazinon, malathion, and parathion; of carbaamates, aldicarb, carbaryl, propoxur. Pest resurgence. Occurs when an existing pest is susceptible to an insecticide but its natural enemies are even more severely affected. Treatments may then give satisfactory initial control, but in the absence of biological control the pest population may subsequently increase to even higher levels than before treatment (Graham-Bryce 1987). Pesticide legislation. Any laws or regulations pertaining to the manufacture, marketing, storage, labelling, packaging, and use of pesticides in their qualitative, quantitative and environmental aspects. Pesticide. Any substance or mixture of substances that can be used to prevent, destroy or control any pest--including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport, or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs--or that can be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids or other pests in or on their bodies. The term includes substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, or agent for thinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit, and substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport. Plant-back period. A specified time period after the application of a pesticide during which certain crops are not recommended to be planted. - 46 - Pesticide residues in the soil may contaminate the food crop or may damage the plant's productivity. Potential pests. Those that occur through artificial disturbances and, in most cases, are naturally regulated once the disturbance lessens. Registration. The process whereby the responsible national government authority approves the sale and use of a pesticide following the evaluation of comprehensive scientific data demonstrating that the product is effective for the purposes intended and not unduly hazardous to human or animal health or the environment. Residue. Any specified substances in food, agricultural commodities, or animal feed resulting from the use of a pesticide, such as conversion products, metabolites, reaction products, and impurities considered to be of toxicological significance. The term pesticlde residue includes residues from unknown or avoidable sources (e.g., environmental) as well as known uses of the chemical. Risk. The expected frequency of undesirable effects of exposure to the pesticide. Secondary pest outbreaks. The transformation of a phytophagus species normally maintained at low levels by natural enemies into an economic pest by the use of (broad-spectrum) insecticides targeted at the primary pest (Graham- Bryce 1987). Severely restricted - a limited ban. A pesticide for which virtually all registered uLes have been prohibited by final government regulatory action but for which certain specific registered use or uses remain authorized. Synthetic pyrethroids. A relatively new group of pesticides that are fast- acting and of relatively low human toxicity. Pyrethroids have very low application rates (1/10 or 1/20 that of organophosphates). Common synthetic pyrethroids are: allethrin fenevalerate, cypermethrmn, permethrin, decamethrin and resmethr in. Toxicity. A physiological or biological property that determines the capacity of a chemical to do harm or produce injury to a living organism by other than a mechanical means. - 47 - APPENDIX 1 PESTICIDE USE REGULATION: SU!MWIY OF PESTICIDE REGULATION AFFECTING THE GROVER IN CALIFORNIA The legislation and regulation of pesticide use in California is extensive and is written in the Food and Agricultural Code and Code of Regulation (CDFA 1990). The most important parts directly concerning growers and new developments are summarized here. Only registered pesticides (i.e., products approved by U.S. EPA) may be used for pest control. As a result of the registration process, use restrictions are developed and published on the product's label. Pesticides must be applied according to the label. The application is (or can be) restricted to specific crops, growth stages, type of application, dose rate, site, plant-back period and workers' reentry into the field. There are further possession and use limitations for restricted pesticides that include most pesticides except sulfur, lime, copper products and a few others. An official license is necessary to own or apply a restricted product. A permit system controls the use of restricted pesticides before the application. The ooerator of the property to be treated or an authorized representative (i.e., pest control advisor) must request permission. The application for permission includes the following information: location; areas that could be adversely affected by the use of pesticides such as schools, residential areas, lakes, and so on; crop; pesticide; pest; date of application or growth stage; and technical information about the application (CDFA 1990, § 6428). The application for permission is evaluated and granted or rejected by the CDFA commissioner of the county. The criterion for the commissioner's evaluation is the environmental impact of the application (§ 6432). The commissioner must be notified at least 24 hours prior to using a pesticide requiring a permit (§ 6434). At least 5% of the sites identified in permits or notices of intent to apply a pesticide must be monitored by the commissioner (I 6436). For the safety of the pesticide worker, age, employee training, emergency medical care, medical supervision, working alone, washing facilities, clothing, equipment, light field reentry after pesticide application for specific crops and pesticides and other aspects are regulated (§ 6700 - §6778). The regulation, in operation since January 1, 1990, requires that any person who uses pesticides for agricultural use or industrial post-harvest purposes must keep pesticide use records and submit monthly pesticide use reports to the commissioner (§ 6624 - § 6627). In summary, the use of pesticides in California for agriculture is controlled by registering products, issuing permits to users, monitoring and reporting on their use. - 48 - APPENDIK 2 PESTICIDE MARKETS AND PESTICIDE REGULATION IN TWELVE ASIAN COUNTRIES CWy mookl .. 1_ i h I Arm Md. am _UIOd" Htbda rde Atag lam ib rn hNW a""e utre4ed rnwoof d4m of elm. a1 lgwed s 163 _ r r_ heqda tri ee m ___ mpw U CNHr 530. 200C000 166 . he rice ($314 .1 72X I6S 122 Sll 9era.ent In 1tp O actIwe veemtables (S7 ') 12S5 1t59 * t14) a conetrolled; nr IJX Ingredipnts t( i Imprt wide, 1r % wtdeet (44 a)pt _vii. 4711 0.48 kg/ha 13 a ha c:ttonJ 1240 ml 77X 17. 6W ga5a-HiC". aslaot I,, ri. a11 e:ier ephee. ) 1Xmacseb. lhopsoA 20 (1955) p1:11i70 *ru lentetlo frit 64?. IIX 211 ptr ''lon- free 130 (1989) 13 100 I'le"1 crepes gitrs. rice (201r t te frts rice (6I6 pwtAyl rrfco 1*% e th 3.3M moange ilophet I I I I 1|s@s1 ptne I fruits7R_ 122 |. frit. |ines riSeIr00a12 wl tho-'01 .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~c(2 r_bb:r captox Iubber 152 a) (622 .3. mecemeb colro l) goeve propiXeb MuDe (ha * I1 r3 gereq)at; :waerCan: (1). *7 214 L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ su ir ee ____ ____ ___ _ __ ___ _ __ _ Irdeyse 109 oil Palo (312.3 a. 1.rc 61. 78W. 247 n. *e^@ fd1e arlet .erbicides J21 M)$ ih,gr...nte very divre,s r'Abler(S))., dltribatl* ______________ _______________________r 2j . .c he - oass I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ .tiiirdvu. ,0 _ .ii _ , _rige (640.) 62W 18W 201_ bensnae (116 7) rice (J614 rnnual s|tubler rle {15 1 R) v#lus) vulweut-bl-- is Vs .) 0 Ind*vrenis non-rlcer non- rigs mnsarig.: non-rigs: noan-rica: WensC-'*ephos. sbelislAgnt obeliahewwet 5I rice: la ( 0 47 1i1 251 dbazl,.--. of rlevarva ef all 9_M he e r es r (123.) c5rks* 1. di tributsr tibol ift slpe (15.512 .3 prepi -lv Pertsnif. January 'Ml 01cnCo.-s fr.e maorlt. *snele.i.si, ~1.1 1.Uoo 200 ective 0.1. Iea rice 601.. suusrc.ne. 9O. 21 2W. 117 rd..ct Ion by Ingradients (rice, Colton. wa.s big%. 112.6 Me 50.1S M 0.21 M fero,wi-11ons sOW n 2o 973. 2o81) jula inmevd ii. lvi Ls,ho 22 rice ($10.7 M) lOW. (of S value) 71 (of S 43?. (of S gseam..lifii annual veabs,rfce (15.1 m). Vs1 ne) Valse toegotpho growth of apcel hle vemetebles (54 as) rice 61 .6 aeoe I'S?. (66.3.) .1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 prof'.1 tee/ruwber (12.56 ) l .3 1~1b4 pore ,at Vlot NW" ~~~~~~~~0.3-0.4 to total control a.i./hoi. law, of increanlingietsin ______________ .______________ -___________ etce. r __t____ _ Souirc,.: Jackson 1991; Gaston 1990. Co,ill,y M.at e Matt Ir Muuliut bI Arm Mod"n ete knomidldo Fw4ddo IH.Udm Mdi Lm.in ft. P. ia__ In mo fomu*eted tfated busted e t Wt of d sd g of dwe of r_fterud team O k.p.dur* rs taed b rAeted m. "mind was p1oacu &AGWV__ Mwuivinu 0.042 kg/he le, 40% eliriu asll vera lw. gotten tut. W001 re ~~~~~~~~grouudm.ute 20. dl.zluen. 1PN - Inftatlin __ fe.troehlo.__ Fe" Now *ltI.atedted pltternt 10% 60% 301 puruqvot. um., 1.1-Z. au.tcpse. Wuetaui Iet toutIted : pittu 0. .3 u.buh~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~aaites~ Source: Jackson 1991; Gaston 1990. U' 0 Coa,y ApAsidan Eftly of ttatdon Pu4*ega.g Aty Pdoe Padt4 nce bitosaw Prol t t0ow Pselo deae1 Ctn, Environmental Protection Act (1962) Limited, lekitlg Into besic ICAA Padect qIality posoi de provislonal guidelIneS. law of pesticide eontrol." tlt mliv... ph1tatoaicfts. IClau RagtratiOn fter 3-Near trial. NO rgulalien eflfrcetet On of paper for *ublicat Standards do not confor, with fAO domeste mmnufecture. tr.1altE,ef piper. t t&.S fuidelines for packaging snd No residu, limit. thig relafo in of . tpop s Ebheling. ahraea tnceial Iabnr ateVria .; itr e.. ., peaticiee, sOeond or thl.d _______________________________ belt ckeF ce* ar c bh mical. leLe Insecticide Act (196. 71. Contrl On bravsica. Psu s,aMaN. Unkno" 2n,ut Rodu an w:tables despite Re,itrattio (19 9) not In harmony In ectisido a eopera, p un d orgeschlorinos e.h rvat-intervat with FAa Code. Board (CIB) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~to bacco *P " poa nwo o lifly to Piave Inforuetin on label,. orgeanchlorilsas OP., eeaSt. carbaryle and pyrathroids. on Cott4in t4adds twnsi to _yrethrolids In Andre ITW Id Pisonoeus Artilev Aoe 196* Shortege of scientists. i4dodd In cotton to Pelsening, residues Lew farmer cameraensima of Rhedregistration dv ead It 6S. labarterie tpyrathrofde, t'|o fi the t foeeod eroe. Ue ifetarhe re and Pttered p er erpogliel triasa their releveace to cb ftrol .,gItry C. t oI tall podwt in'9 oie h aaaor ytm aba,fml o no (i rin, 0013. resistaRca. Shortaliz of fore ,ualit;ty cantrol sin ho lisa. 0. gwth regalataryeyet tt al tt laboth ip ybar. lIsffi e*dcatiln' "I"b'ama ,prtria imottion gond trelanig of fersers. Use Indications o resistane to b 'aned). of rtl. highly te;tc prodeet. * Use at ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ products.o hhai health effet,, 8,000 distribatige points complicate an forcemeat of the reguleaion. qua Ity Faed pechaling 2, lMe ashttlf) d ef loca ofy Id UMd bde Pesticidet Act (1974). lmple.entattin only In Pesticides Hl,h levels ef resisteace to LIOrn end dIgldrIn False labeling and prduct Ralietratlen of lIported products Peninsular Malaysia. ffctivs Boared. H_A a. carbates ttill Ieot. Mare :deltnr tioa. Rasideas in ('76, 1Labellng ('603). Llcenslng for Seps. Ile. Importation of pj'rethreide ed macect then 1000 etable, ":':e,u~lion of municipal pest ill eaal pesticides. greoth reguletere. hO eccpryrf eed of He ressuleeion of runlelpol pat relesnc. to B. peicoulAg a yar control ameratars. ___________minly suiciels. __________________tj PISIppfnes Presidential Decree Generally product regiFterd fertilizer ad Pe an cabbsge and thrips {1917) g .'stration after 3 lear, before hurrent reglationare Pestied on vegtbles to OP Ing FdLO guidellies. De a still on e marbat (mre Authority (FPA) carbaetea ned pyritF IO d. requiraemntes teaclogy reeldus tecic OP fPA hoe rt Stonad grin moeil enfVren,antal effects, mdCaIy asalytisal labaratori. roelftant 50 chlorinated date, etc. Inf:rcamont by Inadequate ceordinaties among h c o P nd Pravincial Coordinrters. Od I a antforcn r:tulation. harboarbon. -____________ _ __________________________________ labeling of produets. _ Indoneia Governazmnt ecree Ne. 1 l1g7) . Sound frameworh, but problems hAL BP" In rice to carbsuatas Fish billed by Residuas In .a7tsa Ids. Government Decre to. e 44 (e). In practical 1-planetter and OP's. Several lnsects endosulfat. Misuse of pest ides npros 3 (66) I banned B7 preaucts Cap in aciento fc *prts in egetabl to OP ., (adosufas far bilingo fisnl e.g., Op's in rle, and inreraefed an the specialist cemitta,s. cabmt,s pythroda. Ieog?etiel disrsty cassa impart duty on poetfcides 6.feld (t crdination amn aenes Dosag of Ba is incroan problems n tranigterser. OtX). end enferceeunt. Shortage of to control Pu aid COtforcg trre;letied Use treind eatenjion worhers, D'of DOaT r n"apina ricer vog Ceb....a freit. F1lie labellig. p,.dnct Sources: Jackson 1991, Gaston 1990 Counsti pitdado ta of cy @9 Nagsdadowt Aqdew q Apewy _ eedd Ped lme bdse.mwa Prol'" co Poelderdesed Preot.a *an c.h Petletido Ordinance 1971. Pesticlde It uested assistance for Pestlcide Flas polsoning Pestlclde leboratsrtis not Rules 19g5. Adoption of FAO Code. ea7ercaent spate.. There ar, Advlsory saffictlytI; eqai'Pp4. Ragietretion ead license syote. for noe ficlitize for oaa-lhide TechnicaleT srtages of * rt , parts. iepertere merwfacturerM. etc. testin ofmt erial Ir Cmo_anty Plant e-lcels nd servcing RegtstrAlton holaed an overies dlstrilutin Iheore4re: Protectaie Wi falitles. Qjelity conto-l at llterature and triels of 2-3 years. adulteration, dilution and Ali Cstensten. *ndiasar level. tacs of eillableiin. One-fifth of meA eppletion eaualoet. use o pesticides er* smuggled fro- ape nsiv ad peor.qallt f___I__India _ _ _ __ Gil La,*e Control of Pesticide, Act (1ISO). Rlegstrar of Pesticide% lts Registrar of Import restrictfons on The Contral Pr&e-hrveal Inter.ols er* rot 2-yer field tating for tbe staff and faliltles for P istiides and S pyrethrolds to avoid Environment kept. .g. la atatbles. re::t,.tio. Impl,enting FAO Code proper hnforement. Shortalge other reistIance Insect groth Authority Is not Comperat vylp Fig a.-.one,n f Conduct. Restricted Import of of I to I io GNIcl l "aorardent ibut ndlicrlinte as pyr1thr1odn to 1.000 litre mnimu. and trained staff, . h Imebr an popular. nitr overse f pesticides still (cont Ol Of CPH ...urgaee and I hibta proper motit.Ing of fnironen co_on. Use of highly tocic rslesncel rsdus problems. No date. adr e do products .- ldrIn c.ptaefol. dichloropropeve. orgene. VMleNWn Nen Dt. of Plant Polsoring. Illicrey pc g ir'po.tod Production end labesl In origin. 1 lengage. Protection of _ _A __ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ uyMArs,5 FAO Code Saes In original containers, lmport: Hymnnar leb .ls, estension monitoring, Agele. Service residue monitorina. Ppul Now Recent Impleventetion of Coda Porqut appli tlons by Poisoning dwe to Owirdd registration, labeling ads. training lC:ansed prao r:. priquat. O1lotr!bu,len * pet!cld^ _Only_at_thresho ld _levels. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Wseidin OiO Po"Ion, Act (lge) v control on g Ppt. requested FAO Health Dept. High Incdence of I2scasilv use of pesticides on petfcidm ate, lebali osatentce In drIfttng palsoing vgtables pst resistane Sources Jacksoin 1191 Gaston g9g 1 Sources: Jackson 1991, Gaston 1990 - 53 - APPENDIX 3 TECHNIQUES AND EFFECTS OF IPX IN ASIA This list is not intended as a "handbook for Asia IPH" but a cross section of practices that fall into the range of integrated pest management. Practices are listed alphabetically by crop. In addition, the target pest or pests and the type of the technique (biological, cultural, chemical and microbial pesticide) are specified. The results, stage of development and scale of use are described if known. If the scale of use is not specified, use in field trials should be assumed. The last column of the table gives the reference for further reading. - Pest .._ __-_- Apple *Alligatorweed, China Biological, Introduction of the weed-eating Beetle was Introduced In southtrn Grossman 1991a,b Alternanthera Classical beetle, Agasicles hygvphtolia. China and showed some success In philoxerroides The beetle is protected by a controlling the weed. cage over the plants for early sprlng releases. _ _ Apple Bitter rot, China Chemical Application of GZ1 at Sg/l, a The product was recently Han 1990 6i1merella stable water emulsion with developed and was tested In field cingulata dodecyl alcohol as the main trials. Reduction of bitter rot cuomnent. It forms a film or was 84X cmpared with controls. membrane on the plant's surface Testing so far has not shown any that allows passage of oxygen or enviromnental toxicity at ______ _______ _ _ _ carbon dioxide but not water. recoemnnded concentrations. Apple mites China Biological, Introduction of predatory mite In experiments of 1983-86 In Deng et al. 1988 Classical (Netaseiulus occidentalis) from northwest China, the predator California. To ensure mite failed to overwinter. The overvintering, waste cotton and trunk covering resulted In wheat husks covered with plastic overwintering and effective bandages were wrapped around control of Eotetranychus pruni. trunks. Apple Mites China Cultural Covering tree trunks with waste The survival of predator mites Deng et al. 1988 cotton and wheat husks held durIng periods of severe cold against the bark with plastic (i.e., -7.30C) Increased and mite bandages; piling leaf and grass infestation decreased. debris under the tree canopy. Apple Peach fruit borer China Blological Properly timed application of Control was equaled and In sow Olkowski and Daar entonogenous nematode Stererneuia cases exceeded control by 1989 carpouapsae as aqueous synthetic chemicals. suspension sprayed on the soil under apple trees. Bamboo Scales, China. Cultural Intercropping with rape Field tests from 1984 to 1986. Olkowski, Zhang festicoccus southern (rape:bamboo-1:10) to attract The resulting reduction In and Thiers 1991 transversus Jiangsu lady beetles, rape harvest timed pesticide use enabled the to Initiate move of beetles Into reestablishment of another scale the bamboo plantaton. parasitold. Anagyrus dactvlpill. Citrus Alligatorweed China Biological, See apple, alligatorweed, China. No inforration. Classical Citrus Mites China Cultural Planting of tropical ageratum, [ntercropping alone results In Olkowski and Agerat. conycoides, among the better control than chemical Zhang 1991a citrus trees helps control pest control alone, while best results mites by enhancing the are achieved by Intercropping and effectiveness of predator mite chemical control at the economic ____ ____ ___ ___ ____ ___ ____ ____ __ ! ecles. threshold. -Crop Post | Countiy | IPhN TMp IPh NEthod |Results | Referemae | Citrus Red citrus mite China Biological Collection of lacewing cocoons Mites were reduced by 901 In S Peng 1965 In wheat fields and release at days, and lacewing production early instar stage on citrus, costs were reduced by 311. Farmers found this an easy _________________ _________________ program to follow. Citrus Red citrus mite China, Biological Use of Chrysopa minica egg This program gives good results. Peng 1985 Sichuan and Chemical releases combined with one early with a reduction In Insecticide Province spring Insecticide application usage of 62 to 831, and an 6.5 when mites are hatching, plus times reduction in pest mite spot treatment of minor pests nwmters compared with orchards around MaY. usino chemical Insecticides onlv. Cocoa Cocoa pod borer Indonesia, Cultural Use of plastic sleeves as pod- 1. Practiced In the primary 1. Wirjosuhardjo Malaysia covering just before they becomn cocoa-growing regions In the 1988 attractive to female moths, country. _ ____________ _____________ _________________________________ 2. Highly labor-intensive. 2. Humford 1986 Cocoa Cocoa pod borer Malaysia Biological Mass-breeding and release of the Relea:es on an experimental scale Mumford 1986 naturally occurring egg parasite showed encouraging results but Trichograma bactrae fumta. cost-effectiveness Is still to be ________________________________ _ __________________ fullyfully gauged. I LA Cocoa Cocoa pod borer Malaysia Blological Use of synthetic female Practice on an experimental Mumnford 1986 un pheromnes for monitoring, mass- basis. Mass tripping has showl trapping and mating disruption. promising results but Is not _________________ _____________ cost-effective yet. Cocoa Cocoa pod borer Malaysia Chemical Spraying of the undersides of Lower branches are the daytime Mwiford 1986 roughly horizontal, lower canopy resting place of the moth. branches with pyrethrolds or Technique Is effective to protect carbamates 4-5 times at 10-14 subsequent high crop, and day intervals during low crop ecological and pollinator risks periods. are minimal. Besides frequent harvesting, this is the most _________________ _ ___________________ cost-effective alternative.tive alternative. Cocoa Cocoa pod borer Malaysia Cultural Frequent harvesting, rapid This practice reduces the HMinford 1986 breaking. and subsequent successful emergence of destruction of the husks by caterpillars in the field and bagging, burning, drying, etc. contributes to lowering of moth populations. Besides selective spraying this Is the most cost- ________________ _ _________________ _________ __ _______________ ________ __________________ efeffective alterna tive. C Pest Cauntry 1P Ty 1PN Nthod Results Reference Cocoa Cocoa pod borer Malaysia Cultural "Rampasan.' the complete Although neat in theory, this Yumford 1986 stripping of limature and mature practice Is, especially In pods for a short period during plantations, extremely difficult, the cropping cycle to break the with no guarantee of success for life cycle of the moth, the considerable effort expended. _ _ Cocoa Cocoa pod borer Malaysia Cultural Use of hard-shelled and thus Hard-shelled varleties have been Yumford 1986 mildly resistant varieties, observed In Sabah, but a breeding program will be time-consuming. _ Cocoa Hirlds, Malaysia Biological Industry standard is application The Ineffectiveness of enemies Ho 1988 Helopeltis and Chemical of gamm HCH. The predator might be due to use of broad- theobrmae, H. cocoa black ant, Dolichoderus spectrum Insecticides. No clavifer thoracicus, Is a prospective effective cultural control has ________________ biocontrol agent. been developed. _ Cocoa Rodents Malaysia Chemical Wax block baiting with Sequential sampling proved high Ho and Heong 1964 anticoagulants at 60-80 pieces accuracy In prediction plus per hecatare at 4-7 day baiting reduction in labor requirements. rounds. Detect-and-treat system Resistance, already a problem, ________________ based on sequential sainling. might be delayed. _ Cocoa Stem and trunk Malaysia Cultural and Early detection (census) and If early detection and treatment Ho 1968 borers, Zeuzera Chemical pruning of light branches with Is achieved, considerable damage Un sp. borers. Parasitized larvae (up to loss of trees) can be 0% (e.g., by Spinaria op.) are left avoided. Census and program have In the field. Pumping of been successful In Malaysia. dieldrin Into bores of trunks and thick branches. Coconut Coconut hispid, Indonesia Biological. Introduction of Tetrastichus Complete control of the pest was Napometh 1988 Irontispa Classical brentispae F. from Vest Java to achieved. longissisa G. South Sulawesi. Coconut Coconut Malaysia Biological, Introduction of Scolia The Insect got established but no Napometh 1986 rhinoceros beetle Classical, ruficornis F. fror Zanzibar In control Is reported. Cultural and 1960. Chemical Coconut Hispine beetle, Western Biological, Introduction of the parasitic The national IPM program started Kaske 1988 Brontispa Samoa Classical, wasp Tetrastichus brontispac. in early 1980s and prevented an longissisi G. Cultural ard Evaluation of infestation levels estimated yield loss of 10. Chemical and percentage of Farmerns benefits are USSSO/ha parasitization. Proper weeding. with no Input at the farm level. Crop Past Country IPM Type 2PM Method Results Reference C:oconut Rhinoceros beetle Asia Biological, Sanitation, removal of old logs The program (since 1964) has been Kaske 1988 Cultural and and stumps. Artificial successful In Western Sairoa, and Fungal introduction of a baculovirus of damage has remained at low insecticides the beetle (Western Samoa In levels. In the Philippines the 1967). Cultivation and beetle is the most Important coLo application of the fungus insect pest but virus infestation Metarhizium antisopliae against Is low. Virus transmission to larval stages. Leguminous cover control the beetle is impaired by crops (Pueraria spp., Centosoua dry conditions in this area for psp.. Calopooonilr 5pp.1. several months of the year. Cnrn Asian corn barer, China, Fungal Application of the fungal Research on lb started in the Li and Pang 1991; Astrinia north Insecticides insecticide Beauveria bassiana 1950s; It has been mass-producel Wang 198S; Xu furnacalls (fb). since the 1970s and used on a 1988 tremendous scale in agriculture, horticulture and tea. Against the corn borer the accurulated treated area from 1978-1981 in Jilin Province alone is I m . __________________ - ___________________ ______________ _____________________________________ hec tare. _ __ __ ____ |_____ec a e Irny nCorn stalk borer Philippines Bolongical Release of Trlchogramna Parasitism varied from 32X-78X Tran-Grutbrr 1968 evanescens Westw. at 200.000 depending on year and site and eggs per release. Distance control is considered effective un between release points was 7-10 The corn borer Is persistent m and 50-100 m between plots. through alternate hosts and 2-5 releases per cropping therefore T. is persistent as _______________ __________ ___ . _season. well. Corn European corn China, Chemical Choice of pesticide. Results are from field Xii et al 1988 Inrer Jilin Application of the pesticide inspections. Selective Province phoxim' reduces predator pesticides utilize the pest- population up to 93X, while the decreasing effect of predator avid microbial Insecticide Beauveria parasite populations and reduce bassiana shows no significant pesticide use and/or crop darage. reduction. Corn Orierital corn China, Biological Release of 10,000 Trichogramm The Trichograwa production unit DIRC 1991 horer Hlyun ostrinlae per mu (0.066 ha) per supplies 13,300 ha three tires a County, year. year. Savings from corn losses north of are estimated at 40 m kg (53.2 r-I Beijing over the last 14 years a-id reduced pesticide use by 255 tons. Crop Pest Country | PM Typ IPN Method Results Reference Cotton Aphids China, Cultural Intercropping of cotton, rape Local famer's practice. In Zhou et al. 1986 southern and corn with wheat In adjacent tests. the intercropping showed Hebel fields. Corn is planted twice predator levels three to six Pru,ince during the year In two or three times that of monocropped fields. seedling bunches every 2 meters. Pesticide applications were reduced by three to four sprays __ __ __ __ __ __ _ __ __ __ __ __ __ ____ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ _ annually. Cotton Aphids; Mites; China Biological Release of the predator C. septaipuncta Is mass-reared on BIRC 1991 Cotton bollwornn Coccinella septe puncta, which aphids or male pupae of honey is collected at the end of the bee, and recently on artificlal season from vegetable fields and diets, which allows cost- released in the next season, effective mass production. Cotton Cotton aphids China Biological L'tilization of small This technique Is utilized on Liu and Qln 1987; "greenhouses" (bamboo and 6,000 ha of cotton and Olkowski, Zhang plastic) constructed In cotton effectively reduces aphid ard Ihiers 1991 fields for rearing the seven- numbers, generating savings of _________________ ___________________ spotted lady beetle. S6/ha/yr. Cotton Cotton aphids China, Biological Field collection and release of Well-established practice in Olkowski. Zhang Henan the C7 lady beetle, Coccinella Henan Province. In Anyang County and Thiers 1991 Province, septesuncta. In 1974, 93.3X of all cotton Anyang fields (22,000 ha) utilized C7 County beetles. Savings of about ______ _____ ___ _ _____ _____ _______ __ $309,000 In pesticide costs. ic Cotton Cotton bollwom China Viral Application of NPV for cotton has been mess- Zhang et al. 1981 Insecticides nucleopolyhedrosis viruses produced as "78-3" and has been (NPV). applied to about 100.000 ha, usually yielding 90X rortality after 11 days. Cotton Cotton bollworn Philippines Biological Locally produced Trichograwm The costs of one application of a Hasse et al 1988 australlcw. released synthetic pyrethrold equals the preventatively at 40,000/ha costs of Trichogramna releases ._____________ ________ __ .twice a week. for six or seven weeks. Cottnn Cotton bollworm Philippines Chemical Peg-board for farners' use. Reductlon of pesticide use. Hasse et al. 1988 Simplified surveillance system. Cntton Cottnn bollworm Philippines Chemical Surveillance system for Reduced insecticide applications. Hasse et al 1918 technicians. Threshold of 17-18 infested plants out of 20 plants considering predator population densities. Crop Pest Country 1PM Type IPN Nethod Results R 7 | eference Cotton Cotton bollwom Philippines Cultural Intercropping of i5-20 rows of Reduced sprays from 6.5 to 2.5 Hasse et al. 1988 cotton with I row of maize or per season. tobacco as trap crop (pest trap) with synchronized reproductive phase. _ Cotton Cotton bollworm; China Biological Release of the predator lacewing The predator has been mass-reared BIRC 1991 Cotton aphid Chrysopa spp. and released since 1919. Chrysopa larvae are reared in eggs of rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica. and In artificial eggs encapsulated by low-trelting- .__________.____ _ _____________.____ ._____________________ .__________ point parafin. ___oi t_aaf n Cotton Cotton flower Philippines Cultural Cessation of irrigation for up Forced boll maturatlon. increased Hasse et al 198S weevil to four weeks after the onset of pupal mortality (100X at 9% soil flowering. moisture), favorable environrment __________ ________________ for predator ant. _ Cotton Cotton flower Philippines Cultural Increase of planting density Increased yield security. Hasse et al. 1988 weevil frorm 60,000 to 130.000 -________________ ._______________ __ _____________ _________ plants/ha. .__________ant Cotton Cotton flower Philippines Cultural Planting of all fields within Infestation rerains below Hasse et al. 1988 weevil the shortest time. thre iold If no migration framl _________________ ._________.____ older fields occurs. __ . Cotton Cotton flower Philippines Cultural Planting a trap crop of okra Reduced early Infestation with Hasse et al. 1988 weevil (iibiscus esculentus L.) so flower weevil. cotton and okra flower at the same time. Cotton Cotton leafhopper Philippines Chemical Chemical application at the Yield Increase Is reported. Hasse et al. 198S ________________ ____________ threshold of 50X defoliation. Cotton Cotton leafhopper Philippines Cultural Introduction of a hairy variety Reduction of early insecticide Hasse et al. 1988 ._________________ ________________ _______________ from Paraguay. applications. _________fm P a u .p l c i n Cotton Cotton pink China Biological Release of the braconid Field parasitism rates are BIRC 1991 bollworm parasitoid oracon nigrorufiui. highest (901) for the first generation bollworMs. 2nd and 3rd generation parasitism reaches ._______________ _ ________________ _ ___________ EOX. ______ _ _ __ 601. _. ... _ UPest I PM 1PM ethod I Results R Reference CnIttoil ilkliothis China Viral Application of the nuclear Research started in 1975. It is G'uingyu 1991 anmigera and 11. insectMcidle polyhedrosis virus (Ha SNPU) at now the first corrercially assulta 4.8 x 10" P16/ac by ground or available viral Insecticide in air application. China. Sales volure increased from 600 ha (186) to 2800 ha XS87) to 5700 ha ('e8) and an estimated 10,000 ha in 1989. T'e price is equivalent to chemical .________________ ___________ ______ ._____________ .________________________ insecticides (S5/ha). Cottnn Ilypumwces Indonesia Cultural Early planting to prevent No information. Wirjosuhrdjo, infestation. 1958 NttiuuuI MulIlybilg China Biological Release of Cryptolaemus C. montrouzierl was introduced to BIRD 1931 muntrouuierl. China in 1955 and is mess produced on Aleurites molluccana trees. Cottnn Old World China Biological Moving of overwintering queens Increased Infestation of bollworm LI and 1* 1955 bollwonn, Small of the predator wasp Polistes and treasuring worm by 61% and 57% cotton measuring hebraeus Into nests within respectively. Suppression of the warm controlled temperature and wheat armyworm and the wheat humidity greenhouses. sawfly. Cotton Spodoptera Indonesia Mechanical Handpicking of Spodoptera eggs No Information. Hasse et al. 19S o Cottn, storage Cotton pink China, more oBological Local production and release of Mass production and release in SIRE 1991 liollwolm than 10 the pteromaltd ectoparasttotd mrore than 10 provinces since provinces Dibrachys cavus. Release in 1960. Parasitism of cocoons stored cotton to control reaches as high as IOOX. _ . . overwinterino larvae. Forest Caterpillars, China, Viral Application of cytoplasmic CPV's of the caterpillars have II and Parg 1991 Dendrolir^us Guandong Insecticides polyhydrosis viruses (CPV's) of been used extensively in the two punctata; 0. and Shadong the caterpillars. provinces. 0. spectabilis his tabulaeformis provinces been introduced from. Japan where it has been registered and ._____________ _ ____________________________ _ dapplied on a large scale. Fniest Gypsy moth, China Viral Aerial application of The NPV has been used liarg et al 19e5 lywitrla tfispar Insecticides nucleopolyhedrosis viruses (NPV3 successfully in forests. of the gypsy moth at 6xI0' producing 92% riortality of t.e ____________ ______________ PISs/ml. pest. Forest Masson pine China, Fungal Application of the fungal Bb has been used an 70,000 S9 Li and Pang 1991, caterpillar, 0. south insecticides Insecticide Beauveria bassiana 200.000 ha in each of 4 southern Wang 1988; UJ punctata (Kb). provinces during the 1980's. see 128 also Corn, China, Corn borer. Crop Pest Country IPM Type IPM Method Results Reference rnrest Pitne caterpillar China Biological Supply of oak silkworm eggs on In host-supplemented forests, Tong et a) 15Qs cards three times per ronth population density of parasitoid; throughout the year. The eggs increased by 68aX-140. are an alternative host for many Caterpillar egg parasitization parasites of the pine was Increased by 6X-z45. __________________ __________ _ .__ .____________ caterp ll ar. Forest, Wood borer, China Biological Release of Sclerodereia quani. Field test on 100 ha showed Zhang et a1. 1999 Chinese fir Semanotus reduction of infestation fron 33X sinoauster to 2.91 7 months after treatment. Wasps were released In the center of the plot. Forest. Barer Sueanotus China Biological Release of the external Parasitismn rate of 40X-70X in the Zhang et al. 1989 Chinese fir snouster parasitold Scleroderma quani first generatlon of the wasp. It (homopteran family Bethylbdae). will produce multiple generations and suppress the pest below economic Injury level. l rorest, pine Pine aphids China, Biological Field collection and 19 ha have been treated in Jilin Olkcwski. Zhang northeast augmentatlon of lady beetles, Province. Pest reduction ranges and Thiers 1991 Harmania axyridids, at a rate of from 831 to 921 depending on 36.000 to 60,000 beetles/ha. release rates. _ Forest, poplar Poplar bores China, Biological Mass-trapping using a A three-year program of rass BIRC 1991 clearwing math, north synthesized pheromone of the *ex trapping on about 10,000 1a Specia pheromone (Z,Z)-3,13- reduced pest damage below the siningensis octadecadein-l-GI. economic threshold. Pest populations are reduced by 40<- 601 compared with untreated areas. More than 26,000 ha are ________________ ._________________ ____________ damaged_by_the_mothe by the m_oth. Forest, poplar Clearwirig borer, China Bioloqical Trapping of insects using After 2-3 years of mass-trapping. Olkowski aer Specia pheromone-balted traps. Infestation was reduced by 40t- Zharg 193-2 siningensis _ _ 60X (below threshold). Forest, pine Bark heetles China, Biological Release of Cryptolestes The insect has been rass-produced B1qC 199! Hebei turcicus, a secondary Insect since 1983 In Hebei Province on Province pest In grain, in plantations. moist and moldy wheat flour. Forest, pine Schlerotinia: China Fungal Application of biological Corron availability reportei Olkawski 191 seerilinis Pythil.; pestici des fungicide (Irichoderma harziarnn Armilarcilla strains). tahescens _ _ __ Fruit trres Schlerotinia; China Fungal Application of biological Cor-on availability reported. 01kcskil 1931 Pythium; pesticile7i fungicide (Trichoderia harziane Armilareilla strains). tabhscens _ | Crop | Pest | Country | IPM Type I IP Ito eut eeec Era Post countr 1PM T 1~~~~~~~~~~~PM Nethod Results Reference Grasslavid Girasshopper China, Biological Augmentation of birds (rosy Project was applied to 8200 Yu 19SS northwest starling Sturnus roseus) by acres. Infestation was red.ced building artificial bird houses by the birds, fron 38.5 hoppers/t and habitats (i.e., building to 1.3/m'. rock piles, planting shrubs, ________________ _______________ _____-________ etc.). ________________________________c Ilorses Croton weed, China Biological Release of the gall fly, Release in Hunan Province Grnssr-an 1991a Ageratina Procecidochares utills. resulted in a parasitizatlon rate adenophorum of 70X-75X The fly has been _________________ ___________________ _____________ _____________________________ less successless successful fn Australia. Lac Eublenma China, Biological Release of the ectoparasitoid The parasitold has been released BIRC 1991 amabiblis south and Bracon greeni. in the Guangdong Province since southwest 1975. Field parasitism Is up to 100I, pest densities have decreased fivefold, and lac harvest has Increased by 40X- _________________ ___________________ __________ -__________ _ - IOX00%. Mulberry Bark beetles China, Biological Release of Cryptolestes The insect has been mass-produced BIRC 1991 Hebel turcicus, a secondary insect since 1983 in Hebei Province on |-____-__--___-_ Province pest In grain, In plantations. moist and moldy wheat flour. Neem related Worms. other Asia Botanical Anolication of extracts of trees The tree Is widely spread in much Olkowski 1991 botarilcal insects chemicals of the Maliaceae family (same of East Asia. Extracts are used chemicals family as neem). against a variety of Insects on a trial basis. Oil Palm Bagworm, Mahasena Malaysia Cultural Handpicking of the pest. This has proved to be useful and Liau 1988 corbetti economical and has reduced pestlclde use. Oil Palm Leaf -eating Indonesia Chemical, Conservation and augmentation of Pesticide consumption was reduced Djamin 1988 caterpillars Biological several natural enemles by 291 from 1978 to 1982. Heavy and Cultural (insects, fungi). Early warning use In the 1960s destroyed the system, population census pest-enemy balance and led to system. Spot spraying of increased spraying and severe selective insecticides outbreaks. (trichlorfon). Trunk injection of monocrotophos. Cover crops __ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~as enemy habitat,_ Oil Palm Riiinnceros beetle Malaysia Cultural 1. Planting of leguminous cover 1. Conron practice where rotting Liau 1988 crops as a vegetative barrier trunks and stumps cannot be to reduce breeding of the removed. Also irproves beetle, natural enemy habitat. 2. Shredding and burning of 2 Stumps and trunks are the rain _ stump breeding site of the beetle. L Crop | Pest Country IPM Type IPM Method Results Reference Dil Palm Rodents Malaysia Biological Augmentation of the barn owl, Augmentation has not been tiau 1958 Tyto alba, as predator. successful in the past but industry is Interested. Rodenticides may cause secondary _________________ _________________________________ poisoning. Oil Paim Rodents Malaysia Cultural Periodic removal of nests from Although adopted by various tiau 1988 plants and of waste materials estates, these techniques have from crown. Destruction of not been proven to be very burrows. Building of barriers effective overall. such as wire guards around young plants. Trapping. Removal of ._________________ ____________________ _____________ ground cover. _ Papaya Papaya ringspot Thailand BIological Cross-protection (artificial Effectiveness of the cross- Araritsut et al virus infection) with mild-strain protection depends on the 1905 ringspot viruses. Inoculum pressure. Cross- protection should be Integrated with eradication programs and ._________________ ____________ |breeding programs for resistance. Peach Bark beetles China, Biological Release of Cryptolestes The Insect has been mass-produced SIRE 1991 Hebei turcicus, a secondary Insect since 1983 In Hebel Province on Province pest In grain, In plantations. moist and moldy wheat flour. Pepper, Cayenne Hellothis China Viral Application of the nuclear It Is the first corrercial viral Guangyu 1991 armigera and 11. insecticide polyhedrosis virus (Ha SNPIJ) at Insecticide In China with rapidly assulta 4.8 x 10" P18/ac by ground or Increasing sales volume as worms air application. are resistant to chemicals. See ._______________ _______ _______ _____Cotton. China, H. mlogera. Rice Paddy weeds 1. China Cultural 1. Seasonal rotation of rice 1. This rotation Increases 1. Gross-an 1991a production with fish ponds. overall fish and rice yields. Nine species of fish are Rice paddy yield increased by used, mostly grass carp. 7X-151 In one province. 2. Thailand 2. Raising fish in paddies. 2. Increase in rice yields. 2 Araritsut et ._____________a l. 1958 Rice Army worms Indonesia Chemical Application of fenitrothion, Pest mortality of 100I. lower if Soetarna 19!5 methamidophos or deltamethrin applied at later stage. when most larvae are at the first to third instar stage. Scouting. Rice Brown Indonesia Culltural Rotation with short maturity Rice pests cannot develop and Oka 198S pi antlmopper. non-rice crop between wet-seasnn they are gradually brought under Green leafhopper, and dry-season rice. control. Synchronized planting Whiteliacked necessary. _____planthopper Crop Pest Country IP Type IPM Method Results Reference Rice Brown Indonesia Cultural `yn:hronized planting of rice. 1. Serious outbreaks of hoppers 1. Oka 1989 planthopper, are avoided and resistant Green leafhopper. varieties remain resistant for Whitebacked a oenger period. Negative planthopper labor and price effects. 2. Reduction of MPH population by 2 leinricts 1955 _____________ 25K. Rice Brown Philippines Chemical Chemical application based on With this approach, natural Bandung and plantliopper, monitoring of OS older enemies were given tire to exert Litsinger 19e3 Green leafhopper, nymphs/tiller, their effect. Sequential Whitebacked sampling and the threshold is planthopper "quite effective." Rice Brown planthopper Asia Cultural Wider spacing of rice plants, so Close spacing creates Oka 1988 (BPH), Green sunshine can penetrate into the microenvironment that is less leafhopper (GLII), basal portions of the rice favorable for natural enemies of Whitebacked plant. BPH. Ultraviolet radiation planthopper restrains DPH Increase. (WBPH) _ . _ Rice Brown planthopper China Chemical Using selective Insecticides. MTCM achieved a pest mortality of Zheijang (BPII) Application of HTMC 12.5X 88e against DPH but only 5.8K Agricultural diluted 1000 times. Or use of against spiders. Control by BHC University 192z cartap 5OX at 0.1 kg/mu Instead and cartap was equal. but MHC of BHC 6K at I kg/mu. reduced spider populations by 48e _________________ ___________________ _____________ while cartap snowed no decrease. Rice Brown planthopper Malaysia Cultural Draining the fields for about SPH outbreaks are suppressed. Oka 1952 (BPH) two days. _ Rice Brown planthopper Philippines Cultural Withhold Irrigation In ePH- MPH outbreaks are suppressed. Oka 1988 (8P"} infested fields when the rice crop is almost mature and plants are spread out every few rows to ___________ __ _ __ dry out the fields. Rice Drown planthopper Indonesia Cultural Use of early maturing rice Rice plant becares unsuitable Heinrichs et al lines, before Insect reaches the 1986a damaging third generation. Rice Brown planthnpper Indonesia Chemical Selection of pesticides: Two applications resulted in Soetarra 1985 combination of fenitrothion and lowest hopperburn. Next rost BPHC. effective mix was diazinon and BPHC. Other pesticides showed higher MPH populations. Crop Pest Country IPM Type 1PH Nethod Results Reference A Rice Brown Asia Cultural Use of resistant varieties. More than 29 resistant varieties Heinrichs 1988 plantliopper, are developed and planted on other insects and large areas In Southeast Asia. diseases In China more than 3 m ha are being planted with BPH-resistant _ ____________________________ __ varleties. Rlce Defollating Philippines Chemical Chemical application based on Control In both cases Bandong and caterpillars monitoring of damaged leaves and unsatisfactory (161). Litsinger 1988 presence of live larvae or of Consideratlon of parasitization larvae per hill. will be necessary. _ _ Rice fGall midge Phillppines Chemical Application at the threshold of The sampifng plan Is based on an Heul-Rolf and 0.8 galls/hill. Detailed estimated model. No field Vurgsilabutr 1988 sequential sampling plan, results are given. Maximwn sample size Is 30 hills/site. . I Rice Green leafhopper. Indonesia Cultural Gene rotation, I.e.. use of Used to slow green leafhopper Heinrichs 1988 Rice riwarf virus variety with one gene for biotype selection. resistance In wet season and use of another resistant variety in dry season. _I_ __ l Rice Green leafhopper, Philippines Biological Plant resistance and thus less In green house trials, leafhopper Hyint et al. 195 06 Rice dlwarf virus Insecticides and thus higher mortality on IR29 was 66X due to Ln predation have cumulative resistance alone but increased to effect, e.g.. variety IR29 and 921 with the addition of the predation by Cyrtorhinus predator. __ __ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ lividipennis Reu. Rice Green leafhopper. Philippines Cultural and Use of host plant resistant Increased effectiveness of ieinrichs et al Rice dwarf virus Chemical varieties and low toxic insecticide and resistance. 1986b Insecticides. Treated and moderately resistant varieties (IR36) show low tungro virus Infestation cairpared to untreated flelds. Rice Green leafhopper, Japan Cultural Winter plowing to control weeds Epidemics were almost corpletely Nakasuji and Rice dwarf virus such as Alopecturus aequalls, subdued within two years. Kiritani 1976 and alternate host of the green leafhopper. Rice Leaffniler Philippines Chemical Application based on a The sarrpling plan is based on an Heul-Rolf ard sequential sampling plan. estimated model. No field Yurgsilabjtr 1989 _________________ ___________________ _____________ _______________________________ results are given. _ Rice teaffolider Philippines Chemical Chemical application based on The control of 42% at this Bardong aid monitoring of 0.5-1 larva per threshold can be Irproved with Litsinger 1958 ______ ______ ___ __ ______ ______ _ ____ ______ _____ hill. experience. Crop Pest Country | PM Type 1PM Nethod Results Reference Rice Leaffolder Brown Philippines Chemical and Application of insecticides to Minimization of 6PH resurgence. Aquino and planthopper Cultural control leaffolder and use of RPH-resistant variety had 10 BPHs Heinrichs 1919 resurgence BPH-resistant variety to control per hill. susceptible variety _ 6PH resurgence. 1100 per hill. Rice Lepidoptera pests Philippines Microbial Weekly application of locally Significant yield increase Iryon and (key pests) pesticides Isolated Bacillus thuringlensis (5.94 t/ha) compared with It plus Litsinger 19S8 (It). chemical applications (4.62 t/ha) and the chemical-based IPM program (4.07 t/ha). Rice Planthoppers, India, Cultural Planting by the end of July. Crops planted later were severely Oka 1988 Leafhoppers Cuttack damaged. Rice Rice pests China, Biological, Combined use of Trichogramoi The concept was applied from 1973 Pu St al. 1980: Guangdong Bacterial and spp., Bt, fb, cultural measures to 19B2 on up to 4,000 ha. Pu and Pang 1984 Province, fungal and other management agents. Chemical Insecticide use was Dasha insecticides, reduced by 80X, predators and township Cultural parasites rose In species and in numbers. Rice Rice pests, Green China Cultural Placement of rice straw bundles Reported as commn practice in Zhejiang Univ. leafhopper, In paddies during times of China. 1982. Planthappers etc. flooding or harvest to provide a' refuge for spiders. I.e., natural enemies. _i Rice Rice pests, Asia Cultural Burning or plowing under of It disrupts the life circles of Oka 1988 Stemborer, Brown ratoons, stubble and straw. the insects. Burning is often planthopper, not possible in Intensive Green leafhopper cultivation or wet climate. It may destroy plant-decumposing anthropods, resulting In higher nutrient loss by leaching. Rice Rice pests. Asia Cultural Avoiding overfertilization with Insects and diseases were Oka 1988 Stemborer, Gall nitrogen. Lower rates than significantly more abundant in mridge, Brown reconmnded are not advisable, fields with increased nitrogen planthopper, Resistant varieties allow higher levels. Exact relationship of .Sheath blight, nitrogen levels and control 8PH. nitrogen level and 6PH is not B acterial blight known (Oka 1988). Rice Stcrmhorer Asia Cultural In areas where synchronized No information. Oka 1988 planting is difficult, late _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ p a t n m n m z s i f s a i n _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __planting minimizes Infestation. Crop Pest Country | IPl T pe IPM Method Results | Referene Rice Stemborer Phillppines Chemical 1. Based on monitoring, chemical 1. Control of this system is 1 Bandong and is applied if less than 50 insufficient (321) even with Litsinger 19S8 of the 0.5-1 egg masses/r light traps. Pheromone traps are parasitized. might be needed to determine the threshold. 2. Sequential sampling system Is developed based on the 2. The threshold Is based on a 2. Heul-Rolf and sconomic threshold of 68X model and requires around 20 Vungsilabutr Infested hills (deadhearts). sample units (hills) depending 1988 on Infestation levels. Rice Stink bug, Green Asia Cultural Cutting grasses short or This disrupts the life cycles of Oka 19S3 leafhopper removing grasses on dykes and the insects. -_ . surrounding areas. Rice Water weevil Asia Cultural Draining of fields at "proper" Outbreaks of rice water weevil Oka 1988 tfia.e and stopping irrigation for are suppressed. a a predetermined period. _ _ Rice Whitebacked Philippines Cultural and Use of pest-resistant varieties Increased effectiveness of Heinrichs 1985 planthapper Chemical and low toxic Insecticides. Insecticide. The LD. of the planthopper treated with ethylan was 9.4 on susceptible TNI and only 2.8 when reared on _________________ moderately resistant N22. _ cd Rice, seedlings iaggat, whorl Philippines Chemical Soaking of roots of seedlings This threshold provides a control Bandong and with diazinon at the threshold of 401 and Is considered Litsinger 1988 of 0.5-1 egg/hill depending on "reasonable." Monitoring of the site. Monitoring Is twice damaged leaves was Ineffective. ____________ per week. l Rice, upland Maggot, seedling Indonesia Chemical Seed treatment with carbofuran, Reduced damage by 201-401. Seed Soenarka 1988 and dry seeded carbosulfan and thlocarb just treatment Is more practical and before planting. economical than spraying or _________________ dusting. Several Mosquitoes China Bacterial Application of Bacillus So far 300 tons have been Zhang et al 1987 (bacterial pesticides aphaericus (Is). produced. Bs has a long-lasting pesticides as pathogenicity of one to five control agent) weeks and Is therefore preferred ________________ _______ _ ________ ______________ to et. Several Snails China Botanical, Several authors report that the Little Is known In the West Grossman 1991b (botanical Chemical Chinese have screened 1100 plant beyond the fact that Chinese pesticides as species for molluscicidal farmers are successfully using control agent) activity since the 1930s. botanicals on a regular basis in ___________ ________ __________________ national snail control programs. Crop Pest Country IP Type IPH Nethod Results Referenee Several (lady Several China Biological Utilization of the lady beetle This list describes the important Olkowski, Zang beetle as In rubber against fungi, In predator-host relationships of and Thlers 1991 control agent) citrus against whiteflies, in the lady beetle In China. The pine against scales, In pear and augmentation of the beetles is apple against psylids, In poplar often accompllshed via collection and elm against leafbeetle, in in one area and release in cotton against mites, In wheat another area. Target pests against aphids, in vegetables successfully controlled under against leafhoppers, In corn, these systems Include aphids. millet and sugarcane against scales and spider mites. pyralids, In rice against ___________________ p1lanthoppers. Several Several China, Biological Local production and release of Trichogria is locally produced Olkowski and (Trichogramra provinces the parasitoid Trichograwa spp. and released on about I m ha/yr Zhang 3991b as control throughout Use In citrus against In China, second only to the USSR agent) the country swallowtail, in poplar willow (release on 15 m ha/yr). against notodontidmoth, In pine Mechanized production lines for against caterpillars, In cotton Trlchograr throughout the against bollwonm In cabbages country. First production In against armywomn, In corn 1952. Current production is against corn borer, In rice about 500 t/yr. ___________ _ acainst case borer. Several, not Worms, other Asia Botanical, Application of extracts of the Extracts of the fruits of the Olkowski 1991 cr specifled insects Chemical neem tree. neem tree were recently Introduced as botanical insecticide, marketed as Margosan-O". Soybeans Dodder China Fungal Application of the fungus Coramon practice during the 1960s Grossman 1991a pesticides Colletotrichum gleosporides. until late 1970s in 20 provinces Application on about 670,000 ha reduced yield losses by an estimated 30X-50. Sugarcane Sugarcane borer Indonesia Biological Release of Trichogramsa spp. and No inforration. Virjosuhardjo Dlatraeoohaga striatalls. __ 1955 Sugarcane Sugarcane borer Thailand Biological Release of Trichogramm spp. T. releases In China to control Prachuatroh Chilo sp. showed good results; et al. 1988 however, In Thailand Sesmia Inference is the predominant borer, which cannot be controlled ___________ ___________ __________ __________ ___ ______ ___________ ________ by T. Cro Pest Country IPM Typ 1PM method Results Reference Stugarcane Sugarcarne pest Thailand Chemical Use of moderately resistant In one region, IPM yielded Prachuabtoh complex Biological varieties, sequential sampling, profits compared with a loss of et al. 1988 and Cultural economic thresholds, hand profit using faryrer's practice. removal of pests, disease In another reglon. IPM reduced sanitation, etc. profit loss by 30K In another reglon. Tea Tussock moth, China Viral Application of From 46 tea plant pests. 58 Liang 1987 Eurproctis Insecticides nucleopolyhedrosis viruses of strains of viruses have been pseudoconspersa; the tussock moth and the tung found. Eight of then have been Tung oil tree oil tree geometrid. tried for mass-production and geometrid. Buzura field application. The viruses suppressaria listed here are the two most widely used, with applications of 10,000 and 20,000 ha ____________ __respectively. Tohacco Green peach aphid China, Biological Release of the parasitoid The parasitold has recently been BIRC 1991 Fujien an Aphidius gifuensis. mass-reared. Yunan pro_inces _ Tobacco Wi lothis China Viral Application of the nuclear This is the first corma rcial Guangyu 1991 armigera *"nd H. insecticicle polyhedrosis virus (Ha SNPU) at viral Insecticide in China; sales c7 assulta 4.8 x 1011 P11/ac by ground or are Increasing rapidly because air application. worms are resistant to chemicals. See Cotton, China, H. aulogera. Tomato Early blight. China Chemical Application of GZN at 59/1, a Yield Increased by lIlt in field Han 1990 Alternaria stable water emulsion with trials. solani; Septoria dodecyl alcohol as the main leaf spot, component See als Apples Septoria China Bitter rot lycopersici Tomato fileIothis China Viral Application of the nuclear This is the first conmercial Guangyj 1991 anmigera and 1. Insecticide polyhedrosis virus (Ha SNPUI at viral insecticide In China; sales assulta 4.8 x 1011 P18/ac by ground or are Increasing rapidi' because air application, worms are resistant to chemicals. See Cotton. China. H. amloera, Vegetables, Cabbageworm, China Viral Application of the nucleopoly- Since 1978 more than 100,000 ha Liang et al 1986 Cabbage Pieris rapae Insecticide hedrosis virus "PrGV(W1-78) have been treated with the virus, Insecticide," Mix with Ot alsu yielding a mortality rate of In use. about 851. Crop Pest Coutntry IPH T 1M ethod Results Reference Vegetables Diamondback moth Indonesia Biological, 1. Oladeq cerophagus Grav. 1. Failed to establfsh. Napcxmeth 1988 Classical Introduced from the Netherlands In 1928. 2. D. cerophagus introduced from 2. The Insect fully established New Zealand In 1950. In Java and 5S.-utra and gave _ _a r a 72%-2 parasitzation_ Vegetables Diamondback moth China Viral Application of the nucleopoly- Viruses have been mass-produced Li and Pang 1991 Insecticides hedrosis viruses of the and applied over large areas with diamondback moth ood results. Vegetables Diamondback moth Thailand Microblal Application of Bt at 3 kg/ha Cormon practice in central Tryon and pesticides (845/ha) every three days. Thailand since moth Is resistant Litsinger 1988 _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~to all chemical insecticides. Vegetables Green peach aphid China, Biological Release of the parasitold The parasitoid has recently been BIRC 1991 Fujien an Atphidius gifuer.ls. mass-reared. Yunan provinces Vegetables Schlerotinia; China Fungal Application of biological Common avallability reported. Olkowski 1991 Pythlums; pesticides fungicide (Trichoderm harzianm Ajullareilla stralns). tabescens _ _ Vegetables, Downy mildew, China Chemical Applicatlon of GZM at 59/1, a Reduction of the Incidence of Han 1990 Cucumber Pseudoperanospera stable water emulsion with Infestation by about 70X. Yield cubensis dodecyl alcohol as the main Increased by 24X In ffeld trals. component. See also Apples. China, Bitter rot. Vegetables, Pea Pea aphid; Red China Biological See cotton, cotton bollworm. mite; Whitefly biological. Release of the _____________ _________ _predator lacewing, Chrysopa spp. Watermelon Anthracnose, China Chemical Application of GZM at Sg/l a Reduction of th Incidence of Han 1990 Colletotrichun stable water emulslon with Infestation by about 571. Yield lagenarlum dodecyl alcohol as the main increased by 49X In field trials. component. See also Apples, ____________ ____China. Bitter rot. Wheat Aphid China Biological See cotton, cotton bollworm, biological. Release of the _________________ ___________________ _______________ predator lacewing, Chrysopa spp. Crop Pest Country 1P9 Type I| M ethod Results Reference Wheat Aphid China Biological Release of the predator C. septepuncta is mass-reared on BIRC 1i91 Coccinella septenpuncta, which aphids or male pupae of honey Is collected at the end of the bee, and recently on artificial season fron vegetable fields and diets, which allows cost- released in the next season. effective mass production. Vegetables, Bean weevil Bean Mechanical Shaking of bean storage The weevil needs to brace itself Washington Post. Bean storage storage containers twice a day until against a hard surf-ice to get 8/19/1991. page containers constumption. sufficient leverage to bore Into A2 the bean's coat. Reduction of ________________ ________________ _ * _____________ __________________ _ weevils by 97X after 2 weeks. l- - 72 - APPENDIX 4 DOES THE ADOPTION OF IPM ALWAYS INCREASE WELFARE? Litsinger (1989) states that rice growers now earn less than at an earlier stage of the green revolution despite the fact that they now produce more rice than ever before due to such technical innovations modern varieties, improved irrigation, pesticides, and the like. The following brief discussion looks at the conditions leading to this development using economic theory based on a paper by Lindner and Jarrett (1978). The terminology is purposely kept simple. "When more farmers adopt a new technology, prices adjust to the new general level of productivity. At the bottom end of the distribution, those who cannot afford to adopt the new technology see their incomes fall, even though they do exactly what they have always done" (Rbling and van de Fliert 1991, p. 24). This, however, depends on the nature of the supply change (shift of the supply function) resulting from the adoption of the technology (IPM) and how consumers of the agricultural product respond to price changes (demand elasticity). Based on Lindner and Jarrett, growers' benefits increase in aggregate if for both "low-average-cost" producers and "high-average-cost" producers the adoption of technology results in the same absolute reduction in average costs (parallel supply shift). Growers lose only if (a) total costs of "low- average-cost" producers and "high-average-cost" producers are relatively unaffected by the adoption of the innovation (cost structures for all producers are reduced and the supply shift is pivotal) and (b) consumers demand similar quantities even if prices increase (demand is inelastic). Growers also gain if the supply shift is pivotal and demand is elastic. Thus, the question of the quality of the innovation's effect on the producer can be reduced to whether demand for the product is inelastic and if so, whether the supply shift is alzo pivotal. The nature of the supply shift depends on the type of innovation; the demand elasticity depends mainly on the commodity. Agricultural products that have a low rate of substitutability and are basic products of consumption are likely to have a lower demand elasticity than products with the reverse characteristics. Rice is likely to have an inelastic demand curve. Exported goods like oil palm products, on the other hand, can be assumed to have highly elastic demand curves as they are easily substituted with other oil products on world markets. The type of supply shift must be determined for every innovation, and no generalization for pest management improvt>'ients can be made. Griliches (1958) found a pivotal shift following the introduction of hybrid corn in the U.S. Lindner and Jarrett conclude that biological innovations in general tend to result in proportional rather than parallel supply shifts. Classical biological control, for instance, is costless to the individual grower. Under the assumption that low-cost producers who grow traditional rice varieties with a fallow in the dry season have a lower incidence of pest infestation than high-cost producers with modern varieties and double cropping, biological control programs would also result in a proportional supply shift. Low-cost producers at the bottom end of the supply function will gain less in terms of - 73 - absolute cost reduction than high-cost producers. This is also a likely case for pesticides. On an aggregate level there is thus a reasonable probability that some pest management-related innovations reduce growers' benefits as observed by Litsinger and R8ling and van de Fliert. So far the discussion has assumed that the innovation is adopted equally by all producers. Adoption theory, however, shows us that there is often substantial variation Iin the adoption of innovations. Innovators and early adopters may actually increase their benefits even in the scenario described above, while late adopters and laggards may be forced to adopt productivity-increasing innovations because they receive a decreased price for the agricultural commodity. In contrast to biological and chemical innovations, organizational innovations are considered by Lindner and Jarrett to result in a parallel (or even convergent) shift as they are likely to be scale-dependent. Integrated pest management, with its high organizational requirements, might result in at least a parallel supply shift and be beneficial to growers independent of demand elasticities. Distributors of World Bank Publications ARGENTINA Tbn Middle Est Oblyer KENYA SOUTH A FRIC. BOTSWANA Cade Hlrck,SIRL 41. Shent Steet Ama Bek Sevce (lAJ LWd. Fars, al nda Clae Cuerm CAiro Cuaran Houue.Mlsoanet 1t Oniord Lni vemty PrM Florida 165. 4th Hoer-Oe c 4Sl/46S P.O. Sa 452S45 SouLhen AInr 1l Icon. Alrs FINLAND Nairobi P.O. floe 1141 Akateeirlnen iOahkuppe Cape Town SOOO AUSTRALIA. PAJA NEW CWEIA. P.O. Box 128 KORE REP0UUC OF FIJI. SOLOMON ISLANDS, 5F11101 Hlink 10 PanKoreBokCaropon FPer muderip onirn: VANUATU, ANO WESTEN SAMOA Pf O eb 101. Kwangwhmun Iremeatonell Subapdon Servi CA. Books, &ajonusl FRANCE Soul P.O. lox 41095 648 Whimehaque Rood World Hank Publicaforn Craishal Mltham 312 66. avmue dldn MALAYSIA Johennebg2024 Victoria 75116 Pris Unlvelty dhslAynCp G ve Bookhop Lp d SPAIN AUSTRIA CERMANY P.O. BOX lI=. PanP niam Mundl-Pmru LlbroeS.SJL Gerld and Ca. UNO6Veg 597C0 KuslaLumpur CAul1o37 GnubenS3 PoppeladorrAeSS 21001 Madrid A,101 Wien >s300 Bonn I MEIOCO INFOTEC Librerta Intanudonl AEDOS PANCLADESH HONC KONG MACAO Aperado Poet)I60 ConmIl de Cot. 391 Milco IndumUinCevelopcaet Asia M0 Ltd. 1A0 lialpe. Mexale D0. W8009 Heaelne - AssitacSocloy(IDAS) 4648JWyndbarn Sbt Houe S. Road16 WlnningCentr NErHERLANDS SRI LANKA ANDTEMALDMJW DhOniaodl R/ 2nd FlRor De UndeloomAlnOr-Pfblilkade Lake HMuoa Ba kshop Dhi 12o Central Hong Yong P.O. Box 20Z P.o. Hor 244 7480 AE Haksber 100. Sir Cu tmapulm A. Jbenchopcir INDIA CGrdintr Mawathe 156.-ur AhmedSeak Ullied Publiaer Prdvate LaL NEW ZCALAND Caloembo Chittagong4000 751 Mount Road EBSCO NZ Ld. Madres-600002 PnvetiMail Bag99914 SWEDLN 76h XCA. Aveue New Market For zrgk ntd Kulna 9109 Drenh aJrcw Auddand Fnaes Fackbokjrbg 'S JX. HerdL aMarg RegennsSaan 12 Box 1656 BELCIUM Ballard Easnt NICERIA S-.10327 Swckholmt Jain De LAnnoy Bombay - 4CO 038 Univerty Prm Llmited Av. du Roi 202 Three Crowns Building Jeicho Fer subiaron wde10 1060 Batml 13/1 Asf AnI Rod PrivateMail Bg595 Wennecren-Wl1llamsAB New Delh 110002 lbadan P 0. Ban 135 CANADA 54;71 ZSSo&na La Diffuxeu 17 Chitraman AvMats NORWAY C.P. BS. ISMB rue Ampire Calcutta-700072 N'rveut kdan Ciuter SWITZERLAND - cuiS ervuc e. Quhec Book Depenttentp For smcng nfs J43SE6 JaySave Hotl BudlIng P.O. Box 612.5 xx Eactd L5raine Payot Sthl Main Rod. Candnagar N4602 Oslo 6 1. rue de BDWS CKLE Bengalorq-54009 Ct 1002 Lausanne bivnclCITSA. PAKISTAN AeiUIVcOpudoNoex t2s 3-5-1129 Kachiguda Mine Book Agency For sucrtrumu order Santago Cro Road LSShaid.A1a Lbraine Payct Hyderabad - 0 027 P.O. Box Nea 729 Sance do Abonanamn CRINA Lahro 54002 Case poale 332 Caln Fincal & £eenoaic PrItatem Flat. 2nd Floor CHo W02 Lausane Publishing Houe Ner Thakore Bmau Navenwxum PERU B.usFeSiCDocgJIe Ahmadabad -350009 EditoralDoszroISA TANZANA ejing Aprtado3=6 Oxford UnJivjty Ps Paela House lis a P.O Box S299 COLOMBIA 16- Ashok cMarl Mktaba Road Ir/on'sdc Lids. Lucktow-=26 1 ? IPINEa Daor SaLm Apertdo cnt N latemIntade Book Cuat Booapm D Ceneaa Bazar Reed Suite 70.Ctyland O THAILAND 60 Baj Nagar Conominium Towel Cacnnl D SaowpartmtSbr COnE DoIv xE Napur 440 MO Aysl Avenue,oarnlLV.dela V34Silom Rood Conor dAditmon tdeDlffioen Coa Exter-don Bangkok Abica A3 INDONESIA lkati.MtrMarill 04&P 541 Pt Indira Limised TAtNIDAD & TOBAGO, ANTCUA Abidjan 04 Pl_iou jalan Soobudur 20 POLAND BARBUDA. BAIRACOS, r.a BOx 181 lntreadnasl Publishing So P DOMI1NICA, CGENAD.CUYANA. CYPRUS JakartaliW2 ULP1iekn&aS/ JAMAICA, MONiERRAT.SrS Cattr of Apple Ra ch 00477 Warzawe KIrrS & NEVS. ST. LUCA6. CypmSCoIIqp IRELAND ST. V NCDNT & CRINADINES 6. Dies 9 Ske Engoa ClovenntSuppUi Aginc' Fors Fuh ioe mcr SysteaStacaSbudio Unit P.O Box2006 4-S HarwourtRad tPSJouniu eg WateStreet Nratoel Dub'n2 ULO u3 Cutep 02416 Wan Trinidad. WsitIdino DOENMARK ISRAEL SamiundusUttnetar Yonnot Ltrahr L. PORIUCAL TURKEY RoenoenAkltl OQ BoxsexS L^dia Portuga 11 ina DC-170FldSSabbrC Te!Aviv61560 RueDCO7iOC 074 NaUibaefre Sok.PJo.15 10 IAsbon C.g0logi1 DOMINICANKREUULC ITALY isiabul Editom Tallr. CrporA. LkeeaCommiuionair aSaaniSPA SAUDI ARABIA.QATAX Remuradftel'bdlaCa16ls3g VIe Dec01 Da be/1 JairBookStov UNITmO KINGDOM Aperaoda CG.moZISZl Caslia Pe a32 P.O. Boc3l bclaoeintfo Ltd SenbflDoungo 50125 Finrze iUyadli 1141 P.O. Boxc Altoe. Hagapehirs CLU3 2iX ECYPr,ARAB REPUBUCOF JAPAN SINCAPORE TAIWAN. Engtand AlAhram Asirn Book Service MYANMALBRUNEI Al CGuEs Sbe Hong* 3-Oteoe. BunlqU& 113 informadon PublIcS. VENEZUELA Cair Tokyo PrmteALd. L1briadeo] Et Colden WIeal BudiddLa Aptdo. 60.1 4L Kaiang Pudding 504 Caracas 100-A Sinappow 1314 RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS (conlin tied) No. 175 Le Moigne and others, editors, Country Experiences with WVater Resources Managerneput: Economic, Instil utional, 'reclanolo,gical aid Environmental Issues No. 176 The World Bank/ IAO/UNIDO/Ind ustry FertilizeBr Working Group, World and Regional Supply and Dermand 3alanceisfor Nilrogen, PIhospante, and Potasit, 19901/91-1996197 No. 177 Adams, rhTI World Bank's Treatnimnat of Employment and Labor Market Issuts No. 178 Le Moigne, Bar-ghouti, and Garbus, editors, Demeloping anrd nisproving Irri?gation and Drainaye Systerns: Selected Papersfrona World Bank Seminars No. 179 Speirs and Olsen, Indigenous Inlegrated Farnming Syslemns in teic Sahel No. 180 Barghouti,Garbus, and Umali, editors, Trends itn Agricultural Diversqifcalion: Re,gional Perspectives No. 181 Mining Unit, Industry and Energy Division, Straiegyfor African Mining No. 182 Land Resources Unit, Asia Technical Dlepartment, Strantegyfor rtrst Sector Development itt Asia No. 183 NSijera,Liese,sandHammer,Malaria: NewPatlernsandPerspectives No. 184 Crosson and Anderson, Resources and Global Food Prospects: Supply and Deniandfor Cereals to 2031 No. 185 Frederiksen, Drought Plannirig aid Wafer Efficiency Implicatiotis in Water Resources Manaigemnent No. 186 Guislain, Divestitureof Slate Enterprises: An Overviewof the Legal Franmework No. 187 De Geyndt, Zhao, and Liu, From Barefoot Doctorto Viiage Doctor in Rural Chiina No. 188 Silverman, Public Seclor Decentralizatiorn: Economic Policy and Seclor Investment Progranas No. 189 Frederick, Balancing Water Demands wfith Supplies: The Role of ManaLgement in a World of Increasing Scarcity No. 190 Macklin, Agriczltural Extension in Ilndia No. 191 Frederiksen, Water Resnurces Institutions: Some Principlesand Practices No. 192 McMillan, Painter, and Scudder, Scttlement and Development in the River Blindness Control Zo0e No. 193 Braatz, Conserving Biological Diversity: A Strategyfor Protected Areas in tihe Asia-Pacific Region No. 194 Saint, Uniuersities in Africa: Strategiesfor Stabilization and Revitalization No. 195 Ochs and Bishay, Drminage Guidelines No. 196 Mabogunje, Perspective on Urban Land and Land Management Policies in Sub-Salharan Africa No. 197 Zymelman, editor, Assessing Enginerring Education in Sub-Saharan Africa No. 198 Teerink and Nakashima, Water Allocation, Riglhts, and Pricing: Examplesfrom lapan and the United States No. 199 Hussi, Murphy, Lindberg, and Brenneman, Thre Developntent of Cooperatives and Other Rutral Organizations: The Role of the World Bank No. 200 McMillan, Nana, and Savadogo, Settlement and Developnaent in tIre River Blindness Control Zone. Case Study Burkina Faso No. 201 Van Tuijil, Improving Water Use in Agricutltrc: Experiences in the Middle East and North Africa No. 202 Vergara, 7he Materials Rewlution: What Does It Mean for Decveloping Asia? No. 203 Cleaver, A Strategy to Develop Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa and a Focusfor the World Bank No. 204 Barghouti, Cromwell, and Pritchard, editors, Agricultural Tiechnologiesfor Market-Led Development Opportunities in the 1990s No. 205 Xie, Kiffner, and Le Moigne, Using Water Efficiently: Technological Options No. 206 The World Bank/ FAO/UNIDO/Industry Fertilizer Working Group, World and Regional Supply and Demand Balancesfor Nitrogen, Plhosphale, and Potasht, 1991192-1997/9S No. 207 Narayan, Participatory Evaluation: Toolsfor Managing Ch ange in Water and Sanitationa No. 208 Bindl ish and Evenson, Evaluation of t/te Performance of T&V Extension in Kenya No. 209 Keith, Property Tax: A Pr :dical Manialfor A nglophone Africa No. 210 Bradley and McNamara, editors, Liuing witfl Trees: I'oliciesfor Forestry Matnagement in Zimbabuk The World Batik I luIrttquarlers I.urEipetln Office Ibkyn O fie.* 18M1 I Srlm-. N.W. itt, .vrnu 11diiii) t(likLk.a, ISxtwitling t~.1oilil t s11,1).( . 2tl-113, U).S.A. 75 1 1 I.l Van, I:;lt|I - I M arLiiiiikol-liII 3 -t-I i i ii C hwodK.l-kil, I nkv'' 0liii. .apan I ctIiplLlu': (2(1202) 1I ,-12341 F1. 1111linnt.: (I) tflt'i. l1.30. F.It-mmileiI.: 12112) *47' -1i3't1 FI.tsmili: (t J 1tt.'1.31tfii Irtrphns.1: (3)32h1 1-.9 til I tlm:V %V'It 115- I 'Kit I W ANK IRIItI: 1ANb5t 1 1 %mrsiilv: (3) 321-1-3U57 xt , 2184123w ii 'lI kl ITelex: 2i83s ( .CIal.'Addrv'SS: 1XIIIAR RAll Cover design by Walton Rosenquist ISBN 0-821 3-504-3