~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I- A,-, - < Z v e~~~~~~~~~~~~ -- I DC ;eftr;; _ - I* ~~~~~~~~~~~t~- - s - > > .,- I _ | w0 IFr51k .it; L*S- 1998-99 World Resources Senior Advisors Leslie Roberts, Editor-in-Chief J. Alan Brewster, Senior Vice President, WRI Deborah Farmer, Managing Editor Marion Cheatle, Programme Officer, State of Environment Gregory Mock, Senior Editor Reporting Unit, Division of Environmental Information Carolina Katz, Associate Editor and Assessment, UNEP Serene Jweied, Research Assistant Devra L. Davis, Program Director, Health and Env ironment, WRI Data Thomas Fox, Vice President and Director, Center jor Eric Rodenburg, Research Director International Development and Environment, WrRI Robin P. White, Senior Associate Allen L. Hammond, Senior Scientist and Director of Carmen Revenga, Research Analyst Strategic Analysis, WRI Christian Ottke, Data Analyst Roberto Lenton, Director, Sustainable Energy and Siobhan Murray, Geographic Information System Analyst Environment Division, UNDP Walter V. Reid, Vice President for Program, WRI Production Ralph Schmidt, Chief Forests Programme, Sustainable Maggie Powell, Electronic Publishing Manager Energy and Environment Division, UNDP Carolyn Knapp, Production Editor Robert Watson, Director, Environment Department, Lori Han, Production Assistant The World Bank Susan Morgan, Editorial Assistant Factchecking Special Advisors on Environmental Ruchi Bhandari Change and Human Health Jonathan Ottke Eugene Brantly, Environmental Health Project of the US. Agency for International Development David C. Christiani, Harvard University School of Public Editorial Advisory Board Health Dr. M.S. Swaminathan (India), Chairman Paul Epstein, Harvard Centerfor Health and the His Excellency Abdlatif Y. Al-Hamad (Kuwait) Environment The Honorable Serge Antoine (France) Jeffrey A. Foran, ILSI Risk Science Institute Ms. Elizabeth Dowdeswell (Canada) Duane J. Gubler, United States Centers for Disease Dr. Qu Ge Ping (People's Republic of China) Control and Prevention Dr. Nikita Glazovsky (Russia) Tord Kjellstrom, World Health Organization The Honorable Enrique V. Iglesias (Uruguay) Wilfried Kreisel, World Health Organization Prof. Hiroyuki Ishi (Japan) Changsheng Li, Fraunhofer Institute of Atmospheric Mr. Maximo T. Kalaw, Jr. (Philippines) Environment Dr. T.N. Khoshoo (India) Gordon McGranahan, Stockholm Environment Institute Dr. Thomas A. Lambo (Nigeria) Anthony McMichael, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Prof. Istvan Lang (Hungary) Medicine Mr. Jonathan Lash (United States) Isabelle Romieu, Centro Panamericano de Ecologia Humana Mr. Robert McNamara (United States) y Salud Dr. Liberty Mhlanga (Zimbabwe) Ellen Silbergeld, University of Maryland Medical School Dr. Jose Sarukhan (Mexico) Kirk Smith, University of California, Berkeley Dr. Ismail Serageldin (Egypt) Jacob Songsore, University of Ghana Mr. James Gustave Speth (United States) Carolyn Stephens, London School of Hygiene and 'Tropical Medicine 1998-99 A joint publication by The World Resources Institute The United Nations Environment Programme The United Nations Development Programme The World Bank New York Oxford Oxford University Press 1998 On the cover: Aedes aegypti, the mosquito that carries dengue Oxford University Press fever and yellow fever. Oxford New York The World Resources Institute, the United Nations Environ- Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogota Bombay Buenos Aires Calcutta Cape Town Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence ment Programme, the United Nations Development Pro- Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kuala Lumpur gramme, and the World Bank gratefully acknowledge permis- Madras Madrid Melbourne Mexico City sion to reprint from the following sources: Nairobi Paris Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw and associated companies in Part I: Berlin Ibadan Figure 2.2, Box 3.2, Table 3.2, Box 3.7, Figure China. 1, Table China.2, Figure China.3, Table China.4, The World Bank; Box 1.1, Figure 1.10, Table 1.5, Table 2.1, Table 3.1, Oxford Univer- Copyright © 1998 bythe World Resources losritate sity Press; Table 1.3, Table 1.4, Earthscan Publications, Ltd.; Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 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Journal of the American Medical Association; Figure 2.7 American Association for the Advancement of Science; Table Data tables may be reprodoced with the permission of 2.4, United Nations Environment Programme. the WN;orld Resources Institute. Part II: ISBN 0-14-521407-2 Figure HW.6, The World Bank; Figure FW.4, Table FW.2, Table ISBN (PBK) 0-19-521408-0 RR.3, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na- Library of Congress Cataloging Number: 86-659304 tions; Table FW.4, International Society for Mangrove Ecosys- ISSN 0887-0403 tems; Table PC.1, Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center and Natural Resources Defense Council; Table RR.4, SCOPE, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.; Table GC. 1, Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development; Figure GCW, University TheWorldResources Institute, Corporation for Atmospheric Research; Figure GC.8, Nature, 1709 New York Aenue, NW. Macmillan Magazines, Ltd.; Figure GC.11, U.S. National Of- Washington, D.C. 20006 fice for Marine Biotoxins and Harmful Algae; Map of domes- ticated lands, United Nations Environment Programme. Printed in the United States of America on recycled paper. Printing (last digit): 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 iv Contents Editor's Note vii Editorial: Environment and Health ix Part I Environmental Change and Human Health Overview xi 1 Linking Environment and Health 1 The Geography of Risk; C,,, -. Environments, Changing Health Thlreats; The Drivers of Change; Global Health Patterns; Poverty, Health, and the Enviironiment; Characterizing Environmental Hazards; The Environmental Contribution; Implications for Prevention. Boxes: Demographic Regions; Indicators of Environmental Thlreats to Health; CounZting Deaths .D 1t. . IMalnutrition; Children' Special V`ulnerability; Cholera Returns; The Spread of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever; From Exposure to Effect; Why the Increase in Asthma.?; Smoking-Related Deatlls. 2 Changing Environments, Changing Health 37 Intensification of Agriculture: Chemical Inputs; Irrigation; Land Conversion; Industrialization: Industrializationl and Health; Persistent Organic Pollutants; Heavy Metals and Health; CFCs, the Ozone Hole, and Health; Rising Energy Use: Health Effects of Air Pollution; Climate Change and Health. Boxes: Tuberculosis and Urban Inequality; Pesticide Exposures in Latin America's Flower Export Trade; Pesticides and the Inmunle System; Malaria in the Brazilian Amazon; Are Hormone Mimics . W..:, Our Health?; Urban Air: Health] . /r,., of Particulates, Sulfur Dioxide, and Ozone. 3 Improving Health Through Environmental Action 73 Tackling the Problems of Poverty, Environrment, and Health; Addressing the Unintended Consequences of Development. Boxes: Antibiotic Resistance Undermines Treatment; Improving Female Education; Malaria: The Continuing Struggle; Putting Health on the Map; Overcoming Agricultural Water Pollution in the European Union; The Problem of POPs. Guest Commentaries 94 Roberto Bertollini; Clyde Hertzman; Michael Dorsey; Devra Lee Davis; K.J. ANath; Carolyn Stephens Regional Profiles Damming the Senegal River 108 China's Health and Environment 115 Appendix 127 Environmental Risks to Human Health: New Indicators Endnotes 131 Part 11 Global Environmental Trends Overview 139 4 Critical Trends 141 Population and Human Well-Being: Population Growth; Economic Growth and Poverty; 141 Urbanizatioin; Migration; Democracy Trends; Educationi and Health; AIDS Trends. Feeding the World: Food Productioni; World Hunger; Post-Harvest Food Loss; Soil Degradation; Aquaculture Trenads. 152 Production and Consumption: Materials Use; The Paper Industry; Impacts of Coffee Production; Sustainable Industry. 161 V The Global Commons: Energy Use and Greenhouse Trends; Motor Vehicle Fleet; Climate Briefs; Kyoto Treaty; 170 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion; Nutrient Overload; Acid Rain. Resources at Risk: Deforestation; Fragnmenting Forests; Water Resources; Threats to Freshwater Ecosystems; 185 Valuing Ecosystem Services; Coral Reef Threats; Global Fisheries; Bioinvasionus. 5 Regions at a Glance 200 Africa; Europe; North America; Central Amnerica; South America; Asia; Oceania. Indicator Maps: Income Distribution; Human Population Density; Human Development Index; 221 Domesticated Land; Forest Cover; Water Resources Vulnerability; Major Watersheds; Nighttime Lights. Endnotes 225 Part llIl Data Tables Overview 233 6 Economic Indicators 235 Gross National and Domestic Product; Official Development Assistance and Other Financial Flows; World Bank Commodity Indexes and Prices. 7 Population and Human Development 243 Size and Growth of Population and Labor Force; Trends in Births, Life Expectancy, Fertility, and Age Structure; Distribution of Income, Land, and Poverty; Social Investment. 8 Health 255 Nutrition; Mortality; Reported Cases of Infectious Diseases; Health Care; City Air Pollution; Lead in Gasoline and Lead Production; Demographic and Health Surveys. 9 Urban Data 273 Urban Indicators; Urban Characteristics; The Urban Environment. 10 Food and Agriculture 283 Food and Agriculture Production; Agricultural Land and Inputs; Food Security. 11 Forests and Land Cover 291 Forest Cover and Change, and Forest Industry Structure; Forest Ecosystems; iWVood Production and Trade; Land Area and Use. 12 Fresh Water 303 Freshwater Resources and Withdrawals; Groundwater and Desalinization; Water Quality in European Lakes; Major Watersh?ds of the World. 13 Oceans and Fisheries 313 Marine and Freshwater Catches, Aquaculture, Balance of Trade, and Fish Consumption; Marine Fisheries, Yield and State of Exploitation; Marine Biodiversity of Regional Seas. 14 Biodiversity 319 National and International Protection of Natural Areas; Globally Threatened Birds, Mammals, and Higher Plants, Globally Threatened Reptiles, Armphibians, and Fish; Endangered Species Management Programs. 15 Energy and Materials 331 Energy Production and Consumption; Electricity Production and Trade; Energy Balances; Production of Selected Minerals and Materials. 16 Atmosphere and Climate 343 Emissionsfrom Fossil Fuel Burning and Cement Manufacturing (1995); Inventories of National Greenhouse Gas Emissions; World CO, Emissionsfrom Fossil Fuel Consumption and Cement Manufactur ing (1 755-1995); Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse and Ozone-Depleting Gases. Acknowledgments 351 Index 359 vi Editor's Note The World ! e, .-, series is published to meet the need for regional profiles-one of the Senegal River Basin in West Af- accessible, accurate information on the environment and de- rica; the other of China-that illustrate many of the tensions velopment. Wise management of natural resources and pro- and opportunities explored in this section. tection of the global environment are essential to achieve sus- This volume introduces a new section, entitled Global En- tainable development and hence to alleviate poverty, improve vironmental Trends, which highlights critical trends in a the human condition, and preserve the biological systems on graphic and easy-to-read format. The section features some which all life depends. The series is published as a collabora- 30 stories in five broad areas: Population and Human Well- tive product of four international organizations: the World Being, Feeding the World, Production and Consumption, the Resources Institute (WRI), the United Nations Environment Global Commons, and Resources at Risk. Together, this col- Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Development Pro- lection provides both an overview of progress to date on sus- gramme (UNDP), and the World Bank. The continued and tamnable development and an in-depth look at certain espe- expanded collaboration of these four organizations ensures cially critical issues, such as the extent of threats to the world's that the World f , , series will provide the most objective forests. Coverage is not exhaustive; topics will change with and up-to-date report of conditions and trends in the world's each volume to call attention to emerging issues. Also, within natural resources and global environment, this section, we introduce a new chapter that highlights key With World Resources 1998-99, the eighth report in this se- trends in each of the world's geographic regions. Entitled Re- ries, we introduce a new design and format that we believe will gions at a Glance, this chapter aims to better serve the needs better meet the need for informed data and analysis on global for regional policy analysis. The chapter also features eight environment and development issues. Part I of this volume fo- g hev cuses in depth on he critical isue of Enviromental Chanae global maps highlighting key environment and development ci indicators the world over. (We are interested in your opinion and Human Health. Chapter 1 explores the links between en- o vironmetduliuman helhl. ooking both at of these changes and the report overall. Please take a few min- environmental tealits associmathedawth, poverty a t thosea utes to complete the reader survey at the back of this volume.) environmental threats associated with povertv and those as- sociated with unwise development. This chapter introduces Part III, Data Tables, continues and expands the tradition of new indicators that estimate a country's potential exposure to providing relevant data on most countries of the world. Coi- environmental risks that can undermine health. Chapter 2 ex- plementary data are available in the Human Development Re- amines three trends that are changing the face of the planet- port, published annually by UNDP, and the World Bank's an- and also influencing human health: agricultural intensifica- nual IVorld Developmnent Indicators, and a new report by tion, industrialization, and rising energy use, in particular, UNEP, Global Environmental Outlook. To make an expanded use of fossil fuels. It examines the potential of these three set of data accessible to policymakers, scholars, and nongov- trends to improve human health and well-being and also, if ernmental organizations, WRI also publishes on diskette the not well managed, to degrade the environment and create World Resources Database-expanded to include additional risks to human health, both from exposure to infectious countries, variables, and where possible, 20-year time series. agents and chemical pollutants. Chapter 3 describes a range of The audience for the World Resources series has steadily ex- environmental interventions, from local to international, that panded, with English, French, Spanish, Arabic, German, Japa- can safeguard both environmental quality and human health. nese, and Chinese editions now in print, as well as an Indian Following these overview chapters is a collection of signed es- edition published in English but printed in New Delhi. A says that reflects a diversity of opinions concerning the links Teachers Guide to World Resources is also available to make the between environment and health. The section ends with two series more useful to teachers and students. vii As always, the effort to put together this report was enor- For the special section on Environmental Change and Hu- mous. The book itself would not be possible without the col- man Health, we wish to thank the U.S. Agency fDr Interna- laboration of many institutions and individuals who freely tional Development and the Environmental Health Project shared both data and ideas. (See Acknowledgments.) The for their financial and intellectual support. Through its offices book was edited and assembled by the World Resources staff, in both Geneva and Rome, the World Heahth Organization who drew heavily upon the expertise within the four partner provided invaluable assistance, as did our Special Advisors to organizations: WRI, UNEP, UNDP, and the World Bank. The this special section. We also wish to thank the Risk Science In- Editorial Advisory Board, chaired by M.S. Swaminathan, pro- stitute of the International Life Sciences Institute for its finan- vided active advice and support at all stages of the project. We cial contribution. wish to thank the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs for its support of the preparation of the report and the distribu- tion of the report in developing countries. Lestie Roberts viii Editorial: Environment and Health An examination of trends in human health at world, infants born in parts of the Mississippi ducted on how much environmental fac- the end of the 20th Century reveals a great Delta region or the inner cities of Washington, tors add to the wor d's burden of ill deal of good news. In many world regions to- D.C., or Baltimore, Maryland, have life expec- health. However, it is inarguable that day, more people are living longer, reflecting tancies similar to those in such deve oping many environment-related risks can be many othadaeofhmcountries as Narniba, Lesotho, or India. Al- reduced through preventive action, and and modern life. Better food and housing though new cases of asthma have increased that this approach provides a ciear and an many industrialized countries in the past achievable route to better public health fewer instances of child labor, more efficient decade, in the United States, at least, African- in both developing and developed na- and safer workplaces, improved access to American children have a four times greater tions. Globally, millions of preventable health care, and reduced levels of poilution risk of dying from asthma than do white chil- deaths and millions more cases of illness are all factors contributing to these gains in dren, who are comparatively wealthier. appear to be either directly caused or public health. Yet, the relative role any of A principal factor driving these disparities worsened by environmental contamina- these factors p ays in influencing health is dif is that environment-based health risks-from tion and degradation. Diarrhea and acute ficult to determine, because many of them mosquito-borne diseases to chemical con- respiratory infections, linked with water work in combination. For example, improved taminants to indoor air pollution-still play a contaminated from human wastes and nutrition reduces people's vulnerablity to large role in creating ill health in many re- air filled with smoky fumes, respectively, pollution. Better housing enhances people's gions. Conditions in both the global and the are two of the top killers of children in capacit toIwork more efficient y ano produc- local environment are critical to our health the developing world today.Thus, ad- tapveityh to wrk more effcectsofthese andpro- and well-being. Indeed, environment-related dressing these two risks alone would tively. The - ir 1. - ' - effects of these ad- risks can be deadly: each year, infectious dis- provide health benefits of global propor- vances show our capacIty to cnange condi- eases linked to environmental conditions kill tions, tions that affect people's lives for the better one out of every five children in the poorest Implementing preventive actions to through many different paths. regions of the world. Government reports reduce environmental threats to health Not all regions share equally in these im- from China confirm that much of the limited risks will entail devising public policies provements, however. Progress has been slow groundwater in heavily ii i 'I -. .: and and making financial investments that in sub-Saharan Africa,the world's poorest re- populated northern China is seriously con- explicitly recognize the relationship be- gion, where ilfe expectancy lags some 25 taminated with both human wastes and in- tween environment and health. Many ac- years behind that of the wealthiest nations. dustrial pollutants, posing a clear threat to hu- tions can be taken now that are practical, Life expectancy has, i.:: i .' in some parts of man health. During the forest fires in sensible, and cost-effective-and are not Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union Southeast Asia in 1997, air pollution some- now being done. One of the best oppor- as well, reflecting a combination of socia, po- times exceeded the levels believed to have tunities to improve health through pre- itical, behavioral, and environmental factors. occurred during the London smog, which ventive action is through efforts to im- Thus, aithough global health trends are posi- kilied some 4,000 people during the winter of prove the househoid and community tive, they tend to obscure the serious and pro- 1 952-53. Even before the forest fires, popula- environment in developing countries. found disparities that occur throughout the tions in many of Asia's megacities faced intol- Such actions include expanding access world between the more and the less advan- erably high exposures to air pollution. to water, sanitation, and hygiene educa- taged members of any given society. Understanding the complex links be- tion; ensuring that garbage is collected A huge gap in health status exists be- tween the environment and health is impor- and disposed of properly; promoting the tween rich and poor nations. Simi arly, within tant. Humans are exposed to multiple health use of clean household fuels; and con- countries-even the richest countries in the risks on a daily basis. Identifying which expo- trolling the insect and animal vectors world-the poor suffer far worse health than sures or combination of exposures undermine that carry diseases-especially the mos- do the wealthy.Although the United States health,and to what degree, is a challenge.To quitoes that transmit malaria,dengue fe- ranks as one of the healthiest countries in the date, however, little research has been con- ver, ye low fever, and other tropical ill- ix nesses. Such improvements would greatly cost of converting to unleaded gas in health tos, Brazil will double its use of l-his dan- contribute to reducing the 17 million deaths and econom c savings.The United States, for gerous material within the decade and is each year from infectious diseases.The fai ure instance, saved more than US$10 for every exporting about 70,000 metric sons of it to undertake such basic measures as provid- US$1 it invested in the conversion to un- to India, Nigeria,Thailand,and other rap- ing clean water and waste management for leaded gasoline. Accordingly, there is no ra- idly developing nations. all people is an unnecessary and continuing tionale for new vehicles to be built that re- Finally, actions to prevent or reduce blight on humanity. quire leaded gasoline, nor for additional environmental risks often yield nultiple The unprecedented pace of development refineries to manufacture leaded fuel. Despite benefits, sometimes in both the short underway throughout much of the world of- this evidence, many nations persist in manu- and longer terms. For instance,Efter fers a wealth of opportunities for cost- facturing or importing vehicles that use greatly reducing pesticide subsidies and effective environmental interventions.To date, leaded fuel. implementing Integrated Pest Manage- ' . ~~~~~~~~~~~ment, Indonesia nas increased crop yields in too many places, rapid industral and com- Devising uniform practices for interna- and reduced insecresse probles mercial growth has resulted in environmental tional trade in toxics offers another opportu- evn as it red ucecvraesitace uroblmse degradation and increased threats to human nity for preventive actions that will greatly and pesticide-related health risks. n the health.Yet, this growth also contains the benefit both developed and developing realm of global climate change, recent seeds of solutions. In Asid, sorne 70 percenL of countries. Despite growing evidence that analysis by the Worlo Resources Insttute the energy infrastructure and 90 percent of toxic exposures do not remain neatly within ann the World Health Organization sug- the cars projected to be in service in 2010 regional or national boundaries,the export of gests that reducing the use of fossil fuels have yet to be built. Ensuring that the most hazardous substances has not abated. "Env- and increasing energy efficiency could efficient and least polluting technologies are ronmental degradation tends to follow the save an estimated 700,000 lives a year adopted is an excellent way to safeguard path of least resistance,"as l .-i Dorsey globally by 2020-for a cumulaltive total both environmental quality and human writes in this volume. Between 1989 and of 8 million lives worldwide by health. p994, countries in the Organisation for Eco- 2020-and lower the global burden of Encouraging the phaseout of lead in gaso- nomic Co-Operation and Development illnesses, all while heping to cur-ail the line is a clear example of prucent and afford- (OECD) exported an estimated 2.6 milion buildup of greenhouse gases in t he at- able prevention. The damaging effects of lead metric tons of hazardous waste to non-OECD mosphere. Many other opportunities ex- on child development and adjlt health have countries. Although the United States has re- ist to reduce environmental risks save re- been well documented through the past duced the use of many toxic pesticides do- sources, and protect public healtn.To three decades of research. Evidence from nu- mestically, it still exports them to deve oping ignore such options will impose on yet merous countries reveals that although the countries-some 108 million kilograms of another generation an unacceptably health benefits of phasing lead out of gaso- banned or restricted compounds between high-and preventable-health burden line are great, the cost is relatively lov On av- 1992 and 1994.While developed countries and will deny the promise of sust:ainable erage, countries can recover 5 ' 10 times toe are generally phasing out most uses of ashes- global development. Jonathan Lash Klaus Topfer President Executive Director World Resources nstitute United Nations Environment Programme James Gustave Speth James D. Wolfensohn Administrator President United Nations Development Programme The World Bank x PART I Environmental Change and Human Health ,i .\ \ X D espite vast improv ements in health globally over the past several decades, environmental factors remain a major cause ot sickness and death in many regions of the world. In the poorest regions, one in five children do not live to see their fifth birthday, largely because of environmentally related-and preventable-diseases. That number translates into 11 million childhood deaths each year, mostly due to illnesses such as diarrhea and acute respiratory infections. Insect-borne diseases also exact a heavv toll; malaria alone claims 1 to 3 million lives a year, again, most of them children. Environmental threats to health are question, economic growth and social de- by no means limited to developing coun- velopment are critical for improving hu- tries. In the United States, some 80 mil- man health and well-being. Yet, if not well lion people are exposed to levels of air managed, economic growth can exact a pollution that can impair health. In Chi- major toll on environment and health. na, which has one of the world's fastest It is not a coincidence that some of the growing economies, 2 million people die booming Asian economies also have some each year from the effects of air and water of the worst air pollution in the world. pollution, according to one recent esti- In many developing countries today, mate. Nearly 100 countries, both devel- populations are in double jeopardy, facing oped and developing, still use leaded both the unfinished agenda of traditional gasoline, unnecessarily exposing their cit- environmental health problems, such as izens to a pollutant long known to cause insufficient clean wvater and sanitation, as permanent brain damage. wvell as the emerging problems of indus- Environmental health problems vary trial pollution. In these countries, both dramatically from region to region, re- pesticides and feces mav contaminate flecting geography, climate, and perhaps drin;king water; likewvise, air pollution most important, a country's level of eco- mav stem both from the household burn- nomic development and policy choices. ing of dirty fuels and the industrial use of Manv environmental health problems are fossil fuels. associated wvith poverty and a lack of es- Newv indexes developed for this report sential resources, chief among them suffi- attempt to capture the geography of envi- cient and clean water, food, shelter, fuel, ronmental threats to health. Portraved in and air. Indeed, the WNorld Health Orga- maps, these indexes highlight those coun- nization has called poverty the world's tries where traditional risks are high, and biggest killer. These environmental prob- also vast areas such as India and China lems underlie the 17 millioni deaths each where traditional and modern risks coin- year from infectious diseases. cide. In the more developed countries, the Other environmental threats to health indexes show that many populations still are associated with development itself, face threats from avoidable hazards such vhen it is pursued without proper sate- as leaded gasolinie. Although preliminary, guards for the environment. \\'ithout these indexes suggest where policy inter- ventions could improve both environ- agencies, donors, and nongovernmental tion and associated interventions, for in- mental quality and human health. groups have worked together to make stance, would not only reduce disease and Although useful for painting a picture widely available such life-saving interven- improve human dignity but could also in broad strokes, these indicators cannot tions as vaccines and oral rehydration help combat poverty if the tirne formerly capture serious disparities in risk that oc- therapy. Many millions of dollars have spent collecting water or caring for sick cur within countries. For example, al- been spent on medical research, although children could be devoted to education or though the United States overall faces low arguably not enough on tropical diseases income-generating activities. environmental risks to health, the preva- that cause so much misery and claim so Other interventions, too, promise mul- lence of asthma is increasing among poor many lives throughout the developing tiple benefits beyond the health arena. and minority populations, and environ- world. These health-care strategies are Curbing fossil fuel consumption could mental factors are believed to be con- essential and deserve increased support. save lives immediately by reducing levels tributing to that increase. Similarly, lead However, supplementing these approach- of ambient air pollution. In addition, the exposures are typically far higher among es with preventive strategies that inter- same strategy could help avert long-term poor, inner-city children than other vene earlier in the disease process and climate change and its predicted ecologi- groups. This unequal burden of risk, stop harmful exposures from occurring cal, economic, and health costs. Similarly, closely tied to poverty, is described in de- in the first place would bring additional adopting more environmentally benign tail in the text. Nor do country-level indi- gains, often at relatively modest cost. forms of agriculture-approaches that cators reveal another inequity: the dis- This report attempts to illuminate use fewer agricultural chemicals and proportionate share of global environ- these points of interventioni by exploring cause less ecological disruption-would mental threats created by the wealthiest the driving forces and trends that under- help to reduce both acute and chronic countries, who consume more energy lie many of today's environmental health health risks associated with exposure to and resources per capita than do poorer problems. Three trends stand out in harmful pesticides. At the same time, re- countries. The wealthy countries, for in- terms of their profound impact on the ducing the use of fertilizer ancl improving stance, bear the greatest responsibility for physical environment and their enor- watershed management could lessen releasing the greenhouse gases that mous potential for influencing human agriculture's toll on coastal waters-par- threaten to change global climate, with health: the intensification of agriculture, ticularly the harmful algal blooms and myriad potential health effects. industrialization, and rising energy use- fish kills that threaten not only ecosystem This special section describes the in particular, fossil fuel consumption. health but human health as well. complex links between the environment, All of these trends play a vital role in In addition to these large-scale development, and health. It explores the economic development patterns world- changes, the report calls attention to situ- ways in which environmental factors, and wide, yet all can be a source of avoidable ations in which the problems and solu- particularly environmental change, can ill health as well. For instance, agricultur- tions are relatively well understood. Re- degrade health-either directly, by ex- al intensification can expose workers and moving lead from gasoline, for instance, posing people to harmful agents, or indi- communities to toxic pesticides. Land could immediately reduce environmental rectly, by disrupting the ecosystems that clearing and irrigation projects can facili- threats to health. Similarly, the report sustain life. The section then examines tate increases in vector-borne diseases illustrates the many benefits possible if how improved environmental manage- such as malaria and schistosomiasis. In- concerns about environmental threats ment can preserve both human health dustrialization, which is so critical to eco- to health are incorporated into develop- and environmental quality. nomic growth, can also bring exposure to ment planning at the outset. Experience Why focus on the role of environment heavy metals and other toxic contami- has shown it is possible to anticipate and in health? Admittedly, environmental fac- nants. Rising energy use is largely respon- prevent some of the problems associated tors are by no means the only, or even the sible for air pollution that blankets many with development. Dams can be built so major, cause of ill health globally. Envi- of the world's cities and also has the po- that they do not provide habitat for dis- ronmental factors predominate in poorer tential to alter the Earth's climate. ease vectors. Factories can be sited so countries, for instance, but play a much This report then describes a range of that they do not contaminate ground- smaller role in undermining health in the environmental interventions-from sim- water. But achieving such resul-s requires wealthier countries, where voluntary be- ple and local to complex and internation- coordination and communication haviors such as diet and smoking are al-that can mitigate these problems. among agencies that do not often inter- larger determinants of health. In both set- Many of these problems are hard to ad- act, such as government ministries of tings, however, environmental factors de- dress. Indeed, the question of how to ex- health, agriculture, economics, and the serve increased policy attention because pand access to water and sanitation has environment, and also international aid they are avoidable causes of ill health. defied simple solution for decades. Yet, agencies. Making the environment a cen- iMuch has been done globally in the tackling fundamental problems will yield tral component in public healthl strate- past few decades to improve health. Gov- myriad benefits, not just in terms of gies is essential to ensure health for ernments, communities, international health. The provision of water and sanita- everyone in the 21 st Century. Linking Environment and Health he environment, which sustains human life, is Overcrowding and smoky indoor air-from burning bio- also a profound source of ill health for many mass fuels for cooking or heating-contribute to acute res- of the world's people. In the least developed piratory infections that kill 4 million people a year, again, countries, one in five children do not live to mostly children younger than age 5. The World Bank esti- see their fifth birthday-mostly because of mates that between 400 million and 700 million women avoidable environmental threats to health (l). That translates and children are exposed to severe air pollution, in most in- into roughly 11 million avoidable childhood deaths each year. stances, from cooking fires (4). Hundreds of millions of others,both children and adults,suf- s Malaria kills 1 million to 3 million people a year (5), ap- fer ill health and disability that undermine their quality of life proximately 80 percent of them children (6). Other and hopes for the future. These environmental health mosquito-borne diseases, such as dengue and vellow fever, threats-arguably the most serious environmental health affect millions more each year and are on the rise, prompt- threats facing the world's population today-stem mostly ing the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare the from traditional problems long since solved in the wealthier mosquito "Public Enemy Number One" (7). countries, such as a lack of clean wvater, sanitation, adequate housing, and protection from mosquitoes and other insectmany newly and rapidl industrializing re- and animal disease vectors. gions of the developing world, the populations are in double Indeed: jeopardy, facing both this unfinished agenda of traditional environmental health problems as well as emerging problems 0 Contaminated water-contaminated by feces, not chemi- of industrial pollution. Cottage industries, such as backyard cals-remains one of the biggest killers worldwide. Lack of tanneries, can place workers and residents in direct contact adequate water, sanitation, and hygiene is responsible for with hazardous chemicals. In those areas where the use of anestimated7percentofalldeathsanddiseaseglobally,ac- pesticides and other agricultural chemicals is increasing and cording to one recent estimate (2). Diarrhea alone claims safeguards are lax-or risks poorly understood-high expo- the lives of some 2.5 million children a year (3). sures can ensue, leading to acute poisonings and even death. World Resources 1998-99 1 Box 11.1 Demographic Regions Used in this Report .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN El I -4INDIA MIDDLE EASTERN CRESCENT l |ICHINA FORMERLY SOCALIST ECONOMIES OF EUROPE OTHER ASIA AND ISLANDS _ ESTABLISHED MiARKET ECONOMIES I I .1 I II S It Im,I I - INCOME PER CAPITA CHILD LIFE EXPECTANCY AT POPULATION, GROWTH RATE, MORTALITY BIRTH (years) 1990 DEATHS,1990 DOLLARS, 1975-90 REGION (millions) (millions) 1990 (percent per year) 1975 1990 1975 1990 Sub-Saharan Africa 510 7.9 510 -1.0 212 175 48 52 India 850 9.3 360 2.5 195 127 53 58 China 1,134 8.9 370 7.4 85 43 56 69 Other Asia and Islands 683 5.5 1,320 4.6 135 97 56 62 Latin America and the Caribbean 444 3.0 2,190 -0.1 104 60 62 70 Middle Eastern Crescent 503 4.4 1,720 -1.3 174 111 52 61 Formerly Socialist Economies of 346 3.8 2,850 0.5 36 22 70 72 Europe fFSE) Established Market Economies (EME) 798 7.1 19,900 2.2 21 11 73 76 DemographicallyDevelopingGroupa 4,123 39.1 900 3.0 152 106 56 63 FSEand EME 1,144 10.9 14,690 1.7 25 15 72 75 World 5,267 50.0 4,000 1.2 135 96 60 65 Source:The Worid Bank, WordDevelopmentReport 1993. nvesting in-Molsh, WorldDevelo.ment Indicators (Oxford University Press,New York,1993),p. 2. Note.Child mortality is the probab lity ofdying between birth and age S,expressed per 1,000 live births;life expectancy at birth is the average number ofyears thata person would expe-tto live at the prevailing age-specific mortality rates. a. Includesthe countries ofthe demographic regions Sub-Sanaran Africa,India,Chmra,Other Asia and Islands,Latin America and the Caribbean,and vddle Eastern Crescent. 2 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH For countries in the early stages of development, both pesti- gions. The exact nature and scale of environmental risks to cides and feces may contaminate drinking-water supplies, health vary dramatically according to where and how one and air pollution may stem both from traditional biomass fu- lives. The distribution of risks refl ects a number of factors, in- els and industrial use of fossil fuels (8). Such problems are in- cluding the level of socioeconomic development, distribution creasinglypronounced in the slum settlements that ring many of wealth, a region's geography and climate (heat and humid- of the world's cities. ity are major killers), and equally important, policy choices Problems can be particularly acute where economic growth and investments. (The regional breakdowns used in this sec- is extremely rapid. In many of the most rapidly developing tion and in calculating the WRI indicators that follow can be countries in Asia, industrialization is occurring at triple the found in Box 1.1.) pace of the industrial revolution in the West (9). Many of those regions are also experiencing industrial pollution on a scale The Geography of Risk not seen in the developed world for the past 40 years-not since the London fog of 1952 caused some 4,000 excess deaths The maps on page 5 portray the geographic distribution of in the weeks subsequent to the episode (1o). According to the various environmental threats to health. These maps, the out- United Nations, 13 of the 15 cities with the worst air pollution come of new indicators developed by the World Resources In- in the world are in Asia (11). A recent World Bank study esti- stitute (XVRI),suggestboth thelevel andtype of environmental mates that more than 2 million people die each year in China risks individual countries face. Because environmental threats alone from the effects of air and water pollution (12). to health emanate from many sources and vary dramatically In the world's wealthiest regions, such as Europe, North by region and level of economic development, WRI calculated America, and Japan, although enlvironmental risks overall risks to health separately for developed and developing coun- tend to be lower, they have bv no means disappeared. tries. I Figure 1.1 conveys the extent of environmental threats to * Asthma is rising dramatically throughout the developed health in the developing countries. In these countries, envi- countries, and environmental factors appear to be at least ronmental threats to health are broad, stemming from both partly to blame. biological risks associated with poverty and chemical risks * Millions of people in Europe and North America are still associated with industrialization. Threats in the former cate- exposed to unsafe air, and some air pollutants are proving gory include inadequate water and sanitation and exposure to more recalcitrant to control than many expected. vector-borne diseases that thrive in tropical climates. In some * Meanwhile, biological contamination is bv no means a countries, the effects of ambient air pollution, from both con- thing of the past, as shown by the 1993 outbreak of Crypto- ventional air pollutants and lead in gasoline, are compounded sporid ium in the United States. by the burning of smoky fuels indoors. The effects of pollut- ants and infectious agents are exacerbated by inadequate nu- * The extension of travel and trade is providing new oppor- trition, as will be discussed later. For these reasons, the devel- tunities for the spread or re-emergence of infectious dis- oping country index examines risks in three categories: air, eases. In the past twvo decades, some 30 "new" infectious water, and food. Some countries, such as poorer countries in diseases have emerged (13). Africa, may face high risks from indoor air pollution but low In all regions of the world, populations face the threat of cli- risks from outdoor air pollution; other countries such as India mate change and other global environmental problems, such and China face both. In areas where these threats coincide as stratospheric ozone depletion. Worldwide, fossil fuel emis- with poor nutrition and/or water-related diseases, the envi- sions continue to rise, bringing with them the risk of climate ronmental risks to health are likely to be high. Generally, change and both immediate and long-term health effects. countries in Africa and parts of Asia face the highest environ- However, it is important to note that although the activities mental threats to health. In much of Central and South Amer- that are driving these changes, such as intense fossil fuel con- ica, environmental risks are moderate to low. Many of these sumption, have largely been concentrated among the wealthi- countries have expanded water and sanitation coverage in re- est nations, the impacts are likely to be greatest in the poorest cent years and have also removed lead from gasoline. (For de- regions that do not have the resources to adapt to them (14). tails on how these indexes were constructed and additional Similarly, in the wealthiest countries, disadvantaged popula- data on each country, see Box 1.2 and the Appendix at the end tions often endure the highest exposures and have the fewest of Part I.) resources to deal with them. In most developed countries, by contrast, environmental As these examples reveal, despite considerable progress in threats stem primarily from industrial pollution-either con- addressing environmental problems, environmental degra- ventional air pollutants, air toxics, or hazardous chemicals. dation still poses a huge threat to human health in many re- Because data on chemical releases or exposures are generally World Resources 1998-99 3 Box 1.2 Indicators of Environmental Threats to Health WRI has developed new indicators to assess out adequate sanitation, and potential exposure ated measures. The final rank was separated into the extent of risks to health that people face to malaria (as a surrogate for a number of high, medium, and low categories of potential, from environmental threats in different coun- insect-borne diseases). The nutrition compo- relative risk by dividing the countries into three tries of the world. Creating such indicators is nent includes three measures representing po- equal groups. fraught with difficulty, because national-level tential exposure to poor nutrition: percent of For developed countries, WRI developed two data are often lacking, necessitating the use of children under 5 years of age who are under- indicators rather than a single aggregated index. surrogate measures. For instance, most coun- weight, total number of available calories per One indicator suggests potential exposure to tries do not report information on how many person, and percent of population at risk of ei- polluted ambient air; the other suggests poten- of their population are exposed to potentially ther vitamin A or iodine deficiency (whichever tial exposure to air polluted with leac used in harmful levels of indoor air pollution from micronutrient deficiency was higher). gasoline. The lead indicator is showr in Figure the use of smoky fuels. A rough surrogate The three measures within each component 1.2; the ambient air pollution indicator is in- can be constructed using the amount of bio- of the developing country indicator were ranked cluded in the Appendix but is not mapped be- mass fuel used per household. Thus, these in- from lowest (lowest relative risk) to highest cause of insufficient data. In both of these indi- dicators are not precise measures of actual (highest relative risk). If the number of coun- cators, countries were ranked from lowest to risk but rather rough gauges based on data tries with data available differed among the highest exposures. To determine the final rank, availability and quality. three measures, the ranks were standardized, or the countries were divided into three equal As described in the text, WRI developed spread, to match the maximum number of ranks groups, reflecting high, medium, and low poten- separate indicators for developing and devel- for any of the three measures. The three ranks tial risk. oped countries. For the developing country in- from the three measures were then averaged In these preliminary indicators, the final dicator, WRI selected several measures that rep- (each country must have at least two measures rankings for each country should be considered resent potential environmental threats to health to be included in the calculation), and the final suggestive, to be used as a basis for exF loring en- and then aggregated them, in a procedure de- average rank was ranked again from lowest to vironmental health threats in greater detail. WRI scribed below. Because environmental threats to highest risk. used the best available data to construct the indi- health are many and varied in developing coun- The next level of aggregation was to combine cator, but still, the data were often inco -nplete or tries, this indicator attempts to measure risks the ranks of the three components. Here again, unreliable. Dividing nations into thirds to desig- from three sources: air, water, and food. The air when the number of countries with available nate the three risk categories is, admittedly, arbi- component for the developing country indicator data differ, the ranks were standardized to trar,v There may be very little difference between includes three measures representing potential match the maximum number or ranks for any of countries at the cut-off points between high and exposure to poor quality air: exposure to pol- the three measures. The ranks of the three com- medium risk or medium and low risk. The broad luted indoor air, exposure to polluted ambient ponents were then averaged (each country must categories, however, suggest difference, in relative air, and exposure to air polluted with lead from have at least two measures to be included in the risks, and the indicator maps serve as prelimi- gasoline. final ranking), and the final average rank was nary tools for identifying countries with differ- The water component for the developing ranked again. The final result was a list of devel- ent potential for exposure to environtental country indicator includes measures of percent oping countries ranked according to potential health threats. (For additional information, see of population without access to safe water, with- exposure to the three components and associ- the Appendix at the end of Part I.) lacking or of poor quality, WRI's preliminary indicators for to harmful agents. It is not possible to translate the r isks iden- developed countries focus solely on air pollution. Countries tified in these indicators into estimates of excess sickness or are ranked both according to their potential exposure to pol- death. Even so, one can safely assume that lower risk generally luted ambient air and their potential exposure to lead in gaso- translates into better health. Nor do these indicators capture line. Figure 1.2 shows countries where the populations face an variations in risks within countries, which are known to be elevated risk from potential exposure to air polluted with lead substantial, as will be discussed later in this chaptet. from gasoline. (For data on country-level risk of exposure to Shortcomings aside, the developing world indicator does outdoor air pollution, see the Appendix.) The former Soviet serve as a rough guide to the severity and types of potentially Union and parts of Eastern Europe face high risks from expo- harmful environmental exposures people face in various sure to lead in gasoline. Perhaps more unexpected, France, countries. Many of these exposures and their adverse effects Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, among can be prevented through policy actions at the local: national, others, also face high risks because of their continued use of or international level. As the indicator suggests, countries leaded gasoline and dense urban populations. need not be wealthy to reduce environmental threats to As with any indicator, a number of caveats are warranted. health. Many actions can improve both environmental qual- First, these indicators do not measure adverse health effects; ity and public health for relatively low cost. These and other rather, they identify where risks are high, based on exposure preventive policies are the focus of Chapter 3. 4 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH FICURE 1.1 ountries Potential Exposure to Environmental Health Risks Lull] LOW _ _ MEDIUM HIGH = DATA INCOMPLETE IGURE 1 2 Developed Countries Potential Exposure to Air Polluted with Lead from Gasoline Source: World Resources lnstitute:see Appendix A. LOW MEDIUM HIGH DATA INCOMPLETE World Resources 1998-99 5 Changing Environment, Changing water, and soil. In the process, the face of the planet has been Health Threats transformed. Without question, the benefits of economic d&velopment This report examines the myriad ways in which environ- have been enormous. Economic growth and soc.Ial progress mental conditions, and especially environmental change, af- of the past several decades have ushered in an era of untold fect human health. Here "environment" is defined as the prosperity and health in most regions of the world. Globally, physical, chemical, and biological setting in which people per capita gross domestic product (GDP) has jumped from live-in other words, the condition of the air, water, soil, and US$2,257 to US$3,168 in the past 25 years; life expectancyhas climate.Notincludedarethesocialenvironment; lifestyleand climbed from 57.9 to 65.6 (15). Yet, economic development behavioral choices such as smoking, alcohol consumption, has had unintended consequences as well-name.!y, environ- and diet; or the workplace. Although these factors have enor- mental degradation and increased threats to hum-ian health. mous influences on health, they are beyond the scope of this Unless consideration is given in advance to the consequences report. of economic growth-especially the rapid growth now un- Environmental hazards to health fall into two broad catego- derway in many parts of the world-environmental threats to ries. The first is a lack of access to essential environmental re- human health will surely intensify, undermining the gains in sources-chief among them sufficient and clean water, food, welfare that development typically brings. shelter, fuel, and air. The second broad category is exposure to hazards in the environment. These hazards include biological agents-microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses and The Drivers of Change parasites-that contribute to the huge global burden of infec- Environmental change and its attendant health impacts are tious diseases. Biological agents are implicated in diseases driven by many factors, including economic growth, popula- from diarrhea to acute respiratory infections, to malaria, to tion growth and movements, urbanization, transportation, ulcers, and to some cancers. Also included are noxious and war, to name just a few. Here we focus on three broad chemical and physical hazards in the environment. Some pol- trends-the intensification of agriculture, industrialization, lutants, such as pesticides and industrial solvents, are created and rising energy use-which stand out in terms of their pro- by human activities. Others, including arsenic or ultraviolet found impacts on the physical environment and their enor- (UV) radiation, occur naturally in the environment, although mous potential for influencing human health. Given current exposure can be exacerbated by human activities. These pol- development patterns, all are essential for economic develop- lutants can undermine health in various ways, by contributing ment and improved welfare. Yet, all lead to pressures on the en- to cancer or birth defects or perhaps by damaging the body's vironment, such as pollutant emissions and resource deple- immune system, which renders people more susceptible to a tion, that in turn can increase human exposure to threats in variety of other health risks. the environment. In the past several years, scientists have become increas- Intensification of agricultureis essential forproducing more ingly aware that environmental changes, locally and region- food but, when not well managed, creates substantial risks, ally, as well as globally, can exacerbate both types of environ- such as exposing workers and communities to tcxic pesti- mental health problems. Development projects such as the cides, contaminating groundwater supplies, and. creating building of dams and roads can displace local populations, pesticide-resistant pests. Land clearing, irrigation, and dams for instance, altering agricultural practices, undermining nu- can bring increases in vector-borne diseases such as malaria trition, and increasing the spread of infectious diseases. On a and schistosomiasis, both of which exact a huge toll in rural global scale, greenhouse warming threatens to render certain areas of the developing world. land unsuitable for agriculture or even habitation and may Industrialization is the linchpin of economic growth and, also increase the range of disease-carrying mosquitoes. like urbanization to which it is closely related, is associated This report is concerned not just with today's environ- with major gains in health. Yet, along with rising standards of mental health threats, which are clearly substantial, but also living-atleastforamaiorityofthepopulation-industriali- with the extent to which human activities are altering the en- zation often means increased exposure to heavy metals, per- vironment andwhat those changes portend for humanhealth. sistent chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), Environmental change is an inevitable consequence of eco- and other toxic chemicals. This is especially true for workers nomic development and people's desires to improve their and the poor who often live close to factories. Such exposures quality of life. In pursuit of a better life, forests and grasslands are likely to be increasingly pronounced in the developing are converted to farms, homes, and commercial spaces; raw world, where the most rapid industrialization is occurring. materials are extracted for energy and commerce; and water- RisiTng -, . I n use is needed to fuel industrial growth but ways dammed and diverted. Pollutants are dispersed into air, brings many attendant problems. Local air pollution from in- 6 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH dustrial and vehicle emissions has proved difficult to manage fuel use or the lack of sanitation in burgeoning slums-are even in developed economies. Fossil fuel use also has the po- simply too big for the health sector to tackle alone. Typically, tential to alter the Earth's climate, with a predicted range of health strategies focus on individual cases, attempting to pre- health impacts from severe storms, to drought, to flooding, to vent a person from contracting a disease and, when that is not an increase in insect-borne diseases such as malaria. Energy possible, treating the disease. Although such approaches have demand, which is already huge in the developed countries, is been enormously successful in improving public health, it is rising fastest in the developing world. clearly possible to do even more by pursuing strategies that Although these trends are discussed separately here, in the intervene earlier in the pathway toward illness. real world they rarely occur in isolation. Rising energy use, for Environmental interventions seek to do that by preventing instance, is part and parcel of industrialization and agricul- exposure to the pathogens that cause disease or eliminating ture. The effects of industrialization are often difficult to dis- conditions that enable vectors to breed. For instance, rather entangle from those of urbanization. Many of the effects of than just treating diarrhea with oral rehydration therapy, these trends are well known and predictable (for example, in- which saves lives but does not reduce the incidence of the dis- creased air pollution that accompanies rising use of fossil fu- ease and the suffering it causes, an environmentallybased ap- els, or exposure to toxic chemicals through improper disposal proach would seek to increase access to water and sanitation of industrial wastes). Others, however, are far less certain, and hygiene education. though potentially large, such as those associated with global In the past few years, several organizations have called for climate change and wide-scale ecological disruption. broadening health strategies by factoring in environmental Until recently, discussions of environmental threats to considerations as well (19). In a recent report for instance, health have tended to focus on direct toxicological effects of WHO made the case for pursuing "upstream" policy ac- specific insults or exposures. Now, awareness is growing that tions-in other words, actions removed from the immediate changes in the environment can affect health in indirect and hazards that instead address the underlying pressure or driv- often unexpected ways as well, by disrupting local or global ing force (20). Health improvements from upstream interven- ecosystems (16). For instance, soil erosion stemming from tions, such as the provision of water and sanitation or a shift poor agricultural practices can result in reduced crop yields; away from fossil fuel use, may be slower in coming than im- this could have important consequences for nutrition. Farm provements from clinical intervention, notes WHO. For this animal wastes in the eastern United States are suspected of reason, environmental approaches must be combined with causing toxic algal blooms, leading to massive fish kills and clinical strategies to treat immediate health problems. But in potential harm to humans (17). Even well-intended develop- the long run, the benefits of prevention are more enduring in ment projects can have unexpected outcomes, as occurred in terms of improved public health, a cleaner and safer environ- Africa's Senegal River Valley, where the construction of two ment, and stronger socioeconomic development. dams set off a cascade of events that ultimately contributed to A key challenge of this approach is that it requires coordina- nutritional problems for the population and a dramatic in- tion among many sectors-for instance, environment, en- crease in schistosomiasis. (See Regional Profile on Damming ergy, transportation, and health-that often don't interact. the Senegal River.) But on the positive side, the benefits will reach far beyond the Although agricultural intensification, industrialization, health sector as well. An increased emphasis on public trans- and rising energy use hold considerable potential for harming portation versus the private car will reduce air pollution and both the environment and public health, these negative im- associated respiratory illnesses. But such a shift might not be pacts are by no means inevitable. Experience has shown that it justified on the basis of health improvements alone. However, is possible to manage economic growth in ways that preserve when the potential economic savings from reduced urban environmental quality and enhance human health. But this congestion are factored in, not to mention reduced pollution will not come from the random interaction of market forces damage to regional ecosystems, the case becomes more com- alone (18). Achieving the benefits of economic development pelling. while minimizing its deleterious impacts will require an in- Improving both health and the environment will also re- creased awareness of links between environment and health quire increased consideration of equity issues, or how risks andabroaderapproachtostrategiestoimprovepublichealth. are distributed among populations. All too often, as the fol- In particular, achieving these benefits will depend on a lowing chapters document, environmental risks are borne greater emphasis on prevention, either by managing the envi- disproportionately by the poor and disenfranchised-not ronment so that health risks do not occur, or by intervening just in developing countries but in affluent nations as well. before these risks lead to illness. Prevention is essential be- This issue warrants increased attention because economic cause the health risks associated with environmental degra- disparities are increasing both within and among countries. dation and change-such as the impacts of increasing fossil One consequence of these disparities is that the rich can often World Resources 1998-99 7 FGURE 1.3 Trends in Life Expectancy,195O-95 FIGURE 1.4 VortalityTends inC-ildren JnderAge5,1960-95 I9gein years) (deaths Pe, 1-000 _i.e _ _ _ 75 250 - 70 65 ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~200 - --- - -- … - - 60 ISO ---:--_._ .................__ ______ 40 -- -----------------------___-_- _-__ _ _ _.__ 0 50 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~5 455 3 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 35 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1905 1990 1995 HIGH NCOMFCDUJNTRIES 3 MI005 ISNOMECOWTRES WORLD O ESS DEVELOKI) MORE DEVELOPED LOW NIDDLE INCOME COUNTIES00 LDWINCOMECOUNTRES Source: United Nations (U .N.) Population Div sion, DemographicIndicators, 7950-2050 (The Source: UnIted Natons Children'sFund (UNICEF),StoteoftheeWould'sChildren 1997(UNICEF, 1996 Revision) (U. N, New York, 1 996). New York, 1997). protect themselves from environmental threats to health, countries, and indeed, between the rich and the poor within while the poor usually cannot. the same country or even city. Today, nearly one fifth of all Before turning to an examination of the health implications people in the developing countries are not expected to survive of the three trends, the remainder of this chapter describes the until age 40 (24). Sierra Leone has the lowest life expectancy in major patterns of death and disease worldwide and their links the world-roughly 38 years-less than half that of Japan, with the environment. which boasts the highest at nearly 80 years (25) Similarly, without diminishing the huge improvements in child sur- Global Health Patterns vival, it must be noted that more than 20 percent of children born in the least developed countries will die before reaching Global health conditions improved more in the past half- age 5; in the richest countries, less than 1 percent will (26). centurythanin all ofthe years before (21). Worldwide, life ex- Just a century ago, health conditions in Europe, North pectancy has risen to an average of 65 years and death rates America, and Japan were similar to those of the least devel- have declined, especially among young children (22). (See Fig- oped countries today, as was environmental quality. Condi- ures 1.3 and 1.4.) tions in London and other major centers were squalid; In the wealthiest countries, average life expectancyclimbed sewage-filled rivers,garbage-strewn streets,and overcrowded from roughly67years in 1950 to 77vears in 1995; in the devel- and dank housing were the norm. Much of the population oping countries, life expectancy jumped from 40 to 64 years. lacked access to fresh water or adequate sanitation. E]pidemics Even in the least developed regions, such as sub-Saharan Af- of typhus, cholera, dysentery, tuberculosis, and measles swept rica, average life expectancy has climbed from 36 to 52 years. these cities. Indeed, in the world's most prosperous cities at The only exception to these positive regional trends occurred the time, the infant mortality rate-the number of children in the transitional economies of Eastern Europe, where life who die before their first birthday-was more than 100 per expectancyfor men declined from 1989 to 1993. Major strides 1,000 live births, and in some places it exceeded 200 '27). Diar- have also been made in reducing child mortality. As recently rheal and respiratory diseases and other infections, were the as 1950,287 children out of every 1,000 born in the develop- major causes of death. ing countries would die before reaching age 5. By 1995, that By 1950, life expectancy in the most developed countries number had dropped to 90 (23). had climbed to 67 years, and infant mortality had dropped to Yet, this incredible progress should not mask the fact that 58 per ],00O live births. This remarkable improvement in pub- health conditions remain dismal in many parts of the world, lic health was related to several factors, but chief among them creating huge disparities between the richest and the poorest was a concerted effort by both government and ncngovern- 8 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH FGURE 1 .5a Death Rates for Respiratory Tubercu asis (TB) in England and Vlales, FIGURE 1 .Sb Death Rates for Measles n Children Under Age 15, Enc and and Wa es, 1840-1968 1S50-1970 (deaths pert mi ,IoN poipoat-ool (deaths per t m I ion cni(dren) 4,000- - 1,400 1 200 - 3,000 ----- -- ---- 1,000 Tuberc e baci L,, identified 0on 2 °°° ~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~ ~~~~~ ~~- ~~~ < ~600 \ 0, 0 - - -- -…c- - - - - -- - - Il.ot----------- - -. --- - ...- Chemote rary200 i 1840 1855 1875 1895 1915 1935 1948 1958 1968 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 Source: Thomas McKeown, The ModerniPse of Populatior (Academic Press, San Francisco, 1976), pp. 93,96. Note: BCG s Bac llus Calmette-Guerin, the only TB vaccine currenty avaolable. mental organizations to improve the environmental condi- to chronic diseases can be partly explained by the fact that tions of the poor. Appalled by the health conditions of the many more people were living to the age when chronic dis- poor, and increasingly aware that infectious diseases could in- eases strike. Even so, this transition represented not just a sim- fect the rich as well, reformers at the end of the 19th Century ple substitution of one set of problems for another but an instituted a series of improvements, known as the Sanitary overall improvement in health. Revolution (28). Perhaps the most important of these changes Elements of this epidemiologic transition are in fact occur- was the provision of water and sewage systems for removing ring now, to varying degrees, throughout much of the devel- human wastes. These fundamental improvements did much opingworld. In some of the middle-income countries of Latin to quell the epidemic of infectious disease and contribute to America and Asia, for instance, chronic diseases now take as overall improvements in human health and well-being. great or an even greater toll than infectious diseases (33). But Other factors were also at work to improve health over the this transition is by no means complete. Many countries, es- past century, including rising prosperity, improved nutrition, pecially the poorest, still have a huge burden of infectious dis- safer workplace conditions, better housing, and advances in eases along with a growing problem of chronic diseases. health care-all important determinants of health. Indeed These populations have not traded one set of problems for an- some 100 years later, the exact contribution of each is still the other; instead, they are suffering from both, in what is known subject of yearsidaer,able dexate(99).rEnvironmofentac isnstilhen- as the "double burden" of disease (34). Nor is the transition in- subject of considerable debate (29). Environmental interven- evitable As the history of the Sanitary Revolution illustrates, tions clearly played a major role, however, as the most dra- concerted policies and investments are necessary to improve matic drops in infectious disease occurred before the wide- both environmental quality and public health. spread availability of vaccines and antibiotics (30) (31) (32). Where countries are in this epidemiologic transition can be (See Figures 1.5a and 1.5b.) discerned in today's patterns of death and disease, discussed Today, it is widely assumed that with increasing economic next. growth, the developing countries will follow the same path as Europe and North America and experience what has become CURRENT PATTERNS OF DEATH AND DISEASE known as the "epidemiologic transition.' This term describes About 52 million people of all ages died in 1996-the last year thechangingpatternsofdiseasethataccompaniedoverallim- for which the WHO has estimates (35). Beyond these gross provements in health in the late 19th and early 20th Centurv. numbers, however, it is difficult to discern the exact causes of As mortality rates declined and life expectancy rose, these death. Data are abundant and reliable on causes of mortality populations experienced a shift in the pattern of disease, from in the developed countries but are sorely lacking in the devel- one dominated by infectious diseases to one dominated by oping world. Of those 52 million deaths, for instance, WHO chronic disorders such as heart disease and cancer. The shift had reliable records of cause of death for approximately 13 World Resources 1998-99 9 FGURE1.6 ManCausesofMortaity,199C TABLIl. LeadingCauMsesoMeath.990 PERCENTAGE WORLD DEVELOPING DEATHS OF TOTAL WORLD (000) DEATHS _ 3, sv 41.9% All causes 50,467 - lschemicheartdisease 6,260 12.4 Cerebrovascular disease 4,381 8.7 Lower respiratory infections 4,299 8.5 Diarrheal diseases 2,946 5.8 Conditions arising during the perinatal period 2,443 4.8 _ 10.1% _ 10.7% Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 2,211 4.4 Tuberculosis 1,960 3.9 47.4% -- Measles 1,058 2.1 Road traffic accidents 999 2.0 DEVELOPED Trachea, bronchus,and lung cancers 945 1.9 DEVELOPED REGIONS / - <,All causes 10,912 - , Ischemic heart disease 2,695 24.7 Cerebrovascular disease 1,427 13.1 COMMBINICABLE DISEASES 86.3% - 6.1% Trachea, bronchus,and lung cancers 523 4.8 : D: | NONCOMMUNICABLEDISEASES 7.6% Lower respiratory infections 385 3.5 INJURY-RELATED Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 324 3.0 Colon and rectum cancers 277 2.5 Stomach cancer 241 2.2 Road traffic accidents 222 2.0 Self-inflicted injuries 193 1.8 Source: Chri5topherJ.L.Murray and Alan C. Lopez,eds.,TheGlobalBurderrofDAsease Volumel Diabetes mellitus 176 1.6 (World Health Organization,HarvardSchool ofPublic Health,and the World Bank.Geneva, 1996a,p 176. DEVELOPIN6REGIONS Note: Distnrbution of deaths by broad cause group, 1990. Developed countries include the es- All causes 39,554 - tablished market economies and the formerly socialist economies,other regions are cons dered Lower respiratory infections 3,915 9.9 developing. Ischemic heart disease 3,565 9.0 Cerebrovascular disease 2,954 7.5 Diarrheal diseases 2,940 7.4 million-most of those from the developed countries (36). Conditions arising during the perinatal period 2,361 6.0 That means that the exact cause of death is known in only Tuberculosis 1,922 4.9 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 1,887 4.8 about one case out of four; the rest are estimated according to Measles 1,058 2.7 a series of well-established, if imperfect, procedures. Even less Malaria 856 2.2 is known about sickness, or morbidity,because most illnesses Road traffic accidents 777 2.0 are not reported. Source: Christopher J.L. Murray and Alan D. Lopez, eds., The Global Burden of 'Disease Volume 7 Difed (WorldHealthOrganization,HarvardSchoolof Pub icHealthandthe World Bank,Geneva, Different methods used to tally the toll of sickness and 19961, pp. 179-180. death produce different pictures, sparking intense debate over whose numbers are "right" and generally underscoring the study provides comprehensive and comparable estimates for sorry state of global health data (37) (38). (See Box 1.3.) With death and disease in 1990 in different regions of the world. In these caveats in mind, the global estimates reported here are later sections that discuss individual diseases, this report re- sufficient to paint a broad picture of the relative importance lies on the most recent WHO statistics and attempts to note of various diseases, but exact numbers should be viewed with when they vary significantly from the GBD study. caution. Data for this section are drawn from estimates in a What do these estimates reveal about patterns of death in 1996 study, the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) (39). Per- 1990? (See Figure 1.6.) Theyshowclearlythattheepidemicof formed by researchers at Harvard University and WHO, this chronic, or noncommunicable, diseases is no longer limited CHINA INDIA ESTABLISHED MARKET ECONOMIES FORMERLY SOCIALIST ECONOMIES MAIN CAUSES OF IMORTALITY is,, S .COMMUN CABLE DISEASES 7a7.-.. ' 873S . &.r~. - E!-:--= NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES INJURY-RELATED 10 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH I,.,I I L._ I,,f 17GURE I 7a Males,Aoes 15 60 FIGURE 1.7D Females,Ages 15-60 (probrb I ty, perceno) (p,oabfity prce,nt 40 40 30 30 20 _ 20 ICI"" .~~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ . . _ PROBABILITY OF DEATH FROM: PROBABILITY OF DEATH FROM: = COMMUNICABLE D0SEASES = _ NONCOMMUNCABLE DISEASES INJURY-RELATED Em COMMUN CABLE DISEASES =, NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES I NJURY RELATED Source: Christopher J.L ivliray and Alan D. Lopez,eds, The GOGbO Burden oftrisease: 1olume iVorld Health Organization, Harvard School of Pubic Health, and the World Bank, Geneva, I 996), p 177. to the developed world. Indeed, chronic diseases, which in- share in the developed world-7.6 percent-as opposed to clude cancers,heart disease,and stroke,accounted for 56 per- 10.7 percent in the developing countries (41). Table 1.1 shows cent of all deaths globallyin 1990. Infectious (communicable) the 10 leading causes of death globally and by developed and diseases have by no means disappeared, however; in fact, they developing regions. accountforaconsiderable34percentofalldeathsin 1990 (40). Even within the developing world, however, the picture is (The GBD study includes in the communicable disease cate- far from homogeneous. A country's economic development, gory deaths from maternal, perinatal, and nutritional condi- investment in health care, and social policies can make an tions.) Injuries accounted for roughly 1O percent of all deaths enormous difference. In the world's poorest region, sub- in the GBD study. Saharan Africa, deaths from communicable diseases take the When these categories are viewed by comparing developed largest toll, at 64 percent. But marked differences exist be- and developing countries, a startlingly different picture tween India and China as well, which have roughly compara- emerges,however. (Note:InkeepingwiththeGBDstudy,"de- ble wealth. In India, communicable diseases account for veloped"countries include the established market economies nearly 51 percent of all deaths; in China, just 16 percent (42). and the former socialist economies; other regions are consid- Nor is the pattern in the developed world homogenous. ered "developing.") Chronic diseases are nearly twice as im- Whentheprobabilityofdyingisexaminedbygender,thepre- portant in the developed countries, where they account for carious position of adult men in the former socialist econo- about 86 percent of alldeaths. Bycontrast,in the poorer coun- mies becomes strikingly evident. (See Figures 1.7a and 1. 7b.) tries, they account for approximately 47 percent of all deaths. Indeed, men between the ages of 15 and 60 in this region face a The biggest contrast, however, can be seen in the patterns for 28.4 percent risk of dying before age 60, second only to men in communicable diseases, which account for just over 6 percent sub-Saharan Africa,where the odds are 39.1 percent (43). This of all deaths in the developed countries and nearly 42 percent remarkable increase in deaths in the former socialist econo- in the developing world. Injuries account for a slightly smaller mies is due to much higher risks from both chronic diseases SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN M DDLE EASTERN CRESENT OTHER ASIA AND ISLANDS Source: Christopher J.L.Murra? and Alan D. Lopez, eds., Tie GlobalBur- 64.58 .a _s Hedalh Orgdr zatRol, Harvard School of Public HealEhn toe WNorld Bank. !! Z * . Geneva, 1996), p. 176. World Resources 1998-99 1 1 Box 1.3 Counting Deaths Differently Different methods of estimating mortality indicator the same team developed to measure log (6). At the same time, the advisory corn- yield different results, making it difficult to both death and disability attributable to a par- mittee has created a new subcommnittee to ax- know which methods are preferable. Because ticular disease-the Disability-Adjusted Life plore additional indicators of global health. actual mortality, data are bard to come by for Year, or DALY. This indicator, originally pub- Harvard's Murray and WHO's Lopez con- developing countries, the W,%orld Health Or- lished in the 1993 World Developmnent Report and cede that the indicator is a work int progress. ganization (WHO) has historically estimiated updated in the 1996 study, combines both pream- "We have not necessarily got it right;' they these global numbers using a range of tech- tur-e mortality and years lived with disability, ad- readily admit, while positing that it is nonethe- niqoes, including modeling and extrapolation justed for the severity of the disability, to come less useful even at this stage. Indeed, some 30 from local studies. Using these well-accepted up with an index of the total burden of a particu- countries are now using this new tnethod to techniques, WHO estimates thiat for 1993, in- lar disease, such as heart disease or malaria. Ma- assess the burden of disease withits their own fectious diseases accounted for 40 percent of laria, for instance, is responsible for 31,706,000 countries, says Lopez 17). Meanwhile, anyone the 31 million deaths, while noncom-municable DALYs per year (4). These estimates, which curious about the underlying assumptions and diseases such as heart disease and cancer ac- Lopez, MurrayV and their colleagues developed calculations used to create the DA ZY can find counted for 36 percent. and injuries another S for hundireds of diseases, can then he talliedi to them in the authors'updated 10-volume study, percent. WHO attributed fully 16 percent of all provide the global burden of disease or the bur- the first two volumnes of which were published deaths in 1993 to unknown causes (1). dien borne by a particular region. in 1996. Using a different approach, other scientists Since it was first published, the DALY indiea- within WHO and Harvard University have re- ton has been widely heralded as a bold new ap- References and Notes cently generated quite different estimates, pub- proach that provides the most comprehensive es- I. World Healeth Organization (WHO), The V/orid lished insa 1996 book The Globul Burdeni o f Die- tim-ates to date of the global burden of disease. Heatlth Report 1995: Bridging thze Gaps (WHO, rose (2). In this study, the researchers strived to But it has also been dismissed as incomplete and Geneva, 1995), p. 20. avoid douible-counting deaths. (In other words, misleading. Critics, which include WHO's own 2. Christopher I. L. Mvurrav and Alan D. Loper, thyensured that the sumu of all childhood deaths Committee on Health Research, claim that the in- ads., The Global Bsrden of Disease. VolumeI they ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(World Health Organization, Harv,ard Schoot of of specific diseases did not exceed the number of dicator obscures more than it conceals because it Public Health, the World Bank, Geneva, 1996). childhood deaths.) The Global Burden of Disease aggregates data across a country, without reflect- 3. - , t-i . I ,- .- , 1 (GBD) team also developed a technique to assign log the regional differences within a country that stance Abuse at the World Health Organization, deaths from unknown causes tosa specific cause, may be quite pronounced-a problem of all such Geneva, 1997 (personal corronninatton). distributing those that occurred among children summary indicators 151. Critics also question 4 P i.2 .73 than ae5 to nfectius disases, nd som of th assumtions sed inconstrcting . B.G. Mlansoucian. "ACHR News;' Bul/etin ef thie youniger thnaeWt netosdsae,ad sm o h supin sdi osrcigIorld Health Organization, Vol. 7', No. 3 those that occurred to children older than age 5 to the indicator-for example, about the value of a (1996). p. 333. chronic diseases. The result? Noncommunicable life at different ages or the severity of a particular 6. WAorldl Health Organization (WHC I, The World diseases, rather than infectious diseases, top the list disability. Although the committee commended Healthi Report 1997'. '. as the world's largest killer, accounting for 56 per- the effort to examine both sickness and death in riching Humanit(y (WAHO, Geneva, 1997), p. 23. cent of all deaths. The infectious disease toll is 34 assessing the total burden of disease, it has "sari- 7 Op. cit 3. percent, and injuries account for 10 percent. In all, ous reservations" about how the DALY approach this study provides a very different snapshot of the should be applied to health policy decisionmak- world, showving developing countries to be much farther along in the demographic transi'tion than previously expected. The table hetow shows global I. I I. I estimates for specific diseases from these two dif- ferent studies, one for 1993 and the other for 1990. 1990 DEATHS ACCORDING TO 1993 DEATHS ACCORDING TO (Because disease trends vary only slightly fromGLBLUREOFIAS 195WLDHTHEPT year to year, the fact that these two studies took DISEASE (000) PERCENT (000) PERCENT place in different years is not believed to have a Cardiovastular Diseases 14,327 28.0 9,676 19.0 bearing on results.) Cancer 6,024 12.0 6,013 12.0 Each estimate has its own, often vociferous, Acute Respiratory Infections 4,380 8.7 4,110 8.1 advocates and detractors. Alan Lopez of WHO, Unintentional Injuries 3,233 6.4 2,915 5.7 one of the GBD study coauthors, along with Diarrheal Diseases 2,946 5.8 3,010 5.9 Christopher Mlurray of Harvard, concedes that Chronic Respiratory Diseases 2,935 5.8 2,888 5.7 "there is large room for error in global mortality Perinatal Conditions 2,443 4.8 3,180 6.2 estimnates"-both theirs and WHO's. "WAe might Vaccine-Preventable infections 1,985 3.9 1,677 3.3 well be off by a factor of 2, but I doubt that we are Tuberculosis 1,960 3.9 2,709 5.3 off by a factor of 10" (3). These differences, and Intentional Injuries 1,851 3.7 1,082 2.1 the debate over them, underscore the tentative Malaria 856 1.7 2,000 3.9 nature of all global mortality estimates,whc MetlHat odiinv0 . should be seen as approximate ranges, not as- Other Identified Diseases 6,827 13.5 3,616 7.1 lutes. It also reinforces the need for betrerda Unknown Causes - 8,214 16.0 collection.Toa5047100 5,0 0. The controversy over mortality estimates Tol50470.01,0 100 pales in comparison to that engendered by a niew Source: Wotld HeaJth organizsatir (WHO), Health and Esvannrest in Sustainable Deve)opmrnt:Ftve PeasoAfter the tarth Som- mt (WHO. Gerevas, 19571, p. 1 34. 12 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH * r I ._I *.R . (which accounts for some 65,578,000 DALYs per EIGURE' 8 Disease Burden oyGender and DemographicRegion year),ortotallyupthetotalglobalburdenofdisease 1'd sease burden FeL, UX popunatioa) (in 1990 the world's population lost 2,480,237,000 Wor d _ DALYs), or to compare the relative burden of dis- Estabrlshed Maret Economies ease among different regions of the wvorld (44). Formerly Soc,ais- Eco,omesofEurope Looked at from this perspective-which consid- Mirddle Eastern Crescent - =m - ers not just premature death but disability as Latin Amer ca and the Caribbean well-the huge toll of ill health in developing coun- OtheerAsia and lslardsa tries stands out even more starkly. Nearly nine China _ tenths of the global burden of disease occurs in de- India _ X veloping regions where only 1 in 10 health care dol- Sub-Saharan Afr ca lars are spent (45). As Figure 1.8 shows, sub-Saharan O 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 rL2 FEMALES MALES Africa suffers twice the burden of ill health as the global average and nearly five times more than the richest countries. Source: Christopher1. L. Murray and Alan D. Lopez,eds, The GlobaoBurroer of Dseosee Volurme I fWorld Health Using this new metric, communicable diseases Organization, Harvard Schoo of Public Health,and TheWorld Bank,Geneva, 1996),pp. 541-612. are the single most important cause of ill health globally, accounting for 44 percent of the total. (Ta- af cndidjries e h teunde (SynGusesr emainthsb ec ble 1.2 compares the 10 leading causes of death with the 10 ofyd consertzmable speculation. (See GuestCommentaryby leading causes of DALYS.) This increase in the relative impor- tance of infectious diseases reflects in large part the early age at which they strike. Of the top 10 causes of DALYs globally, A New Metric: Factoring in Sickness communicable diseases account for 7, with lower respiratory and Disability infections and diarrheal diseases heading the list (46). DALYs Butwhataboutsickness? Foralltheirrelativebenefits,mortal- also underscore the disproportionate burden of ill health ity figures do not capture the huge toll of sickness and disabil- borne by the world's children. Children under age 15 account ity caused by diseases that stop this side of death, keeping for almost one halfof all lost DALYs worldwide. As the follow- workers off the job and children out of school and generally ing discussion makes clear, the diseases that most affect chil- slowing both economic and social development. Yet statistics dren tend to be heavily influenced by environmental factors. on disease incidence, or morbidity, are even harder to come by than are mortality numbers. In addition, the few figures that do exist tend to be biased because wealthier people seek medi- cal care much more often than the poor. Over the years various investigators have attempted to over- TABLE 1.2 Comparing Causes o FDeath Ws`or dw ce wNith DALYs come these limitations by developing new metrics that factor TOP10CAUSESOF TOP10 in disability or quality of life along with mortalitv. One of the DISABILITY-ADJUSTED CAUSES OF DEATH, LIFE YEARS, 1990 1990 most recent-and still controversial-measures is the , 1. Lower respiratory Ischemic heart disease Disability-Adjusted Life Year, or DALY. DALYs combine infections losses from premature death (defined as the difference be- 2. Diarrheal diseases Cerebrovascular disease tween the actual age of death and life expectancy at that age in 3. Conditions arising during Lower respiratory infections a low-mortality population), and loss of healthy life resulting the perinatal period from disabilitv. In simple terms, a DALY strives to tally the 4. Unipolar major depression Diarrheal diseases complete bur.n that aparticulardiseasexacts5 Ischemic heart disease Conditions arising during the complete burden that a particular disease exacts. Key ele- prntlpro I ~~~~~~~~~~~perinatal period ments to consider include the age at which disease or disabil- 6. Cerebrovascular disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary ity occurs, howlong its effects linger, and its impact on quality disease of life. Losing one's sight at age 7, for instance, is a greater loss 7. Tuberculosis Tuberculosis than losing one's sight at 67. Similarly, a bout of acute illness 8. Measles Measles that is over quickly counts less in the DALY calculation than 9. Road traffic accidents Road traffic accidents 10. Congenital anomalies Trachea bronchus,and lung one that leaves lingering weakness, such as persistent worm cancers infections. Source: ChrnstopherJ L-Murrayand Aan D.Lopez,eds., TheGlobalsurdeno(Drse5se. VolUme I This new indicator can be used in different ways to compute (World Health Organ zation, Harvard School of Pub ic Health, and the World Bank, Geneva, the total burden of a particular disease, such as malaria World Resources 1998-99 1 3 poverty affects both the environment and healta can enablc FIGURE 1.9 Urban 0equa t es in nfant Mortality policymakers to identify new strategies for action. infant deaths per 150c be nths) HEALTH AND WEALTH 20 - - - - - -- - - As the disproportionate burden of ill health in the poorest countries shows, a clear correlation exists between health and O--WDEProED wealth. By and large, the wealthier a country becomes, or the ao higher its average per capita income, the healthier its popula- 60 DEPRIVED tion becomes, by several measures. This connection can be tracked historically by reviewing the health gains in 19th Cen- 40 tury Europe, and can also be seen in the current differences in 20 * ' health status among countries at different stages of develop- 0 -ment. QUITO PORTOALEGRE CAPETOWN This relationship between health and wealth holds true for individuals as well as countries. Regardless of the overall level Source: Carolyn Stephens, "healthy C ties or Unhea thy Islands? The Health and Social of a country's wealth, the rich are, as a whole, in better health Implications of Urban Inequal[ty,'Environment and UrbarnzationVol. 8,No. 2(October 19961 ,, p. 1I6 U I . . than the poor (48). Figure 1.9 shows child mortality for rich and poor neighborhoods in selected metropolitan areas in the late 1980s. Life expectancy, a well-established indicator of national health, rises with per capita GDP and continues to Poverty, Health, and the Environment climb until per capita GDP reaches about US$5,000 per What accounts for the strikingly different health profiles in year-enough, perhaps, to provide a minimal standard of liv- various regions of the world? Access to adequate health care, ing (49).Child mortality rates also decline with rising income. for both prevention and treatment, is vital. Individual behav- Why is the link between health and wealth so strong? At the ior and lifestyle choices also matter; they go far in explaining most fundamental level, many of the world's poorest poor, the the rising incidence of chronic diseases and injuries. Seden- 1.3 billion who live on less than US$1 a day (50), are unable to tary lifestyles, high-fat diets, and consumption of alcohol and secure even the bare necessities for a healthy life-adequate tobacco-and particularly these factors in combination-all food,water, clothing, shelter, andhealth care. One ofthe major contribute substantially to the increasing incidence of cancer, causes of ill health globally is malnutrition, which is an issue of heart disease, and stroke. poverty and rarely an indicator of actual food shot tages. Most In addition, individual susceptibility determines how one recent estimates indicate that globally there are 158 million reacts to various health threats.Genetics, for instance, renders children under age 5 who are malnourished (51). By one esti- some people more susceptible to the effects of certain mate, malnutrition accounted for roughly 12 percent of all cancer-causing agents than others. Beyond an individual's deaths in 1990 (52). But it plays a much more insidious role as particular characteristics or behaviors, one's age also affects well, rendering people more susceptible to both infectious health. Both the very young and the very old tend to be more and chronic diseases. When calculated for this effect, malnu- vulnerable to a host of diseases-getting sick more often and trition is believed to contribute to up to one half of deaths dying more often when they are sick. among children in developing countries (53). (See Box 1.4.) Disease and death are thus abetted by many factors. Yet, of So, rising incomes may mean more and better food, hous- all factors that combine to degrade health, poverty stands out ing, and clothing-all relatively well-understood pathways to for its overwhelming role. Indeed, WHO has called poverty better health. Growing prosperity typically means improved the world's biggest killer (47). Statistically, poverty affects access to health care. The wealthier also tend to be better edu- health in its own right: just being poor increases one's risk of cated and thus more informed about the disease process and ill health. Poverty also contributes to disease and death prevention. Study after study has revealed that households through its second-order effects; poor people, for instance, with more education enjoy better health (54). In addition, are more likely to live in an unhealthy environment. The inter- wealthier groups usually have sufficient income to act upon actions of disease agents, individual susceptibility, behavior this knowledge. Actions may include improving hygiene, im- (which often reflects education), and local environmental munizing children against common diseases, or seeking oral conditions all bear heavily on health outcomes. Efforts to re- rehydration therapy to treat diarrhea. Even independent of duce extreme poverty and increase disposable income levels wealth, improvements in education, particularly the mother's around the world continue. But this objective will not be education, are stronglylinked with improvements in the fam- achieved quickly or easily. In the interim, understanding how ily's health. Data from 25 developing countries have shown 14 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH .. ,*L I . I^L , L . a ii. LA ....................... tween rich and poor, both among and FIGURE 1.1C Effectof Parents'Schooling on the Riskof Death by Age2,Selected Countries,Late 980s within nations, are increasing (60). PARENTS WITH 4-6 YEARS OF SCHOOLING PARENTS WITH 7 OR MORE YEARS OF SCHOOLING In all countries, income and equity, (percentage reduct on in child mortal ty in relation to parentsw th no schooloig) though important, are not the only . _ _ , . factors. A country's economic devel- FATHER -_ P- PERU opment approach, investment in M==lo.eOTH,ER . . health care, and social policies can MOROCCO _ __ __ make an enormous difference in the health of its population. Figure 1.11 shows the link between a nation's av- erage income (shown here in pur- __i____________=-=________A __:=.__r=_ ____ _______________ _____ , chasing power parity) and life expec- S0 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 tancy. Although income generally corresponds to life expectancy, what Source: The World Bank, World De'elogprent Report 7993. ir'nestir.g inHea;M, ('o'IdOevelnpmens!ndirororo Oxford University Press, is most interesting are the exceptions: New York, 1993), p.43. those countries, such as Costa Rica, Cuba, China, and others that have a much longer life expectancy than that, all else being equal, even I to 3 years of maternal educa- would be predicted on the basis of income alone. The success tion can reduce child mortality by up to 15 percent (55). Tm- of these and other countries in reducing child mortality and provements increase with more schooling. (See Figure 1.10.) increasing life expectancy clearly shows that a high level of Apparently, education enables primary caregivers, who are al- economic activity is not essential for successful programs to most always women, to avoid health threats and deal with ill- improve health. It also demonstrates the enormous potential ness more easily, even when they lack extra income. for targeted policy interventions. Examples of wise policy In wealthy countries, the links between health and wealth steps that have raised health levels for the poor include agrar- are more complex. Poverty in this context does not entail se- ian reform programs to generate employment and income, at- vere material deprivation, as it does in the least developed tention to primary health care systems carefully aligned with countries. What seems to be important in wealthy countries traditional health care practices, a focus on upgrading sewer instead is relative poverty-how one fares in relation to the rest of societv-rather than absolute poverty (56). Indeed, evi- F _ dence from numerous studies, such as data on government F J g i w oarage GD e EeraB,Aep9P workers in England, suggests that even at higher income lev- els, it is not wealth per se but how that wealth is distributed (lifeexpectancyatbirthn ryears,1992) among groups within the country-that is, a country's in- 90 come equality-that is the best predictor of health status. sc "The countries with the longest life expectancy are not the 0 * v%tttt ,A wealthiest but those with the smallest spread of incomes, and es the smallest proportion of the population in relative poverty, explains noted researcher Richard Wilkinson of the Univer- so sity of Sussex, England (57). This theory explains some of the 4, puzzling discrepancies among life expectancyin the more de- . veloped nations. The LTnited States, for instance, does consid- erably worse at ensuring the health of all its citizens than in- 20 come alone would predict. In 1970, Japan and the United ,o States had roughly similar income distributions and life ex- pectancy. Since then, however, Japan has leapfrogged ahead 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 and now boasts the longest life expectancy in the world PerCapita Gres, Htoal Prod,t (nearly 80 years) along with the most egalitarian income dis- tribution. By contrast, income inequality has actually in- Source: The Word Sank, WorIdDveaeopmentinlralor,s 7997n CD-ROM (The Word Eank, creased in the United States, which now ranks 21st out of 157 Washington, D.C.,1997), United Nat ons LU.N) Population Div sion, //orlt Population Prospects, countries in life expectancy (58s59). This finding has impor- 1950-2050 (The 1996 Revision), on diskette (UN., New York, 1996). tant implications for future health trends because gaps be- Note.Purchasing PowerParityin 1991 US.dollars. World Resources 1998-99 15 Box 1.4 Malnutrition Poverty-not insufficient global food produc- the food system and often result in widespread malnutrition contributed to roughly 12 per- tion-is the root cause of malnutrition. Poor famine, as with the civil wars in Rwanda and cent of all deaths in 1990 (2). Although much families lack the economic, environmental, or Somalia. of this toll stems from underconsunption of social resources to purchase or produce Although overall trends are positive, with the protein and energy, deficiencies in key micro- enough food. In rural areas, land scarcity and proportion of people with malnutrition declin- nutrients such as iodine, vitamin A, and iron degradation, water salinity due to overirriga- ing, many remain at risk, and some regions are also undermine health (3). tion, soil erosion, droughts, and flooding can hit especially hard. (See Figure 1.) Between 1990 When poverty limits an adequate and var- all undermine a family's ability to grow and 1992, approximately 841 million people-or ied diet, deficiencies of iron, iodine, and vita- enough food. In urban areas, low wages, lack 1 out of every 5 people in the developing world- min A often occur simultaneously with of work and underemplovment, and rapid did not have access to enough food for healthy protein-energy malnutrition. Geography and changes in food prices often place food sup- living (t). soil characteristics also influence the amount plies out of the reach of poor households. War The health consequences of inadequate nutri- of these nutrients commonly founcL in food. and civil strife almost always cause upheaval in tion are enormous. According to one estimate, Mountainous areas are often deficient in io- _ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ _ COUNTRIES WITH - , -- 7*t. . ° POPULATIONS AT RISK OF - - 2 / INADEQUATE NUTRITION p - - L0W~~~ . 7'a - X 6 _ HIGH ( DATA INCOMPLETE :( 2 Source: See Appendix A. and water systems, and concerted efforts to address infectious changes were accompanied by a national commitment to edu- diseases while improving nutrition. Countries or states that cation for all, as well as Costa Ricas first national h ealth plan have achieved these unusual health results with poor popula- and law of universal social security, both passed in 1971 (64). tions, which include Kerala State in India and Sri Lanka, also POVERTY AND ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS have long-standing commitments to education and equity Povertyalso influences health because itlargelydetermines an (61)(62). individual's environmental risks, as well as access to resources Costa Rica, for instance, added 15 to 20 years to life expec- to deal with those risks (65). tancy in little more than two decades without significant gains Throughout the developing world, the greatesl environ- in wealth. It did so through a number of policy actions, in- mental health threats tend to be those closest to home (66). cluding a targeted program to control infectious diseases Many in these countries live in situations that imperil their through improved sanitation, immunization, and the exten- health through steady exposure to biological pathogens in the sion of primary health care to a wider population (63). These immediate environment. More than 1 billion people in devel- 1 6 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH Box 1.4 continued ............................................................................I................................................................................................................................................ ....... dine; the most severely deficient regions are the indicator of IDD (i ). Where this .1 1 . . , en- 2. Christopher IL. Murray and Alan D. Lopez, eds. Himalayas, Andes, European alps, and mountains demic, the entire population may be affected, Health Organization, Harvard School of Public of China (4). Areas with arid, infertile land or with different symptoms appearing in different Health, and The WAorld Bank, Geneva, 1996), p. heavy rainfall and humidity may be deficient in age groups. In pregnant women, for instance, io- 311. vitamin A (3). Africa, the Andean region of South dine deficiency mav cause irreversible brain 3. The World Bank, World Developtnent Report America, and many parts of Asia are at risk from damage in the developing fetus (12). Ws9Ihington, iti Health (The 5 orld Bank, not only protein energy malnutrition, but also The combination of malnutrition and infec- 4. World Health Organization ( WHO). United Na- from all three main micronutrient deficiencies tious disease can be particularly pernicious. tions Children's Fund (UNICEF), and the Inter- because of both poverty and environmental fac- Protein-energy malnutrition can impair the im- nattonal Council for the Control of lodine Deft- toes. mune system, leaving less ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~cloncy' Disorders, "Global Prevalence of Iodine tors. mune system, leaving malnourished children less Deficiency Disorders,' Micronutrient Deficiencv Iron deficiency is the most common micronu- able to battle common diseases such as measles, Information System Working Paper No. I trient disorder. In developing countries, 40 per- diarrhea, respiratory infections, tuberculosis, (WHO, Geneva, 1993). p. 7. cent of nonpregnant women and 50 percent of pertussis, and malaria. Vitamin A deficiencies are 5. World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), pregnant women are anemic, and 3.6 billion peo- often worsened by infectious disease; and recip- "Global Prevalence of Vitamin A Deficiency,' ple suffer from iron deficiencies (6). The problem rocally, poor vitamin A status is likelv to prolong leicromitrient Deficiency Information System is most severe in India, where 88 percent of preg- or exacerbate the course of an illness such as Working Paper No. 2 (WHO. Geneva, 1995), p. nant women are anemic. Anemia increases the measles 113). Similarly, malaria parasites, which 5 risk of death from hemorrhage in childbirth. Iron require iron in order to multiply in blood, can 6. World Health Organization (WHO), The . orld Healtlt Report 1997: Coniqseritig deticiencies can also reduce physical productivity cause or exacerbate anemia (14). Malnutrition can richinig Hitmatity (WHO, Geneva, 1997), p. 51. and affect a child's capacity to learn (7). also heighten the adverse impacts of toxic sub- 7. Op. cit. 3. Globally, some 42 million children under age 6 stances. Deficiencies of protein and some miner- 8. Henrv M. Levin et al., "rlicronutrient Defi- have mild to moderate vitamin A deficiencv. In als, for example, can significantly influence the ciency Disorders;" in Disease Conitrol Priorities its severe form, vitamin A deficiency can cause absorption of lead and cadmium into the body ei Developing Coitntr,es, Dean T. lamison et al., eds. (Oxford Universtty Press, New York, 1993), blindness; indeed, itis the single most important (15)(16). p. 424. cause of childhood blindness in developing The consequences of food and nutrition 9. Op. cit. 5, pp. ix, 16. countries. About 250,000 to 300,000 children go shortfalls are enormous. Africa and Southeast 10. Op. cit. 4, pp. 5,8. blind annually, and 50 to 80 percent of those die Asia confront problems of both malnutrition and 11. Op. cit. 4, p. s. within I year (8). Up to 3 million more children such diseases as diarrhea, malaria, and mea- 13 Op. cit.4 4 p. 5. suffer lesser but still serious effects, such as loss 13. Andrew Tomnkins and Pious Watson, Malnutri- suffer lesser but still serious effects, such as loss sles-a combination that is likely to increase the tiorn and Infectioti: A Review (United Nations of night vision. An estimated 254 million chil- toll that either problem would take alone. In rap- Administrative Committee on Coordina- dren of preschool age are at risk of vitamin A de- idly industrializing cities with high levels of mal- tion/Subcommittee on Nutrition, WHO, Ge- ficiency (9). nutrition as well as disease and growing indus- neva, 1989), pp. 5-6. Iodine deficiency is the world's leading single trial pollution, residents may confront a triple 14. Ibid., p. 7. cause of preventable brain damage and mental burden of malnutrition, infection, and toxic pol- "The Role of Nutrition in Mitigating Environ- retardation. In 1990, some 26 million people suf- lution. mental Insults: Policy and Ethical Issues"' EPivi- fered from brain damage associated with iodine ronrnental Health Perspectives., Vol. 103, Supple- deficiency (0o). An estimated 1.5 billion people References and Notes mentNo.6 (1995),p. 186. are at risk of iodine deficiency disorders (IDD), 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Strategies for Public Health,"Environoend tal and 655 million people are affected by goiter, Nations (FAO), The Sixth World Food Survey ( FAO, Health Perspectives. Vol. 103, Supplement No. 6 which is the enlargement of the thyroid gland, an Rome, 1996), pp. v-vi. (1995), p. 193. oping countries live without adequate shelter or in unaccept- ditions for insects and other disease vectors. Overcrowding able housing (67), more than 1.4 billion lack access to safe wa- increases the risk of disease transmission. Even among the ter (68), and more than 2.9 billion people have no access to poor, certain groups are more at risk than others. Women and adequate sanitation (69)-all of which are essential for good children are more likely than men to be exposed to indoor air hygiene. Unable to afford clean fuels, the poor rely instead on pollution from biomass fuels, because women spend many biomass fuels for cooking and heating. Inside the smoky hours a day indoors near an open fire, often cooking with a dwellings of developing countries, air pollution is often child strapped on their backs. (See Chapter 2 for a discussion higher than it is outdoors in the world's most congested cities of indoor air pollution.) (70). In developing countries, the poorest strata are often ex- Such problems, historically considered rural, have now be- cluded from the benefits of emerging prosperity and may also come urban as well, as sprawling slum settlements surround face a disproportionate share of health risks related to eco- the world's major cities (71). Risks are compounded in these nomic growth. Urban slums maybe located near major roads, peri-urban settlements, where garbage collection is often factories, or dumpsites, for instance, exposing residents to nonexistent and drainage tends to be poor, creating ideal con- higher levels of air pollution or to the risks of industrial acci- World Resources 1998-99 17 dents. The chief victims of the accident at Bhopal, India, for Chemical hazards in the environment can cause immediate, example, were not just workers but slum dwellers who had set- dangerous health effects and can also contribute to chronic, or tled near the factory. long-term, problems. In contrast to infectious diseases, our Even in wealthier countries where environmental threats to understanding of how chemical exposures influence health, the general population may be relatively small, they are likely especially very low-level exposures typically found in the en- to be greater for poor and minority populations. The distribu- vironment, remains incomplete. tion of lead toxicity in the United States is grossly unequal, for instance, with poor, minority, inner-city children bearing BIOLOG][CAL HAZARDS much higher burdens of exposure and effects (72). Similarly, Of all the environmental hazards humans encounter, the most asthma, which has been linked with poor household environ- formidable adversaries remain the microorganisms-vi- mental conditions such as the presence of cockroaches and ruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths (parasiLic worms.) other allergens, occurs most often among poor, inner-citv Up to 17 million deaths per year are attributable to these infec- children in the United States (73). (See Chapter 2.) tious and parasitic agents, almost all in the developing world, Concern about unequal exposure to hazardous pollutants along with hundreds of millions of cases of sickness (85). In- in the United States has sparked what is known as the environ- deed, the history of humankind has been a struggle between mental justice movement. The precipitating event was the humans and microbes (86)(87).Yearsofconcerted efforts have landmark 1987 study by the United Church of Christ, which revealed that wvhile it is very difficult to eradicate microbial concluded that hazardous waste sites were disproportionately threats, it is possible to live in balance with them. However, hu- located in minority neighborhoods (74). Since then, several man activities that change the environment and disrupt natu- studies have shown that hazardous waste sites or polluting in- ral ecosystems can tip the scales in favor of the microbes (88). dustries are indeed concentrated in low-income or minority Why consider infectious diseases "environmental" in ori- areas (75)(76)(77). Other studies suggest that low-income and gin? Because most, though certainly not all, are intimately minority groups also tend to face greater exposures to se- connected with conditions in the physical environment. (See lected air pollutants and contaminated fish, by virtue of their Table 1.3.) Cholera and other diarrheal diseases, for instance, diets (78)(79)(80). (See Guest Commentary by Michael are associated with inadequate access to clean water and sani- Dorsey.) tation and poor hygiene. Intestinal worms, which debilitate Looking ahead at development, environment, and health, hundreds of millions at any given time, are associated with then,itseemsvitaltoconsiderdistributionofwealthas wellas contaminated or undercooked food-which in turn arise rising income. Economic growth in and of itself is not suffi- from inadequate water supplies and improper food prepara- cient to improve health for all, especially if rising income dis- tion or storage. Malaria, schistosomiasis, and other vector- parities mean that millions of people will not participate in borne diseases require certain ecological conditions for the these advances. As this income gap increases, the health gap is vector-mosquito, fly, or snail-to persist. Environmental also likely to grow, leading to what some have dubbed "epide- conditions increase the biological organisms' abili ty to thrive miologic polarization?" Unlike the more optimistic scenario or spread. Although some supporting conditions exist in the of a smooth transition to better health, with a dramatic de- natural environment, many are created or enhanced by hu- cline in infectious disease, this polarization scenario foresees man activities, as will be described more fully in Chapter 2. a future in which mortalitv from infectious disease and mal- Other diseases, such as acute respiratory infections or tuber- nutrition remains high but is increasingly concentrated culosis or measles, are linked with poor conditions within the among the poor (81)(82). As WHO reported in 1997, many household environment, including overcrowding, soot and countries are already experiencing this polarization (83)(84). smoke, and air pollution. The role of environmental factors here seems to be to weaken the body's natural defenses to or- ganisms that are often present. Characterizmg Environmental Hazards The agents that cause infectious disease require rot only fa- Improving health requires understanding how environ- vorable environmental conditions but also a susceptible host. mental conditions foster disease. 'While the causal connec- The most vulnerable people tend to be those with low or re- tions are clear for some diseases and conditions, for others sci- duced immunity, such as those weakened by malnutrition or entific evidence can only identify associations and likely other infections. Children are particularly vulnerable, espe- contributors. This section focuses on both biological and cially infants who are not breast-fed and thus do not have the chemical hazards in the environment. Biological factors lead advantage of the mother's immunity. (See Box 1.5.' For some to infectious diseases. Although many of these diseases have infectious diseases, new migrants to an area are alsc. at height- proven difficult to eradicate, enough is known about them to ened risk because they have not been previously exposed to identify actions that will drastically reduce their incidence. diseases endemic in the area and thus have not built up any 18 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH TABLE 1.3 Links Between Disease/Injury and the Environment DISEASES NOTES Strong relationship between disease/injury and environment Most insect-borne diseases (including malaria, Modifying the environment to reduce the breeding,feedings or resting places forthe vector is often a Chagas disease, dengue fever, yellow fever, major part of disease control; in addition, for schistosomiasis, improved sanitation reduces the cyc e of leishmaniasis) and schistosomiasis infection as schistosome eggs are no longer released into the environment. Most diarrheal diseases, cholera, hepatitis A, Adequate provision for water, sanitation, drainage, and hygienic food preparation and storage can greatly most intestinal worms reduce their incidence; overcrowded housing is also a riskfactor. Most of the common eye and skin infections Large reductions in their incidence are possible through improved water supply (including provision for and louse-borne diseases washing) and sanitation. Accidental burns, scalds and other injuries The incidence of such injuries is strongly associated with the size and quality of the home and the settle- within the home and its surroundings, includ- ment or neighborhood in which it is located. ing those from road accidents Diseases and injuries in the workplace Most are related to toxic chemicals and/or dust in the workplace, as well as inadequate protection of workers from heat, machinery,and noise. Important relationships between disease and environment but other factors also important Acute respiratory infections Overcrowding, inadequate ventilation, dampness, and indoor air pollution influence their incidence and severity; so do high levels of ambient air pollution. Tuberculosis: also meningococcal meningitis Overcrowding and poor ventilation increase the risk of disease transmission. and rheumatic fever Many psychosocial disorders There is a strong association with poor quality housing and stressors associated with it, although many nonenvironmental factors are also important. Relationship between disease and environment but other factors more important Maternal and perinatal health Most of the above health problems affect the health of mothers, but improved health care and provision for safe delivery are more important in reducing maternal and perinatal deaths. Important relationship between disease and environment but most cost-effective means of addressing it is through nonenvironmental means Measles and pertussis Both are transmitted throug h aerosols, with increased transmission in overcrowded dwellings. Immu ni- zation against the diseases is the most cost-effective way of reducing their health impact. Tetanus Often caused by an accidental injury as the pathogen enters the human body through any cut or wound; rapid treatment and immunization against it are the most effective means to control tetanus because the pathogen that causes the disease cannot be controlled through environmental modification. Certain forms of under-nutrition (e.g.those Iodine and vitamin A deficiency are particular problems in regions where foods rich in iodine and vita- linked to iodine,iron,and vitamin A deficiency) min A are limited;provision of supplements,fortification of food, and,for vitamin A and iron deficiency, dietary modification is the most effective ways of preventing these deficiencies. Reprinted from: David Satterthwaite eral, The EnvironmentforCh;adren: Understanding andActing on the Environmentra oazards that Threaten Chidren and TheirParents (Earthscan Publications, Ltd, London, t996, pp 8-9. defenses against them. The next section reviews the major in- 8 percent of DALYs globally (0o). Diarrhea kills through dehy- fectious diseases and the environmental conditions that influ- dration. Fortunately, it is easily and fairly inexpensively man- ence their incidence. aged with oral rehydration therapy (ORT), for those who have access to adequate medical care. Despite concerted efforts to Water-, Food-, and Soilborne Diseases make ORT widely available, the huge death toll from diarrhea Of allthe infectious diseases,diarrheahas perhapsthe clearest clearly shows that much more remains to be done. Short of links to the environment and some of the most deadly reper- death, the roughly 4 billion episodes of diarrhea each year cussions. Diarrhea is spread by both bacteria and viruses causewidespreaddebilitation(91).Diarrheaisintimatelycon- through contaminated food or wvater, and these disease- nectedtomalnutrition,whichincreasesthe frequencyandse- causing agents represent one of the most widespread health verity of diarrheal episodes; repeated bouts of diarrhea, in problems in the contemporaryworld. Diarrhea killed roughly turn, exacerbate malnutrition (92). Among causative agents, 2.5 million people in 1996, according to WHO, most of whom one of the most common is the intestinal bacteria E. coli, al- were children under age 5 (89). In 1990, diarrhea accounted for though a variety of other pathogens can cause diarrhea. World Resources 1998-99 1 9 Box 1.5 Childrenes Special Vulnerability WVorldwide, as much as two thirds of all pre- per pound of hody weight-than adults. In addi- in the United States eat up to seveni times more ventable ill health due to environmental con- tion, children breathe air that is closer to the of certain fruits in proportion to th-eir body ditions occurs amnong children It). Children ground, where concentrations of contaminated weight 1101. most affected belong to impoverished popula- dust can he higher. When children are more ac- Children of farmworkers are believed to be tions living in rural and peni-urban areas in live, they inhale more deeply and may deposit at elevated risk of pesticide exposure. Particu- developing countries. Currentlys many of pollutants deeper into their lungs than adults. larly in developing countries, peasint children these children are exposed not only to hiologi- These particles are more readily retained in the may, work in the fields alongside their parents, cal hazards associated with lack of access to a lungs and absorbed 151. and infants are sometimes carried and breast- clean environment, but also to toxic chemicals The maximum concentration of air pollutants fad by their mothers while at work. Pesticide and other pollutants that stem from uncon- recommended by the World Health Organization contamination of breast milk has been found trolled development. These pollutants include (WHO) is routinely exceeded in many Latin even in remote villages in Papua New Guinea agrochemicals, inidustrial chemicals such as American cities including Sao Paulo and Rio de and India. Studies have shown that women in polychlorinated biphenvls (PCBs), heavy, met- Janeiro, Brazil; Santiago, Chile; and Mexico City. developing countries suffer the greatest expo- als such as lead and arsenic, and a variety of Approximately 76 million people in Latin Ameni- sure to pesticide residues cl ii. air pollutants. These substances have been can cities are exposed to levels of suspended par- It is clear that children are exposed to cer- linked with birth defects, cancer, and weaken- ticulates well beyond maximum allowable levels, tamn chemicals more than adults and that cer- ing of the immune systemn. Annually in this ,region, as many as 3 million tamn of their organs and biological Junctions The risk for contracting environmentally re- cases of chronic coughing in children have been are more susceptible to damage during ape- iated illness is altered by several factors including attributed to this cause (6). cific phases of their development. liowever, a personfs genetic background, nutritional status, Poor indoor air quality is a major contributor the poor quality of information on food con- age, lifestyle, and income level. Age is a major de- to disease in the developing world, especially sumption, plus the inconclusive dalta on pesti- terminant of risk because the processes that de- amn o-nom oe n hide hs de residues and toxicity, mnake it impossible termine exposure, absorption, metabolism, ex- families cook with biomass fuels. Worldwide, an to establish with any certainty the liealth risks cretion, and tissue vulnerability are all estimated 3 million premature deaths, mostly due for children. It is likely, howvever, that where age-related. The metabolism of infants and chil- to acute and chronic respiratory infections, have general standards for pesticide expssure levels dren differs from those of adults, as do their been attributed to foul air; of these deaths, 2.8 have been set, they may be inadequate for pro- physiological and biochemical processes (2). million are due to indoor air pollution and 90 tecting children. Susceptibility-the capacity to be affected-is percent occur in developing countries (1 a key factor in determining enIvironmental risks Exposure of children to lead and persistent or- References and Notes tochildren. It also varies among differenr popula- ganic pollutants is another particular concern. I1. tObrld Health Organization ( WHO), Health and to ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ernvironmenr in Sutasrinabte Develspment: 5 lions, ethnic groups, and genetic backgrounds, as Although mounting evidence shows that many Years After rhe Eairrh Summit (WHO, Geneva, well as by age, experience, and development. The developed countries have reduced human expIo- 1997), p. 199. combination of increased susceptibility and in- sure and health risks of toxic chemicals such as 2. Cynthia F. Bearer, "How Are Children Different creased opportunity for exposure to a particular lead, cadmium, mercury, DOT, and PCBs, in Fr'om Adults?" in National Institutes of stof environmental threats-such as some pea- other parts of the world these problems have yet Health/National tnstitute of Environmental setde adarp[uat cainraehat tobadrse s.Health Sciences En'ironmental Healrh Perspec- ticides and air pollutants-can increase health to be addressed iN.tires Supplements, Vol. 103, Suppleotent 6 hazards for children 13). Children are also likely to be exposed to (I 9551. pp. 7-12. Exposure to environmental agents is the first higher levels of toxics from agrochemicals than 3. Lynn R. Goldmsi, "Children-Unique and Vul- step in the sequence of environmentally related are adults. Children are particularly vulnerable to nerable: Environmental Risks Faring Children health ffects Exposres to hese aents cn oc- halth dnla~e rom som agande Recommendationsom forat RespoorReepo in Na-a heath ffets Exosues o hes agntsca oc helthdaagefro soe grohemcal. tional institutes of Health/National Institute of cur even before conception, if the mother is ex- child's susceptibility is greater between concep- Environmental Health Sciences Erns irsnmenral posed to certain pollutants that cross the pia- lion and age 5, before organ systems and other Health Perspectives Supplemenus, Vo.- 103, Sup- centa, such as lead or mercury. Exposures vary functions mature, such as the liver's detoxifica- plement 6 (1995). pp. 13-18. depending on one's physical location, breathing, tion potential and the kidneys' filtration poten- 4. flbid., . 16. zones, oxygen consumption, and behavioral and tial. Because those body cells are reproducing 5. Robin Mleadows, "Growing Pains;' in National eating patterns, all of which can change several ~~~~~~~~Institutes of Health/National institute of Envi- eatingpattens, al of hich an chnge sveral rapidly, children may be especially vulnerable to tonmental Healhh Sciences Environmental timnes before an individual reaches adulthood. carcinogens. Likewise, children may be more sus- Health Perspectives Supplemnents. Vol. 104, No. 2 The sources anid routes of exposure to toxic ceptible to loss of brain function if exposed to 11 996). p. 147. substances for children are multiple. Some expo- neurotoxins during critical periods of develop- 6. Henylc Wehtzenfeld, "Contamninaci6n atrnosfS- sures are occupationally related- when children ment, as suggested by studies on lead, methyl rica y salud en Am/rica Latina, Boletin de la Oericta Saniraria Panamnericana, V'o. 112, No. 2 work in fields sprayed with pesticides, for instance, mercury, PCBs, and dioxin 59. (1 9921. pp. 9 7-109. or when parents carry home chemical residues on Because the dietary diversity of most very 7. Op cit. l.p. 87. dlothing, or when chemicals to which the mother is young children is low-consisting of breast milk, 5. Op cit. i. p. 20 1. exposed at work are transferred via breast milkto infant formula and/or co-w's milk first, and then 9. John Wargo, Our Children's Toxic Legacy: How she child. Still other exposures can come from dis- fruit juices together with pureed fruits and vege- Science cand Law Fail to Protecr Us from Pesti- charges to the air and water, certain waste sites, tables before finally switching to the table foods recides , (Yale Universit Pres.NeHan,C- and on occasion, industrial accidents 14). of their parents-their exposure to agrochemical to. Op cit 5. Because they have higher metabolic rates than residues in both water and foods may often be 1 t. Pratap Chatterjee. "Pesticide Poison Circles the adults, children breathe mnore air-twice as much higher than that of adults. For example, children Globe, Panoscrope. No. 39 (Apr i -' -i 20 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH C e -? _~ ^ !" L! i .. . L. " 11 .'5,>L.L '-C ,.---,i- F URJE 1.12 E. col! 0157 Transmiss on _-- e g X r : pt' ?N'9-K , 7 -' . H > > < G ,, [ ; > -UD ;y >/ _ _7 > ~ < COUNTRIES KNOWN TO HAVE ISOLATED E.COLi 0157 STRAINS FROM HUMANS Source World Hea th Organizat on (WHO), The World Health Report l996:F,ghting Disease, Fostering Development (WHO,Geneva. 1996), p.42. Diarrheal diseases arise through contact with feces and are rarely death, Salmonella and Campylobacter jejuni, spread spread by what is known as the fecal-oral route. Until recently, through tainted chicken or milk, are among the most com- contaminated water supplies were thought to be the chief cul- mon agents (97). In addition, new microbial agents are in- prit, but now the pathway is known to be more complex. An creasingly implicated in human disease. Campylobacter je- even greater factor appears to be insufficient water for wash- juni, for instance, was once found only in animals, but now it is ing, especially hand-washing, which makes proper hygiene among the most common causes of foodborne illness in hu- impossible (93). When inadequate water supplies are coupled mans (98). Public health officials in the United States and else- with shared latrines-or none at all-it creates conditions rife where warn of an epidemic of foodborne pathogens (99). Sev- for transmitting diarrhea. Today, an estimated 2.9 billion peo- eral recent outbreaks of food poisoning in the United States, ple lack access to adequate sanitation and roughly 1.4 billion Canada, Europe, and Japan have been linked with Cyclospora people do not have access to safe drinking water (94). This . a . situation has persisted despite investments of more than andanerticuaryvicilufr of a E. cele00). (See Figure US$ 100 billion during the International Water and Sanitation 1.12.) To avert any possibility of a considerable outbreak, such Decade. as occurred in Japan in 1996 from E. coli 0157 (i10o), the U.S. Improvements in coverage continue to be overtaken by Government in 1997 recalled more than 11 million kilograms rapid population growth and even more explosive urban ofbeef suspected to be contaminated with the organism(1o2). growth (95)(96). Ensuring access to adequate supplies of In 1993, the United States experienced the largest outbreak good-quality water and some form of sanitation-coupled of diarrhea in recent history-affecting more than 400,000 with hygiene education and general socioeconomic develop- people-when the municipal water supply of Milwaukee, ment-remain critical factors in reducing the toll of diarrheal Wisconsin, was contaminated by Cryptosporidium parvum diseases. from farm animal wastes (103). This protozoan parasite has Diarrheal diseases are by no means limited to the develop- been wreaking havoc in countries across Europe as well, rais- ing world, although they are most deadly there. In the devel- ing new concerns about the safety of drinking water in some oped world, where diarrhea is a major cause of sickness but of the world's most affluent countries. World Resources 1998-99 21 Box 1.6 Cholera Returns ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ ........ In 1991, a cholera epidemic swept down the testimony of health workers in Iquitos, a jun- west coast of South America-the first such = gle city in Peru, suggests that even home- outbreak in nearly a century in the New based chlorination could have bee.n key in ar- World. Between 1991 and 1995, a disease long (nuberofc-e) resting further dissemination of the disease thought to have been vanquished in the 700,C00 - (12). Rapid population growth and lack of in- Americas had infected more than 1 million 6 00,000 vestment in public services had led to serious people and killed 11,000 (i). Africa experi- 50s-000 - declines in Lima's sanitation coverage, and be- enced a similar cholera surge in 1991, with the I000tween 5 million and 6 million city residents number of cases rising fourfold in a single year 400,000 -- had no access to acceptable latrines (13). In Af- (from 38,683 in 1990 to 153,367 in 1991) and 300s000----- --- -------- --- - rica, civil strife and drought in the 1980s had deaths mounting to 14,000 (2)(3). Three years 200.0t0 led to unusually large migrations and concen- later, the cholera epidemic hit Russia and chol- -- - -- trations of people in urban slums end refugee era cases jumped from just 23 the year before camps (14). About 50,000 Rwandani refugees toa 1,048 (41(5). from5Just23 the yer before contracted cholera in such camps after the to 1,048 (4)(5). 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1991 outbreak, and many thousands died (15). Why has cholera reemerged as a global health threat, after virtually disappearing from the Source: World Health Organization (WHO), unpublished data. Other factors played a role as well in chol- Americas and most of Africa and Europe for c~~~~~ra~s resurgence. Some cholera cases in Latin Americas and most of Africa and Europe for America A were traced to the growing use of more than a century? (6) The answer may lie in demics have washed, wavelike, across the conti- wastewater to irrigate crops near urban areas how changing environmental conditions-from nents, receding for a time between each pulse. (16). In addition, food-handling practices, es- both natural and human causes-can affect the By the end of the 19th Century, cholera ap- pecially by street vendors, may have added to spread of an infectious disease. peared to retreat as a global health threat. After the global outbreak. Street vendors are a cen- Cholera is generally spread by contact with 1900, it disappeared from the Americas and most tral feature of poor urban communities water or food contaminated with human waste of Europe; and by 1950 it wvas largely confined to throughout the developing world, but their containing cholera bacteria. That is why the dis- the Indian subcontinent, where it had originated, lack of refrigeration and clean water often in- ease has long been associated with the unsanitary and the Asian countries west of India (9). But in creases the risk of contamination (17). In Latin conditions often found in urban slums, or in con- 1961, a new pulse of the disease-the seventh America, uncooked seafood, such as ceviche, nection with war, natural disasters, and other dis- pandemic-began to spread from Asia, eventu- was also an important route of cholera trans- locations. But cholera also has a traditional link allv emerging with a vengeance in 1991 in Latin mission because seafood is often caught or with the sea. In nature, the cholera organism (Vi- America and Africa. Though this latest pandemic processed in unhygienic conditions (18). brino chioerae) thrives best in moderately salty wva- has peaked, the disease remains endemic But these factors don't fully explain how ters such as coastal estuaries, though it can also throughout these regions (1o). cholera reemerged in Latin America so sud- tolerate the open ocean. It generally only inhabits Part of the blame for the dramatic rise in chol- denly after more than a century's asence. rivers and other freshwater sources if nutrient era cases in Latin America and Africa rests with Moreover, the 1991 pandemic struck nearly si- levels from organic pollution such as human feces obvious causes: deteriorating wvater and sanita- multaneously over a wide area, apF earing in are quite high (7). tion systems, poor living conditions, malnutri- ports from the Chilean to the Ecuadorean bor- These two environmental links-with the sea tion, crowding, and political and economic tur- der within a few weeks. What event or series of and with unsanitary conditions-do much to ex- moil. For example. studies of the 1991 cholera events had so effectively reintroduced cholera plain the pattern of cholera epidemics through- epidemic in Peru suggest that the lack of effective over huge stretches of open coastline? out history. Global epidemics ( pandemics) of water treatment measures contributed to the One possibility is that the cholera organism cholera often hit first in coastal cities and have rapid spread of the disease. Engineers of the pub- was carried by ship from Asian to Latin clearly been associated with unhygienic condi- lic water supply system in the coastal city of Tru- American ports in ballast water-ai well- tions. Originally restricted to the Indian subcon- jillo believed that no water treatment would be known vehicle for transporting foreign organ- tinent, cholera spread from India to Europe be- necessary. The fear of the carcinogenic risk asso- isms, ranging from microscopic bacteria and tween 1817 and 1823, launching the first global ciated with chlorine disinfection byproducts su- viruses to mollusks and small crab; (t9). DNA cholera pandemic (8). Since then, six more pan- perceded the fear of cholera infection (5 1). And, testing of the Latin American cholera strain Other familiar and dangerous infectious diseases, such as years from several thousand up to hundreds of thousands. cholera and hepatitis A and E, can also be transmitted by fe- Most deaths occur in Africa, often among displaced or refu- cally contaminated food and water. This is most common in gee populations; overall, some 79 million people in Africa developing countries, but frequently occurs elsewhere. In the alone are at risk for the disease, according to WHO (105). Re- United States, for instance, 151 students and staff in four dif- cent outbreaks in Latin America and the appearance of a new ferent school districts in Michigan developed hepatitis A in strain of cholera in India and Bangladesh provide examples of March 1997. The cases have been associated with the con- how changing environmental conditions can accelerate dis- sumption of frozen strawberries imported from Mexico (104). ease transmission. (See Box 1.6.) Cholera sweeps around the globe periodically in major pan- Among the food-, water-, and soilborne diseases, those demics. Annual death rates fluctuate wildly, ranging in recent caused by parasitic worms are noted for the debilitation they 22 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH Box 1.6 continued ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... shows that it is genetically similar-although not These blooms can awaken the cholera organism, for hMicrobiology, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. identical-to a cholera strain common in Bang- bringing it back to its infectious state (25). The 443' . . . . . . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7. Rita R. Colwell, "Global Climate and Infections ladesh (20), and this strain has been isolated in Latin American cholera epidemic occurred in Disease: The Cholera Paradigm?, Scienice, Vol. samples of ballast,bilge, and sewage from cargo tandem with the coming ofthe last El Nino, 274 (December20. 1996),p.2027. ships active in the area (2t1). Still, the speed with which began in 1991 and lasted until mid- 8. Op. cit. 6. which the epidemic spread to points so widely 1995-the longest El Ninto on record (26). 9. Op.cit.6. dispersed casts some doubt on whether shipping Cholera's dependence on environmental fac- 10. Op.cit.7, pp. 2027-202s. traffic alone can explain the disease's reemer- tors such as sea surface temperatures, nutrient ito. Eduardo SalaEar-Linod th a,"e ole Chlorination gence (22). levels in coastal waters, and plankton blooms in its Control and Prevention," in Safety of tiitter A second theory is that cholera never really may have some important implications for the fu- Disinfection: Balatncing Chemical and Microbial disappeared from the Americas at all, but merely ture of the disease. For one, the frequency of Risks, Gunther F. Craun, ed. (I LSI Press, WAash- went into a dormant, noninfective state in coastal plankton blooms is increasing worldwide and is ington. D.C., t993), pp. 403-404. waters, from which it reemerged swhen the right likely to rise even more in the future due to a 12. Ibid., p. 412. t3. Joseph Haratani and Donald H-ernanidez, "El combination of favorable environmental condi- combination of factors. These include higher Colera en El Perd: Duo Evaluacr6n Rdpids de Ia tions appeared. Evidence for this theory of ocean ocean temperatures from global warming, in- Infrastructure de Abasteciemiento de Agua y waters as a reservoir of cholera comes from the creased nutrient runoff from expanding urban Saneamiento del Pafs y su Papel en la Epidemria' recent discovery that some species of plankton populations, and an additional plankton fertiliz- Hield Report No. 331 (Envtronnsental Health can act as hosts for the dormant cholera organ- ing effect from high carbon dioxide levels in the Project, U.S. Agency for tnterraational Develop- ment, Wlashington. D.C.. May 19911. p. 32 . .the organism to persist in coastal atmosphere. More frequent plankton blooms will 14. Op. cit. 3. waters for long periods, and then "reappear" after very likely put more coastal areas at risk of chol- 15. Op. cit. 7, p. 2028. years of seeming absence (23). This theory also era outbreaks (27. This means that tackling ur- 16. Robert Tauxe etral.. "The Latin American Epi- helps explain why cholera epidemics in Bangla- ban poverty and providing for adequate water demic," in Vibrio cholerae anid Cholera: MAolec- desh occur seasonally, often coinciding with and sanitation services-the front lines in the lar to Global Perspectiv'es, 1. Kaye Wachsmuth, Paul A. Blake, and Orjan Olsvi k, eds. (Anmercan plankton blooms in the Bay of Bengal. fight against cholera-will only become more Society for Microbiolo Washintn d.C., The cholera-plankton connection probably Important in the years ahead. (28). 1994), p. 339. also offers the disease a means of long-distance 17. Ibid. p. 338.. travel, hitchhiking with the plankton on ocean References and Notes 13. Op. cit. 16, p. 338. currents across thousands of kilometers and over I. Integrated Management of Childhood Illness 19. Mary E. Wilson, "Travel and the Emergence of periods of months and years. This might explain Communicable Disease Program, Division of Dis- Infechous Diseases, EnNergiArg Itifectious D4s- how an Asian cholera strain could find its ssay to ease Prevention and Control, Pan American Health es O i N 26 along the coast f South America Organization (PAHOI/W'ortd H-eahth Organization 22. Op. cit. 7. p. 2026. several pomts along the coast of South Amertca (WHO). "Cholera Situation in the Americass up- 21. SA. McArthy, R. McPhearson, and A.M. without stowing away in ballast water. date Number 14, (PAHO/WHOQ Washington, D.C., Guarino, "Toxigenic Vibrio chalerte 01 anid El Niio, a periodic change in weather patterns April 1996), p. 1. Cargo Ships Entering Guilf of Mexico,'Lascet, that can profoundlv affect local environmental 2. World Health Organizatton (WHO), unpublished Vol. 339, No. 8793 (March 7,1992), p. 624. data (WHO, Geneva, 19961. 22. Op. cit. 7. conditions, may also have played a key role in 3. World Health Organization ( WHO), Weekly Ep,Id- 23. Op. cit 7, p. 2029. cholera's return. El Nino heats surface water cttr- naological Record, Vol. 67, No. 34 (August 2t, 1992), 24. John Tibbets, "Oceans.'Environmental Health rents that start in the eastern Pacific Ocean near p. 258. Perspectives, Vol. 104, No.4 (April 1996). p. 384. the coast of Central and South America and then 4. Op. cit. 2. 25. Op. cit. 7. spread throughout the tropics and subtropics. s. Op. cit. 2. 26. Op. cit. 24, pp. 383-384. The warm sea surface temperatures that El Nifio 6. Robert Tauxe er al., "The Future of Cholera: Persis- 27. A.J. MeMichatl, Planetary Overload: Global Eni- brins cn enourge lrgeplantonblooms, es- tence, Change, and an Expanding Research viroutniental Change anid the Healthi o-f the Hza- brings can encourage large pLankton bLooms, es- Agenda" in Vibrio cholerae tnd Cholera: .olecular man Species ( Cambridge University Press, Cam- pecially in coastal waters with high levels of nu- to Global Perspectives, 1. Kaye Wachsmuth, Paul A. bridge, U.K. 1993), p. 28 1. trients from sewage and stormwater runoff (24). Blake, and Orjan Olsvik, eds. (American Society 28. Op. cit. 6. cause (106). At any one time, roughly 3.5 billion people are in- Rarely fatal, worm infections nonetheless exact a tremen- fected with one or several species of parasitic worms-mak- dous and diverse toll. Infection takes place repeatedly, and the ing these among the most prevalent human infections-and disease becomes more serious as the worm burden in the some 450 million people are ill as a result (107). body builds up. The most vulnerable group is school-aged The chief transmission route is the familiar trail through children, who may harbor multiple infections simultaneously. human feces, via either contaminated food or soil. When an The effects on children are especially pernicious because infected person defecates in the open, the soil becomes a chronic infections impair both physical and intellectual breeding ground. The contaminated soil is then carried into growth and development. homes on the soles of the feet. Not surprisingly, worm infec- The worm infection that is most deadly is schistosomiasis; tions are on the rise in urban slums and shanty towns of the it kills some 20,000 people a year and causes chronic ill health developing world, according to WHO (108). among hundreds of millions more. Safe and effective drugs World Resources 1998-99 23 FIGURE 1.13 Mai Areas of Malaria Transmission Worldwide Afghanista n p gB^ Eseim eer 2 e Iniso- to 3 nn I on P to 2r y < v ),r /l .,aeannmaocrrnnoal , zs ) X S 4/\ \ s 4gr-Jtuelcew-op3Ont, ~~~~~~~~~~peryeal;n-, esng orn,v5 Central America r af/ 9 gncult ra d .A ggr-t i-: detr dinlg reoten IIr olos i A cre o r | ; e- pt onal an t- -stat ona I . v ra ns and pa I on rt ed poptiattr. mvem t Source: Wor d Health Orga nization (WHOj, Division, ofControl of Tropic/l Di5eases Progress Report (WHO, Geneva, 1 996), p. 16. cost 30 cents to treat one patient, but this cost is prohibitive in Insect-Borne Diseases many countries (09) . The disease is caused by parasitic flat- Malaria is the most deadly of the insect-borne diseases, claim- worms, called flukes, of the genus Schistosoma, whose inter- ing the lives of some I million to 3 million people each mediate hosts are snails common throughout Asia, Africa, year-90 percent of them in Africa, and most of them chil- and other tropical regions. These snails flourish in relatively dren (112). (Because of different calculation methods, the calm supplies of fresh water. WHO estimates that about 200 Global Burden of Disease study estimates malaria rnortality at million people in tropical countries have acquired the disease roughly800,000peryear (I 13).) WHO estimatesthatsome300 from bathing or wading in infested rivers, lakes, and irrigation million to 500 million cases of malaria occur each year-and systems, and as manyas 500 million to 600 million more are at the number is on the rise-and that 40 percent of the world's risk (ilo). Schistosomiasis is on the upswing in developing population is atrisk formalaria G 14). Malaria has been called countries, in part because it spreads to previously unaffected the "laziness" disease because it is so debilitating. The most areas throughwater development projects, such as dams or ir- prevalent disease in poor rural regions, malaria prioduces re- rigation. (See Chapter 2.) current infections with attacks of fever in warm anoN rainy sea- As with diarrhea, providing for the sanitary disposal of fe- sons, just wrhen workers are needed to collect crops (1 15). ces would do much to prevent the transmission of schisto- Caused by four different species ofprotozoal par-asites, ma- somiasis and other worm infections. The gains from im- laria is transmitted through the bite of the Anopheles mos- proved sanitation may take years to materialize, however; in quito, which harbors the parasites. Thus, the geographic the near term, experts recommend a combined strategy that range of the disease is determined by the environmental con- includes snail control, sanitary improvements, education, and ditions that the mosquito in question requires-a particular repeated treatment with medicines to keep the worm burden combination of altitude, rainfall, heat, and huoidity, and low (h c n ). available surface water. Because ideal conditions vary for the 60 or so species of Anopheles that transmit the disease, strate- gies designed to control one vector woai necessarily work for another. 24 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH In the tropics, where malaria is most entrenched and counts for more than 8 percent of the global burden of disease deadly, spread of the disease is abetted by conditions of heat, (122). ARI's reach is global: it is the most frequent disease humidity, poverty, and inadequate waste disposal. (See Figure worldwide and a common causes of visits to pediatricians in 1.13.) Malaria is a particular problem in newly cultivated or the industrialized countries, although essentially all deaths frontier areas such as Amazonia (See Box 2.4.) and areas of re- from ARI occur in the developing world. cent agricultural expansion. Once targeted for global eradica- The risk factors for ARI are numerous and difficult to sort tion, malaria has turned out to be more than a worthy adver- out. Caused by different viruses or bacteria, ARI is closely as- sary. A more realistic goal is simply to control the disease (116). sociated with poverty. Overcrowding and unsanitary house- WHO has declared the mosquito "Public Enemy Number hold conditions favor the transmission of the disease, which is One" because it is involved in so many deadly or debilitating spread by droplets from a cough or a sneeze or unwashed diseases-notjust malaria but also dengue fever, yellow fever, hands. Death most often strikes those children who are al- filariasis (elephantiasis), and Japanese encephalitis (117). ready weakened by low birth weight, other infections, and These diseases, too, are exquisitely attuned to changing envi- malnutrition (123). ronmental conditions. The Aedes aegypti mosquitoes that Several other factors seem to exacerbate the disease. Expo- carry dengue and yellow fever, for instance, thrive in urban sure to tobacco smoke increases the risk of contracting these settings, where they lay their eggs in water storage containers infections, and many studies implicate both indoor and out- or in discarded plastic bottles or tires. (See Box 1.7.) door air pollution. Indoor air pollution has been the focus of In other vector-borne diseases, flies and other insects trans- particular concern, specifically, the soot and smoke associ- mit the infectious parasite. Sleeping sickness (African try- ated with the burning of biomass fuels such as wood, coal, or panosomiasis) for instance, is transmitted by the bite of the dung. Many people in the developing world, mostly in rural tsetse fly. Leishmaniasis is transmitted by the sandfly, again areas, rely on biomass fuels for heating or cooking. (See Chap- through a parasite-contaminated bite. This disease is a major ter 2.) A cause-and-effect relationship between indoor air problem in parts of Africa, Latin America, and the Middle pollution andARI has been difficult to prove,however, in part East, where some 2 million cases occur each year (I18). In its because people who use biomass fuels tend to be poor and ex- deadliest form, visceral leishmaniasis, fatality rates can reach posed to multiple risks such as overcrowding, tobacco smoke, 100 percent if untreated. In its more common form, the dis- and malnutrition. Even so, the World Bank estimated in 1992 ease produces painful ulcers on the face, arms, and legs. WHO that switching to better fuels could halve the number of pneu- estimates that some 350 million people are at risk of contract- monia deaths (124). ing the leishmaniasis(I 19). As with other vector-borne dis- Other airborne diseases also thrive in conditions of pov- eases, its spread is accelerated by development projects such erty, exploiting enclosed spaces, crowding, and poor hygienic as road building or forest exploitation, which bring people conditions. Tuberculosis (TB), to name just one, killed an es- into contact with the disease vector. Leishmaniasis is reap- timated 3 million people in 1996, and nearly 7.5 million oth- pearing in some areas where it had once been controlled, in ers developed the disease (I125). TB is the single largest cause of part because of the cessation of insecticide spraying to control adult death from infectious diseases. Roughly 95 percent of all malaria. A beneficial side effect of DDT, it turns out,was that it TB sufferers are in the developing world, mostly in Southeast kept sandflies in check. Asia, Western Pacific, and Africa-many in the slums of poor Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, cities. In recent years, however, TB has resurfaced in devel- is unique to the Americas, where housing conditions pose the oped countries, where it is concentrated among poor popula- biggest risk factor. In this case the culprit, the parasite T cruzi, tions. (See Chapter 2.) is carried by both wild and domesticated animals. It is usually Measles and diphtheria, also diseases of crowding and pov- transmitted, however, by a blood-sucking bug that lives in erty, have been all but eliminated in the developed world since thatched roofs. About one third of those infected develop a the advent of successful vaccines. In the developing world, chronic form of the disease, which can lead to heart damage however, measles still affects 42 million children per year who and death. WHO estimates that Chagas disease is the leading lack access to the vaccine; roughly 1 million of these children cause of cardiac death among young adults in parts of South die (126). Since 1990, diphtheria has resurfaced in the former America (120). Soviet Union, triggeredbysocial disruption and a drop in im- munization rates (127). Airborne Diseases Measles and diphtheria are just two of a cluster known as Commonly known as ARI, acute respiratory infections kill childhood (or vaccine-preventable) diseases. Other familiar more than 4 million people per year and are the leading cause diseases in this group are neonatal tetanus, poliomyelitis, and of death among children under age 5 (121). This range of infec- pertussis. This cluster, all linked with environmental condi- tions, which includes pneumonia in its most serious form, ac- tions, accounts for nearly 15 percent of the total disease bur- World Resources 1998-99 25 Box 1.7 The Spread of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever ........................................................................................................................... ..............................................................I.......................................... In the last 20 years, the incidence of dengue the disease's svmptoms include fever, severe the environment can influence the 3atterns of and its more severe, often lethal, form-den- headaches, and disabling muscle and joint pain, infectious disease. Although the var-ious fac- gue hemorrhagic fever (DHF)-has increased Although classical dengue is relatively benign, the tors responsible for this worldwide increase in cJ ! " " . . U f .1. ' " ; the tropical regions more serious hemorrhagic form causes breathing dengue are not fully understood, it is believed of the world. During the 1960s, dengue typi- difficulties and bleeding from the nose, mouth, that rapid urbanization, the wide use of non- cally averaged about 30,000 cases per year (1). and gums (5). Miultiple infections are possible be- biodegradable plastic packaging and cello- Some 30 years later, though, in 1995, 592,000 cause immunity to one virus serotype does not phane, increased travel and trade, and the lack cases of dengue were reported, and the true provide immunity to the others. In fact, previous of effective mosquito control effort i contribute number of people afflicted is believed to be infection from one dengue serotype or a se- in important ways to the spread of I he disease several fold higher (2). The World Health Or- quence of infections can contribute to the risk of (s). ganization (WHO) estimates that 20 million contracting the more severe DHF (6). Approxi- Demographic changes-in particular, cases occur each year, requiring 500,000 hos- mately 5 percent of all DHF cases are fatal, mostly rapid, unplanned urbanization-have resulted pitalizations (3), and researchers estimate that among children (7). Although dengue is still in conditions that encourage the spread of 2.5 billion people live in urban tropical cen- rarely lethal, its contribution to disease and ill dengue. The two primary mosquitc vectors of ters, placing them at risk of contracting the health, especially among young children, should dengue, Aedes aegypti and Aedes all'opictus, disease (4). make dengue control a primarv public health have adapted from their natural forest envi- Also known as "break-bone" fever, dengue is concern. rons (where they breed in tree holes contain- the Swahili term for "a sudden overtaking b) a The reemergence of dengue as a public health ing rainwater) to the urban environment spirit. Caused by four distinct virus serotypes, threat illustrates how human-directed changes in (where they breed in pots, pitchers, water cans, I, ~~ ~X , : I C: ' .S 'S ' - zyr,-z'Ž> \ ¾ '-:4 - ~' -J'' K~. r- r N A-, 0~~~~ _' ' - I 7; Source: 4' E AREAS INFESTED W TH AEDES AEGYPTI United States Centers for -|AREAS WITH AEDESAEGYPTIAND DENGUE EPIDEMIC ACTIVITY Disease Control and Preverntion den globally for children under age 5. Despite widespread im- defects. Some evidence is ironclad; some is suggestive at best. munization programs, these diseases nonetheless claimed the Although the acute effects such as poisonings are thie best un- lives of 1,985,000 children in 1990 (128). derstood, it seems clear that hazardous pollutants contribute to the large and growing toll of chronic conditiorls, such as CHEM ICAL HA ZA RDS IN T HE E NVI RO NMEN T cancers and heart disease. Chemical pollutants can also play a Exposure to chemical agents in the environment-in air, wa- role in infectious diseases, perhaps by rendering the body less ter, food, and soil-has been implicated in numerous adverse able to ward off infections. The exact magnitude of the risk effects, from cancer to lung disease to brain damage to birth they pose, however, is difficult to quantify. This has fueled an 26 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH drains, bottles, and discarded tires). This fact introduced from Asia into the Americas as the re- "Potential Risk for Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever: makes dengue particularly troublesome in cities suit of increased tire trade. Used truck tires in trhe Isolation of Serotype Dengue-3 in Mexico)' Emnerinig IJnfeceioss Diseases , Vol. 2, No. 2 of the developing wvorld, where between one third Asia, destined for the United States for recapping, (April-June 1996). and tvo thirds of solid wvaste is not collected, but were stored in the open before export, where theY 7, Duane I. Gubler and Garv C. Clark, "'Den- left on streets, in drains, or dumped in open land- collected rainwater and became breeding sites. gue/Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever: The Finer- fills (9). In addition to waste usage problems, During the 1 980s, more than 1 million tires per genre of a Glohal Health Problem)' Energisg in- crowding, inadequate water and sanitation sys- year wvere imported into the United States from fectiosts Diseases, Vol. 1, No. 2 (1995)1.pp. 55-57. tems, and poor housing conditions can further Asia of wbich approximately 20 percent were 5. Dp. cit. 4. 9. World Resources Institute in collaboration with facilitate the spread of the disease (lo). simply discardedi in the environment (is). In the Dnited Nations Environment Programmne, Especially in Southeast Asia, for example, these breeding grounds, the mosquito spread the United Nations Development Programme, rapid population growvth and urbanization after rapidly and has established itself in at least 17 and The WVorld Bank, Vt'rld Resoesnes 1996-97: World War II has resulted in endemic dengue. An American states 1191. Overall, however, the risk Thie Urban Environenict (Dxford Universitv insufficient supply of piped water in this region for dengue outbreaks in the United States is Press, New York. 1996), pp. 23 and 70. makes it necessary to store water for dirinking small, because most U.S. homes have running wa- IC. Doose I. Guhler end Gary C. Clark, "Community-Based Integrated Control of Aedes and washing; this situation, along with poor sani- ter, svindowv and door screens, and air condition- aegypti : A Brief Dverview of Current Pro- tation and crowding, helps to create conditions ing. In adidition, public health surveillance and gramis' Ainericaii Jourial of Tropicail Medicine that favor the breeding of Aedes niegypti. Betsveen prevention and control programs tend to be bet- and Ht'gienie, Vol. 50, No. 6 (19941, p. 50. 1970 and 1987, attack rates of severe DHF in ter developed. 11. Donald S. Shepaed and Scott B. Halstead. "Den- Southeast Asia increased from l5 people per I . .:.vaccines are niot gue (swith Notes onYellow Fever andlJapanese Encephalitis) ' in Disease Central Priorities it 100,000 population to 170 per 100,000 1l111. to likely to exist for at least 5 to 10 years, the only Developitig Couintries, Dean T. Jamison et a)., cities like Delhi, the storage of drinking water in way to prevent deugue is to eliminate or reduce eds. (ODxford University Press, Nesw York, 19931, pots as well as in open water room coolers pro- the mosquito vectors, either by direct control ef- p. 304. video perfect breeding sites for the disease- forts or by improving housing conditions to re- 12. Tara Paiel, 'Dengue Fever Duebreak Angers In- carrying mosquitoes 1121. duce the number of potential breeding sites. Inte- dian Judges,"Neil, Scientist, Vol. 152, No. 3053 Similarly, in Latin America, rapid urbanization grated prevention strategies need to be (October 26, 19961, p. 111. spurred by intensive industrialization and social developed, and bigh-technology. quick-fix solo- 13EderB.HysadDneItibe'egu and Dengne Hemnorrhagic Fever,' Pediatrric Iny- and economic changes, has led to rapid reinfesta- tions should not be relied upon to combat the vi- fiectiousaDiseasejotrnial. VTol. I11, No. 4(1992), p. tion of the mosquito that carries dengue. The Ac- rus 120)21Ž. (See Chapter 3.) Without nationswidle 515. des aegyspti mosquito was almost eradicated from vector-control programs, howeever, the absolute 14. Op. cit. 1, p. 2398. most Central and South American countries in number of dengue cases will continue to expand 15. Opo.cit. 7.pp. 55-57. the 1950s and 1960s assa result of an extensive with population growvth and the groxwth of cities 16. Baltasar Brisefio-Garcia er al., "Potential Risk campaign to end yellow fever, which is carried by 1Ž22. for Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever: The Isolation the same mosquito. After 1972, however, govern- ~~~~~~~~of Serotype Dengue-3 in Mexico," Enmerginig In- the same mosquito. After 1972, however, govern- ~~~~~~~fectiouis Diseases, Vol. 2, No. 2 (April-luone ment complacency and the shift of economic re- References and Notes 19961. sources to meet the increasing demands imposed 1 . Thomas P. Moratht, "Dergae: The Risk to Devel- 17. R. I. Narro and H. Gdmez-Danttis, "EJ dengue by rapid urbanization and inadequate health-care sped and Developing Countries)' Proceediiigs of the en Mexico: on problema prioritario de salud systems dramatically curtailed mosquito control National Acadetipi of Scienices, V'ol. 91 (Etarch pdhlica,)'Saltid PuboicaNMexico, Vol. 37 11995), efforts (13)1(141. By 1995, Aedes aegypti had re- 1994), p. 2397. S12-S20 as chted in Baltasar Briseflo-Garcia et turne to te sae levl of istrbutio as bfore 2. W,%orld Health Organization (WHO), The World i., "Potential Risk for Dengue Hemorrhagic Fe- turne to he sme lvel f ditribtionas bfore Heatlth Report 2996: Fightinig Disease, Foster ing De- ver: The Isolationi of Serotype Dengue-3 in the eradication program, and 14 countries in the reloptnettt (WHND, Geneva, 1996), p. 24. Mexico," .EttierginglInzfectious t)iseases, Vol. 2, region reported confirmed cases of DHF (I151. In 3, ibid., p. 48. No. 2 (April-lone 1996). Mexico, for instance, 358 cases of DHF (weith a 4. Duane)1. Gobler and Gory G. Clark, 'Comnmunity 18. Op. cit. 1, p. 2396. case fatality rate of 7.8 percent) woere confirmed Inv'olsvementin the Control of.Aedesnegy,pei,"Actn 19. Stephen S. Mlorse and Ann Schluederberg. in 1995 omparedxith onlyO casesi 1994and Tropica. Vol. 61 )19961, p. 170. 'Emerging Viruses: The Evolution of Viruses in 1995 compared with only 30 cases in 1994 and~an Vra Dieaes) Te JtanalofInfcton only 26 cases between 1984 and 1993 1161(17). 5. Oprcit. 2. p. 48. adVisealDsass,Vol Th6 Journy1999 nfecti2 u Tourism anid travel have also become impor- 6. Duane T. Gublern "Vigitancia Actios Del Dengue v, Dsae,Vl 62(uy19) .2 de is Fiebre hemorrlgica del Dengue,' Boletfti dnaI, 20. Dp. cit. 10,pp. 50-52. taut mechanisms for facilita:ing the dengue virus D ficina Sattitaria Pantatericstana Vol. 1017 (1959), 21. Dp. cit. 4, pp. 177-178. and its vectors. Aedes albopictus, for instance, wvas pp. 22-309 cited in Baltasar Briseho-Garcia etal., 22. Op. cit. tI p. 304. intense debate over what constitutes safe use and disposal of cannot be traced for a disease such as lung cancer. Cancers toxic substances. This debate has occurred mostly in the afflu- may take 1 0 to 40 years to develop, and many factors may con- ent countries but is increasingly occurring in the developing tribute to the appearance of the disease in a particular person. world as well. Accordingly, chemical risks tend to be described in terms of Although cause-and-effect relationships for most infectious the numbers of people exposed-for instance, 1.4 billion ur- diseases are well known, the links between chemical pollutants ban dwvellers exposed to air quality that exceeds health guide- and disease are murkier. A person contracting cholera, for in- lines, as WHO estimates (1 29). (See Chapter 2.) Such estimates stance, clearly has been exposed to the cholera vibrio. The cir- reveal little about how many people will actually suffer the ad- cumstances of that exposure may remain mysterious-and verse effects from these exposures. (See Box 1.8.) other contributing factors may be involved-but exposure to On a global scale, the health risk from chemical agents in the bacterium is an established causal factor. The same pathway the environment is considerably smaller than that from bio- World Resources 1998-99 27 doses typicallv much higher than those encountered in the Box 1.8 From Exposure To Effect ambient environment. Although occupational exposures are ............................................................................................................ a m ajor source of ill health globally, this subject is outside the People are exposed to toxic substances through a variety of routes purview of this section, which focuses on chemicals in the am- by ingesting contaminated food and water, by breathing contami- bient environment. nated air, or by contact with the skin. Other paths to exposure are Some pollutants of particular concern are airborne sub- indirect, for example, parental exposures that harm a fetus develop- stances-primarily suspended particulates, sulfur dioxide, ing in the womb. Exposure per se does not necessarily result in an adverse impact. The level of impact depends on several factors; key nitrogen oxides, ozone, and carbon monoxide-emitted as among them is dose. Exposure is defined as the amount of a sub- byproducts of energy production, industry, and t-ansporta- stance that reaches a person, whereas dose is the amount actually tion (130). While most scientific attention and policy debate absorbed by the target organ. The timing and duration of the dose, has focused on outdoor air pollutants, indoor air pollutants as well as the amount absorbed, are all important in determining impact. For some toxic substances, there appears to be a threshold such as smoke and soot, arising from the burning of biomass level below which no effects occur. Others, by contrast, may exert fuels such as dung and wood, appear to pose an even greater effects at the lowest possible doses. risk to human health, because indoor exposures tend to be Further complicating the connection between exposure and effect is many times higher than those encountered outdoors. Hun- the fact that the same dose will not necessarilv elicit the same effect in two different people. As is true with infectious diseases, some people are more sensitive to the ill effects of chemical or physical pollutants larly exposed to potentially harmful indoor emissions, which than others. Children are particularly at risk, for a number of reasons, are believed to contribute to chronic lung disease, cancer, and including their rapid growth rate, the amount thev ingest in relation to ARI. their body weight, and the manner in which they are exposed. (See Box 1.5.) The developing fetus is also exquisitely sensitive to a number Exposure to pesticides can occur directly, typically to agri- of chemical agents, especially in the first several months of develop- cultural workers and their families and those who live near ment. Beyond age, genetics plays a key role, as does an individual's farms where pesticides are heavily used. Exposures can also general state of health and nutritional status. Children deficient in iron be indirect, when pesticides contaminate surface waters or or zinc, for instance, absorb more lead than well-nourished children groundwater or soil, or when pesticide residues en food or with identical exposures (Bowen and Hu, 1993). condwated fish or wildlie residue food or In addition, a given chemical can have a variety of ill effects, or end- contaminated fish or wildlife are ingested. Some of the most points, ranging from minor irritation to death. These effects may show problematic pesticides are organic compounds that are slow up immediately (acute effects), as is the case with pesticide poisonings, to degrade and thus persist in the environment for years, ac- in several years (chronic effects), or in subsequent generations, as is cumulating in animal and human tissues. the case with birth defects. For some effects, similar to certain cancers, Some mn ammal and sum as PCBS ao s i the routes and mechanisms of action are relatively well understood be- Some industrial chemicals, such as PCBs, also persist in the cause they have been studied extensively. For others, such as sub- environment and have caused widespread environmental stances thought to disrupt the endocrine system, scientific under- contamination. Exposure to industrial chemicals can result standing is rudimentary at best. from intentional releases to either air or water, from accidents, or from the leaching of these substances from disposal sites Adapted from D. Briggs, C. Corvalan, and M. Nurmiuen, eds., inkage Methods for Environ- o srounding or tero mentand Heaith Analysis,Office of Global and Integrated Environmental Health, World intosurroundingosoilrwater. Health Organization (WHO) (WHO, Geneva, 1996). Also cited: Elizabeth L. Bowen and How- Heavy metals are used for a variety of agricultural and in- ard Hu,'Food Contamination Due s Environmental Pollutione,' in Cutici Condison. Human dustrial purposes and are frequent contaminants in industrial Hesith and the Environment, Eric Chivian eraaeds. (The M IT Press,Casmbrdge, Massachusetts, 1993). p.50. wastes. Many are toxic: mercury, for instance, is a kn own neu- rotoxin; arsenic can cause skin and other cancers. One of the most important environmental pollutants is lead, which at logical pathogens described in the previous section. In some even very low doses can cause significant neurological im- heavily polluted areas, however, chemical risks can be quite pairment and loss of tntelligence. Major sources of lead in the high. Risks are likelyto be higher in less developed as opposed environment include exhaust from vehicles using leaded to more developed countries, because fewer safeguards are gasoline, lead-based paints, and some types of watcr pipes. typically in place there, either to reduce emissions or to pro- Not surprisingly, much evidence of the harmful effects of tect people from exposure. Equally important, regardless of industrial chemicals has come from the workplace, where ex- their magnitude, the risks from chemical pollutants are pre- posures tend to be high and sustained relative to those in the ventable. ambient environment. For instance, studies of British textile workers alerted researchers to the link betwreen asbestos and Body of Evidence lung cancer (131). The reproductive toxicity of the pesticide Environmental pollutants arise from many sources, and ex- DBCP (1, 2-dibromo-3-chloropropane) became startlingly posures may occur through many different routes. (See Table clear in the late 1970s and early 1980s when male farm work- 1.4.) Many occur on the job, where workers are exposed to ers in the banana-growing region of Costa Rica were found to 28 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH be sterile. By the mid-1990s, some 1,500 male workers had been medically diagnosed with sterility from exposure to TAB E 1.4 Cherical Po utants within the Human Environment thar are Hazardous DBCP 1132). While these examples illuminate the risks of 1 Human Health high-level exposures, they do not indicate the extent of risk posed by lower levels of exposures that are typically encoun- Chemicals found in food and water: tered in the environment. * lead (in food and drinking water, especially where there is a combi nation of lead water pipes and acidic water); One difficulty in determining the exact magnitude of the * aflatoxins and other natural food toxicants; potential health risk is that epidemiologic studies, which look * nitrates in drinking water (and their conversion into nitrites in the at differences between exposed and nonexposed groups, gen- body); erally show a statistical association between an environ- * trace pollutants in water supply, many from agrochemicals (for instance, various halogenated organic chemicals); mental exposure and adverse effects. They do not attempt to *aluminum (food and drinking water); demonstrate cause and effect. In many cases, studies cannot * arsenic and mercury. reveal links between an exposure and an adverse effect unless the particular risk is quite high or the effect is unusual (133), as Chemicals commonly found in the indoor environ- was the case with vinyl chloride and angiosarcoma, a rela- ment (home/workplace): tively rare form of liver cancer (134). Given these difficulties, * carbon monoxide (incomplete combustion of fossil fuels); some studies will find an association, others will refute it. * lead (paint ingested by children); Thus, proof of a causal relationship often takes years to * asbestos (usually from roofing insulation or air conditioning con- amass-as with smoking and lung cancer-if it is ever estab- duits); lished. * smokefrom combustion of coal and wood (orother biomass fuel); Calculating how much of a specific pollutant a person is ex- * tobacco smoke; * potentially dangerous chemicals used without health and safety posed to can be daunting. For example, to assess air quality, a safeguards (by homeworkers and in occupational settings); city might have only a few monitors dispersed throughout a * formaldehyde(mostlyfrominsulation;alsosomeinwoodpreserva- wide geographic area. The direction of the wind on any given tives and adhesives). day will do much to determine who is exposed, as will whether that person spent most of the day indoors or out. In Chemicalsfound outdoors in urban areas in the air addition, air pollution monitors are usually installed on roof- (ambient): tops so recorded pollutant levels do not describe the exposure * lead (exhausts of motor vehicles using gasoline with lead additive, tOf . from external paint, some industrial emissions); of a commuter stuck in traffic, or, say, a small child on a play- fo xenlpit oeidsra msin) ofacommutertuckintraffi, or,say, a,small l * sulphurdioxide,sulphates,and smoke/suspended particles (mainly ground. So, although it is widely agreed that ambient air pol- from coal or heavyoil combustion byindustries,powerstations,and, lution at levels normally encountered in many cities can dam- in some cities, households); age health and even kill, the magnitude of the effect remains * oxides of nitrogen (in most cities, mostly from motor vehicle emis- controversial. (Estimates range from 200,000 to 570,000 ex- sions; also some industries); * hydrocarbons (motor vehicles, petrol stations, some ind ustries); cess deaths per year (135)). * ozone (secondary pollutant formed by reaction of nitrogen dioxide In the absence of definitive human data, investigators often and hydrocarbons in sunlight); must relv on animal studies and quantitative risk assessment * carbon monoxide (incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, mostly by models to estimate the toxicity of a particular substance. In motor vehicles); * volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (a consideraole range of such some instances, health effects in wildlife have first alerted re- compounos are, or may be, hazardous). searchers to potential dangers of a class of environmental pol- lutants. For example, reproductive damages in seagulls and Chemicals that may contaminate land sites: other wildlife presented some of the first clues about the ad- * cadmium and mercury compounds and other heavy metal com- verse effects of DDT (136). More recently, reproductive pounds (industrial wastes); anomalies in wildlife have sparked concern about the ability * Dioxins, PCBs, arsenic, organoch orine pesticides (industrial of some chemicals to cause ill effects by disrupting the body's wastes). normal hormonal system. Translating effects in wildlife to risks in humans, however, remains difficult. Even laboratory Also in both indoor and outdoor settings: experiments in animals are less than definitive, because it is * micropollutants; difficult to extrapolate from effects seen when high doses are * mixtures of each at trace level (with possible additive effects). given to animals to probable results from the low doses com- mon to human exposure. Reprinted from: David Satterthwaite et al., The Environment for Children: Un- Despite widespread public concern over chemical safety, derstonding andActfngon theEnvironmento Hozards thot Threten Children toxicity testing remains inadequate. For the vast majority of ond TheirParents (Earthscan Publications, Ltd., London, 19961, p. 41. World Resources 1998-99 29 Box 1.9 Why the Increase in Asthma? Over the past two decades, researchers have account for 20 to 75 percent of asthma cases, not the driving force behind the increase in reported a startling rise in the prevalence of leaving a substantial number unexplained (9)(10). asthma prevalence and mortality. Asthma re- asthma among children and young adults. Still other studies show that when people migrate searcher David Bates of the University of Brit- This trend persists today, mostly in affluent to new areas, their risk of developing asthma of- ish Columbia in Vancouver summarized the countries, leading some to call asthma a dis- ten changes ( l)i. Other clues can be discerned situation recently: "We have good reason to be ease of the industrialized 20th Century (i). In- from looking at the variable distribution of suspicious of the contemporary role of air pol- deed, asthma appears to be rare in developing asthma prevalence across the globe. lutants, but proof is something else" (24). countries, although some evidence suggests Asthma is generally more prevalent in urban that the disease is emerging in urban centers in areas, although South Australia is an important Indoor Air Pollution parts of Africa and Asia as well (2). exception (12). iMortality rates from asthma are Asthma in children and young adults is In many affluent countries where asthma is also higher in urban areas for some countries strongly associated with sensitization to al- common today, its prevalence has climbed nearly (13). In most countries, asthma is most pro- lergens found in homes. Tobacco smoke, for 50 percent in just a 10-year span (3). Rates of hos- nounced among the higher socioeconomic one, is known to increase the risk of pitalization for asthma are also rising in these classes (14). However, in the United States, poor asthma. Children have about twice the risk countries, a fact that suggests the disease is be- and minority populations are disproportionately of developing asthma if one or both parents coming more severe (4). Particularly disturbing is affected In the United States, increases in asthma urbing affected. United States, ~are cigarette smokers 125). Beyond tcbacco the rise in the number of deaths attributed to prevalence have been found among all groups of smoke, the chief culprits indoors appear to asthma. Asthma deaths among people 5 to 34 children and youths, but they are highest among be microscopic dust mites that inhabit bed- years of age increased more than 40 percent be- poor, black, and Hispanic children (15)1I6). Pov- ding, furniture, and carpets, and also cock- tween the mid-1970s and mid-1980s in most erty and race also appear to be important risk roach parts and animal dander. Toxi: clean- countries studied (5). tactors in asthma mortality. In the United States ing agents and pesticides may also be Improved diagnosis and greater awareness of in 1993, black children were four times more involved, although their role is less clear asthma may partly account for the rising number likely than white children to die from asthma (17). (26). of cases , . l Il. changes in health insurance In New York City's East Harlem, the mortality Increasingly, attention is focused on bio- and medical practice may contribute to the rise in rate is 10 times the national average (18). allergens such as dust mites and cockroaches. hospitalization rates for asthma. Even consider- Dust mites have long been known to increase ing these factors, many researchers are convinced Outdoor Air Pollution the risk of asthma. Indeed, high exposures to that the increase is real (7). This recognition has Numerous studies have shown that episodes of them in infancy seem to lead to early onset of prompted a large-scale effort to find out what air pollution can exacerbate existing asthma asthma (27). In general. children who become could be driving the increase. Although a defini- conditions-by either triggering or worsening allergic to foreign proteins-such as insect tive answer remains elusive, environmental fac- an attack (19). Emergency room visits for parts or animal dander in the home--have an tors have emerged as key. asthma often increase after a bout of air pollu- increased risk of developing asthma, and con- tion, as do hospitalizations. However, because tinued exposure contributes to the disease. In- A Hunt for Clues air pollution is composed of a mix of pollut- creasing numbers of homes and buildings are Asthma is a complex disease whose develop- ants that vary from location to location, it is now "air tight," which can lock in bio-allergens ment is influenced by both host susceptibility difficult to tease apart which pollutants are to and also cigarette smoke and other pollutants. and environmental or lifestyle factors (8). blame. A number of recent changes in the indoor Some people are genetically predisposed to The urban pollutant with perhaps the worst environment-such as carpeting, upholstered develop asthma. Other people acquire asthma, record for provoking asthma or exacerbating its furniture, mattresses, humidifiers, and central often in early childhood, for reasons that are symptoms is ozone, a principal component of air conditioning or heating-make it easier for still unclear but seem to involve early and re- smog. Low levels of ozone trigger coughing, ham- dust mites and molds, another poten: allergen, peated exposure to a variety of factors in the pered and painful breathing, and inflammation to thrive. For example, one study in Denver, environment, including allergens and viruses. of the airways in both healthy and asthmatic peo- Colorado, found that although the city is lo- People with asthma are exquisitely sensitive to ple (20). Ozone exposure also seems to render cated in a dry climate not conducive :o dust certain external triggers, typically allergens like people more susceptible to other irritants, either mites, the air conditioning in homes aonethe- pollen or cat dander but also viral infections, ex- pollutants or allergens such as dust mites t21)(22). less fostered significant dust mite levels (28). ercise, cold air, tobacco smoke, and air pollution. Evidence is, , r: l,,, - , - . - '.i .- .. the links be- In the United States, some of the si rongest When exposed to one of these triggers, someone tween sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide and evidence to date implicates a well-kno,wn ur- with a common allergy, such as hay fever, may de- asthma. Recent attention has turned to fine par- ban denizen, the cockroach. Indeed, early and velop a runny nose or sneezing. For an asthmatic, ticulate pollution, or PM,. Several studies have continued exposure to cockroaches appears to however, exposure triggers a cascade of events in linked fine particulate pollution with increased shed light upon the disproportionate preva- which certain immune cells marshal other cells asthma symptoms and emergency room visits lence of asthma among poor, inner-ci ty chil- that then launch an inflammatory attack on the 123). But opinion remains divided on whether air dren, as studies suggest that the degre e to respiratorv system, causing the airways to con- pollution is contributing to the increase in which people are exposed to cockroarhes cor- strict and making breathing difficult. asthma prevalence. What confounds some re- relates with their socioeconomic statuis (29). Evidence that environmental factors play a searchers is that many developed countries are Evidence from a 1997 study suggests that major role in prevalence of asthma comes from a showing a rise in the prevalence of asthma, yet an cockroaches play an even larger role than pre- number of investigations. First, although genetics overall decline in air pollution. viously believed (3o). This large study of eight clearly influences the development of asthma, Overall, the body of evidence suggests that al- urban areas in the United States found that studies of twins suggest genetic tendencies might though air pollution may play a role, it alone is asthma was most pronounced among children 30 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH Box 1.9 continued who are allergic to cockroach allergens and are is sufficient to explain current trends in asthma. o~f cthe Americant Medical Association, Vot. 268, exposed to a high level of that allergen in bed- More . - - ' :. - ' ,-.. . ir.chers such as Woolcock No. 19 (1992),p. 2673. room dust. Specifically, those wvho were allergic to and Peat, "a numher of lifestyle changes may have 17. Centers for Disease Conrnol, Asthmna Miortality anid Hospitalization Among Children and cockroaches and heavily exposed to them at combined to cause the disease to be expressed so Young Adults-United Ststes, 1980-1993)' Helr- home were 3.4 times more likely to be hospital- children who, in previous times, were immuno- bkiciy andIvMortality WVeekly Report, Vol. 45, No. (red than other poor, asthmatic youth. They also logically protected from developing asthma-or 17 (May 3, 1996), p. 35 1. lost more sleep and school days because of were not exposed to high allergen levels"(40). 18. Op. cit. 12. p. 362S. asthma problems. Although roughly the same Sorting out the role of environmental and life- 19. Hillel S. Koren and Mark J. Uteill "Asthma and proportion of the youth tested as allergic to both style factors wvill he key in devising strategies to spthes E vrol.en103, N io.51 ay 1997t,l 334th.er cockroaches and dust mites (roughly 35 percent) prevent this debilitating disease. 2t . Hillel S. Koren, 'Associations betiween Criteria and 23 percent were allergic to cat dander, cock- Air Pollutants and Asthma,' Env'ironmiental roach allergen was far more prevalent in their References and Notes Healthi Pcrspectives, Vol. 103, SupplementS6 bedrooms (311.1.ThmsAEPltsvilsadModC.are, (19593, p. 238. I TomasAL. late-Mils an Meldy C CaTher 21. David V. Bates, 'Observations on Asthma,"Envt- Exposure to allergens alone is not sufficient to Asthmna andIndoorEFxposure to. I .. . )' The -elh esecie, o. 0,Supe account for increased severity of asthmna among NecvcEngliisdjournal of Medicine, Voi. 336, No. 19 rontie 6 Health, perpet'24Vl513,Sppe poorandminoritypopulstions.Social(May8, 1997), p. 1384.met1l51p2. poorandminrit poplatons Soialfactors are 22. Rebecca Basconti, "Environmental Factors anid clealy t pay, hie amng tem imied aces to 22.AnAnnWolcoc anoo enifock.Peand"EJenniferpiatoK.HpePeat,iviy'Evidenceas, cleary at lay, hief mongthem imite acces to for the Increase in Asthima Wlorldsvtde,' in The Ris- ReprtyHprsnivt:ThAmic. appropriate medical care. One study found fewver inig Trends in Asthmna, Ciba Foundation Symposium Toxicology Letters, Vol.86611996). pp. 122-124. medications were prescribed to control asthma in 206 1(lobs Wiley, & Sons, Chichester, U.K., 19971, 23DaiV.Bts"TeEfcsoArPouonn adolescents from lowv-income homes compared pp. 123-125. Children," Env'ironmtental Health Perspectives. to their peers in more affluent homes 132). 3. Kevin WAeiss, Peter Cergen. andi Diane Wagener. Vol. 103, Supplement 6 (1995), p. 50. "Breathing Better or Wheecing Wiorse? T'he Chang- 24. Op. cit. 2 1. p. 246. ing Epidemiology of Asthma Mvorbiditv and Nior- 23. National Institutes of Health: Heart, Lung, and Changing Lifestyles tality,)'Anntial Reviea'ofPublic Healtrh. Vol. 14 Blood Institute (NHLBII, Glob'alInitiative far What is more, many pople in developedI1993), pp. 493-494. Asthmta: Clobal Strotcgytfor Asthma Mlanage- 'Alhatis mor, manypeoplein devloped4. Richard Beaslev, Neil Pearce, and Julian Crane, "in- otenit and Prevencion (NHILBI/World Health Or- countries are spending an increasing amount ternational Trends in Asthma Mortality)' in Thie ganization (WHOI) Workshop Report, 19951, p. of time indoors. In many affluent countries, Rising Trenids liti Asthmia, Ciba Foundation Svmpo- 65. indoor sources of entertainment, such as com- siam 206 (John Wiley & Sons. Chichester, U'.K., 26. Op. cit. 3. pp. 323-504. puter games, television shows, and videos, are 1997). p. 147. 27. Op. cit. 3, p. 504. outdoor playgrounds.This 5. M.R. Sears,''iWorldwide Trends in Asthma Mortal- 28. Op. cit.22, p. I119. ity,' Builetin oft/ic Initernationtal Uniion of Thbeccsle 29. Alkis Togias et asl.,."Evaluattng the Factors that scenario has led several asthma experts to pos- Lung Disease, \rol. 66 (19911, p. 80. Relate to Asthma Severity in Adolescents,' titter- tolate that the rise of the "indoor amusement 6. Op~. cit. 3, pp. 500-501. national Archives ofAllergs'acid Cliniical mitt iiii- culture,"'perhaps coupledxvhth a lack of exer- 7. Op. cit.4, pp. 142-143. na(logy. Vol. 113 (1l97). pp. 87-95. cise, may contribute to the increase in asthma 8. Eugene R. Bleecker, Dirkje S. Postma, and Deborah 30. Curt Suplee, Irlost Serious Youth Asthmna Cases seen in developed countries (33). A. Meyers, "Cenetic Susceptibility to Asthma insa Linked to Roaches, Study Finds,' Thie VT.lshinig- Numerous canges relaodtomedica practice Changing Environmert)'in The Rising Trendsiii ton Postlls'ayS8, 19971. p..Al12. Asthma, Ciba Foundation Symposium 206 1(John 31. David L. Rosentreich cc al., "The Role of Cock- in the more developed nationis, from the avail- Wiley & Sons, Chichester, U.K., 1997), p. 91. roach Allergy and Exposure to Cockroach Al - ability of asthma medicines to the changing pat- 9. tMlL. Edfoms-Lcths. Allergy in 7.000 Twvin Paim)'" lergen in CausinglMorbidity Among Inner-City terns of childhood infections, may also play a V.ol. 26 (197 1), pp. 249-283. Children \ith Asthmna,' TheNHeir England Jour- role. Overuse of bronchodilator inhalers has been 10. Peter Gergen, National Institute of Allergy and In- sial of-Medicine, Vol. 336, No. 19 (19971.99.. implicated in the rise in asthma mortality in sev- factious Diseases, national Insthtutes of Healh,. 1358S-1359. Rockyille, Maryland, (attuary 14, 1998 (personial 32. Op. cit 29, pp. 87-95. oral countries (34). Howvever, as elevated mortality communication). 33. Thomas A.E. Plaits-Mills and Judith woodfoalk, rates among poor populationis suggest, under- 11. C.H. vani Niererk et al., "Prevalence of Asthmna: A 'Rise in Asthma Cases)' Science, Vol. 278 (No- medication is likely to bo a greater problem (33). Community Study of Urban and Rural Xhosa,' vember 19971, p. 1 00 1. Other researchers hypothesize that some of . ... Vol. 9 11979), pp. 319-24. cited in 34. Malcolm Sears and D. Robin Taylor. "TheQ~2- the benefits of modiern medicine may in fact be Anthony Neseman-Taylor, "Environmental Deier- agonist Controversy: Observations. Explana- miniants of Asthmna)'Lascet, Vol. 345 (February 4. tions, and Relationship to Asthma Epidemiol- reducing immunologic protection, rendering 1993), p. 296. ogy)' Druig safety, Vol. I11, No. 4 (1994), pp. some people more susceptible to asthsna 136). Al- t2. Kevin B. Weiss, Peter J. Gergen, and Ellen F. Crain, 264-265. though viral infections are known to exacerbate 'Inner-City Asthma: The Epidemiology of an 35. Dy. cit. 1 0. asthma, some studies suggest that having certain Emerging U.S. Public Health Concern)' Chest, Vol. 36. Op. cit. 2. p. 130. infections during early childhood can protect a 101, No. 6, Supplement (June 1992). p. 362S. 37. Ttaro Shirakawa et ai., "The Inverse Association child from later developing the disease, perhaps 13. Kevin B. Weiss and Diane K. W,agener, "Changing between Tuberculin Responses and Atopic His- Patterns of Asthma Mrortality: Identifying Target order)' Science, \Vol. 275, No. 3(19971. p. 77. by stimulating an immune response that sup- Populations at High Risk)'o Josrnal of rhie Arneri can 38. Erika von Mutius cc al., "Prev'alence of Asthma presses later allergic reactions 1371)38). Similarly, Medical Association, Vol. 264. No. 13 (October 3. and Atopy in Two Areas of Wecst and East Ger- the rise in asthma in developed nations might 1990), p. 1687. mnany)' Amerinin Journal of Respiratory vacid also be due, in part, to an increase in the number 14. Op. cit, 2. pp. 122-131. Criticail Care AMedicinte, Vol. 149 (19941, p. 363. of surviving prematuire babies, as these infants 15. Elaine Friehele. "The Attack of Asthmna)'Environ- 39. Peter Gergen and Kevini Weiss. 'The Increasing mrental Health Perspectives, Vol. 104. No. 11 (January Problem of Asthma in lth, United States)' Aneri- are more prone to developing asthma 139). 19961.9p. 23. cast Review ofRespinators' Disease. VoL. 146 If a-ny consensus exists in the rapidly changing 16. Mlichael \Weitzman et iil. "Recent Trends in Prevs- (I19921. p. 824. field of asthma research,it isthat no single factor lenceeand Severitv of Childhood Asthma)'Journial 40. Op. cit. 2, p. 122. World Resources 1998-99 31 chemicals in widespread use, no toxicity testing results are Efforts to minimize pollutants' harmful impacts are com- availableinthepublicrecord (137)(138).Mostofthetestingfor plicated bythe increasing realization that they can harm hu- chronic effects that has occurred has focused on cancer. To man health not just through direct toxicological routes but date,about74chemicals ormixtureshavebeen foundto cause also indirectly, through large-scale ecological disruptions. cancer in humans (139). Hundreds of others, however, cause This realization hit home with the unexpected discovery in cancer or mutations in cells or in animals, which raises con- 1985 ofa "hole"in the stratosphericozonelayer,causedbyhu- cerns about their effects in humans. man activity leading to chlorofluorocarbon emissions (144). Of the other potential effects of chemical hazards, such as The health impacts of this thinning ozone layer, which pro- infertility, birth defects, immune system impairment, or brain tects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation, range from damage, even less is known. In the United States, for instance, skin cancer to cataracts to immune system depression to dis- the chief agency for chemical evaluation spent nearly US$29 ruption of the food chain. None of these results was antici- million on testing chemicals for cancer in 1991, but just about pated a mere 15 years ago Similarly, the combustion of fossil $6 million for both genetic and reproductive effects (140). fuels not only causes urban air pollution but also cisrupts at- Testing for other health concerns, such as immune system ef- mospheric chemistry and maylead to globalwarming.Plausi- fects or endocrine disruption, lags even further behind. ble health impacts include increased deaths froni excessive Again d the United States provides an apt example according heat episodes and violent storms, and a greater tol.l from ma- Agai theUnited St pcroes an c ap example:acdin laria and other vector-borne diseases in developing countries. to a recent study, 86 percent of chemicals in widespread use have not been tested for immunotoxicity, and 67 percent have not been tested for neurotoxicity (141). This focus on cancer The Environmental Contribution means that other important and preventable risks may be So, all told, how much do these environmental hazards con- overlooked. Standard methods of toxicity testing, for in- tribute to the global burden of ill health? The answer is impos- stance, would not have identified lead as a significant haz- sible to pin down with any precision because of the complex ard-even though the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and etiology of most diseases. Asthma is a case in point. Although Prevention has called lead poisoning the single, most signifi- the disease is on the upswing and environmental iactors ap- cant preventable disease associated with environmental and pear to be involved, their exact contribution is difficult to dis- occupational exposures (142). cern. (See Box 1.9.) Clearly, however, the risk posed by envi- More precise techniques to evaluate chemical safety are un- ronmental factors varies enormously depending upon where der development, including mechanistic studies to illuminate one lives. A major portion of death and disease in cLeveloping exactlv what changes a chemical exerts within a cell. Such countries can be directly tied to poor environmental condi- methods, however, tend to be time-consuming and expensive tions, especially at the household or local level. Indeed, the two and thus are not widely applicable in large-scale studies (143). major sources of death and disability in the developing Meanwhile, policymakers must rely on the best available world-ARI and diarrhea-have their origins in poverty and data-often fromanimal mustudiesand riskonthebest assei degraded household environments. Together, these two dis- data-often from anirmal studies and risk assessments-in Z eases account for up to 7 million deaths per year (145). The setting policies to protect the public from suspected risks. Be- Globa Bun of De tudy callates tha tey contribute caus chmica prducs ar sowidly ued nd videce ug- Global Burden of Disease study calculates that they contribute causectheymiayproducagetsaenvireowidenandevidenchesug- more than 21 percent to the burden of disease in developing gests they may damage the environment and human health, cutis iial,mlraacut o . ecit n h governments face increasing pressure to adopt the "precau- tricl. disaslu, whic includes tryp anomis, tionary principle." This principle affirms that when harm is Chagas disease, schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis, filaiasis, and strongly suspected, it is best to take action to prevent expo- onchocerciasis, accountsform 0.87percent(i46) Improvingthe sure, even if absolute proof of harm is missing. nhcriss consfr08 ecn I4) mrvn h sure, even if absolute proof of harm is missing. household environment-providing improved housing, Such prudent policies are by no means the norm. As de- clean fuels, improved access to water and sanitatior, and bet- scribed in more detail in Chapter 2, many chemicals banned ter waste removal-would do much to reduce the Durden of in developed countries are still in widespread use throughout these diseases. But because these diseases are influenced by the developing world, despite their known hazards, because multiple factors, including nutrition, hygiene, and e ducation, theyarecheapandeffective.Amongthemisaclassofparticu- it would be simplistic to think environmental interventions larly hazardous products known as persistent organic pollut- could eliminate them entirely. (See Chapter 3.) ants, or POPs. Similarly, roughly two decades after the United The environmental contribution to health risks is less clear States began to phase out the use of lead in gasoline because of in the developed countries, where many of the most obvious its well-known health effects, it remains ubiquitous through- and immediate threats, such as fecal contamination or lack of out much of Asia and Latin America. water, have been virtually, eliminated, and the burden of infec- 32 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH Box 1.10 Smoking-Related Deaths ............................................................................................................................................................... ..................................................................... The current death toll attributable to tobacco- 500 billion to 1,700 billion (about 30 percent of warning labels and smoke-free workplaces and related illnesses is estimated at one in eight in the world total) (5). public areas. This scenario reflects a lack of the developing world, one in four in developed According to the World Health Organization awareness of the health risks that tobacco countries, and one in six for the world as a (WHO), there are about 1. L billion smokers presents, and this ignorance may relate to the whole. In 1993 alone, tobacco use was respon- worldwide, or about one third of the population approximate 25- to 30-year lag time between sible for 3 million deaths (l). In the mid- 1990s, 15 years and older. The vast majority-800 mil- the onset of persistent tobacco use and the ac- about 25 percent of all male deaths in devel- lion smokers-are in developing countries; 700 tual deaths attributable to smoking. Thus, oped countries were due to smoking (2). In the million of these smokers are men. In the devel- policymakers and health officials in the devel- United States and other industrialized coun- oped countries, an estimated 42 percent of men oping world may not yet focus on tobacco as a tries where smoking has been prevalent for and 24 percent of women smoke; corresponding source of preventable mortality and morbid- decades, lung cancer and ischemic heart dis- figures for the developing world are about 48 per- ity. ease are the leading causes of tobacco-related cent of men and 7 percent of women (6). In deaths. The total number of deaths caused by China, however, where most of the world's smok- References and Notes tobacco in these nations was more than 1.8 ers now reside, 63 percent of men and 3.8 percent 1. Howard Barnum, "The Economic Burden of the million in 1990 and is expected to reach 20 of women are current smokers (7). Global Trade io Tobacco," Tobacco Control Vol. million during the last decade of this century The number of deaths annually attributable to 3 (1994d p. 359. (3 However, the rate of increase in the epi- tobacco is expected to increase from 3 million in Aler2 1996 (WHO, Geneva, 1996), pp. 16T19. demic of smoking-caused mortality is slowing 1993 to 8.4 million in 2020, of which 6 million are 3. Richard Peto, et al., "Mortality from Smoking somewhat among men, but continues to in- projected to occur in the developing world (8)(9). Worldwider British Medical Bulletirn, Vol. 52, crease rapidly among women in the industrial- In fact, xvithin 25 years, tobacco will surpass in- No. 1 (1996), p. 19. ized world (4). fectious diseases to become the leading threat to 4. Op. cit. 2. In most of the developing world, smoking has human health worldvide (isO. Currently, the 5. Op. cit. 3,p. 20, only more recently become a widespread habit, global cost of tobacco-related illnesses is nearly 6. Op. cit. 2, p. 4. billio a yer in irecthealt-care7. Chinese Academy of Preventive Mledicine, but medical researchers expect that within the $200 billion a vear in direct health-care expenses "Prevalence of Smoking and Related Behavior, next 25 to 30 years the mortality pattern associ- and lost productivity related to morbidity and in Smnoking and Health in China: 1996 Nationnl ated with smoking will approximate that of the premature mortality. One third of this loss occurs Prevalence Surrey of Snoking Patterns (China industrialized countries. This trend has already in the developing world (i1). Science and Technology Press, Beijing, 1997), p. become apparent in countries such as China. The Food and Agricultural Organization of 22. S. Op. cit. l, p. 359. where unpublished evidence in a nationwide the United Nations (FAO) estimates that tobacco 9 Christopher Murray and Alan Lopez, study suggests that tobacco is already causing consumption in developing nations has increased "Evidence-Based Health Policv-Lessons from half a million deaths annually, of which about at a rate of 2.1 percent annually during 1985-90 the Global Burden of Disease Study," Science. one half are due to chronic lung disease. The ef- and is increasing at a rate of 1.9 percent during Vol. 274 (November 1, 1996), p. 742. fects ofthe smoking epidemic on mortality rates 1995-2000 (12). Various factors may explain this 10. Christopher Murray and Alan Lopez, "Evidence-Based Health Policy-Lessons from in China will certainly worsen substantially dur- increase, including larger than ever amounts ot the Global Burden of Disease Study." Science, ing the next century, given the fact that between disposable income coupled with widespread ad- Vol. 274 (November 1,1996), p. 742. 1978 and 1992, consumption of manufactured vertising and promotion of tobacco products, 11. Op. cit. t, pp. 359-360. cigarettes in that country more than tripled, from and insufficient legislation regarding product 12. Op. cit. l,p. 360. tious diseases is relatively small. (AIDS and TB are important many of these can be triggered by external agents. The list of exceptions.) Environmental factors clearly play a role in known carcinogens is long and includes radiation, natural or chronic conditions such as cancer and heart disease, which synthetic chemicals, tobacco smoke, some viruses, agents in predominate in the wealthier countries. The question is: how the diet, and sunlight. Whether any agent contributes to can- large a role? cer depends not just on the timing of the exposure but also on The debate over cancer illuminates some of these difficul- the effectiveness of the body's defenses. ties. Cancers of all types claimed some 6 million lives in 1996 y inldn 3.8 milo in dvlpnco tre(1). .voevr Based on this same understanding, estimates of the envi- includin 3.8 million in developing countries 147). 'oreovr, ronmental contribution to cancer vary widely. In their classic cancer's links to the environment are unequivocal, as increas- ing evidence about the process of carcinogenesis has made 1981 study, epidemiologists Richard Doll and Richard Peto clear. Cancer arises through a multistep process of accumu- estimated that ito 5 percent of cancers derive from environ- lated damage to genes in a single cell. Several distinct muta- mental pollutants in air, water, and food. They estimated that tions (genetic alterations) are required-some to start the behavioral factors such as tobacco use and unhealthy diets process, some to release the normal controls on cell growth. In play a much larger role, accounting for 30 and 35 percent, re- a small number of cases, perhaps 5 percent of breast cancers, spectively (148). (See Box 1.10.) Similarly, a 1996 study esti- for instance, one or more mutations may be inherited. But ad- mated that just 2 percent of all cancers arise from exposure to ditional mutations are still requiredbefore cancer ensues, and air pollution (149). In contrast, WHO recently estimated the World Resources 1998-99 33 TABLE 1.5 Estimated Burden of Disease from Poor Household Env ronments in Demograph cally Developing Countres, 1990,anS Potential Reduction through Improved Household Services BURDENFROMTHESE REDUCTION BURDENAVERTED BURDEN DISEASES IN DEVELOPING ACHIEVABLE BY FEASIBLE AVERTED PER PRINCIPAL DISEASES RELEVANT COUNTRIES THROUGH FEASIBLE INTERVENTIONS 1,000 RELATED TO POOR ENVIRONMENTAL (millions of DALYS INTERVENTIONS (millions of POPULATION HOUSEHOLD ENVIRONMENTS' PROBLEM per year) b (percent)' DALYs per year) (DALYs per year) Tuberculosis Crowding 46 10 5 1.2 Diarrhea ' Sanitation,water supply, hygiene 99 40 40 9.7 Trachoma WVater supply, hygiene 3 30 1 0.3 Tropical cluster' Sanitation,garbage disposal, 8 30 2 0.5 vector breeding around the home Intestinal worms Sanitation,watersupply, hygiene 18 40 7 1.7 Respiratory infections Indoor air pollution, crowding 119 15 18 4A Chronic respiratory diseases Indoor air pollution 41 15 6 1.5 Respiratory tract cancers Indoor air pollution 4 10 * 0.1 All the above 338 - 79 19.4 Source: The World Bank. WorldDevelopment Reporr 7993. !envestisg ron-Health, V/orlo Developmentlndicators (Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K 1993), p. 90. Notes: * Less than 1, The demographically develooing group consists ofthe demographic regions of Sub-Saharan Africa,India,China,OtherAsia islands, Latin Amerrca and the Caribbeari,and the Mid- dle Eastern crescent. a.The diseases listed are thosefor which there is substantial evidence ofa relationship with the household environment.Examples of excluded conditions are violence related to crcwding (because oflack ofevidence) and guinea worm infection related to poorwater supply. b. DALYs are disability-adjusted life years. c.Estimates derived from the product ofthe efficacy ofthe Interventions and the proportion of the burden ofdisease that occurs among the eeposed. The effcacy est mates assumethe implementation of improvements in sanitation,watersupp y,lhygiene, drainage.garbage disposa, indoor air pollution,and crowding of te kind being made in poor communities in developing countries, d. Includes diarrhea,dysentery,cholera,and typhoid. e.Diseases within thetropical cluster mostaffected bp the domestic env ronment are schistosomiasis,South American trypanosomrasis,and Bancroftian fiariasis. fBased on very inadequate data orn efficacy. contribution of environment-including the workplace-to total DALYs. Like malnutrition, these factors in combina- cancer at 25 percent (150). tion contribute to significantly more of the burden in the poorer regions; 10 percent in sub-Saharan Africa, 9.5 per- ATTRIBUTABLE RISK cent in India, and 8.8 percent in the Middle East (154). Investigators are experimenting with approaches to better as- R Outdoor air pollution accounts for 1.1 percent of total sess the environment's contribution to human death and dis- deaths and 0.5 percent of total DALYs, accordiiig to GBD ease. Some estimates are reported here, with the caveat that estimates. In the developed regions, these numbers rise to they are all only crude approximations. Even so, these esti- 2.5 percent of deaths and 1.5 percent of DALYS, and in the mates can provide useful guides in designing policies to im- former socialist economies, this factor climbs to 5.5 per- prove public health (t51). cent of all deaths and 3.1 percent of DALYs (155>. One approach is to estimate the attributable risk of certain factors in disease. The 1996 Global Burden of Disease study Using a different approach, the World Bank in 1993 calcu- lated the total burden of disease that could be attributed to the tried to tease apart the contribution of 10 different risk fac- tors, including some key environmental hazards, by deter- household environment. The Bank defined househ f d envi- mining what proportion of the disease burden would not have ronmental problems to Include crowding, lack of san tation occurred in the absence of specified exposures. In the interest and garbage disposal, Indoor air pollution, and vector- of scientific caution, the study authors have interpreted their breeding grounds (156). (See Table 1.5.) Their conclusion: 30 analysis conservatively, so these estimates are more likely to percent, 20 percent of which could be averted by modest im- be underestimates than overestimates( 152). provements in the household environment (157). Most recently, a 1997 study by WHO, Health anri Environ- $v At the top of the list is malnutrition, which, estimates re- mzentin SustainableDevelopment, estimated the prooortion of veal, is responsible for 11.7 percent of total deaths and 15-9 major disease categories that could be attributed to environ- percent of total DALYs. In sub-Saharan Africa, however, it mental factors. (The WHO study defines the environmental accounts for a staggering 33 percent ofthe global burden of contribution as the specific fraction of disease occurrence disease; in India, 22 percent (153). As described earlier, mal- that could be prevented through "feasible environmental in- nutrition is not an environmental problemper se but inter- terventions" (158).) WHO estimated that althoughd virtually acts strongly with environmental factors to cause disease. all cases have an environmental cause, 90 percent of diarrheal a The combination ofpoor water supply, sanitation, and per- diseases could be averted through feasible environmnental in- sonal and domestic hygiene is the next biggest risk factor, terventions (159). The same study attributes the likely envi- accountingfor 5.3 percent oftotal deaths and 6.8 percent of ronmental contribution to malaria also at 90 perceait, to ARI 34 World Resources 1998-99 LINKING ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH lg~ ~ - I at 60 percent, and to cancer at 25 percent. All told, WHO esti- health problems, while development policies designed with mates that environmental factors-which in their definition health impacts in mind can lead to positive outcomes. includes occupational exposures-account for 23 percent of Chapter 3 explores environmental interventions that can the global burden of disease. prevent exposure to disease-causing agents in the first place, whether they are feces, mosquitoes, or particulates in the air. Preventing illness reduces suffering, improves economic out- Implications for Prevention looks, and can save enormous costs for health care. Such an Whatever the exact contribution of environmental factors to approach encompasses a range of interventions, from simple disease, reducing environmental threats will clearly improve to complex. Strategies for preventing infectious diseases, for human health and well-being. In taking these actions, how- instance, vary from providing basic hygiene education and ever, policvmakers must make decisions armed with only im- bed nets to supplying clean water and sanitation. Efforts to re- perfect information. The speed and magnitude of environ- duce the toll of chronic disease related to air pollution range mental changes are great, dollars are few, and development fromdistributingimprovedstovestoadoptingbetternational will not stop until more research takes place. Poverty and in- energy choices. Phasing lead out of gasoline could prevent come disparity continue to plague many countries and mil- brain damage, improving the quality of life for manv thou- lions of people. Needed development, however, may bring not sands of individuals and boosting societal productivit-y only increased incomes but also unintended negative health Preventive actions focused on environmental factors are consequences. Choosing the safest path through the jungle of not a remedy for global health problems, nor can they substi- choices is not obvious nor easy. tute for research on and treatment of disease. But because they Chapter 2 traces in detail how agricultural intensification, eliminate harmful exposures rather than leave society to deal industrialization, and rising energy use may create conditions with the consequences, they are a vital component of any real- that increase both acute and chronic health problems. Exam- istic strategy for achieving development that improves the ples illustrate how poor development choices can exacerbate quality of life. World Resources 1998-99 35 Changing k { Environments, Changing Health - , -\' F -i C 5 hapter 1 describes in detail the environments By the year 2015, commercial energy use in these two coun- role as an important determinant of human tries alone is expected to more than double as the result of health. Given this role, changes in the envi- population growth, economic growth, and consumer de- ronment will influence health in the future, mand for modern products, although per capita energy con- for better or for worse. The three trends dis- sumption will remain well below that of developed nations (3). cussed i chapter-the intensification of agriculture, in- The magnitude of air pollutants and greenhouse gases emit- dustrialization, and rising energy use-stand out in terms of ted by these countries will depend largely on how energy de- their profound impact on the physical environment and their mand is met, with attendant consequences for human and in- enormous potential to influence human health. While each deed for planetary health. Foresight can help development trend has the potential to bring about dramatic health im- experts identify preventive steps that could improve human provements, each also shares the potential to degrade the health as well as protect the environment; some of these inter- physical environment and increase human exposure to envi- ventions are identified in Chapter 3. ronmental threats through pollutant emissions and resource To understand these three trends, one must first under- depletion. stand the context in which they are occurring. All three trends Predicting the global environmental changes that will occur discussed in this chapter are influenced by the following driv- because of human-directed activities in the future-and how ing forces: population growth and urbanization, economic these changes might affect human health-is difficult at best. growth and consumption, and the persistence of poverty and Even the most sophisticated models describing future inter- economic inequalities (4). actions among environmental, economic, technical, and so- Population growth is a fundamental force underlying all cial developments are simplistic and often misleading (1). In others. On a positive note, recent estimates suggest that popu- addition, these three trends are interdependent (2). Looking lation growth rates are slowing faster than demographers had forward is necessary, however, because doing so enables one projected. The number of people added to the world's popula- to anticipate where future health problems might arise. Future tion each year is thought to have dropped from a peak of 87 energy demand in China and India provides an apt example. million in the late 1980s to 81 million in the first half of the World Resources 1998-99 37 * .I. . * I The liberalization of both trade and investment across bor- FIGURE 21 Gross World Product, 1970-95 ders has helped fuel this economic growth (8). Global trade rose an estimated 45 percent in nominal terms between 1990 (tr,taRs dof U992 S dolars and 1995, from US$4,345 billion to US$6,255 billion (9). Lib- 30 ------- ----- eralization has also greatly increased the flow of private capi- tal into developing countries. In 1995 alone, the flow of net 25.--.-.---- ... --_- _ ._ ._ ..... _ _ _ _ _ 2 private capital into low-income and middle-incDme coun- tries totaled about US$180 billion, roughly 4 times more than 2D0- - - -------- -- -- ....... -- ----- ---.... --/___.. .. in 1990 (1o). Official flows amounted to just US$64 billion in 1995. The nature of private capital flows is also changing, -- ------ moving away from investments in emerging stock markets and toward direct investments in projects such as factories, lo . / ..... ._. .. ..... ...... . . _ .... .._ power plants, and roads (It). Between 1988 and 1995, multi- national corporations invested nearly US$422 billion in new factories, supplies, and equipment in developing countries 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 (12). Such economic growth creaLes resources and opportunities for improving the quality of living conditions, which, of Source: The World Bank, WorldDevelopmentirdicators 1997, on CD-ROM (The World Bank, course, is essential to good health (13). Indeed, global health Wlashington, D.C., 1997). conditions have improved more in the past half century than in all of previous history (14), demonstrated through rising 1990s; demographers project that the wvorld's population in life expectancv and declining child mortalitv rates (15). Yet, 2050 will reach about 9.4 billion people (5). this generally positive picture is still colored by regional dif- The global economy is burgeoning. In the past three dec- ferences and growing disparities between rich and poor. In ades, global GDP has expanded from roughly US$9.4 trillion some developing countries, continued population growth to more than US$25 trillion. (See Figure 2.1.) Average per andpovertyhaveimpededeconomicandsocialprc.gress.The capita incomes have more than tripled (6). Although the de- most rapid population growth rates are concentrated in the veloped countries account for the lion's share of this wealth, poorest regions. Africa continues to have the highest popula- economic growth in developing countries has nonetheless tion growth rate (2.7 percent),well above the average rate (1.8 been enormous, with per capita incomes growing nearly 3.5 percent) for developing countries as a whole (16). percent per year during this period (7). This growth is ex- As Chapter 1 describes in detail, poverty and inequity are pected to continue well into the middle of the next century two critical determinants of human health. Despite economic progress, it appears that the health problems linked with eco- I; X :;; X 4f - Inomic stagnation, poverty, and environmental degradation F[G.U Rt 2.2 Numbe o Persons Ltvng on Less Tha One Dclar Per a ay 1987 93 are likely to continue well into the future. Global economic growth has failed to alleviate poverty for a large share of the world's people. Despite an overall rising global economy, the SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA absolute scale of poverty continues to grow. Large parts of the SOUTHASIA developing world have been bypassed by the past three dec- MIDDLE EASTAND NORTHAFR CA OTAL ,313,9 ades of economic growth. Three fourths of the least (leveloped LAT N AMERICAAND THE CARI3BEAN =TA. countries, home to more than 400 million people, suffered ENSTEA52FNEU590AND. N5RASf1 E 1OTALI.2271 r negative economic growth during the 1980s and early 1990s 1987 (17). ,,,,BER 0. P.OB,IN ;1ON~ ;*,, A recent analysis by the World Bank found that, although (N UMBER OF POO R,INMIL IONS) the percentage of poor decreased slightly between 1987 and 1993, approximately 1.3 billion people in the developing world still subsisted on less than US$1 a day in 199.3. Indeed, Source: The World Bank,PovertyReduction onethe WorldgRonk.Progressaid Challengesotr the in each of the world regions except East Asia, the absolute 19905 (Tlie WolId n k,VaWshirigtor, D. C., 1996), p.4. number of poor increased (18). (See Figure 2.2.) Poverty con- N ote: Ba s ed o n U S pe r d ay u s rng p urc has in g powve r p ar ty tinues to be concentrated in rural areas. Some 30 mi lion peo- ple in developing countries are landless, and an additional 138 38 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH =-_ I I t Ii * MI regions (26). Within many countries, income is also distrib- ~02E 2 3 Urban Popu at on Grow,th . 950-2030 uted inequitably. Table 2.1 shows how the poor compare in Jvan papular W i income with the national average income of several countries 6,00 - ----- (27). The differences are striking: in Brazil, the poor earn only one tenth as much as the average person. ,00-- -/ --As poverty continues to degrade health in much of the 4,C00 - 9 world, serious concerns have arisen over the long-term viabil- ity of consumption patterns in the developed world, which are now appearing in the rapidly industrializing countries. Paral- 2,000 -, . - leling growth of the world economy, resource and material consumption has accelerated at a rate unprecedented in hu- 1,005 man history. Over the past 45 years, the richest one fifth of the .ooo _ l _ world's population has doubled its per capita consumption of 01950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 energy, meat, timber, steel, and copper, and quadrupled its rate of car ownership. By contrast, the per capita consumption of the poorest one fifth has barely increased (28). One byprod- _NOR I,AMEAC, ICA OCEANS il SOUTH AND CENTAALAMERI(A uct of this increased consumption is that developed countries Source: United Nations Population Division. account for about 70 percent of carbon dioxide (CO.) emis- Source: Un ted Nations Popslaiion Division. sions (29) with less than 20 percent of global population. New technologies can help to increase the efficiency of re- million are near-landless; these numbers appear to be grow- sources, delivering equivalent or improved services while ing, especially in South Asia (19). substantially reducing environmental and health burdens Many experts believe that urban poverty will soon overtake (30). This was the case in the 1970s and 1980s, when energy in- rural poverty in significance. By the year 2025,5 billion people tensity (the energy required per unit of economic output) fell are expected to live in urban areas, 4 billion of them in cities in by about 2 percent per year. It has since leveled off (3i). How- the developing world. The highest rates of urban growth are ever, even with conservation efforts and more efficient tech- in Africa and Southeast Asia. (See Figure 2.3.) In general, ur- nologies, some believe that if long-term environmental pro- banization brings improvements in human health because of tection is to be achieved, consumption patterns themselves improved access to education and health services in cities (20). will need to change. In urban areas of Indonesia, for instance, the mortality rate of children younger than age 5 is 84 per 1,000 live births, as com- _ pared with 116 in rural areas (21). TALE 2.1 Per Capita Income ofthe Poorest 20 Percent, 1993l But statistical averages hide the health impacts associated with poverty in urban slums or squatter shantytowns where COUNTRYAVERAGE PER CAPITA PER CAPITA INCOME OF THE I COUNTRY ~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~INCOME POOREST 20 PERCENT growing proportions-up to one half in some cases-of ur- United States 24,240 5,814 ban populations live. Estimates suggest that, depending on Japan 20,850 9,070 the definition used, between 25 and 50 percent of the world's The Netherlands 17,330 7,105 urban population now live in extreme poverty (22) (23). While United Kingdom 17,210 3,958 the exact definitions of urban poverty vary, inadequate hous- Republic of Korea 9,630 3,563 ing-lacking water, sanitation, or garbage collection-is a Chile 8,400 1,386 primary characteristic or urban poverty (24). The links be- Hungary 6,050 3,297 tween urban poverty and health are illustrated by the resur- Brazil 5,370 564 gence of tuberculosis among the poor in cities of the devel- Guatemala 3,350 352 oped world as well. (See Box 2.1.) Indonesia 1,400 357 In addition, the gap between rich and poor is widening, India 1,220 537 both within and among countries (25). In 1960, the richest 20 Bangladesh 1,290 613 percent of the world's population controlled 70 percent of Nepal 1,020 464 global income. By 1993, they controlled 85 percent, and the Guinea-Bissau 840 88 share of the poorest 20 percent had decreased from 2.3 to 1.4 Tanzania 580 70 percent. These disparities are likely to increase for the next Source: Unsited Nations Developmem Programme UNDO),HunanDevelopmertqeporr 1996 IJNDP, Newv Yark, 1 996:, p. 13. half century-even if real economic growth rates in most de- Note:a. Values,are in 1993 lnternateonal dollars using purchasing power parity veloping regions significantly outpace those in the developed World Resources 1998-99 39 Against this backdrop, this chapter explores the health con- examines the ways in which all three of these trends can in- sequences of the intensification of agriculture, industrializa- crease exposure to hazards in the environment-to both bio- tion, and rising energy use, paying particular attention to logical and chemical agents. Strategies for preventing some of their effects on the poor in developing countries. The chapter these harmful exposures are explored in Chapter 3. Box 2.1 Tuberculosis and Urban Inequality .....................I............................................................................................................................................................................................................... In the early 1600s, the development of cities D.C., and New York remain high (it). In Russia, such as chemotherapy and immunization, and the spread of poverty in feudal Europe the number of TB cases climbed 42 percent be- make TB one of the highest priorities for ac- produced the necessary environmental tween 1991 and 1994, and the death rate soared tion in international health (18). changes to set off the first tuberculosis (TB) 87 percent in the same 3-year period. After expe- epidemic in humans. Dubbed "the Great riencing nearly 40 years of a steady decline of TB, References and Notes White Plague:' TB ran rampant in the Eastern Europe now shows an increase in TB I. Joseph H. Bates and William W. Stead, "The crowded, unsanitary slums of early industrial deaths, which is linked to the impact of recent History of Tuberculosis as a Globa] Epidemic;' cities (1). At its apex in the 17th and 18th Cen- political, social, and economic changes that have Medical Clinics of North An,erica, Vol. 77, No. 6 turies, tuberculosis took the lives of one in five dramaticallv reduced living standards and in- (November 1993), p. 1207. 2. NMichael D. Iseman, "Evolution of Drug- adults (2). comes ( 11). Resistant Tuberculosis: A Tale of Tsvo Species" Contrary to the belief that tuberculosis is a NMultidrug resistance has become an important Proceedings of the National Acadermy of Sciences, disease of the past, nearly 3 million people died factor, impeding the effort to control and prevent Vol. 91 (March 1994), p. 2428. of TB in 1995 (3). Although the disease appears to TB in large urban centers. New York, London, 3. World Health Organization (WHO), "TB have leveled off in 1996 as the result of concerted Milan, Paris, Atlanta, Chicago, as well as cities Deaths Reach Historic Levels:' March 21, 1996 government action, and a control program throughout the developing world-especially in (\NWHO press regease no. 22)W launched by the World Health Organization Asia-have reported increasing numbers of Risk: WHO Report on the Tuberculosis Epidemic (WHO), the TB epidemic is expected to continue multidrug-resistant TB cases (12). In some coun- 1996, (WHO, Geneva, 1996), p. 1. to pose a serious threat to human health, espe- tries of the developing world where resources are 5. Ibid., pp. 2-3,12. cially in developing countries. Global implemen- limited, it is estimated that drug-resistant rates 6. Carolyn Stephens, "Healthy Cities cr Unhealthy tation of WHO's strategy could reduce these exceed 30 percent (13). The implications are pro- Island? The Health and Social Impl cations of Urban Inequality;' Env'ironment ane,'Urbaniza- numbers dramatically, but without interventions, found: for individuals infected with multidrug- tioUn, Vol.a, No. 2 (October 19961, p 23. as many as 90 million people could contract TB resistant strains of TB, the fatality rate is greater 7. Donald Enarson, Jie-Siu Wang, and lohn M. in the next 10 years (4). than 50 percent. In addition, the average cost of Dirks. "The Incidence of Active Tuberculosis in The global emergence of HIV/AIDS has been treating an antibiotic-susceptible case of TB in a Large Urban Area,' The AmTerican JouLrnal of an important factor driving the prevalence of TB, New York City is around US$2,000, but for a Epidemiology, Vol. 129, No. 6 (June 989), p. especially in Africa and Asia. The HIV virus multidrug-resistant case, the number soars to cit. 4. 8. Op.ci.4 damages the immune system and accelerates the around US$250,000, placing effective treatment 9. WAorld Health Organization (WHO, TB: A speed at which tuberculosis progresses from a well beyond the reach of impoverished nations Global Emtergency, OHO Report on ihe TB Epi- harmless infection to a life-threatening condition. and people (14). demzic (WHO, Geneva, 1994), p. 2. About one third of the estimated I million The social and economic costs of TB are enor- 10. "Tuberculosis Morbidity-United States, 1996,' AIDS-related deaths in 1995 were the result of a mous, particularly because the incidence of TB is Morbidity and M4iortality Weekly Report, Vol. 46, secondary infection with TB 13). concentrated in adults between the ages of 15 and No. 30 (1997), p. 695. I1. Mary E. WVilson, "Disease in Evolution: Intro- Increasing poverty and homelessness in cities 54, who are the primary producers and wage duction' Disease ins Evolution: Globe I Changes also seems to be linked with the reemergence of earners. Of avoidable adult deaths globally, 26 and Emnergence of Infectious Diseases, Annals of TB (6). Associations among tuberculosis, urbani- percent may be due to TB (15). One estimate proj- the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 740, zation, and poverty have been noted in studies ects that the Thai economy will lose the equiva- Mlary E .Wilson, Richard Levins, and Andrew from countries as diverse as Denmark and Puerto lent of USS7 billion by the year 2015, solely to TB Newmdork, 1994), p. 8 A Rico (7). It is clear that growing numbers of poor, sickness and death. In India, the estimated loss of 12. Op. cit. 3. malnourished people living in unhygienic, over- economic output due to TB deaths reaches more 13. Op. cit. 2. crowded conditions can facilitate the transmis- than US$370 million every year (16). Overall, the 14. WVorld Health Organization (WHO),The TB sion of TB. In poor neighborhoods, the combina- death or disability of an adult wage earner can se- Epidemic is Gettitng ttbrse' (WHO, (Geneva, tion of overcrowding and poor ventilation often verely affect the ability of a household to survive, 1995), available online at: means that one person with TB, if not properly especially because TB tends to strike households http:// ws'vAw.who.ch/programmes/gtb/tbrep-95/ wsorse.htn (December 11, 1997). treated, will transmit the infection to between 10 least able to cope without those earnings. Studies 15. Christopher Mturray, Karel Styblo, arid Annik to 15 other people each year (8). have shown that in households where one parent Rouillon, "Tuberculosis,' in Disease coterol Pri- In the United States, the number of tuberculo- suffers from a serious debilitating disease, such as orities in Developitng Countries, Dean T. Jamison sis cases increased by20 percent between 1985 TB, children are 2.5 times more likelyto be se- etal., eds. (Oxford University Press, Oxford and and 1992, with most of these cases concentrated verely malnourished (7). The combination of the New York, 1993), p. 245. in inner cities (9). Since then, the numbers have enormous burden of TB as well as the inconsis- 16 Op. ciL. , p. 214. dropped, but rates in cities such as Washington, tent availability of cost-effective interventions, 17. Op. cit. 15, p. 245. drWoped, s18. Op. 1ci p. 256. 40 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH Intensification of Agriculture Throughout human history, increasing population growth , and changing dietarypatterns have resulted in more and more 9 -&i =A- - land moving from forest or grasslands into agricultural pro- duction. Over the past few decades, the greatly increased use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, plus changes in irriga- ¾ ; tion practices and improved seed stock, have enabled land al- ready under cultivation to be farmed much more intensively. Given current population trends-United Nations' projec- tions anticipate as much as a doubling of world population by , 2050 (32)-substantial intensification of agriculture on hec- tares now in cropland is certain, and conversion of more land to agricultural use is likely especially in developing countries. Both actions will have far-reaching implications for environ- mental quality and human health. 4-- Over the long term, increased food production is a prereq- uisite for a healthy world population. More people will be i- seeking better diets; and as incomes rise, dietary patterns shift - - i to include more animal protein. The methods used to grow this additional food, as well as the nature and extent of land l conversion, will determine whether significant negative health impacts will arise. Health concerns related to agricultural intensification stem from increased exposure to toxic substances such as pesti- - cides, a higher incidence of infectious diseases associated with expansion of irrigation systems and the use of wastewa- T ' ter for irrigation, and increased human exposure to infectious IF agents as tropical forests and other ecosystems are converted - _ e to agricultural land. Agricultural intensification could under- mine health in less direct ways as well. If practices now com- chemicals at the heart of commercial pesticide formulations, mon in some parts of the world persist or spread, basic agri- with a market value of US$38 billion (34). Roughly 85 percent cultural resources could be degraded through soil erosion, of this consumption was used in agriculture (35). loss of soil fertility, loss of genetic variability in crops, and de- About three quarters of pesticide use occurs in developed pletion of water resources. This would eventually deplete agri- countries, mostly in North America, Western Europe, and Ja- culture's global productive capacity. pan, where high pesticide application rates are common. In these regions, the pesticide market is dominated by herbi- cides, which tend to have lower acute, or immediate, toxicity Chemical Inputs than insecticides. In most developing nations, the situation is Synthetic fertilizers and pesticides have played a dominant reversed, and insecticide use predominates, with a corre- role in agricultural intensification in industrialized and devel- spondingly higher level of acute risk. Although the volume of oping countries for decades. Although both have become pesticides that developing countries use is small relative to widely distributed in the environment, most of the concern that in developed countries, it is nonetheless substantial and is related to the health consequences of agriculture now centers growing steadily. (See Figures 2.4 and 2.5.) Pesticide use is around pesticides. particularly intense where such export crops as cotton, ba- nanas, coffee, vegetables, and flowers predominate. (See Box WORLD PESTICIDE USE 2.2.) By any measure-volume used, hectares treated, or market Insecticides of choice in the developing world are often value-global pesticide use is large and still climbing (33). In older, broad-spectrum compounds belonging to the organo- 1995, world pesticide consumption reached 2.6 million met- phosphate and carbamate classes-chemical families noted ric tons of so-called active ingredients, the biologically active for their acute toxicity. These products are popular partly be- World Resources 1998-99 41 FIGURE 2.4 Percentage of Global Pesticioe Sales, by Region, 1994 FIGURE 2.5 Pesticide Sales by Regjon,1983-93 (b 11 on U.S.dollars) AFRICA 265 ASA 16% EASTERN EUROPE 2% - 7 ' WESTERN LATIN EUROPE 25% AMERICA 13% 6 U-JAPAN 12% U DEVELOPED REGION, I DEYELOPNNGREGlON, Z NORTH AMER CA 35%, Source: "Upturn JR World AgrochRmical Sales Un 1994,"AGROWV V/EHldCToppPotectinEIU ewUNo. NORTH LATIN WESTERN EASTERN APRICA/ ASIA 238 (August 1995),p.20. AMERICA AMERICA EUROPE EUROPE MIDDIEUAST OCEANIA - 1983 Alobal Sales, US$20.5 billion cause they are no longer under patent protection and thus are 1993 GlobalSales,UU$27.5billion considerably cheaper than the newer, still-proprietary pesti- cides increasingly used in more developed countries. Or- Source:h FreedoniaGroup,WorUdPestJcAdesReportNo.636(TheFreedoniaGoup,CIeveland, ganochlorine insecticides such as DDT, lindane, and Ohio,1994 __scitedinAG_OW__.225(1995)_p.16. toxaphene are still widely used in the developing world, al- though their danger to humans and animals is well known. diminish in time. These acute effects-known as soisonings Many developed countries have banned or severely restricted or intoxications-run from mild headaches and flu-like the most toxic of these compounds but continue to manufac- symptoms, to skin rashes, to blurred vision, and other neuro- ture and sell them. Trade in restricted and banned pesticides logical disorders (37). For example, a fieldworker who gets a is almost impossible to track, but customs records for ship- few drops of methyl parathion on his skin might experience ments from the United States show that at least 108,000 metric severe sweating, headache, and nausea, and even an inability tons of banned, restricted, or discontinued pesticides were ex- to walk. Other acute responses include chemical burns, pa- ported from U.S. ports from 1992 to 1994 (36). (See Table 2.2.) ralysis, blindness, and even death (38). A critical policy issue is to determine how to remove these Air temperature and the exposed person's general health older pesticides from circulation and use. (See Chapter 3.) condition influence the severity of these symptoms. Toxic re- actions may be worse for those suffering from poor nutrition PESTICIDE HEALTH RISKS or dehydration, and warmer temperatures also may increase Global use of pesticides creates substantial health impacts in the toxic effects. These factors mean that field laborers work- all parts of the world, although the exact toll is difficult to pin- ing in the heat may be more susceptible to poisoning (39). point,givenboththevariouschemicalsandtypesofexposure. The majority of pesticide poisonings and deaths occur in In short, not all pesticides are equally risky, and not all people the developing world, although far greater quantities of pesti- are equally at risk. Effects can be divided broadly into two cides are used in the developed world. Reasons for this include categories: acute effects, which appear immediately or very the following: developing countries have a higher proportion soon after exposure; and chronic effects, which may manifest of the populace involved in agriculture, they have poorer pes- themselves many years later and whose origins are often diffi- ticide handling practices, they commonly use unsafe equip- cult to trace. ment (such as leaky backpack sprayers), and they generally employ more toxic pesticides than those used in developed Acute Effects countries. A 1991 survey of farmworkers involved in export Exposure to pesticides can lead to an array of acute effects, de- agriculture in Ecuador revealed that more than 60 percent of pending on the pesticide's toxicity and the dose absorbed by farmworkers participating in the study suffered from one or the body. For pesticides with high acute toxicity, exposure can more symptoms of acute pesticide poisoning suCi as head- produce symptoms within minutes or hours, most of which aches, allergies, dizziness, dermatitis, or blurred vision (40). 42 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH Box 2.2 Bittersweet Harvest: Pesticide Exposures In Latin America's Flower Export Trade The year-round demand in North America for captan, which are both suspected carcinogens, cent of the workers interviewed received fresh vegetables, fruits, and flowers has fueled and herbicides such as paraquat, which is ex- company-paid medical examinations. a booming export trade from Latin America tremely toxic through any route of exposure, In Colombia, conditions are similar, yet and the Caribbean. But this economic success whether absorbed through the skin, inhaled, or probably more serious, partly because the has come with a price: serious pesticide expo- inadvertently ingested. scale is multiplied. A study of some 8,900 sure for many workers who raise and handle The danger of exposure to these substances is workers on flower plantations near Bogota these export crops. There is no better example compounded by the type of setting in which they showed that they were exposed to 127 different of this than the flower industry, where re- are applied and the frequency of application. types of pesticides. An estimated 20 percent of markably high amounts of pesticides are ap- Manv of these chemicals are applied dailv in the these pesticides were banned or unregistered in the United Kingdom or the United States. plied, usually inside greenhouses. warm, poorly ventilated greenhouses, where high Rose and carnation producers in Ecuador, for levels of toxic vapors can accumulate, and contact The surveyed workers suffered a variety of example, use an average of six fungicides, four in- with pesticide residues on treated plants is hard acute effects: nearly two thirds of the workers secticides, and three nematicides (nematode poi- to avoid, suffered from headaches, nausea, impaired vi- sons), along with several herbicides. Many of W a p sion, conjunctivitis, rashes, and asthma. They these compounds are applied frequently, some posomen are particunarl subject to pestrcide also suffered serious chronic effects, such as daily, in order to chemically "sanitize" the green- ness because they often make up as much as 70i- stillbirths, miscarriages, and respiratory and houses, which are particularlvvulnerable to pest 80 pcce the ofoe, In addition to neuogi prbl or dseas epdemis Mreovr, incefloversare 80 pcrcent of thc labor force. In addition to the Pressures to maximize output and speed or disease epidemics. Moreover, since flowers are direct threat of pesticide exposure, these workers' exacerbate these problemsi encouraging man- pesticide residues, and producers thus have little health is also jeopardized by inadequate housing. agement to push workers beyond the limits of incentive to minimize their use of pesticides. poor diet, and the lack of public health services safety. Inadequate or below-minimum wages, and education. poor living conditions, and lack of respect for The flower industrs' in Ecuador-which has A study of 80 women working on flower plan- laws governing maternity leave are also com- centrated in the highland region near Quito and tations (and other export crop farms) in Ecuador mon. Workers' attempts to organize and assert the airport. Plantations have a sophisticated in- revealed heavy exposure to organophosphates their rights have generally been met with rep- frastructure that includes complex irrigation and and carbamates, two classes of pesticides well rimands and dismissals, because replacement drainage systems and electricitv for night light- known for their acute toxicity. The women com- workers are easy to find. ing. Production cycles, which are verv labor in- plained of blurred vision, intolerance to light, Some flower farms have improved occupa- tensive, are planned, timed, and executed to meet headaches, and nausea, all typical symptoms of tional health conditions, partly in response to the high-qualitv standards and periodic demand organophosphate and carbamate poisoning. Of- negative media attention or pressure from of the North American market, with exports ten, workers were expected to continue their workers and environmental groups. In both peaking during U.S. holidavs like Valentine's Dav tasks while pesticides were being applied near Ecuador and Colombia, several flower compa- and Mother's Day. them-a serious breach of safe practices. nies now take workers' blood samples to check Colombian and Costa Rican flower planta- The majority of women workers in this study for pesticide exposure, and some have im- tions show similar patterns. In Costa Rica, for in- received no training or information on ' proved medical services and provide masks stance, greenhouse workers treat flowers and or- use and the need for protective equipment. Some and gloves for workers. However, manv pro- namental plants with extremely toxic insecticides 40 percent of the workers interviewed received minimal stepsn and the industry has yet te and nematicides that include methyl parathion, no protective equipment, and the rest only occa- make worker safetv a cle terbufos, and aldicarb-all compounds whose sionally received gloves, boots, and, rarely, m ar priority. use in North America is restricted because of the glasses. Even wrhen they were given protective Adapted from: Lori Ann Thrupp, B!ttersweet har- health hazard they pose. A wide array of other equipment, it was either inadequate or poorly vesnts fr r GCbal Supermarkets Chinlenges in L-tcn pesticides with known health risks is also used. maintained. Health and hygiene facilities on Amercu's Ag.rculturcl Export Boom ('orld Re- These include fungicides such as mancozeb and these plantations were also deficient. Only 5 per- sources nrstitte,'Vashngton, D.C, 99) More typical estimates for the percentage of workers experi- However, farm managers often fail to make such equipment encing acute pesticide toxicity range from 7 to 13 percent available or do not insist that it be used. A complicating factor (41)(42). is that field conditions may be too hot for protective clothing A high percentage of pesticide poisonings worldwide is at- to be worn comfortably. Even in developed countries where tributable to two particularly toxic classes of pesticides: or- equipment is more routinely provided, studies show that ganophosphates and carbamates, many of which are banned farmers and farm laborers do not diligently use protective or restricted in the developed countries. The toxicity of these clothing, especially in hot weather (47). compounds stems from their ability to inhibit the action of Although occupational exposures account for the majority cholinesterase, an enzyme essential to nervous system func- of serious pesticide poisonings, workers are not the only ones tioning (43)(44)(45). at risk from acute pesticide effects. People who live adjacent to Worker exposure can often be prevented if proper applica- farms or plantations can also experience significant pesticide tion methods are used and protective clothing is worn (46). exposures fromwind drift from aerial spraying,from volatili- World Resources 1998-99 43 *1 symptoms including headache, nausea, or diarrhea. None of TABLE 2.2 Bannec and Restricted Pesticide Exports From United States Ports, the affected workers sought medical treatment (54). 1992-94 (metrictons) Chronic Effects CATEGORY 1992 1993 1994 TOTAL The acute effects of pesticide exposure are relatively well un- Banned, 2,063 1,708 3,008 6,779 derstood. By contrast, much more uncertainty surrounds suspended, or long-term or chronic effects, especially those believed to arise Severely 3,361 4,136 2,612 10,109 from low-level exposures to pesticide residues in food or wa- restricted ter. There is little dispute regarding the nature of some chronic Restricted 26,096 32,066 32,732 90,894 effects, such as those that follow high-dose exposures. Several use Total 31,520 37,910 38,352 107,782 studies have shown that many people who experience acute Source: Foundation for Advarcements n Science and Education (FASE), FASE Research Report pesticide poisoning from organophosphates later suffer neu- (Spring 1996).p.4. rological damage. Symptoms of this problem include weak- ness, tingling, or even paralysis in the legs due to dieback of zation and redeposition of applied pesticides, from use of some nerve endings, and reduced memory and attentiveness empty pesticide containers as drinking water storage, or from (55)(56). Because organophosphates may account for as many contamination from spills or the dumping of pesticide wastes. as 70 percent of occupational pesticide poisonings, the One study in Nicaragua found that residents living next to number of people suffering such neurological damage could cotton fields regularly spraved with insecticides had de- be substantial (57). pressed cholinesterase levels-an effect typical of exposure to Chronic dermatitis, which includes rashes and enhanced organophosphate or carbamate pesticides (48). Children liv- sun sensitivity, is one of the most common effects of pesticide ing near treated fields are especially vulnerable, because they exposure seen in farmworkers (58). In California, where agri- may spend considerable time playing among contaminated cultural pesticide use is substantial, a 1990 study found that soil or plants, or they may help out in the field work. In Co- dermatitis accounted for one third of reported pesticide- lombia, 18 percent of recorded pesticide poisonings from related illnesses (59). 1978 to 1989 occurred in children vounger than age 14 (49). Pesticide exposure may cause reproductive danmage as well. Male sterilitv has been definitely linked to heavy exposure to The number of people exposed to damagmng doses of pesti-I .. .. .......... dibromochloropropane (DBCP), once commoiily used to cides through their association with agriculture is not clear, domrol oprpn (DBCP), e onc comoly susesto because only the most serious poisoning incidents are usually control nematodes. Several epidemiological studLies suggest that exposure to certain pesticides-particularly the herbi- recorded. One estimate-admittedl} uncertain-shows that recorded . One estimate-admittedly uncereop cide 2,4-D, which is widelv used on crops, pastureland, between 50 million and I100 millilon people in the developing .''' between 50 miliontandi0 miion epeole indthe rights-of-way, and lawns-heightens the risk of birth defects. world may receive lntensivexpesticid exposure, and a er However, other studies of 2,4-D have not producet conclusive 500 million receive lower exposures; these exposures may re- fnig 616) sult in some 3.5 million to 5 million acute pesticide poison- Rcnt ipgs p6or b lc i s ingsperyear wih a uchlar,Cr umbr ofpeole sffeing Recently, pesticide exposure has been implicatei in cases of ins per year, wth a much larger number of people sufferin immune system suppression as well (62). A compromised im- from subacute effects (50) . mune system makes it more difficult to fight off infectious dis- Even in developed countries where regulations are stricter eases, parasites, or tumors, and could increase the toll these and protective gear more available, occupational exposures threats exact on one's health. This combination could be par- can be significant. In the UTnited States, the U.S. Environmen- ticularly significant in developing countries, where the popu- tal Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) estimates that nearly 4 mil- lation's exposures to both pesticides and infectious agents lion people in the agricultural workforce are at risk of signifi- maybe high and their immune systems may alrea-y be com- cant occupational exposure because they handle or apply promised by other factors. (See Box 2.3.) pesticides, and that these exposures result in about 10,000 to Of all the possible health impacts from pesticide exposure, 20,000 pesticide poisonings medically treated per year cancer has been the most frequent focus of attention and con- (51)(52). U.S. EPA estimates that at least that number of cases troversy. Many pesticides show cancer-causing potential in probably goes untreated, because studies show that exposure animals; many other pesticides give no indication of causing is greatly underreported (53). For example, a study of 98 Ne- cancer. Central questions in the debate about pest icides' role braska farmers and pesticide applicators who routinely han- in the development of cancer relate to the level of exposure dled organophosphate pesticides found that 30 percent of the and dose required to affect cells, the possible synergistic ef- group had reduced levels of blood cholinesterase, an indica- fects of chemicals in the body, the manner in whiclh chemicals tion of significant exposure, and 22 percent actually exhibited accumulate in body tissue, the length of time they remain in 44 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH -^ar --' mnan t,' Box 2.3 Pesticides and the Immune System: The Public Health Risks ................................ ......................................................I......................................... . . . . . . . ... ........................................ . . . . . . . . . . . I .. . . . . .. . . . . . Health concerns about pesticides have tended mune system health-decreased by as much as cially in agricultural communities where ex- to focus on their potential to act as acute poi- two thirds from baseline levels and returned to posure is widespread, is significant. sons or their ability to cause cancer. But pesti- normal only after pesticide exposure ceased. As with other pesticide health risks, the cides may pose other important risks as well. Epidemiologists in the former Soviet Union dangers of immune suppression from pesti- Recently, evidence has accumulated that many have long observed that T-cell counts and func- cide exposure may be greatest in parts of the commonly used pesticides canl suppress the tions are suppressed after pesticide exposure. developing world and in countries of the normal response of the human immune system For example, residents of agricultural districts former Soviet Union, where much larger frac- to invading viruses, bacteria, parasites, and tu- in southern Russia where pesticide use was sub- tions of the populace still live in the country- mors. The immune system is the bodys pri- stantial had lower T-cell counts than control side and work on farms. In these developing mary line of defense against disease agents, so groups in the general population, and the regions, pesticide use. . , - .1, ia. yet weakening its response could increase the toll of former group also had higher rates of infectious pesticide regulations and handling practices disease. diseases. are often grossly inadequate. Laboratory studies show that a variety of or- Likewise, in Moldova-also part of the former To make matters worse, living conditions ganochlorine, organophosphane, carbamate. and Soviet Union-teenagers in I ! .. I ., pesti- for many people in the developing world put metal-based pesticides (such as those based on cide application levels were greatest exhibited them at especially high risk for immune sup- arsenic, copper, or mercury) can suppress the im- rates of infections of the respiratory and digestive pression. Their immune responses are already mune system of mammals. Because substances tracts several times higher than teenagers from weakened by widespread malnutrition; at the toxic to other mammals are usually toxic to hu- areas of lower pesticide use. From the 1 960s same time, contaminated water supplies, lack mans (since human immune systems are struc- through the 1980s, per hectare pesticide applica- of sanitation, and poor housing conditions ex- tured similarly to mammals), these laboratory tion rates in farming regions in central and pose them to more disease agents. The result is studies indicate the kinds of immunosuppression southern Moldova were almost 20 times the particularly high fatality rates due to common humans may also experience. world average. diseases-measles and whooping cough, for Such tests provide an abundance of evidence. Immune suppression from pesticide exposure example-diseases from which most patients For example, exposure to the organochlorines ald- may also play a role in the development of some m wealthy countrpes recover. rin and dieldrin reduces mouse resistance to viral cancers. As a group, farmers face higher risks pr n thesedothe im ay sub- infection, while DDT decreases antibody produc- than the general population for contracting pressilon on top of these other rosks may sub- tion in mammal and bird species. The organo- Hodgkins disease, melanoma, multiple meloma ll crease the burden of common ds- phosphate parathion delays antibodv production and leukemia-all of which are cancers of the eases. The consequences could remai undetected because people would not neces- and suppresses T-cell response in cell cultures, immune system. sarilv die of acute pesticide a - ; r die o - ,, I . Il while chronic low-dose exposures of the com- Unfortunately despite current evidence, the deaths would be attributed to such diseases as monlv used organophosphate malathion can de- study of the immune suppressive potential for pneumonia, or gastroenteritis, or to complica- press several different immune responses. Many most pesticides is still in its infancy, and little work tions of measles. The fact that pesticide expo- solvents, inert ingredients, and contaminants that has been done to clarify the relationship between sure weakened their immune responses and are part of pesticide formulations can also sup- dose and effect. Thus, consensus has not been increased their vulnerabilitv to illness or death press immune responses in laboratory tests. reached on how much pesticide exposure is re- Epidemiological evidence, though limited, also quired to compromise the immune system enough g inadicates that pesticides can be toxic to the hu- to affect health, or what kinds of immune- Adapted from: Robert Repetto and Sanjay man immune system. Among Indian factory suppressing effects chronic low-dose exposures Bgs, Can eedes coo me Imnmune 5)stem The Pt- workers chronically exposed to several pesticides, might cause in the public at large. Nonetheless, it is 1ig Pealrh Rosks (Wer e Resou rces I nstitue, Wash- blood lymphocyte levels-one element of im- clear that the potential risk to public health, espe- ington, D C,1996). the system, and many other issues. Based largely on animal more than 20 days per year had a sixfold higher risk of non- studies, the U.S. EPA reports that of 321 chemicals examined, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and those who mixed or applied the 146 are probable or possible human carcinogens (63). herbicide themselves had an eightfold greater risk (67). Epidemiological studies, too, suggest a link between some Many pesticides that show carcinogenic potential remain in pesticides and cancer. For example, epidemiological studies active use in agriculture. Could exposure to these pesticides, have shown an association between exposure to organochlo- under normal conditions of use, actually lead to cancer? For rines and various cancers, including lymphoma and leuke- those who work directly wvith these compounds on a regular mia, as well as lung, pancreatic, and breast cancer (64). Such basis, the answer may well be yes. Calculations show that for findings are significant because organochlorines such as people who are occupationally exposed, the typical lifetime DDT, aldrin, and chlordane are widely dispersed in the envi- doses of a number of these pesticides would be enough to ronment and can easilh accumulate in human tissues. raise one's risk of contracting cancer substantially (68). Additional epidemiological evidence links exposure to sev- For the general public, the answer is much less clear. Al- eral common herbicides with cancer. Several studies have though pesticide residues are nearly ubiquitous in food and found an association between 2,4-D and non-HodgkinYs lym- water even in developed countries, sampling studies show phoma (65)(66). In one study,farmers exposedto the herbicide these residues are generally minute. In 1996, an expert panel World Resources 1998-99 45 (72). A small but growing percentage of these are biopesti- FIGURE 2.6 Estimated Growth in Fertilize, Use, 1960-2020 cides, including microbial pesticides like Bacillus thuringien- (ml ion n.tne tons) sis (Bt), and biochemical pesticides such as Fheromones, 250 growth regulators, and hormones-substances that ordinar- ily pose little danger except to the targeted pest (73). In addi- 200 Ii tion, there is growing acceptance of alternative approaches to - . pest control such as Integrated Pest Management. (See Chap- 150 - ter 3.) In the developing world, pesticide sales are on l strong up- ,oo , swing, and many highly toxic insecticides remain popular. Over the next decade at least, a significant increase in pesti- so i | cide use is likely. Pesticide sales in India rose 5 percent in vol- _0I . Xume betwveen March 1995 and 1996 (74). Brazil (already the o I _ __- d. 5L. ...L.J <_fourth largest pesticide consumer in the world) is experienc- WORLD SUB- LATIN WESTASIA/ SOUTH EAST DEVELOPING DEVELOPED ing similar growth, as is China, which represents by far the TOTAL SAHARtAN AMERICA NORTH AFRICA ASIA ASIA COUNTRIES COUNTMIES AFRICA most dynamic market in Asia (75) (76). Even Africa, which has the lowest use rate of any region, has increased its pesticide Source: Balo Bumband Carlos Baanante, WoUd TrendsinFertilzer Use andProjections to2020, sales in the past decade (77) (78) . 20201Brief No.38 (lnternational Food Policy Research nstitute,Washington,D.C.,1996),Table 1 One factor contributing to increasing pesticide use in the developing world is a growing local production capacity. Bra- of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences concluded that al- zil and India have become regional pesticide exporters; Chi- though evidence was limited, consuming such small amounts na's production capacity increased 40 percent from 1995 to of pesticides in the diet was unlikely to pose an appreciable 1996 (79). Most of this growth in sales and manu.facture has cancer risk (69). been in older, highly toxic insecticides. The top-selling pesti- Even with minimal exposures, concern has arisen that chil- cide in India is monocrotophos, a highly toxic insecticide dren maybe at greater risk than adults because they often con- whose registration was canceled in the United States in 1988 sume more per bodyweight of certain foods such as fruits that (80) (81). are likely to contain pesticide residues. They are also undergo- By contrast, some developing countries are paying increas- ing rapid tissue growth, allowing for greater concentration of ing attention to human health effects in setting regulations for these substances in their systems (70). In addition, pesticides the use and trade of pesticides. In July 1996, regulators in are used widely around the home, for instance, on lawns and Egypt banned the import and use of all pesticides classified as gardens and inside for pest control. Thus, pesticide exposure probable or possible carcinogens (82). In 1987, Indonesia for some portion of the nonfarm population could be signifi- acted similarly to ban a variety of rice pesticides in common cant,evenifpesticideresiduesinfoodandwaterareminimal. use. In addition, several successful Integrated Pest Manage- ment programs are underway, especially in Asia and Cuba. In developing countries, exposures to the farm and non- farm population may be greater, and risks may be higher. A NITRATE CONTAMINATION FROM FERTILIZER lack of training in, or controls on, pesticide use often means AND MANURE that crops are treated excessively or sprayed too close to har- Pesticides are not the only chemical input that may increase vest and then sent straight to market with little washing (71). with intensifying agriculture. Nitrogen fertilizer is one of the most effective tools for increasing yields, and its use on a global basis grew more than fivefold from 1960 to 1990. It is Will intensification of world agriculture necessarily entail a still climbing today, although at a slower pace (83). Fertilizer substantialincreaseintheuseofpesticides? Ifso,agreatertoll consumption in developing countries is projectedl to double on world health may be exacted, unless pesticide application by 2020, with especially rapid growth in Africa and South practices improve drastically or less toxic products come into Asia. (See Figure 2.6.) use. Predicting future pesticide use is impossible; however, it is This surge in fertilizer use has led to greater contamination possible to identify some trends and opportunities. of surface and groundwater with nitrates-essentially dis- In the developed world, although considerable use of older solved nitrogen fertilizer that has not been taken up by plants. pesticides persists, the trend is toward using newer pesticides This contamination poses threats to both environmental that are more selective, less toxic to humans and the environ- quality and human health. Determining precisely how much ment, and require less application per hectare to be effective and when to fertilize is not easy for farmers, and overfertiliza- 46 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH Lion is coniinoi. Excess nitrate is water soluble and easily of the great expense involved in devcloping irrigation systems, washed through soil by rain or irrigation water, making ni- as well as the increased competition for water supplies. trate contamination a widespread problem where nitrogen Despite these barriers of cost and limited water availability, fertilizers are used with any frequency. Manure from intensive agriculture experts expect continued growth in irrigated land livestock operations is also a potent nitrate source. Although to meet future food needs and expand export agriculture, at agricultural sources of nitrate predominate in most rural ar- least in developing countries. The Food and Agriculture Or- eas (84), nonagricultural sources such as septic systems and ganization of the United Nations (FAO) projects that irrigated cesspools, and even nitrogen oxide particulates deposited by land in developing nations (excluding China) will increase at cars and power plants, all add to the burden. roughly O.8 percent peryear, expanding from 123 million hec- Public health officials consider nitrate contaminationasig- tares in 1990 to some 146 million hectares in 2010. Egypt, nificant health risk based on both its wide distribution and its Mexico, and Turkey anticipate particularly rapid growth in ir- effects on infants. In young infants, exposure to high levels of rigated acreage (95). Alon(J with the benefits of higher and more reliable vields, nitrates can result in a disorder whereby the red blood cells n w i cannot function properly, leading to insufficient oxygen or irrigation brings risks of increased infectious diseases such as "blue-babv syndrome," which can be fatal (85). In adults, high malaria and schistosomiasis through habitat disruption. By levels of nitrate exposure may increase the risk of contracting providing habitat for disease agents, irrigation channels and the dams or impoundments that supplv them can greatly ex- some cancers, although the extent of the risk is unclear (86). t Worldwide, the scale of nitrate contamination is undoubt- r a edly quite large. Although no global assessment exists of how (96). The association of schistosomiasis with irrigation is a many q largeas exceedthough WHo standard, issmndiv l coutry r- case in point. Worldwide prevalence of the disease has risen manyoareas exdicateedhatnitrateisoneo the W Osal couont rhem- over the past five decades, due mostly to the expansion of irri- ports indicate that nitrate is one of the most common chemi- gation svstems in hot climates (97). Clear links to increases in cal contaminants found in drinking water. This finding is not schistosomiasis have been documented in irrigation projects surprising given the huge volume of nitrogen fertilizer used such as the Mwea project in Kenya, where schistosomiasis ac- worldwide (87)(88)(89)(90). In the United States, for example, counts for 18 percent of all deaths (98). The slow-moving wa- nitrate contamination is the nation's most widespread ter in the irrigation canals and drainage ditches provides ideal groundwater pollution problem; in a national survey, 22 per- habitat for the snail that is the intermediate host of the schisto- cent of wells in U.S. agricultural areas contained nitrate levels somiasis organism. Calm waters along reservoir banks, thick in excess of the federal limit (91). Nitrate is also a prime con- with vegetation, are also heavily colonized by these snails and taminant in Europe (92). are an ideal transmission site for the disease because human The overuse of nitrates can affect human health indirectly activity is usually centered near the lakeside as well (99)( 100). as well. Nitrate runoff from agricultural fields and feedlots In the upper region of Ghana, schistosomiasis prevalence tri- can stimulate the growth of toxic algal blooms in estuaries pled in the late 1950s and early 1960s when a large number of and near-coastal waters, contaminating shellfish and other agricultural impoundments were constructed. In these areas, seafood. More generally, "fertilization" of coastal waters by ni- infection rates were as high as 50 percent (0o 1). trate runoff-a process called eutrophication-can degrade In all, more than 30 diseases have been linked to irrigation, these waters, resulting in an overall decline in the local sea- and the health toll from these can be quite significant region- food catch, which is an important food source. In summary, ally (102). Asian paddy-rice agriculture is frequently associ- unless greater attention is given to adjusting agricultural ated with malaria and Japanese encephalitis, in addition to methods to avoid overfertilization, increasing the food supply schistosomiasis. In Central and South America, irrigated over the next few decades could mean increased exposure to farming may expose farmers to filariasis as well as malaria nitrates, with attendant health effects (93). and other mosquito-borne diseases (103). In Africa, in addi- tion to the suite of mosquito-borne diseases and schisto- Irrigation somiasis associated with irrigation canals, dam spillways have Irrigation provided breeding sites for the black fly that carriers river Hectare forhectare,irrigated landis far more productive than blindness (onchocerciasis) (104). Although it is impossible to rainfed land, and the expansion of irrigated acreage over the quantify the additional toll of diseases related specifically to past30yearshasplayedanimportantpartinthegainsinfood irrigation systems, it is fair to say that in agricultural areas production. At the height of the Green Revolution in the these systems are important contributing factors to the over- 1970s, irrigated land was expanding at a global rate of more all burden of water-related diseases. than 2 percent per year (94). Since then, annual growth in irri- Other health risks emerge from the use of wastewater from gatedhectares has declined to about I percent, mostlybecause municipal and industrial sources to irrigate crops. Irrigating World Resources 1998-99 47 Box 2.4 Malaria in the Brazilian Amazon Mvlalaria incidence in Brazil rose steadilv in the moving to the states of Rondonia, Para, Mato mune system, perhaps making the garimpeiros 1 970s and 1980s, from just 52,469 cases in Grosso, and Roraima in search of economic op- more susceptible to malaria infect ion (9). 1970 to 577,520 in 1989 (1). By 1994, reported portunities. By 1991, between 400,000 and Miners are not the onlyvictims of the Ama- cases still exceeded half a million (2). In 1970, 600,000 garimpeiros had moved to the region. zon gold rush. In fact, the local Incdian popula- 72 percent of all malaria cases in the country The gold mining boom has had several unin- tion has suffered far worse. The mi neral wealth were in the Amazon Basin (3); by 1985, this tended consequences, including high levels of en- of many Indian reservations makes them a figure had risen to 99 percent (4). Today, virtu- vironmental degradation from mine tailings, de- prime target for invasion by garimpeiros. To a ally all endemic malaria occurs in the Ama70n forestation, and deteriorating living conditions. great extent, the development oftke Brazilian region (1). In particular, malaria has swept mining towns Amazon has been defined by the invasion of While malaria has long been endemic in Bra- across the region. In 1988, for instance, 50 per- traditional Indian territories and the appro- zil, the dramatic surge in malaria cases over the cent of all malaria transmission in Mato Grosso priation of their natural resources. Disease past two decades in the Amazon can be attrib- occurred at gold mining sites (7). transmission and depopulation have been the uted to a complex set of interrelated factors: rapid Conditions in mining camps provide perfect devastating result. population growth, migration and displacement conditions for malaria infection and transmis- The Roraima Gold Rush provides a vivid il- of laborers and indigenous people, the growth of sion. Temporary shelters provide little or no mos- lustration. In 198 7, garimpeiros invaded the gold mining, environmental destruction, and quito protection. In addition, the garimpeiros homeland of 10,000 Yanomami Indians. By misguided development. Two subpopulations- themselves are highly susceptible to malaria be- 1989, an estimated 40,000 miners were work- gold miners and indigenous Indians-have cause they are often migrants from areas free ing within the land of the Yanomaini, the last borne the greatest burden of increased mal aria from malaria, and thus lack immunity to the dis- large, semi-isolated, and traditional Indian incidence. ease. In their search for gold, miners also rou- group in the Americas (lo). The co asequences The Brazilian Amazon is home to the world's tinely destroy the banks of local streams. The were immediate: cultural conflicts, violence, largest remaining tropical forests as well as sig- widened river beds then become swamplike habi- epidemics, starvation, and high mortality im- nificant mineral reserves. Since the 1960s, the tats perfect for mosquito breeding. periled the very existence of the Yanomami as government has instituted a series of ambitious The costs of treating malaria are beyond most a people. Nor svas this the first time that devel- plans to develop and colonize the Amazon Basin miners' means, so many infected miners go un- opment had threatened Indian consmunities in to relieve some of the pressures of urban poverty, treated. Even when infected miners do buy medi- the region. In the early 1970s, epidemics of crowding, and social unrest in other regions of cine (often paid for with gold),they usually stop measles and influenza brought by workers Brazil. As a result of these efforts, which were taking it once the fever recedes, but before they constructing the Perimetral Norte aighway heavily subsidized by the govern ment, popula- are entirely cured. As a result, drug-resistant wiped out three Yanomami communities in tion growth in the region soared. Between 1970 strains of malaria that are much more difficult northern Amazonas State (I1 ). and 1980, population growth rates in the Ama- and expensive to treat have emerged. The Roraima Gold Rush and subsequent zon region were above 5 percent per year, the The high exposure of miners to the heavy immigration by garimpeiros have Cramatically highest in Brazil (6). The construction of the metal mercurv, which is commonly used to ex- increased malaria incidence and deaths among Belem-Brasilia highway and the Trans-Amazon tract raw gold from mine tailings, is probably also the Indians. A survey at the Indian Hospital in highway further spurred the growth of logging, an important factor in the high malaria inci- the city of Boa Vista showed that rr alaria was agribusiness, and mining in the region. dence. From 3 to 5S , . (kg) of mercury are the main cause of admission of Yanomami In- More recently, a "gold rush" in the Amazon has used to extract 1 kg of gold (s), and the lack of dians from 1987 to 1989. Of the 144L deaths re- made the region a magnet for migrants, in par- environmental controls at most mining sites ported during this period, malaria was re- ticular from the poverty-stricken northeastern means that exposures to mercury probably ex- sponsible for over half (51.8 percent) (12). region. Gotd prospectors and miners, catled ceed limits set by the World Health Organization. Estimates suggest that nearly 10 percent of the "garimpeiros 'have tlocked to mining sites in the Researchers are beginning to suspect that mer- Yanomami population died of maL.ria be- Brazilian Amazon, with the highest proportions cury exposure can suppress or damage the im- tween 1987 and 1990. Overall, about 20 per- with raw or partially treated sewage can conserve water and mit these worms, which colonize the small and large intes- fertilize crops economically by capturing nutrients that tines. Farmworkers in fields irrigated with wastewater may would normally be wasted. This irrigation method is also an also become infected with hookworm, whose debilitating ef- effective way to prevent contamination of nearby waterways fects include anemia (106). with the disease organisms and nutrients that sewage con- Wastewater irrigation has also been linked to transmission tains-a considerable health benefit (105). The most serious of enteric diseases such as cholera and typhoid, even in areas drawback of using sewage for irrigation is its role in transmit- where these diseases are not endemic. For exampsle, a 1970 ting infectious diseases both to agricultural workers and the cholera outbreak in Jerusalem was blamed on consumption general public. Two worm-related infections that are endemic of vegetables irrigated with wastewater. The seasonal pattern in many developing countries, one from the Ascaris worm of typhoid infections in Santiago, Chile, in the 1970s and and the other from the Trichuris worm, are commonly associ- 1 980s was tied to consumption of salad crops and vegetables ated with wastewater irrigation. Eating uncooked vegetables grown outside the city on sewage-irrigated farms. [n both in- that have been irrigated with such water can effectively trans- stances, sanitation levels were fairly good, so the normal 48 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH Box 2.4 continued ................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................... cent of the Yanomami population contracted ma- control ineffective. Second, the physical isolation 2. Pedro Luiz Tauil, "Comments on the Epidemiol- laria, and in some of the villages the parasite of many of the groups in the Amazon may in- ogy and Contro of Malaria in BraciSl' Men. infected more than 90 percent of the community. crease their susceptibility to malaria. Third, be- (1986), p. 39. Although the Roraima Gold Rush is waning, cause most of these communities are in remote 3. Op. Cit. 1. the legacy of malaria infection continues to pose areas, the people have only limited access to 4. Pedro L. Tauil. "Malaria: Agrava-Se 0 Quadro a risk to Amazonian Indians. Between 1991 and health servsices. Virtually, all of the 350 Yanomami Da Doenca No Brasil" Ciencia Hoje, Vol. 2, No. 1995, malaria was responsible for 25 percent of villages can be reached onlybyplane. i 1984),pp. 58-59. all Yanomami deaths (13). Annual rates of malaria 5. Op. incidence in areas where contact with miners and In addition, culturally determined behaviors 6. Agostinho Cruz Marques, "Migrations and the other immigrants is frequent are as high as 1,350 may increase the risk of malaria transmission or Dissemination of Malaria in Brazil," ern. Inst. other imm0 grants is frequent are as hagh as 1t350 make treatment difficult. For example, the cus- Oswaldo Crnz, Vol. 81, Supplement I1 (1986), p. per 1,000 population,meaningthat some tndi- 17. viduals have had more than one attack of malaria tom of bathing in rivers early in the morning and 7 Ibid., p. 28. in just one year. This is in sharp contrast to rates late in the afternoon coincides with the peak 8. Steven G. Gilbert and Kimberlv S. Grant- in the villages not affected by the invasion of out- hours of mosquito activity. Also, the mobility as- WVebster, "Neurobehavioral Effects of Develop- siders, which run around 20 cases per 1,000 sociated with subsistence fishing and hunting can mental Methyl Mercury Exposure:' Enviroainien- population. It is also substantially higher than be a problem, because some cases of malaria tal Healthl Perspectives, Vol. 103, Supplement 6 malaria incidence among the general Amazonian need an uninterrupted two-week course of drugs, 9 J. Bernier, "Immunotoxicity of Heas 'v Metals in population, estimated to be around 40 per 1,000 which is difficult to administer in the face of fre- Relation to Great Lakes,' Etnt'irosntmental Health l14)(15). quent travel. On the other hand, the structure of Perspectives, Vol. 103, Supplement9 (December Starting in 1990, the Brazilian government in- Yanomami huts may offer some protection from 1995), pp. 23-24. tervened to remove the garimpeiros from the a- malaria; the cone-shaped and closed huts are of- 10. Margareth Marmori, "A Historia Do Conflito" Ciencia Hoje, Vol. 11, No.64, (July 1990), p. 75. nomami territory, but with little apparent effect. ten filled with dense smoke from cookfires iniside, 11. Alcida R. Ramos, "Yanomami Indians in North Because the lure of gold remained, the garimpei- which tends to repel mosquitoes. Brazil Threatened by Hlighwa5" (November ros simply moved to other mining areas in the The outlook for the future is guarded. As long 1978), pp. 1-30. state of Roraima. As a consequence, malaria as profits from mining appear to be lucrative, 12. Oneron A. Pithan et al., "A Situacao de Saude spread to the four ethnic groups of eastern Ro- mining will probably continue to plav a role in dos Indios Yanomami: Diagnostico a Partir da raima and became the leading cause of death malaria transmission in the Amazon region. At 1989. PESQUISA. Cadernos de Saude Publica, there between 1991 and 1994 (16). the same time, continued high rates of deforesta- RJ, 7(4): 563-580, out/dez, 1991. While the reasons behind the extremely high could also increase the population of 13. Maria Stella de Castro Lobo, "O Caso Yano- incidence of malaria among indigenous Indians tomami Do Brasil: Uma Proposta Estrategica De are not completely understood, many factors, malaria-carrying mosquitoes and facilitate the Vigilancia Epidemiologica,' Rio de Janeiro, , , . ' ' spread of the disease ( 18 ) . 1996. Escola Nacional de Saude Publica, both socioeconomic and environmental, may be Mestrado em Saude Publica, Area de Conceit- playing a role. First, malaria control activi- . tracao: Epidemiologia Geral, p. 50. ties-such as housespraying and case detection Ulisses Confalonieri, Professor of Public Health, 14. Ibid. and treatment-that had been successful in the Funidacion Oscvaldo Crtz, Rio de Janeiro. 15. Op. cit. 6. southeastern and northeastern regions of Brazil 16. Mlisses Confalonieri, "Amazon Health Report: were unsuccessful in the heavily forested areas of Indigenous People's of Brazil:' draft paper (The the Amazon because of logistical and organiza- References and Notes WVorld Bank, W4ashington, D.C., 1994). tional difficulties and population mohility 117,. In 1. Donald Rolfe Sawyer, "Malaria and the Environ- 17. Op. cit l,p. 12. ment,'Documento deTrabalho.No. 13 (instituto 18. I.E Walsh et al., "Deforestation: Effects on addition, most mosquito bites occur outdoors, Sociedade, Populacao e Natureza, Brasilia, Brazil, Vector-borne Disease:' Parasitology, Vol. 106 making domestic indoor spraying for malaria March 1992), p. 2. (1993) (Cambridge University Press). p. s58. routes of cholera and typhoid transmission (contaminated technology on existing cropland could lower these numbers drinking water and poor personal hygiene) were not the cul- considerably (109). Much of this conversion will target for- prits (107). Other gastrointestinal diseases such as dysentery, ested areas. Indeed, conversion of forestland to agriculture is giardiasis, and even infectious hepatitis may be similarly alreadyaprimeforcedrivingforestlossinthetropicsandeven transmitted through contaminated vegetables (108). in some temperate areas, including China (10). One fifth of the world's remaining large blocks of forest may well become Land Conversion cropland and pasture ( 1l). Conversion of land to agriculture is still proceeding in many Unfortunately, land conversion-especially forest conver- developing countries and is likely to continue. The United Na- sion-is associated with a higher incidence of certain infec- tions Environment Programme (UNEP) predicts that agri- tious diseases, including malaria and leishmaniasis. Forest cultural land area could nearly double in Africa and West Asia clearance often creates new habitats, such as depressions by 2050 and climb by 25 percent in the Asia-Pacific region, al- where water can collect and mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas can though greater investment in agricultural management and breed. Often, the forest fringe at the edge of converted for- World Resources 1998-99 49 estland provides a potent contact point between disease or- At times, the influence of agricultural conversion on disease ganisms from the forest and human populations. For exam- can be complex and can extend over large regions. In south- ple, the mosquito Anopheles dirus, which breeds in sunlit ern Honduras, conversion of forest to cotton and sugarcane pools along the partially cleared forest margin, is a very effec- culture and cattle pasture altered the region's hydrological cy- tive malaria vector. Intense malaria transmission by this mos- cle, making it drier and hotter and less hospitable to the mos- quito occurs along forest fringes in large portions of South quito species responsible for malaria in the area. NIalaria inci- and Southeast Asia (112). The clearing of forests for cattle dence declined accordingly. However, the semidesertification grazing in parts of southern India's Shimoga district caused a in the south prompted the population's migration to the different problem. It led to an upsurge in the local tick popula- newer factories and plantations of the north; mary relocated tion and an outbreak of Kyasanur forest disease in the 1980s, on cleared forestland where malaria was still presc nt. The mi- the product of a rare virus from the forest (113). grants carried no immunity to malaria, and so a s harp rise of In Africa, deforestation favors malaria transmission by the the disease in the north began in 1987. Heavy pesticide use on mosquito Anopheles gambiae, which prefers to breed in the export crops also played a part in the outbreak by encourag- open rather than in the dense forest. The rise in surface tem- ing widespread pesticide resistance among the anopheline peratures that clearing of forests brings can also help in mosquitoes (115). spreading malaria by speeding both the life cycle of the mos- As with irrigation-related illnesses, it is difficult to quantify quito and the development of the malaria parasite it harbors. the additional burden of illness associated with land conver- In the Usambara mountains in northeastern Tanzania, sion. The complex relationships among habitat modification, forest-clearing activities along the mountaintops are consid- the functioning of ecosystems, and the transmission of dis- ered one cause of the introduction and spread of malaria (114). ease mean that it is difficult to predict exactly hew land use A combination of altered natural conditions plus migration changes will affect disease rates, especially when the vulner- has created a particularly deadly situation in Brazil's Amazon ability of exposed populations varies so widely wi th income, basin. (See Box 2.4.) access to health care, and proper nutrition. 50 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH wl, Industrialization Industrialization is central to economic development and im- - proved prospects for human well-being (116). The benefits of - - industrial production can be seen in all aspects of life-from . 9 the range of consumer goods available, to the efficiency of transportation systems, to the astounding advances made in -, U computers and communications technology. Since the 18th Century, wealth in the developed countries has paralleled in- dustrial growth, and developed countries continue to produce , the lion's share of manufactured goods-indeed, about 74 percent of the world's industrial output takes place in the de- ; veloped world (117). Today, many developing countries are experiencing an In- t - , l dustrial Revolution of their own, capturing an ever- increasing share of industrial growth. The pace of this newest cycle-particularly in Asia-far exceeds that of developed - countries. In China, for instance, industrial growth between - l 1990 and 1995 reached 18.1 percent a year; East Asia and the Pacific and South Asia experienced growth rates of approxi- - - - mately 15 percent and 6.4 percent a year, respectively ( 18). By comparison, North America's industrial output grew by only about 2.6 percent a year during the same period. - The positive economic and social results of industrial growth have been accompanied by serious environmental i degradation, however, as well as growing threats to health from occupational hazards. To some extent, these problems are analogous to those of early industrial Europe. In the 19th -! Century, the shift from a rural, agrarian society to an urban, I industrial society initially involved widespread social and economic disruption, unemployment, homelessness, pollu- 1990 and 1994, this industry's annual rate of growth was 5.6 tion, and increased exposure to health hazards both at work percent in developing countries, compared with a mere 1 per- and at home ( 19). Many of these same problems characterize cent in the developed world (121). Not onlyare these processes cities in the developing world today. resource-intensive, but also industries such as electricity gen- Despite the similarities between earlier European industri- eration, chemicals and petroleum refining, mining, paper alization and current changes in the developingworld, impor- production, and leather tanning tend to produce a dispropor- tant differences exist in the scale and pace of industrial tionately large amount of hazardous and toxic wastes. As Ta- growth. The earlier Industrial Revolution spanned nearly 200 ble 2.3 shows, a wide range of pollutants is associated with years; recently, countries like Thailand and Indonesia have these industries. In contrast, much of economic growth in de- been undergoing similar changes in just a couple of decades. veloped countries is now in the service sector (e.g., education, As part of this growth, industrial wastes are growing in quan- entertainment, defense, and finance) and communication tity andbecoming more varied, more toxic, and more difficult sector (e.g., computers, cellular phones, and electronics), to dispose of or degrade (120). Densities in cities where much which are inherently less polluting. of the industrial production is located far surpass those in de- This rapid industrial growth has made water pollution, air veloped countries, so the number of people exposed to pollut- pollution, and hazardous wastes pressing environmental ants is potentially much greater. problems in many areas of the developing world. Industrial Furthermore, a substantial share of industrial growth in de- emissions combine with vehicle exhausts to cause air pollu- veloping countries revolves around the transformation of raw tion, while concentrations of heavy metals and ammonia materials into industrial products such as steel, paper, and loads are often high enough to cause major fish kills down- chemicals. The production of industrial chemicals, for in- river from industrial areas (122). The lack of hazardous waste stance, has been shifting to the developing world. Between facilities compounds the problem, with industrial wastes of- World Resources 1998-99 51 TABLE 2.3 Env ronmental mDacts of Se ected Industr es SECTOR AIR WATER SOIULAND Chemicals (industrial in- Many and varied emissions depending on pro- . Use of process water and cooling water * Chemical process wastes dis aosal problems organic and organic cesses used and chemicals manufactured * Emissions of organic chemicals, heavy met- * Sludges from air and water pollution treat- compounos, excluding petroleum products) * Emissions of particulate matter, 5 NO<, CO, CFCs, als (cadmium, mercury), suspended solids, ment disposal problems VOCs and other organic chemicals,odors organic matter, PCBs * Risk of explosions and fires * Risk of spills Paper and pulp * Emissions ofSO2, NO,, CH1,CC,, CO, hydrogen sul- * Use of process water phide, mercaptans, chlorine compounds, dioxins a Emissions of suspended solids, organic matter, chlorinated organic substances,tox- ins (dioxins) Cement, glass,ceramics * Cement emissions of dust, NC;,C0,,chromium, * Emissions of process water contarminated * Extraction of raw materials lead, CO by oils and heavy metals * Soil contamination with metais and waste * Glass emissions of lead, arsenic, SO2, vanadium, disposal problems CO, hydrofluoric acid, soda ash, potash, specialty constituents (e.g., chromium) * Ceramics emissions of silica, 5O,, NO,, fluorine compounds Mining of metals and * Emissions ofdust from extraction,storage,and * Contamination ofsurface water and * Major surface disturbance and erosion minerals transport of ore and concentrate groundwater by highly acidic mine water * Land degradation by large slag heaps * Emissions of metals (e.g., mercury) from drying of containing toxic metals (e.g.,arsenic, lead, ore concentrate cadmium) * Contamination bychemicals used in metal extraction (e.g.,cyanide) Iron and steel * Emissons ofSC,5 NCO,,hydrogen sulphide,PAHs, * Useofprocesswater * Slag,sludges,oil and grease residues,hy- lead, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, mer- * Emissions of organic mattertars and oil, drocarbons, salts, sulphur compounds, heavy mnetals,sol contamination and waste cury, nickel, selenium, zinc, organic compounds, suspended solids, metals, benzene, phenols, d ysposal problems PCDDs/PCDFs, PCBs, dust, particulate matter, hy- acids, sulphides, sulphates, ammonia, cya- drocarbons, acid mists nides, thiocyanates, thiosulphates, fluorides, * Exposure to ultravio et and infrared radiation, lead,zinc (scrubber effluent) ionizing radiation * Risks of explosions and fires Nonferrous metals *Emissions of ' - ,,,-''- S i -O hy- *Scrubber water containing metals *Sludges from effluent treatment, coatings drogen sulphide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen * Gas-scrubber effluents containing solids, from electrolysis cells (contairilng carbon fiuoride, chlorine, aruminum, arsenic, cadmium, and fluorine) soil contamination and waste chromium, copper, zinc, mercury, nicke ,lead, fluorine, hydrocarbons disposal problems magnesium, PAHs,fluorides, silica, manganese, carbon black, hydrocarbons, aerosols Coal mining and * Emissions of dust from extraction, storage,and * Contamination of surface water and * Major surface disturbance and erosion production transport of coal groundwater by highly saline or acidic * Subsidence of ground above nines * Emissions ofCO and SO, from burning slag heaps mine water *Land degradation by large slag heaps * CH, emissions from underground formations * Risk o'explosions and fires Refineries, * Emissions of SO,, NO,, hydrogen sulphide, HCs, * Use of cooling water * Hazardous waste, sludges from effluent petroleum products benzene, CO, CO, particulate matter, PAHs, mer- .Emissions of HCs, mercaptans, caustics, oil treatmentspentcatalysts,tar captans,toxic organic coumpounds,odors phenols, chromium, effluent from gas * Risk of explosions and fires scrubbers Leather and tanning * Emissions including leather dust, hydrogen sul- * Use of process water * Chromium sludges phide, CO,, chromium compounds * Effluents from the many toxic solutions used, containing suspended solids,sul- phates, chromium Source: Adapted from World Health Organization (WHO), Health and Environment in Susrainable Development:Five Years after the Earth Summit (vVHO, Geneva, 1997), Table 3.10, p.64. 52 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH ten discarded on fallow or public lands, in rivers, or in sewers health impacts are migrating to the developing world. The as- designed to carry only municipal wastes. bestos industry is a good example. Production of asbestos, The future scale of environmental and health problems known to cause lung cancer, has shifted from developed from industrialization in developing countries will depend countries such as the United States to countries such as Brazil, greatly on policy actions taken today. In Asia, for instance, up India, Pakistan, Indonesia, and the Republic of Korea (130). to 70 percent of the power-generating capacity and 90 percent Although developed countries are phasing out asbestos, con- of the cars in use in 2010 will be added in the next 12 years sumption in Brazil is increasing at an annual rate of about 7 (123). If current production practices remain the norm, air percent. What is not used domestically (about 70,000 metric pollution and toxic effluents from industrial production are tons per year) is exported principally to Angola, Argentina, likely to increase rapidly. If, however, choices are made to in- India, Mexico, Nigeria, Thailand, and Uruguay (131). vest in moreefficientandless-pollutingtechnologies,manyof The export of hazardous wastes is another pressing issue. industrialization's negative impacts on health could be More than 350 million metric tons of hazardous waste are avoided. The potential the developing countries have to leap- generated worldwide each year (132). Of this amount, approxi- frog to cleaner production is enormous, given gains in tech- mately 1.9 million metric tons are traded among Organisa- nology as well as the levels of private capital now flowing into tion for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) these countries. In Indonesia, for instance, in the first half of countries for treatment and disposal, representing an impor- 1997, petrochemicals represented almost one half of the tant economic industry. Officially, fewer than 1,000 metric US$16.2 billion in foreign investments (124). Decisions re- tons are traded to developing countries (133). garding the location sites of those industries, the technologies Despite these official figures, illegal traffic in hazardous used, and the type of precautions for occupational safetv wastes likely represents a serious threat to the environment could have a tremendous impact on the future health of the and human health, affecting mostly the developing world. Al- people who live and work there. though no reliable figures exist for the volume of hazardous Part of this industrial growth has been spurred by globali- waste exported illegally, the U.S. EPA has estimated that illegal zation, a term coined to describe the rapid spread of free shipments outnumber legal ones by 8 to 1. Illegal shipments trade, the development of free markets, and the growth of pri- from the United States have been intercepted en route to Ec- vate investment across borders. Advances in production and uador, Guinea, Haiti, Malaysia, Mexico, Panama, and Sri communication technologies permit companies to locate Lanka (134). Africa, given its financial situation and poor their operations far from both raw material supplies and mar- regulatory capacity, has become a prime target for the illegal kets. For many companies, this freedom means locating op- dumping of toxic waste. As the costs of disposal continue to erationsindevelopingcountries,wherelaborcostsaresignifi- increase in the more developed countries-in the United cantly lower. In 1992, for example, the hourly wage in States, it can cost anywhere from US$200 to USS2,300 to in- Malaysids manufacturing sector was five times lower than in cinerate 1 metric ton of polychlorinated biphenyls the United States, wvhereas in the Philippines, it was eight (PCBs)-companies have a significant financial incentive to times lower, and in Mexico and Nicaragua, more than 10 resort to illegal practices (135). times lower (125). Between 1988 and 1995, multinational cor- porations invested nearly US$422 billion worth of new facto- Industrialization and Health ries, supplies, and equipment in developing countries. In 1995 While many of the products of industrial processes are known alone, the flow of private capital into the developing world to- toxins, it is difficult to determine how these chemicals affect taled close to US$180 billion (126). public health at the levels found in the environment. To what Yet, globalization also carries the risk that in order to com- extent does environmental pollution from industrial wastes pete for valuable industries, countries will neglect measures contribute to the observed increases in, for instance, birth de- to restrict child labor, to protect the environment, or to ensure fects and some cancers (136)? worker safety (127). One of the most disturbing aspects of the Studies of the adverse health effects of industrial chemicals growth of the global market is the increasing number of and metals are rife with complications, as described in Chap- export-processing zones-also known as free trade zones, ter 1. People are often exposed to a variety of environmental maquiladoras, or special economic zones. In these often un- insults-unsafe drinking water, air pollution, and tobacco regulated areas, employees, many of them young women and smoke, to name just a few-making it difficult to firmlv link sometimes children, work long hours for low pay, under exposure to a specific chemical with an adverse health effect. sometimes hazardous conditions (128)(129). In addition, health effects may tak-e years or even decades to Another concern is that industries heavily regulated in the emerge (137). Finally, industrial pollution may act in concert developed world because of their harmful environmental and with other threats such as malnutrition and infectious dis- World Resources 1998-99 53 eases to undermine health, particularly in the industrial acted from factors such as smoking, diet, and infectious dis- slums of developing countries. ease, concern is nonetheless warranted. Industrial chemicals Despite these complications, toxicology, epidemiology, and can persist in the environment for many decades and accu- occupational health studies are providing new insights into mulate in marine and terrestrial food chains, thus posing how industrial chemicals affect health. Studies show that health risks years after these chemicals are no longer used. health risks from industrial production can occur in three Evidence also suggests the effects of exposure to toxic sub- ways: direct physical injury from accidents in industrial pro- stances could be transgenerational. Medical history also duction; acute chemical poisoning in the workplace or sur- shows that caution is appropriate; some chemicals, such as as- rounding neighborhoods; and long-term exposure to chemi- bestos and PCBs, were used for years before they were found cals released into the general environment. to cause adverse health effects. Physical injury and chemical poisoning generally fall The range of industrial processes, industrial wastes, and within the field of occupational health, and their health im- possible health impacts is too vast to cover in this chapter. In- pacts are relatively well understood. Since the 1700s when Sir stead, this section focuses on two categories of ubiquitous Percival Pott first established a link between chimney sweeps pollutants-persistent organic pollutants (POPs I and heavy and a higher incidence of scrotal cancer, occupational expo- metals-to illustrate the various sources, routes of exposure, sures to hazardous chemicals provided initial warning of po- and possible health impacts resulting from exposure to in- tential harm to the wider public. They remain a serious prob- dustrial pollutants. In particular, this section eaiamines the lem today. health effects of PCBs and lead in the environment. The chap- The health impacts of chronic,long-term exposures areless ter then looks at how industrial chemicals can affect human clear. Until recently, most of the concern surrounding possi- health in unsuspected ways through global ecological disrup- ble links among chemicals and long-term health effects has tion, by looking at chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and the focused on cancers. Although numerous examples have health consequences of ozone depletion. Air pollution, to linked occupational exposures with specific types of cancer, which industrial production contributes significantly, is dis- such as asbestos with malignant mesothelioma, it is unclear to cussed in the next section, Rising Energy Use. what extent environmental exposures to chemicals contribute to the overall cancer rate (138). Concern now encompasses other health effects as well, such Persistent Organic Pollutants as damage to the immune, nervous, and reproductive systems. The wide dissemination of POPs in the environment is gener- Recent evidence suggests that a variety of chemicals, includ- ating increasing international concern. POPs, long-lived or- ing PCBs, dioxins, pesticides, and heavy metals, can compro- ganic compounds that become more concentrated as they mise the immune system. The immune system plays a crucial move up the food chain, can travel thousands of kilometers role in protecting the body from viruses, bacteria, and other from their point of release (140). invaders (139). Although POPs include a wide range of chemicals, much of Although the health effects emanating from exposure to the research revolves around 12 chemicals (or chemical these chemicals are likely to be small compared to the toll ex- classes) that include the industrial PCBs, polychlorinated di- oxins and furans (un- _, i i wanted by- products of TABLE 2.4 C obal Legal Scatus of N ne Persistent Organic Po utants ,1996 various industrial pro- NUMBER OF COUNTRIES THAT HAVE BANNED COMPLETELY cesses), and pesticides NORTH AMERICA AND such as DDT, chlor- AFRICA CENTRAL AMERICA SOUTH AMERICA ASIA EUROPE OCEANIA dane, and ieptachlor (53 countries (24 countries (12 countries (46 countries (39 countries (10 countries Altho h CHEMICAL included) included) included) included) included) included) (14t1)(142). Alt ough Aldrin 1 4 2 9.0 10.0 x their use is restricted or Chlordane 2 2 2 7 9 x banned in most devel- DDT 1 3 4 10 9 3 oped countries, many Dieldrin 2 5 3 10 10 3 POPs are still manufac- Endrin 3 3 4 9 8 1 Heptachlor 2 2 3 9 x tured in the United Hexachlorobenzene 1 1 1 2 6 2 States and other devel- PCBs x x x x 2 x oped nations for export Toxaphene 2 3 x 8 5 x andremainwidelyused Source: United Nations Environment Program me (UN EP) U NEP Su rvey on Sources of POPs," prepared for Intergovernmental Forum on Chemica Safety Experts.Meeting on PersistentOrganic Pollutants,.Manila,the Philippines,urne 17-19,1996. developmg countries (143). A recent survey of 54 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH 60countriesfoundthatthemajoritywerestillproducing,im- A primary finding of the Great Lakes research is that the porting, or exporting the nine POPs studied. In Africa, for in- major route of exposure to these chemicals is through con- stance, only two countries have banned the use of chlordane, taminated food, such as locally raised meat and locally caught dieldrin, or heptachlor (144). (See Table 2.4.) fish. Preliminary results have shown that a greater than aver- The health risks posed by industrial POPs can perhaps best age consumption of Great Lakes fish contaminated with PCBs be illustrated by PCBs, a large family of more than 200 com- and mercury compounds can damage the neurological sys- pounds. First manufactured in the United States in 1929, tem in the developing fetus (154). PCBs quicklybecame ubiquitous in industrialproduction be- Children are clearly at greater risk from PCBs than adults cause of their capacity to conduct heat without conducting because primary exposure can occur not only during devel- electricity. As electricity came into widespread use during the opment in the womb but also through the mother's breast first half of this century, PCBs were used as insulators in re- milk. In utero exposure to PCBs has been linked with deficits frigerators, capacitors, and in the manufacture of electrical infetalandpostnatalgrowth,neurologicalanomaliesatbirth, insulation andhydraulic fluids (145).By 1989,totalworld pro- delays in developing gross motor functions, and reduced duction of PCBs (excluding the Soviet Union) had reached short-term memory in infants (155). A recent study in the 1.5 million metric tons (146). As of 1994, only two countries Great Lakes region has shown that those effects can continue reported having entirely banned PCBs, and only six reported into school age, leading to diminished IQ and short- and having restricted their use (147). long-term memory deficits, and shortened attention span As with many chemicals, high-level exposures to PCBs have (156). Similar findings have been documented among Taiwan- been shown to be extremely dangerous to human health. In ese children whose mothers had ingested rice oil contami- 1968, a serious mass intoxication occurred in Japan from a nated with PCBs and dibenzofurans (157). These chemicals large-scale PCB contamination of rice-bran oil. More than have also been implicated in damage to the immune system. 1,700 people became ill, and about 20 died. A similar mass Because researchers have documented substantial repro- poisoning, called Yu-Chen, occurred in Taiwan in 1979, with ductive effects in wildlife populations exposed to Great Lakes more than 2,000 identified victims (148). For the lower expo- contaminants, concern has arisen over possible reproductive sures typically encountered in the environment, evidence of effects in humans. To date, evidence is inadequate to conclude health effects is less clear. Even so, laboratory and field obser- that environmental contaminants damage human reproduc- vations on animals, as well as clinical and epidemiological tive functions at the levels currently measured in the general studies in humans, suggest that adverse health effects from population around the Great Lakes (158). (See Box 2.5.) PCB exposure may include immune dysfunction, neurologi- So far, studies do not show that the general public living cal deficits, reproductive anomalies, behavioral abnormali- near the lakes is at elevated risk from chemical contamination ties, and cancer. (159). Certain groups, however, such as Native Americans, poor urban families, Southeast Asian immigrants, and an- THE GREAT LAKES glers may be at higher risk because these groups tend to rely Much of the evidence supporting low-level health effects from on fish for a greater part of their diets, increasing their expo- PCBs and other POPs in humans has been collected around sure to contaminants (160)(161)(162) (163). In some cases, these the Great Lakes region in the United States. Home to roughly chemical exposures may compound the health risks these 36 million people, the Great Lakes basin has been a major in- groups already face, for instance, from low nutritional status dustrial and agricultural area for many years. Until the 19 70s, and lack of prenatal care (164). In addition, nursing infants, as POPs, heavy metals, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and well as the developing fetus, may be at special risk because of other pollutants were routinely disposed of in the lakes (149). the intrinsic sensitivity of developing organisms and organ In the 1970s and 1980s, people began to observe ill effects in systems and the elevated exposures of nursing infants. U.S. fish,birds, and mammals, including signs of reproductive fail- EPA estimates that nursing infants may face exposures 40 to ure, biochemical changes, congenital malformations, and 50 times higher than adults (165). population declines (150). These findings prompted extensive clean-up efforts, and FUTURE IMPL[CATIONS since the early 1970s, levels of many pollutants have dropped The lack of data in developing countries makes it difficult to significantly-by as much as 90 percent (151)(152). Some of assess the global scale of POP pollution and its health conse- the most damaging compounds still persist at significant con- quences, but it is possible to make some inferences. Incinera- centrations, however. The U.S. and Canadian governments tors equipped to deal with POPs are expensive, and the few are jointly studying whether these contaminants have re- thatexistarealmostalllocatedindevelopedcountries(I66).In sulted in adverse health effects for the populations living many developing countries, industrial wastes are burned in around the lakes (1 53). open dumpsites, which can release high levels of POPs into the World Resources 1998-99 55 Box 2.5 Are Hormone Mimics Affecting Our Health? The March 1996 publication of Our Stoleni Fui- one, or thyroid hormones integral to the de- exposed to the chemical develop cancer. As ture brought into full public view a debate that velopment of the brain and other organs and one researcher points out, data can show that had been simmering in the scientific literature tissues. Natural sex hormones play a crucial the stork population has declined and that the for several years. In this widely publicized role in governing normal development. Estro- number of births has declined, but that doesn't book, zoologist Theo Colborn of the World gen, for example, not only helps orchestrate mean storks bring babies. Wildlife Fund and two coauthors hypothesize the sexual development of the human embryo that some industrial chemicals commonly and fetus, but it is also needed for the normal Human Health Effects found in the environment could be wreaking development of the brain, bone, muscles, im- Some of the strongest evidence on the re- havoc with human health by disrupting the mune system, and other organs or tissues (6). productive effects of endocrine disruptors body's hormonal system. Specifically, the Prenatal and/or lifetime exposures to sex hor- in humans comes from long-term studies of authors suggest that these substances- mones are also hypothesized to influence the the potent synthetic estrogen diethylstilbe- dubbed "endocrine disruptors" because they risk of developing various cancers (7). strol (DES),which was given to thousands interact with the endocrine, or hormone sys- These hormones travel in the blood and exert of women in the 1950s and 1960s tol prevent tem-may be playing a role in a range of their effects by binding to molecules in cells miscarriage. Studies tracking DES- exposed problems, from reproductive and developmen- known as hormone receptors. This in turn acti- sons and daughters since the 1970s have tal abnormalities to neurological and immu- vates genes in the nucleus of the cell to produce a found a significant number of abnormali- nological defects to cancer (i). Evidence sug- range of biological responses. Under normal con- ties in the structure and function of repro- gests that, at high exposures, some of these ditions, the body carefully controls the amount of ductive organs (it). Some studies have substances, which include DDT and PCBs and active hormones to ensure that the system runs documented that men exposed to D)ES pre- some pesticides, can cause reproductive and smoothly. For instance, the body produces spe- natally are significantly more likely to have developmental problems in wildlife. The ques- cific proteins that can latch onto the hormones smaller testicles and penises, undescended tion is whether these substances can exert and regulate their access to cells. The body also testicles, and poor semen quality (12). Other similar effects on humans at the relatively low protects itself from excessive amounts of potent studies contradict those findings. I i addi- doses typically found in the environment. hormones by putting the reins on hormone pro- tion, because the men were exposed prena- A lack of definitive evidence of adverse health duction or by damping cells' sensitivity to hor- tallv to much larger quantities of aii effects in humans, yet abundant suggestive evi- mones. Endocrine disruptors can work as both estrogen-like substance than they would be dence associating these chemicals with problems hormone mimics and hormone blockers, in both likely to encounter in normal environ- in animals, has provided tinder for a volatile de- cases with a potential to disrupt normal cellular mental settings, these findings cannot be bate. Colborn and others believe that the weight activity. Scientists are still a long way from know- easily extrapolated to the general popula- of evidence in animals and people provides ing at what levels of exposure these effects can be tion warning that these contaminants are threatening seen (8)19). Nevertheless, some researchers have sug- our fertility, intelligence, and basic survival (2). gested that endocrine disruptors mav be asso- Others, such as Stephen Safe of Texas A&M Uni- Clues from Wildlife ciated with a decline in sperm counts in the versity, believe these concerns are overstated, The first evidence of the effects of endocrine general population. This hypothesis emerged claiming they are based on findings that are con- disruptors on reproduction was prompted by when Danish, French, Belgian, and British re- tradictory at best or not relevant to the human dramatic findings in wildlife. During the 1970s searchers noted as much as a 50 percent de- situation (3)(4). Although many of these chemi- and 1980s, PCBs, DDT, dioxin, and other en- cline in sperm counts over the past 20 to 60 cals have been banned by developed countries docrine disruptors were linked with reproduc- years-roughly the same time during which because of other documented adverse effects, tive abnormalities including reduced penis the use of these endocrine disruptcrs became their widespread dispersal and persistence in the size and hampered fertility of Florida alliga- widespread (13). Studies in the United States, environment makes them potential health men- tors, and abnormal mating behavior and re- France, and Finland, however, have not seen a aces for a long time to come. productive organs in Western gulls in the decline in sperm counts; some have even re- So far, at least 45 chemical compounds have United States (10). ported an increase (14)(15). That leaves re- been proposed to be endocrine disruptors. Many These findings prompted researchers to look searchers uncertain about, first, whether a de- are long-lived organic compounds that can per- at the possible role of these substances in human cline in sperm counts has actually occurred in sist in the environment fir decades and bioaccu- health problems as well. Results have been con- some parts of the world; and second, if it has, mulate in body tissue. The list includes: certain flicting, with some studies suggesting harm while whether such a decline can be attributed to the herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides (e.g., atra- others do not. Sorting out these scientific ques- influence of endocrine disruptors. zine and chlordane); industrial chemicals and tions is complicated because many of these sub- Similar uncertainties abound over whether byproducts such as polychlorinated biphenyls stances, such as DDT, are known to have adverse exposure to endocrine disruptors could be af- (PCBs) and dioxin; and a number of compounds effects on both animals and humans, whether or fecting the ratio of male-to-female births in found in plastics, such as phthalates and styrenes, not they disrupt the endocrine system. In other humans. Animal studies suggest that exposure that are used to package foods and beverages 5). words, their adverse health effects could be unre- to certain pesticides can affect the sex ratio of lated to the compound's influence on hormones. gulls, alligators, and turtles, resulting in a de- The Endocrine System Complicating matters further, many of the recent cline in male births (i 6)(17). In humans, some The problems attributed to endocrine disrup- epidemiologic studies have been preliminary, or studies have suggested a minor dec.ine in the tors are thought to arise mainly from the abil- "ecological," in nature. That means that a study proportion of male births in the Netherlands ity of these compounds to mimic or interfere may find that a rise in cancer, for instance, coin- from 1950 to 1994 and in Denmark from 1951 with the normal functioning of sex hormones cides with a rise in the use of a suspect chemi- to 1995 (is)(1). Many other factors are known such as estrogen, testosterone, and progester- cal-but there may be no evidence that people to affect the proportion of female births, in- 56 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH Box 2.5 continued eluding the age of parents, the time in their cycles and put people more at risk of developing infec- Quality, Fertilit 'vand Sterility Noel. 65, No. 5 during which women conceive, or the introdluc- tions. 11 9961, p. 910. tion of hormonally induced ovulation in the The role of endiocrine disruptors in causing 16. Op. cit. 9, pp. 157-158. 1980s 1201. these and other effects is now under active inves- 17. Op. cit. 12, p. 75 1. 18. Karin van der Pal-de-Bruin, S. Pauline Concern that endocrine disruptors might tigation worldwvide. At this stage, the general con- Verloove-Vaohorick and Nel Roeleveld, cause cancer has arisen in part from the clear role sensus among most experts is that many more "Change in male:female ratio among newvborn of DES in cancers in female reproductive organs. studies need to he done to assess whether the babies in Netherlands? The Lanicet, Vol. 349 In addition, a number of epidemiologic studies synthetic chemicals that have helped shape agri- (jarnuary 4, 19971, p. 62. have shown that elevated lifetime exposure to the culture and industry are also shaping the health 19. Henrik Msoller, "Change in mnale-female ratio among newborn infants in Denimark?" Lancet, body's own estrogens, (from, say, early onset of fates of individuals, or even the population at Vol, 348, Sept 211(19961, p. 828-29. menses or late menopause) increases a woman's large. At the international level, the WAorld Health 20. ibid. risk of developing breast cancer 12 11. Could expo- Organization and the Organisation for Economic 21. Op. cit. 7. sure to endocrine disruptors also boost the risk Co-Operation and Development (OECD) are un- 22. Kate Cabow'. "The Cancer Conundrum?, in En- of developing such cancers? (See the Guest Coin- dertaking an international inventory of research. rironnientitl Health Perspectires, Voi. 103, No. I11 mentary by Devra Davis.) Trend data suggest that National governmnents, other international or- (November 19951. p. 999. the incidnce of homonally mdiated cncers, gaizations,and evenprivate2cmpanies aeu23. K.diklun D ad I."Dich eCancerkRsksrAmon the inc(ience f hormnally mdiated ancers ganizaions, aci eve privat cMaleneFarmersa inFr SwedeinSwed uropeanrpeaournrnllof which include breast, testicular, and prostate can- funding and/or conducting research to fill in the Canicer Preivention. Vol. 4, No. 1 1 February' cer, are on the rise in some parts of the world (221. current knowledgecgaps 12911301. In the interim, 1993t,p.8t. Some of the increase in breast and prostate countries are struggling with wvhether and how to 24. Ibid., pp. 81-90. cancer is thought to stem from better screening regulate these substances as scientific under- 25. Joseph Jacobson and Sanidra Jacobson, "Intel- techniquies, earlier diagnosis, and the effect of an standing evolves. irectool Impairment in Children Exposed to population. Some researchers have pushed ~~~~~~~~~~Polychlorinated Biphenvis in Utemo? New, Eog- aging pplto.Smreerhrhaepsedland Journial ofi),edicine, Vol. 335, No ItI that environmental and occupational exposure to References anld Notes 119961, p. 783. endocrine disruptors may also explain some of 1 . Theo Colborn, Dianne Dumanoski, and John Fe- 26. Susan P. Ponterfield, "Vnulnerabtditv of the Desel- the rise. Indeed, some studies have found that terson Myers. Oar Stolen Futtore (Penguin Books, oping Brain to Thyroid Abnormalities: boxviron- farmers exposed to certain pesticides and herbi- Nesw York, 1996),.pp. 26,81,133-134, 199. mental insults to the Thyroid S'ssterm?En: iron- cides have an increased risk of developing pros- 2. Ibid., pp. 260 268. tnental HealthiPcrspectives (June t9941. pp. tate cancer or testicular cancer. Other studies 3. Stephen H. Safe, "Is There an Association Between 123-130.enadNtulRe Exposure to Environmnental Estrogens and Breast 27. Committee on EnsvironmetadNurlR have not foundi such a link, although in some Cancer?" Environmental Health Perspectives (in sources, National Science and Technology cases other chemicals were examined 1231124). press) pp. 2-8. Council (CENR). The Healthi and Ecologicil E.f Another potentially serious effect of e-xposure 4. Ronald Bailey, "Hormnones and Humbug:' The leers olfEndocrinie Disrupring C/hemicals: A to endocrine disruptors is neurological impair- Washington Past (Mtarch 31. 196,p C3. Franiesvork.-for Planning (CENR,\Vashingtwn. ment. Much of the concern stems from a study 5. Then Colborn, Frederick S. ylam Saal, and Ana H . D.C., November 22, 1996), p.4. conducted in te Great kakesregion of theSoto, "Developmental Effects of Endocrine Dis- 28. Lt.S.. Ensvironmental Protection Ageney conductd in te Grea Lakesregionof therupting Chemicals in Wildlife and Humans?" Enitt ULSEPAI, Special Report oni Enivironmnent,il En- United States, which found that childiren exposed ronmental Health Perspectis'es, Vol. mI.0 No. 5, ,locrine Disruiptioni: An Effects Assesstnietit anid to PCB3s prenatally suffered small but significant 11993), p.379. Analvsis I k.S.EPA. Washington, D.C., l997). p intellectual impairment. The most highly ex- 6. Op. cit. 1, p.46 29. European Environment Agency (EEA), "Call for posed children were three times as likely to have 7. Brian Henderson, Ronald Ross, and Malcolm Pike, - AcintReueUeratesndiksC- lowered IQ scores and scere tw'ice as likely to be at "Toward the Primary Prevention of Cancer? 1 Sri- Actio uto Reprductie HneralnthiDes tod Etidosrite least tsvo years behind in reading comprehension. eiice, Vol. 254 (Nov 22,19 l9Ollpp. 1135-36. Disruptors,?Copenhagen,.April 17 (press re- The exposd childre sx'ere lso more ikelyStoStephen H. Safe and Timothy Zachareswski, 'Or-, lease)I. Available online at: http://wwsweea.dk- The eposedchilden wre alo mor likey toganoehlorine Exposure and Risk for Breast Cancer," docurment/NLetPR/PressRel/enocrhtm (Jlanu- have problems wvith attention span and mremory. in Etiology of Breast anid Gynvcicological Cancers,ar2219) What's more, the levels of PCBs that these chil- (JohnoWilev and Sons,News York,in press).ar2,19) 30. Society of Organic Chemical Msanufacturers As- dren were exposed to wvere only slightly higher 9. Louis Guillette, It.. D. Andrew Cramn, Andrews Roo- sociation (SOCNIAI. "SOCMIA Response oni En- than those found in the general population 1251. ne' n ailPcfr,Ognzto essA- docrinie Modulators."Available online at As for a mechanism, stud- ~~~~ilvation: The Role of Endocrine-Disrupting Con- http://wwvso'cscma.com/endopos.htmlI (Decein- Asfrapossible mehns,laboratory su- taminants during Embryonic Development in her 1997). lea have suggested that exposure to PCBs prena- Wildilife? Environiinentai Heatlth Perspectir es, Vol. tally or through breast milk can lower blood lev- 103, Supplement 7 119951, p. 161. els of thyroid hormones needed to stimulate the tO. Op.cit. l, pp. 21-723,131 132, 150-156. grosvth and maturation of brain cells 126). Hosw- 11. RIJ. Stillman "Isiutero exposure to diethylstilbestrnl: ever, te mechaism ha vet tobe detemined, adverse effects on the reproductive tract and repro- ever, he mecanism as yetto be etermied,dhctsve performance in male and female offsprinig? and it is also possible that PCBs are impairing in- Amecricani Joiriial o f Obstetricsi and Gynecology, Nol. telligence through a mechanism unrelated to en- 142 (19821, pp. 905-921.~ docrine disruption (27). 12. Jorma Toppari et ali., "Male Reproductive Health Natural hormones also have a hand in shiaping and Env'ironmnertal .Xenoestrogens,?Enr,irontn~entaI Heailth Perspectivees, Vol. 104. Suppl. 4 It19961. pp. the prenatal development of the immune system 7374 and influencing its actions in children and adults 13. Ibid., pp. 742-743. i281, sparkiing concei n that tildocriite disruptors 14. Op. cit. 12, p. 743. might affect the immune system to some degree Is3. karry Lipshultz, "The Debate Continues-the Con- tinutng Debate over the Possible Decline in Semen World Resources 1998-99 57 sects in apple orchards. The Romans added lead to wine to im- FIGURE2.7 Globabl Poductonrand Censumption ofSeec-edToxicMetals,3852-1990 prove its taste, and mercury was used as a salve to alleviate P ood C on (mlionmet, ctons) Emissions milon mertrons) teething pain in infants (171)(172). 90 45. The toxicity of these metals has also been documented 30 4.C throughout history: Greek and Roman physicians diagnosed 80 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4.0 ¶. w. symptoms of acute lead poisoning long before toxicology be- 70 - 3. came a science. Today, much more is known abou: the health 60 3 0 effects of heavy metals. Exposure to heavy metals has been so 8 ^ linked with developmental retardation, various cancers, kid- 5 2.5 ney damage, and even death in some instances of Exposure to 40 * __ 2 D very high concentrations. Exposure to high levels of mercury, 30 . - 8 ; I S gold, and lead has also been associated with the development 30 ,1 '- of autoimmunity, in which the immune system starts to attack 20 - * :'4 t.0 its own cells, mistaking them for foreign invaders ( 173). Auto- 10 _3. immunity can lead to the development of diseases ofthejoints and kidneys, such as rheumatoid arthritis, or diseases of the 0 00 Ns @ , s , , circulatory or central nervous systems (174). s' 4' 4'j ' ' ' ? ,,,' .e$' Despite abundant evidence of these deleterious health ef- Ts LEAD PRODUCTION so LEAD EMISSIONS fects, exposure to heavy metals continues and may increase in Xs:ss COPPER PRODUCTION COPPER EMISSIONS the absence of concerted policy actions. Mercury is still ex- .Žosmmssg ZINC PRODUCTION - - iZINC EMISSIONS tensively used in gold mining in many parts of Latin America. Arsenic, along with copper and chromium compounds, is a Source: J.O. Nriagu,"History of Global Metal Pol ution," Sdence, Vo 272 (April 12,1996), pp. commn ingreitinwodpreservaivescoeadis dstiswe 223-224. common igredient m wood preservatives. Lead iS still widely used as an additive in gasoline. Increased use of coal in the fu- ture will increase metal exposures because coal ash contains immediate vicinity. Concern is mounting that the history of many toxic metals and can be breathed deeply into the lungs. environmental contamination in the Great Lakes region is re- For countries such as China and India, which continue to rely peating itself in many industrial and agricultural areas of the on high-ash coal as a primary energy source, the health impli- developing world. In Cameroon, for instance, growth in in- cations are ominous (175). dustries such as oil refineries, electroplating, and power gen- Once emitted, metals can reside in the environment for eration is creating large quantities of wastes contaminated hundreds of years or more. Evidence of human exploitation of with metals and POPs. Scientists have measured extremely heavy metals has been found in the ice cores in Grecnland and high PCB loads in the surrounding area (167). sea water in the Antarctic. The lead contents of ice layers de- Furthermore, as the experience with the Great Lakes has posited annually in Greenland show a steady rise :hat paral- shown, even after decades of expensive cleanup, concentra- lels the mining renaissance in Europe, reaching values 100 tions of many pollutants, including dioxins, PCBs, and methyl times the natural background level in the mid- 1990s (176). mercury, can remain unacceptably high in some fish species Mining itself, not only of heavy metals but also of coal and (168)(169).Inmanypartsoftheworld,fishrepresentanimpor- other minerals, is another major route of exposure. Despite tant source of protein, so levels of PCBs are an important some noted improvements in worker safety and cleaner pro- health concern. duction, mining remains one of the most hazardous and envi- ronmentally damaging industries. In Bolivia, toxic sludge Heavy Metals and Health from a zinc mine in the Andes had killed aquatic life along a 300-kilometer stretch of river systems as of 1996. It also Since the Industrial Revolution, the production of heavy met- threatened the livelihood and health of 50,000 of the region's als such as lead, copper, and zinc has increased exponentially. subsistence farmers (177). Uncontrolled smelters have pro- Between 1850 and 1990, production of these three metals in- duced some of the world's only environmental "dead zones;' creased nearly 10-fold, with emissions rising in tandem (170). where little or no vegetation survives. For instance, toxic (See Figure 2.7.) Heavy metals have been used in a variety of emissions from the Sudbury, Ontario, nickel smelter have ways for at least 2 millennia. For example, lead has been used devastated 10,400 hectares of forests downwind of the smelter in plumbing, and lead arsenate has been used to control in- (178). 58 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH LEAD _I .. RM Aside from smokle, lead TABLE 2.5 Selected Studies S owing r r B Bod ea evees Among Children, 1988-95 is probably the oldest RANGE OF BLOOD PERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN human-made atmos- COUNTRY LEAD LEVELS WITH LEVELS >10 MICROGRAMS pheric and occupational (city/region) YEAR (micrograms per dedliter) MEAN PER DECILITER toxin, dating back at Argentina (urban) 1989 7-42 22.1+7 NA least ,000 ears o t e Bulgaria least 8,000 years to the Haskovo 1995 5.5-19.8 NA first lead-smelting fur- Kritehim 1991 4.1-15.1 NA naces (179). Today, lead Kourtove-Kon 1991 6.5-41.3 NA poisoning remains the China single most significant Shenyang (polluted urban) 1991 NA 30.5 99.5 preventable disease as- Shenyang (nonpollutedcurban) 1991 NA 12.2 67.9 sociated with an envi- Beijing (polluted suburban) 1992 NA 22.4 64.9 ronmental and occupa- Shanghai (polluted urban) 1988 5.0-55.0 23.4 85.6 tional toxin (1801. Shanghai (nonpolluted suburban) 1988 0-55.0 18.4 88.2 Mexico (urban) 1995 1-31 9.0±5.8 27.8 The risks of lead expo- Poland sure vary greatly de- Town with no industrial emitters 1992-94 2.25-2.39 NA pending upon where Town with copper and zinc mil.s 1992-94 7.37-11.40 NA one lives. In Bangkok, Romania Mexico City, and Ja- Bucharest 1995 17.10-21.93 NA karta, exposure largely Uruguay 1994 1-31 9.5 NA stems fromn automotive . I 1 I i 111'1 1 *I I r . auncthe1arnbuv5,'E7ueurJnne6.thleYn9ea.Ve l.t05 ye., , l ,, , ,, I, | , ., | l ,, . i ., I, | . - | - -,, "Second Meeting oftheTaskForceon the Pnaseout of LeadI exhausts; however, in - I,,: ., , I ,, ,e-, . . . 1 997), p.25.China. Iao-ming Sheneto.,ChildhoodLead Doi- inner- city Chicago and sonng in CCina,jThe Science of the Total Environnent, Vo. 181 (1996), p. 103 Note: NA - not availab e. Washington, D.C., expo- sure is mostly associated with lead in house paint (1S 8). Generally, human exposure to which health impacts are known to be substantial, scientists lead comes from the following main sources: using leaded have not yet identified a level below which no adverse effects gasoline; using lead-based paint; having lead pipes in water of lead occur (187)(188).Several studies have found detectable supply systems; and exposure to industrial sources from pro- learning problems in children whose blood lead levels are as cesses such as lead mining, smelting, and coal combustion. low as 5 to 10 micrograms per deciliter (189). Additional sources of lead include soldered seams in food Exposures to unhealthy levels of lead remain common cans, ceramic glazes, batteries, and cosmetics (182). throughout both developed and developing countries. (See Leadisparticularlytoxictothebrain,kidneys,reproductive Table 2.5.) Among urban children in developing countries, system, and cardiovascular system. Exposures can cause im- the majority of children younger than 2 years of age have aver- pairments in intellectual functioning, kidney damage, infer- age blood lead levels greater than 10 micrograms per deciliter, tility, miscarriage, and hypertension (183). Lead is a special estimates suggest (19o). A review of 17 studies from different hazard for young children. Several studies have shown that parts of China found that between 65 and 99.5 percent of chil- lead exposures can significantly reduce the IQ of school-aged dren living in industrial and heavy traffic areas had blood lead children; some estimates suggest that every 10-microgram- levels above 10 micrograms per deciliter. Even outside of per-deciliter increase in lead levels in the blood is associated those high-risk areas, as many as 50 percent of China's chil- with a 1- to 5-point decrease in the IQ of exposed children dren had unacceptably high blood lead levels (191). Even in (184). Lead exposures have also been associated with aggres- Africa, despite comparatively low levels of industrialization sive behavior, delinquency, and attention disorders in boys and car usage, lead exposure is a serious problem. In Nigeria, betwieen the ages of 7 and 11 (185). In adults, lead exposure has for instance, it is estimated that 15 to 30 percent of the chil- been related to increased blood pressure and hypertension, dren in urban areas have blood lead levels greater than 25 mi- conditions known to increase the risk of cardiovascular dis- crograms per deciliter (192). ease. The health toll of lead exposure is particularly high among Unlike most chemicals for which health impacts of low- poor populations of developed and developing countries level doses are still uncertain, exposure to lead, even at very alike, both because exposures are typically higher and be- low levels, is highly toxic (186). Although 10 micrograms of cause the populations may be more susceptible. In urban ar- leadper 1 deciliterofbloodisgenerallyusedasthelevelabove eas, for instance, the poor may live near major roadways World Resources 1998-99 59 where exposure to vehicle emissions is high. They also Lend to Southeast Asia, unleaded gasoline is scarce, and the maxi- live in older housing, where the risks from lead-based paint mum allowed lead content of gasoline may reach or exceed 0.8 are greater. In addition, lead is believed to be absorbed from grams per liter (205). Although fuel consumption in these the stomach more completely when the stomach is empty and countries is considerably lower than in the rest of the world, when the diet lacks essential trace elements, such as iron, cal- lead emissions represent a serious health hazard because of cium, and zinc (193). the increasing pace of urbanization and the increased use of motor vehicles (206). Even in Latin America, where several LEAD IN GASOLINE countries are making concerted efforts to reduce -he lead in Although lead in gasoline represents only 2.2 percent of total gasoline, increased gasoline consumption associated with ur- global lead use, leaded gasoline remains by far the single larg- ban growth and car ownership is nevertheless forcing large est source of lead exposure in urban areas. Approximately 90 increases in the total amount of lead emissions (207). In most percent of all lead emissions into the atmosphere are due to European countries, roughlv one half of the cars use unleaded the use of leaded gasoline (194). Populations in at least 100 gasoline, while the other half still use gas containing 0.15 countries are still exposedto airpollutedwithleadfrom gaso- grams of lead per liter (208). line. (See Appendix.) Besides posing an immediate health risk through inhalation, vehicular lead emissions can also accu- OTHER SOURCES mulate in soil, contaminate drinking water, and enter the food For some populations, other sources of lead may be more im- chain (195). portant than gasoline. The most acute and even fatal lead poi- The use of lead in gasoline has a long history. In 1922, auto soning cases are associated with lead mining and processing. manufacturers realized that adding lead to gasoline could In a 1992 study of the Baia Mare (Big Mine), Romania, lead boost its octane rating and produce more power. Concerns smelter workers had mean blood lead levels of 77.4 micro- over the health effects of lead in gasoline surfaced just two grams per deciliter. In children living near the lead smelter, years later,when, in the experimental laboratories of the Stan- mean blood lead levels of 63.3 micrograms per deciliter were dard Oil Company, 5 out of 49 workers died and 35 experi- measured (209). enced severe neurological symptoms from organic lead poi- Battery recycling is also an important source of lead expo- soning. Soon thereafter, the state of New York, the city of sures. On a global scale, 63 percent ofall processed lead is used Philadelphia, and some other municipalities briefly banned in the manufacturing of batteries (210). In Mexico, the Carib- the sale of leaded gasoline. However, once the immediate fu- bean, and India, family-based industries use open fiurnaces in ror subsided, the use of lead in gasoline resumed (196). The theirbackyardstorecoverleadfrombatteriesbycrudesmelt- amount of lead additives increased quickly, rising to 375,000 ing. These cottage industries can result in extremely high lead metric tons annually by early 1970s (197). exposures for the whole family. In Jamaica, children living By 1970, however, concerns about tailpipe emissions led to near backyard smelter sites had mean blood lead levels nearly the introduction of catalytic converters in the United States three times those of children from communities with no and Canada. Because leaded gasoline is incompatible with backyard smeltingactivities,accordingtoarecentsstudy(211). catalytic converters, cars with converters required unleaded In 1991, an outbreak of lead poisoning occurred in Trinidad gasoline (198). In 1985, the U.S. EPA decided to accelerate its and Tobago where the soil was contaminated by wastes from gradual phaseout of leaded gasoline and implemented legisla- battery recycling. Blood lead concentrations in children living tion designed to slash the use of lead in gasoline by more than in this area varied between 17 and 235 micrograms per decili- an order of magnitude in less than 1 year (199). (See Chapter ter, with an average of 72.1 micrograms per deciliter (212). 3.) The public health benefits of these reductions have been Lead-glazed pottery and lead pigments in children's toys dramatic. Between 1976 and 1990, average blood lead levels in and pencils are other routes of exposure (213). ApprDximately the U.S.population declined from 14.5 to 2.8 micrograms per 30 percent of the population in Mexico uses glazed pottery deciliter, paralleling the phaseout of leaded gasoline (200). regularly,placing nearly24 million people at risk of exposure This finding suggests that as much as 40 to 60 percent ofblood to lead from this single source (214). Lead solder in aluminum lead levels in the U.S. population were associated with leaded cans can also pose significant risks; in Honduras, for instance, gasoline (201). Similarly, after unleaded gasoline was intro- studies have shown that lead residues in canned food range duced in Mexico City in 1990, mean blood lead level concen- from 0.13 to 14.8 milligrams per kilogram, far above WHO trations in schoolchildren dropped from 16.5 to 11.14 micro- guidelines (215). grams per deciliter in 1992 (202). In the United States, despite much progress in reducing Despite these remarkably successful programs, by the end mean blood lead levels and eliminating lead from gasoline, of 1996, only 14 countries had completely phased out the use lead poisoning remains a major health hazard for children of leaded gasoline (203) (204). In many countries in Africa and under the age of 6. Approximately 1.7 million children in the 60 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIfRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH United States have blood lead levels that exceed the ' ! A , . . recommended level of 10 micrograms per deciliter T4BLE 2.6 Differences in Blood Lead Lev ls Based on R9a,/Ethniciyf Income Lev&e and Urba Status, (216), with the highest average blood lead levels 1988 91 found among poor, urban, African-American, and PERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN 1TO5 YEARS OF AGE WITH Hispanic children (217). (See Table 2.6.) Lead- BLOODLEADLEVELSŽ10MICROGRAMSPERDECILITER based paint is a major exposure route. Although NON-HISPANIC NON-HISPANIC MEXICAN lead has been banned from residential paint since INCOME LEVEL ALL WHITE BLACK AMERICAN 1978, about three quarters of all housing units built Low 16.3 9.8 28.4 8.8 Mid 5.4 4.8 8.9 5.6 before 1980 contain some lead-based paint (218). High 4.0 4.3 5.8 9 Because lead-based paint is still used throughout Urban status Latin America and the Caribbean,this threatens to Central city,> 1 million 21.0 6.1 36.7 17.0 become a major route of exposure in those coun- Central city, < 1 million 16.4 8.1 22.5 9.5 tries as well (219). Noncentral city 5.8 52.0 11.2 7.0 Source: Debra Brody etaL., "Blood Lead Leves n the U.S. Popu ation:Phase oftheThird National -ealth and Nutri tioniExamination Survey (NHANES 111,1988to 1991), i< - fections (ARI) in children; chronic obstructive lung diseases EAST ASIA - J such as asthma and chronic bronchitis; lung cancer; and still- RAJDPAC FIC births and other problems at birth. Of these, ARI appears to have the greatest health impact in terms of the number of peo- SOUTH ASIA i ple affected and the time lost due to illness, especi ally in chil- dren younger than age 5. SUB-SAHARAN E _ - A . . 'ek ::" m Studies in a number of different countries and se ttings have 2C 40 60 80 100 examined the link between exposure to smoke from cook- (PERCENT OF TOTAL ENERGYJSEQ stoves with the development of ARI in children. IrT South Af- rica, investigators found that Zulu children living in homes with woodstoves were almost five times more likelyto develop Source: The Word BankeuRrel EnergyanoDevelopment improving Energy Supplies for Tvo B0hoon a respiratory infection severe enough to require hlospitaliza- Aeopme(TheWorld Bank,Washington,D.C.,1996S,p.26. tion (261). In Nepal, researchers observed a significant rela- tionship between the number of hours spent near the fire and even small pollution sources - emanating from a furnace, a the incidence of moderate and severe cases among 2-year- even~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ small pollutio sourcese emntn fromn atd funae ah L fudta new carpet, or from naturally occurring radon gas-can lead olds (262). Likewise, a recent study in the Gambia found that to significant human exposures. children carried on their mother's backs as they cooked over to significant human exposures. By far the greatest threat of indoor pollution, however, still smoky cookstoves contracted pneumococcal infections- occurs in the developing countries, where some 3.5 billion one of the most serious kinds of respiratory infections-at a people -mostlyin rural areas,but also in many'cities - con- rate 2.5 times higher than nonexposed children (263). tinue to rely on traditional fuels for cooking and heating. (See Many respiratory infections in the developing world result Figure 2.9.) Burning such fuels produces large amounts of in death, and evidence shows that exposure to cookstove smoke and other air pollutants in the confined space of the home-a perfect recipe for high exposures. (Liquid and gase- I ous fuels such as kerosene and bottled gas, although not com- TLE 2 7 loocor Pariculare Cnrenraticns from R omcS ComonSI i pletely pollution-free, are many times less polluting than Developlng Countr cs these unprocessed solid fuels.) In these circumstances, expo- sure to pollutants is often far higher indoors than outdoors. REGION STUDIES DURATION CUBIC METER Indeed, the World Bank has designated indoor air pollution in developing countries as one of the four most critical global Pacific 2 12 h 1,:00-5,200 environmental problems (259). South Asia 15 Cooking period 850-4,400' Cooking 630-820 As Table 2.7 shows, concentrations of indoor pollutants in Non-cooking 880' households burning dirty fuels are excessive. These estimates 24 h 2,C00-2,800V must be viewed with some caution, however, because moni- Various 2,000-6,800 , . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Urban infants, 24 h 400-520a toring in developing countries has been limited. Daily aver- ages often exceed current WHO guidelines by factors of to, China 8 Various 2,000-2,900 Various 1,11)0-11,000' 20, or even more. Peak levels during cooking may exceed these Africa 8 Cooking/heating 800-1,700 levels by a further factor of five or so. Indeed, these data sug- Cooking/heating 24 h 1,300' gest that many tens of millions of people in developing coun- Urban area, 24 h 1,300-2,100' tries routinely encounter pollution levels reached during the 400-590a infamous London killer fog of 1952, leading to a huge esti- Latin America 5 Cooking/heating 24 h 440-1,100' mated toll in disease and premature death. One researcher es- 720-1,2003 timates that as many as 2.8 million deaths per year result fronm Source: Adapted from World Health Organizaton (WHO),EHeolthandfEnvironmenUnSustainable Development Five Years ahfer the farth Summit (WHO, Geneva, 1 997),Table 4.4,p. 7. breathing elevated levels of indoor smoke from dirty fuels Note.a.ParticleslessthanIOpmindlameter. 66 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH smokemay contributetohighermortalityrates. Forexample, Climate Change and Health a study in Tanzania found that children younger than 5 years Climate influences many of the key determinants of health: of age who died of ARI were 2.8 times more likely to have been temperature extremes and violent weather events; the geo- sleeping in a room with an open cookstove than healthy chil- graphical range of disease organisms and vectors; the quan- dren (264. Overall, studies indicate that exposure to wood tity of air, food, and water; and the stability of the ecosystems smoke from cook fires in poorlyventilated conditions may in- on which we depend. crease the risk of a young child contracting a serious respira- Because climate affects us in so manyways and because the tory infection from two to six times. details of how the global climate may change are so uncertain, Adults suffer the ill effects of severe indoor pollution as well. predicting the health effects of climate change is an inexact Several studies found strong links between chronic lung dis- science at best. But given what is already known about the eases in women and exposure to smoke from open cookstoves connection between climate and health and the magnitude of (265)(266). One recent Colombian study found women ex- the global warming that scientists project, future health ef- posed to smoke during cooking were more than three times fects could be substantial. These effects are likely to vary more likely to suffer chronic lung disease (267). Other studies widely from region to region, because climate itself is pre- suggest that this risk increases in response to the years of ex- dicted to change differently in various regions. For instance, posure to smoke. A study in Mexico showed that women who temperatures are expected to rise more in some areas than had been exposed to wood smoke for many years faced 75 others; some places likely will get drier, while others will get times more risk of acquiring chronic lung disease than unex- more rain than they do today. posed women-about the level of risk that heavy cigarette Likely health impacts of climate change include direct ef- smokers face (268). Lung cancer, too, is associated with high fects from temperature and weather extremes and from sea- levels of smoke-especially coal smoke, which contains a level rise. A number of indirect impacts are also likely to arise plethora of carcinogenic compounds. Most studies of coal- from changes in precipitation and temperature patterns, smoke exposures have been conducted in China, where resi- which may disturb natural ecosystems, change the ecology of dential use of coal is still common (269). More than 20 studies infectious diseases, harm agriculture and freshwater supplies, suggest that urban women who use coal for cooking and heat- exacerbate air poLlution levels, and cause large-scale reorgani- ing over many years are subject to a risk of lung cancer two to zation of plant and animal communities. (See Figure 2.10.) six times higher than women who use gas. Rural coal-smoke These indirect effects may, in the long run, have greater cumu- exposures, which tend to be higher, seem to increase lung can- lative impacts on human health than the direct effects (272). cer risks bv a factor of nine or more (270). DIRECT IMPACTS Exposure to high indoor smoke levels has also been linked OnE IMPACTS with pregnancv-rlated problems like stillbirths andlowbirth One o the most easi imagined impacts of global warmigis an increase in the number and severity of heat waves. Heat weight. One study in western India found a 50-percent in- stress is a well-known danger during prolonged bouts of hot crease in stillbirths associated with the exposure of pregnant weather, especially in cities, which tend to trap heat. In both women to indoor smoke (271). Indoor air pollution most New York and Shanghai, for instance, records show that dailv likely contributes to excess heart disease in developing coun- m r i mortality rates increase sharply once temperatures exceed a tries as well. In developed countries, outdoor pollution at lev- certain threshold (273). During intense heat waves, the death els far below those found in smoky indoor environments has toll attributed to heat stress can be surprisingly high, as oc- been linked with heart disease. curred in Chicago in July 1995, when heat stress killed 726 When it happens, the well-documented transition up the people during a 4-day heat wave (274)(275). energy ladder from dirty to clean fuel will greatly reduce the [,.11 i lid..j cities includingWashington,D.C.,Athens,and threat from indoor air pollution in developing countries. The Shanghai seem to be at greatest risk for deadly heat waves. In speed of this transition will depend on several factors, includ- these cities, residents (especially the elderly, the very young, ing energy prices, trends in personal income, and national and the poor) are not acclimatized to extremelv hot weather policies targeting the indoor air problem. Continued low oil and are thus more vulnerable to heat stress. Among these vul- prices and strong government action promoting cleaner nerable groups, the existence of previous health problems, stoves and cleaner fuels such as kerosene or gas could result in greater heat exposure due to substandard housing, and lack of a much faster transition,but these favorable conditions are far access to air conditioning are all factors leading to higher from assured. In fact, even though investments in cleaning up heat-related mortality. By the middle of the next century, cli- indoor air can be very cost-efficient in terms of health, na- mate change could increase the frequency of very hot days tions have historically spent little on the indoor air problem. severalfold in a city similar to Washington, D.C., according to World Resources 1998-99 67 an increase in the averagewintertime temperatureby2.0° Cto F CURE 2.10 Direct and Ind ect Hea th Impacns of C imate Change 2.5 C, as predicted by some climate models, might result in as MEDIATING PROCESS HEALTH OUTCOMES many as 9,000 fewer cold-related deaths per year in England Direct ! and Wales. Yet, this decrease in winter mortality would proba- Direc bly only partiallyoffset additionalheat-related deaths; studies Exposure to thermal Altered rates of heat- and indicate that higher mortality is generally associated with extremes cold-related illness and death heat waves than cold spells (278). (See Table 2.8.) Alteredfrequencyand/or _> Deaths,injuries,psychological In addition to more frequent heat waves, glooal climate intensityofotherextreme disorders;damagetopublic change is expected to result in greater weather variability weather events health infrastructure overall. In particular, climatologists believe that relatively small changes in the average global climate in the fiuture could Indirect produce large changes in the frequency of extrerne weather DISTURBANCES OF events (279), such as hurricanes (cyclones), violent thunder- ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS storms, and windstorms. Through flood and wind damage, Effects on range and mw* Changes in geographic these natural disasters already exact a heavy burden in the de- activity of vectors and ranges and incidence of struction of lives and property (280). infective parasites vector-borne diseases Rising sea levels, another expected consequence of global Altered local ecology of Changed incidence of warming, could adversely affect the health and well-being of waterborne and ON diarrheal and other coastal inhabitants. Sixteen of the world's largest cities with foodborne Infective infectious diseases agents populations of more than 10 million are located in coastal Altered food (especially Malnutrition and hunger, zones, and coastal populations are increasing rapidly world- crop) productivity due 70 and consequent wide. The IPCC projects that sea level will rise between 0.3 to changes in climate, impairment of child growth and 1.0 meter by 2100, with a best-guess estimate of 0.5 meter weather events, and and development associated pests and (281). diseases The most immediate threat from such a rise would be to those who live directly on the coast, in low-lying areas such as Sea level rse,with o ncreased risk of infectious population displacement disease, psychological and damage to disorders l TA,L 2 8 Estimates of Summer Heat-Related Deaths n 2020 in Selected Cities infrastructure Under a Climate Change Scenario' Levels and biological 4o Asthma and allergic disorders; PRESENT POPULATION POPULATION impacts of air pollution, other acute and chronic CITY MORTALITYb NOTACCLIMATIZED ACCLIMATIZED including pollens and respiratory disorders and United States spore deathAtlanta 78 191 96 Social,economic,and Wide range of public health Dallas 19 35 28 demographic dislocations .. consequences; mental health Detroit 118 264 131 due to effects on and nutritional impairment, Los Angeles 84 205 102 economy, infrastructure, infectious diseases, civil strife NewYork 320 356 190 and resource supply NwYr 2 5 9 Philadelphia 145 190 142 San Francisco 27 49 40 Source: Adapted from.World Health Organ zaton WVHO),ClimC eChengoeandHuma NHeanrh, Canada A.J. NtcMichael er at, eds.(WHO, Geneva, 199s6, Figure t 1, p.12. Montreal 69 121 61 Toronto 19 36 0 China one estimate (276). The normally hotter average temperatures Shanghai 418 1,104 833 in tropical and subtropical cities seem to help residents ac- Egypt commodate heat waves better, so they suffer fewer heat-stress Cairo 281 476 N.A. problems, although heat-related deaths during a 1995 heat Source:tNorld Health Organrzation (WHO), Cirmote Chlanae andhuman Helnalh, AJ McmIchael, er al., eds. (WHO, Geneva, 1396),Table 35, p.57. wave in New Delhi indicate that even residents in the tropics Notes: can be susceptible to extreme temperatures (277). a. Numbers represent average summer-season heat-related deaths for each city under the Conversely, a potential health benefit of warmer global or in Atlana fo henatre F° and, assrumng no accrn atizationthis number rises temperatures could be fewer cold-related deaths as winters to 191 deaths. Numbers assume no change in population size and age distributio 1. become milder. A recent British studv estimated that by 2050, b. Raw mortaly data. N.A.= Not applicable. 68 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH FIGURE 2.11 Heavv Pcpulated Dei.a RegionsThat Are Vulnerableto Sea Level Rise Nile, Egypt Po, Italy Huang He, China R> thine, Netherlands -t; CZ{ ) Ni~~~~~ger'ia Pakistan7 India r as Mahanadi India Parana, Argentina Narmada and Tapti, India Krishna and Ganges- Godavari, India Brahmaputra, India Source: World Health Organization (WHO),0imateChangeandHumoa heolth,A.J.McMichael et a.,eds. (WHO, Geneva, 1996), Figure 7.3, p. 155. river deltas, or on small island nations such as the Maldives, The number at risk from flooding would double if sea level the Marshall Islands, Kiribati, and Tonga, where land is virtu- rises 0.5 meters and nearly triple with a 1-meter rise, accord- ally all within a few meters of sea level already. Rising seas ing to one study. In an area like Bangladesh, where storm would inundate many of these islands, increase storm damage surges can reach as far as 200 kilometers inland during some to the remaining land, and contaminate the freshwater sup- intense cyclones, the increase in flood risk could greatly mag- plies found in island aquifers (282). nify the already high toll associated with such storms. Coastal Delta regions such as the Ganges-Bramaputra delta in erosion would also increase substantially, endangering natu- Bangladesh,theNiledeltainEgypt,ortheNigerdeltainNige- ral protective features such as sand dunes, mangroves, and ria could also suffer a similar fate. The situation in Banglade- barrier islands, and exacerbating the flood risk (284). sh's densely settled Ganges-Bramaputra delta is probably the Climate change could influence air pollution profiles-and most serious. A recent study projects that a 1-meter sea rise the health effects that come from exposure to polluted could inundate 17 percent of Bangladesh's total land area and air-by altering the rate of chemical reactions in the atmos- displace some 11 million people (at current population densi- phere that form or destroy pollutants, or by influencing the ties). In the Nile delta, a 1-meter rise would displace around 6 factors such as wind and precipitation that regulate how pol- million people unless costly protection efforts were mounted; lutants accumulate or disperse. For example, higher tempera- and in the Niger delta, a similar rise would inundate 15,000 tures favor the formation of pollutants like ground-level square kilometers of land and force about one half million ozone-the main constituent of smog. Preliminary calcula- people to relocate (283). (See Figure 2.11.) tions by U.S. EPA show that a 4° C increase in ambient air tem- Beyond actual inundation, a rising sea level would put mil- peratures in the San Francisco Bay area would likely increase lions of people at greater risk of occasional storm-related ozone levels by 20 percent and double the size of the area that flooding. Under current conditions, about 46 million coastal does not meet national air quality standards (285). Higher residents experience some flooding from storms each year. temperatures would also increase the evaporation of volatile World Resources 1998-99 69 liquids such as gasoline or organic solvents, again adding to all population of mosquitoes. Thus, the combination of tem- the urban smog problem. perature and rainfall changes-modified by rmany other Changes in regional wind and rainfall patterns accompany- factors such as land use changes, human population densities, ing climate change could also affect air pollution levels. If and whether exposed populations have any built-in disease winds increase in a given area, they would tend to disperse immunity-will determine how the patterns of mosquito- and dilute air pollutants, thereby lowering human exposures. borne diseases change (290). In some areas, the interplay of By contrast, a decrease in winds with an increased tendency to these factors will increase disease incidence; in oth cr areas, in- form local inversion layers-where warm, still air aloft traps cidence may decline. pollutants close to the surface-would increase pollution ex- Argentina provides an example of the complex changes in posures. Likewise, in areas where rainfall increases, pollutant malaria distribution that climate change could bring. Cur- loads may decline, since precipitation scours many pollutants rently, most of Argentina lies just south of the zone in which from the air. A decrease in rainfall, on the other hand, may in- malaria occurs. But if global warming increases rainfall in crease pollution levels since fewer pollutants are washed out central Argentina and makes it semitropical, as models proj- of the atmosphere (2S6)(287). ect, the malaria-carrying mosquitoes might be able to expand south into the pampas and savanna regions, introducing ma- INDIRECT IMPACTS laria to these areas. On the other hand, northwestern Argen- Climate change will likelyraise the already considerable toll of tina,where malaria mosquitoes can now be found, might well infectious diseases worldwide. This impact is likely to occur become drier with global warming, making it less conducive because factors such as temperature and rainfall can affect the to mosquito survival and reducing malaria outbreaks there abundance and distribution of disease vectors or disease- (291). causing microbes, as well as the vulnerability of populations The most pronounced effects of climate change on vector- to these diseases. It is impossible to predict exactly how dis- borne diseases such as malaria or dengue fever wilL undoubt- ease rates will change in response to climate change because edly occur where the diseases are newly introduced at the the interactions between environment and disease are so edges of the vector range and people have little resistance built complex, and the effects of climate change will vary so much up. In Africa, this will often be at higher elevations that were from location to location. But considerable evidence shows formerly too cold to support these diseases. Increasing num- that many diseases are quite sensitive to variations in climate bers of malaria cases have already been reported irn the high- and are likely to increase their range and incidence as tem- lands of Madagascar and Ethiopia as a result of warming; in peratures rise and precipitation patterns change. Rwanda, record high temperatures and rainfall in 1987 Mosquitoes are quite sensitive to changes in temperature brought malaria into the highlands where local residents had and rainfall and are among the first organisms to extend their no immunity. These incidents have led public healt h officials range when environmental conditions become favorable to fear that relatively small increases in temperature from (288). Thus, higher temperatures could influence the inci- global warming could spread malaria into large urban centers dence of diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, such as Nairobi, Kenya, and Harare, Zimbabwe, that currently and several types of encephalitis. Cold temperatures are often lie just outside of the malaria range (292) (293). the limiting factor in mosquito survival, so any increase in Under a similar scenario, malaria and dengue fever could minimum winter temperatures would likely extend mosquito spread into large swaths of the temperate zone where popula- ranges into temperate regions or higher altitudes where they tions now lack resistance. Rough models of the spread of ma- do not survive now. laria affected by global warming show that malaria prevalence Higher temperatures also speed the life cycles of both the mayincrease by 50 million to 80 million cases per year with an mosquito and the disease organisms they harbor and make associated 30 C rise in average global temperature by the year adult mosquitoes bite more often. At 300 C, the dengue virus 2100 (294). takes 12 days to incubate in the Aedes 1,. mosquito, but Other vector-borne diseases such as schistosomiasis, Cha- only 7 days at 320 C. The shorter incubation period translates gas disease, sleeping sickness, river blindness, and various to a potential threefold higher transmission rate of the dis- strains of encephalitis all could change their ranges and pat- ease. Higher temperatures also produce smaller adult mos- terns of infection in the course of climate change. For exam- quitoes that must feed more often to develop an egg batch, ple, recent modeling of the response of schistosomiasis to which in turn increases the chances for disease transmission current global warming trends suggests that an additional 5 (289). million cases will appear per year by 2050 (295). Another re- Although temperature most determines the potential range cent study predicted that the population of black flies that of the mosquito and the disease organism, precipitation prin- carry river blindness could increase as much as 25 percent if cipally governs the availability of breeding sites and the over- temperature and precipitation patterns change in the manner 70 World Resources 1998-99 CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS, CHANGING HEALTH TABL 2 9 MajorT-opica Vector-Borne Diseases and the Like mood oChaooe in Their Distr bojion as a Result of C mate Chance NUMBER LIKELIHOOD OF ALTERED AT RISK NUMBER INFECTED OR PRESENT DISTRIBUTION WITH DISEASE VECTOR (millions)' NEWCASESPERYEAR DISTRIBUTION CLIMATE CHANGE Malaria Mosquito 2400 300 million to 500 million Tropics/subtropics Highly likely Schistosomiasis Water snail 600 200 million Tropics/subtropics Very likely Lymphaticfilariasis Mosquito 1094 117 million Tropics/subtropics Likely African trypanosomiasis Tsetse fly 55 250,000 to 300,000 Tropical Africa Likely cases/year Dracunculiasis Crustacean 100 200,000/year South Asia/Middle East/ Unknown (copepod) Central and West Africa Leishmaniasis Phlebotomine 350 12 million infected, Asia/South Europe/ Likely sandfly 500,000 new cases/year' Africa/Americas Onchocerciasis Blackfly 123 17.5 million Africa/Latin America Very likely American trypanosomiasis Triatomine bug 100 18 million to 20 million Central and South America Likely Dengue fever Mosquito 2300 50 million/year Tropics/subtropics Very likely Yellow fever Mosquito 450 <5,000 cases/year Tropical South America Very likely and Africa Source:Vvorld Health Organ zation (WPO),ClimateChangenandHumanmnHenlh,A J.McMichael,era/.,edsI.(WHO,Geneva, 1996),Table4.1,p.75. Notes: a Top 3 entr ea are population-pro-rated projections, based on 1989 estimates b. Annual incidence of visceral ae shman asis: annual incidence of cutaneous leishmaniasis is 1t .5 mill on cases per year. predicted by some climate models (296). Waterborne diseases in some tropical and midcontinental regions, reducing the includingcholeraandthesuiteofdiarrhealdiseasescausedby water available for irrigation and impairing crop growth in organisms such as giardia, salmonella, and cryptosporidium nonirrigated regions. For example, drier summers and more could also be affected as precipitation patterns change, alter- frequent hot spells in the North American corn belt might re- ing the dynamics of water courses and human access to water duce yields substantially, although it might extend the corn- supplies and sanitation (297). (See Table 2.9.) growing region northward. Reduced rainfall in already arid In addition, the changing temperature and rainfall patterns regions like sub-Saharan Africa could have very negative con- andtheincreasingCO, levelsprojectedtoaccompanyclimate sequences for agriculture in areas that can ill afford to lose change will undoubtedly have important effects on global ag- production (299). riculture,andthus onhuman nutrition.Determininghowcli- Climate change will affect plant pests and diseases in the mate change will affect world agriculture is every bit as com- same way it affects infectious disease agents. In other words, plex as determining its effects on infectious disease, and every the range of many insects will expand or change, and new bitas speculative.Avarietyofeffectswillinevitablyoccur,and combinations of pests and diseases may emerge as natural these will vary greatly by region, resulting in more favorable ecosystems respond to altered temperature and precipitation agricultural conditions in some areas and less favorable con- profiles. Any increase in the frequency or severity of extreme ditions in others. weather events, including droughts, heat waves, windstorms, On the positive side, higher atmospheric CO, levels are ex- or floods, could also disrupt the predator-prey relationships pected to have a "fertilizing" effect on some plants, increasing that normally keep pest populations in check. An explosion of their growth rate and cutting transpiration rates, reducing the rodent population that damaged the grain crop in Zim- their water demand. Increasing temperatures may bring babwe in 1994, after 6 years of drought had eliminated many longer growing seasons to some high-latitude farming re- rodent predators, shows how altered climate conditions can gions, increasingyields and expanding the range of crops that intensify pest problems. The effect of climate on pests may can grow there. Higher rainfall in some areas might enable add to the effect of other factors such as the overuse of pesti- higher production from unirrigated land and more water for cides and the loss of biodiversity that already contribute to irrigation in these areas (298). plant pest and disease outbreaks (300). On the other hand, higher temperatures and diminished The ingenuity of farmers, breeders, and agricultural engi- rainfall could reduce soil moisture in many areas, particularly neers, and the natural resilience of biological systems, will World Resources 1998-99 71 help buffer many of the negative effects of climate change on Perhaps the greatest long-term danger to human health agriculture. However, experts believe that over the longer from climate change will be the disruption of natural ecosys- term, the accumulated stresses of sustained climate change tems, which provide an array of services that ultimately sup- stand a good chance of disrupting agro-ecosystems and re- port human health. Biotic systems-whether in forests, ducing global food productivity. rangelands, aquatic environments, or elsewhere-provide The regions thought to be most vulnerable to productivity food, materials, and medicines; store and release fresh water; declines are semiarid and arid areas where rain-fed, nonirri- absorb and detoxify wastes; and satisfy human needs for rec- gated agriculture predominates. Unfortunately, many of these reation and wilderness. They are also intimately .Involved in areas-as in sub-Saharan Africa, South and East Asia, and on sustaining the genetic basis of agriculture. some Pacific islands-are already hard-pressed agriculturally These systems will likely undergo major reorganization as and suffer from high rates of malnutrition. In Senegal, for ex- global temperatures rise and rainfall patterns change more ample, one study predicts a 30-percent yield decline with a4°C rapidly than they have in the past 10,000 years. Rough esti- rise in temperatures and no change in rainfall from current lev- mates of the effects of a doubling of atmospheric CO, levels els. The effect of this kind of agricultural decline on local food show a major redistribution of Earth's vegetation. As much as security would be severe. The negative effects of climate change one third to one half of all plant communities-and the ani- on agriculture in poor countries could put an additional 40 to mals that depend on them-might shift in response to chang- 300 million people at risk of hunger by 2060 (30 1). ing ecological conditions. 72 World Resources 1998-99 Improving Health Through Environmental - Action he message that emerges from Chapters 1 and smoke from buriing biomass fuels for heating and cooking 2 is clear: a clean environment supports good contributes to both acute and chronic respiratory disease. health, while a degraded environment in- Other environmental risks stem from the processes of eco- creases the likelihood of death and disease. nomic development and industrialization, when they occur The toll environmental degradation exacts on without sufficient safeguards for environmental quality and human health is heavy, especially for children in the poor re- human health. The three trends discussed in this report-ag- gions of the world. In the poorest countries, one out of every ricultural intensification, industrialization, and rising energy five children dies before reaching his or her fifth birthday, use-are all intimately associated with economic develop- usuallybecause of environmentallyrelated-and largelypre- ment today. All can contribute enormously to increased pros- ventable-diseases (1).Improvingenvironmentalconditions perity and improved quality of life. Yet, if not properly man- could thus do much to reduce both death and disease. aged, these trends can also increase risks to human health. Environmental threats to health come from myriad Health risks arise not only from direct exposure to polluted sources, as Chapter I describes.Manyof these threats go hand air, water, and soil but also indirectly when human activities in hand with poverty and a lack of development; these threats disrupt ecosystems in unexpected ways. Twenty years ago, for tend to be most pronounced at the household or community instance, few would have guessed that emissions of chloro- level. For instance, in impoverished areas, inadequate access fluorocarbons (CFCs) were already damaging the Earth's pro- to water and sanitation contribute to the 2.5 million child- tective ozone layer, increasing the risks of developing skin hood deaths each year from diarrhea. Poor drainage and un- cancer, cataracts, or damage to the immune system (2). collected garbage encourage the proliferation of insect and Although the exact contribution of environmental factors rodent vectors that carry disease. Household exposure to to the development of death and disease cannot be precisely World Resources 1998-99 73 determined, the World Health Organization (WHO) has esti- point. Clearly, governments should continue to offer incen- mated that as much as 23 percent of the global burden of dis- tives to pharmaceutical companies to develop and market at ease is associated with environmental factors (3). Indeed, reasonable prices new drugs and vaccines for diseases such as many of the diseases that each year claim the lives of 11 mil- malaria, dengue fever, and cholera. Steps to improve monitor- lion children younger than 5 years of age could be prevented ing and surveillance systems to track newly emerging or ree- bv reducing hazards in the environment (4). byvreducing alhazardsinthe environleme a 4). placesignificanmerging infectious diseases are also critical (9)(1o). But these Environmental health problems also place significant eco- initiatives alone will not alleviate the infectious disease bur- nomic and social burdens on both individuals and societies, den because they do not address the myriad factors that con- In some large urban areas of the developing world, the esti- tribute to emerging infections (1it For instance, despite these mated economic losses each year from air pollution and con- erts to e changes (l Fom develoenthese gestion alone range from US$500 million to US$3.5 billion efforts, land use changes resulting from develoment-in- (5). Exposure to infectious and chemical agents can stunt cluding deforestation, dam building, and irrigation physical growth, impair cognitive skills, and hamper educa- schemes-will continue to lead to shifts in disease vectors as tional participation and performance, thereby reducing the well as bringworkers into areaswhere theymayencounter in- future potential of individuals and, perhaps, of society as a fectious agents for which they lack immunity. Uncontrolled whole. Preventing these impacts from occurring in the first pollution of water resources from domestic, agricultural, and place is an urgent need because certain impacts, such as low- industrial wastes will continue to challenge the health of ma- ered IQ known to result from exposure to some heavy metals, rine ecosystems and increase risks of cholera and/or shellfish cannot be remedied. poisoning. Unwise chemical use may alter the delicate balance Because environment and health are so intimately linked, between predators and insects as well as foster chemical resis- so too should be strategies for improving public health. Yet, tance. Even rising energy use, which seems far removed from a with the advent of increasingly sophisticated medical tech- case of malaria, could influence disease transmission through nologies over the past several decades, medical treatment and its effects on global climate. other clinical interventions have generally received priority The advantage of looking beyond the traditional focus on over environmental strategies to improve health. Without overenvronentlsratgie toipoehat.Wtot disease agents toward broader environmental issues is that question, vaccines and drugs have made it possible to prevent doinass agents new placer inironm entive actihat or treat diseases that once were certain killers. Indeed, seven doing so illuminates new places to iniiate preventive actions major childhood killers-smallpox, diphtheria, tetanus, yel- and policy reforms. Specifically, this chapter focuses on envi- lowfever,whoopingcough,polio,andmeasles-haveallbeen ronmental strategies to prevent disease and improve public brought under varying degrees of control thanks to the devel- health; it does not address the important reforrns needed opment of vaccines (6). Everyyear, immunization can be cred- within the health sector. First, the chapter explores the long- ited with saving 9 million lives worldwide (7). standing environmental health problems related to poverty Yet, even in situations where a vaccine or drug exists (and and lack of development. It examines a range of interventions for many environmental threats to human health, one does and technologies, many of which can be applied at the house- not), many benefits can be gained by supplementing clinical hold or community level, and some of which require broad interventions with environmental management. The rising government reforms. Next, the chapter explores those prob- problemofantibioticresistanceunderscoresthevalueofmul- lems that emerge as countries begin to develop-as theybe- tiple strategies for disease control (See Box 3.1.) Although a gin to industrialize, intensify their agriculture, and consume specific exposure to an environmental hazard maybe the im- more fossil fuels. As described in Chapter 1, many countries mediate cause of ill health, addressing and correcting the face both types ofproblems, traditional and modern, simulta- driving forces and pressures contributing to environmental neously; they are separated here simply for ease of ctiscussion. degradation may offer more effective and enduring avenues Solutions to these problems typically require policy actions at for improving health over the long term (8). Broad environ- mental interventions such as ensuring clean air and water will the national or international level. Because it is impossible to address multiple health conditions and, indeed, may yield describe these policies in great detail within one chapter, the other benefits outside of the health arena. Reducing use of fos- discussion that follows makes the case more broadly for en- sil fuels, for example, will not only improve air quality for hu- suring that health and environment concerns receive greater man health today but also may help avert damages from acid prominence in policy decisions facing industrialized and de- rain and mitigate the prospects of future climate change. veloping countries alike. This discussion is by no means ex- Reducing the environmental contribution to ill health will haustive but outlines the variety of possible interve ntions, as require addressing the links among environment, develop- well as the different actors who will be critical to finding solu- ment, and health at the outset. Infectious diseases are a case in tions. 74 World Resources 1998-99 IMPROVING HEALTH THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION FI, " 2 1 I L1 .LA L 1 11 1..1 'm m .a TABLE 3.1 Improv ng The Hooseho dEnvironment:The Benefits To Health PERCENTAGE OF DALYs DALYs RELEVANT THAT WOULD BEAVERTED (millionsper ENVIRONMENTAL BY FEASIBLE ENVIRON- PREVENTIVE DISEASE year) PROBLEM MENTAL INTERVENTIONS STRATEGIES Acute Respiratory 119 Indoor air pollution, 15 * improve ventilation Infections crowding * improve cookstoves * provide electricity to rural households and urban poor Diarrhea 99 Sanitation, water 40 * improve quality of drinking water supply, hygiene * increase the quantity of water used by improving accessi- bility and reliability of water supply * improve sanitation improve hygiene (behavior changes include washing hands, boiling water, preventing casual use of unprotected sources) Intestinal Worms 18 Sanitation,water 40 * same as for diarrhea supply, hygiene * reduce need for contact with infected water Malaria X Water supply X * improve surface water management * destroy breeding sites of Insects * reduce need to visit breeding site * use mosquito netting Dengue Fever X Water supply, X * improve surface water management garbage collection * destroy breeding sites of insects * reduce need to visit breeding site * use mosquito netting Tropical Cluster 8 Sanitation, garbage 30 * reduce need for contact with infected water (includes schistosomiasis, disposal,vector * control snail population trypanosomiasis, breeding around * filter water and filariasis) the home Tuberculosis 46 Crowding 10 * improve housing quality and quantity Chronic Respiratory 41 Indoor air pollution 15 * same as for acute respiratory infections Diseases Source:Adapted from The World Bank, WlorldDevelopmentReport 7993:1nvesting In Healtr (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993), p.90. Tackling the Problems of Poverty, incidence of major killer diseases byupto 40 percent (15). (See Environment, and Health Table 3.1.) Given the strong correlation between environmental health term mos peathssing eironme ntaworld dealethproblemastodiay risks and poverty, one strategy to reduce these risks is to raise terms of deaths and illness worldwide, are those associated incomes and improve the distribution of wealth (16). Without with poor households and communities in the developing icmsadipoetedsrbto f,elh(6.iihu withd. poor houesehColds ntand by communities in etheo eloingn r question, reducing poverty and closing the gap between rich worald a Seeasandin G t Cmenury by Robrto Beeroloini.)gIn wru and poor would drastically lower the toll of death and disabil- ral areas and in the peri-urban slums of the developing world, ity from many diseases. Implementing policies to eradicate inadequate shelter, overcrowding, lack of adequate safe water and sanitation, contaminated food, and indoor air pollution poverty remains a top priority for improving health, and are by far the greatest environmental threats to human health many organizations-including national governments, the (12). These conditions are often compounded by poor nutri- United Nations (U.N.), numerous nongovernmental organi- tion and lack of education, which make people more vulner- zations (NGOs), and foundations-have marshaled consid- able to, and less able to cope with, environmental threats. erable force toward this end. The United Nations Develop- According to WHO and the World Bank, environmental ment Programme (UNDP) Human DevelopmentReport 1997, improvements at the household and community level would for instance, outlines six priorities for action-ranging from make the greatest difference for global health (13)(14). Specifi- empowering the poor to carefully managing globalization cally, the World Bank has calculated that improvements in lo- trends to ensure fair terms of trade and more equal economic cal environmental conditions facing the poor could lower the growth (17). World Resources 1998-99 75 Box 3.1 Antibiotic Resistance Undermines Treatment Antibiotics are the cornerstone of treatment entery, gonorrhea, herpes, pneumonia, meningi- not used to treat infections but ralher to pro- for infectious disease (i). Since 1928, when the tis, and ear infections in children (12)(13)(14). An- mote or stimulate animal growth 3r reduce the English microbiologist Alexander Fleming dis- tibiotic resistance is a particular problem in amount of feed necessary to help animals covered penicillin, antibiotics have greatly re- hospitals; in both Europe and the United States, reach their marketable weights (28) (29). Be- duced morbidity and mortality from bacterial many strains of staphylococci are resistant to all cause most of these "growth pron oters" are infections. The use of antibiotics, along with antibiotics except the expensive intravenous drug members of the classes of antibiotics used to improved hygiene, sanitation, better housing, vancomycin (15)(16). treat people, and because they are used at low nutrition, and vaccines, dramatically curtailed dosages and for long periods, scientists are deaths from diseases such as tuberculosis (TB) Factors that Contribute to the concerned that antibiotic use in animal feed- and pneumonia in the developed world (2) (3). E ing can foster the development of resistance in Recently, however, public health officials and Emergence or Spread of Resistance bacterial pathogens that affect hurnans as well scientists have become concerned that the in- Antibiotic resistance is a human amplification as animals (30). In Europe, for inst nce, the creased use as well as misuse of antibiotics is of a natural phenomenon (17). Resistant genes growth promoter avoparcin-which is related leading to a surge of drug-resistant bacteria. This occur and replicate in the natural microbial to the human drug vancomycin-seems to be trend has disturbing implications for public world (i8). When antibiotics are used judi- associated with the emergence of a large reser- health, because resistance can impede the treat- ciously, the effect on the microbial world is voir of vancomycin-resistant enterococci ment of many common infections, contributing small. However, the current misuse of antibi- among animals (31). Moreover, the resistant to more serious illness and increased deaths, as otics is affecting the natural balance between strain of the species that infects hu mans has well as raising costs of treatment. susceptible and resistant bacteria (19) (20). been found in poultry sold in retail markets Drug resistance is not a new phenomenon. In- Indeed, by one estimate, as much as 50 percent and in communities surrounding aigricultural deed, as early as 1945, only shortly after penicil- of antibiotic use in medical treatment is inappro- areas (32). lin's debut into hospitals, scientists discovered priate because it does not benefit the patient (21). that staphylococci were already resistant to treat- The heavy use of antibiotics in hospitals to pre- The Costs of Antibiotic Resistance ment with penicillin (4). Today, however, resistant vent possible infections, for instance, exerts enor- pathogens are emerging and spreading more rap- mous selective pressure for the emergence and Antibiotic resistance greatly raises the costs idlv than in previous decades (5). Moreover, resis- spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (22). Pa- of dsease. Results of a number of litudles tance is not unique to bacteria; it has also been tients, wvho often believe that antibiotics are show that mortahty, morbidity, hkihood detected among fungi, parasites, viruses, cancers, "miracle" drugs designed to cure any cough or fe- of hospitalization, and length of hospitali- and insects (6). The malaria parasite, for instance, ver, demand antibiotics from their physicians, zation are twice as great for ifections that has become resistant to chloroquine as well as to even though antibiotics are powerless against vi- stant (33) (34) Furthermore, when other drugs used to treat the disease (7). ruses (23). Even if antibiotics are properly pre- treatment fails because of resistance, the in- Even more worrisome, single-drug resistance scribed, patients often disregard prescription la- fection persists, increasing the opp zrtunity has been replaced by multidrug resistance, which bels and do not take the full regimen, stopping of spreading the infection (ss). further complicates treatment by eliminating the once they feel better. However, when treatment is Treating a single case of multidrug-resistant usefulness of numerous antibiotics and reducing cut short, only the most susceptible members of a TB in the industrialized countries, For exam- treatment options (8)(9). The first warning that bacterial population are killed, and the more re- ple, can cost as much as US$250,000 (36). By resistant TB strains had emerged in the industri- sistant variants are left behind, increasing the contrast, treating a person with noisresistant alized countries was the dramatic outbreaks of number of resistant bacteria in the population TB can cost as little as US$13 and rarely more multidrug-resistant cases among patients in- (24). The fact that antibiotics to treat TB are often than US$100 in developing countries (37). An- fected with the HIV virus in the United States taken only intermittently by poor patients, the tibiotic resistance can also culminate in addi- and Europe. These cases, which occurred mostly homeless, and prison populations also fosters tional costs as a resuh of time speni in a hospi- in hospitals, were associated with high fatality drug resistance (25). These conditions are aggra- tal, extra doctor visits, and lost work days. rates (lo). A recent global survey found that vated in many developing countries, wvhere many Antibiotic resistance is a particularly difficult among first-time TB patients the prevalence of medications are bought and sold without pre- problem in developing countries, where the drug resistance ranged from 2 to 40 percent; this scriptions; this situation can contribute to im- ability to obtain costlier and more effective an- prevalence was higher in countries with poor TB proper therapy (26). tibiotics is compromised by the lack of finan- control (1 ). Because TB is highly infectious, drug The use of antibiotics in agriculture is also a cial resources (38). resistance could have serious repercussions for concern. Estimates suggest that at least one half the spread and control of this disease worldwide. of all antibiotics produced are used in farm ani- Policy Actions The number of drug-resistant bacteria contin- mals, in fish farming, and in fruit and vegetable On the positive side, it is possible tc reduce ues to grow each year, a reality that hampers the cultivation in industrialized countries (27). Ap- antibiotic resistance by removing the pres- treatment of a variety of infections including dys- proximately 90 percent of these antibiotics are sures that foster its emergence. The most Environmental management need not wait until economic sible to produce good health long before incorne growth development reaches a certain level, however; it is a critical could do so on its own. Improving the conditions of daily life tool for improving public health both today and in the future. may by itself help to reduce poverty. In other words, removing By targeting policies that help to reduce environmental the environmental hazards that make people sick could keep threats that contribute both to ill health and poverty, it is pos- people working and raise incomes (18). 76 World Resources 1998-99 IMPROVING HEALTH THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION Box 3.1 continued effective and least expensive way to prevent spread across boundaries should encourage in- 22. Op. cit. 2, p. 69. and curb resistance is to use antibiotics appro- ternational cooperation 1481. Controlling the rise 23. Stuart B. Levy, "Editorial Response: Antibiotic priately (39). In this regard, some steps have in antibiotic resistance by promoting the wise use Resistance Wo'rldwide-A Spanish Task Force Responds7 Clinical Infectious Diseases, VTol. 23 taken place. Because of the concern over the of antibiotics can ensure continued success in (1996), p. 824. use of antibiotics in agricuhture and animal treating infectious diseases. 2 4. Op. cit. 8, p. 1841. husbandry, she European Community has re- 25. Op. cit. 12, p. 8. ce ntly stopped the use of avoparcin assa feed References and Notes 26. 0Op. cit. 1. additive (4t). However, avoparcin's replace- I . Stuart B. Levy, "Antibiotic Availability and Use: 27. Op. cit. 5. ment, tylosin, still selects for vancomycin re- Consequences to Man and His Environment," Jour- 28. Op. cit. 2. sistance. WHO has recommended that all nial of Clinical Epidemiology, Vol. 44, Supplement II 29. Op. cit. 2. countries stop using "humani' antibiotics in (1991), pp. 83S-87S. 3t. Wolfgang Witte, "Impact of Antibiotic Use in animal husbandry; however, many countries, 2. U-nited States Office of Technology Assessment, Im- Animal Feeding on Resistance of Bacterial pacts ofAntibiotic-Resistant Bacteria (U.S. Govern- Pathogens in Animals;' in Ciba Foundation Spm- including the United States, have not heeded ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1995), p. posium 207: Antibiotic Resistance: Origins, Evo- these recommendations. Other countries, such 39. lution, Selection, and Spread (John Wiley & as Swveden, have banned the use of all growth- 3. Mitchell L. Cohen, "Epidemiological Factors Influ- Sons, Chichester, U.K., 1997), p. 69. pooigantibiotics 141). encing the Emergence of Antimicrobial Resls- 31. Op. cit. 23. promtionglcmagstaeuaeplcmk tance," in Ciba Foundation Symposiumi 207: Antibi- 32. Op. cit. 2, p. 159. National campaigns tht educate policymak- otic Resistance: Origins, Evolution, Selection anid 33. Op~. cit. 12. p. 10. era, prescribers, health care professionals, and the Spread (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, U.K., 1997), 3.SotD omeg tvnL ooo,adPu general pblic abou how to aoid the msuse of p.223-224. A. Blake, "Health and Economic tmpacts on antibiotics can also be effective. Surveillance is 4. Op. cit. 2, p. 3. Antimicrobial Resistance," Reviessv oflInfectious key (42). In Iceland, government officials, who 5. World Health Organization, "Resistanice to Antimi- Disease, Vol. 9 11987), pp. 1065-1078. we're alarmed by the number of resistant S. pneu- crobial Agents,' WVeekly Epidemiological Record, Vol. Opci.5 moniac strains, nstituted a natinwide effort to 72, No. 45 (1997), pp. 1-4.35Opci.. monie srais, nsttutd a atinwie efor to 6. Ibid. 36. Wotid Health Organization (WHO), Anti- screen for S. pneumoniae infections, monitor 7. Stuart B. Levy, The Antibiotic Paradox: HowkMiracle Tuberculosis Drug Resistance in the World drug use, and ediucate the public about the safe Drugs Are Destroying the Miracle (Plenum Press, ( WHO, Geneva, 1997). use of antibiotics. After 3 years, the number of New York, 1992), p.1I01. W7 Aor-ld Health Organization (WHO), TBt:A drug-resistant strains fell by 15 percent 1431. In 8. Stuart B. Levy, "Confronting Multidrug Resistance: Global (WmerGeny a, WHO 4 epor onteTBEi Hungary, sharp drops in penicillin use have also A Role for Each of Us," Journal of the Americandmi(W OGeva194,p6 hepdto reduce drug resistance (44). In Greece, MVedical Association. Vol. 269, No. 141(1993), p. 38. Op. cir. 1. helped ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1840. 39. Op. cit. 1. Laiko General Hospital reduced its antibiotic 9. Op. cit. 1. 40. Op. cit. 30, p. 69. consumption by more than 80 percent between 10. World Health Organization (WHO(,Anri- 41. Op. cit. 2, p. 159. 1989 and 1995 without reducing 'the efficacy of Tuberculosis Drug Resistance in the World (WHO, 42. Ruth L. Berkelman et al., "Infectious Disease treatment. Resistance rates of several classes of Geneva, 19971, p. 17. Surveillance: A Crumblinig Foundation;' Science, antibiotics dropped in tandem (45). 11. Ibid., p.9 1 Vol. 264 i if ' -- ,4 , t-37Q. Surveillance systems, such as those imple- 12. Stuart B. Levy. "Antimicrobial Resistance: A Global 43. Joan Stephenson, "Icelandic Researchers Are mented bythe Alliace for Pudent Useof Anti- Perspective;" ini Antimicrobial Resistance: A Crisis in Showing the Way to Bring Down Rates of mente by te Allance or Prdent se ofAnti- Health Care, Donald L. Jungkind et al., eds. (PIe- Antibiotic-ResisItant Bacteria;'Journal of the biotics and WHO, can map where drug-resistanit num Press, New York, 1995), p. 5. American Medical Association Medical News & strains are prevalent. This information should 13. Op. cit. 8. Perspectives (January 17, 1996). pp. 6-8. help clinicians select the correct antibiotic, wvhich 14. Scott Dosvell and Benjamin Schwartz, "Resistant 44. Rachel Novak, "Hungary Sees an Improvement in turn would not only help ensure good patient Pneumococci: Protecting Patients Through Judi- in Penicillin Resistance;' Science, Vol. 264 (April care but would also help curb the spread of drug cious Use of Antibiotics;' Ameri can Family Physi- 15, 1994), p. 364. clan, Vol. 55, No. 5(1997), p. 1648. 45. Helen Giamarellou and Anastasia Antoniadiou, resistance, reduce costs, and save lives (46). An- 15. Op. cit. 2, pp. 3, 34. "The Effect of Monitoring of Antibiotic Use on other action should be to reserve newer anti- 16. Sharon Kingman, "Resistance: A European Prob- Decreasing Antibiotic Resistance in the Hospi- biotics only for the treatment of those patients lem, Too," Science, Vol. 264 (Aptil 15,1l994),pp. tal,' Ciba Foundation Symposium 207: Antibiotic harboring otherwise untreatable antibiotic infec- 363-365. Resistance: Origins, Evolution, Selection, and tions. This would extend the usefulness of these 17. Op. cit. 10. Spread (John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, U.K., newver antibiotics. Finally, pharmaceutical com- 18. (oelle E. Gabay, "Uhbiqusitoas Natural Antibiotics;' 1997), pp. 82-84. panies need incentives to develop new antibiotics Scienice, Vol. 264 (April 15. 1994). p. 373. 46. Mitchell L. Cohen, "Antimicrobial Resistance: 19. Julian Davies. "Inactivation of Antibiotics and the Prognosis for Public Health," Trends in Microbi- and vaccines (471. Dissemination of Resistance Genes;' Science,Vol. ology,Voii. 2, No, I10 (October 1994), p. 424. Antibiotic resistance requires global attention. 264 (April 15, 1994). pp. 375-38 1. 47. John Travis, "Reviving the Antibiotic Miracle)" Even if one country is successful in curtailing to- 20. Op. cit. 1. Science, Vol. 264 (April 15. 1994). p. 36 1. sistance, the potential for resistant organisms to 21. Op. cit. 2, p. 4 48. Op. cit. 8, p. 184 1. Many of the interventions described in the following sec- can become contaminated if stored in an unhygienic manner. tions rely on changes in behavior and improvements in the This reality makes the role of public policy difficult, since environment at the household level, because a large share of policies are generally directed toward the public domain (19). disease is incurred in or around the home environment. For One key role for public action is investment in health and hy- instance, even if water supplies are clean at the public tap, they giene education. Several studies have shown that the promo- World Resources 1998-99 77 tion of hand washing, for instance, can drastically reduce the access to water filters, polystyrene beads, and bod nets-all incidence of diarrheal diseases (20). In addition, abundant useful to prevent exposure to infectious agents--as well as to evidence has made clear that educating women more broadly vaccines and drugs. has an immediate, positive effect on health. (See Box 3.2.) Policy actions should not be limited to education alone. EXPANDING WATER AND SANITATION Governments can also help facilitate changes at the household COVERAGE level by removing many of the institutional and financial bar- In 1977, the United Nations Water Conference declared that riers that keep poor households from protecting themselves all people, regardless of their stage of developmenL or their so- (21). As one scholar has explained, "The poor do not lack cial and economic conditions, have the right of access to healthy water systems only because they cannot afford them, drinking water in quantities and quality equal to their basic but also because they lack the local political space to organize, needs (23). Two decades later, however, an estimated 1.4 billion and the political leverage to make the public sector respond to people still do not have access to safe drinking water, and 2.9 their needs" (22). To remove such barriers, governments can billion do not have access to adequate sanitation '24). develop financing schemes that offset the initial investments Improved water supply and sanitation services for those needed to improve coverage of basic infrastructure for low- who lack them would do much to reduce the global burden of income communities. In addition, both governmental and water-related diseases and to improve quality of life. Studies development agencies should ensure that primary health care have consistently shown that improvements in water and sani- packages include environmental interventions as a key com- tation coverage-including the implementation of low-cost, ponent. In other words, health care packages should provide simple technology systems-can reduce the incidence of Box 3.2 Improving Female Education .. I...................................I...................................... .............I..................................................................................................... .................I...........I....... The link between female education and child stronger than the link between wealth and homes and communities' have traditionally health is strong. Studies have consistently health. Parental education influences child had frontline responsibility in prot cting the shown that improvements in women's educa- mortality because it provides parents with the health of their families (Davis, 1997). As such, tion can dramatically improve child health. On tools to make use of medical services and to there are major opportunities to promote and average, child mortality falls by about 8 per- introduce changes in household health behav- protect environmental health if the status of cent for each additional year of parental ior such as washing hands and boiling water. women is improved. schooling, for at least the first 8 to 10 years of The case for educating girls becomes even Encouragingly, the percentage o F girls in schooling. (See figure.) Indeed, the link be- stronger when other benefits are included, such school has grown dramatically in the past 20 tween a mother's education and a child's as reduced fertility rates and higher household years; however, the battle toward achieving fe- chances of living past the age of 2 may even be incomes. Women, as the "gatekeepers of their male literacy is far from won. In 19'0 in devel- oping countries, 77 million girls beiween the ages of 6 and 11 were not in school. Unless these countries commit to investing in the Urnder-5 Mortalit ard Level of Female Educat&or, Selected African Courntries, 1985-90 education of girls, it is projected that by the year 2015, 92 million girls, or 27 percent, will 5.nde~-5 mortally ram oar 7.000 ba b5lhs) not have access to an education. Although in- 250 N vestments in education are important PR MARY EDUCATON COMPLETE throughout the entire world, a commnitment to SECONDARY EDUCATION AND HJGHER improving education in Africa shotL.ld be con- 200 sidered a development and investment prior- ity. Africa is the only region that has experi- I50 .. enced a decline in education since tie 1980s; without intervention, it is projected that by 2015,55 percent of girls between the ages of 6 loo | - | | - | 11 | - | - - | and 11 will still not be in school. Source: Adapted from The World Bank, Priorities s5 U N TUGS onr Strareg;esfor Educoton: A World Bank Review (The World Beank, Wash ngton, D.C., 1995), also cited: Deura Da.ns, "Chem cais andthe Enfsron- 0 SENEGAL UGANDA GHANA TOGO SUDAN KENYA ment," in The Convergence of US. iAationai Securrty and the Global Environment (The Aspen Iristitute, Washmacton, D.C., 1997) Source: The World Bank,Bette Health mnAfrnca:Experieoce and Lessons Leamed (The World Bank, Washlngton, D.CD 1994), p1 3. 78 World Resources 1998-99 IMPROVING HEALTH THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION diarrhea, ascariasis, guinea worm, schistosomiasis, and other Equally important, governments have a major role to play water-related diseases (25)(26)(27)(28)(29). Furthermore, pro- in providing safe water and sanitation because these essentials viding water and sanitation confers multiple benefits bevond confer benefits to not just the individual but to the broader reducingwater-relateddiseases,includingalleviatingthetime public as well. If fecal material from one home is swept or and economic burden of having to collect water. As one re- washed into a street-side gutter because of lack of sanitation searcher put it, "Most investments by government and aid do- facilities, it is not only one household that is affected (36). For nors in water and sanitation are fully justified irrespective of this reason, water and sanitation services have traditionally their health benefits; because they save drudgery and expense, been highly subsidized by governments. However, these sub - contribute to human dignity and the emancipation of sidies rarely reach the urban poor. As a result, in many cities, women, and offer many other benefits" (30). the poor often pay proportionately more for less water than Expandingaccesstowaterandsanitation,however,willnot do the rich. For example, in Onitsha, Nigeria, poor house- be easy. Much has been written about how to improve water holds spend an estimated 18 percent of their income on water and sanitation coverage; indeed, a whole decade was devoted during the dry season, compared with upper-income house- to the effort (31)(32). The inability of the efforts undertaken holds, who pay a mere 2 to 3 percent (37). Conversely, the rich during the International Drinking 'ATater Supply and Sanita- tend to waste water because they are not charged the full price tion Decade to do more than keep up with population growth of the water they receive. Utilities therefore cannot generate provides sobering proof of the difficulty of finding effective sufficient revenue to expand coverage to new peri-urban set- solutions when the objective is clear but situations vary tlements or to perform routine maintenance (38). greatly and are extremely complex (33). A critical component Because of this situation, government efforts to adjust sub- of success, therefore, is to tailor solutions to individual cir- sidies or to otherwise alter water pricing can be an effective cumstances rather than to search for simple, universal fixes. tool in improving water services, if measures are taken to en- Because one of the largest obstacles to providing water and sure equity. Recovering a greater percentage of the costs of wa- sanitation coverage results from the huge cost of the initial in- ter services would provide funds to expand coverage into new stallation of the system (and not necessarily the price of the areas or to maintain and improve existing facilities. To ad- water), assisting poor communities in financing simple con- dress equityconcerns, fees couldbe structured so that all con- nections may provide good near-term results. In Rufisque, sumers receive a basic amount of water at low cost and pay a Senegal, for example, nine low-income communities worked proportionately greater amount for any additional water. in partnership with an international NGO (ENDA-Tiers Involving the private sector,by either shifting management Monde) and the local authorities to set up a revolving com- of water services to the private sector or by creating public- munity fund that helps pay for initial sanitation and sewage private partnerships, can also improve water delivery. Privati- pipe connections. Grants from international agencies pro- zation schemes are being tried in Latin America (Argentina, vided the initial jumpstart for the fund and covered initial Colombia, and Mexico); Asia (Bangladesh, Indonesia, Nepal, management expenses; nowcommunitymembers contribute Pakistan, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka); and Africa (Cote small amounts of money each month and provide the bulk of d'Ivoire, Madagascar, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, and Tunisia) the US$50,000 fund. In addition, using narrow pipes (as op- (39). For instance, in Abidjan, C6te d'Ivoire, the privately run posed to thicker sewer pipes needed to withstand freezing in SODECI hasbeen providingwater to the cityfor more than 30 colder climes) has reduced the cost of sewage installation to 5 years. By regularly collecting fees from its customers and us- percent of conventional systems, increasing the number of ing profits to extend coverage, the company has been able to families that can afford connection. Since the project's incep- providewaterto 7 out of 10 urban dwellers. Ithas made a con- tion in 1990, community members have noticed a decrease in scious and consistent effort to serve poor neighborhoods, illnesses related to local environmental conditions (34). even waiving-for three out of four such households-its Although community involvement in providing water and usual charges for hooking up consumers to its pipelines (40). sanitation can help expand coverage at low cost, it should not Neither water pricing nor public-private partnerships will be considered a panacea. Well-organized community groups be effective without strong governments and sufficient politi- do not simply emerge from the complex terrain of local poli- cal will. Many of the same circumstances that prevent the tics because planners say they should; often outside support is public sector from providing services to low-income settle- necessary (35). NGOs can help mobilize residents or ments (including governance problems, low public-sector strengthen existing leadership functions and roles in the wages, public utility financing shortfalls, illegal land settle- community. Local governments can also help foster organiza- ment, and politically powerless residents) also threaten the vi- tion by explicitly recognizing the rights of communities to or- ability of public-private partnerships (41). There is no guaran- ganize and by encouraging women's education. tee, for instance, that a financially motivated utility will invest World Resources 1998-99 79 FIGURE 3. Use of Co aand Biemass el n Developing Countifes _ /'MEDIUM USE HGH USE DATA INCOMPLETE Source: World Resources Institute, see Appendix. the additional funds in low-income neighborhoods rather lungs; these factors contribute to acute lower respiratory in- than high-income suburbs (42). fections, chronic lung disease, lung cancer, asthma, low birth However, placing water and sanitation programs-in addi- weight, blindness, and heart disease (45) (46). Nearly 100 devel- tion to oral rehydration therapy (ORT) and health educa- oping countries rely on biomass fuels for some of their resi- tion-firmly on the political agenda can achieve dramatic dential energy needs, according to a new World Resources In- improvements in health. Mexico in the early 1990s provides stitute (WRI) estimate. (See Figure 3.1.) In counl:ries where an apt example. In 1984, Mexico had begun to tackle child- use of smoky fuels is high, risks to health are likely to be high hood diarrheal deaths through the widespread promotion of as well. Indeed, WHO recently estimated that indoor air pollu- ORT, with some success. In 1991, however, prompted by the tion may be responsible for as many as 2.8 million deaths each fear of cholera that was sweeping over Latin America, the gov- year, making it one of the largest environmental risk factors of ernment deliberately went about improving basic sanitation, any kind (47). initiating widespread chlorination of water for human con- In the short term, one way to reduce indoor air pollution is sumption, and prohibiting the irrigation of fruit and vegeta- to improve household ventilation, but this strategy has obvi- bles with sewage water-in addition to continuing measles ous limitations and often worsens outdoor air quality. A immunization efforts and ORT use. The results of the more more effective approach is to promote the use of improved comprehensive package were marked: between 1991 and stoves that remove the smoke from the house through a flue 1993, the annual mean number of episodes of diarrhea among or chimney. In the past 20 years, hundreds of improved stove children younger than 5 years of age decreased from 4.5 to 2.2, programs have been implemented throughout the develop- while the corresponding mortalityrate fell from 101.6 to 62.9 ing world (48). per 100,000 (43). Although most of these programs had as their chief objec- tive improved fuel efficiency rather than smoke removal, TACKLING INDOOR AIR POLLUTION studies have shown that a well-designed, well-built, and The burning of solid fuels in the home is another major con- well-maintained stove can reliably lower indoor air pollut- tributor to ill health globally. In 1992, the World Bank classi- ants from cooking to levels 10 to 40 percent of those in kitch- fied indoor air pollution as one of the four most critical envi- ens with open fires (49). However, it is difficult to clesign and ronmental problems in developing countries (44). Indoor air disseminate improved stoves that are affordable to the fami- pollution can weaken the body's defenses and damage the lies who need them most. Furthermore, these improved 80 World Resources 1998-99 IMPROVING HEALTH THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION stoves mainly serve to put the smoke outdoors, which can re- ority. Environmental interventions to contain the insects that sult in high levels of neighborhood air pollution. transmit disease can occur at a range of levels, such as house- Thus, improved stoves should be seen as an interim solu- hold, community, or region. Improvements in and around the tion in the transition to less polluting and more efficient liq- home, for instance, can often make a tremendous difference uid fuels-such as kerosene and liquefied petroleum gas in controlling vector populations and reducing the incidence (LPG)-and electricity. This move up the energy ladder to of infectious diseases. In areas where Chagas disease remains fossil fuels for domestic uses typically occurs as incomes high, for example, helping low-income families finance home grow. But this transition to cleaner fuels may be impeded by improvements that remove the thatched roofs where the redu- the scale of poverty today and the number of people who rely viid bugs hide can be a more effective use of public funds than on biomass fuels. Indeed, even in east Asia and the Pacific, a investing in costly pesticide applications. In Brazil and Vene- region that has experienced rapid economic growth, biomass zuela, replacing palm-thatched roofs with tiles or corrugated fuels still account for 33 percent of energy supplies; use is ex- tin and repairing walls and floors were instrumental in reduc- pected to decrease by only 50 percent over the next 15 to 25 ing human contact with the disease vector and ultimately in years (50). reducing Chagas disease (54). These housing improvements National governments can help facilitate this transition to also provided the added benefits of better ventilation, which cleaner household fuels. Poor families can benefit from poli- improved indoor air quality at the same time (55). cies that reduce the upfront cash costs of new appliances (such I Iousehold water storage, used to make up for intermittent as improved stoves or LPG bottles) or of obtaining electricity or inadequate piped water supplies, can also provide reser- connections. Such policies can be implemented through pro- voirs for disease-bearing mosquitoes and other insects. Giv- grams that provide innovative credit; offer simple, low-cost ing families fitted lids or screens to place over water contain- service connection for electricity and LPG; and spread con- ers can be a cheap, interim way to lower the risk of disease by nection costs over a long period to reduce monthly outlay. In reducing mosquito-breeding sites (56). Septic tanks and la- the electricity sector, the urban poor can benefit from "life- trine pits can also be made mosquito-proof at low cost with line" rates-charging consumers who use very little energy polystyrene beads. These beads form a floating layer through less than those who use more. Thailand, for instance, has which female mosquitoes cannot lay their eggs and mosquito adopted this approach. As a result, the urban poor pay less larvae cannot breathe. Experience in Brazil, India, and Tanza- than wealthier households for lighting, and the country has nia has shown that the layer will remain in place for more than near-universal electricity service, although many people still 4 years (57). Similarly, providing nylon gauze with which to fil- rely on biomass fuels for cooking (51). ter water drawn from shallow wells or surface water has The benefits of encouraging this energy transition extend proven successful in reducing the incidence of guinea worm beyond reductions in indoor air pollution. The time that (58). Making these types of interventions more widely avail- would have been spent collecting fuelw0ood could instead be able through primary health-care clinics or local health-care devoted to child care, agriculture, and income-generating ac- workers can help reduce disease incidence at low cost. tivities. In addition, reduced use of wood fuels might also re- Community programs are an effective, often inexpensive, sult in less deforestation, soil erosion, and accompanying means of vector control. In such programs, community mem- losses in soil fertility (52). bers take measures to improve the environmental conditions in and around their homes, therebv reducing reservoirs for CONTROLLING DISEASE VECTORS IN THE LOCAL mosquitoes, flies, and rats. Mass media campaigns can edu- ENVIRONMENT cate residents about the importance of removing garbage and As Chapter 1 illustrated, vector-borne diseases such as ma- other mosquito habitats from the community-creating a laria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and schistosomiasis cause community "police" force against the disease (59). Other ap- enormous suffering and death throughout the developing proaches tie vector control to income generation. In India, for world. Vaccines to prevent these diseases, or drugs to treat example, several communities have controlled Anopheles those diseases that cannot be prevented, hold out promise for mosquito breeding in shallow coastal lagoons by removing al- future disease control. At this stage, however, vaccines and gae from larval breeding places and using it as manure or in drugs are lacking for many of the maior vector-borne dis- papermaking. Other strategies involve introducing fish and eases, in part because the disease organisms are formidable shrimp that eat mosquito larvae into pools where mosquitoes adversaries. Perhaps a greater reason is that these diseases are might breed; these fish can later be sold (60). generally not a priority to large pharmaceutical companies, Thesuccessofhouseholdorcommunityinterventionsdoes although there are important exceptions (53). not imply that governments can abdicate their responsibility Even when drugs to combat diseases like dengue fever and in vector control. Clearly, many of these simple interventions malaria become available, vector control should remain a pri- would not be necessary if longer-term strategies were imple- World Resources 1998-99 81 Box 3.3 Malaria: The Continuing Struggle In 1955, the World Health Organization regions, malaria control programs have deterio- the world. The full range of preventive activi- (WHO) began a campaign to eradicate ma- rated or been abandoned (6). ties includes not onily personal protection but laria (t). By 1970, a huge malaria-ridden area Considering these diverse underlying factors also: that sheltered nearlv 700 million people was makes it clear that no single strategy will be effec- e environmental management, especiallv to virtually free from the disease (2). These gains tive in reducing the burden of malaria. A com- eliminate the aquatic breeding sites of mios- were short-lived, however. Today, malaria prehensive malaria control strategy requires three quito vectors near human habitations; . . .................... ~~interdependent and complementarv components: . claims the lives of some 1 to 3 million people n a c targeted residual spraying; disease management, surveillance, and preven- each year, and the number is on the rise. In In- tion, including environmental management. i the use of tarvicides, bioLogical controt dia, for example, new cases of malaria jumped Disease management includes strengthening agents, and predators of larval vectors; and from 100,000 in the early 1960s to almost 3 health care to ensure access to accurate diagnosis, ID education. million in 1996 (3)(4). care, and treatment. It can dramatically reduce Strategies for environmental management The global "reemergence" of malaria has sev- malaria mortality, as well as reduce the severity involve modifying habitat to reduce breeding eral underlying causes. Population and demo- and duration of the illness. Indeed, accurate diag- sites for the mosquito. Actions can Include: graphic changes have resulted in more people nosis and prompt, appropriate treatment are fun- changing water levels at dams or other water moving into densely populated areas, thereby in- damental to any malaria control program. bodies, either permanently or at strategic creasing transmission. Human environmental Surveillance, at both the international and lo- times; creating channels in marshy areas; changes such as road building, mining. deforesta- cal level, is also crucial if malaria is to be con- planting water-intensive trees; and adequately tion, and new agricultural and irrigation proj- trolled. National, continental, or global data make disposing of wastewater. Large-scale draining ects-particularly in tropical regions such as the it possible to observe large-scale trends. Surveil- of marshes can also successfully control mos- Amazon basin-have created new breeding sites. lance and assessment should also include moni- quito populations, but such measures may (See Box 2.4 in Chapter 2.) toring of underlying risk factors, either human damage valuable wetlands. Controlling malaria has also become more behaviors or environmental conditions. Collect- In contrast to large-scale wetland clearing, complicated, since the mosquitoes that carry ma- ing and mapping this information would enable malaria can be stemmed by relative y simple laria have developed resistance to the insecticides the delineation of risk areas at national and re- measures such as changing the water levels in used for their control. In Africa, where 90 percent gional levels, a critical step in long-term disease irrigation ditches at strategic times. A number of malaria cases occur, the three main mosquito management as well as in epidemic control. of other simple measures include ccvering wa- vectors are resistant to one or more insecticides Prevention is critical to reducing malaria dis- ter storage tanks, street drains, and ' atrines; (5). This is often due to the excessive use of the ease rates and also reducing the associated bur- making sure there are no objects such as dis- same or similar insecticides for control of agri- den on the health-care system. Malaria preven- carded tires or flower pots that can collect cultural pests. In addition, malaria parasites have tion is often viewed as personal protection, such rainwater outside of residences; and screening developed resistance to chloroquine, the most as use of bed nets, protective clothes, and insect windows and closing the eaves of houses. commonly used and least expensive antimalaria repellents. However, a variety of other preventive These strategies clearly require community in- drug. Another contributing factor is that in many measures have been successfully applied around volvement to succeed. In addition, thle princi- mented, such as providing water and sanitation and improv- ness, at an annual cost of less than US$1 per person (61). As ing garbage collection and disposal. Reliable piped water part of a WHO-coordinated program to eliminaze another would reduce the need to store water in the first place, with the tropical disease, lymphatic filariasis or elephantiasis, Smith- added benefit of reducing the burden of diarrheal diseases. Kline Beecham announced in early 1998 that it would supply Furthermore, coordinated efforts among multinational free of charge an antiparastitic drug to roughly one fifth of the agencies, national governments, and private companies can world's population (62). reduce disease incidence much more effectively, and on a For many other vectors-most notably the mos- larger scale, than communities can on their own. The Oncho- quito-both community involvement and government in- cerciasis Control Programme in Blest Africa, for instance, has vestment are needed to successfully reduce the burden of dis- dramaticallyreducedthethreatofriverblindness.Amultina- ease. (See Box 3.3.) A tremendous and often overlooked tional effort by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the opportunity also exists to control disease vectors on a larger United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Development Pro- scale through careful planning of development projects and gramme (UNDP), the World Bank, and WHO has controlled land use changes, as will be described below. the blackfly by destroying its larvae with insecticides sprayed from the air. The environmental impact of the insecticides is Addressing the Unintended Consequences continuously monitored. In addition, the U.S. pharmaceutical manufacturer Merck & Co. has committed to providing iver- of Development mectin-a drug that safely and effectively kills the larvae in Beyond the environmental problems associated with poverty the body-free of charge as long as river blindness exists. This are those that can arise from economic growth itself, as coun- program protects about 30 million people from river blind- tries industrialize, intensify their agricultural production, and 82 World Resources 1998-99 IMPROVING HEALTH THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION Box 3.3 continued ............................................................................................................................................................................I................................................ ......... ples of environmental management can be incor- ority areas. In Niozambique, for instance, in areas community-based approaches are key to the porated into development planning to ensure that of high human density, mosquito and parasite long-term prevention of many environmen- malaria problems do not arise, particularly as a dispersion is very limited, suggesting that malaria tally related ci . , . 1 .1 - consequence of water resource development proi- control strategies could, therefore, be specifically ects. In the United States, for example, planned targeted to local environmental conditions, in- References and Notes. tluctuations of the water level in reservoirs were cluding housing construction (9). 1. Laurie Garrett. The CoLinig Plague (Farrar used to control local malaria vectors in the areas The use of environmental versus chemical vec- Straus and Giroux, New York. 1994). p. 31. around the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), a tor control remains a subject of intense debate. In 2. lohn Wargo, Our Childrenls Toxic Ltegcy (Yale T-iniversiiv Press, New H-tvens. Conanecticut. large hydroelectric project in the southeastern India, a team of researchers compared the costs t996.p 46. part of the country, of achieving malaria control by four means: using 3 Declain Butler, "Time to put iMlalaria Control oi Urban and peri-urban malaria is a special case the pesticides DDT, lindane (HCH), or ma- the Global Agenda,VNIature, Vol. 386 (April 10, requiring alternative assessment and control op- lathion, or using a combination of environmental 1997), p. 535. tions. Urbanization is proceeding rapidly in sub- management and biological control. The combi- 4. K.S. Jaryarman, "India Plans $200-Million At- Saharan Africa and other malaria-endemic re- nation of environmental management and bio- tack on Malaria:) Niture, Vol. 386 (April 10, gions of the world. By the year 2000, an estimated logical control, referred to as bioenvironmental 1997', p 536. D ~Op. cit. 2. p. 50. 43 percent of the population may live in urban control, was found to be the least costly in achiev- 6. Op. cit 4. areas. Increasing evidence suggests that urbaniza- ing malaria control for the district's 350,000 peo- 7. David J. Bradleyx "Mialaria,) in Disease and Aleo- tion is already having a significant impact on ma- ple. The bioenvironmental control measures re- tality ikl Sub-Saharan Africa, Richard G. laria epidemiology. Although formal urban de- lied extensively on donated community labor. Feachem and Dean T. Jamison, eds. (Oxford velopment typically reduces mosquito densities, Actions included a combination of filling and lev- University Press, Oxford, U.K., 1991), p. 199. the kind of informal development occurring in eling burrow pits; installing permanent under- 8. Lt Alougieto UPrLbaCinppaux and Cotonou sub-Saharan Africa often simply changes the vec- ground drains (French drains); repairing leaks in (Rhpublique du senin) Etude Entomologique" tor species to those such as the culicines (Culex water systems; cleaning ponds and cement tanks Revue d'Epidrneologie et de Santc Psblique, Vol. sps.) that breed in polluted water, as has been well and stocking them with larvivorous fishes; and 40, No. 4 (1992 ), pp. 233-239. documented in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and planting eucalyptus trees to increase evapotran- 9. R. Thompson et al., "The Mlatola Nialaria Pro- other cities (7). Other studies indicate that in ur- spiration in water-l j ('0t ect: A Temporal and Spatial Study of Malaria Transmission and Disease in a Suburban Area ban and peri-urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa, Health education is essential to the success of of Maputso Mocambique, American S oub rbal Af transmission is often intense but seasonal, occur- any malaria prevention program. This can in- TropicslMedicine andHygiene, Vol. 37. 7No. 5 ring for shorter times than in rural areas 81. clude programs in the community and the (November 1997), pp. 550-559. This preliminary evidence indicates that cost- schools, the training of control staff, and efforts 10. P K. Ranjagopalan et al., "Environmental and effective malaria control in urban and peri-urban to raise community awareness. Equally critical is Apater MianagemTent for Mosquito Control: in areas of sub-Saharan Africa will likely include the development of supportive government poli- Curtis, ed. (CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida, well-targeted environmental management in pri- cies and long-term financing. Such cross-sector, 1989), pp. 121-138. consume greater amounts of fossil fuels. The challenge facing This wait-and-see approach is in itself costly, however. policymakers worldwide is to manage economic growth in a Some of the health effects of environmental degrada- way that maximizes its benefits and reduces its costs, in terms tion-such as lowered IQ as a result of lead exposures, or re- of damage to both the environment and to public health. productive damages-cannot be reversed no matter how Accomplishing this task is not easy. Resources, both institu- high the future investments. Furthermore, experience in the tional and financial, are limited, and pressures for develop- developed economies has shown that preventing or control- ment are strong. Often, competing risks exist, and deciding ling pollution is often cheaper than cleaning up later. Clear which to tackle first is never easy. (See Guest Commentary by policv signals today are necessary in order to avoid the nega- K.J. Nath.) tive impacts of economic growth and to reap the full benefits Policymakers must often weigh immediate benefits-of of development. using a pesticide to increase agricultural yields, for in- Policymakers have a much richer variety of tools at their stance-against uncertain and longer-term health risks. disposal than they did 20 years ago, many of which could im- Questions of equity among different social groups and even prove environmental protection at relatively low cost. In the generations can further complicate decisionmaking. Often, past, the typical approach was to regulate behavior, often the evidence for future health or environmental impacts is through what are known as command-and-control ap- speculative or uncertain. Issues of cost are also often raised, proaches. Although these approaches are important, they can such as: Why not wait for economic growth and technology also be costly and difficult to enforce. More recently, policy- improvements before acting, since both would reduce the makers have been using market-based incentives as a way to costs of cleanup? achieve environmental health goals. These incentives can take World Resources 1998-99 83 the form of subsidy reforms, taxes to increase prices lo reflect not directly toxic to humans. BuL if these tests do not investigate social costs, or the establishment of new markets in which whether or not that pesticide may cause ecological damages, pollution permits can be traded (63). Information, too, is a over thelong term, populations maybe exposed tc, newhealth powerful tool for facilitating change. Public education cam- risks emanating from environmental change. Data gathered paigns explaining the links between environmental hazards from public health, ecology, and other scientific disciplines and human health can influence individual behavior, as well might enable risk assessors to better predict the more unex- as provide pressure for broader environmental action. pected health implications of environmental changes (65). Other steps are also necessary. Development planners in Each of the policy approaches described above has its national governments and international agencies need to un- strengths and weaknesses; policymakers must select among derstand the possible health impacts of their projects. Envi- them to find the appropriate mix of instruments that will ronmental impact assessments are now commonplace. What achieve both environmental and health protection. The rest of is lacking in many cases, however, are environmental health this chapter explores various strategies for addressing the un- impact assessments. Often,the deleterious health impacts of a intended health consequences of the three trends described in particular project, such as a dam, can be anticipated and pre- Chapter 2-the intensification of agriculture, industrializa- vented (64). (See Box 3.4.) tion, and rising energy use. The chapter examines strategies Techniques for assessing risk can also be broadened. An ap- for remediation, where environmental degradation has al- proach to risk analysis that incorporates ecosystem impacts ready occurred, and also discusses strategies to prevent envi- would help clarify where long-term or indirect risks might ronmental degradation and risks to human health.. emerge. This approach could include using biological indica- tors, such as plant, rodent, and insect populations, as well as INTENSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE monitoring of environmental and climatological changes. Ex- In addition to its clear benefits, agricultural intensification isting tests may show that a new pesticide under development is can lead to adverse health effects. Risks include exposure to Box 3.4 Putting Health On The Map Strategies that incorporate health concerns those responsible for development decisions. included a situation analysis and proposals into development projects can have multiple Many countries have established intersectoral for structural and institutional reform. and overlapping benefits. Anticipating health committees, partly to follow up on the Agenda 21 0 In Nepal, a health perspective was added to effects in the project planning stage saves time, recommendations of the Rio Summit. the draft Nepal Environmental Policy and money, and lives. This can be as simple as 0 In Jordan, the Ministry of Health set up an in- Action Plan. Initially, the plan did not incor- thinking about snail habitat when designing tersectoral working group, and a national porate a public health componert. Through irrigation canals, or as complex as designing health and environment action plan was pre- the Nepal Environmental Health Initiative, a new communities ina way that will reduce the pared. comprchensivc health and cnironment use of vehiclest m st In Guatemala, a working team was established strategy was developed, and most of the re- Although it may be easy to recognize the value with representation from the Health Ministry, suiting recommendations were incorpo- of integrating preventive health measures into ping and envionment sectors; and a na rated into the final Environmenrtal Polic policy and project planning, accomplishing this tional plan for environmental health and sus- and Action Plan. goal is far from easy. Resources are always con- tainable development was produced, along $ In the Philippines, collaboration was strained, educated and trained personnel may with an institutional analysis of national sec- strengthened between health agencies and not be available, and pressures to proceed with tors associated with health and the environ- the Philippine Council for Sustainable De- development are great. Moreover, the health and ment. velopment. The latter oversees inplementa- environment communities do not have the bene- fit of many years of experience in working to- 9y In Guinea-Bissau, a national interministerial tion of activities in support of cormmitments gether. Nevertheless, a number of international committee on health and the environment was to sustainable development principles made bodies, such as the World Health Organization formed to foster a national process of coordina- at the Earth Summit. An Interagency Com- (WHO), are encouraging such interaction. Other tion among agencies, government, and civil so- mittee on Environmental Health, organized organizations that bring together the health and ciety; the committee addresses ways of inte- by the Ministry of Health and the Council, environment communities include the U.N. grating health and environment concerns into jointly sponsored a detailed analysis with Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), overall national sustainable development plan- case studies of the best approachss for inte- the Inter-Agency Committee on Sustainable De- ning. A national plan of action on health and grating health and environment issues into velopment, and the Inter-Agency Environment environment for sustainable development was the development and implementation of ua- Coordination Group, which is an advisory and produced. tional plans for sustainable development. consultativebodytothe UnitedNationsEnviron- e5 In Iran, a draft strategy document on health Adapted from: Word Healh Organizaticn ment Programme (UNEP). and the environment was developed, to be in- 1-i . codEn no rnrnentd5usramrbleDe- Several regional and country initiatives show corporated ultimately into a national strategy e'oprment. Fhe Years Atler te Forth Summ!t (WHO, that it is possible to broaden the perspective of on sustainable development. The draft strategy Geneva, 1997' . 84 World Resources 1998-99 IMPROVING HEALTH THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION agricultural chemicals and also to in- I. fectious disease agents associated with TABLE 3.2 Pest cide Subs c es in Indonesia, 1985-90 agricultural practices. Less directly, 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 hazards can also arise from soil degra- Pesticide subsidy (1995 141 179 134 85 2 0 dation when it undermines local ca- million U.S.dollars) pacity to produce food. Subsidy rate (percent) 85 75 45 40 0 0 Foravarietvofreasons-health, en- Pesticide production 53 46 58 48 29 22 . . (thousand metric tons) vironmental, and economic-it is Milled rice production 26.5 26.8 27.3 28.3 29.4 30.3 clearly in society's long-term interest (million metric tons) to develop and implement more envi- Source:The World Bank,Five YearsAftert;o:!novations 'n EnvironmentoiPolicy(The World Bank,Wash ngton,D.C 1997,, p.26. ronmentally benign forms of agricul- ture-forms that use fewer agricul- tural chemicals, less water, less energy, and cause less instance, a combined strategy of phasing out pesticide subsi- ecosystem disruption while maintaining agricultural biodi- dies and implementing IPM has reduced pesticide use versity. This shift, now underway in some parts of the world, without compromising rice production. The policy shift has will take some time to accomplish and will not be driven by not onlysaved more than US$100 million per year in govern- health concerns alone. In the near term, however, consider- ment subsidies but also has reduced pesticide production able health benefits can be gained by reducing the threat of from 53,000 to 22,000 tons over 5 years (70). (See Table 3.2.) acute pesticide poisonings among agricultural workers, their Market incentives need to be coupled with a strong regula- families, and communities. The toll of death and disease from tory and enforcement system; unfortunately, such systems are pesticide poisonings is both large and preventable with inter- lacking in many developing and developed countries alike. In ventions available today. Africa, for instance, 76 percent of countries lack pesticide control statutes (71). Even where regulations do exist, statutes Reducinig Aciute i o' from Pesticide Use are often not enforced and practices are not monitored. Build- In developing countries, pesticides may poison as many as 5 ing capacity for improved environmental management-for million people, and many millions more may suffer lesser, but example, by ensuring that the environmental ministry within nonetheless unhealthy pesticide exposures (66). Even in the a country has both financial and political power, orbyprovid- developed world, where safety regulations are stricter and ing adequate technical support-is an important long-term pesticides are generally safer, tens of thousands of farmwork- goal (72). ers are affected (67). The number of acute pesticide poisonings As part of the effort to reduce exposures to and use of some could be greatly reduced if countries and pesticide manufac- of the most dangerous pesticides, several international con- turers agreed to phase out the use of the most toxic pesticides ventions have been established to help control the trade of and enact other reforms to increase the safety of pesticide hazardous pesticides and other chemicals. Although they do handling. not regulate use directly, these conventions hope to address As described in Chapter 2, some extremely toxic pesticides the problem of exporting dangerous compounds to countries that are banned in developed countries are still widely used in with less stringent regulations where they would either be the developing world. Many of the pesticides of the 1990s are used or disposed of unsafely. One example is the Prior In- more selective in what they kill, less toxic to humans and the formed Consent (PIC) mechanism (73). This procedure was environment, and require less per hectare to be effective, thus designed to ensure that countries have accurate and detailed reducing risks to human health (68). Because price and avail- information on specific pesticides and industrial chemicals ability largely determine the type of pesticide used, national that have been found to be hazardous. Based on this informa- governments can encourage the shift toward safer pesticides tion, countries can then make informed decisions about by using a combination of taxes and financial incentives. For whether to import or use these chemicals. instance, a tax or fee that falls more heavily on older pesticides The PIC procedure was first implemented for six pesticides would provide the farmer an incentive to switch to newer in 1990. By 1997, 154 countries had agreed to participate in compounds that are applied sparingly (69). the procedure, which then covered 27 pesticides and indus- To boost agricultural production, many governments trial chemicals. One weakness of this procedure, however, is heavily subsidize pesticides. These subsidies often result in that it is voluntary. FAO and UNEP are now facilitating inter- excessive and inefficient use of pesticides and provide a disin- national negotiations to develop a legally binding instrument; centive to try alternative pest control methods, such as Inte- agreement is expected during 1998 (74). grated Pest Management (IPM). Removing or adjusting these Several international bodies, private corporations, and subsidies can greatly influence pesticide use. In Indonesia, for nonprofit organizations are also working wvith communities World Resources 1998-99 85 to educate them about the safe use of pesticides. Some pesti- face waters and coastal estuaries-one of the most critical cide manufacturers are also trying to reduce risks through threats to aquatic ecosystems today and therefore to the har- improved packaging and labeling. Some companies have de- vest of fish and shellfish that constitute an important human veloped water-soluble packaging. This eliminates the need to food source. rinse the original container to dispose of it safely (75). Public Reducing the risks of fertilizer use will require a combina- right-to-know laws can also provide an incentive for change. tion of better agricultural practices that raise fertilizer effi- Once information is available on pesticide use and its hazards, ciency and increased efforts to trap agricultural r anoff before health advocates, citizen groups, and others can bring pres- it leaches into waterways. Better timing of fertilizer applica- sure on growers and individuals using the products. tions, for instance, can reduce the amount of fertilizer wasted in the field. In Hawaii, one sugar cane plantation was able to AdHop ting,,7 L ess D isr updti'Xe Agr icuzz ltu ralI Pra c tices cut nitrogen fertilizer use by one third and reduce losses of ni- Ultimately, reducing health risks from agriculture will require trous oxide and nitric oxide 10-fold by dissolving the fertilizer a shift to a more environmentally benign form of agriculture, in irrigation water, delivering it below the soil Surface, and one that uses fewer agricultural chemicals overall, minimizes timing multiple applications to meet the needs of the growing ecological disruption, and reduces agriculture's heavy de- crop (78). Other strategies to keep excess fertilizer from con- mand for water. taminating local waterways include establishing vegetation Managing Pests Strategically. Over the long term, IPM buffer strips around crop and pasturelands and restoring promises to reduce the use of pesticides greatly. This strategy natural wetlands. Over the long term, controlling water pollu- encourages natural control of pest populations by anticipat- tion from agriculture will require more coordinat ion between ing problems and preventing them from reaching economi- agricultural and environmental objectives. (See Box 3.5.) cally damaging levels. Techniques include enhancing natural Rational Irrigation. Although the spread of irrigation has enemies, planting pest-resistant crops, and, as a last resort, ju- been a major contributor to the remarkable increases in agri- dicious use of pesticides. cultural output, current irrigation practices can cause much In a number of cases, IPM has proven not only better for damage. Problems include excessive consumption of fresh health but more economical than pest control based solely on water, which can contribute to local water scarcity and also in- agrochemicals. In Brazil, about 40 percent of commercial soy- directly undermine health by harming the agricultural re- bean farmers have switched to IPM since the 1970s, saving source base. Irrigation projects can also create breeding sites more than US$200 million dollars a year as the result of re- formosquitoesandothervectors,increasingthetranismission duced use of insecticides, labor, machinery, and fuel. In the of these diseases. And when wastewater is used for irrigation, early 1970s, five insecticide applications per season were it can increase the risk ofcholera, hepatitis, and other diseases needed to control soybean pests; now one or two yearly appli- associated with human sewage. cations are sufficient (76). Pesticide use has been reduced by S0 Even relatively simple improvements in irrigation projects to 90 percent (77). and planning can bring high short-term rewards in terms of Although IPM use has increased steadily over the past two reduced water consumption and improved health. Careful decades, the proportion of farmers using it remains small. schedulingofirrigation,matchingcropstolocalclimaticcon- Part of the difficulty is that in each case, specific techniques ditions, and modest improvements to inefficient systems can must be identified for local conditions. Governments often result in large water savings (79). Coordination between water offer little support, such as funding or education, to encour- development planners and health authorities could substan- age growers to invest in this new approach. In addition, pesti- tially lower the incidence of vector-borne diseases. If health cides continue to be attractive to most farmers and govern- concerns and costs are analyzed and factored into planning, ments because their use is simple and economic returns are controlling vectors through environmental management can predictable. Promoting a switch to IPM will require more be relatively inexpensive and effective, with long-term bene- education and training at the farm level, along with continu- fits-in contrast to having to implement a chemical control ing research. In addition, promoting IPM will require adjust- strategy or establish treatment centers after the disease vector ing those subsidies and policies that encourage extensive pes- has taken hold (80). Changing dam water levels at strategic ticide use. times, or digging channels to ensure proper water flow, for in- Reducing Fertilizer Use. Excessive fertilization of agricul- stance, can reduce the risks of vector-borne disease. tural crops can damage both ecosystems and human health. The risks associated with using wastewater for irrigation Excess fertilizer can leach through soil where porosity is high, can also be greatly reduced through simple interventions. For leading to nitrate contamination of groundwater, which poses example, irrigation with wastewater during planting is less a direct threat to infant health. Runoff from heavily fertilized risky than application during the growing cycle; risks drop if fields is also a prime contributor to the eutrophication of sur- wastewater irrigation ceases several weeks before - he harvest. 86 World Resources 1998-99 IMPROVING HEALTH THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION -:~~ ~ ~ 3, _' _',''x A . -° ' uW ;- 8atsar- .- - ,,,\,,, /,rt7 ' 5; ' , - Honduras and Nicaragua, both low-income countries, have When faced with numerous and uncertain health risks and made dramatic strides in phasing out leaded gasoline (86). limited resources to combat pollution, it makes sense for gov- Although the technical process of phasing out lead from ernments to focus control efforts on the worst offenders. Sci- gasoline is simple and the costs are modest, rapid phaseout is entific debate continues regarding the exact health effects re- nevertheless complex. At the core of any successful campaign lated to low-level exposures of some industrial pollutants. But to eliminate leaded gasoline is the need to raise public aware- for other pollutants-in particular heavy metals such as ness oftherisks ofusingleadedgasoline (87).Misconceptions lead-no such subtleties remain. Heavy metals are extremely are still widespread that high octane, and therefore highly hazardous to human health, and there is no justification for leaded, fuels provide better vehicle performance. Changing the human exposures that continue today, causing avoidable this perception and informing citizens about the health im- World Resources 1998-99 IMPROVING HEALTH THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION - I!, ,, ,- . .,., i IRE 3.3 Decreases nBlood Lead Values and Amounts of Lea sea in aso ein .......I...................I................... .............. ........ ........... .......... tn e U nited States, 1976-80 Because of their high toxccity,ability to be transported ong ds- TotalLeadolUedPer 6monthPerod Average Blood ead Le,els (000 metric toes; sortg-tm per ddetteree tances, and persistence n the environment, persistent organic pol ut- 0 ants (POPs) have engendered considerable a arm. At the intemna- tiona evel,The United Nations Ervironment Programme (JNEP) has identified POPs as prime cand dates for international phaseout. Many of these chemica s are pesticides, described earlier in this cnapter.A A few are industr al po lutants or byproducts,such as polycnlorinated biphenyls (PU '.. and furans. In 997, the governing counci of UNEP concluded that internationa 5 t action, inc udirg a global ecal y binding nstrument (e.g., treaty or con- vention), was needed in order to reduce the risks of POPs to human 70 . - ,. health and the environment At intergovernmental negotiating com- mittee ( NC) was estabished w th a mandate to prepare this interna- 6C --------- tional egal p binding instrument for .mp ement ng internationa act on. LEADUSEDJN GASL050N The first meeting o the INC s scheduled for early I 998.The INC vvi I AVERAGEBLCODLEAD .LvvLL 10 a so establish an expert group that wil he p develop science-based cri- ..50- tena and a procedure for dentifying additional POPs as candidates for future internaoiona action. n ne short term, UNEP has iritiated a number of imned ate actions nvolving development and sharing of in- 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 formation about the hazercs of POPs (l). At the national evel, pol cie -s ', disposal and cleanup evi l I Source: ValerieeM.Thomas,'TherliminationofLead inCasolire,"AnnualReviewofEneregand vary great y depending on the types of POPs in use or storace. Po icies o tbeEnvironmentVol.20 (1t95),p 307. vill also be shaped with consideration of whether or not the existing waste treatment and disposa infrastructure can be used or easi y modi- environmental regulations about lead content. Large refiner- fied for POPs managemert, and the re ative cost of various manage- ies, which could afford the costs of adjustment, achieved moent options (). A key priority fo a I countries is to identify those areas her-thanhrequld lead redctons, of ren ts that where POPs contamination is a concern. Because the majority of human higher-than-required lead reductions, earning credits that exposures to POPs ar se through the food chain,warning the pub ic of could then be sold to smaller refineries (which have fewer re- possible contamination of fish or other wi d ife can also help minimize I sources to make adjustments), or banked against future re- health risks s3i. duction requirements (88). In addition, refinery investments 2 necessary to reduce the lead content of gasoline often pay for References and Notes ' themselves over time as a result of improved productivitv and 1. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), UTNEP Cheeticrals ANews- letter, Vol. 1, No. 2 (UNEP, Nairobi, 1997). Available online at: refinilg efficiencv (89). http:/lirptc.unep.ch/irpte/docs/nevsoltl2html (January 21, 1998). During the phaseout period, when both unleaded and 2. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, "Management of Polvchlorinated Biphenyls in the United States,' leaded gasoline are available, pricing leaded gasoline higher lanuary 30, 1997 paper available onine at http://wwvw:irptc.unep.ch. than unleaded can increase consumer demand for unleaded 3. The Council on Environmental Quality, Enrvirosnrmeetral QualSit: 2sth Anni- t-ersaryReportr(U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice, Washington, D.C. 1997), gasoline. In most Western European countries, for example, p. 118. ' the initial small difference in the price of leaded versus un- leaded fuel was gradually increased; in the United Kingdom, pacts oflead-especially on children-can be powerful tools leaded gasoline now costs 11 percent more than unleaded for getting the public to support difficult policy decisions and gasolinie (90). change consumer behavior. Generally, countries can recover 5 to 10 times the cost of Refineries shoulder the greatest cost in a switch to unleaded converting to unleaded gas in health and economic savings. The United States, for example, saved more than USSlO for grasoline. However, governments can offset some of these costs by helping companies finance the initial modifications every US$1 it invested in the conversion due to reduced health polfcl ic ys costs, savings on engine maintenance, and improved fuel effi- needed to produce unleaded gasoline. Market-based policy ciency, (9a). Because leaded gasoline contains lead salts and incentives that allow the refineries some flexibility can also halogen acids, it causes greater corrosion of automobile ex- help reduce the costs of lead phaseout. In the United States, for haust systems and requires more frequent oil and spark-plug example, interrefinery trading and the banking of lead cred- changes. Switching from leaded to unleaded gasoline may in- its-similar to today's SO, emissions trading program-ac- crease engine life by as much as 150 percent. Indeed, the U.S. celerated the ability of refineries to respond to more stringent experience showed that it pays to remove lead from gasoline World Resources 1998-99 solely in terms of vehicle maintenance costs; the substantial I ~ X ENERGY USE health benefits are an additional benefit. Along with tackling the environmental and health problems atthehousehold and communitylevel, perhaps the nextgreat- The Futziro. ;le-ai Production est opportunity for improving both environmental quality A long-term strategy for preventing exposure to hazardous and human health is to reduce air pollution and carbon diox- industrial pollutants is to reduce their use in the first place ide (CO,) emissions from the burning of fossil fuels. Energy- through cleaner production. Moving toward eco-efficiency, as related environmental pollution figures prominently as a con- this goal is often defined, means that industry must reduce raw tributor to a number of diseases, including acute respiratory material inputs-chemicals, natural resources, energy, wa- infections, chronic respiratory diseases, cardiovascular dis- ter-and at the same time reduce air, water, and solid pollut- eases, and cancer. Exposure to urban air pollution remains a ants for each unit of production (92).This push toward cleaner widespread and serious environmental problem worldwide production is typically driven by environmental and eco- (98). Less certain but no less pressing, the potential health im- nomic concerns rather than by health concerns, although it pacts resulting from global climate change loom on the hori- seems certain that cleaner production would benefit public zon. On the positive side, tremendous health benefits and eco- health as well. nomic savings may be gained if the links among energy, air Unlike the industrialized countries, developing countries pollution, and climate change are dealt with in a coordinated have the opportunity to leapfrog over some polluting indus- way. tries and technologies into cleaner production. Recent ad- vances in information systems, telecommunications, biotech- Clearinig p7he Air nology, new materials, and miniaturization portend dramatic An estimated 1.4 billion people are exposed to unh ealthy out- reductions in material and energy inputs (93). Pollution moni- door air (99). Especially in the developing world, where maxi- toring and control technologies have also improved over the mum particulate and SO, concentrations in many cities still past 20 years. If proper incentives are in place, developing exceed WHO guidelines 10-fold, air pollution poses a clear countries need not build or import yesterday's dirty technol- danger to public health. In the developed world, although lev- ogy, as all too often occurs today. The key to spurring this els ofpollution tend to be lower and episodes ofextremelyse- technological change and transfer is to send clear social, eco- vere air pollution have been relegated to the history books, air nomic, and regulatory signals to companies and to ensure that pollution still remains a problem in many cities. In the United markets for environmentally benign technologies will con- States, for instance, particulate air pollution is believed to con- tinue to grow (94). tribute to about 50,000 to 60,000 deaths each yeas, primarily The potential for improved investments is enormous. The through respiratory or cardiovascular disease (100)(101). current trend toward globalization, with its accompanying in- Improved monitoring and tightening of air quality stan- vestment flows, means that private companies are increas- dards and regulations remain top priorities for developed and ingly influencing industrial change, much more so than pub- developing countries alike. In the United States, the Environ- lic investments or development assistance. Indeed, roughly 70 mental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) recently tightened the percent of net resource flows to the developing world now de- national air quality standards. Although the Unitecd States has rive from theprivate sector (95).Especiallyin the newlyindus- seen dramatic improvements in air quality over the past 20 trializing, fast-growth economies-those facing the greatest years, these standards are designed to further reduce the risks from unchecked industrial pollution-conditions are health risks of small particulates and ozone, especially for conducive for financing environmentally sound technology. children, the elderly, and people with asthma or other respira- The World Bank estimates, for example, that firms that have tory diseases (102). Several cities in the developing world, in- yet to be established will account for more than 80 percent of cluding Bangkok, Santiago, and Bombay, are all in the process industrial output by 2010 (96). Indonesia has already made oftighteningairqualitystandardsandimprovingmonitoring strides in this direction. For instance, the new pulp and paper and enforcement efforts (103) (104) (105). mills being built there have pulping and bleaching technolo- Nevertheless, these regulatory approaches will likely be in- gies on par with those now being proposed as the U.S. envi- adequate to address the energy-related problems of air pollu- ronmental standard (97). Although the initial costs of cleaner tion and climate change. What is needed, instead, in countries technologies may be higher than those of older technologies, of all levels of development, are ambitious, forward-looking the provision of financial and technical assistance can en- strategies to reduce energy consumption. Avenues for inter- courage their adoption. Such a strategy will offer economic vention range from energy pricing, to curbing urban sprawl, savings and environmental and health benefits long into the to investing in alternative transportation options, 11o increas- future. ing the energy efficiency of products and processes. G20 World Resources 1998-99 IMPROVING HEALTH THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION Given the complexity of the problem, strategies for reduc- Bombay and Jakarta (113)(114). Cutting the sulfur content of ing air pollution must be tailored to a particular city, bearing diesel and gasoline can also greatly reduce both SO, and fine in mind both the key contributors and the city's priorities and particle concentrations (115). resources. In those cities that are still industrial centers, for ex- Although these measures can significantly reduce concen- ample, controlling industrial emissions of SO, and particu- trations of conventional pollutants, they do not address the lates should be a high priority. The Bangkok metropolitan re- inherent problems of a transportation system that is based on gion alone, for instance, is home to nearly three quarters of the private car. After more than 30 vears of rigorous regula- Thailand's manufacturing industries. Similarly, industry is tion of automobile emissions and fuels, the U.S. Government concentrated in many large cities in India, Indonesia, Mexico, estimates that, by 2005, automobile emissions in the United the Philippines, and the Republic of Korea (106). States will begin to rise again as the result of increased travel In other cities, reducing emissions from the use of coal for and the switch to gas-guzzling minivans (116). One of the domestic heating and power generation should be of greatest greatest opportunities for developing countries-where car concern. In Central and Eastern Europe, China, and India, for ownership is still relatively low-is to implement policies that example, the use of coal contributes a large share to outdoor encourage alternative transportation systems. Policies that air pollution, especially in terms of SO, and particulates. raise the price of auto fuel or car ownership, for instance, Emissions of SO, and particulates can be reduced by as much would help curb urban sprawl and make public transporta- as 99 percent and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions can be re- tion,bicycles, and walking more attractive options. As the ex- duced by as much as 90 percent though the use of clean coal perience of many developed cities has shown, once automo- technologies (107). Coal preparation-which consists of pro- bile ownership drives out these alternatives, they are almost cesses that range from mechanical sorting that yields pieces of impossible to institute ( 117). uniform size to treating the coal to remove ash, sulfur, and moisture-can also help to reduce emissions at relatively low RicinicZg CO, EJIzissiolZs cost (108). In 1995, the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Switching from coal to natural gas can also improve local concluded that the cumulative effects of anthropogenic CO, air quality. In the Czech Republic, for example, Czech Energy emissions were having a discernable impact on the environ- Works reduced SO, emissions by 36 percent, dust and par- ment ( 118). As Chapter 2 described, changes in the global cli- ticulate emissions by 49 percent, and N,O emissions by 50 mate may affect human health in myriad wavs, ranging from percent between 1989 and 1995. These reductions were ac- deaths and injuries linked with an increased frequency of se- complishedbyinstallingscrubbers on coalpower utilities and vere storms to increases in vector-borne diseases. Although switching to natural gas and oil for home heating (109). Al- the exact health effects remain uncertain, their potential scale though air pollution still exceeds WHO health guidelines, the provides added weightto the case for reducing co, emissions. Czech Republic believes that within 7 or 8 years it can achieve Scientists estimate that global emissions of CO, need to be levels of air quality that Western Europe took 20 years to reduced to well below 1990 levels to eventually stabilize the at- achieve (110). mospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at a safe level Cars and other vehicles are another major contributor to (I19). This taskwill requireamajor restructuring of the global urban air pollution. The problems associated with using energy supply, away from the use of coal and oil and toward leaded gasoline were discussed earlier. Motor vehicles also natural gas and renewable energy sources. Buildings and emit a variety of other pollutants, including particulates and transportation systems, as well as industrial processes, will SO,. As the demand for cars grows, emissions can be expected need to be redesigned to use energy much more efficiently. to worsen unless there are dramatic improvements in fuel effi- Undertaking these measures will entail difficult political deci- ciencvandvehicletechnology.Indeed,thenumberofvehicles sions and economic costs. As negotiations in Kyoto in late in China has been growing at an annual rate of almost 13 per- 1997 made abundantly clear, these issues are not easily solved. cent for 30 vears, nearly doubling every 5 years. India's fleet Intense debate continues not only about desirable goals and has been expanding at more than 7 percent per year (I lij. timetables, but also about the relative roles of developed and Especially in developing countries, where cars tend to be developing nations in the effort to curb emissions. (See Global old and polluting, tackling the problems of motor vehicle Commons in Chapter 4.) emissions can have immediate and positive impacts on Without question, reducing fossil fuel consumption will re- health. Investments in cleaning up the worst offenders can re- quire raising the price of these fuels. Fossil fuel prices remain duce pollution significantly at relatively low cost. In Manila, unreasonably low in most parts of the world. Electricity, natu- for instance, cleaning up the dirtiest vehicles alone could save ral gas, and coal are subsidized in most countries; petroleum an estimated 160 deaths and 4 million respiratory symptom consumption is subsidized in oil-exporting developing na- days each year (112). Similar benefits have been estimated for tions. Until prices more truly reflect the costs of using fossil World Resources 1998-99 91 Box 3.7 Effects of Energy Taxes and Subsidies on the Economy and the Environment Some people worry about the negative impact used) in Germany and Japan, however, is about 1990 and 1994, Germany's economy grew at of energy taxation on economic growth, but 10 times higher than in Russia and China where 1. I percent per year, while its ener,y con- removing energy subsidies and taxing envi- energy is still subsidized. Also, carbon dioxide sumption dropped by 1.5 percent per year. ronmentally adverse energy use can be an eco- emission intensity is much lower in Japan and Similar results can also be seen in China. From nomically and environmentally sound policy Germany (0.30 and 0.49 metric tons per thou- 1990 to 1994, Chinas GDP grew annually by for a country. sand US. dollars, respectively) than in Russia and 12.9 percent, while the country's growth rate Germany and Japan have heavity taxed energy China (5.43 and 5.27 metric tons per thousand of energy consumption was only 4 percent per for years. Their percentages of gasoline prices ac- U.S. dollars, respectively). vear. counted for by taxes in 1995, for example, were 78 Germany provides an example of a country percent and 53 percent, respectively (See table.) where the link betveen economic growth and en- Adapted from: Th-e Wond Ba nk, Frve Years After The energy productivity (measured by gross do- ergy consumption growth can be broken by im- P'o. frrGvotions in Env!ronmenta Policy (The World mestic product (GDP) per kilogram of energy proving efficiency in the use of energy. Between Bank, Washington, D.C., 1 997), p. 32. Effects of Energy -axes or Subsidies Cross-Coun:ry Conpar son AVERAGE TAX PER CAPITA CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS AVERAGE ANNUAL AVERAGE ANNUAL (SUBSIDY) RATES' ENERGY USE5 GDP PER KILOGRAM PER DOLLAR OF GDP ENERGYGROWTH GDP GROWTH RATE (1995) (1994) OF ENERGY (1994) (1992) RATE (1 990-94) (1 990-94) COUNTRY (percent) (kilograms) (US$/kg) (metric tons per US$1,000) (percent) (percent) China (7) 647 0.7 5.27 4.0 2.9 Germany 78.4 4097 6.1 0.49 -1.5 1.1 Japan 52.8 3825 9.6 0.30 2.3 1.2 Russia (20) 4038 0.6 5.43 -8.9 -10.6 United States 33.3 7905 3.2 0.82 1.8 2.5 Source: The World sank, Ffve Years After Rio. mnnovtihonsain Environmental Policy (The World Bank Washington, DC., 1997), p.32. Notes: aFor Germrany,Japan,and the United States,average tax rates on regu ar un eaded gasoline;for China and Russia,average subsidy rates. b.Measured in or. equivalents. fuel-including the health costs from air pollution and costs Even so, some countries have made considerable progress of environmental degradation-few policy measures will in reducing energy subsidies over the past several years. Be- stem the growing use. (See Box 3.7.) tween 1990 and 1996, total fossil fuel subsidies in 14 develop- Such changes are neither simple nor straightforward, how- ing countries declined by 45 percent, from US$60 billion to ever. Energy, like water, is a vital resource that is essential to about US$33 billion. Brazil, China, India, MIexico, Saudi Ara- human well-being and economic development. That recogni- bia, and South Africa all cut fossil fuel subsidies significantly. tion underlies policies that subsidize its use. Providing power During this same period, subsidies in developed countries de- to a rm eaarn eom spoutclined by 20.5 percent, from US$12.5 billion to US$9.9 billion. to a remote area brings enormous opportunites to people, InC wvhich is one reason energy has historically been subsidized. In China, price reform has led to significant energy efficiency gains-gains that, according to the World Bank, have the po- Refrigeration,et uslnesjut oies eampe, changsav many liv tential to yield savings of 1 to 1.7 billion metric tons of coal from foodborne illness. If prices are to be changede these im- equivalents per year by 2020, an amount greater than China's mediate benefitsr mustab weghed ans th re h idden total energy consumption in 1990 (120). Although these cuts costs of environmental degradation and future health dam- were made to meet economic, social, and public health needs, ages. they nevertheless have contributed to significant carbon sav- In addition, once energy prices have been set in a particular ings (121). range, they can be difficult to alter. Although economists and A carbon tax is currently the subject of heated debate. A consumers may agree in principle that energy prices should carbon tax would reduce emissions of certain air pollutants better reflect the true costs, consensus breaks down rapidly in by increasing the costs of fuels according to their carbon con- setting a specific goal-such as raising the price of gasoline. tent, carbon being a proxy for emissions. For example, coal Reducing energy subsidies and adjusting energy prices may would be taxed more heavily than natural gas, because coal's cause negative short-term consequences for some, and per- carbon content per British thermal unit (Btu) is higher than haps substantial economic impact, so political opposition that of natural gas. Advocates of the carbon tax believe it seems certain. would be a strong tool for preventing global climate change 92 World Resources 1998-99 IMPROVING HEALTH THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION and would also reduce energy consumption and lower con- tions-an estimated 700,000 deaths per year could be avoided ventional pollutants. So far, only five countries-Denmark, by 2020 (123). Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden-have imple- Because the exact effects of a warming planet remain un- mented carbon taxes (122). certain, it can be difficult for nations to take actions that cause To date, the benefits of reducing greenhouse gas emissions economic pain today. Yet, this recent study illustrates how pre- have been generally considered in the context of long-term ventive environmental strategies can yield multiple pay- gains. In other words, investments now can avert harmful ef- offs-not only in terms of reducing immediate and long-term fects later. What has often been overlooked, however, is the health damages from air pollution but also in averting eco- immediate improvement that would occur in terms of reduc- logical disruption and the economic costs predicted to ac- tions of ambient air pollution-with benefits to ecosystems, company a warming planet. economies, and human health. Indeed, efforts to reduce CO, In summary, the range of interventions and policies de- emissions will lead to measurable reductions in particulates, scribed in this chapter is by no means exhaustive. Nor does SO,, and other airborne toxic compounds, with consequent this chapter attempt to describe the complex choices and and immediate improvements in air quality and human trade-offsthatwillbenecessarytoimplementpoliciesonalo- health, according to a recent analysis by a working group es- cal level. Effecting change, admittedly, is difficult. Policymak- tablished by WRI and WHO. This study suggests that the ers typically confront competing demands and priorities and same policies that will avert greenhouse warming in the long are handicapped by myriad financial and technical con- term will save hundreds of thousands of lives. Specifically, the straints. At the same time, however, the benefits of the changes study found that under a relatively stringent climate policy outlined here promise to be substantial, not only in terms of scenario-a l5percentreductionindevelopedcountryemis- improving public health but also in preserving environ- sions by 2010, with smaller reductions in developing na- mental quality and ensuring equitable development. World Resources 1998-99 93 GUEST COMMENTARIES Environmental Healfth In the 21 st Century: Challenges for Researchers and Decisionmakers R0B3 0 Br RTOL N V.D., M91 P. H. The first principle of the 1992 Declaration of disadvantaged, while modern risks associated For example,several important studies the United Nations Conference on the Envi- with economic development increase 3). have used a new indicatorthe (isability- ronment and Development affirns that hu- There is no question in my mind that the adjusted life year,or DALY,to quantify the man beings are entitieo to a healthy ife. At most important priority for public health de- burden of disease attributable to a the close of The 20th Centurv, the world s;tua- cisionmakers around the world is to find an number of known risk factors (4).One tion with respect to the effects of the environ- effective way to a: i i I the unfinished study suggests that only 0.5 percent of the ment on health is complex and fullof oftn- business of providing every citizen of the g obal disease ourden is actualy attribut- world with the basic conditions needed to able to air po[ution-1.5 percent of the trasts. In the developed wored, concern or nsre their healt and wel-being.This is the disease burden in the developed world environmental inf uences on health s mainly issue for international organizations national and 0.4 percent in developing countries focused en chronic diseases associated with (5).Yet how accurately do these figures re- governments, and nongovernmental organi- . oacuteydthsfirsr- oollut on.Yet a large part of the global popu- zatons; it should be seen as a major goal for f ect the real impact of air pollution en hu- lation-both in the developing world and in the first years or decades of the next century. man health? DALYs portray mortality and the inner cities of the deve open wor d-is Mosr of these longstanding problems are long-term disability;they do no- capture . e . . ............... . . ' ' . .... ~~~~~~short-term illness. Moreover, exposu re to still strugging with traditional environmental relatively well known solutions are feasl- health problems.These problems inreude a ble-though by no means simple-and air polution varies and. - h :r1, y ica- lack of clean drinking water,decent housing, measures of progress are available to monitor tinhtie u ALfu an othe indicators and proper sanitation. l the 1996 Wor!d results ann achievements.The real question is migl-tbeusli guidelorplicatthe Health Report, these issues are described as whether the governments and major eco- local level. old diseases-old problems" I). As Chapter 1 nomI groups ofthe worl nave the neces- What is needed,then,are acditional . . . ~~~sary commitment to reach this goal.The an- describes, at least 2.9 billion people in cevel- s c t methods that incorporate appropriate oping countries, or two thirds of t1he deve oP- sver is neither easy nor straightforwaro, data on sickness as well as death into ing world's populatio, lack an adequate sYs- ecause the positons and policies of many evaluations and decsionmaking.This will *ng ormspopuatio, laa anadeqate ~s- government and internationa oodles are require opening the fie d of en\ ion- tem for disposing oftheirfeces.About 25 contradictoryand unclear.In this context,I am mental health to what might oen consd- percent do not have access to safe drirk ng convinced that one of the most important eren unconventional approaches. Most water. Overall, some 3.7 million deaths each roles of pub ic health professionals will be to approacoes to assessing environmental year are due to food-, water-, ard soilborne concentrate the attention of governments, In- health effects focus on wel-nefined dis diseases, representing about 22 percent of all cal authorities, and the public on the issue of eases or causes of death as clas,ified in deaths due to infectious - . eacn year. providing basic necessities for all. internal medicine textbooks. Pe-haps At the sam e time, economic growth and The priority I place on traditional issues there is also another class of effixcts- massive urbanization in many deve oping does not mean that todays pollution-related more subtle and I it 'I.:: classify but countries are changing the picture. Adding to prob ems do not require appropriate atten- more frequently associated with the the traditional environmental health issues tion. True, uncertainties emain in the scien- presence of environmental hazc rds. noted above are those associated with tific understanding of the overa I role of pollu- These might inc ude symptoms like chemical pollut on and occu.pational expo- tion in Ill health, as weJ as on more specific headache, nausea, or skin rashes, which sures to hazardous substances (2. Many coun- issues such as nose-response relationships, are not easy to measure but are fre- tries are going through a so-called environ- biologica mechanisms, and so forth. Because quently reported by populations ex- mental hea th transition, a situation in whch of prob ems related to the quality and type of posed to potential environmental haz- traditiona risks remain important healtn data usee to assess the impacts of po lution, ards;these symptoms may pose a major threats for, . i ,, i poor and re evant questions often remain unanswered. burden on well-being.Tnese effects can- 94 World Resources 1998-99 GUEST COMMENTARIES not be dismissed as unmeasurable or biologi- tary in this volume,there is probably an ticularly at the local level.We need a better cally implausible.The [imitations of existing upper limit to pol utions contrbuton in understanding of the link between environ- knowledge are not iii I- r reason for the traditional terms to the life expectancy ment and health to support decisionmaking. public health community to deny the exis- gap. However, pollutants may interact We also need stronger partnerships among tence of ailments affecting the people's lives. with other factors in the socia environ- experts in the different sectors of society, par- This last point raises another dimension of ment to undermine health.The fact that ticu arly health, the environment, and the the environmenta. influence on health, the people have to live in communities with economy. Environmental and health scientists so-called psychosocial effects that began at- pol uted skies and bad odors may con- must increase their role as advocates,con- tracting scientific attention after tne Cherno- tribure to a sense of powerlessness. Thus, stantly highlighting the links among health, byl accident. Fol owing that accident, epide- po lution becomes an element of the environment, and sustainable develop- miologists and public health scientists psychosocial environment, influencing mert-particularly when policies are being searched for the expected effects of radiation lifestyle or - .. developed and actions p anned.We must pur- on the thyroid, growing brain, or hematopoie- Adopting this new conceptual sue all these steps urgent y to ensure a sus- tic system.The incidence of thyroid cancer in framework will require the development tainable, healthy environment for future ger- crildren increased remarkably, but no major of new research methodooogies, for in- erations. effects have been observed so far on the inci- stance, - -:..u r .j an effective interac- dence of leukemia (6)(7). However, the popula- tion among the fields of pub ic health, - ' ' t tion affected by the accident suffers from a demography, sociology, behavioral sci- 1. Wsorld Health Organization (WHO), The World variety of other diseases-a mixture of minor ence, economy, and business manage- Healtht Report 1996: Fighting Disease, Fosterinig De- velopinent (WHO, Geneva, 1996). disturbances of severa. organs and systems, ment.The development of methods for 2. World Health Organization (WHO), Healthl and Esi- psychiatric d isorders, a nd stress-related dis- studying the underlyi ng societal deter- r irotnent in Sutstainable Del elopttent (WHO, Ge- neva, 1997). eases. It is generally agreed that, apart from minants of health, as wvell as their inter- 3. K.R. Smith, "Development, Health and the Environ- the increase in thyrold cancer, these psycho- action with environmental and other mental Risk Transition," in Ititertictial Perspectives on Environttent, Development, and Health: Toward a social effects are the most important public factors, is one of the major cha lenges sustaitnable tWorld, G.S. Shahi et l.., eds. (Springer, health effects of the accident (8). for the next generation of epidemiolo- NewYork. 1997),pp.51-62. 4. Christopher J.L. Murray and Alan D. Lopez. "Global This conceptcontrasts witn tne prevailing gists and pubin healtn slentists (lo,. Mortality, Disability, and the Contribution of Risk conceptua model, in which the environment Interdisciplinary research and predic- Fac1os9 G199 app 14361 44o . is seen mostly as a vehicle for toxic or hazard- tive models are also needed if the envi- 5. Christopher JL.-Murravand Alan D. Lopez, eds. cus substances. But this prevailing mode fals ronmental hea th community is to an- The Global Borden ojist°fl)iase: Votlanse 1 (World o~~~~s s~~~~~~bstancos. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Health Organization. Harvard School ofPublic to fully account for the role of environment in ticipate the like y impact of future Health, and The World Bank, Geneva, 1996), p. 315. human health and well-being. It can be ar- changes, such as global warming.This 5 6. V.A. Sts(azhko et tol., "Childhood Thyroid Cancer Since the Accident at Chernobvl)' Britislh Nedical gued that living conditions more broadly a new area for environmental health im- bourtical, Vol. 310 ( 1995), p. SO' might help to exp ain differences in hea th pact assessment that must be added to 7. DM. Parkin ett,71., "Childhood Laeukaemia in Europe after Chernobyl: 5-Year Follow Up)' B ittlrit among selected populations through their the standard after-the-fact assessment. Joturttal ofCaticer, Vol. 73 (1996), pp. 1006-1012. impact on psychology and behavior.Thus,the For example, envlronmental health sci- 8. WHO European Centre for Envtronm ent and Health, Coancersi for EaLrope's Tomorrowse Health atid environment has not only a direct "toxicologi- entists should be able to use nforma- Ens' irostnteszt in the W'HO FEropean Region (Wissen- cal" role but also an indirect role,together tion about sh fts in d stribution of key schaftliche Verlaggesellschaft mbH, Stuttgart, Ger- with the work, social, and living conditions, in ~~~~~mans, 199s). - with the work, social1, and livi ng co nditions, i n -, i i . - , species (e.g., rodents, imnsects, 9. World Health Organization: WHO), Healtrh i influencing health. In this new conceptual algae) as early warnings of climate Euirope, WHO Regional Publications EuLropean Se- ries, No. 56 (WHO, Copenhagen, 1994). framework, the roe of environment is much change.These shifts might presage l1. C.M. Shy, "The Failure of Academic Epidemiology: broader than - l I understood. Life- changes in human health risks, ncluding Witness for the Prosecution'" ATtsertcanJournfotsofo Epideroiology, Vol. 145 (1997), pp. 479-484. style,for instance, may be partly dependent the emergence or reemergence of unex- 11. WorldHealthOrganization,.World Meterological on environmenca conditions. pected infectious diseases lt). Organization, and the United Nations Environment Programme, Clitnate Chltage atid HEfstnat Heallth This approach has been used in attempts In summary,the environment re- (WHO,Genev.a, 1996). to explain the East-West life expectancy gap mains a major source of hazards for hu- observed in Europe over the past few dec- man health and vv'e l-being, and the Roberto Bertollisi is t/te cdirector of tle Iltlrld Hecrlt/ ades. In 1 994, males in Eastern Europe died on world's poor are the most vulnerable Otgttniztion (11WfO), European CentrefbrEn'i- average almost 7 years sooner than their group. Much needs to be done to raise ronment attd Ilealth, Rome Division. This paper is a summary of the views expressed by the author and counterparts in the European Union (9) As awareness of these hazards and to pro- does not necessarily represent the decisions or the Clyde Hertzman points out in his commen- mote policy and concrete action, par- stated policy of WHO. World Resources 1998-99 -gr CLYDE HERTZVAN In the early 1990s prospects for ong a long had dropped to 33 micrograms per cubic me- c In 37 locations in 7 countries, expo- and healthy life in Centra ard Eastern Europe ter, or about one fourth the 1970 level (6). In sures to lead from industria and ve- dimmed considerably (1). n the late 1 980s, life some areas of Poland during the same period, hicular sources occurred among chil- expectancy in the region was already 4 to 6 concentrations had reached 636 micrograms dren at levels that could lead to years lower than it was in Western Europe, per cubic meter, or near y 20 times the Cana- deficits in learning and behavior, In and that gap widened in the early 1990s. For dian average M7h. Levels of particulates, lead, several locations, including Katowice, males in Russia, life expectancy peaked at and toxi wvastes were - -: i ,, I, high in Poland, and Copsa Mica, Rornania, 64.9 years in 1987 then fell to 62 in 1992 and some parts of Central Europe. In parts of the these effects were well documented. to 57.3 by 1994 21. Smilar, thogn generally Katowice area in Poland, lead levels in soil o In 53 locations in 10 countries, in- were as high as 19,000 parts per million, creased rates of acute eye, nose, throat, esons in Cextre clianEsoteren uote.orta- about 38 times the acceptab e level. and lung problems were associated tions in Central ann Eastern Europe. Vortalty The causes of the environmental crisis with high airborne concentiations of rates increased sharply In this region between were complex. Under Communist regimes, dust, sulfur dioxide, and other gases. In 1989 and 1993, followed by a gradual stabili- governments set prices of energy and natural 35 locations, chronic ung conditions zation thereafter (3). Now, male life expec- resources at relatively low levels, which led to (primarily bronchitis and asthma) tancy in Western Europe hovers around 73 or inefficient consumption. Incentives were were associated with these exposures. 74 (73.7 in France, 74.1 in Ita y, 73.2 in Spain, weak for state enterprises to control pollut- o In 19 locations in 7 countries where 74.2 in the United Kingdom). In Central ants or use resources more efficiently.There air po lution was severe, rates of ab- Europe, it is generally in the mid- to upper- was a continuing emphasis on heavy industry, normal physiological development 60s:64.8 in Hungary, 67.6 in Poland,and 69.5 buta lack of hard currency to invest in new among children were unusually high. in the Czech Republic.There is over a 9-year technologyt Furthermore, antipollution fees G In the rural areas of 6 countr es, nitrate difference in male life expectancy between were set too low and wvere only weakly en- concentrations in drinking water were Hungary and the United Kingdom (4). forced, and local communities and citizens high enough to put newboms at risk This significant decline in life expectancy had little chance to force improvements in of blue-baby syndrome, or rietnemo- fo iohed a period of severe and extended environmental qua ity (8). Environmental pol- globinemia, which can lead to illness poliution. From the ate 1960s to the early lution began to dec ine rapidly following the and death. 1990s,the region's reliance on poor-quality political upheavals in 1989-not because of These =Ii. suggest that environ- brown coal inflicted a terrible to.l on the at- planned interventions, but because of de- mental pollution, especially air pollution, mosphere, especially in the northern Bohemia clines in industrial production that accompa- was a major cause of disease in locations region of Czechoslovakia and the Silesian in- nied the political turmoil (9' Throughout Central and Eastern Europe dustriaI region in southwest Poland (5).These Does pollution account for the gap in life in the early 1990s. But can pollution ac- i environmental "hot spots"contained much of expectancy and the region's morbidity and count for the overall decline in life expec- Central Europe's heavy industry-especially mortality rates, as some reseacchers have pos- tancy in the region? It seems ur like y, be- steel, cement, chemical, and Detrochemica ited? From 1989 to 1992 a team of investiga- cause the most serious environmental works-and a phalanx of inefficient coal- tors from the World Bank began collecting problems were confined largely to a burning power plants spewing forth copious and evaluating environmental health data small number of regional hot spots- amounts of sulfur dioxide anz soot. from 10 countries in Central and Eastern either old industrial areas where nearby The contrast with trends in Western Europe, looking particularly at well-known populations numbering in the several Europe, North America, and Japan was strik- pollution-health relationships such as air thousands were exposed to heavy emis- ing. By 1985,for example, sulfur dioxide con- pollution and lead exposures.Among their sions from point sources;or areas where cent'ations in urban air among Western cites findings: housing or farms had been placed right '7.45 World Resources 1998-99 GUEST COMMENTARIES next to an offending factory. By contrast,the Britain, but only an 8-foad innreased rsk In bled an hourglass. he top represented relative decline in ife expectancy took place Japan. the elite who gleaned all the available more or less equally in both heavily polluted A final theory is that politica, economic, economic and social benefits.The narrosv and unpolluted parts of Central and Eastern and social change is to blame According to middle section consisred of a failed or Europe. Thus, pollut:on does not seem to have this theory, conditions in Central and Eastern nonexistent civil society,the lack of been the principal cause of the life expec- Europe in the 1 970s and 1 980s created a cli which makes daily life terribly, a1. tancy gap with the West, though it cearly mate of powerlessness, deprivation, and isola- the average person. And those at the contributed to it. tion that undermined the region's health. It is bottom of the hourglass relied strongly If pollution was not the principal factor well known that socioeconomic factors such on family and personal support to corm- explaining the life expectancy gap,what was? as material deprivation,a perception of lack of pensate for the lack of a civil society and Severa other theories, in addition to pollution, control over ones life, and, ., . levels of the indifference of the elite (16). have been suggested. One is that,for a variety social support all undermine health status. Before the political changes of 1989, of economic and political reasons,the public These socioeconomic factors differ , . 1, those at the top of the hourglass,or tne health care system in the region was to between Western society and Central and elites, "bought off"those at the bottom. blame.Yet, if ineffective health care services Eastern Europe,and since 1989,socio- After 1989,the twin ldeoqogles of indi- were a major contributorthen the difference economic C , i, . have worsened in the vidua ism and capitalism gave those at between the West and Central Europe in the atter region ol1). the top license to abandon those at the rate of "medically avoidable deaths" (i.e., No doubt,the transition from Commu bottom. With a negligib e civil society to causes of death for which effective life-saving nism has proven traumatic for large numbers fail back upon, life became nastier, more medical treatment exists) would have in- of people. Indeed, opinion po Is in several brutish,and,for some, a great deal creased sharply over the time period when Centra and Eastern European countries after shorter tran before.The pattern of mor- the life expectancy gap emerged.The avail- the transition showed that trust in the politi- tality in the region fits this model well. In able evidence shows that it did not. ca structures of democracy was low,and an hourglass society,those with the A th rd tneory posits that the life expec- most people had a negative view of free mar- weakest social support systems will be tancy gap can be explained by high-risk be- ket reforms. In the 3 years folloving the dra- the mos. vu nerab e. Moreover,the same havyors displayed by Central European popu matic changes in 1989, real wages in former plight befalls those in midadulthood in ations as opposed to Western populations, Warsaw Pact countries fell between I5 and 35 the short run; in otner words, those wlo especially in terms of their tobacco i ,I I ' percent. Socia , iwas widespread, as depend upon civii society functions to blood pressure control, and dietary habits, re- witnessed by an almost 35 percent decline in earn a living and support families. flected in cholesterol levels and obesity rates. crude marriage rates and marked reductions Environmental polution, inadequate These are the established risk factors for heart in preprimary school enro Iment 12). Survey health care, and poor health habits have disease and stroke. Yet even though these risk research showed that citizens of the reoion all contfibuted to the declining health of factors can explain individual ' -' - - in lacked a sense of control over their lives (13), people in Central and Eastern Europe. But the risk of death from heart disease, stroke, By 1993, sufficient life expectancy data above all,the political, social, and eco and injuries,they do not contribute a great were available to determine more precisely nomic conditions in the region created a deal to explaining differences in mortality the trends in mortality since the end of the climate of pow.erlessness, deprivation, among societies.ln fact,a recent global study Co d War.Throughout the region,death rates ann isolation during the perod in Soviet found that differential exposure to these risk indeed rose, , 1 i l - 1 with the greatest in- history that ultimately underrnined the factors did not explain societal differences in crease occurring among people in midlife (25 health status of the people.The dec ines mortality from heart disease (Ilo). Rather, a to '9 years) (14). Premature mortality afflicted in health status that occurred during the country's gross domestic product (GDP) per more single and divorced people than mar initia years of the recent transition to capita does a better job of predicting mortal- ried ones (ho).1 his pattern strong y suggests capitalism show that the free market,too, ity from heart disease.This seems a highly un- that the life expectancy gap reflects changinc can be cangerous to one's nealth. ikely conclusion-after al, how could factors socioeconomic conditions. What has not been that explain differences In risk within a society determined, however, is how this broad range not explain differences in risk among socie of factors can undermine a population's ties? The answer appears to be that the ef health to the extent it has in Central and East- largely drasvso from The World Bank, Settiig fects of specfic risk factors differ from one so- ern Europe. Set out below is our best hy- Environretital Priorities in Central and East- era- Eturope: Discussion Docurrienit on Analsiti- ciety to another For example,a 30-cigaret.e pothes: cal Approachies. Report 11099 ECA. Europe, per day smokino habit creates a 17-fold in- Much more so than the West, societies in dentral Asa,,iddleEast andNorthAfrica Regions, Environment Division (The World creased risk of lung cancer among smokers in Central and Eastern Europe have long resem Bank, lVashington, D.C., 1992). World Resources 1998-99 2. W orLd Resources Institute in collaboration with the Policy Research, University of British Columbia, 13. Richard Rose, N7Veiv Ruissia Barc neter Iv Sur- United Nations Environment Programme, the 1990). Ilev Results, Studies in Public Policy No. 250 United Nations Development Programme, and the 8. WoXrld Resources Institute in collaboration with the (Centre for the Study of Public Policy Uni- World Bank, Wborld Resources 1996-97 (Oxford United Nations Environment Programme and the versity of Strathclyde, Glasgow Scotland, University Press, New York, 1996). United Nations Development Programme, V½brld 1995), pp. 1-72. 3. UNICEF, Crisis in lortality, Health and ,Nutrition, Resources 1992-93 (Oxford University Press, New 14. Op. cit. 3, pp. 1-8. Economies in Transition Studies, Regional M\; oni- York, 1992), pp. 57-74. 15. Op. cit. 3, p. 68. Devngelopmet CNtre FloreNICE, Interaly,o9941 Chi40. 9 Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and De- 16. Richard Rose, "Russia as an Hcur-Glass Sodi- 4 Conlof eure, Recent DenIograly, Develop- velopmeont ( OECO), Environmental Indicators: A ety: A Constitution Without Citizens,' East ni rCou ncil of Europerg Praere Devraop- Review ofSelected Central and Easern European Europetan Constitutional Revietwt Vol. 4, No. 3 bourg, France, 19961, p. 57. Countries, OFECD Working Papers, Vol. IV (OECD, 11995), p 34-42) 3. Op. cit I, pp. 19, 28. Paris, 19961, pp. 14-3 1. 6. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and De- 10. The Word Health Organization MONICA ProJect, velopment (OECD), Environmenztal Data Compen- "Ecological Analysis of the Association between Clyde Hertzman is a professor in the Depart- dium 1997 (OECD, Paris, 1997), pp 50-32. Mortality and Major Risk Factors of Cardiovascu- ment ofHealth Care and Epidemiology at the 7. Clvde Hertzman. "Poland: Health and Environ- lar Disease,' international Jouirnal ofEpidemiology, ment in the Context of Socioeconomic Decline,' Vol. 23, No. 3 (1994), pp. 505-515. Health Services and Policy Research Unit Discus- 11. Op. cit. 3, pp. 1-8. the Population Health Program at the Cana- sion Paper 90:2D (Centre for Health Services and 12. Op. cit. 3, pp. 92, 106. dian InstituteforAdvanced Resec.rch. 98 World Resources 1998-99 GUEST COMMENTARIES Toward an Idea of International Environmental Justice NA CH'AEL K DORSE" -// The idea that pollution is equitably discrib- makers,who have argued in countless studies, erra Cub: - y , excluoed African uted pervades the rhetoric and policies of reports, congressional testimonies,theoretica Americans, Jevws, and ocher minorities many institutions charged with protecting and lay books and journals-as well as in throrogh a po icy of`sponsorship`t'at al- the global environment. Notions like 'we are print and broadcast media-that envtron- lowed estab ished members to exclude all in this - : -, circ e of poisan,"ano mental racism is a real prob em that must be nonwhites and non-Christlans (8). Na- "Our Commnon Fcvure" distract poilcymakers adoressed (3). Despite this legacy of pain- tional paks and publcc beaches, created "OurComon utur' dstrct pl'iymaers staking scho arship, heartfelt cam-paigns, ar and scholas from rea izino oata there is a pat- the nins o' healthandaifb suarsd through the efforts of ear y enviror- tern of, *i. e x . -exposure to environ- Of painf neal a l b s mental campaions, banned access based oenvironmental racism, c- * stud- mental hazards and degradation among mar- ies-some funoed by polluting industries n rae : o). .n the midst of toe de focto, institu- g nal zed people.Globally,those on the deemed oerpetrators-have attempted to tionaltzed racism of mainstream environ- margins tend to be racia and ethnic minori- discredit the existence of environmental ra- mntal organizations,the Un'ted Slates ties, poor, less e& ,: - -, ,.: powerless, cism :4). These studies, as well as chose who was accumu atng a toxi legacy of cata- or ali of the above. The fact that marginal zed quibble over tne facts, miss the crucial poim, strophic rorportions.Th s egacy was people bear the brunt of ervironmental deg- chat rhe movement to end environmental ra- partly the result of unfettered industria i radation shou.d come as no surprise (i . Yet, cism is the first broad-based effort by mar- zation and a conseouence of poorly un- toe idea that those on the margins are inten- ginaized peop e to funoamenral y redefne derstood effects of croem cal pol utants It tionl 'sargted or ' ao prposly no rshap on of he arget sca mve- was widely assumed that everyone Lionalky targeted for,,| and purposely ments of modern time: toe environmenca shareo te ourofhazarcous an forgotten during m>tigacion efforts is a rela- movement. A -. i , 'seems appropriate tax c wastes equaliy-nis assmotdoan tively new0.> and, for some, a con troversial 00 to examine how responses to environmental was found to be untrue. tion. In the United St r i ' - . - racism took shaoe in toe Jnited States and In 1982, J.S. Congressional Delegate ers, and activists have referred to this what the international ' i ' i might be. Wa cer Faunt'oy-arrested during pro- phenomenon as 'environmental racism." t is tests that year to stop the sting of a na- defined most succinctly by Benjamin Chavis Resolving Environmental Racism: ardous waste 'I; ' 'n predomninantly as: Toward Environmental Justice African-American Vvarren County, North Carolina-asked the U.S.Gene'al Ac- : racial discrimination in environmenral Since toe turn o'the century,the environ- counting Office (GAO) to 'oetermine the policymaking an.d the enforcement of mental novement n the Un red States has correlation between the location of baa regulations and laws, the , 1I i targeting of people of color camnmuni- been dominated oy predomirantiy white or- ardous waste . x and the raca and ties for toxic ano hazardous waste fa- ganizations (5):.TLe movemert's whiteness economic status of the i . ;11. ciuit es, the official sanctioning of the was premised and fortiied upon a legacy of commun ties in toe Snv ronrmenta Pro- life-threatening presence of coisons overt racism that evolved nto institutiona - tection Agencys Region IV (which in- and . il , in [thosel commun'ties, ized racisr :6) At toe turn of the century,it coudes North Carolina)" The GAO results and the history of excluding people of was unthinkable that ethnic m'norities would were i " conclded:Blacks make color from the leanersh p of the envi- be granted access to fishing and hntiLrg up the majorty of the pooularion in ronmental movement n2) clubs that were feaTtred n rhe ear ' wilder- tiadee out offour or"ms)nithes Ch re Attempts to address environmental 'acism ness preservat on and conservation move- whi e imprtaor,e as limited by ts to- have come largely under the 'ubric of the ments-precursors to modern-day environ- gional focus.Thus,tre Urited Church of U.S.-based morvement for env ronmenrtal jus E- ' I (7). Considered one of the mtost C:r st Cmnmission for Racial Justice rice. Tis movement has been p' I I, led progressive of the early envionmenta or (UCC-CRJ) atrempted to ascertain by researchers,scholars,actvists,and policy- ganizations (and currertlythe largest),the Si- whetherthe GAO 'esu ts had nariona, World Resources 1998-99 g9 implications.The 1987 UCC-CRJ report-Toxic environmental justice maintain that while all Algeria, and indigenous peop e in the V/astes and Race in the United Stares- people have a rightto be protected from en- South Pacific have all suffered acute and revealed that race was the most signif cant vironmental degradation, communities dis- prolonged health problems caused by factor in determining rhe location of com- proportionately burdened by pollution and radiation from testing (19). In another ex- mercial hazardous waste faciiities.The report . -I last from ceanup efforts by gov- ample of environmental injustice, the noted that communities wn-h the greatest ernment agencies should be disproportion- benefits of biodiversity conservation in number of commercia hazardous waste fa- ately targeted for remediation efforts and re- protected areas tend to be lowest at the cil;ties had the highest composition of racial sources (l5). The focus on resolving the local level and highest at the national and ethnic residents; in addition,the study discriminatory aspects of environmental deg- and global level; while the costs are the found that three out of every five African- radation and mitigation efforts, however, highest at the iocal level and the lowest American and Hispanic-American citizens compels us to rethink our u l,- l . I J of at the national and international levels lived in communities with uncontrolled waste global environmental problems and existing (23). Similarly, in the context of determin- sites. It also reported that minority communo- proposals to solve them. ing national contributions to c lobal cli- ties were disproportionately targeted for haz- mate change, methane emissions of draft ardous waste - 'ic., (i i. Severa years later, Environmental Injustice in animals and naturaly decaying areas are in 1992, the National LawJouma) issued a International Context unjustly given parity with carbon dioxide specia report, Unequal Protection: The Raciol emissions from luxury automobiles and Divide in Environmenta/ Law, which stated that international y, environmental degradation inefficient power plants i2s. "there is a racial divide in the way the U.S. follows the paths of least resistance. Between Government cleans up toxic waste sites and 1989 and 1994, it is estimated that the Or- Toward International punishes polluters.White communities see ganisation for Economic Co-Operation and Environmental Justice faster action, better results, and stiffer penal- Development (OECD) countries exported ties than communities where b acks, Hispan- 2,61 1,677 metric tons of hazardous wastes to Realizing the inequitable distribution of ics,and other minorities live ... unequal pro- non-OECD countries lie).Yet these exports environmental degradation and mitiga- tection often occurs whether the community should come as no surprise in light of the tion efforts compels us to propose just is wealthy or poor" (1i ).These findings, cou- comments of the current U.S. Under Secretary solutions to environmental problems in pied with the legacy of de facto racism within of the Treasury and former World Bank offlcial lieu of equitable solutions. Such a pro- the U.S.Green movement,inspired UCC-CRJ Lawrence Smmers. .n a December 12,1991, posal has serious implications for institu- Director Ben Chavis'concept of environmental VVorld Bank memo, Summers opined "Just be- tions that work on global environmnental racism. tween you and me, shouldn't the World Bank problems. Equitable benefit-sharing This particular racism was the genesis mo- be encouraging more migration of the dirty schemes-within the Convention on ment for a broad-based, grassroots move- industries to the LDCs?" (17). As Summers' Biological Diversity and the Framework ment for environmental just ce. Proponents of mhen forvenv'romenthave argusrthce. P nendtsof logic would have it, lives in developing na- Convention on Climate Change-be- the movement nave argued far the need to eimnate b'ased, .njust,and .nequtabe con-. tions are of less value; tus, it makes eco- come questionable and perpetuate in- ditions and decisions ong rooted in a broan nomic sense to export pollution to those na- justice when we recognize historical pat- array of domains -. .i land use planning, ions. Whatever the economic logic, the terns of injustice. If loca communities transportation ': - i: ' I l:l ,, :1 public in-country effects of hazardous wastes can be benefit the least and incur the greatest health-a I of which can have adverse,dis- serious. The negative effects of these exports costs from biodiversity conservation, "fair criminatory environmental consequences (131 are exacerbated because many of the recipi- and equitable"sharing of "the benefits The movement's principal champions have ent countries ack the technology to ade- arising from the commercial and other worked to (re)conceptualize racial and ethnic quately contain and monitor these wastes to utlization of genetic resources" ex post dimensions of environmental problems and protect public health. facto may on y serve to maintain ine- the environmental facets of economic and so- Beyond the waste trade, environmental in- qualities. cial justice concerns; in these efforts, they justices manifest themselves in numerous In the context of the waste t-ade, en- have worked to redefine and expand the no- ways globally. Ethnic and racial minorities vironmental justice argues for pr ior- tion of what represents an environmertal have borne the brunt of nuclear testing (18). informed-consent (PIC) mechanisms in probem (14).They are addressing social and The Western Shoshone in the United States, agreements that regulate toe trade be- economic injustice simultaneously with the ethnic minorities in the Central Asian Repub- tween exporters and importers. 3eyond environmental concerns.Those arguing for lics, Australian Aborigines,ethnic minorities in PIC,a comprehensive ban on the trade of 100 World Resources 1998-99 GUEST COMMENTARIES from weakh er cojnt es to poorer arcdous Waiste Landfills antd Their Correlationi w,ith 12. National Law lourna1 INLII, Unequal Protec- waste fonwatircutistpolrRacial and Econompic Status of Surrounding Coin- elan: TI e Racial Divide ini Eniviritannental Lai, ones is long overdue. Further still, chemica,s tnuniities fGAOIRCED-83-168t (U.S. Government A Special investigation NINLI, Washington, stripped of human rig his deemIngPrinting Office, Washington, D.C., 19831 and the D.C., 1992), p. SI. must be stipdo u a ihsde ig1987 United Church of Christ Commnission for Ra- 13. Fot environmental justice responses to (s) them innocent (i.e., safe) untrh proven guilty cial justice study Toxic Waste and Race ini the land use planning and housing, see R. Boillard carci nogeni, or d eads). ViewlngUnited Stares: A'National Report ott the Racial and et al., eds., Residential Apartheid: The Ameni- (i.e., unsafe, cacngnc rday,eig Socioeconiomic Chiaracteristics of Cominotnittes ttith can Legacy (UCLA Center for African Studies chemicals as nherently unsafe would drasti- Hazardous lvt'stes Sites (Public Access, New Yrk, Puhlications, Los Angeles, 1994), p. 1: lb 19871, see also: Buni-an Brvanit and Paul lslohai, t ransportation, seePE. Mann, Driving thie Buis cally alter the associated reguoatory frame- ad. aeadteIcdneo niomna a- otHistory- The Buis Riders UTtitin Models ai wrsthat dictate tner production and onrro- ards: A TiitneforDiscoursel~Wastvievv,Boulder, hew Thteory, of Ulrbani Insuirgency, in the Age o f wors ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~Clrd, 99) ihl eotr h Dsrbtot Transncstional Capitalisnii iVerso, London, duction) into the blosphere. More im otn,it Clrd,19,MchlGltr,Teforthcoming, 1998); (c) public health, see Na- important, ~~ofOstdoor Air Pollutionz by Incomne atiidRace: tional Instieutto of Environmental Health Sc)- would shift toe nouroen of proof to polluters 1970- 1984, Master's Thesis, Energy and Resources ences INIEHS), NIH, Svmiposiunti an Heailthi olsorimlnte, or fil to equ ly pro- Group (University of California, Berkeley, Califo- Researchi Needs to Ensu're Environmentatl fLas- woo harm, dsrmnt,ofalteqaypo- nia, 19871. For a d'iscussion on how and why envi- tire: Executive Summary and Proceedings. Feb- tect mrarginalIized people. ronmental racism, not classicism, has worsened ruars' 10-12, 1994, ,Ariitigtoni, yVirginia since initial studies in the late 1 980s identifying the UDIEHS: Restarcti Triangle Park, North Caro- An environmental justice ana ysis, in the problem, see Benjamnin Goldman and Laura I. Fit- lisa, 19941. Unrtec Stares ann g.ohally,attempts to iden- ton, Toxic Waste and Raice Revisited (Center for Pot- 14. For athoroughbpresentation of "Principles of icy Alternatives, Washington, D.C., 1993). Environmental Justice" and their ramifdca- tify and e imnmate legacies of systematic, 4. For crhticisms, see Vicki Been, "Market Dvnamics tions for mnany aspects of environment alumr, na rmful, ann dispro portionate effects of envi- and tbe Siting of LULUs: Questions to Raise in the sea Charles Lee, ad., Proceedinzgs: The Pivot Classroom About Existing Research," Vest UViginiia National People of Color Envairottnmental Leadi- ron mental degradation and mitigation efforts. Lass Reviewi 96, No. 4 11994), pp. 1069-78~ Christo- ersltip Sumnmit (United Church of Christ It is not about redistriboting or transferring pher Boerner and Thomas Lambert, 'Environnsen- Commission for Racial justice, Washington, tal Iniustice,O Tute Public Iinterest, No. 11 8 (Winter D.C., 1991). benefits and burdens after environmental I .. ~, -82: Douglas Anderson et at., 'Has- 13. Robert Bollard, "Conclusion: Environmental- harm Is done to particular communi- ardlois Waste Facilities: 'Environmental Equity' Is- isin with Justice, in Confrronting Ent'iroinnten- sues in Mletropolitan Areas, Evaluation RevieW, V). aRain:ocefot heGssos,obr ties-thls is environ mental equity, not justice. 1,N2(Arl94)p.13-0NoeasthtBollard, ad. (South Enid Press, Boston, 19931. In an unjust word, environmental benefits, Anderson at al. teas funded bv,agrant fromnW'aste 16. Greenpeace, The Database of Knownv Haardn- Management Incorporated, thec largest wvaste mnan- oils 14'bsta Exports front DECO to Non-DECD such as tIn-ose from conservation programs, agement corporation in the United States. Countries, 1989-Mtarch 19941 lGreenpeace, need to be disproportionately remitted to 5. Donald Snow,aed., VoicesEFroin the Environmental 1 ahntnDC,19) 1.The World Bank, Memorandum, Lawrence H. toose who incuren past, dispoportionate Aovemnten Per-spectivesfoir a Nae, Era (Island Press, Summers, December 12, 199 1. those wh incurrd past, ispropotionateWashington, D.C., 1992), p. 75. 18. Minority Rights Group, The Pmtcijic: Nuclear harm. Simultaneously, the means to "cost 6. For more on this topic, see Dorceta Tavlon, "Can Testing andAtinhorities (NIciority Rights shariog" must be radically reconceptuali zed. the Environmnental Mlovement Attract and Ma in- Group, London, l199i), p. 5: or Arjun Mlakhi- tain the Support of Minorities," in Race and the Ini- ja,osrdH,ndKtrieYhNulr Treating environmental problem s after com- cidence of Enrirottmental Hazards: A Timne for Dis- WVastelands: A Global Guide to Nuclear Weap- course, Bunyan Bryant, ed. (Westview, Boulder, on Productiont and Its Healthz and Pitviroti- mun ties nave neen narm en has to be re- Colorado, I1992), pp. 28-54. mental Effects (NIFT Press, Cambridge, Mlas- placed by moves to prevent environmental 7. Stephen Fox, John Eluiir and His Legacy: The Ameri- sachusetts, 19971. catn Coinservation MVovenment (Little Brown, Boston, 19. Dana Alston and Nicole Brown, "Global problems from occurring in toe first place. ,. .Trast epeo ootnCuvntt 8. Op. cit. 3, p. 76. Mlany Sierra Club chapters main- Environniental Racism: Voices,front the Grass- tained this policy stall into the 1960s. roots, Robert Bollard, ad. (Sooth End Press, References and Notes 9. Miarc R. Poirier, "Environmental justice and the Boston, 1993), p. 183. Beach Access Movements of the 1970s in Connecti- 20. Michael WAells, "Biodiversitw Conservation, 1 . For a good list of cases studies, see the "Suggested cut and New Jersey: StoriesofPpetanCilAfunc,ndovryMsnthdCss Reading" in K. Danaher, ed., 50 Years Is Enough: oPrptyadCvlaffluence,it and Pfovrty:t Reimaredi Costs" The Case Against the WVorld. Bank and the Interna- RgtP2ConciuLaeRv'79(96, Andio Benflt and Efforts to, RemedTh3 m Miniionetary Fund (South End Press, Boston, 741-742. Ambitve YarVle21 Sol9og),ppn.i2onenta3 s 1994), pp.188-89. tO. U.S. Government Accounting Office (GAO), Siring GltvobVarlzatinSociolotigy tenvrs Goben(Sagesi 2, Bejami Chais, 'he Hstorcal Sgnifcanc and of Hazardous IVaste Landfills and Their Correlation Goaiain enetn h lb Sg 2, Benjamin Chavis, "The Historical Sigriificance and ~~~~Publications, London, 1996), pp. 103-107. Challenges of the First National People of Color with Racial and Economic Statuis of Suirrounding Environmental Leadership Summrit:' in Proceeditigs CmmuntPinties OfGAi/ceD-Washngto) (U.S., Govern- p ____________________ of rhe Firsr National People of Color Enivirottmental metPitigOfce ahngo,DC. 93, .. Mchael K.Dorsey a member of theU.S. Dale- Leadership Summit (United Church of Christ Coin- 11. U-nited Church of Christ Commnission for Racial gaint - EDiscretladrcorfte mission for Racial justice, Washington, D.C., 1991). justice, Toxic 's`bsta and Race in the United State s: A gatertro LNClub , in nascitiretyadrco of thenwy 3. For detailed evidence of the existence of environ- National Report on the Racial atid Socioeconomic SiraCu,ndnasoatofheie'l mental racism beyond the U.S. Government Ac- Characteristics of Commuinities wvith Hazardous fortmed CenterforJtmotice and Susotainability in couniting Office (GAO) 1983 studv Sitinig ofH i-tz- Waistes Sires (Public Access, Naew York-, 19871, p. 9. Qxott Hill, Marylantd. World Resources 1998-99 1 01 Breast Cancer . . the Environment DEVRA LE DAVIS Breast cancer is a disease of enormous public 10 cases develops in a woman born with de- groups. Studies have shown that Asian health importance. According to the World fects in the major breast cancer genes identi- women living in the United States have Health Organization's International Agency for fied thus far-BRCA1, BRCA2, and ATM (s). higher rates of breast cancer than Research on Cancer breast cancer is now the Breast cancer, like all cancers, is thought To women living in their countries of *most common form of cance' in women in arise from a multistep process that involves origin (S). sequential or simultaneous damage to several Abundant evidence exists that a the world. Rates of new cases are hi ghest in genes that control cell growith and matura- woman's cumulative exposure lo estro- industrial nations cut are rising rapidly in tion. Genetic damage can also occur when a gen plays a role in increasing breast can- some developing countries ir A. In tnose few cell miscopies its own DNA during cell divi- cer risk. The longer a woman is exposed *. developed countries vihere widespread sion and fails to repair such mistakes. Meta- to estrogen over the course of ner life- screening programs have recently become bolic differences in the way the body pro- time, the greater her risk for developing routine, some of the growth In incidence re- cesses compounds that are affected by breast cancer. Women who stars men- flects improved detection by mammography, genetic factors can also affect the risk of can- struating at an earlier age and enter which can spot small breast tumors years be- cer developing (6,. menopause at a late age, for example, are fore they would otherwise be detected. Al- So, aIthough certain risk factors for breast more vulnerable to breast cancer than though increased use of mammograpoy can cancer,such as age at menarche, diet,and ge- women who are menstrual for shoter explain part of the increase in new cases in netic predisposition, have been well known period of time. Reduction of estrogen by toe United States and a few otner developed for years, many breast cancer cases occur in surgical removal of ovaries can lawer women with no known risk factors for disease cancer risk substantially; breast-leeding, contn~es, it cannot account for tne recent, (7). Scientists cannot explain why there are which lowers cumulative estrogen expo- substantial Increases In certa ni regions In more new cases of breast cancer today. How- sure by . .I regular menses, also Central Europe and Asia where no screening ever, a growing and complex array of evi- reduces the risk of breast cancer some- S conducted (2). dence suggests that the general extemal en- what (i )t In addition, women who have For nmore than three decades, scientists vironment-including behavior, diet, and toxemia during pregnancy have lower have consistently identified a number of risk physica and chemical exposures-plays a hormone levels. One recent study sug factors that are, 1- , be.ieved to account major role in fostering breast cancer.The gen- gests that their daughters have a re- for up to 40 percent of all cases of breast can- eral environment can induce breast cancer by duced risk of breast cancer, possibly be- cer Among the estab ished risk factors for two distinct mechanisms. Environmental ex- cause their developing breast cells were breast cancer are: having menstLrual perods posures may damage genes directy or they subjected to lower prenatal levels of cir- that becin before age 12 and end after age may affect the overall production of growth- culating hormones (ii). 55, having no children or bearing children late regulating hormones, such as estrogen, pro- How might estrogens and ot-er hor- in life, not nursing chi dren, early and repeated gesterone, and other such naturally produced mones be affecting the risk of breast exposures to relatively high doses of i1 i l substances (8). cancer? Hormones, especially those that obesilty after menopause,ano a family history Timing of exposure may be just as impor- are not bound and excreted rapidly of breast cancer occurring in a close relative tant as the degree of exposure to one or more through normal metaboiism, are thought before age 40 (3'. Other factors are suspected of these risk factors in the development of to foster the growth of genetically dam- of increasing risk, aithough the data are less disease,wvth exposures that occur prenatally aged breast cells, causing them to de clear These include: drinking alcohol daily, being especially important. velop into clinica ly significant cancers. lack of vigorous exercise, low intake of vitamin Further evidence that environmental fac- Those periods when cells are rap dly di- Dand fiber, active and passive smoking, and *ors generally play a role in the development 1., in the prenatal perIod ancl dur- lIving near chemical facilities (4). of breast cancer comes from the observations ing puberty, are also times of greater vul- Despile the conLirrued public altention to of considerable geographic variation in breast nerability to genetic damages that can inherited breast cancer genes,fewer than I in cancer cases both among and within ethnic cause disease, because repair mecha- 102 World Resources 1998-99 GUEST COMMENTARIES nisms may not be up to speed at the rate of promote cell repair and prevent cancer from obtained on possib e prenatal exposures cell growth. Studies suggest that eievated arising by ennancing protective factors in the to harmful xenoestrogens, nor on the his- prenatal estrogen exposure affects breast cell cycle that discourage cancer. In contrast, tory of long-term use or exposure to pos- cancer risk in offspring, perhaps by perma- the bad estrogen appears to stimulate sible bad or good xenoestrogens, such as nently affecting the sensit'vity of breast cells cancer-causing damage of protective genes those in plants,fish,and fiber. In short, to estrogen. and to increase overall amounts of unbound the jury is still out. Such evidence ofthe ro e of naturally oc- hormones,either one of which can prompt Documenting the role of potentially curring hormones in cancer risk has led to the the accelerated growth of breast cells.Such harmfJl xenoestrogens,such as some hypothesis that synthetic hormones could be enhanced growth increases the chance that long-lived organochlorine pesticides, involved as well. Over the cast three decades, genetic damage wiil occur and be sustained provides a major cnallenge to epldemiol- several lines of evidence have converged indi- (13). Animal and human studies suggest that ogic research, In part, this is because cating that a number of commonly used syn- high levels of the bad estrogen are tied to an other contributing factors, both positive thetic compounds can modify or mimic the increased risk of breast cancer (14. or negative, cannot be easily measured actions of natural estrogen n the body. (See While evidence for this hypothesis re- and may be of relatively greater impor- Box on hormone mimics in Chapter 2.) Some mains incomplete, experimental analyses tance. For instance, some relevant of these hormone-mimicking compounds have recently provided increased support for sources of bad estrogens for breast can- may be beneficial, such as those generally the theory. My colleagues at Strang and I cer could include exposures that oc- found in plants and fish. Ir contrast, other found that human breast cancer cells had lev- curred two or three decades earlier to hormone-mimicking compounds appear to els of the bad estrogen that were more than widely used materials such as plastics, be generally harmful, such as those often four times higher than those of normal breast fuels, and pharmaceuticals, none of found in pesticides, plastics, and fuels. Experi- ce Is. When organochlorine pesticides were which could be detected years later be- mental, wildlife,and some human studies added to breast cancer cells, the ratio of the cause they do not accumuiate in fat. Con- have found higher eve s of some of these amounts of bad to good estrogen signifi- sistent with this idea is one recent study damaging compounds in organisms with al- cantlyjumped ns}..These pesticides,which that found that post-menopausal tered hormonal functioning or other health tend to accumulate in fat celis may somenow women who had never breast-fed had a problems, including deveopmental and be- have influenced the formation of different es- much higher r sk of breast cancer com- havioral defects (2:. trogen metabolites. These and other findings pared with those who had breast-fed. Based on these observations, my col- ed us to postulate that exposures to cer-ain Breast-feeding can re ease materials, eagues at the Strang-Cornell Cancer Re- xenoestrogens in the environment might ac- such as organochlorines,from the breast search Laboratory in New York Crty and I have count for some of the currert rise in breast into nursing infants. Wnhie this may lower * hypothesized that these same hormone dis- cancer incidence by increasing the ratio of a woman's risk for breast cancer, the rupting environmental exposures can play a bad and good estrogens in breast tissue. Sev- long-term consequences for children ex- roie in the development cf breast cancer, if eral small studies conducted in toe 1 970s and posed to higher levels of such contami- they perturb the effects of natural estrogen. 1 980s found that women with higher levels nants in breast milk is of concern (20). We theorize that certain of these synthetic xe- of DDT metabolites in their blood had higher How might harmful xenoestrogens noestrogens may increase the risk of breast risks of breast cancer ( 6). get into the body to act on breast cells or cancer by adversely -j ,j the metabolism In contrast to these experimental studies the deve oping brain? One highly likely of estrogen, while other xenoestrogens in of hormone-. ,: I, potential in environ- route is through animal fat in the 'et. plants such as soy may protect against the menta. chemicals, human studies have not Harmful synthetic xenoestrogens tend to disease. Natural estrogens and xenoestrogens consistently found an association between accumulate in fatty tissue and move up can ead to breast cancer through the same some fat-seeking pesticide residues and the food chain. Some synthetic xenoes- mechanism. Both the body's own natural es- breast cancer. Three recent studies have trogens wind up in food because once trogen as well as xenoestrogens can bind to found no link between breast cancer risk, and they enter the environment,they can estrogen receptors and alter how much and metabolites of DDT, a suspected estrogen persist and accumulate for more than SO vwhatrtypes of estrogen the body produces. mimic,in the body (17 7(8l).ln these studies, years.Peop e who live in polluted areas Estradio, the main type of estrogen gener- hovvever, both women with breast cancer and might be directly exposed to harnfu I xe ated by women, is metabolized in the body those with whom they were compared had noestrogens simply by breathing the air nto different forms that have markedly differ- evels of DDT pesticide metabolites that were or drinking contaminated water. Occupa- ent effects in the body. There are thought to nearly one sixth of those measured in the tional exposures to xenoestrogens can be "good"and "bad"forms ofthese estrogen United States in toe iate 1960s 19). Moreover, also occur,such as in chemical laborato- metabolites.Tne good estrogen appears :o in al these studies information could not be ries and industrial plants. World Resources 1998-99 103 Some investigators, such as Stephen Safe menstruaton and Iate menopause, exposure 9 Regina G Ziegler et al "Migratisn Patterns and Breast Cancer Risk in Asian- Amnerican of Texas A&M University, question wlhether to synthetic xenoestrogens can be reduced or Women'Jeouranal ofthe ,atioanal Canceransti- synthetic xenoestrogens can play any role in control ed through public poicies. In addition, tute, Vol. 85,No.22 (November 17,1993) pp breast cancer. They point out that people are beneficial xenoestrogens, such as those in to. Op. cit. 2. exposed to minute quantities of I l. . broccoli,soyand fish,may prove useful in pre- 1 ArdersEkbomerantrauterineEnviron ment anid Breast Cancer Risk in WVomen: A chemicais in the environment that are far less venting the oisease from occurring or recur- Population-BasedStudy,"JoatrnaloftheNa- potentthan natural estrogen,such asthose ring. If reducing avoidable exposuresto harm- rionalCancerlnsritnte,Vol.89,No. 1 (January 1, 1997), pp. 71-72. produced in the body itself or derived from ful xenoestrogens and encouraging the use of 12. The. Colborn,DianneDumanoski,and John plant products. In addition, dietary plant es- beneficial materials made it possible to avert PetersonIvers,OurStolenFatarcAre We Threatening Our Fertility, Intelligence, and trogens like soy appear to diminish harmful only one fifth of breast cancers every year, Survival?-A Scientific Detective Story (Pen- estrogenic effects, canceling out the influ- mrilions of women-and those who care gum Books,New York, 1996), pp. 47-67 13. H Leon Bradlow et al.,"Effects oY Pesticides ences of the bad estrogens.These observa- about them-woulo be spared the burden of oni the Ratio of 16-12-Hydroxyestrone: A tions are correct, but incomplete. It is true that this difficult disease, and the public would be Biologic Marker of Breast Cancer Risk,'Envi roinsiental Heatlth Perspectives, Voi. 103, Sup- any given synthetic xenoestrogen may enter spared the burgeoning costs of treatment plement 7 (October 1995), pp. 147-150. the body in very small amounts, compared and care. Such prospects are too .j to 14 DosLeeDasetal leca thesis Xenoestrogens as Preventable Cauises of with the bodys own natural hormones. How- ignore. Breast Cancer" Enivironmentil Health Perapec ever, once in the body, many fat-seeking syn- ties Vol. 101, No.5 (October 1993), pp. thetic xenoestrogens tend to persist for dec- j . - 13. Op. cit. 13. ades in tissues and are not readily excreted. In 1. D.M. Parkin etal., eds., CancerIncidenzce it Five 16. Op. cit. 2, pp. 60-61. Ctn \.' VII IARC (ItfI A- ~~17. David I. Hunter et al., "Plasma Or:anochlo- contrast plant estrogens are usually degraded onten R (nernaiona gency nlr Levels and the Risk of Breast Cancer, for Research on Cancer) Scientific Publications No. T . n rapid y in the body.Thus, it is unlikely that 143 (World Health Organization/lARC, Lyon, . 18 ldctobrna op 1233-1)Vo natural estrogens consumed in most people's 2. Nevra nceeg,o iD O eta/.,ber2 t997)pp and Se 1 Devra Lee Davis et al., "Environmental Influences 18NacNegrtl."BasCncrade diets can completely negate the actvty of on Breast Cancer Risk)' Science and Medicine, Vol. rum Organochlorines: A Prospective Study completely the actIvIty of ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Among White, Black, and Asian W0omen; pers istent, cu m uative synthelic compounds. 4, N. ( Jourr.at of rthee ational Cancer Institute, Vol. 3. MIP. Mladigan et ail., 'Proportion of Breast Cancer 8,N. Arl2,94,p.5939 We realize that xenoestrogens cannot ac- Cases in the United States Explained by Well- count for all breast cancer cases that occur. Established Risk Factors)'Journil of the National 19 op. c 17. coun foralbestcacrassttocu.Cancer Institute, Vol. 87, No. 22 (1995), pp 20. Joseph L. Jacobsots and Sandra V. Jacobson, Recent findings of low levels of some organo- 1681-1685. "tntellectual Impairment in Children Ex- 4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~posed to Polychlorinated Biphenyis in DIerom chlorines in blood and fat are welcome indi- . Op cit. 2,p. 58. New EnglanidJourtial ofMedicine, Vol. 335, 5. Op. cit. 2. No. 111(1996), pp. 783-'789. cations of the success of past environmentai 6. Christine B. Ambrosone et al., "Cigarette Smoking, control efforts to reduce or ban the use of N-Acetyltransferase 2 Genetic Polymorphisms, and Breast Cancer Risk,' Journail of the American Mfedi- Devra Lee Davis is the director of the Health, many sucn compounds. But roe variety of ma- cal Association, Voi. 276, No. 18 (November 13, Eiiotin,adDvJpnrtPorma terials that can alter hormone metabolism ap- then) ,lplroclnesourc Itstit4ute.andaresiden- 7.Devra Lee Davis et al, "Recent Dev'elopments on h 'ol eore Isiueada2eie pears extensive and not well characterizeo at the Avoidable Causes of Breast Cancer,' in Preien- tiil appointee of the Nlational Chemical Safety, . this time.Toe combined effect on human and ithe StrategiesforLitvingin a Chemical World:A and Hazard Investigation Board. Symnposium in HonioroflIrving]. Selikoi, Annals of ecological health remains a matter of serious the Nesv York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 837, Eula concern. In contrast to many established risk Bghan and David P Rail, eds INewYork Acad- emy of Sciences, New York, 1997), p. 514. factors for breast cancer, such as early onset of s. Ibid., p. 520. .................... ............. ............. .........................)g...................................... .......... ... ..................... .... ...................... . .................... ,, OJ a World Resources 1998-99 GUEST COMMENTARIES 7 ~ 7 . Risks' . sz PROEESSOR K.J. NATHe Development decisions can result in unantici- poisoning in at least six )1ii where aver- each year in West Bengal have caused pated health consequences. In West Bengal, age arsenic levels in a substantial number of bare y a stir. More than one third of all this tragedy can be seen in the growing prob- tobe wells exceed the WHO permissible limit deaths in the urban areas of the state can lem of arsenic poisoning. alarmingly (by 5-50 times). Some individual be attributed to preventable risks in the From the 1 950s through the 1 970s, the In- wells show even higher concentrations. How- environment, and almost two thirds of dian Government actIvely encouraged the ever, it would be difficult to estimate the exact the rural sicknesses are due to lack of buiading ofvtubene swnich tp waterd fom numberofwel s contaminated with arsen;c sanitation and safe water. While it is not 1 50 meters or more blow ground. Histori- without comprehensive water quality moni- appmicaole to make a precise comparison cally, vilagers had useo sur'ace water for toring in all these districts. Scientists estimate among the competing risks of malarias- tnat one million peep e might be at risk of diarrnea, and other communicable dis- drinking. However, surface waters such as eases and those posed by arsenic con- ponds and rivers had become grossly pol- drinking arsenic-contaminated water (3)(4). taminathof poundwatersen c of luted by bacterial contaminants due to the FilndIng a so ution W I nor be easy. First, the number of people affected, there is lack of sanitation in the area. In i,.l .1 ., r . while there are control programs for known no doubt that the former is much greater. new tube wells provided abundant water to dseases vie malarna,filariasis,and tuberculo- As such,any decision with respect to irrigate the high-yield varieties of rice that sls-however inefficient ano snort sighted large-scale investments in the health and were being promoted as part of the Green these programs might be-there does not environmenta sector need to be based Revolution. As a result,farmers were suddenly appear to be a comprehensive action plan for on an objective risk-to-risk trade-off One able to grow three or four crops,continuing the emerging challenges that are directly re- should not forget these fundamental re- cultivations right through the 6-month dry lated to the processes let loose by economic, alties in dealing with the arsenic prob- season, whereas before farmers grew only a ecological, and development policies. So far, lem. single raln-watered rice crop each year (1)(2). health authorities have taken a typical medi- Finally,we must not overlook the fact The cost of these development decisions cal view of the situation and have stressed that, in any scarcity-based economy like is only now becoming c ear.The underground curative rather than preventive actions under that of West Bengal, optimizing return ctrata,from wh no the tube-well water is the compulsion of crisis management. from public expenditure has to be the drawn, contains natural arsenic.The first cases Second,considerable uncertainty persists major goal of policymakers. Until health of arsenic poisoning surfaced as ear y as the among the scientists as to the extent and authorities understand and appreciate 1 980s. But by late 1995, according to West magnitude of the arsenic problem. Arsenic is social and environmental routes of dis- Bengal Government health authorities, more a cumulat ve po son, and health effects may ease, the health problems plaguing West than 1,500 people had reported for treatment not be fu ly manifested for 10 to 20 years. As Bengal, and many other developing re- in government health centers and hospitals. one WHO researcher commented, "[The] gions, will continue. There is no doubt that the actual number of question is whether or not only the tip of the people suffering was substantial y h gher. iceberg now has been identified, or if the ma- References and Notes (Some ,, ;, : l' reports estimated that about jorlty of the most seriously affected vi lages 1. Fred Pierce, "Death and the Devil's Warer," 200,000 people may have suffered from skin are already evident." New Scientist, Vol. 147 (September 16,1995), lesions, pigrmentation abnormalities, and kera- Third, without di uting the gravity of the 2. Pavalla Bagla and Jocelyn Kaiser, "India's toses on the palms and soles of their feet arsenic situation, policymakers must weigh me _xpertsa " Scing cea VoC . 274 ( October caused by arsenic poisoning.) However,with- the competing environmental health risks in 1996),p. 174. out a comprehensive epidemiological survey the region. While the thousands of cases of 4' Op. cit. 2. with adequate sample size, it was not possible arsenic poisoning created an uproar in na- to conduct a realistic assessment of the prob- tional and internationa media,the milions of Ki., Nath is the director ofthe All Ilcdia Insti- em.So far, scentists have found widespread cases of diarrhea,tuberculosis,and malaria tLote of Hygiene andPutblicHealth, Calcutta. World Resources 1998-99 105 Environmental Health and Environmental Equity CAROLYN STEiHENS It is hard to be optimistic about environ- the case for sharing basic environmental tunities or their access to resources. And mental change and improved human health goods that presage life for the majority? It -I 1 , . .5 - :, over resource; were for everyone in the face of massive poverty feels, eerily, as though we are having to repeat made by the city's privi eged who did and massive inequity around the wor d. It is the same arguments used by our 1 9th Cen- not feel their link with the city's poverty, even harder to maintain optmism in light of tury colleagues when they sawthe awful nor did they seethe health prcblem's to evidence that shows current policy decisions conditions in the slums of Europe (5) (6).To our which they contributed by their profes- ributing to an increase, rather than a 19th Century col eagues, the process they saw sional decisons and personal actions. decrease' ithinqiawas not development;this exploitative,dirty, Thus,although the poor communities decrease, in the inequitable distribution and unfair process was "murder"(7). had intermittent (or nonexistent) water control of environmental, economic, and po- Today, by contrast, the international soci- supplies for which they paid dearly, the litical resources internationa ly (1)(2). ety that controls access to resources seems to wealthy watered their lawns and filled The shuffling Northern and impatient choose to ignore the reality faced by the swimming pools with scarce potable wa- Southern feet of the world's political leaders world's majority. But if one looks,the condi- ter. The wealthy paid less than the poor at Rio Plus Five provide testimonyto how far tions faced by the majority are similarto,or forthe water they did consume.To state from reality the hopes of Rio remain.There is perhaps worse than, those faced by our 1 9th it b untly, the poor paid more for their talkabout:, -; ,, 1, .*: , I justice,envi- Century counterparts.For orething,the dis- cholera,a pattern repeated internation- ronmental equity,and overconsumption.Yet, tance between the rich and the poor's experi- ally (it)oii).Underthe circumstances,it we haven't even begun to conquer old- ence is enormous, and the scale of the health seems disingenuous to simply suggest fashioned poverty, problems faced by the latter is dauntingly that the solution to the urban realth Is it a I gloom? Certainly health statistics large. problem in Accra was only to irnprove over the past century suggest that some ma- It was urban poverty that provoked the water and sanitation condition, in the jor achievements have occurred, most as the last century's conscience. By 2025, three out of poor areas-rather than to pla I a careful result of what now seem like simple and ob- four of us will live in towns and cities,the ma- redistribution of resources thro igh pro- vious environmenta. interventions, such as jority in conditions that undermine good gressive policies. the provision of ample and potable water, health.The majority is in a trap that the mi- Accra is not an extreme exa nple. sanitation, nutritious food, and decent hous- nority does not seem to see, let alone feel isi. London, Washington, and Paris show the ing. Significantiy, these goods were achieved I say this from the perspective of a health same dynamic (i 2); ocal, nationl3, and in- through social and political processes, and professional-an environmental epidemiolo- ternationa statistics show the same pat- came with societal structures that placed gist. I started working on poverty and health tern (I 3j Few, if any, environmertal, social, education on the agenda and promoted re- in India 18 years ago. More recently, in Accra or health inequalities are, at root, a matter munerative and healthy work conditions for in 1992,1 worked with colleagues to identify of chance or a reflection of one group's alt 13)4). the city's most deprived communities in inability to live in a healthy manner ver- Most people in Europe and North Amer- terms of the environmental burdens to health. sus anothers.Today's inequalities reflect ica, some in South America, and a minority in We located areas that experienced death how human beings see and act. based most Asian and African countries now have rates two to four times higher than rates over- on their mutual connection anc their these basic environmental goods that sup- all and five to six times higher than rates in mutual responsibility to share resources- port life. Since the end of the ast century, the most privileged areas (9, Directly, the in- within a city or within the worc. these basics have no longer been considered flated death rates were due to infectious and In a guest editorial, I can spe3k per- health goods but are seen as clear rights and parasitic diseases, linked with the very poor sonally. As a technical professional who universal necessities. access to basic water and sanitation. Less di- interacts routinely with policymakers, I WNhythen,aswe move into the 21stCen- rectly,people did not have the economic re- have long been aware thatenviron- tury, do we need another report on environ- sources to improve their c -,,, C /en .ess mental health for the majority will only mental change and human health, arguing I':: .they had no control over their oppor- be achieved if those with power in the 106 World Resources 1998-99 GUEST COMMENTARIES elobal society seriously address how environ- discussions until the worlo's citizens feel ferenitials UTsing ExisrtitfgData. Collaborative studies in Accra and Sii Paulo and Analysi's mental, economic, and political resources are again our mutual connecrion and responsibil- of Urban Data of Four Demographic and itv for each other's well-being.Health Surveys ( London Schiool of Hygiene r - -land managed atal levels. Dis- iyforeachotherswell-oeing. and Tropical Medicine, Loidon, 19941. comfort has yet to impinge personally on the 10. G. Benneh et at., Eniviroeinmental Problesns and rthe Urban Household in the Greater Accra minority of world citizens who consume and References and Notes NMetrepolitan Area (GAMlA)-Ghana (Stock- control most of the world's environmental re- 1. United Nationis Development Programme (UNDP), holm Eneironment Institute, Stockholm, Huiman Developpnteit Report 1992 ( Oxford Univer- Sweden. 19931. sou rces. Lacki ng discomfort, these citizens sitv Press, New York, 1992), pp. 1-216. 11. S. Cairncross and J. Kinnear, "Elasticity of have yet to lobby for or produce any tangible 2. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), cial Science ford WaedicneK Vol. 34, No.2 Hulman Developitnenit Report 1997 (Oxford Univer- ci9l ppn 1d3- Vl9o change. sitv Prtss, NewYork, 1997). pp. 1-216. C 992),Spp. 183-189. Njatura I y, change cannot come from the 3. C. Stephens Ufrban Healtitv to PoFlutes:fFr E- 12. or Un2healthy Islands? The Health and Social scriptions of health InequaliplicaionsyotorbaoInequlitior" Equirty, mino rity a one (14) In rea lity even if they technical paper for the WAlorld Health Organization inent ions UrbaniiA , InVeqlualities' EN v iron- yvsedttenernaona tec neyal andpWorking Group Msleeting on Determinants and In- pnn a n V N 1 wised to, rhe internatrona technical and pol- dicators of Urban Health, Robe, Tapan, August i3 . 9-30. icy community cannot shift policies toward 20-23 1997. 13. M. Wolfe, "Glohalization and Social Exclu- 4. D. Acheson, "The Road to Rio: Paved with Good sion: Some Paradoxes," in Social Exclusion; sustainability without mass changes in the at- Intentions,' British AeI-edica Journiat, Vol. 304 (Mav Rhetoric, Reasity, Responses. G. Rodgers, C. 1g992) pp. 1391 1392' Gore and I.B. Figueiredo. eds., (International titudes and actions of the majority (150 Action I2) o 1391-139'.Labour Organization, Geneva, 1995), pp. 5. Ibid. 81-103. toward solving such a complex problem re- 6. S. w'ing,"LiinitsofEpidemiology,"rMedicineand 14. C.Short,SecretaryofSteteSpeechon Equ Global Survival, Vols. 1 and 2 (94,p7-6 i quires that more people recognize that the Gio TI Ci I (1994),pp.746. Sustainability andy Development for the 7. F. Engels, The Conditiots of the eVorkintg Classes in UNED-UK Annual Conference on the Wav problem-increasing inequity-exists, England (Penguin, London, 4th edition, 1987), pp. Forward:BeyondAgenda21119971. and that evervone has a ro e in chaneing the 1-293. 15. Op. cit. 8. S. D. Rorten, "Sustainabilitv and the Global Economy: situation. Gradually, but rapidly, the debate on Bevond Bretton Woods)' Forest, Trees and People sustainability and equity must move from toe C. Stephens et1al. HCa'ar Stephett isa senior aectHrer il Ettvi rarified atmosphere of Uteited Nations slum *eloping Coutntries: An Analvsis oflntrs-urban Dif: ronn S ental Healt and Policy at tMed Loneo, School of Hygicene ana Tropical Medichic,e mits, United Nations agenc es, and academic Lottdott. World Resources 1998-99 107 Damming The Senegal River A regional effort to harness the waters of the Senegal River for hydropower, irriga- tion, and transportation has resulted in MAURITANIA profound environmental changes in the river basin. These environmental changes have, in turn, caused severe health and DUAKCHGTT general welfare problems for the river basin's residents. This case study illus- D Ros Bogu DIAMA: os . - oge trates the complex relationships that can DAM Kaedi unfold between people and their environ- P , FODM GEIA , ment as societies work to meet their growing needs for energy, agricultural AKAR'el production, and industrial development. A SENEGAL Although many of the harmful effects THE GAMBIA j MALI were predicted before the project began, MANAiTALi the project's purported benefits-water bDM *vtaf storage for irrigation, drought, and do- U. A BAMAKO mestic supply; electrical power for urban areas and industry; and a transportation channel to the sea for land-locked Mali-were deemed too important to GUINEA forgo. Now, years later, the river basin L CPAIE management authority, national minis- * CITIES tries in three riparian countries (Mali, SENEGAL RIVER BASIN Mauritania, and Senegal), and interna- _ tional agencies financing the project are trying to mitigate some of the most severe 2,000 millimeters of rainfall annuallv and Approximatelv 2 million people of sev- problems as they continue work to realize provide virtuallv all of the flow in the eral ethnic groups live in the ri ver basin. the project's potential benefits. Senegal River. Annual rainfall below The predominant groups are the Malinke Bakel is typically between 150 and 300 in the upper basin, the Soninke around Background millimeters. Tributaries to the Senegal Bakel, the Pulaar and Maures in the mid- River are temporary, seasonal systems dle valley, and the Wolof in the delta. All The Senegal River is the second longest that function as distributaries when flow of these groups are agropastoralists, rely- river in West Africa (1). Its principal tribu- is high in the main channel. In its natural ing for their livelihood on a combination tary, the Bafing River, rises in the high- state, the Senegal River's annual flood in- of agriculture, small animal husbandry, lands of Guinea's Fouta Djallon and runs undated approximately 150,000 hectares and fishing. Herders have historically north into Mali, where it joins the Bakoye in an average year and up to 350,000 hec- traveled with their cattle from the valley River at Bafoulabe to form the Senegal tares in high-flow years. In the dry season, floor in the dry season to the acljacent Sa- River. From Bafoulabe, the Senegal River freshwater flow stopped in the lower helian fringe areas in the rainy season flows northwest through Mali and down reaches of the river, and saltwater flow and floods. to Kayes, receives waters from the Faleme traveling upstream created estuarine con- Because of their dependence on the River, and then flows onto the flood plain ditions from the Atlantic coast to Dagana, river, residents' fortunes have risen and starting at Bakel in Senegal. For its re- approximately 250 kilometers inland. fallen through the years in relation to the maining length from Bakel to the Atlantic These conditions created a natural divi- availability of water from rainfall and Ocean, the Senegal River forms the border sion of the river basin into three zones: an floods. From 1968 to 1973, the region ex- between Mauritania to the north and upper basin above Bakel; the middle val- perienced a prolonged and severe great Senegal to the south. ley from Bakel to Dagana; and the delta, drought that caused extensive famine and The upland areas above Bakel, and par- or lower valley, from Dagana to the Atlan- focused international attention on the Sa- ticularly those in Guinea, receive 700 to tic coast. hel region. 1 08 World Resources 1998-99 REGIONAL PROFILES: SENEGAL P;. fi nP r oj e c s o 0 n and to moderate the effects of drought on The expectations of mutual benefit and the z River people living in the basin. The plan had accelerated development, coupled with Because of its size and regional impor- six components: the crisis conditions created by the great 0 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~drought and realistic prospects of inter- tance, the Sene. 1 i' has long been a 3a an upland hydroelectric dam on the Baf- national financing, enabled the three target for development projects. There ing River at Manantali, Mali, for water ntrieat ovrcme entrenche three were two international efforts to develop storage and power production; cions and proceed with the project. The agriculture, navigation, and hydroelectric M a lowland dam on the Senegal River near three member states have maintained a projects in the four riparian states (in- Diama, Senegal, to limit saltwater intru- level of c1- r!.1i, 1 sufficient to complete riod in the 1930s and early 1940s. In the sion, regulate water levels in the middle construction of both dams. Diama Dam 1960s, after gaining independence, the ri- -1K.. and store water for domestic wa- was completed and began storing water in 1960s, after gaining independence,196. he esevoirbehndeanata- parian countries created an Inter-Country ter supplies; 1986. The reservoir behind Manantali Committee and a successor organization a' facilities and conditions (i.e., locks, Dam began filling in 1987 and reached to pursue an integrated development pro- channel . ' and water-level man- spillwaylevel in 1991. Otherportions of gram for the river basin. However, most of agement) to ensure navigability from the the plan have developed more slowly than the early attempts at developing the riv- Atlantic coast at Saint-Louis, Senegal, to first envisioned. Irrigation projects have er's resources failed, either for technical Kaves, Mali; been completed in the middle valley, and reasons or because of tension among the and agricultural.de- rice and sugar cane production have in- participating states. ae irrigation projects and agricultural de- creased, although not as rapidly as origi- ln the early i 970s, circumstances fi velopment in the middle and lower val- nally predicted. Financing was recently nally combined to favor mounting several ley; arranged for the hydropower component, large-scale projects. In 1970, a U.N.-spon- 4 urban water supplies using the reservoir which involves installation of turbines sored study identified several potential created by Diama Dam; and and generators at Manantali Dam and sites for hydroelectric dams in western a development of agroindustry. building transmission lines to the three Mali and northeastern Guinea. In 1972, capitals (Dakar, Nouakchott, and Ba- partially in response to the great drought The OMVS was given direct authority mako) and several points in the basin. and the resulting attention from interna- for building and operating the two dams Plans for the navigation component have tional agencies, the governments of Mali, and responsibility for developing the been modified to reflect more realistic Mauritania, and Senegal created a re- navigation project. The member states re- water management conditions, shipping gional river basin authority, the Organisa- tained responsibility for developing irri- systems, and associated development of tion pour la Mise en Vlaleur du Fleuve gation, water supply, and agroindustrial sea and river ports. Some critics maintain Senegal (( \ I \ >'). Guinea was not included projects within their own territories. that the navigation project is still unreal- in the OMVS because of its lack of interest Politically, the major selling points of istic and will likely never be built. Plans and effective participation in the earlier the plan were that it would lessen the im- are being developed for water supplv proj- regional organizations. The three member pact of future droughts and help close the ects in Senegal. Most*:, c. e .- small states of the OMVS thought a regional or- food gap that was emerging as rapid amount of industrial development has oc- ganization would be the best way to pri- population growth outpaced domestic curred in the vallev, primarily connected oritize economic objectives for developing food production. The OMVS was directed with the agricultural sector. resources in the basin, to organize a coop- to manage the river's water resources to Although the OMVS has implemented erative effort, and to reach agreement on achieve two objectives that related pri- portions of its development plan, the proj- common responsibilities for financing marily to . , i I: : first, to reduce the ects have not yet generated substantial and managing the major works. Arab oil large seasonal and annual fluctuations in economic benefits for the member states. states also took an interest in financing water availability; and second, to control Agricultural development has proceeded projects on the Senegal River, a reflection flooding so that land in the valley could more slowly than expected, in part be- of their prosperity during the oil boom of be developed for irrigated agriculture. cause of inappropriate plans for irrigation the 1970s and of their desire to assist Senegal and Mauritania would realize projects, low yields being experienced in other members of the Islamic community most of the benefits from - I, - td ": existing projects, and (until recently) cen- and increase Islamic economic and cul- objectives: of the 375,000 hectares of land tralized control over agricultural plan- tural influence in the region. that were to be developed for irrigation, ning, production, distribution, and mar- The OMVS members developed an inte- all but 9,000 hectares wvere in these two keting. The power and navigation projects grated plan for development of the Sene- countries. The hvdropower and naviga- have not yet been implemented. There is gal ; ..: cto stimulate economic tion components were included in the some question whether the full plan, even growth in the three member countries plan primarily to meet !I;i , interests. if completed, will ever generate the level World Resources 1998-99 109 of economic benefit originally predicted. conditions that occurred as a result of were built predicted that fish populations The Senegal River dams were initiated in high freshwater flows in the flood season would increase in the lake behind Manan- a global economic climate that favored and low-to-nonexistent freshwater flows tali Dam (stabilizing at aroun(d 3,000 met- large development projects and a political in the dry season. The shoreline is in- ric tons annual production) and decrease climate in which the major donors ex- creasing as irrigation canals are devel- below the dam (5). Although the fish erted little influence-too little, maintain oped. Weeds and grasses characteristic of population in Lake Manantali did in- some critics-over project planning and a freshwater lake are growing along the crease after the reservoir was filled, the implementation (2)(3)(4). banks of the river and canals from Diama annual catch has never reached predicted Whatever balance may .- n :! i L. .ni \ be re- Dam to Dagana and could eventually levels and has fallen sharply in subse- alized between the economic benefits and reach another 100 kilometers inland to quent years, to 420 metric tons in 1991 costs of the projects for the region and for Bogue. The vegetation, partially sub- and 285 metric tons in 1993. The de- each country, it is also important to con- merged along the river's edge, is favorable creased catch reflects in part the tech- sider the distribution of those costs and habitat for the snails that carry schisto- niques and equipment used by the fisher- benefits and, particularly, the situation of somiasis; increasing vegetation is the pri- man, who were accustomed to fishing in people most directly affected by the proj- mary cause of the growing disease prob- rivers rather than in a deep lake, and also ects- those living in the river basin. The lem among the population of the lower the movement of people away irom the completed projects and the OMVS'prac- basin. area. tices to date in managing water levels in The changes in aquatic habitat and the the basin have provided fewv benefits and physical barrier of Diama Dam have serious negative consequences for the greatlv affected fisheries in the lower val- Environmental Changes basin's residents-some anticipated, and ley, delta, and coastal waters. Before the and Health Problemis some unanticipated. The ecological, dams were built, the sediments carried by People living in the Senegal River basin health, and social consequences will be the annual flood were an important have long suffered from schistc somiasis, explored in the following sections. source of nutrients for coastal fisheries, malaria, and other infectious and vector- and the flood plains in the upper delta borne diseases endemic in large areas of were spawning and feeding grounds for sub-Saharan Africa. Before dams were Ecosystem Changes in the saltwater and freshwater species. A major constructed, malnutrition was wide- Senegal River Basin coastal fishing industry was centered spread in the valley, and infant and child The Manantali and Diama dams have around Saint-Louis, and fish were an im- mortality rates were high, especially dur- changed the river basin ecosystem in sev- portant source of protein for people living ing the extended drought. The develop- eral obvious and profound ways. The an- in the valley. Although the prolonged ment plan endorsed by the member states nual flood has been reduced substantially, drought had already reduced annual of the OMVS predicted that residents' because the flow from the Bafing River catches in the valley before the dams were well-being would improve as agriculture has been impounded at Manantali Dam. built, a study in 1994 concluded that the and transportation expanded aad people The amount of water available from other dams have generally had a detrimental ef- had more income and greater access to tributaries is considerably less than that fect on fish production both in the valley food, water, and health care. from the Bafing River. Water has been re- and in the upper part of the delta. People The reality has been differeni. Agricul- leased from Manantali Dam to provide a living in the valley maintain that fish con- ture is developing, but more slowly than managed flood every year since 1987. Un- sumption has decreased since 1988. They anticipated and in a manner that fortunately, the volume of water released say that the fish now consumed are al- stretches the financial and human re- each year has been far less than would most exclusively saltwater species, sources of existing landholders. Transpor- have been available under natural condi- trucked in from the Senegalese and Mau- tation has not improved. Although some tions. And during several years, the pe- ritanian coastal areas. indicators of health have improved in the riod chosen for a water release was poorly Above Manantali Dam, a large, deep region, health risks from certain dis- timed. freshwater lake now exists in what was eases-most notablv schistosoraiasis, di- The Senegal River now flows year- previously a forested valley. The dam was arrheal diseases, and malaria-have in- round. The region above Diama Dam is designed to store 11 billion cubic meters creased, in some cases dramatically. The now a stable freshwater lake and no of water, enough to supply 2 years' I i' net impact of the Senegal River develop- longer shifts to estuarine conditions dur- during a drought. The surface of Lake ment projects on people's health has ing the dry season. The area below Diama Manantali now covers 447 square kilome- clearly been negative to this point. Dam now has a relatively constant estuar- ters; its shoreline is :r !' ' 1:. 150 ine status, as opposed to the previous kilometers, and it is 65 meters deep at the shifts between freshwater and estuarine dam. Studies conducted before the dams 1 0 World Resources 1998-99 REGIONAL PROFILES: SENEGAL percent) among schoolchildren surveyed nal schistosomiasis in the lower valley. Schistosomiasis results from infection by along the Mauritanian shore of the Sene- Before 1986, S. manisonii was not present in species of the trematode Schistosoma, The gal River at Rosso, Baghdad, and Jidrel the lower and middle valleys and had parasite has a complex life cycle with a Moghuen. That year, the snail host was been reported at only a few locations in stage that infects freshwater snails, which found for the first time in the Taouey ca- the upper valley. In 1988, soon after the then release larvae into the water. Humans nal in Senegal, near its outfall to Lake completion of Diama Dam, a new focus of come into contact with the larvae wvhen Guiers. There was no evidence at that time intestinal schistosomiasis was reported in they wade in shallow waters (for example, of infection among schoolchildren in a sugar cane project area in Richard-Toll, wvhen collecting water, washing clothes, or, Mbane, a town on the eastern shore of the on the Senegal side of the river. Preva- for children, playing); they become in- lake, although the presence of the snail lence reached epidemic levels the follow- fected when larvae penetrate the skin, host suggests that future increases in dis- ing year in Richard-Toll and, by 1993, had Larvae migrate 'E, l, d. the host's circula- ease rates in this area are possible. climbed to nearly 100 percent in the tory system and lungs while developing ;C.1r :,,. of Ndombo and 70 percent into mature male and female worms; they in Ngnith, a village on Lake Guiers. In eventually -. to blood vessels in the The net inmpact of the Senegal 1994, disease prevalence was 82 percent abdomen and form permanent reproduc- among *. . Id .,' at 9:,, on Lake tive pairs, after which the females may River development projects Guiers and 47 percent at ai.j!.l the east- produce large numbers of eggs for many e ernmost boundary of Lake Diama. These years. on peoples health has clearly Senegalese :h . ii heavy infections ..-.t aretwomain ;of Schisto- with very high egg counts. sona that infect humans in Africa; they beeni negative to this point. In the Mauritanian portion of the lower rely on - . - snail hosts, settle in dif- ... tinal schistosomiasis was first ferent tissues of their human hosts, and In the '.. I around Lake Man- reported in 1994 with prevalence rates of produce different forms of the disease. S. . - - the prevalence of urinary schisto- 25 to 32 percent in children in three towns mansonii settle in blood vessels near the somiasis was high (69 to 95 percent) in from Rosso to ; e' , . i these chil- liver or intestines and cause intestinal several lake shore - and in a . .. dren had infections of light to moderate schistosomiasis; S. haemnatobiurn settle just downstream of the dam, according to severity. However, the snail host of S. inan- near the bladder and cause urinary schis- the 1994 survey. Prevalence decreased soni was found in large numbers with tosomiasis. The severity of the disease in with greater .; . from the dam (to 49 high infection rates along the Maurita- each individual . - on the position :- . and 7: .: in two . fur- nian shore of the Senegal River and and size of the egg load and the host's cel- ther downstream). In at least one place in . i, L ; '!- ., 'i into the Garak canal lular response to it. Intestinal schisto- the middle . i.. : the irrigation proj- at Tougene and the Sokam canal near somiasis causes diarrhea and bloody ects around the Foum Gleita Dam in Mau- Lake Rkiz. These :- ii J - ; stools in moderate cases and, in heavy in- ritania, the prevalence of urinary schisto- extent and intensity of the epidemic will fections, permanent organ damage that somiasis has been reduced to less than 5 likely increase in Mauritania, possibly fol- can lead to death,. . schistosomiasis percent by a combination of mitigation - same course as in Senegal. causes blood in the urine; severe cases in- measures and natural conditions. The As of 1994, the problem with intestinal volve serious damage to the urinary tract, former includes ; h ^ rice to schistosomiasis had not extended into the sometimes. bladder cancer. other - on some of the land and keep- middle valley and had not increased Before 1986, urinary schistosomiasis ing irrigation canals free of weeds. These greatly in the upper valley.: i ,,cur- was endemic in the Senegal River basin, efforts are aided by the naturally flat ter- rent operating regime, Lake Diama ends with relatively low rates of infection in the rain of the lake bed behind the dam, at Dagana; above Dagana, the Senegal - .: .,and moderate to high rates in which results in large fluctuations in the River is still within its original banks. the middle and . !. : . .- the location of the water line ;1. o . Ji. shore There is little or no growth of marginal construction of Diama Dam, the snail as water levels fluctuate in the lake. These weeds in this region and, therefore, no hosts of S. haematobiunt have extended fluctuations disturb the growth of mar- habitat for the snails. their range and increased their number in ginal vegetation ', i.' lake shore and The introduction of intestinal schisto- the 1, . . .1. especially along the reduce the amount of favorable habitat for somiasis and the increases in urinary Lampsar River (a southern branch of the snails. schistosomiasis are due to a combination Senegal River in ,_ .: . - rates The most dramatic health impact of the of human factors. First, Diama Dam in humans have also increased. A 1994 Diama and Manantali dams and the new eliminated saltwater intrusion into the survey found the prevalence of urinary water management regime has been the lowver river and maintained nearly con- schistosomiasis was moderate ( 11 to 12 introduction and rapid spread of intesti- stant water levels, creating conditions fa- World Resources 1998-99 1 I I voring the growth of marginal vegetation conditions conducive to rapid transmis- lished study performed in 1991 by the along the river edges and the spread of sion of Rift Valley Fever remain unclear, OMVS throughout the basin, do not show the snail hosts of Schistosoma species. the initial filling of a nearby reservoir increased malaria. Second, S. mansoni was probably intro- may be a factor, since this was a common duced to the lower valley by people mi- condition in the events at Aswan in 1977 9 l .; - i ON grating into the region, possibly from the and Mauritania in 1987 (7). Filling the Malnutrition has been widespread in the upper valley. Population in the region has Diama reservoir created more standing Senegal River valley for a long time; it was increased rapidly, especially around the water-a location preferred by the Aedes particularly severe during the droughts irrigation projects at Richard-Toll, as peo- mosquito, the probable vector of Rift Val- before construction of the darns. The ple move there to take advantage of new ley Fever in Mauritania (8). Senegal River development projects were jobs. Water supply and sanitation facili- The potential for such an outbreak in expected to improve the nutrit onal status ties have not kept up with this rapid the Senegal River basin had been identi- of vallev residents as irrigated agriculture growth. As a result, the increased con- fled in pre-dam construction health as- catalvzed economic development and tamination of surface waters, and their sessments in 1980,1984, and just before brought significant improvements in peo- greater use by residents, has contributed the onset of the rainy season in 1987 (9). ples' socioeconomic status, givi ng them to higher transmission rates for schisto- Despite these warnings, authorities in the more income to spend on nutrition and somiasis and increased risks for other wa- basin did not take necessary precautions health. Although the situation is complex terborne diseases as well. The increased to prevent an outbreak. and no authoritative studies exist with prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis which to compare nutritional status be- around Lake Manantali-as well as the MALARIA fore and after dam construction, the avail- increased number of the type of snails as- Malaria occurs in most parts of the Sene- able information suggests that overall, the sociated with intestinal schistosomia- gal River basin. Most reported cases are quality of peoples' diet and thei r nutri- sis-are due to the year-round presence due to malaria tropica (i- e : i ui, h,,, falci- tional status have not improved. signifi- of water in the lake and its nearly con- parum), which can cause severe disease cr llra .,1 lmay have declined, since con- stant water level. and death. The risk of infection is greater struction of the dams. in the upper valley than in the lower areas Before the dams were built, valley resi- RIFT VALLEY FEVER because the rainy season is longer and the dents grew and consumed a wide variety Rift Valley Fever is a mosquito-borne vi- amount of rainfall is higher, creating bet- of food crops grown in family plots and ral disease that is most often benign in ter conditions for the mosquito vector small fields in the river's flood plain. Con- humans but can occasionally lead to (Anopheles species). Falcipa rum malaria struction of the dams, interruption of the blindness, encephalitis, and fatal hemor- has become a serious concern in Africa annual flood, and expansion of irrigation rhagic fever. Epidemics are common in because of the parasite's growing resis- projects has reduced traditiona agricul- livestock and can cause high rates of still- tance to antimalarial drugs. ture and has increased rice and sugar births and abortions. The virus is trans- Evidence is conflicting regarding cane cultivation. In Lhe lower ar d middle mitted to humans by biting insects (mos- whether the new water management re- valley, residents' diets now appear to in- quitoes, sand flies, and, possibly, ticks) or gime on the Senegal River and the expan- clude more rice, a smaller variel y of vege- by direct contact with blood or organs of sion of irrigated areas in the lower valley tables in most villages, and lower con- infected animals after slaughter. are causing an increase in malaria infec- sumption of meat, dairy products, and An outbreak of Rift Valley Fever oc- tion rates. Reliable evidence shows that A. freshwater fish. This change may reflect curred near Rosso, Mauritania, in 1987 gambiae population densities have in- the financial strain on family resources soon after the completion of Diama Dam creased during the rainy season (August caused by low rice yields and farmers' at- and the initial filling of Lake Diama. It be- to December) in the middle valley, and tempts to grow two crops of rice each year, gan during the rainy season in pastoralist that malaria transmission is continuing and also the reduced livestock production groups in Mauritania and spread to later into the dry season (December to and fish catch in the valley. For r ice- Rosso, eventually appearing on both sides April). Routine surveillance data from producing families, rice is the predomi- of the river. The outbreak was the first health service facilities in Rosso, nant food in the diet and is usually eaten known epidemic of Rift Valley Fever in Richard-Toll, and Podor reflect an overall at least once or twice a day. Rice is less nu- humans west of Uganda and reportedly increase in the number of malaria cases, tritious than millet and sorghum, which killed more than 200 people (6). The dis- although most of the reported cases were used to be staples in the diet but are now ease had been observed only once before not confirmed by microscopic analysis. In more difficult to find in the markets. in epidemic form in humans, in Egypt in contrast, longitudinal studies conducted Several studies of nutritional ,tatus in 1977 near the Aswan High Dam on the in the delta region at Kasak-Nord and the towns along the Senegalese shore of the Nile River. Although the exact ecological middle valley at Podor, and an unpub- Senegal River in 1990-91 found the 112 World Resources 1998-99 REGIONAL PROFILES: SENEGAL prevalence of chronic malnutrition in uifers bordering the river, resulting in an residents had been guaranteed health cen- children at levels between 20 percent and improvement of water supplies for these ters and one water point for every 100 in- 36 percent. One study concluded that lev- villages. Further away from the river, how- habitants. Two years after their displace- els of malnutrition observed in 1992 were ever, the absence of the annual flood has ment, residents continued to receive comparable to those in 1983, before con- interrupted the previous cycle of .i additional support, such as supplemental struction of the dams (10). The same study J., 9. I '.1 in a gradual decline nutrition programs funded by the donor found the prevalence of nutritional stunt- in the water table and reduced water governments. ing to be 22 percent and wasting to be I .: i - ; The result has been a rise in Traditional systems of livestock pro- in 1990 among children aged 0 to the reported rates of diarrheal disease. duction have been altered in the middle 5 years old, with somewhat lower levels Along the river in the upper valley, diar- valley. Construction of the dams was ex- observed in 1992 (16 percent and 5 per- rheal disease has continued to be a severe pected to foster an increase in livestock cent, respectively). On the Mauritanian problem despite regulation of the river, production, but herders have had to cope side of the river, a 1986 study in the Trarza and health authorities in Kayes, Mali, re- with a decrease in pastureland due to the district (around Rosso) found chronic - conditions have worsened. persistent drought, the reduction in the malnutrition to exist among 25 percent of annual flood, and the expansion of irri- children vounger than 5 years of age. In a gated land. The increased difficulty of 1994 study, rates of chronic malnutrition ' gaining access to the river for watering among children in the same region were -s animals and the reduction in grazing land estimated at 36 percent, with 11 percent of The environmental and health changes has led to tensions between pastoralists children showing evidence of nutritional seen in the Senegal River basin have not and farmers. wasting. il ..' in isolation; the change in wa- The development of irrigation along the ter management and the . . of irri- S ! also disturbed patterns of DISEASES gated . . have also brought land use and land tenure, exacerbating eth- in water management practices broad-based social ... . . .J,,l., . nic conflict among groups in the region. and voluntary migration into the lower tensions between i - and farmers Tens of thousands of people lost their valley have !; I'A ..i the rates of diarrheal and among ..i: - roups as well. The property rights, and massacres occurred in diseases in basin rL i. .; Ti .1 -ii dam projects resulted in the relocation of both Mauritania and Senegal ( tl). plans for the region called for improve- roughly 10,000 people in more than 40 ments in water - :i. ; -'; villages and hamlets in Mali. The Malian v . health services, but few improvements government, the U.S. Agency for Interna- - 1 have been made to date. tional Development (_ i 1), and the Dam building will continue to be an im- In the lower valley, modest improve- World Health Organization moved these portant element of economic develop- ments have been insufficient to deal with populations from the area inundated by ment plans in many countries. The poten- ,v11 ,,rmovements. In Richard-Toll, the Manantali Dam and resettled them in tial benefits for agriculture, water supply, an influx of workers to serve the sugar new sites on the plateau above the lake power production, transportation, indus- cane industry added an additional . and downstream along the Bafing h ! trial development, and flood control are people to the population, overwhelming One year after being resettled, villagers obvious and desirable. Given this expecta- improvements in the town's water supply reported in a 1989 USAID study that they tion, what lessons can be drawn from the and sanitation facilities. There is an in- had insufficient land for cultivation and experience of Mali, Mauritania, and Sene- creased risk of cholera and other water- grazingarw:J ..UrYf.I ; waterforgarden- gal in developing the Senegal River? borne diseases in the Richard-Toll area, ing. Housing and personal water supplies This case study illustrates the many and there was a cholera epidemic near were considered adequate at that time, be- secondary impacts that a dam project Rosso, Mauritania, in 1987. Because fu- cause the additional external funding that may have on the health, livelihood, social ture improvements to the water supply accompanied the dam projects ensured structure, and general welfare of people systems of Dakar and Saint-Louis will that these basic items were supplied to the living in the area. Many of these impacts draw on water from Lake Diama and Lake displaced populations. Health problems can be predicted-indeed, most of the Guiers, the quality of those water bodies are common in resettled populations, and impacts of the Senegal River dams were may soon affect these large population increases in diarrheal illnesses and aller- predicted in preconstruction studies. centers as well. gies, a measles epidemic, and an outbreak If many of the negative impacts of the In the middle valley, the regulation of of livestock disease were reported among Senegal River dams were predicted, then water levels in the river has allowed the some of the resettled villages. Some why were they not avoided? The answer is development of wind-powered water health indicators did improve for the resi- complicated. First, the financing consor- pumps. These pumps draw water from aq- dents of some resettled villages, where tium could have required changes in the World Resources 1998-99 ' 3 project's design but did not. The financing would need greater capabilities in terms schistosomiasis transmission and other agreements for the dams were reached in of water resource modeling, planning, and impacts. The WVorld Bank, which is a the late 1970s, at a time when most par- operations; genuine expertise in other member of the power project consortium, ticipants were not especially sensitive to disciplines (e.g., health and social sci- is also developing health sector projects environmental impacts and, in any case, ences); and improved mechanisms for in Senegal and Mauritania that will im- were eager to participate in the project communicating with national agencies of prove health services and disease surveil- and would not have been inclined to force its member states. lance. The World Bank is also developing changes to which the borrowing countries The experience with the Senegal River water supply and sanitation projects in objected. dams, therefore, points to at least the fol- Senegal that will improve facilities and re- Second, the people who have been hurt lowing five lessons: duce the population's exposure to schisto- by the project lack political powver and f More effort is needed to evaluate the en- somiasis. were not represented effectively either in vironmental, health, and social impacts the project design or in its operation. of dams systematically in order to pre- References and Note's Measures that would have reduced the dict their varied impacts more accu- 1. Unless noted otherwise, information in this article project's negative impacts on valley resi- rately and with greater certainty. is taken ro an Diop et at., Se r egal Ri tanr fasin dents were not implemented because they Heala ils t aster Platl Study, (,,iater and Sanitation for Health (WASH) Field Report No. 453, December were perceived to be adverse to the pro- - ,.* i views and evaluations con- 1994, reprint ed.). ject's objectives. In the Senegal River ba- ducted by international funding agen- 2. Construction costs for the tws'o dams amounted to sin, more attention should have been paid cies represent a critical juncture at which thU governmints of Saudi Arabia, Kuiallt Abu to how benefits and costs would be dis- to make modifications that would re- Dhabi, the Federal Republi ofGermany, France, tributed among various groups. Generally duce negative impacts. United States (USAgency for Intern.tional Devel- speaking, even when the overall balance e Dam projects should include funding for capital funds for the projects, but supDorted envi- of benefits to risks is positive and a proj- measures needed to mitigate their envi- ronmental assessments and other research related ect is justifiable at the level of national in- ronmental, health, and social impacts as asststanh e p or relocating vllnagesnthatlne edisc terest, the distribution of benefits and an integral part of the project. placed by the Manantali Dam. costs may be quite unfair. This situation 3. Anne Guest, "Conflict and Cooperati an in a Con- ws Institutional arrangements created for text of Change: A Case Studv of the Senegal River was cetil paetwt h Bigl1asin,' in Betundaries in Que'stion;: Net' Directions in River dams project. The benefits of the managing such projects should include International Relations, John Macmillin and An- representatives of affected populations dree Linklater, eds.(Pinter Publishers, London, project-income from irrigated agricul- 1993), pp. 163-173. ture and electrical power from Manantali in ..,:.! of real authority. 4. Ibid Dam-will be enjoyed primarily by the X These institutions need funding and sGeasnenttof EmngrCondednrty and Ctarpoeiter Enc "As- people living in the capital cities, while technical assistance to develop adequate Developmcnts in the Senegal River Basin,' prepared for the Organisation Poor La Mise en Valeur do people living in the valley pay the price technical capacity and a multidisciplin- Fleuve Senegal. 1977. for the project in terms of poorer health, ary staff that understands and can ad- 6. John Walsh, "Rift Vallev Fever Rears Ui s Hiead," Sci- changed livelihoods, relocation, and dis- dress the broad range of potential nega- 7 Williame RV l.o 2 i "Rift Valley F1e8er A Problem for rupted social relationships. tive impacts. Dam Builders in Africa,' ito ter Power and Dam Counstructiont (August 1989), pp. 32-3'-. Third, even if the OMVS had the politi- There is some hope that conditions will 8. Op. cit. 3. cal will to reduce the negative impacts re- improve in the Senegal River valley as a 9. JP.P Digoutte and C.J. Peters, "General Aspects of sulting from construction of the Senegal result of international attention to the Researcif t Vairoloey, Vol. E40, No. ( t1a89), pp. River dams, the organization does not problems. An international consortium 27-30. 10. E. Benefice and K. Simondon, "Agricultural Devel- have the technical capability to do so. has recently concluded negotiations with opmenit and Nutrition Among Rural Populations: Many of the negative impacts could be re- the OMVS for the purchase and installa- A Case Studv of the Mliddle Valley in Senegal, duced even now by making operational tion of turbines and hydroelectricgeera- 1993) Ecolog ofFoo ad rriion l.31,No. changes in the project. For example, more tors at Manantali Dam and power distri- I. Thomas Homer Dixon, Environrnentral Scarcit anzd water could be released to restore an an- bution lines from Manantali to the Contlict Str:des Prodeace fTront Cases, leace and nual flood. Planned variations in the wa- national capitals and several locations in Available online at: http://utl.libraryutoronto.ca/ ter levels of Lake Manantali and Lake the valley. The project includes funding diskl Iv98 wdocuments/pcsesid 1.htm (Jatuary Diama could be used to control snail for a study of alternative water manage- populations and reduce the spread of ment regimes at Manantali Dam and, spe- Eugene P. Brantly aind Karen E. Ramsey, Environ- schistosomiasis. Yet, if the OMVS were to cifically, for evaluating options for ma- mental Health Project of the U.S. Agenc'fjor Inter- decide that such measures have merit, it nipulating water levels to reduce iiationzal Development, lVashington, D.C. 114 World Resources 1998-99 MONGOLIA < s Q X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i Sbenyan r Be ijing ralian CHINA Shijianzhuang Taiyuan Qingdao Yellow Sea ) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Xi'an OSe N hanon 4 Shanghai Nocountrbetter he Vmentalo theplanet, which i country, with m tha INDIA RBAN ~ESH ..X i X / + ~~~~~~~~~~Dianchi L. / , - ( " ' XJ ~~MYANMAR i; hahina No country better - the . ... mental . | ,on the planet, which in country, with more than 1.2 bil- of trends - ' in this - - turn could 'China from sustaining lion people, Chinas economic -, is the .- . they pose to environmental high levels of economic in the the fastest and most sustained of any ma- and health-than does : decades. jor country in the wc - an modern the economic re- - - .. - of these prob- of 10 L .. .. - . over more than a forms of 1978, China has experienced dra- lems, the Chinese Government has en- decade (m). In fact, some autonomous re- matic and rising energy dorsed a suite of: to curb air and in the golden southeastern coastal use against a '. * of - - water p The extent to which these zones have iearlv 20 percent annu- growth and unprecedented urbanization. : successful has direct bearing . doubling in less than 4 vears (2). ,_ .. . -industrial over on not only the health of the Chinese peo- Industry is . . largest productive the past two decades has created a coun- - and the local environment but the sector, accounting for 48 percent of its try, poised to become a major economic - environment as gross . - * ' (GDP) and em- the 21st Century. capita, a - a ploying 15 percent of the country's total China is still one of the poorest area with a number of distinct . ' labor force (3). In the 1990s, the output of countries, yet the future looks - zones, China extends from the massive - 10 industrial enterprises ing-incomes are rising, poverty rates are and * populated Gobi Desert and has increased by 18 percent - 4j. - and. expectanicy is . Yet, the mountains of the southwestern Hiima- . a doubt, Chinese industry is aiong with these gains, ( is lavlas to the densely inhabited . of ' .. '-1.: for - many mi- with some of the most serious environ- the eastern coast. As the world's most lions of people out of poverty. It also un- World Resources 1998-99 1 3 5 hazard in China, no routine monitoring of TABLE CHINA.1 Percentage of Emissions in Selected CQ.nese Ci:ies Attributable to Motor Vehic es environmental concentrations or blood- lead levels is performed. A few studies PERCENTAGE ATTRIBUTABLE TO MOTOR VEHICLES have been conducted and are described CARBON MONOXIDE HYDROCARBONS NITROUSOXIDES CATEGORIES below. These scanty data suggest that am- Beijing 48-64 60-74 10-22 District bient lead levels in the urban area of ma- Shanghai 69 37 District jor cities such as Beijing are usually I to Shenyang 27-38 45-53 District 1.5 micrograms per cubic meter-the na- Jinan 28 4-6 District tional standard is 1 microgram per cubic Hangzhou 24-70 Road meter. In some areas, ambieni lead levels Urumqi 12-50 Road can reach as high as 14 to 25 micrograms Guangzhou 70 43 per cubic meter (35). The heal:h effects, Source: He etat, "Status and Deve opment of VehicUlar Po uton in China,"EnvironmentalSc,enecVol.7,No.4 (August 1996) described below, are significant, although recent and dramatic government actions to phase out leaded gasoline will likely and SO, Inefficient and dirty boilers are (31). Vehicle emissions standards in China have a major impact on this problem. Bei- particularly problematic because many of are equivalent to the standards of the de- jing and Shanghai as well as other cities the industries that use them are located in veloped world during the 1970s, and some have already begun to act, and the coun- densely populated metropolitan areas, domestic companies are manufacturing trywide phaseout is expected to be com- placing populations in these areas at high vehicles modeled after vehicles from 20 plete by the year 2000 risk of exposure. The residential sector years ago. Actual emissions often exceed accounts for approximately 15 percent of these standards: Chinese vehicles emit HEALTH EFFECTS FROM AMBIENT total coal use, yet is estimated to contrib- 2.5 to 7.5 times more hydrocarbons, 2 to 7 AND INDOOR AIR POLLUTION ute to more than 30 percent of urban times more nitrous oxides (N,O), and 6 to ground-level air pollution (26)(27). 12 times more carbon monoxide (CO) Air pollution is thought to be one of the Although the energy and industrial than foreign vehicles (32). In Beijing, leading risk factors for respiratory dis- sectors are now the biggest contributors Shanghai, Hangzhou, and Guangzhou, up eases, such as chronic obstructive pulmo- to urban air pollution in China, the trans- to 70 percent of CO emissions have been nary disease (COPD), lung cancer, pulmo- portation sector is becoming increasingly attributed to motor vehicles. Cars also nary heart disease, and bronchitis, important. The number of motor vehicles contribute a large share of hydrocarbons diseases that are the leading causes of on China's roads has tripled since 1984, and N,O in the cities where data are avail- death in China. The fact that men and climbing from less than 2.4 million in able (33). (See Table China.1.) As a result, woman have similar rates of these dis- 1984 to 9.4 million in 1994 (28). By 2020, although China's vehicle fleet is small eases, despite women's much lower smok- the urban vehicle population is expected compared with the developed countries, ing rates, provides evidence that this high to be 13 to 22 times greater than it is to- its large cities are already blanketed with disease burden is related to pollution (36). day (29). This trend will likely have a ma- smog. Although only a limited nu mber of epi- jor influence on the future of China's air A recent study in Beijing revealed that demiologic studies have been conducted, quality. The shift toward vehicle use is at all monitoring points within the Third air pollution has clearly contributed to most apparent in China's big cities. For ex- Ring Road-a rough boundary separat- both excess mortality and morbidity in ample, from 1986 to 1996, the number of ing downtown Beijing and its out- China. At this stage, however, it is ex- vehicles in Beijing increased fourfold, skirts-the CO levels exceeded the na- tremely difficult to tease apart which from 260,000 to 1.1 million. Although this tional standard (4 micrograms per cubic sources of air pollution have the greatest is only one tenth of the number of vehi- meter per day). During the summer, impact on human health, indoor or out- cles in Tokyo or Los Angeles, the pollution ozone concentrations repeatedly exceeded door. In urban areas, there is a great deal generated by Beijing motor vehicles the national standard, which is set on an of exchange between outdoor and indoor equals that in each of the two other cities hourly basis-often several times per day. air, both of which are polluted from dif- (30). In addition, concentrations of N,O have ferent sources-indoor primarily from The problem stems not just from the almost doubled over the past decade (34). the burning of coal for cooking and heat- growing size of the vehicle fleet but also Compounding these pollution prob- ing. Summaries of selected recent esti- from low emissions standards, poor road lems is the fact that the burgeoning Chi- mates of health impacts are presented to infrastructure, and outdated technology, nese motor vehicle fleet is largely fueled provide a more complete understanding which combine to make Chinese vehicles by leaded gasoline. Although lead expo- of the complex relationship between air among the most polluting in the world sure is known to be a significant health pollution and human health. 1 18 World Resources 1998-99 MONGOLIA X - Sheny~ A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5 ( csO&5&)>~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~? ~~~~ alian GO~~~~~~~~~~~~aO CHINA Shiianzhuang > / ) Taiyuan / ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Qing aoX ~~~~~~~~~~~~< ~~~~~~~~~~QinghaiLt. w Qrnqh0 L- tv Yellow Sea 3 ~~~~~~~~~< \< ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Xi'an A )_ Shanghai Haagzhou X r e Chongqing INDIA BANGL ESH i C + ~~~~~~~~Dianchi L. \G v5 South China Sea No coUntry' . - , the m mental problems on the planet,which in . country with more than 1.2 of trends discussed in this i , - - turn could prevent China from sustaining lion - -' China's economic ! the. - . - they pose to environmental l '' of ' in the the fastest and most sustained of any ma- and I - healthh-than does decades. jor country in the 7 ., an modern China. Since the economic re- ,. - of these o Of 10 . . . over more than a forms of 1978, China has experienced dra- lems, the Chiniese Government has en- decade (1). in fact, some autonomous re- matic .. -. .. . and rising energy dorsed a suite of , . to curb air and gions in the golden southeastern coastal use . r-a ' a ' ' of water pollution. The extent to which these zones have grown nearly 20 , annu- * and unprecedented urbanization. - - are successful has direct bearing - K , in less than 4 years !2). China's - C industrial . over on not only the health of the Chinese peo- Industry is China's largest the - two decades has created a coun- ple and the local environment but the sector, accounting for 48 percent of its * . >7 to become a major economic global environment as gross domestic product (GDP) and em- powqer in the 21st Century. Per capita, - a - - ploying 15 percent of the country's total China is still one of the - poorest area with a number of distinct ecological labor force 13). fn the 1990s, the output of countries, yet the future looks promis- zones, China extends from the massive China's 10 . industrial enterprises * - - ^ } are rising, poverty rates are .--' Gobi Desert and has increased bv 18 percent . )4). life expectancy is up. the mountains of the southwestern Hima- Without a doubt,t . . industry is along with these gains, China is - layas to the densely inhabited valleys of largely responsible for ' . - mil- with some of the most serious environ- the eastern coast. As the world's most lions of people out of poverty. It also un- World Resources 1998-99 1 15 erlies a huge and growing demand for campaign to improve primary health care past decade, China has increased environ- nergy. and tackle infectious diseases (9). mental spending, adopted market incen- China's demand for high-grade energy However, over the coming decades, Chi- tives, strengthened lawmaking and en- such as oil and natural gas will increase na's deteriorating environment threatens forcement, and promoted nationwide rapidly, although coal will continue to to undermine the gains that rising in- environmental education. Decisions made dominate the energy structure, account- comes would otherwise bring. China's in the next decade or two about energy, ing for more than 75 percent of total en- rapid industrialization, urbanization, and transportation, and agricultural technolo- ergy production. From 1990 to 1995, Chi- economic growth are contributing to res- gies will largely determine how successful na's oil demand grew at 4.3 percent piratory diseases and chronic illnesses China will be in achieving its goal of sus- annually, while oil production increased such as cancer. Levels of particulate air tainable development. only 1.2 percent each year. As a result of pollution from energy and industrial pro- This case study describes the initial these trends, China has become a net oil duction in several of China's megacities, findings of an ongoing project between importer (5). such as Shanghai and Shenyang, are the World Resources Institute (WRI) and Along with industrialization has come among the highest in the world, leading to the Chinese Government to evaluate the rapid urbanization, especially in what is corresponding problems of lung disease links between environment and health in knownv as the southern coastal crescent in their populations. Water pollution in China. The goal of this collaborative proj- that rans from Guangzhou to Shanghai. some regions, such as in the Huai River ect is to develop information and indica- The proportion of the population living in Valley, is also wvithout parallel. tors that will enable decisionmakers to cities has grown about 50 percent since In 1996, the government annual report, make informed choices about the envi- 1980. Some 370 million peopleInow live in State of the Environment, noted that envi- ronment, energy, infrastructure, and re- ronmental pollution was expanding into lated issues. cities, and thislio numbertis exetedn to the the countryside, and that ecological de- The first section of this profile focuses turo (6t. A miorld Bank model predicts struction was intensifying (10). Environ- on air pollution trends and the impact of tury 6)A Worl Bank md percedts mental problems are seriously affecting air pollution on human health. Routine that b the year 2020, 42 percent of Chi- overall social and economic development monitoring of air pollution and good hos- nspeopue,willaeion, morean 600as milln in the country. China Environment News, a pital and health records have enabled re- heoplewingll liventrate in ur reastver- national newspaper of the National Envi- searchers to gain a fairly clear picture of ronmental Protection Agencv (NEPA), re- air pollution's impact on human health and southerni coastal provinices (7 ). sported that in recent vears, economic and what the future will hold if air pcllu- Since the political transformation of costs associated with ecological destruc- tion continues to worsen. WNtater pollution 1949, dramatic and extensive social im- tion and environmental pollution have also presents a major threat to public provements have accompanied China's reached as high as 14 percent of the coun- health, although data in this area are less growth. In 1949, the new People's Republic try's gross national product (GNP) (ii). complete. Although data limitations pre- of China faced a massive burden of nutri- Miore recently, the World Bank estimated vent a comprehensive review, the second tional deficiency and infectious and para- that air and water pollution cost China section reviews the most recent evidence sitic diseases. More than half the popula- nearly 8 percent of its GNP, around US$54 concerning the extent of health problems tion died as a result of infectious and billion (t2). Although solid scientific data associated with water pollution. T ne third other nondegenerative diseases before are lacking, the government has identified section reviews China's lawvs and Policies reaching middle age-a pattern still com- environmental factors as one of the four to protect the environment and health. mon throughout much of the developing leading factors influencing the morbiditv world. Since 1949, the average life span in and mortality of China's people today ( 13). China has risen from 35 years to the cur- The importance of environmental factors Air Pollution and Health rent 70. The infant mortality rate has is well understood by some, as shown by a Effects dropped from 200 per 1,000 to 31 per 1994 opinion survey about risks. Respon- 1,000. Infectious diseases, while still a se- dents who hold science or engineering de- POOR AMBIENT AIR QUAI ITY rious problem in some parts of the coun- grees ranked risk from pollution ahead of PR1EVAILS try, claim the lives of a mere 0.0004 per- natural disasters ( 14). "The residents of many of China's largest cent of the population each year (8). The Responding to growing public concerns cities are living under long-term, harmful decrease in morbidity and mortality rates about the environment, the Chinese Gov- air quality conditions," Zhao Weijun, dep- associated with infectious diseases in ernment has officially named the environ- uty director of the air polluition depart- China is a remarkable achievement for the ment as one of its top priorities and has ment of NEPA, reported in 1997 in China world's most populous country. This de- committed itself to reversing the trend of f - i d ,; 1,1, ; r News (16). China has long cline can be attributed to an aggressive environmental deterioration (t5). Over the recognized air pollution as a critical prob- 1 6 World Resources 1998-99 REGIONAL PROFILES: CHINA lem. Ambient concentrations of total sus- pended particulates (TSP) and sulfur di- FIGURE CHINA.1 A9mbient Concentraions o A r Pollutants 199' oxide (SO,) are among the world's highest. TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATES SULFUR DIOXIDE (See Figure China.1.) In 1995, more than one half of the 88 cities monitored for SO2 BEUING BEIJING were above the World Health Organization SHENYANG SHENYANG (WHO) guideline. All but two of the 87 SHANGHA cities monitored for TSP far exceeded WHO's guideline. Some cities such as Tai- CHONGOING CHONGOING yuan and Lanzhou had SO. levels almost TAIYUAN TAIYUAN 10 times the WHO guideline (17). JINAN JNAN Largely because of controls at power BANGKOK BANGKOK plants and within households, particulate AKARTA 199 JAKARTA (1991) F emissions have not risen as much as might have been expected with the dou- ANYF ES LOSANGELES bling of coal consumption. Overall, par- TOKYO TO'KYO ticulate emissions in China have re- 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 MICROGPAMS PER CU IC METER MICROGRAMS PER CUB C METER mained relatively level since the early (annual mean concentratior) (annual mean concertrat on) 1980s (18). In fact, in some large cities, 1980s (I 8). In fact, in some large cities, Source: The World Bank, Cfear Water, Btue S~ies Chmas Envvrnnmernt in the New Century (The VVorld Bank, Wash ngton, D.C., 1997), ambient particulate concentrations have Figure 1 1, p. 6 decreased markedly since the 1980s (19). In contrast, SO, emissions have roughly gion. SO, and particulate emissions are serious problems with acid precipitation, paralleled the increase in coal consump- highest in the northern half of China, especially in the southwest provinces of tion, reflecting heavy coal burning and in- where coal is used to heat homes and Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi, and Hunan adequate sulfur control measures, other buildings for several months of the (24) (23). Coal burning, the primary source of year and where industrial centers also de- Industry accounts for two thirds of Chi- China's high SO, emissions, accounts for pend heavily on coal burning. Yet, air pol- na's coal use-industrial boilers alone more than three quarters of the country's lution in the North would be much worse consume 30 percent of China's coal. These commercial energy needs, compared with if not for the higher quality, cleaner coal boilers are usually highly inefficient and 17 percent in Japan and a world average of that is available there. By contrast, the emit through low smoke stacks, contribut- 27 percent (20). China's consumption of coal mined in the South is high in sulfur ing to much of China's ground-level air raw coal increased annually by 2 percent and extremely polluting, contributing to pollution, especially small particulates between 1989 and 1993 (21). (See Figure China.2.) Meanwhile, SO, emissions in- . , E X creased by more than 20 percent and TSP FGURE CH NA.2 I: , Lemand in China 1971-95 increased by approximately 10 percent (22). The country is expected to burn 1.5 (mlInnsaormnetm tons ofsi, equivalent) billion metric tons of coal annually by the 1,200 ----- - - - ----- - COAL year 2000, up from 0.99 billion metric _ GAS tons in 1990 (23). Without even more dra- 1 00' OiLPRODUCT' matic measures to control emissions than OTHER are currently in place, the deterioration of 8o air quality seems inevitable. Particulates and SO, are the ambient air 600 pollutants of greatest concern; both are byproducts of coal combustion. While in- 400 dustrial emissions of heavy metals and toxics are also significant contributors to 200 air pollution in China, they are not rou- tinely monitored and will not be ad- - --_ - _ _ - dressed in this section. 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 The extent and type of air pollution in Source: Internaticnal EnergyAgeocy,EnergyStatistcs and alances:Nnn-OECL Countres, 971- 1995,on diskette (Organisationfor China vary dramatically by geographic re- Economic Co-Operation and DevelopmAnt Pans, 1997) World Resources 1998-99 1 17 hazard in China, no routine monitoring of TABLE CHI NA.1 Percentage o Emiss ons in Se ected Chinese Cit es Artributable to Motor VehIC es environmental concentrations or blood- lead levels is performed. A few studies PERCENTAGE ATTRIBUTABLE TO MOTOR VEHICLES have been conducted and are described CARBON MONOXIDE HYDROCARBONS NITROUS OXIDES CATEGORIES below. These scanty data suggest that am- Bei)irg 48-64 60-74 10-22 District bient lead levels in the urban area of ma- --r, 1, l ll 1 ;69 37 District jor cities such as Beijing are usually I to Shenyang 27-38 45-53 District 1.5 micrograms per cubic meter-the na- Jinan 28 4-6 District tional standard is 1 microgram per cubic Hangzhou 24-70 Road meter. In some areas, ambient lead levels Urumqi 12-50 Road can reach as high as 14 to 25 micrograms Guangzhou 70 43 per cubic meter (35). The health effects, Source: Heetal., "Status and Development of Vehicular Pollution in China,'Environme.ntalScience,Vol. 7,No.4 (August 1996). described below, are significant, although recent and dramatic government actions to phase out leaded gasoline will likely and SO,. Inefficient and dirty boilers are (31). Vehicle emissions standards in China have or imact on t is lrbem e * ~~~~~~~~~have a major impact on this problem. Bei- particularly problematic because many of are equivalent to the standards of the de- jing and Shanghai as well as other cities the industries that use them are located in veloped wvorld during the 1970s, and some have already begun to act, and the coun- densely populated metropolitan areas, domestic companies are manufacturing trywide phaseout is expected to be com- placing populations in these areas at high vehicles modeled after vehicles from 20 plete by the year 2000. risk of exposure. The residential sector years ago. Actual emissions often exceed accounts for approximately 15 percent of these standards: Chinese vehicles emit HEALTH EFFECTS FROM AMBIENT total coal use, yet is estimated to contrib- 2.5 to 7.5 times more hydrocarbons, 2 to 7 AND INDOOR AIR POLLUTION ute to more than 30 percent of urban times more nitrous oxides (N,O), and 6 to ground-level air pollution (26)(27). 12 times more carbon monoxide (CO) Air pollution is thought to be one of the Although the energy and industrial than foreign vehicles (32). In Beijing, leading risk factors for respiratory dis- sectors are now the biggest contributors Shanghai, Hangzhou, and Guangzhou, up eases, such as chronic obstructive pulmo- to urban air pollution in China, the trans- to 70 percent of CO emissions have been nary disease (COPD), lung canicer, pulmo- portation sector is becoming increasingly attributed to motor vehicles. Cars also nary heart disease, and bronchitis, important. The number of motor vehicles contribute a large share of hydrocarbons diseases that are the leading causes of on China's roads has tripled since 1984, and N,O in the cities where data are avail- death in China. The fact that men and climbing from less than 2.4 million in able (33). (See Table China.I.) As a result, woman have similar rates of these dis- 1984 to 9.4 million in 1994 (28). By 2020, although China's vehicle fleet is small eases, despite women's much lower smok- the urban vehicle population is expected compared with the developed countries, ing rates, provides evidence that this high to be 13 to 22 times greater than it is to- its large cities are already blanketed with disease burden is related to pollution (36). day (29). This trend will likely have a ma- smog. Although only a limited nu,nber of epi- jor influence on the future of China's air A recent study in Beijing revealed that demiologic studies have been conducted, quality. The shift toward vehicle use is at all monitoring points within the Third air pollution has clearly contributed to most apparent in China's big cities. For ex- Ring Road-a rough boundary separat- both excess mortality and morbidity in ample, from 1986 to 1996, the number of ing downtown Beijing and its out- China. At this stage, however, it is ex- vehicles in Beijing increased fourfold, skirts-the CO levels exceeded the na- tremely difficult to tease apart which from 260,000 to 1.1 million. Although this tional standard (4 micrograms per cubic sources of air pollution have the greatest is only one tenth of the number of vehi- meter per day). During the summer, impact on human health, indoor or out- cles in Tokyo or Los Angeles, the pollution ozone concentrations repeatedly exceeded door. In urban areas, there is a great deal generated by Beijing motor vehicles the national standard, which is set on an of exchange between outdoor and indoor equals that in each of the two other cities hourly basis-often several times per day. air, both of which are polluted from dif- (30). In addition, concentrations of N,O have ferent sources-indoor primarily from The problem stems not just from the almost doubled over the past decade (34). the burning of coal for cooking and heat- growing size of the vehicle fleet but also Compounding these pollution prob- ing. Summaries of selected recent esti- from low emissions standards, poor road lems is the fact that the burgeoning Chi- mates of health impacts are presented to infrastructure, and outdated technology, nese motor vehicle fleet is largely fueled provide a more complete understanding which combine to make Chinese vehicles by leaded gasoline. Although lead expo- of the complex relationship between air among the most polluting in the world sure is known to be a significant health pollution and human health. 118 World Resources 1998-99 REGIONAL PROFILES: CHINA Based on dose-response functions from mated health impact of both ambient and 1 studies conducted within China and in indoor air pollution in China (37). TABLE CHINA 3 Indocr Particulate Air Po lut on from other countries, the World Bank has esti- In China, the effects of outdoor air pol- Cca Brn nc i China Sample Studies) mated the number of deaths and diseases lution are compounded by those of indoor PARTICULATES associated with air pollution among ur- air pollution. Households using coal for PLACE URBAN/ (micrograms per ban populations. Using the Chinese stan- domestic cooking and heating are espe- PLACa URAn 500-1,000 dards as a benchmark, they estimate the cially at risk because coal emits very high ejiangha Urban 77-1,1000 number of deaths that could be prevented levels of indoor particulate matter less Shenyang Urban 125-270 if air pollution were reduced to those lev- than 2.5 microns in size-the size be- Taiyuan Urban 300-1 000 els. According to their calculations, ap- lieved to be most hazardous to health. H-arbin Urban 390-610' proximately 178,000 deaths, or 7 percent (These concentrations can be more than Guangzhou Urban 460 of all deaths in urban areas, could be pre- 100 times the proposed U.S. ambient air Chengde Urban 270-700' vented each year. Another measure of air 24-hour standard.) Exposure to these Yunnan Rural 270-5,100 pollution's impact on health is the small-sized particles is . L,...I.I' harmful Beijing Rural 400-1,300 number of hospital admissions from res- because they persist in the environment JHebe Rural 1,000-1,200' piratory diseases. This study found and reach deep into the lungs (38). Henei Rural 1,900-2,500 346,000 hospitalizations associated with Indoor air I,, !- !affects both urban Inner Mongola Rural 400-1,6003 the excess levels of air pollution in urban and rural populations. Nor is it simply a source: VarI Sea,th ODganationtFive Years after the Earth areas. Table China.2 summarizes the esti- problem indoors: numerous studies have Summit (WHO,Geneva, 1997). p.86. shown that intense indoor coal burning Note: a. Partic es ess than I 0 m crameters in s ze. can affect ambient air quality as vell. For instance, rural neighborhoods are gener- average rates of 3.2 and 6.3 for Chinese an ... e J , r same TAKECHINA.2 EstimatesofResp.ratcryDamageThat . i ... .-' by urban sources of air .....andU.S.- - . -*. .ilt-tvirtum Could Be Avcided by sMeeting Class 2 Air Quafty S.an- ".1r,Lj but can be extremely polluted t. .. *. surveys showed that virtu- dards in China from the burning of coal indoors. Table ally no women (in the county) smoked to- NUMBER OF China.3 shows the extremely high levels of bacco products, other sources of potent PROBLEM CASESAVERTED particulates in both rural and urban in- exposure must have contributed to these Urban air pollution door environments (39). Indoor air pollu- troubling rates. Analyses of indoor air Premature deaths' 178,000 tion causes as manv health problems as and blood samples from the women indi- Respiratory hospital 346,000 smoking, with the effects concentrated cate that fuel burinig inside the home admissions among women and children (40), was largely l r S1 ---1k for the lung can- Emergency room visits 6,779,000 Although the , . i:. of China's cers. The U.S. EPA studies found a 2 Lower respiratory infec- 661,000 households that burn polluting biomass association between the existence of lung tions or child astnma fuels indoors for cooking and', . , . cancer in females and the duration of Asthma attacks 75,107,000tiesetcoigfdin or.Telv Chronic bronchitis 1,762,000 mains :, I; i has been declining time spentcookingfoodindoors.The lev- Respiratory symptoms 5,270,1 75,000 with the proliferation of alternative en- els of carcinogenic compounds present in Restricted activity oays 4,537,000 ergy so _. ' as a result of gov- smoky coal (a local type of coal that (years) ernment investments, about one third of smokes copiously) were found to be much urban Chinese now have access to gas for higher in the women who used smoky Indoor air pollution cooking, and coal-burning households are coal for cooking (42)(43). Premature deaths 111,000 *, .. 1: . 2 turning to the use of cleaner, Since the 1980s, a number of studies Respiratory hospital 220,000 more efficient briquettes (41). examining the relationship between am- admissions Perhaps the most compelling example bient air pollution and health effects in Emergency room visits 4,310,000 of the health impact from indoor air pol- China have been conducted. It is impor- Lower respiratory infec- 420,000 lution is the extremely high lung cancer tant to remember that although the stud- tionshoraatdtackhma 4rates :,. , r.. i . in rural ies measured only ambient air i'.. 1- Chronic bronchitis 1,121,000 Xuan WAei County. Studies conducted by levels, in reality people are exposed to a Respiratory symptoms 3,322,631,000 the United States Environmental Protec- combination of indoor and outdoor air. Restricted activity days 2,885,000 tion Agency (U.S. EPA) report that in the One of most definitive of these studies ex- (years) three communes with the highest mortal- amined the relationship between air pol- Source: The VVorld Bank, Cear V ater,Blue Skies:China's Envi- ity rates, the age- i>.... .l lung cancer lution and -. . -s two residential ar- ronrnentire hAewCentjrJry(The World ank,vWashmgton, mortality rate between 1973 and 1979 was eas of Beijing. According to this study, the D.C.,I997),Table2.1,p.19. 125.6 per 100,000 wvomen, compared with risk of mortality wvas estimated to in- World Resources 1998-99 1 1 9 crease by 1 1 percent with each doubling Respiratory diseases are not the only have resulted in limited data on water pol- of SO2 concentration, and by 4 percent health impacts of concern associated with lution and even fewer epidemiologic stud- with each doubling of TSP. When the spe- air pollution. Lead exposure, for instance, ies on the links between water pollution cific causes of mortality were examined, leads to neurological damage, particularly and human health effects. mortality from COPD increased 38 per- in children. China has no comprehensive China has a total of 2,800 billion cubic cent with a doubling of particulate levels national data on blood-lead levels, a reli- meters of annually renewed fresh water; and 29 percent with doubling of SO, Pul- able biomarker of exposure, but some the world's most populous country is monary heart disease mortality also in- studies show that blood-lead levels are far fourth in the world in terms of total water creased significantly with higher pollu- above the threshold associated with im- resources (53). Considering per capita wa- tion levels. Levels of air pollution paired intelligence, neurobehavioral de- ter resources, China has the second lowest measured often exceeded WHO guide- velopment, and physical growth. (The U.S. per capita water resources in the world, lines, particularly in winter when ambient standard is 10 micrograms per deciliter.) less than one third the world average. air pollution was exacerbated by indoor Between 65 and 100 percent of children in Northern China is especially water-poor, fuel burning and climatic conditions. Yet, Shanghai have blood-lead levels greater with only 750 cubic meters per capita; this what was striking is that excess mortality than 10 micrograms per deciliter. Those geographic region has one fifth the per was associated with pollutant levels below in industrialized or congested areas had capita water resources of southern China WHO guidelines, suggesting that the levels averaging between 21 and 67 decili- and just 10 percent of the world average guidelines cannot be perceived as a safe ters (49). In Shanghai, prenatal exposures (54). limit (44). to lead from urban air were associated The distribution of groundwater is Respiratory diseases, hospitalization, or with adverse development in the children similarly skewed: average grcundwater re- doctor,visis,areofte a more sensite M during their first year of life (50). sources in the South are more than four doctoreof visitse oftentof air morentive otimes greater than in the North. Dramatic measure of the impact of air pollution on shifts in annual and monthly precipita- human health than mortality. One recent Water Scarcity, Water tion cause floods and droughts, which study confirmed that as concentrations of Pollution, and Health further threaten economic growth. SO, and TSP rose in Beijing, so did visits to the emergency room. This increase in China's rapid economic growth, industri- As surface water quality has worsened, emergency increase alization, and urbanization-accompa- the Chinese have increased their extrac- unscheduled hospital visits occurred both nied by inadequate infrastructure invest- tion of groundwater to meet water de- when air pollution levels were extremely ment and management capacity-have mand. As a result, overextraction of high (primarily in the winter) and when all contributed to widespread problems of groundwater has become a serious prob- the levels were below WHO's recoin- gudlev elinwes, belolsweringH sds i- water scarcity and water pollution lem in a number of cities including Nan- mended guidelines, bolstering studies in throughout the country. China has some jing, Taiyuan, Shijiazhuang, and Xi'an. developed countries that have shown ex- of the most extreme water shortages in Groundwater depletion is most problem- cess respiratory disease and mortality at the world. Of the 640 major cities in atic in coastal cities, including Dalian, lower doses (45). Although Beijing has China, more than 300 face water short- Qingdao, Yantai, and Beihai, where saltwa- been the focus of many studies, it has no ages, with 100 facing severe scarcities (s 1). ter intrusion is on the rise (35). Although monopoly on bad air. Chongqing, the larg- As discharges of both domestic and in- there is no comprehensive monitoring of est and most recently declared autono- dustrial effluents have increased, clean China's groundwater, studies suggest that mous zone, has a higher concentration of water has become increasingly scarce. The groundwater quality, not just cquantity, is SO2 than any of China's five other largest impact of China's dual problem of water severely threatened in many regions. Ac- cities (46). A recent study found that sev- scarcity and water pollution exacts a cording to one estimate, one half the eral symptoms of compromised health, costly toll on productivity. Water short- groundwater in Chinese cities has been including reduced pulmonary function ages in cities cause a loss of an estimated contaminated (56). and increased mortality, hospital admis- 120 billion yuan (US$11.2 billion) in in- sions, and emergency room visits, were dustrial output each year. The impact of INDUSTRIAL AND MUNICIPAL correlated with higher levels of air pollu- water pollution on human health has been WASTEWATER THREATENS CHINA'S tion in Chongqing (47). A study conducted valued at approximately 41.73 billion WATER QUALITY in another of China's largest cities, Shen- yuan per year (US$3.9 billion), which is Each year, large amounts of pol lutants are yang, estimated total mortality increased almost certainly an underestimate (52). dumped into China's water bodies from by 2 percent with each 100 micrograms Although Chinese decisionmakers are in- municipal, industrial, and agricultural per cubic meter increase in SO2 concentra- creasingly concerned about the damages sources. China is the world's largest con- tion, and by 1 percent for each 100 micro- associated with water pollution, years of sumer of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers grams per cubic meter in TSP (48). neglect and a lack of funding for research (57). As a result of these activities, pollu- 120 World Resources 1998-99 REGIONAL PROFILES: CHINA tion is widespread in China's rivers, lakes, cision requirinig all cities with a popula- and reservoirs. Except for some inland tion of more than 500,000 to have at least F GJRE CH NA.3 Water Quality s Low at 135 rivers and large reservoirs, water -. l: one sewage treatment plant (65). Vonitored Urban R ver Secto ns, 995 tion trends in China have worsened in re- Water bodies near urban areas are gen- percent cent years,with the pollution adjacent to , most severely polluted, and the 100 developed cities and towns situation is deteriorating. Many urban - l ; ,, :, * ...... 1- severe (58). sections of rivers are polluted by toxic and ED Some of the major threats to water even carcinogenic compounds, such as ar- quality stem from inadequate treatment senic. Although most Chinese attempt to '7- -; municipal and industrial waste- protect themselves from bad water by * 5 f 1995, China ! ~* -1*, ' a total of - " f r | * !' does not affect many of 37.29 billion cubic tons of wastewater, not the toxins- 2r including wastewater from township- contamination remains a - -. -.::.. (TVEs), into lakes, problem as well. Indeed, fecal coliform, - R R mostly from seB age,has becorne the mostNORTHERN RIVERS SOUTHERN RIVERS rivers, and reserv 60 mostly from sewage, has become the most GRADE2 1 GRADES drnking water i, in GRADES BELOW GRADER5 percent was released from industrial dri sources, the rest from municipal. With the country. In 1994, 54 out of 134 rivers = GRADE4 tested did not meet Grade 4 and 5 surface only 77 percent of industrial wastewater tm h2uwate Source: The World Bank,COear Water, Sue SkAes: China's Envi- receiving anv treatment in 1995, nearly water :. .. . r ! the ronmentinttheNewCentEry(TheWord Bank,Washington, one half of thie industrial wastewater dis- was deemed unsuitable for even indus- D.C.,1 997), p. 14. onechalfed ofaile the instrl wter ter dist- trial or agricultural use. About 90 percent Note: Grades 4 and 5 are deemed unsuitable fox direct hu charged failed to meet government stan- oftescin frvr rudubna- Man c0ntact. dards (59). Industrial discharges usually of the sections of rivers around urban ar- contain a range of- K o . i eas were found to be seriously polluted. ing I : a range- eanide, arsenIc, solvents, Because heavy industrv is concentrated in Groundwater did not meet state standards ing - 11 anide, arsenic, solvents, I and heavy metals (60). northern China, the major river systems in 23 of these cities (67). The problem is in the North are more heavily, -.1i:; more pronounced in rural China. In some .-. .... the amount of wastewater than those in the South (66). (See Figure rural areas, the fecal coliform in the discharged from regulated industries has - , - drinking water supply exceeds the maxi- leveled off since the early 1990s, dis- -mum level by as much as 86 percent; in charges from TVEs and municipal HEALTH IMPLICATIONS towns and small cities, the rate is about 28 sources have increased rapidly (61). The percent. Currently, around 700 million peo- increase from TVEs can be traced to the Access to Safe Drinking Water is Key to ple in China drink water that fails to meet ..t ' ' . ; of total industrial out- Protecting Public Health state standards for fecal coliform (68). put from these enterprises and to a lack of The health of China's people depends, to a Over the past decade, the government .:.I control over these enterprises great extent, on the quantity and quality has launched a major initiative to improve because of their widely scattered geo- of its drinking wvater supply. Drinking wa- access to safe drinking water in rural ar- graphical distribution. In addition, local ter quality is largely determined by eas. From 1991 to 1995, the government authorities are reluctant to tighten control sources of incoming water, modes of wa- spent 14.45 billion yuan (US$1.35 billion) I when pursuit of economic ter supply, and the level of water treat- to improve the drinking water supply in benefits is their first goal. ment. The majority of Chinese urban and rural regions (69). Although the rural Treatment of municipal sewage lags far some suburban residents now have access population with access to tap water more behind that of industrialwastewater. In to tap water,while the largest portion of than doubled between 1987 and 1995, 1995, China had only 100 modern waste- the rural o. ';' '. . r still relies on hand- when it reached 47 percent, more than one water treatment plants ( . i i iad or motor-pumped wells, or they fetch wa- half of those people still drank water that only one secondary sewage treatment ter directly from rivers, lakes, ponds, or failed to meet safety standards (70). plant, with a capacity of 500,000 metric wells, with little or no treatment at all. tons, which cannot keep pace with the in- Large rivers are the most common source Infectious Diseases Assodated with Poor creasing amounts of sewage in the city of urban drinking water, as well as the Water Quality (63). Treatment should improve p . major source for rural residents in many Despite an overall decline in mortality however, following the amendment of the parts of the country. from infectious diseases in China, the Water r i i ., Prevention and Control In only 6 of China's 27 largest cities population still suffers from a number of Law (64), which set more restrictive regu- does drinking water ' . meet state d associated with inadequate lations, as well as a recent government de- ,' : . . - I to one recent study. drinking water quality and sanitation. For World Resources 1998-99 121 the past two decades, diarrheal diseases 100,000, which is much greater than the Township-and-Village Enterprises: and viral hepatitis, both diseases associ- average mortality rates in rural China (75). Lack of Regulation Poses Major Threat to ated with fecal pollution, have been the Gastric, esophageal, and liver cancers ac- Health andEnvironment two leading infectious diseases in China. counted for 85 percent of all cancers. The rapid development of TVEs will have In 1995, the incidence of hepatitis was 63 Other studies reported that the high inci- an enormous impact on China's water per 100,000, a 46 percent decrease from dence of liver cancer in Jiangsu's Qidong quality in the coming years. Although 1991. After a sharp drop from 1991 and and Guangxi's Fushun regions is highly their development can be traced back to 1992, the incidence of dysentery has risen correlated with drinking water pollution the late 1 950s, these enterprises boomed since 1994, in part because of the deterio- (76)(77). Further research is needed to con- in the past 10 years. The economic success ration of water quality. A sudden upswing firm this link and identify the of the TVEs has reduced poverty for mil- in the incidence of typhoid fever in 1991 .. - at fault. lions of farmers, but they have also in- and a large outbreak in some provinces in flicted severe damage on the environment 1992 wvere also partly attributed to the Impact of WastewaterIrrigation on Health in rural China. Even though the Chinese poor drinking water quality in rural ar- Irrigation with wastewater has been a Government has enacted a number of eas. In 1991, typhoid fever incidence common practice in many parts of China laws and policies to control and regulate reached as high as 10.6 per 100,000. Al- throughout its 2,000-year-old agricultural industrial discharges (79), the government though the incidence of waterborne dis- history. In the past several decades, how- has not yet effectively regulated TVEs (80). eases is still high compared with many ever, the age-old practice of using night Bv 1995, more than 7 million TVEs ex- other countries, effective medical care has soil has been supplemented by the use of isted throughout China, with a total out- kept mortality low, averaging less than 0.1 industrial wastewater as well, leading to put of 5.126 trillion yuan (US$671 bil- per 100,000 (71). problems with both biological and chemi- lion), accounting for 56 percent of the It is more difficult to establish the im- cal contaminants. Irrigation with indus- total industrial GDP-considerably more pacts of industrial and chemical water trial wastes is especially common in the than the contribution of state-owned en- pollution on human health than , . ! northern regions, where water is scarce. terprises. The number of TVEs is ex- by human waste. However, recent epide- Pollutants,including some organic - oi!,c- pected to continue to grow. A conservative miological studies suggest that exposure ants, heavy metals, and carcinogens, enter estimate holds that the TVEs discharge to organic and inorganic chemicals in the food chain in the irrigation process more than half of all industrial wastewa- drinking water may significantly contrib- and can affect human health. ter in China-more than 10 billion metric ute to chronic disease. Liver and stomach Numerous studies since the 1970s have tons. Most TVEs have no wastewater or cancers are the leading causes of cancer shown ign : f increases in cancer hazardous waste treatment facilities, and mortality in rural China. Many studies in rates and deaths, as well as birth defects, since TVEs are widely scattered. across China and abroad have shown a strong as- in areas that rely on wastewater for irriga- vast rural areas, wastes from TVEs have sociation betwveen drinking water pollu- tion. For example, research in Shenyang the potential to affect the health of many tion and cancer incidence and -,. and Fushun showed that the incidence of people (81). An example is a study conducted in Luji- intestinal infections and enlargement of A 1989-1991 investigation of the 10 ang County, Anhui Province, where inor- the liver was, respectively, 49 percent and leading TVE industries in sever, provinces tality rates for stomach and liver cancers 36 percent higher in the i, .... - areas and municipalities showed that industrial were associated with the high levels of in- than in the control area. There were twice wastes were discharged without anv treat- organic substances in surface water (72l. as many cancer patients in the sewage- ment and control. An analysis of the Although diet and alcohol consumption i, .. area. In Fushun, in Liaoning health of 860,000 people in the area re- may play some role in the increases of Province, more than 13,000 hectares of vealed that the incidence rate of chronic these cancers, environmental causes can- farmland are irrigated with water pol- diseases was between 12 and 29 percent, not be dismissed (73). Since the 1970s, luted with oil, The adjusted rate of malig- much higher than the national average for deaths from liver cancer have dou- nant tumor mortality was almost twice rural areas, which is approximately 9 per- bled-China now has the highest liver that of the control area, and the incidence cernt. The total mortality in polluted areas cancer death rate in the world (74). of congenital malformation was double averaged 4.7 per 1,000, higher tkan the av- In sother Chia, whre sme o the the rate in the control area aveage 4..pe 1,00,higer ;antheav In southern China, wsThere some of the the rate in the control area (7s - i 1 l erage 3.6 in the control area. Life expec- population has long depended on ponds these associations raise alarms, they do tancy in the polluted areas was 2 years for drinking water, the rates of digestive- not prove that wastewater is to blame. lower than in the control area. ALthough system cancers are very high. An investi- not definitive, evidence suggests that in- gation of 560,000 people in 23 B dustrial pollution from TVEs coild be- and towns showed that between 1987 and come a major threat to human health in 1989, cancer mortality was 172 per China (82). 122 World Resources 1998-99 REGIONAL PROFILES: CHINA Laws and Policies to L Protect the Environment TABLE CHINA 4 Access to Safe Drinng- Countnes n Asia, 1990 and Health PERCENTAGE OF THE POPULATION WITH ACCESS TO China's achievements in health and life SAFE DRINKING WATER SANITATION' expectancy over the past four decades COUNTRY URBAN RURAL TOTAL URBAN RURAL TOTAL have far exceeded what could be expected China 87 68 72 100 81 85 for a country at its stage of economic de- India 86 69 73 44 3 14 velopment, according to a recent World Indonesia 35 33 34 79 30 45 Bank evaluation. Behind these dramatic Sri Lanka 80 55 60 68 45 50 gains in public health was an extraordi- Japan 100 85 96 100 100 100 nary campaign for the Chinese people Source:The World Bank,Clear WorerBlueSkies:ChinasoEnvrs(omentr sthe New Cenury(The Vorld BankWashington,D.C.,1997), carried out by the central government, Tab e 2.2, p.20. Notes: a. Assumes that residents have access to water for washing and that sewage is removed from the house through outdoor which provided family planning, child- atrines, night-soil co lection systems, or f ush to lets. hood immunization, accessible primary health care (particularly for mothers and and SO, emissions, much remains to be into force on January 1,1998. The scope of children), improved nutrition, infectious done. While regulatory standards will this law extends to energy from coal, disease control, better education, and im- likely reduce emissions from power plants crude oil, natural gas, electric power, coke, provements in housing and sanitation, and state-regulated industries, smaller coal gas, thermal power, biomass power, (See Table China.4.) Morbidity and mor- residential sources and TVE industries and other energy sources. This law may be tality from infectious diseases continue to will continue to threaten air quality. Resi- the harbinger of strengthened efforts by decline on average in most areas of China, dential coal burning for cooking and the Chinese Government to prohibit cer- although in remote and poor regions, the heating will continue to be a major source tain new industrial projects that seriously levels of communicable disease remain of exposure until there is more universal waste energy and employ outmoded tech- much higher than the national averages. adoption of cleaner fuels. Even though the nologies. The overall success of these programs can government has focused some attention Despite the complex system of legisla- be attributed to the central government's on mobile source pollution, it will be a tive and policy tools in place and the net- approach of adopting the best of tradi- difficult problem to address, given the work of environmental officials through- tional methods and wedding these with rapid expansion of the fleet of vehicles. out China, compliance with environ- modern methods. For instance, a cam- mental regulations remains low, essen- paign to eradicate major public health ENVIRO: i. LAWS AND tially because economic development re- scourges, such as diphtheria and syphilis, ' - : tLATIONS mains the country's priority at all levels of succeeded in large part because it in- Since the promulgation of the Environ- society. volved vast numbcrs of traditional doc- mental Protection Law in 1979, the first of As part of its efforts to strengthen envi- tors in the rural areas (83). its kind in China, 5 pollution-control stat- ronmental law enforcement, the govern- Along with rising income and improved utes and 10 natural resource conservation ment revised its criminal code to punish literacy rates, the era of reform has statutes have been enacted. The Environ- violations against the environment and brought more environmental awareness mental Protection and Natural Resources resources. This step may provide law en- to the Chinese people. A few recent stud- Conservation Committee of the National forcement agencies with some power. ies in China showed that as communities People's Congress, the lawmaking arm, However, the vagueness of standards in have become wealthier and better edu- submitted a 5-Year Legislative Plan to the many laws and regulations, coupled with cated, the public has begun to push for National People's Congress in 1993. Ac- the lack of a comprehensive enforcement stronger regulations and enforcement (84). cording to the plan, approximately 7 key regime, has led to a situation where many The increase in media coverage of pollu- environment and natural resource stat- environmental laws still reflect deals cut tion accidents has contributed to the pub- utes will be created or amended by 1998, between the local environmental protec- lic's awareness. A popular saying in Chi- and more than 17 such statutes will be tion agencies, NEPA, other ministries, lo- na's developed eastern region is, "The created or amended by the end of this cal government bodies, and the polluting house is new, the money is enough, but century. The Ulnited States, by compari- enterprises. Thus, the degree of actual the water is foul and the life is short" (85). son, has passed approximately 21 major compliance and enforcement depends on How will China set priorities to prevent environmental acts in the last four dec- the region concerned and the personali- environmental exposures and protect ades. ties involved. Often, the richer the poten- public health? Although the government The Energy Conservation Law was tial investor, the more strictly environ- has already begun to address particulate passed on November 1, 1997, and came mental policy will be applied (86). World Resources 1998-99 123 For the next decade or so, China's rapid in order to recover supply costs (88). at 1995 levels by the year 2000. The per- development will likely lead to further un- Shanghai recently increased tap water centage of SO,, particulates, untreated certainty in the regulatory regime. In the prices by between 25 and 40 percent to sewage, and heavy metals sewage treated meantime, an increasing array of re- fund water quality improvement pro- would be increased from its current 19 sources are being devoted to enforcement, grams and to make sewage self-financing. percent to 25 percent, and treal ment of in- and discussions are currently underway Guangzhou and Chongqing are eager to dustrial wastewater would be expanded to elevate NEPA to ministerial status, do the same (89). by about 70 million metric ton.. This am- which may give NEPA more leverage and The increasing market orientation of bitious plan, which NEPA estimates will authority in law enforcement. Nonethe- the industrial sector offers an opportu- cost 450 billion yuan (1.3 percent of Chi- less, many Chinese officials adamantly nity to use market-based pollution con- hold that economic development must trols more effectively. Achieving pollution na's GNP) to achieve, accords top priority come before environmental protection. control objectives will require increasing to certain areas, especially along the east They also disagree about how stringent pollution charges. NEPA has proposed a coast and in some parts of its i.iner land: environmental initiatives need to be to 10-fold increase in the air pollution levy; the Hai, Huai, and Liao rivers; the Chao, protect the health of billions of citizens this increase would go a long way toward Dianchi, and Tai lakes; and two areas in while maintaining economic growth. This reducing air pollutant emissions. Higher southwest China with pronoun zed prob- internal struggle enhances the paradoxi- levies are needed both to lower current lems with SO, levels and acid rain (91). cal quality of Chinese environmental law, emissions and to finance the large invest- Industries and local governments are which may at once appear both simple ment required to achieve desired ambient increasingly looking for new sources of and complex, or lenient and severe (87). air quality in Chinese cities. Currently, the funding, through the "polluter pays" prin- pollution levies are assessed only on dis- ciple, urban environmental infrastructure USING ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS- charges that exceed the standard; in other funds, and even bank loans. Th- central HARNESSING THE MARKET words, emissions cost the polluter noth- government is playing a more supportive In its transition from a command to a ing until the standards are breached. role in seeking loans and foreign invest- market economy, China is trying to har- Moreover, effluent charges are based on ment and implementing economic poli- ness the market to work for the environ- the pollutant that exceeds the standard by cies. The government intends to increase ment rather than against it. Continued the greatest amount and do not reflect the the proportion of GNP spent on control- and accelerated economic reform is a pre- risks posed by other pollutants. The ling pollution from the current 0.8 per- requisite to reorient state enterprises so World Bank has been working with NEPA cent to more than 1 percent at the turn of that they respond to environmental pen- to overcome these shortcomings. These the century, or approximately 1,38 billion alties. Liberating international trade will two organizations are developing a system yuan (US$17.5 billion) (92). Some cities give Chinese industry access to the latest that incorporates both maximum dis- are investing in an even higher propor- environmental technology. The develop- charge rates for all pollutants as wvell as tion. For instance, Beijing, Shanghai, and ment of capital markets is necessary to incentives to encourage emissions at lev- Xiamen have decided to allocate up to 3 provide financing to firms and munici- els below the maximum allowed (90). percent of their GDP to pollution control. palities supplying environmental infra- Tianjin will set aside up to 2 percent (93). structure. Adjustments of the pricing sys- INCREASING ENVIRONMENTAL In the meantime, China also hopes that tem are needed to ensure that it reflects INVESTMENT foreign investment will continue to pro- true environmental costs. Environmental protection demands more vide funds supporting its ambitious plans Despite the fact that China is resource- spending. The Chinese Government has to address pollution. A recent World Bank poor, it prices its energy and water far attributed the continued deterioration of report noted that investing about I per- lower than the actual costs. However, great the environment largely to lack of fund- cent of GDP each year gradually rising to strides are being made to rectify this situa- ing. Despite extremely ambitious 5-year 2.5 percent over the next 25 years-di- tion. Over the past 3 years, the government plans to control environmental pollution vided roughly equally between air and has raised and partly deregulated coal in the past, insufficient investment has water investment-would greatly reduce prices; in most areas, coal prices now cover prevented realization of these goals. Now pollution in China by 2020 (94). The report the costs of production and delivery. In ad- in its Ninth 5-Year Plan period, the gov- also noted that the operating and the av- dition, many cities and provinces are cur- ernment has adopted the Trans-Century erage investment costs each yea.r of such a rently preparing to increase sewage and Green Plan, which sets targets for envi- program would gradually rise to about 2.5 water charges to consumers and industries. ronmental protection for the year 2010. In percent of GDP by the end of the period. In Taiyuan of Shanxi Province, for instance, conjunction with other environmental According to the World Bank, the benefits the price bureau has announced that water protection plans, NEPA is striving to sta- of these measures exceed the costs by prices will quadruple over the next 5 years bilize the emissions of several pollutants large margins, and these measures are es- 124 World Resources 1998-99 REGIONAL PROFILES: CHINA sential if is to redirect its develop-1960-1995, both on diskette (Organisation for Eco- A Prospective Study in Shanghai, China; paper sential i is to reirect itsdevelop- nomic Co-Operation and Developmnent, Paris, presented to the IntIernational Society for Environ- ment toward a more sustainable a19971. mental Epidemiology; Universit' of Alberta, Ed- 21. Op. cit. 2, p. iv-lI 1. moutoni, Canada, August 1996. 23. Op. cit. 19. 51. Op. cit. 10. Changhua Wu, Michelle Gottlieb, anod Deveia Davis, 23. Op. cit. 7, p.43. 52. Op. cit. 12, pp. 23, 87-88. Healthi, .Envirotitnent, tiotd Dev'elopment Programt, 24. Op. cit. 2, p. viii-2. 53. See Data Table 12.1I. l,iorld ResousrceslnaOrtittte, 4A'ashington, D.C. 25. Op. cit. 12, pp. 21.922 map 1. 54. Op. cit. 12, p. 88. 26. Op. cit. 12, pp. 8.46. 55. Op. cit. 10. 27. Op. cit. 2, p. v-4. 56. Zhang Weiping et al., eds., Tsventy Years of Chiiia's - - . . ~and . 28. Amierican Automnobile Manufacturers Association Environmental Protectian Adminnntrat:veeManiage- 1. The W'orld Bank, lS`orld DevelopmtentfIndicators (RAMNA), Mavltor V,ehicle Facts ittd Figuires (AAMA, niteit (China Environmental Scienices Press, Bei- 1997, on CD-ROMI (The World Bank. Washington, Washington, D.C.. 1996), pp. 44-47. jing, 19941, pp. 215-217. D.C., 19971. 29. Stephen Stares and Liu Zhi,"v'otorization in Chi- 57. Food and Agricuhture Organization ofthe United 2. Jonathan Sinton, ed., China Eiiergy Data book, 1996 isese Cities: Issues and Actions;" in Cina~ Urbait Nations I FAO) FAOSTAT Statistical Database Revisicon (University of California at Berkeley, Ber- 3'raiisporr Dei'elopiieiit Strategy: Proceedings of a IFAD, Rome, 1996-19971. keley, 1996), p. x-12 I Syimposiumn in Beijing, Notemiber 8-10, 1995, World 58. Vaclav Smil, "Chiina Shoulders the cost of Ens'iron- 3. International Labour Organization (ILO), Ece- Bank Discussion Paper No. 352 (The World Bank, mnental Change," Enviranment, Vol. 39, No. 6 119961, nainicalls' Active Papua/aion. 1950-2010: UN!. 1, Asia Washington, D.C., 19961, p. 50. p. 33. (I LO, Ge'nes's, 19961, p. 205. 30. Liu Xianshu and Xlan Yunxiang, "How to Enjoy 59. Op. cit. 10. 4. The World Bank, World Detelopisent Itidincitars and Use Automobiles;' Chinat Environmenit Neies 60. Op. cit. 46. 1997 (The WVorld Bank, Washington. D.C., 1997), p. 1Janiuary 28, 19971, p. 1. 61. Op. cit. 10. 130. 31. Mlichatl SAkaish, 'Miotor Vehicle Pollution in China: 6.China Environment Yearbook, Chinia Einvironnment 5. International Eniergy Agency, Energy Statitstics acud An Urban Challenge;' in Chiutes Ulrbani Tninsport Yearbaook, 1996 (China Environment Yearbook Balatnces: iS\ait-OECD Countries. 1971-1995, on Develapuitent Strategy: Proceedings of a Sysiposisni Press, Beijing, 19971. p. 215 (English language edi- iii Beijing. NAs'vember 6-10. 1995, World Bank Dis- diskette (Organisation for Economic Co-Operation luso ae o 5 Te~1rdBn,Wsig ion). and Development, Parts, 19971. cuson, .. Paper, No.35 Th1 WrlBnk2Wshng 63. Xiaoke Jiang, Former Director, Beijing's Environ- 6. Uite Naions(U..) opultio Diisio, Uban 32. He Kobin et al.,"The Status and Trend of Urban mental Protectio. I *'I,';.1998 (personal atnt Rural Areas 1950-2030 (Thie 1996 RetisiosnI, oii Vehicular Pollution;' En'ironnmentctl Science. Vlol. 17, commuinication). disketie, (U.N., New York, 1997/. No. 4 (1996), pp. 80-83 (in Chinese). 64. The Wkater Pollution Prevention and Control Law', 7. Li Junfeng et al., Eiiergy, Dentiand inz China: Divr- 3.H eiiea. SausadDvlpet nCi initially adopted in 1994, seas amnended in 1996. vice' Report, Issues and Optionis in Greenhouse Gas 33. HehRebut etdecisi"StatusoandeDes'etopment.NainoChi Ernisains Conrol Subeport uinber (The a's 'vehicle Emissions Pollution;' Enviroiinmental 6.Ti sadcso none tte4hNtoa Emssonsd Contro~lasubnepurt Number95) 2 (The Science, Vol. 7. No. 4 119961, pp. 15-17 (in Chi- Conference on Environmnenta) Protection, wchich 8. China leinistrv of Public Health, Selected Editiotin nese). 66. sDpcitonvndi. Biigi etme 96 C 34. ~~~~~Ibid. 6.O.ct O oni Healti Statisrics ofCliinni 1991-1 995 (China67VaavSi,EirnetlPoensnCli: t- Ministry of Public He.alth, Beijing, 1996). p. 5.a. Op. cit. 3t. p. 120.67VclvSi,nrnenaPabisinCn: t- 9. Chn Tenh: et! Die Lifetyle.anilMrtitlry in 36. Op. cit. 12.pp. 17-18. mnates of Economic Casts, East-WVest Center Special 9. Chen ILinsh I et al., Diet, Lifestjle, aral,lifortality itt Report'No. 5 (East-Wkest Center, Honolului, 1996), China: A Studycoft/ic Chanicteristics of 63 Cliniese 37. Op. cit. 12, Table 2. 1, p. 19. p.2 4 Couitities, published in the U.K. he, Oxford Univer- 38. Wkorld Health Organization (WHO), Health and p.2 4 sitv Press,s Oxford; in the Uniited States by Cornell Bnriionnntenc in Suistainable Det'e/cpmen: Buye Years 6.CiSie,'hn' niomna olto n University Press, Ithaca; and in China by the Pen- After the Eart/i Summniit (WHO, Geneva, 19971. p. Health Problemj paper presented at the Second pie's Medical Pitblishing House, Beijing (Oxford 82. Conference of the China Council of International Unisersity Press, Oxford, I 9901, P. 73. 39. Ibid., pp. 83-86. Cooperation and Developmnent. Beijing. 1993. 10. National Ensironmental Protecion Agency 40. Op. cit l3~p. 19.69. ChinoMNinistrv of Public Health, Chinia Yearbookaof 1996inlEvromna rtcio gny4.O. i.1,p 9 Puiblic Health i1996 ( People's Medical Publishing I NEPAl, 196Repor-t oni the State of the Portrait- 41. Op. cit. 12, p. 19. House, Beijing. 1997), pp. 416-417. mtent /NEPA. Beijing, 1997) ( Chinese language edi- 42. Robert S. Chapmani etral.. "A.ssessing IndooDr 'Air 70 Zhang Feng etal., Status and Analysis of Rural tion). Pollution ~~~~~~~~Exposure adLung Cancer Risk in Xuan Drinking Skater Quality," Journial af Hygiene Fe- 1]. Qian Chen,.'lnsprove the Ecu-Environment and WAei, China,"'Journval ofthe Arnerican Collegeafsac,Vl2,o 1197,p.3-2 Rebuild the Beautiful Mountains and Rivers;' China Toxicology, Vol. 8, -No. 5(1989). pp. 94I-948. sac,o.2,N.1(97,p.3-2 EnvrioitnienirNcws (September 13. 1997/,p.A. 43. Judy L. Meumnford et al., "DNAAdlducts As Bio- 71. China Ministrv of Public Health, SelectedBEdition 12. The Wkorld Bank, Clear Ptarer. Bitie Shies: Ctitita's mresfrAesigEpuetoPyyccAo- on Health Statistics of China. 1991-95 (China dMin Envirotisient mu the New' C?enttiro' (The Wkorld Bank, matic Hydrocarbons in Tissues from Xuan WSin istry of Public Health, Beijing, 1996), p p. 69-70. W'ashington, D.C., 1997). p. 23. WAomnen with High Exposure to Coal Combustion 72. Guili Chen, 'The Wmarning of Heal River7'Conrtemn- 13. Op. cit. tO. Emissions and High Lung Cancer Mortality, Envi- poriry Magazine, Vol. 2(1996). 14. Zbang Jianguang, "Environmental Hazards in the rotnnrental Healtdi Perspectives, Vlol. 99 (1993), pp. 73. Howeard Frumnpkin.'"Cancer of the Liver and Gas- Chinese Pulblic's Eves;'Rhsk Atiiahvk, Vrol. 14, No. 2 83-87. trointestinal Tfract,"in Textbook of Clinical Occapa- (I(994), p. 165. 44. Xu Xiping etal., "Air Pollution and DailyMNortalhty tional and Bnvironmiental it'ediciiie (WEB. Saunders 15. Outlined in National Environimental Protectioni in Residential Areas of Beijing. China;' Archir es of Co., Philadelphia, 19941, p. 576. Agency ( NEPA). ThieATmtiosi,i)Nint/t 5-Year Platit for Enviroinimental/Heautlrh Vol. 49. No. 4 11994), pp. 74. Feng Rukang, "China Maps Out Geographical Belt Bmtviroaitnietitrl Protectio an atid se Lonig- Termi Tar- 216-222. of Liver Cancer;' Chinia Enviroinment Nea's (Octo- gets for the Year 201 0 (NEPA, Beijing, 1996). 45. Xe Xiping, Li Bauluo, and Huang Huying, "Air Pol- her 15, 1997), p.S8. 16. Fang Cat, "Stare Into the Sky-Wkhen Skill It be lotion and Unscheduled Hospital Outpatient and 75. Sn Deloug, "Drinking WVater and Liver Cancer;' Cleart 'Chimia EnvironmtnitiN.eiis (January 2(1, Emergency Roomi Visits7'Archives ofEitsvironnteiitral Jourartl o f Chinese PreventatiseM.tedicine, Vol. 14, 19971, P. 1. Heohtrb, 'Vol. 103. No. 3 (1995), pp. 286-289. No. 2 119901, pp.605-73. 17. National Environmental Protection Agency 46. China Environment Yearbook, Chitint Eiivironmntit 76. Liang et al., 'Epidemiologic Investigation of Rela- (NEPA I. Nitrional Eit-i'iotttmiital Qsuai'y Report, Yearbook, 1996 1 Chinia Environment Yearbook tionships Between Drinking Skater Types and Liver 1991-1995 (NEPA,Beijing, 1996),pp.S., 15. PressaBeijing, 19971, p. 193 (Chinese language edi- Cancer:'Cancers,SVol. 6.No. 3 (19871, p. 177 (in 19. Op cit. 12, pp. S-9. tioni). Chinese). 19. China Environment Yearbook, Chinia Enivironmnent 47. Op. cit. 13, p. 18. 77. Tang He and Lin Nianfeng, 'The Relationship Be- eItarbohk, varioas issuies (China Etivironment Year- 48. Xu Zhaoyi et a)., 'The Effect of Air Pollution on tsween Organic Skater Pollution and Lhver Cancer at book Plress, Bei inug. various years/ (Chinese lan- Mvortality in Shenvang City,"Journal ofPublic Fushui in GuangxiT Journal af Entiroinment asid guage editions). Hfealth iii ChinaVol iN.1 119961. p. 61. H-ealtbSi, o. 12. No. 5 /19951, pp. 193-195 (in Chi- 20. International Energy Agency, Emnergy Suitisticsoaid 49. Op. cit. 12. p. 20. nese). Batlantces: Voni-OECD Czitntr:es, 19 71-1 995, and 50. Shen Xiao-Ming et al., "Prenatal Loiw-Lesyl Lead 78. Yuan, 'Etiologic Studs of High Stomach Cancer In- Ettergy Statkrs.icstnd Balances: OECD Countries. Exposuire and Inifant Development in the First Year: cidence Amnong Residents in WSastewater Irrigated World Resources 1998-99 125 Areas,"Etivironmental Protectiont Science, Vol. 19, Communist Party and the State Council,' People's 89. Shuping Lu, Director, Shanghai Envi sonmental No. I (I993),pp. 70-73 (in Chinese). Daily (February 18, 1997, Beijing),p. 1. Protection Agency, 1998 (personal communica- 79. Such policies include pollution levies and permits. 84. Op. cit. 12, p. 13. tion). 80. Cao Fenzhong, "Air and Water Pollution Problems 85. Report of the 4th INatuonal Conference on Enivirost- 90. Dn Hua Wang, Consultant and Principal Econo- in TVEs'a policy paper prepared for the Chinese nenrtal Protection (China Environmental Sciences mist in the Environment, Infrastructire, and Agri- National Environmental Protection Agency Press, Beiiing, 1996), p. 32. culture Division, Policy Research Department,The (NEPA) (NEPA, Beijing, 1997), p. 1. 86. Op. cit. 83. World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997 (personal 81. Ibid., pp. 1-5. 87. Richard J. Ferris Jr., "The People's Republic of communication). 82. Xu Fang et al., "Economic Analysis and Counter- China: An Environmental Law Briefing for Corpo- 91. Op. cit. 15, p. 12. measure Study of TVEs Pollution's Damage to Hu- rate Council," The MWetropolitan Corporate Counsel 92. Op. cit. 15, p. 4. man Health,"Journal ofHygiette Research, Vol. 21, (December 1997), p. 13. 93. \liang Yi, Professor/Senior Scientist, lIco- Supplement (1992), pp. 1-23. 88. Op. cit 12, pp. 95-96. Environment Research Center of the Chinese 83. "Decision on Public Health Reform and Develop- Academv of Sciences, 1997 (personal communica- ment by the Central Committee of the Chinese tion). 94. The World Bank, Can the Environmnett Wait? Pri- orities for East Asia (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997), p. 1. 126 World Resources 1998-99 A ..... Environmental Risks to Human Health: New Indicators As presented in Chapter 1, the World Resources Institute (PM-10), sulfur dioxide (SO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO). (WRI) has developed new environmental health indicators The final estimate, representing potential exposure to pol- that describe environmental risks to human health in both de- luted outdoor air, shows the population living in cities with air veloping and developed countries. The indicators rank coun- quality data exceeding WHO guidelines as a percentage of the tries according to potential environmental threats to human total population of all cities for which WRI had both air qual- health. Set out below is a description of the methods used to ity and population data. (The city's entire population was compile the maps shown in Chapter 1. (Supporting data are considered at risk if any pollutants listed previously exceeded available online at: http://www.wri.org/wri/.) WHO guidelines, using the most recently reported air quality data.) Developing Countries Data shortcomings complicate the task of estimating po- Developing Countries tential exposure to polluted air. Consistent and reliable data For developing countries, the indicator aggregates measures on air quality for most cities of the world are lacking. In con- of environmental risks to human health from three categories: structing these indicators, bear in mind that the urban popu- air, water, and nutrition. Each category includes three vari- lation in some countries is represented with data from only ables described below. In some cases, selected variables for the one city and that many countries do not have any cities with indicator were simply added, averaged, and ranked from low- air quality data and thus could not be included in the indica- est to highest. In other cases, the variables were constructed tor. Ambient air quality, however, is important to consider using several data sets that were combined in a way to repre- when examining human health and the environment. Even sent potential exposure to an environmental health threat. though the data are not comprehensive, they are important to include as one measure of comparing relative environmental AIR QUALITY health threats among countries. The air portion of the indicator for developing countries in- Exposure to air polluted with lead from gasoline is derived cludes three variables representing potential exposure to poor using three variables: the market share of leaded gasoline used quality air: exposure to polluted indoor air, exposure to pol- in a country, the total amount of gasoline consumed, and the luted ambient air, and exposure to air polluted with lead from maximum lead content of the gasoline. The leaded gas emis- gasoline. Each of these three variables was estimated using the sion level obtained from multiplying these variables was then best available data. For example, exposure to polluted indoor weighted with the urban population density to arrive at the fi- air was calculated using the amount of residential coal and nal lead exposure measure. biomass fuel consumed per household in each country. WRI The market share of leaded gasoline and the maximum lead divided the total amount of residential coal and biomass fuel concentration of the gasoline are rapidly changing in many consumed per country by the total number of households countries of the world. Generally, countries are moving away within that country. from using leaded gasoline with high concentrations of lead When the amount of residential coal and biomass fuel to either gasoline with lower concentrations of lead or to all burned per country was not available from the International lead-free gasoline. Exceptions do occur, however. Between Energy Agency, WRI used data from the United Nations (Eu- 1995 and 1997, Bulgaria increased its use of leaded gasoline ergy Yearbook) on total traditional fuel consumed. WRI sub- from 87 to 95 percent (1). tracted the amount of bagasse produced by each country To estimate population density of urban areas, WRI com- from the total biomass fuel consumed, assuming that the re- bined a database that determines the builtup areas in coun- mainder was used exclusively for residential use. (Bagasse is a tries from satellite images of city lights at night with data on residue left after sugar is extracted from sugar cane and is of- urban population from the U.N. Population Division. The ten used as a fuel in the sugar milling industry.) This indicator Nighttime Lights of the W47orld database is a 1 kilometer by 1 of exposure to indoor air pollution does not account for con- kilometer resolution map derived from nighttime imagery founding factors that can reduce exposure to biomass fuel from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) used indoors such as cooking methods, stove and heater de- Operational Linescan System (OLS) of the United States. This sign, house and kitchen design, and ventilation systems. database contains the locations of stable lights, including fre- Potential exposure to polluted ambient air was calculated quently observed light sources such as gas flares at oil drilling using the number of cities with air concentration levels of pol- sites. Time series analysis is used to exclude temporary light lutants exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) guide- sources such as fires and lightning. lines (for several gases and particles) and the population of Although the lights database provides the best available those cities. Pollutants considered include total suspended source for data on builtup areas for countries of the world, it particulates (TSP), black smoke (BS), particulate matter may underestimate the builtup area for countries with World Resources 1998-99 127 densely populated but low-lit areas, such as squatter settle- ent deficiencywas higher).Thesevariables are includedto un- ments. This type of underestimation could have the effect of derscore the important correlation between adequate food showing an inflated value for exposure to leaded gasoline (the and nutrition and environmental factors. leaded gas would be emitted over a smaller, more densely Underweight children refers to those younger rhan age 5 populated area). However, WRI used the database because it whose weight-for-age is below minus 2 standard deviations is the best source of information for calculating a relative esti- (for moderate underweight) or below minus 3 standard de- mate of urban populations potentially exposed to leaded gas viations (for severe underweight) from the median weight- emissions. for-age of the reference population. WRI included the number of calories available per person and populations at WATER QUALITY risk of developing micronutrient deficiencies as potential The water portion of the indicator for developing countries measures of an adequate diet. The percentage of the popula- includes three variables: two represent potential exposure to tion at risk of developing vitamin A deficiency is estimated by poor quality water (i.e., percentage of the population without WHO using extrapolations from subnational surveys of the access to safe water and without adequate sanitation), and one proportion of the total country likely to be affected consider- represents exposure to insect-borne diseases (i.e., the per- ing similar ecological conditions. The percentage of the popu- centage of the population with malaria). Data regarding ac- lation at risk of developing iodine deficiency is estimated by cess to safe water and adequate sanitation are problematic (as WHO based on the presence of goiter: persons arc considered is often pointed out by UNICEF, the agency that publishes at risk of developing an iodine deficiency disorder if they re- these data). Definitions of these situations may vary within side in a geographical region where the total goiter rate in and among countries over time; they may be based on de- school-aged children (i.e., children 6 to 11 years of age) is scriptive reports of water sources or installed sewage systems, equal to, or greater than, 5 percent. WRI divided WHO's esti- rather than on quantitative measures regarding water quality mate for the population at risk by the corresponding popula- or distance to the facility for the population served. In addi- tion data for the country from the U.N. Population Division. tion, although WHO provides recommended values for dis- tance to water supply and sanitation and for quantities avail- FINAL RANKING: DEVELOPING COUNTRIES able, countries revise these standards. For example, Brazil The three variables within the air, water, and nutrition por- reports that only toilets on a sewage system are considered an tions of the developing country indicator were ranked from adequate means of excreta disposal. Conversely, many sub- lowest (lowest relative risk) to highest (highest relative risk). If Saharan African countries report access to any kind of pit la- data were not available for the same number of countries for trine as access to an adequate means of excreta disposal. all of the variables, the ranks of the variables were standard- The water portion of the environmental health indicator ized, or spread, to match the maximum number of ranks for for developing countries includes a surrogate measure for po- any of the variables within air, water, or nutrition. The three tential exposure to insect-borne diseases. WRI combined two ranks (replaced with a standardized rank when appropriate) variables: the number of cases of malaria per country and the were then averaged, and the final average rank was ranked country's total population. The final ranked measure is the again from lowest to highest risk. To be included in the calcu- percentage of the country's total population with malaria. lation, each country must have data for at least two variables Many environmental factors, including fluctuations in tem- for air, water, and nutrition. perature, precipitation, and humidity, are linked with the These calculations were then used to determine a relative spread of insect-borne diseases. Although many insect-borne rank for the air, water, and nutrition portions of the develop- diseases have major impacts on human health (e.g., dengue, ing country indicator. The ranks for each portion were then leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis, and schistosomiasis), few separated into three equal groupings: the first one third repre- comprehensive databases exist. Shortcomings aside, malaria sent countries at low relative risk from potential exposure to data are one of the better data sets available worldwide for an the environmental health threats, the middle one third repre- insect-borne disease. sent countries at moderate relative risk of exposure, and the last one third, countries at high relative risk of exposure. Table NUTRITION A.1 shows the low- , medium- , or high-risk scores for each The nutrition portion of the developing country indicator in- country for each of the air, water, and nutrition portions of the cludes three variables that represent potential exposure to indicator for developing countries. poor nutrition: percentage of children younger than 5 years of The next level of aggregation was to combine the ranks of age who are underweight, total number of available calories the three portions. Here again, if data were not available for per person, and percentage of population at risk of developing the same number of countries for all of the variables, the ranks either vitamin A or iodine deficiency (whichever micronutri- of the variables were standardized to match the maximum 128 World Resources 1998-99 APPENDIX AIR WATER NUTRITION FINAL RANK AIR WATER NUTRITION FINAL RANK AFRICA SOUTH AMERICA Algeria moderate ow low low Argentina lore low low low Angola X high high nigh Bolivia low mnoderate moderate, ow Bonin hign hign modorate high Brazil low moderate low lowv Botswana K modorate nroderote modorate Ch le high low low low Burkino Faso moderate high high high Colomhia mooerate low low low Burundi X high high Nhgi Ecuador hion moderate moderate moderate Cameroon high high nigh high Guyana X K K K Central African Rep K high high nigh Paraguay moderate moderate moderate moderate Chad lore high Olgan nigin Peru moderate moderate moderare moderate Congo Gem Rep K nigh high high Suriname X K K K Congo, Rep t igh moderate moderate Uraguay lore moderate K low Cotn d' voire nigh moderate moderate moderate Venezuela high moderate low moderate Egypt moderate moderate low ow ASIA Equatorial Guanoa X K K K Afgjhaniatain,isamic Stare K K X K Eritrea x x x x ~~~~~~~~~~~~Armnenla, Rap K K moderate K Fthiopia h gh high high high Azerbaijan K K high K Gabon K moderate lore low Banrg adaah moderate moderate higa moderate Gamoia,Tte R nigh high high Bhuanan g moderate X X Ghana nigh moderare moderate moonrate Cambodia K high high h gh Guirrea K high moderate high China high moderate low mnoderate Guinea-Bissau If high moderate moderate Georgia K K moderate X Kenya moderate moderate moderate mnoderate ndia moderate mnoderate higa moderate Lerorho K nigh alga high Iodonesia higo moderate moderate nigh Liberia high high K alga Iran,lalamoi Rep high low moderate maoderate Libya law low low lam Irag moderate moderate ow low Madagascar K h gh ftIgh noig Israel Xlow x Malawvi K high high high Jordan K low low low Mali low high h gh high Kzktn e c o Mauritanla K moderate mnoderate moderate Koraaaa, Re epl' ep lo lo low lo Manrliatu K lam low low Korea, Rep mooerate law K low Morocco law moderate low law Kuwait K If K K Mozamoique K moderate tigh moderate Kyrgyz Rep X mnooerare nigh mnoderate Namibia If high high high Lao People's Gem Rep moderate alga hlga moderate Niger low high h.gh high Lebanon moderate low' ow low Nigeria high moderate high high Malaysia moderate ow low ow Rwanda K tE high Mongolia g low moderate ow Senegal mnoderate mooerate moderare moderate Myanmar K high nigh h gh Sierra Leone K high moderate high Nepal K moderate high high Soma ia If high K C man K ow moderate lowv South Africa alga low low low Pakistan moderate moderate mnoderate moderate Sunnan I h gh high high Philippines h gh ow moderate moderate Swaziland g K lawv K Sauo Arabia K law g K Tanzan a K h gh hgh high Sargapore low law K low Toga K high high h gh Sri Lanka low moderate moderate moderate Tue sia lown low low low Syrian Aran Reg K ow moderate ow Uganda high moderate moderate moderate Tajikistan, ep K K moderate K Zamrbia K high nigh alga Thailand moderate ow moderate ow Z moabwe K moderare moderate moderate lTurny high low low low CENTRAL AMERICA Turkmeniatan, Rep K law low low feline g K low K United Arab Emirates K low g x Cotta Rica low low low low 2obekastan, Rep R higan low mnonerate Cuan low ow low low Vietnam high h.gh moderate high Gem nican fep low ow Ow low Yemnen ,I. , moderate El Salvador moderate low ow moderate OCEANIA Gaaterwala moderate moderate moderate moonrate Fj o Haiti x high high high ~~~~~~~~~Papna New Caineo X nigh moderate alga Honarduas K low moderate nroderare Solomon Isanna K K h gh K Jamaica low low low owv Mexico nigh lore low moderate Nicaragua K moderate iow mooerate Panama low low One low Trinidad and Tobago K low K World Resources 1998-99 129 number of ranks for any of the three portions. The ranks (re- - placed with a standardized rank when appropriate) were then POTENTIAL RISK OF POTENTIAL RISK OF EXPOSURE TO POLLUTED EXPOSURE TC AIR POLLUTED averaged, and the final average rank was ranked again. To be OUTDOOR AIR WITH LEAD FXROM GASOLINE included in the final ranking, each country had to have data EUROPE for at least two of the three portions. The final result was a list Alban a X X Austria low low of developing countries ranked according to potential expo- Belarusna, Rep x mdclerate sure to the environmental health threats. The final rank was Belgium low mo(lerate separated into high, medium, and low categories of potential Bosnia and Herzegovina X X by dividin the countries* three ~~~~~~~~ ~~Bulgar a high rnoc erate relative risk bv dividing the countries into three equal groups. Croaria, Rep low moderate Czech Rep low mor erate Countries ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~Denmark nigh low Developed Countries Estonia,Fep h low Fin and moderate low For developed countries, WRI constructed two variables (or France high high indicators) representing potential exposure to polluted air: Germany moderate high potential exposure to polluted ambient air and potential ex- Greece high high posure to air polluted with lead from gasoline. These two vari- Hcngary hlogwh odewate ables (also used in the developing country indicator discussed reland low moderate previously) were ranked from lowest to highest exposure. The raty moderate high Latvia, Rep K ranks were then separated into three equal categories to repre- Lithuania, Rep X lcw sent low-, medium-, and high-relative risk. These ranks were Macedonia,FYR X X not aggregated as in the developing country indicator, but Moldova, Rep X moderate Netherlands high hi]h rather are shown separately in Table A.2. Norway moderate low Poland,Rep moderate nigh Portugal high mod crate Refining the Indicators Romania h gh higjh Russian Federation high high These preliminary indicators are a work in progress that can Slovak Rep low lowv be improved with additional data. The final rankings for each Slovenia, Rep X moderate country are suggestive, not definitive, and should be consid- Spain moderate hilsh Sweden low b.cv ered a starting point for exploring environmental health Switzerland moderate modeirate threats in greater detail. Although WRI used the best available Ukraine high high data to construct the indicators, data were often incomplete or United Kingdom moderate hiilh unreliable. Dividing nations into thirds, to create the three risk , - : - categories, is admittedly arbitrary. For instance, there may be Canada low loin United Stares moderate loin very little difference between countries at the cutoff points, ASIA between high and medium risk or medium and low risk. The Japan high ow broad categories, however, suggest differences in relative risks, A; i moderate X and the indicator maps serve as preliminary tools for identify- New Zealand low X ing countries with different potential for exposure to environ- mental health threats. References and Notes 1. Magda kovei, The Vorld Bank, Washington, D.C., ianuary 1998 tpersonal com- munication I). 130 World Resources 1998-99 ENDNOTES Part I: Environmental Change and Human Health Chapter 1: Linking Environment and Health 1 . World Health Organization ( WHO), Health aind 24. United Nations Developmnent Programme (UNDP), 60. Op. cit. 24. p. 38. Environmnent in Susrainable Development: Fite Years Htuman Development Report 1997 )UNDP, New 61 World Health Organization (WHO), Oar Planet, After the Earth Suimmit (WHO, Geneva, 1997), p. 1. York, 1997), p. 28. Oar H-ealth: Report of the WHO Commiissioni on 2. Christopher J. L. Murrav and Alan D. Lopez, eds., 25. Op. cit, 15. 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Shah, Clean Fuelsfor (AAMA), World Motor Vehicle Data 1993 (AAMA, collaboration with the United Nations Environ- Asia: Technical Optionsfor Moving Towvard Un- Washington, D.C., 1993), pp. 40, 46; and various edi- ment Programme, the United Nations Develop- leaded Gasoline and Low-Sulfur Diesel (The World rions ofAAmerican Automobile M.anufacturers Asso- ment Programme, and the World Bank, World Re- Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997), p. 45. ciation (AAMA), Motor Vehticle Facts and Figures sources 1996-97 (Oxford University Press, New 104. The World Bank, Chile: M7anaging Environmental (AAIA, Washington, D.C.). York, 1996), pp. 81-102. 104.The orldBank Chie: anagng Eviromentl 112. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia 118. Intergovernmental Panel on Clins te Change, Cli- Problems: Economtc Analysis of Selected Issues (The (URBAIR), Metro Manila Report ( The World Bank, mate Change 1995: The Science of Clitnate Change World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), p. 14. Washington, D.C., 1997),p. 3. (Cambridge University Press, Carmbridge, U.K., 105. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia 113. Op. cit. 105, p. 3. 1996), p.4. (URBAIR), Greater Mumbai Report (The World 114. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia 119. Ibid., p. 3. Bank. Washington, D.C., 1996), p. 62. (URBAIR),Jakarta Report (The World Bank, 120. Walter V Reid and Jose Goldemberg, "Are Develop- 106. Lakdasa Wijetilleke and Suhashini A.R. Ka- Washington, D.C., 1996), p. 3. ing Countries Already Doing as Muich as Industri- runaratne, Air Quality Managentent: Considerations 115. Winston Harrington and Alan Krupnick, Energy, alized Countries to Slow Climate C hange?" Climate for Developing Countries (The World Bank, Wash- Transportation, and Environment: Policy Optionsfor Notes (World Resources Institute, WVashington, ington, D.C., 1995), p. 81. Environmtental Improvemients (The WNorld Bank, D.C., 1997). 107. E. Stratos Tavoulareas and Jean-Pierre Charpentier, WVashington, D.C., 1997), p. 21. 121. Ibid. Clean Coal Technologiesfor Developing Countries 116. United States Environmental Protection Agency 122. Roger C. Dower and Mary Beth Zimrnerman, The (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1995), p. 5. (U.S. EPA), "Automobiles and Ozone.' EPA Fact Right Climatefor Carbon Taxes: Cnrating Economic 108. Peter van der Veen and Cynthia Wilson, "A New Sheet, EPA 400-F-92-006 (U.S. EPA, Washington, Incentives to Protert the Atmosplten, (World Re- Initiative to Promote Clea'n Coal," Finance and De- D.C., 1993). Available online at: http://s'ww. sources Institute, Washington, D.C , 1992), p.32. Inititive o Prmote lean oal) Finace an De- epa.gov/omsssswwwO4-ozone.htm (January 21, 123. Working Group on Public Health and Fossil-Fuel veloprient, Vol. 34, No. 4 (December 1997),p. 38. 1998). Combustion, 'Short-Term Improvements in Public 109. Peter Havlicek, "The Czech Republic: First Steps Health from Global-Climate Policir-s on Fossil-Fuel Toward a Cleaner Future,' Environment, Vol. 39, No. Combustion: An Interim Report,' The Lattcet, Vol. 3 (April 1997), pp. 38-39. 350, No. 9088 (November 8,1997), pp. 1341-1348. 138 World Resources 1998-99 PART 11 Global Environmental Trends T nhe past 100 years have brought unprecedented gains in many) of the indicators that we use to gauge progress in human development, from life expectancy to per capita income to education. During the same period, however, human impact on thee natural world has risen dramatically as the scope and intensity of human activities have increased. Although there has been progress -I recently in tackling air and water pollution problems in some countries, 34 many negative trends, such as the loss of tropical forests and the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, continue unabated. An overview of environment and de- postharvest losses remain high, and soil velopment trends yields the following degradation from erosion and poor irri- - snapshot: gation practices continues to harm agri- * 'Vorld population-now at nearly cultural lands, jeopardizing production 6 billion-is growing more slowly than in some regions. predicted just a few years ago but is still * Consumption of natural resources expected to increase substantially before by modern industrial economies re- stabilizing. Projections put world popu- mains very high-in the range of 45 to i lation at between 8 and 12 billion in 85 metric tons per person annuallv 2050, with nearly all of this growth ex- when all materials (including soil ero- pected in the developing world. sion, mining wastes, and other ancillary, * The economic fortunes of a num- materials) are counted. It currently re- _ ber of developing nations have risen quires about 300 kilograms of natural steadily in the past two decades, but resources to generate US$ 100 of income IY many other nations have experienced in the -r rid most advanced econ- ik economic decline and falling per capita omies. Given the size of these econ- incomes since 1980. The disparity in in- omies, this represents a truly massive -X comes between the rich and poor within scale of environmental alteration . nations and between wealthy and poorer * Global energy use, which has in- S '- - nations in general continues to widen. creased nearly 70 percent since 1971, is 4. * During the past 30 years, a higher projected to increase at more than 2 per- _ proportion of children have been at- cent annually for the next 15 vears. This tending school, and adult literacv has will raise greenhouse gas emissions climbed steadily} about 50 percent higher than current * Global food production is generally levels unless a concerted effort takes adequate to meet human nutritional place to increase energy efficiency and needs, but problems with distribution move awav from todav's heavy reliance mean that some 800 million people re- on fossil fuels. main undernourished. World food pro- * Nations have cut consumption of duction is still rising, but yields of the ozone-depleting substances some 70 major grain crops are rising more slowly percent since 1987. However, the ozone now than in the past. In addition, laver is still not safe. Phaseout of chloro- J E-E fluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone- What do these trends portend for greenhouse gases is the best-known ex- destroying chemicals is not complete, the global environment? On the surface, ample, with the potential for large-scale and a significant black market in illegal they paint a troubling picture of the fu- disruption of natural ecosystems, agri- CFCs has sprung up, endangering some ture, with many critical environmental culture, and human settlements due to of the gains already made. indicators continuing to decline at their changes in rainfall and temperature pat- In the past 50 years, excess nitro- current pace or at increasing speed. Al- terns and rising sea levels. gen, principally from fertilizers, human though global food supply and econom- Third, threats to biodiversity from all sewage, and the burning of fossil fuels, ic growth appear robust in the short sources are quickly reaching a critical has begun to overwhelm the global ni- term, such accumulating environmental level that may precipitate widespread trogen cycle, with a variety of ill effects harm ultimately puts at risk the ecosys- changes in the number and (listribution ranging from reduced soil fertility to eu- tems and environmental processes such of species, as well as the functioning of trophication in lakes, rivers, and coastal as climate that form the basis of human ecosystems. Current extinction rates are estuaries. The amount of biologically health and well-being. Yet, interpreting 100 to 1,000 times higher than prehu- available nitrogen may double over the environmental trends requires care. man levels, and projected losses of habi- next 25 years. Environmental threats are not always tat from land conversion, as well as in- * Acid rain is a growing problem in comparable or additive, since they differ creasing competition from nonnative Asia, with sulfur dioxide emissions ex- greatly in terms of scale, effect, and the species, will probably push this rate pected to triple there by 2010 if current time frame in which they act, from the higher still. trends continue. local and immediate threats of overfish- Even as these trends indicate the en- * Deforestation continues to shrink ing or deforestation, to long-acting and vironmental challenges ahead, it is im- world forests, with deforestation rates in global-scale threats such as climate portant to remember that they can be many countries increasing from 1990 to change and ozone depletion. modified with human resolve. Already, 1995 despite a surge of public awareness Overall, the trends sketched above the transition to more envircnmentally about the loss of forests, especially in the and detailed in the following pages sup- benign ways of growing food., producing tropics. Deforestation in the Amazon port some important conclusions. First, goods and services, managing water- doubled from 1994 to 1995 before de- changes to natural ecosystems are oc- sheds, and accommodating urban clining in 1996, and forest fires in both curring on a larger scale than ever be- growth has begun in many far-sighted Indonesia and the Amazon took a heavy fore, involving entire landscapes. Such communities and companies. How fast toll in 1997. large-scale landscape changes-through this transition to more "sustainable" * Competition from nonnative plant deforestation, expansion of agricultural forms of production and environmental and animal species-"bioinvasions"- land, and urban and suburban growth- management will proceed, and whether represents a relentless and growing will likely dictate the physical condition it can effectively mitigate the effects of threat to ecosystems, with some 20 per- and extent of terrestrial ecosystems in large-scale environmental change, is the cent of all endangered vertebrate species the next several decades. Fragmentation real question. threatened by exotic invaders. of the world's remaining forest blocks; The following two chapters explore * Risks to the world's ecosystems are buildup in coastal areas; and the spread in greater detail these and other envi- nowhere greater than in aquatic envi- of cities, suburbs, and infrastructure ronmental trends. Chapter 4 reports on ronments such as coral reefs and fresh- over once-rural tracts will do much to current conditions and critical trends in water habitats in rivers, lakes, and wet- degrade the habitat and watershed val- five broad areas-Population and lands. Some 58 percent of the world's ues of these areas. Human WATell-Being, Feeding t-he World, reefs and 34 percent of all fish species Second, the very scale of these land- Production and Consumption, The may be at risk from human activities. scape-level changes, as well as the in- Global Commons, and Resources at * Global water consumption is rising creasing intensity of industrial and agri- Risk-and tries to illuminate the forces quickly, and water availability is likely to cultural processes, are inducing changes driving these changes, be they popula- become one of the most pressing re- in the global systems and cycles-such tion growth and demographic changes, source issues of the 21st Century. One as the atmosphere and the nitrogen consumption patterns, government poli- third of the world's population lives in cycle-that underpin the functioning of cies, or other factors. Chapter 5 offers a countries already experiencing moder- ecosystems. These changes in what can regional perspective to the topics ad- ate to high water stress, and that num- be called the "global commons" repre- dressed in Chapter 4, with data on a ber could rise to two thirds in the next sent long-term environmental threats of variety of environmental and human de- 30 years without serious water conser- a profound and far-reaching nature. velopment indicators for each of seven vation measures. Global warming from the buildup of major regions. POPULATION AND HUMAN WELL-BEING levels off. (See Figure HW7.2.) Based on Ithough the world's population is still growing, it is doing so at a slower rate tha demogrphers haprojecedonlyfewyersago. current demographic trends, the world slower rate than demographers had projected only a few years ago. population is projected to reach 9.4 bil- Recent major gains in average life expectancy, reduced rates of lion by 2050 (3). child and infant mortality, and the increasing proportion of children now Estimates of future population size, attending school all provide grounds for optimism about human well- however, are highly uncertain. The U.N. being. Many of these gains have been made possible by unprecedented rates projections for 2050 range from a low of of economic growth in many countries. Some 3 billion to 4 billion people 7.7 billion to a high of 11.2 billion. (See are expected to experience substantial improvements in their standard of Figure HA&7.3.) The latest "medium- living by the end of the 10th Century. variant" U.N. projection of 9.37 billion living by the end of the 20th Century. is nearly 500 million (4.7 percent) lower Yet these global successes mask urgent, sometimes worsening problems than the 9.83 billion medium variant at the local or regional level, especially among developing countries. More projected in 1994 (4). than one quarter of the world's population has not shared in the economic The medium-variant projection de- and social progress experienced by the majority and still lives in poverty. pends on a number of important as- Hunger, disease, illiteracy, and restricted freedom of choice or action are suniptions: persistent problems in many of the least developed countries of sub- f Fertility rates will continue to Saharan Africa and south Asia, as well as in parts of central Asia and South declie. America. The pressure of population growth can contribute to human a Life expectancy will continue to deprivation, especially in poor rural areas where competition for land and increase. water can strain the capacity of local environments. Rapid population 4 Developing countries will broadly growth is also fueling problems in many cities, where it can overwhelm the follow the demographic transition capacity of municipal authorities to provide even elementary services. alrdy experienced in the industri alized world. Yet the interaction between population growth and human well-being is complex and not a matter of numbers alone. The capacity of countries to ity declines have so far occurred in support growing populations is enhanced when those countries achieve a countries that have achieved major im- sufficient, equitable distribution of wealth, technological development, effec- provements in child survival rates and tive government, strong institutions, and social stability. This section ex- educational levels and have imple- plores some recent trends in population growth and demographic change, as mented family planning programs (for Well as in key indicators of human prosperity and social development. example, Colombia and Kenya). These developments, in turn, are often associ- ated with economic growth and social changes including improved reproduc- 3,* , (2). Thanks to long life expectancy and tive rights, rural-urban shifts, new fam- low fertility rates, the populations of ily structures, and new employment most developed countries are now sta- patterns, especially changes in female ble or even in decline. Developing coun- labor force participation rates. Striking The world population is still increasing tries, howvever, have not yet achieved fertility declines are evident in rapidly and has now reached more than 5.9 bil- that goal. Indeed, the youthful age developing countries such as Bangla- lion, according to the most recent structure of most developing countries desh, the Republic of Korea, and Singa- United Nations (U.N.) estimates (1). means that their absolute populations pore in Asia, and Colombia in Latin (See Data Table 7.1.) However, the continue to grow, even where the rate of America (5). (See Figure HW.4.) global annual increment-that is, the increase has declined significantly. (See Today, the total fertility rate in devel- number of people added to the world's Figure HWV.1.) oped countries is 1.6 children per population each year-is thought to Some regions are therefore closer woman; however, it is still 3.1 children have peaked between 1985 and 1990 at than others to completing the demo- per wvoman in developing countries. To about 87 rmillioni per year. Estimates for graphic transition-the poinL at which realize the U.N.'s medium-variant 1990-95 are that 81 million persons death rates and birth rates are approxi- population projection, the world total were added to the population each year mately equal and population growth fertility rate must be lowered from 2.8 World Resources 1998-99 141 opment, are likely to be critical in main- FIGURE HW.1 Trends and Project ons in World Population Growth by 0egion, Medium Ferlity Projection, 19502050 taining progress. The government of Tanzania has estimated that, if it is to Popua tio (b 11os meet its target of universal access to t0 -- - -AFRCA family planning services by 2015, it -< _ EUROPE must provide for 5.6 million contracep- 8 NORTH AMER CA tive users by 2015, almost a sixfold in- _ _ _ ~~~~~~~~~ASIA AND OCEAN A r=.- LATIN AMER CA ADCARIBBEAN crease over the 1995 demand (9). 6 S J Non J Life expectancy. Low death rates pri- 4 -lation Divisod, Long Range World marily reflect improved child survival Populotion Projections: Two Centu- rates, and child survival is a key deter- - , ries of World Popolation Growth: minant in family size. Developing coun- Table 6, p. 22. tries have halved the life expectancy gap __________________________________________________________________ Note: Projections are baoed on the with industrialized countries over the 1950 1960 1970 1900 1990 20D0 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 U.N medium variant. past 40 years. The least developed coun- tries, however, have experienced smaller gains, and life expectancy in these coun- FIGURE HW.2 ProgressToward Poro ation Stabi ization by Reogon, 1950-2050 tries lags at about 50 years. In the Stabilization Frmtl obi,ths/deaths) medium-variant projection, life expec- (1=n ouaionnn growthln 41 no popuiation g-o -hi tancy rates are assumed to rise to 81, 76, = AFRICA and 72 years in developed, d:veloping, - ASIA SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA and least developed countries, respec- 3 DEVELOPING tively, by 2050. This increase presup- DEVELOPING poses, among other things, major prog- o _~1 - - labSource:nre DNaioons(UNr d Popo- ress in the fight against infectious Prospects, 1950-2050 (The 1996 Re- diseases (1o). (See Chapter 1.) . _ vision),on diskette (U.N., New York, Demographic transition. Demo- Z ~~ - ~ : ~ Notes: Progress toward stabi zaton graphic experts believe that the shift Is mneasured by dividing a region's from high to low birth rates, and from crude birth rote by its death rtoe, A lotohgliexpca y,ibru t 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 ratio oft indicates aostable lowtohighlifeexpectancy,isbrought population Va ues are based on about by "social modernization." This 5-year rates. complex of changes involves improved health care and access to family plan- (the current rate) to 2.1 children per country. As a result, the population ning; higher educational attainment, es- woman (replacement level) by 2050 (6). growth rate has fallen from a high of 3.1 pecially among women; econ omic (See Data Table 7.2.) Clearly, Africa is percent to its current level of 0.9 per- growth and rising per capita income the region in which the future trend in cent. In poorer countries, duplicating levels; and urbanization and growing fertility is significantly different from this kind of experience would be a for- employment opportunities. Stabiliza- that of the past, and for this reason, its midable challenge. Even so, population tion of the world's populatiotl will projection must be considered the most programs and social change are begin- therefore depend on continu:ng or ac- speculative. ning to reduce fertility rates in many of celerating socioeconomic development Thailand has experienced one of the the least developed countries as well. in the great majority of the world's de- strongest rates of economic develop- For example, Tanzania experienced a veloping countries. A number of factors ment-and one of the steepest declines small but significant decline in total fer- could impede the demographic transi- in fertility-in the world. Thailand's to- tility rate, which dropped from 6.8 chil- tion, including stagnating economic tal fertility rate declined from 6.59 chil- dren per woman in the 1960s and 1970s growth, persistent poverty, or cultural dren per woman during 1955-60 to to just under 6 children per woman in factors that encourage large family size 1.94 during 1990-95 (7). In 1960, the 1990-95 (8). The continued support of despite rising prosperity. If the transi- government launched a vigorous family donor countries and institutions for the tion is stalled, global population would planning program and made contra- country's family planning program, as presumably continue to rise throughout ceptives freely available all over the well as economic and educational devel- the next century. 142 World Resources 1998-99 POPULATION AND HUMAN WELL-BEING r - iXron. r7.ds Population projections carried out re- .i . I :I cently by another institution, Austria's FIGURE HW 3 Population 3rojections on the Bas's of Different Fertility Rates, 1950-2050. International Institute for Applied Sys- Wor d Population (biltions) tems Analvsis (IIASA), explicitly ad- 12 dress some of the uncertainties under- MED UM lying population forecasts. IIASA's lo LOW projections make use of a probability model, reflecting expert opinion on the 8 future courses of fertility, mortality, and migration, and the extent of their un- 6 - - certainty. This model leads to a some- what broader range of estimates than Source:United Na- those from the U.N.; according to tions (U.N.) Popula- tion Division, World IIASA, world population in 2050 will i Populotion Prospects probably number between 8.1 billion 2 -950-2050(The 1996 Revision), on and almost 12 billion (11). dison),n What are the implications of an ap- 01950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 York, 1996). proximately doubled vorld population? Notes: Under the high fertility rate projection, which assumes that high fertility countries wil stabilize at 2.6,and low fertility Population growth is of most concern countr es wi I rise to stablize at 2.1,world population would reach 11.2 billion in 2050 Under the medium fertility rate projection, where countries appear least able to which assumes that the fertility rate ultimately wil stabilize at a replacement level of about 2.i,the t obal population would reach deal with its consequences. Key issues in about 9 4 billion in 2050. The ow fertility rate projection assumes that countries currently with higher-tharn-replacement fertility rates will stabilize at 1.6,and that countries currently wth lower-than-replacement rates will either stabil zeat 1.5 orremain providing for increased populations will constant. Under these assumptions,world population wou d stabilize at 7.7 billion in 2050. include the achievement of adequate in- come levels, food security, employment, . ! and the provision of basic social serv- FIGURE HW.4 Trends in Fert ity Rates by Region, 1950-2050 ices. Also critical is the sound manage- ment of natural resources that, in many Ch Idren per Woman developing countries, still directly sup- y7 port the livelihoods of a majority of _ _ = ASIA their inhabitants. These and other issues 6 - SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA are discussed throughout this section. _ DEVELOPED DEVELOPING A significant number of the world's s people already face critical shortfalls of Source: United Nations (U.N.) the essentials needed for a healthy life. 4 Population Division, WorldPopulo- rionProsoects, 1950-2050 (The Some 1.3 billion live in absolute pov- 1996Revision), on diskette (U.N, erty, 840 million are undernourished 3 - New York, 1996). (i2), roughly 1.4 billion lack safe drink- . Notes: Projections from 1995 to - *-- .t. - - . - ___ 2050 are based on the assumption ing water (13), and about 900 million are 2 - - - - that a gboal of fenrtity rates of2. illiterate (14). In many areas, population children perwoman intheyear growth is accelerating the rate of degra- 2050 will have been achieved. 1950 1960 1970 1900 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2940 205D Va ses are based on 5-year rates. dation of forests, fisheries, and produc- tive soils. (See Resources at Risk.) Popu- lations at direct risk from environ- tion approximately doubles and average quired to support modern consumer mental degradation are concentrated in incomes continue to rise, it is likely that societies are already immense. (See Pro- the least developed countries of sub- the production and consumption pat- duction and Consumption.) If tomor- Saharan Africa and south Asia, and in terns characteristic of middle- and row's consumers use and waste resources parts of Latin America. Population upper-income social groups will be in the same manner as today's, the conse- growth, together with continued eco- adopted more widely throughout the quences in terms of global climate change, nomic expansion, also presents risks at developing world. The environmental loss of vital renewable resources, and toxic the global level. If the world's popula- impacts of the economic activity re- pollution will be severe. World Resources 1998-99 143 .11 -~~~~~~i .r i I r .T = ; ' F GURE LHW.5 GDP Growth Rate n Percent, 1971 -95 ~~- *gg - ~~~~~~~GDP Grmth Rate (percent) 10 --- LOWINCOME Economic growth is an important fac- MIDDLE INCOME tor in reducing poverty and generating HIGH NCOME the resources necessary for human de- 6 WORLD velopment and environmental protec- tion. There is a strong correlation be- tween gross domestic product (GDP) 2 per capita and indicators of develop- ment such as life expectancy, infant mortality, adult literacy, political and Sourcse: The World civil rights, and some indicators of en- t Bank, A/oridDevelop- mentlndicarors 1997, on vironmental quality. However, eco- - - - - diskete (The World nomic growth alone does not guarantee Bank,Washington,D.C., -6 1997). human development. Well-functioning 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 civil institutions, secure individual and property rights, and broad-based health investment flowing to developing and commodity prices, high levels of in- and educational services are also vital to.. raiind ovedat l servingestadare. alsoital t transition economies over the past dec- debtedness, slow progress w.Lth political raising overall living standards. Despite ad(2()anmcreomirfr,ad,n its horcomngs thogh,GDPremins adc (2)(3). and macroeconomic reform, and, in its shortcomings, though, GDP remains However, this overall picture masks some countries, political instability and a useful proxy measure of human well- large, growing disparities among the de- armed conflict. These circumstances being. veloping countries; not all countries have discouraged foreign direct invest- The world economy has grown ap- have been able to take advantage of the ment and contributed to a continuing proximately fivefold since 1950, an un- benefits of globalization. Since about decline in the real level of oflicial devel- precedented rate of increase. The indus- 1980, the fastest-growing economies of opment assistance from the industrial- trialized economies still dominate Asia and Latin America have been char- ized countries. This is a critical develop- economic activity, accounting for acterized by high rates of domestic sav- ment, given that such assistance US$22.5 trillion of the US$27.7 trillion ings, declining dependence on agricul- constitutes nearly two thirds of net global GDP in 1993 (1). Yet a remarkable ture, and a rapid growth in trade, monetary flows to low-income coun- trend over the past 25 years has been especially of manufactured exports. The tries. In the case of the transition the burgeoning role played by develop- emerging economies of the developing economies (Russia and central and ing countries, in particular the popu- world-such as Brazil, China, Indone- Eastern Europe), political and eco- lous economies of east and south Asia. sia, and Mexico-have been increas- nomic turmoil following the fall of (See Figure HW.5.) ingly attractive to private finance; two Communist regimes has led to sharp A major factor in this development thirds of the US$95.5 billion foreign di- declines in income and stanclards of liv- has been the steady integration of the rect investment flows in 1995 wvent to ing since 1990 (7). global economy. Since the Second just six developing countries (4). In ad- The net result of these contrasting World War, international trade has dition, of the estimated 12 million jobs trends is that more than 3.8 billion peo- grown consistently faster than output created by transnational corporations' ple have seen their incomes rise by 3 and now accounts for approximately 25 investment in developing countries, percent or more from 1980 levels, but percent of world GDP. Other measures about half are in China (5). some 1 billion others-more than one of globalization include the enormous Alongside this unprecedented eco- fifth of the world's population-are expansion of international financial nomic surge, some 100 countries have worse off (8). markets, the spread of new technologies experienced economic decline or stag- In the developing countries as a that have revolutionized international nation; in 70 of these countries, average whole, broad-based, balanced economic communications and encouraged the incomes are lower today than they were growth has enabled giant strides in key development of transnational patterns in 1980 (6). Factors in this decline in- indicators of human development since of production and consumption, and clude continued dependence on exports 1960: infant mortality rates have been the fourfold increase in foreign direct of primary commodities and falling reduced by one half and adult illiteracy 144 World Resources 1998-99 POPULATION AND HUMAN WELL-BEING rates by nearly one half. Since 1975, the I I I rate of underweight children under 5 FIGURE HW6 NuIers in Absolute Poverty in Worid Regions, 1987-93 years of age declined by almost one half. [mill ons in abso ute poverty) At the same time, whole regions remain 1,400 -- ------- 1987 sunk in poverty; they are sidelined from 1990 the global economy and are in danger 1,200 - 1993 of falling further behind in coming dec- l ----- Source: The World ades (9). Bank,PovertyReduc tion and the Woeld 800- Bank Progress and POVERTY AND INCOME INEQUITY Challenges io the 600 - 1990s (The World Poverty remains an enormous problem Bank,Washington, worldwide, despite major reductions 400 D.C., 1996tp.4. over the past 50 years. Within the devel- I poverte is defined as oping countries, about one third of the 200 the number of peopie population lives on less than US$1 a livingon lessthanthe day. (The World Bank defines poverty EAST LATIN MIDDLE SOUTH SUB-SAHARAN TOTAL per day as an income of less than US$1 per day, ASIA AMERIKA EAST ASIA AFRI(A using purchasing power parity-in other words, exchange rates adjusted to spread in sub-Saharan Africa and south HW.7.) The difference between average the local currency.) By this measure, al- Asia. By contrast, in Latin America and per capita income in the industrialized though the percentage of the world's the Caribbean, income poverty remains and developing countries tripled be- population living in poverty declined at 24 percent, but human poverty is sig- tween 1960 and 1993 (14). The poorest slightly between 1987 and 1993 (from nificantly lower, at 15 percent. That 20 percent of the world's population 30.1 percent to 29.4 percent) (tO), the means, in brief, that the poor are better now claims just 1.1 percent of global in- absolute number of people living in off, thanks to expanding choices and come, while the richest 20 percent poverty increased from 1.2 billion to 1.3 opportunities-especially access to ba- claims 86 percent. Between 1960 and billion people ( 1). (See Figure HW.6.) sic education and health services (13). 1994, the ratio of the income of the Although some Asian countries, such as Perhaps the most glaring economic richest 20 percent to the poorest 20 per- Indonesia, have made considerable trend to emerge in the past 30 years is cent increased from 30:1 to 78:1 (i5). progress in reducing poverty, in south the growing gap between rich and poor. Within some regions and countries, Asia, progress has been slow. In sub- Disparities have widened at the interna- the gap is increasing as well. In Latin Saharan Africa and in Latin America tional level, despite a boom in much of America and the Caribbean, the richest and the Caribbean, the percentage of the developing world. (See Figure 20 percent of the population has average the population living in poverty actu- ally increased slightly between 1987 and 1993 (12). FIGURE HW.7 PerCapita .ncorme by Region, 1970-91 Poverty can also be defined more broadly than by income alone. The Hu- (per cap ta ienome in constant onternioniars) man Poverty Index, developed recently 25,000 AFRICA by the United Nations Development -LATIS AMC9ICA Programme (UNDP), is an aggregate 20,000 , NORTh AMERICA index that measures other forms of dep- WEST EUROPE rivation, including low life expectancy, soo -_ illiteracy, and measures of access to health services, safe water, and adequate Moro Source: United Nations (U.N.), nutrition. More than one quarter of the Critical Trends: Global Chonge world's population lives in this condi- . ond`SustainebleDevelopmenr tion of "humanpoverty,"accordingto 5,000 _--(U.N., New York, 1997), p.58. tion of "human poverty,' according to Nete: taste en plrcriasNro h UNDP. Both types of poverty-income =- power party. See Data Tab e and human-usually coincide, but not 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 6.1. always. Human poverty is most wide- World Resources 1998-99 145 incomes of more than US$17,000; for posed by growing income inequities. In tion will be living in towns arid cities. the poorest 20 percent, the average in- the early 1990s, for example, the Chi- An estimated 90 percent of the increase come is US$930 (16). Even in relatively nese government targeted 80 million will occur in developing countries (2). more equitable east and Southeast Asia, people living in poverty, mostly in vil- (See Figure HW.8.) Urbanization is income gaps appear to be widening. lages in the western areas of the country. rapid in the fast-growing econiomies of Wealth disparities between urban and It gave priority to ensuring adequate the Asia-Pacific region, where the aver- rural areas are growing in China, Indo- supplies of food and clothing. By 1996, age annual urban growth rate is more nesia, and the Philippines; data for 22 million people had been lifted above than 4 percent. Yet the fastest urbaniza- Thailand are controversial, but one esti- the national poverty line (22). In the tion rates are now occurring in some of mate claims the wealth gap in that longer term, reducing income inequal- the least developed countries. Africa has country more than doubled between ity and ensuring adequate human de- the highest urban growth rate of all 1981 and 1992 (17). velopment for all is likely to depend on world regions: 5 percent per year (3). In the industrialized countries, in- greater commitment to the implementa- (See Figure HW.9.) come disparities grew during the 1980s tion of policies for broader-based eco- One feature of today's urbanization is and early 1990s. The biggest changes in nomic growth and poverty reduction the continuing trend of ever larger met- disparity were recorded in the United through increased investment in public ropolitan areas. The number of megaci- Kingdom and the United States ( 18). education and health. (See section ties (cities with at least 8 million inhabi- Overall in the industrialized countries below.) tants) rose from just 2 in 1956 (New according to UNDP, the average incoure York and London) to 23 in 1995, with of the richest 20 percent is seven times 17 of them in the developing wvorld. By hihrta htof the rich est 20 perceti-ee ie 2015, the number is projected to grow chgher than that of the poorest 20 per- to 36; 23 of these megacities will be lo- The world's urban population is cur- cated in Asia (4). (See Table H W. 1.) rently growing at four times the rate of As described at length in the 1996-97 INEQUITY AND CONFLICT the rural population (1). Betwreen 1990 volume of World Resources, urbaniza- Inequities hamper economic develop- and 2025, the number of people living tion presents both opportunties and ment and lead to other problems as in urban areas is projected to double to challenges. The current pace and scale well, such as social instability. In recent more than 5 billion; if it does, then al- of change-over 60 million people are years, social instability and armed con- most two thirds of the world's popula- added to urban populations each year flict have been associated with rising in- come inequality and growing resource scarcity. In Indonesia, mobs have FIC-UJE HW.8 Urban Population Growth, 1950-2025 burned factories and cars to protest grievances ranging from land disputes Popuat on (flis0si5 to pollution from shrimp ponds. In the 10 - URBAN DEVELOPING Philippines, Muslim rebels are most ac- 9 _ _ _ _ U1AN DEVELOPED tive in western Mindanao, where the _ _ RUJEAL DEVELOPED wealth gap between that region and the capital Manila is as great as that be- _ tween the Republic of Korea and Bang- 6- ---- ___ _ ladesh (20). There is a close correlation s _ _ _ - between the stronghold areas of the 4 guerrilla movement in Peru and the ar- eas suffering greatest poverty. Further, 3 the Zapatista rebellion in the southern 2 s-- Source: Unitecl Nations Mexican state of Chiapas is largely at- I_ ____ (U.N ) Population Division, World Urbanizortion Prospects tributable to grossly inequitable pat- D (The 1996 Revrion), on disk- terns of land tenure and the inability of 1950 1975 2000 2025 ette (U.N., Nev York, 1996). peasant farmers to subsist on their small, degradedland holdings (21). Note: Developed regions include North America,Japan, Europe,and Australia and New Zealand;developing regions i iclude Africa, small, degraded land holdings (2 1). Asia (excludingJapan),South America and Central America,and Oceania (exc uding Australia and New Zealand)The European Many governments are responding to successor states of the former Soviet Union are classified as developed reg ons,while toe Asian successor stares are claissified as the economic and security threats developing regions. 146 World Resources 1998-99 POPULATION AND HUMAN WELL-BEING =_. IL :. . * l . , . Sa|I'iS TABLEHN.1 ExpectedGrowthinCtieswith FIGUREHW9 PercentageofPopulationResidingin JrbanAreas,bvRegion,1970 2Q25 Populations of 8 Million or More, 1995 and 2015 POPULATION (millions) 10o .---.--.- -. 1 _ 1970 CITY 1995 2015 90 'COO M 20 -2025 Tokyo,Japan 26.96 28.89 80 - -- - Mexico City, 16.56 19.18 * Mexico Sao Paulo, Brazil 16.53 20.32 New York, 16.33 17.60 United States Bombay, India* 15.14 26.22 40 Source: United Na- Shanghai,China 13.58 17.97 Iions (U N.) Pop SIa- Los Angeles, 12.41 14.22 tion Division, Woldd United States 20 Urbanization Pros Calcutta, ndia 11.92 17.31 1 pects (The 1996 Revi- Buenos Aires, 11.80 13.86 (U.N.,NewYork, Argentina 11.013.696O),06slt AFRICA ASIA CENTRAL EUROPE NORTH SOUTH 1996) Seoul, Korea, Rep. 11.61 12.98 AMERICA AMERICA AMERICA Beijing,China 11.30 15.57 Osaka,Japan 10.61 10.61 mands created by the increasing con- of activities such as industrial develop- Lagos, Nigeria 10.29 24.61 centration of people in cities while ment (7). Rio deJaneiro, 10.18 11.86 capitalizing on the benefits of urbaniza- Brazil Delhi, india * 9.95 16.86 tion, such as economic growth and effi- Karachi, Pakistan 9.73 19.38 cient delivery of services. Indonesia is a Cairo, Egypt 9.69 14.42 case in point. During the 1980s, Indone- -I Paris, France 9.52 9.69 sian cities expanded at the rate of 5.4 International migration, which includes Tianjin, China 9.42 13.53 percent per year, fueled by declining both voluntary migration for economic Metro Manila, 9.29 14.66 prospects for agriculture in the outer is- or other reasons as well as the involun- Philippines " lands and high levels of foreign direct tary movement of refugees, is on the Moscow, Russian 9.27 9.30 investment in export-oriented manu- rise. Data are uncertain and trends are Fed. facturing on the island of Java. Indeed, difficult to track, but, according to the Jakarta, Indonesia 8.62 13.92 Indonesia's 10 largest metropolitan ar- U.N., at least 120 million people (ex- Dhaka, Bangladesh 8.55 19.49 eas-each with more than 1 million in- cluding refugees) lived or worked out- Source: United Nations (U N.) Popu ation Divisor U a n 60on n190 a n Agglome(otions, 1950-2015()The199a6 Revision), on disak habitants-are all on Java; 60 percent of side of their own country in 1990, an in- ette (U.N., New York, 1996). Javas population now lives in urban crease from about 75 million in 1965. Note: ' Cities expected to grow by >50% by 2015. corridor developments along the north- The annual growth rate of immigration (5)-often strain the capacity of local ern coast. Although basic infrastructure has been steepest in developing coun- capaciionlgovrne ty toand services are lacking in many areas, tries, and approximately half of all in- aend natiemon tbaligovernm ens to provi urban migration is expected to con- ternational migration takes place within revidenthe moestibasic seri to uerbant tinue. In 1992, the government of Indo- the developing world. Nevertheless, ofuresdnt Anhastimante 25 teeovn 50perc nesia introduced the Spatial Use Man- foreign-born residents accounted for cofuntrba inhabtan in depovelophed,ing agement Act, one of a suite of laws only 1.6 percent of the total population countries live in impoverished slums intended to ensure the provision of ade- of developing countries in 1990 but 4.5 and squatter settlements, with little or quate public services and to minimize percent of the population of developed no access to adequate water, sanitation, adverse effects on surrounding commu- countries. Today, for instance, popula- or refuse collection (6). In such situa- nities and ecosystems. Among other re- tion growth in member countries of the tions, both environmental quality and forms, the act provides for the identifi- Organisation for Economic Co-Oper- human health and well-being are at risk, cation of environmentally sensitive ation and Development (OECD) is he- (See Chapter 3.) areas, where development activities ing driven not by natural rates of in- Many countries are developing poli- would be restricted, and for improved crease but largely by immigration It) (2). cies that try to address the new de- planning for the location and support Between 1990 and 1995, 45 percent of World Resources 1998-99 147 i. . i .l .1. ^, part of the country, has destroyed local FIGURE HW10 Annua Net International M gration TotaIs and Migration Rates in the Wor d's Major Areas, 1990-95 grain stores and forced people from Net NumtberofMigrants Rate their grazing and fishing grounds (7). (thousands) (per 100,000 popu[at Ion) _t_o___n_ __ 971 Environmental degradation and re- 1,.c00 ----- --------- --' _ _ _ _ - NUMBER source scarcity can help to trigger mass (thousands) migration. Population growth, land RATE 50 - - - - -( , -, - Iper 100,000 popuJat[on) scarcity, and a cycle of droughts and floods has encouraged the illegal immi- -i , _ ~ - -gration of more than 10 million Ben- - - | I-,I |galis-perhaps 20 million including their descendants-to neighboring In- dian states from Bangladesh. The influx has prompted local resentments, and -1,000 - - - - Source: United Nations more than 4,000 people were killed in a (U.N.) Population Divisior series of violent clashes in the early -136 nternotionalMcgrotion 1980s. Tensions continue toclay (8). AFRICA ASIA EUROPE LATIN AMERICA NORTH OCEANIA York, 1996). Many governments increasingly view ANDtCARIBBEAN AMERICA immigration as a problem, despite the overall population growth in developed countries was due to immigration; in Europe, the proportion was 88 percent (3). (See Figure HW.10.) Progress Toward Democracy Considering involuntary movements, the number of refugees worldwide dou- As a new report from the WVorld Bank makes clear, pendent democracies; today, 117 countries are the qualitv of government remains a crucial factor ( about 60 percent). The spread of democracy has bled between 1984 and 1991, although it in promoting economic growth, social well-being, been driven by new communication technologies, has since fallen from a high of about 18 and sound environmental management. Govern- which make clear a governments failings in rela- million in 1993 to just about 14 million ment accountability through democratic elections tion to other countries, and also by increased lev- in 1996, partly as a result of resettlement is central to achieving these basic goods. Trends in els of education among citizens, who are less toler- the spread of democracy are oncouraging. In 1974, ant of such failure. programs (4). However, the number of only 39 countries (about 25 percent) were inde- refugees is overshadowed by the in- crease in the number of internally dis- Democratically Elected Governments by Regiocn, 1960-94 placed persons-those who have been E UP 10 ~--" - t-===D - i------- ::;--- -. _ E,ASTRNEUEOPE5ND forced to flee their homes by armed C NTRAL ASIA conflict, persecution, or natural or man- 8----- _ = __-- - - - - NA ME5IA made disasters, but who remain within 6 - - - __ __ - N DRTH EAICSA their national borders. Because of the --4=SOUTHAND- O CDSTA rising number of civil wars and local 2 SOUT AAANDAEFICA 2_ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - ___ ____ _ _ _ _ 5 SB-SAH ARAN AFRICA conflicts, the number of internally dis- placed persons now totals an estimated _ 30 million worldwide, mostly concen- -2 i s _ trated in some 35 countries. Africa is 4 Source The vWorid tank the worst-affected region, with up to 16 - WorldDeveeol,mentReport > -6 - - - - - - 1997 (The World sank, Wash- million people having been internally Ington, D.C., 1997), Figure 7. 1, displaced (5) (6). Sudan, where a civil 1960 1965 197t 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 P 0 war is now entering its 15th year, has the highest number of displaced people in Note:This particular index of democracy is based on Polity HI data developed by Keith Jaggers and Ted Robert GL rr It is calcu- the world, estimated at from 3.5 million latedfor 177 countriesfromscoresonfivecomponentind cators: (t competitivenessofpolitical participaton (2) regulation of to 4 million. Fighting between rival political participation, (3) competitiveness ofexecutive recruitment, 14) openness of executive recruitment,and (11) constraints on the chiefexecutive.For more information,see Keith Jaggers and Ted RobertGurrETracking Democracy's Third Wove with the Pol- rebel armies, as well as between rebels ity III Data,"JoumalofPeace Research, Vol.32, No.4 (1995), pp. 469-482. and the government in the northern 148 World Resources 1998-99 POPULATION AND HUMAN WELL-BEING fact that immigrant labor often benefits I I . g I , X both the home and host countries (9). FIGURE HWN 1I Trends in Secondary School Enrol ment, 1980-94 Perceptions of national identity, cultural (percent) differences, and fears of unemployment me are all contributing to actual and poten- m_ 1So tial hostilities between immigrants and o199 nationals. The percentage of govern- so - - --------_ - -_- ments that view their country's immi- gration level as too high rose from 6 to 21 percent between 1976 and 1996; in 60 - --- ------ - the developed countries, 29 percent Source: Unied Na- consider immigration too high (10). 40 ---ns Educatrcnal, Nonetheless, immigration, either legal Scientific and Cul- or illegal, seems certain to continue. a nraUNFSCO Storstca/ , : : , . _a1 a | | _, ~~~~~~~ ~~ | | ~~~ Yeorbook 7996 (UNESCO, Paris, 1997),Table 2.10, ....I±ta. 'I- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~p 2-28 -DpI .... D.''10;. ... WORLD AFRICA LATIN AMERICA ASIA EUROPE OCEANIA __o ANDCARIBREAN FIGURE HV.12 rends in Adut Liteiacy, 1980-95 Well-educated, healthy populations are of fundamental importance in raising perncentage ofpeople older than 15 wh are iterate) levels of socioeconomic development. s - - 198C Numerous studies now document the _ I 1985 positive correlations among, for exam- I- 990 ple, women's education, reduced fertil- 0 - 1 ity, and improved child health, and also between literacy rates and average per 60 capita incomes. The World Bank argues ; Source: Uni.ed that human resources-which include N . , Nations Educational, labor, the returns on educational invest- C0 llrLal ments, and social organizations-are (UNBC Organisat on one of the most important components 20 l (LNE500),Sremnsnrs one most I i C~~~~~~~~0 earbook 5995 of the wealth of most nations (1). lI i l UNESCOaPa s, 19975),Table 22,p~. Good education and health do not - I 9, 2 9. follow as an automatic consequence of W AFRIC LAINAMELA ASIA _.ROP ACANIA economic growth but depend on gov- AND CARIBBEAN ernment action, especially policies that target primary-level education and cent, although this holds true only for (4). Many economists now attribute health care. The provision of high- the first 3 years of extra education, with much of the economic success of the quality basic social services benefits the diminishing returns thereafter (3). "Asian tigers" to their governments' poorer members of society, who cannot Investment in basic social services commitment to public funding of pri- afford private alternatives, as well as the usually has more impact on human de- mary education as the foundation for economy as a whole. velopment and economic growth than development. In 1960, Pakistan and the One multicountry study has indicated does spending on higher education or Republic of Korea had similar incomes that a 10-percent increase in life expec- advanced medical facilities. It has been but quite different school enrollment ra- tancy raises the national economic estimated that the social rate of return tios-30 percent in Pakistan and 94 growth rate by about 1 percent per year for all developing countries averages 24 percent in Korea. Over the next 25 (2). Other research suggests that increas- percent for primary schooling, 15 per- years, per capita GDP in Korea grew to ing the average education of the labor cent for secondary schooling, and 12 three times that of Pakistan. It has been force by 1 year raises the GDP by 9 per- percent for postsecondary education estimated that if Korea's enrollment ra- World Resources 1998-99 149 tio had stayed the same as Pakistan's, its MNJESTMENT IN PUBLiC tries have achieved far greater improve- per capita GDP would be about 40 per- ; AND HEALTH ments in human development than are cent less than it is today (5). Despite the evidence that public and usual for their income level, thanks to Educational achievements worldwide private expenditures on basic social enlightened policies that address the have improved significantly over the services appear to bring the greatest needs of the broad majority of their past 30 years; the proportion of chil- returns on capital in terms of promot- citizens. dren attending school has risen, and ing GDP growth, investment levels have Kerala State, in India, is ar apt exam- adult literacy programs have helped to risen slowly or erratically in recent dec- ple. Despite quite low income and pro- Figuraprge es t ades. Public expenditures on education ductivity growth since 1970, Kerala's spread basic reading skills. (See have fallen, as a proportion of gross na- citizens enjoy a life expectancy on a par HW IlI and HW.l12.) tional product, in many world regions with Hungary and literacy rates compa- The gender gap (the difference in since the 1980s. Militarv budgets have rable with those in Norway. 3y 1991, the educational attainment between boys also fallen in much of the developing fertility rate had dropped to 1.8 children and girls) has also narrowed at all edu- world but are still comparable with per woman, below the replacement rate cational levels, with the greatest prog- those for education (13). (16). Almost all villagers now have ac- ress being made in the Arab states, fol- Public financing of health and educa- cess to a school and a modern health lowed by Southeast Asia and Latin tion is increasingly augmented by pri- clinic within a radius of 2.5 kilometers. America (6). However, nearly two thirds vate investment. In many industrialized Newspapers and telecommunication fa- of the world's 840 million illiterate countries, governments are faced with cilities are also available in the great ma- adults are women (7). In sub-Saharan looming fiscal crises brought on by the jority of villages. These successes are the Africa, the gender gaps in adult literacy expanding demands of comprehensive result of a strong political ccmmitment and higher education rates are still wid- welfare systems. Individuals are there- to mass education and healt - care dat- ening. This situation has serious impli- fore being required either to contribute ing back to the 19th Century. Important cations for child health and food secu- more to state education and health sys- support has come from social policies rity, given that women in rural areas of tems or to seek private alternatives. that have achieved relatively equitable the region are almost solely responsible Citizens in many developing countries land distribution, an efficient tood dis- are also required to foot much of the tribution system, and a breakdown of for child nutrition and produce up to 80 bill for social services, but far fewer of the restrictive caste system. Attitudes percent of basic foodstuffs (8)(9). them are in a position to do so. Among toward women are enlighterLed; girls Human health has also improved lowv-income countries, for example, outnumber boys in higher education, significantly in recent decades. Globally, private sources account for 80 percent and Kerala has appointed the first fe- average life expectancy has risen to 65 of total education spending in Haiti and male chief justice, surgeon general, and years, and the life expectancy gap be- nearly 60 percent in Uganda and Viet- chief engineer in India. Social invest- tween the industrialized and developing nam (14). In such situations, the poor ment appears to be paying off. Kerala's countries has almost halved since 1960 majority of the population have quite annual growth rate in per capita income (10). Deadly diseases such as polio, limited educational opportunities. was almost twice that of India between leprosy, and neonatal tetanus maybe There is, as yet, no evidence of a sig- 1987 and 1992 (17) (18). eradicated in the near future ( 1). Infant nificant trend to shift spending toward and child mortality rates have fallen in basic social service provision in sub- all regions. Despite this progress, infec- Saharan Africa, where public expendi- e tious diseases remain the leading cause tures are most skewed (15) Raisig the odtocleuea 5wo level of investment in human capital The AIDS epidemic is far larger than there, and in parts of south Asia and previously believed and showed no wide, and new diseases such as acquired Latin America, will be essential if the signs of stabilization at the end of 1997, immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) current downward spiral of poverty, according to a recent report bv the Joint and new varieties of hemorrhagic fevers underemployment, and resource degra- United Nations Programme on have emerged (12). Unfortunately, the dation is to be reversed. However, some HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) and the World least developed countries have experi- governments in these regions are begin- Health Organization (WHO) (1). Ac- enced the smallest gains in kcy indica- ning to spend more on primary educa- cording to these revised esLimates, some tors of human health, and the gap be- tion and health care, and these pro- 30.6 million people globally are now in- tween them and developing countries as grams provide encouraging examples fected with the human immmnodefi- a whole is widening. for others to follow. A number of coun- ciency virus (HIV) that causes AIDS, 1 50 World Resources 1998-99 POPULATION AND HUMAN WELL-BEING and 11.7 million have died of the dis- where fully two thirds of the total among homosexual men and intrave- ease-2.3 million in 1997 alone. This number of people infected with the vi- nous drug users. It now appears to be estimate of the number of people in- rus now reside. Although Africa has spreading among poor and less edu- fected with the virus is almost 30 per- long been the region with the highest cated parts of the population, as well as cent higher than the previous year's total number of people infected, experts among women. According to UN- estimate, reflecting new ways of ex- at the World Bank had thought the epi- AIDS/WHO, a major opportunity exists trapolating from figures at the country demic was leveling off (2). The latest in this region to slow the spread of level rather than the regional level. UNAIDS/WHO estimates challenge AIDS, but it will require special atten- Roughly 5.8 million people are believed those claims, asserting that 7.4 percent of tion to the prevention needs of poor to have become infected with HIV in the adult population, aged 15 to 49, is and socially marginalized people. 1997. Of these new infections, more now infected. In the worst-hit areas, the In Eastern Europe and the former So- than 40 percent occurred among rate is far higher. In Botswana, for in- viet Union, HIV is spread primarily women, and more than 50 percent oc- stance, nearly 30 percent of the adult through intravenous drug use. Experts curred in young adults aged 15 to 24. population is believed to be infected, caution that infection rates may soon double the number from just 5 years ago. rise significantly-a soaring number of The disparities in disease between csso eulvtasitddsae rich and poor countries are vast and The AIDS epidemic is newer in Asia cases of sexually transmitted diseases growing. According to the nev report, than in Africa, and many Asian coun- suggest an increase in unprotected sex- growng. ccoringto te ne reprt, tries have not yet developed compre- ulatvt nti ein more than 90 percent of all HIV- hensive surveillance systems. Available In the weal thier countries, by con- infected people live in developing coun- data suggesttat altems. Ava trast, aggressive prevention and treat- tries, and most of them do not know data suggest that although HIV tr strategies have led to a declining they are infected; thus they are not tak- infection rates are generally still low, the number of AIDS cases, especially ing precautions to prevent the spread of number of people infected is enormous among homosexual men. In the United the disease. Infection rates are soaring because the region is so large. In India, States, the latest estimates indicate the in sub-Saharan Africa, the world's poor- for example, less than 1 percent of the first-ever annual decrease in new AIDS est region, whereas in the wealthy re- adult population is believed to be in- cases-6 percent in 1996. Among some gions of Western Europe and North fected, but that translates into 3 million disadvantaged groups in the United America, rates are slowing dramatically. to 5 million people. The nascent epi- States, however, AIDS is still on the rise. In Western Europe, according to the lat- demic in China continues to spread In 1996, new AIDS cases rose by 19 per- est data, the number of new cases de- through drug use in the south and pros- cent among African-American hetero- clined roughly 30 percent between 1995 titution in the east. In Southeast Asia, sexual men and by 12 percent among and 1997. What is more, many of those although the picture is bleak in Cambo- African-American heterosexual in wealthy countries who are infected dia and Vietnam, Thailand has success- women. In the Hispanic community, the with HIV have access to antiviral drugs fully decreased the number of new in- number of cases rose 13 percent among that delay the disease's progress; these fections as a result of its sustained men and 5 percent among women in expensive drugs are largely unavailable condom use campaigns and other edu- just 1 year. These disparate trends re- in poor countries (and to the poor in cational efforts. flect, in part, differing access to expen- wealthy countries). In Latin America and the Caribbean, sive antiviral drugs and a lower level of The AIDS epidemic has been particu- infection rates are relatively low, and the success of prevention efforts targeted to larly devastating in sub-Saharan Africa, disease has been concentrated mainly minority communities. World Resources 1998-99 151 CriIcl Tre--d FEEDING THE WORLD I n the past 30 years, global agriculture has made remarkable progress recognized. Even if such lancLs were in expanding world food supplies. Although world population dou- converted to agricultural uses, much of bled over this period, food production rose even faster, so that the the remaining soil is less productive and world's croplands and pasturelands support an additional L.5 billion peo- more fragile; thus, its contribution to ple today. Gains have been particularly significant in the developing world, likely be limited. The marginal benefit Per capita food supplies there rose from less than 2,000 calories per day in of converting new land increases the 1962 to more than 2,500 calories in 1995, driven by the combination of importance of continuing to improve better seeds, expanded irrigation, and higher fertilizer and pesticide crop yields so the existing agricultural use-what has become known as the Green Revolution-as well as by the lands can produce additional food (5). rapid growth in food imports from the rest of the world. Several factors may be contributing The prospect of feeding an additional 3 billion people over the next 30 to the yield plateau. The most direct years poses an even greater challenge. In the short term, experts predict new varieties, extending irrigation, and that there will be adequate global food supplies, but that problems with using fertilizer-were already exploited distribution will result in hundreds of millions of people being malnour- in many locations during the Green ished. In the longer term, a number of additional issues raise concerns. Revolution of the 1960s and L970s. In The rate of growth in world food production has started to slow. In ad- addition, the emphasis of much recent dition, high rates of food loss during harvest, storage, and distribution agricultural research has been on achieving goals other than increased persist, needlessly raising production requirements. Erosion and other yields, scals ipoving drcute r- types of soil degradation continue to take millions of hectares out of pro- ance or resistance to insects adnd dis- duction. ease. However, none of these obstacles is insurmountable. Progress on all of More important, world cereal prices these fronts will be essential to reach the goal of simultaneously intensify- have declined in recent years, and grain ing production while reducing environmental costs, and ensuring that farmers who might have justified the this food bounty is more equitably shared among the people of the world. expense of additional inputs (e.g., fertil- ZD ~~~~~~~izer and water) to keep yields up have shifted away from cereals to rnore prof- itable crops. (See Data Table 6.3.) Crop intensification may a so be a * * * which people get most of their food en- prime culprit in yield stagnation, espe- egy (2). For wheat, yield growth rates cially for rice. Today, it is common for slid from 2.92 percent per year for the frest rdc w ree he period from 1961 to 1979 to 1.78 per ricecropsperyearwhereonly oneor Feeding an ever-larger world popula- cent for the period from 1980 to 1997. two were grown in the past. This is pos- tion predicted for the future will require For maize, the rates slipped from 2.88 sible because some new rice varieties an agricultural system that stays apace percent to 1.29 percent during the same mature more quickly than traditional of population growth. Achieving such a period. For paddy rice, yield growth varieties, in addition to yielding more system will not be easy. In fact, although rates have remained stable at 1.95 per- grain per plant. For example, the rice total yields continue to increase on a cent (3). (See Figure FW. 1.) Yet the de- known as IR-8, one of the early "miracle global basis, there is a disturbing de- mand for all cereals is expected to rise rice" varieties introduced in 1966 by cline in the rate of yield growth (1). If substantially in the next two decades (4). plant breeders at the Internat.ional Rice such a slowdown persists, it could pre- Throughout history, whenever niore Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philip- vent production levels from rising as food has been needed, people have sim- pines, ripens 20 to 30 days ahead of un- much as is needed in the next few ply cleared more land to plant more improved varieties (6). Yet the extra decades. crops. However, most high-quality agri- crops that the newer varieties allow can What has been termed a "yield pla- cultural land is already in production, place a heavy strain on soils, particu- teau" or "yield stagnation' >has been de- and the environmental costs of convert- larly those used in paddy rice produc- tected in manv of the globe's major ing remaining forest, grassland, and tion, where the growing medium is un- crops, especially for the cereals from wetland habitats to cropland are well der water for long periods. It i s not yet 152 World Resources 1998-99 FEEDING THE WORLD -IGLR `FW obal Changes in CerealYiedsa 'YieldGrowsh Rates, 1961-96 AB EFWI 'ore A _ . vLes: Yields oF Cereal Crops, 19-96 R-lean Value (metrctots per hectare) iead (met'ra tons/hectare World Average Yield 2.7 . -- WHEATYELD HighestYield 8.8 PADDYRICEsIELD (Netherlands) 5 MA ZE Y ELD Lowest Yield (Botswana) 0.35 4 Source: Food and Agr cu ture Organization of the United Na- tons (FAC),FAOSTATStotistcraDnnobGse (FAO, Rome, 1997). _- -- rt- - For other crops as well, an enormous 2 .-. - gap exists between the yields actually achieved on real-world farms and those theoretically possible. For wheat, for ex- ample, the average global yield is less than 2 metric tons per hectare. The rec- ord yield is said to be 14 metric tons per 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 hectare, and as many as 21 metric tons may be possible (1 0). There is also a wide variation in yields from countrv to Pe2cent -I ...easeYd country. (See Table FV. 1.) 12 --------------------------------------------- ------- = : WHEAT m ADDYoonE oHow can the world's farmers take ad- t0 vantage of this genetic potential? Both biotechnology and traditional plant breeding techniques still hold great 6 .- _ _ tfz promise for yield increases. For exam- o d;1iV3.:. '. . *.. .. Source:.Food one Ag, . tare ple, scientists at IRRI are currently us- -;\ - CZ 'lzeS fr !j-t ' Source: Food and Agricu ture ing both strategies to improve older rice eg . >1 t tt- \ ' ~~~~~~~~~~~Organization ofthe Unilted - 5 / ? - ? Nations IFAO),FAOSTATStnS- varieties by tailoring them to take ad- ' Ucot e Daobose (FAO, Rome, vantage of specific local environments. ote:Va997 saro. n w They are also working on an entirely -2 Note:Valuesare un-weighted new "super rice" that in trials has 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 5-year movag aoerages. achieved up to 25 percent higher yields than current varieties, although this new strain will not be ready for intro- clear how much this strain erodes yields places where production has expanded d tin for notherears or sotro. duction for another 5 vears or so n 11). in the long term (7). into more marginal areas. Improved va- I Yields of other staples more com- rieties of millet and sorghum exist, but, The need for such improvements is monly grown outside the developed in general, poor, small-scale farmers urgent. Some projectmons suggest that world have also declined. Sorghum and commonly achieve only about one fifth comely5 ri ercnsumers durigpte next 25- millet rate fifth and seventh, respec- of the genetic potential of millet and years, requiring a major increase in rice tively, in production among the world's sorghum because they cannot afford production (12). This increase will, by grains. They and a handful of other fertilizers, good weed.control, timely necessity, have to be achieved with less crops are crucial staples in many re- planting, and the other crop manage- land, less water, and less labor (1 3). gions, especially in Africa and Asia, ment techniques that these crops re- where drought is commonplace and the quire. Yields might decline even further , , i; : -a-- populations are among the wvorld's qg.- . .- poorest (8). in the future because many small-scale r - . In recent years, world sorghum and millet and sorghum producers have - . -3 - millet production has increased, but been shortening their fallow periods in -- - --- only because the cultivated area has an attempt to increase production lev- The term "food insecurity" may seem grown. Even so, yields per hectare have els-a strategy that may eventually lead technical to some, but when it is defined remained flat or have even declined in to declining soil fertility (9). in its most basic terms-a lack of nutri- World Resources 1998-99 153 ; r . , I I _ not be one of production for the world EGURE FV.2 Trends - Per Capita 7ooc Procution, 1 961 -96 as a whole, production failures at the lo- Index Numbers 1961i100 cal level are indeed among the major 180 - causes of hunger (5). The statistics on hunger and malnu- 160 ---------- --------- --------- -- -- ---------------------------}------- trition are discouraging, especially as they concern children. About one third 140 - of the children in developing countries are malnourished, according to the WA\orld Health Organization (6). In addi- LASIA over half the deaths among children in 1965 N97 AMERICAtinmantiiniasoaedwh 100 .-C~ ~ - ~ EUROPE developing countries under the age of 5 U.S.S.R (former) (7). Malnutrition in children is generally 80 WORLD determined by weight-the percentage 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 of children under age 5 who weigh con- siderably less than the general popula- F GURE FVW3 Trends in World Food Product o, 196 -96 tion (8). Low-birth-weight babies are Index Numrber; 1961=1 00 children who are born weigh ing less 350 ~~~~~~~-~----~----~-------------- --------------------------.- _ _ ___ . ___ _ than 2,500 grams. Their low weight is 350 - - - - generally attributed to maternal malnu- 300 ~~-~~~ ~- ~~~~~--- -~-~----- -- -- - - -- ---- --- J<. ___ _ trition. WAhen children begin life with a low-weight deficit, they are often prone 250 ------------- - --------------------------/ ------------ to a shortened lifetime full of troubles, including retarded developrnent and 200 - Source Food and Agnc tore susceptibility to disease (9). Organization of the United The Food and Agriculture Organiza- 150-- Nations (FAO),FAOSAT Statis- tion of the United Nations (FAO) or- -.calDotebsse FAQ,tome, ganized a World Food Sumnlit in 1996 199 7). loo -- ' ~~--- ~~~~-~~~ - ~ ~ - ~ ~ - ~ - ~~-~- ~ -~ ~-~--------- Note: Figures are ndexed to with the goal of reducing the number of 1961 production evels. undernourished people to half their 5°1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1999 2000 current level by no later than 2015. Even though governments miade rno financial Tallied on a global basis, total food production and per capita production have both risen significantly from commitments, the summit p.Lanners did 1960 to 1995, buta regional breakdown shows a more complex picture. In Asia and Latin America, both total assemble a mass of data on food and its and per capita production have risen markedly. IMeanwhile, in Africa, food needs rose faster than total produc- availability little of tion increases, so per capita food production has drifted downward. Severe economic disruption in the former ,, t encouraging. Ac- Soviet Union and Eastern Europe beginning in 1991 with the Soviet breakup is reflected in notable decreases in cording to FAO projections, 1:he chroni- total production and per capita production. cally undernourished portion of the Earth's population is expected to de- tious food needed to keep people alive Global supplies of food are in relatively crease over the next decade or so by and healthy-it becomes frighteningly good shape, with surpluses in many ar- more than 10 percent from current lev- human. Some 800 million of the world's eas of the world. (See Figures FXVV.2 and els. (See Figure FV.4.) Yet that will still people-200 million of them chil- FW.3) One researcher has calculated leave some 680 million peopLe with in- dren-suffer from chronic undernutri- that if the global food supply were con- sufficient food in 2010. Sub-Saharan Af- tion (1)(2). (See box on malnutrition in verted to calories and divided by the rica will be particularly hard-hit, with Chapter 1.) world's population, there would be more than 260 million people-about When the global numbers are added enough food for roughly 12 percent one third of the population--lacking up, nutrition seems to be improving. more than the actual population (4). adequate food (10). Life expectancy is growing worldwide, Yet this simple calculation hides the The most widely recognized cause of and better nutrition is one of the key difficulty of matching global food sup- malnutrition is poverty-the lack of factors behind this rise (3). On the sur- ply with actual food needs at a local money to buy food or the means, land, face at least, there is plenty of food. level. Even though the problem might resources, and knowledge needed to 154 World Resources 1998-99 FEEDING THE WORLD giene, and home production of nutri- HG9E FW4 Trends :n Lndernutrition in Develcp ng Countres, 1969-2010 tious foods; a national surveillance ef- fort that weighed and examined every (mni on persons sufer ng from undernuwrit on) preschool child at 3-month intervals; I C0 --- _I _ _ _ X ATN AMERICA AND and school lunch programs (15). 917 905 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~THE CARIBBEAN 8C0 -- - _839 _ NEAR EASTAND Thailand's efforts were also aided by ROT--- -.--.----- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~NORTH AFR CA 680 EZNATr SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA significant economic growth during 600O C -------- ------ ~~----------E-AST --- SOUTH A SIA this period, which raised average in- ~ - - _ comes and increased access to food. 40r , 0 _ Over the longer term, such economic Source: Food and Agriculture Or- development is one of the most potent ganization of the onited Nations 200 (FAO), TheSrate o(FoodandAgrncul- tools against continuing malnutrition. ture, 1996 (FAO, Rome, 1996), F gure 1969-71 1979-81 1990-92 2010 grow it. Yet, there are other factors at often concentrated in areas that have work as well, both environmental and marginal soils and scarce water re- social. A shortage of potable water or sources. water for agriculture-a shortage felt by The prognosis for ending world hun- L X P ; more than one quarter of the world's ger is not encouraging. There is little people-is likely to be reflected in poor prospect for stopping the kinds of wars cerned about losses since agriculture child and adult health ( 11). Local water and local upheavals that often cause began. Yet the problem of how much scarcitv can be more devastating than starvation and malnutrition. Just as food ilt te hrves o po ce food shortages because it is more diffi- troubling, nations in the developed food isect and rvest to oce er cult and expensive to trade water world show less and less interest in spoilage, insects and rodents, or to other among regions than it is to trade agri- sending aid of any sort (other than mili- orl deman grows. Cutting cultural products (12). tary) to the less developed world. Fig- world food demand grows. Cuttin Famines caused by continent-wide ures from the Organisation for Eco- postharvest losses could, presumably, droughts were once considered inevita- nomic Co-Operation and Development add a sizable quantity to the global food ble occurrences in Earth's cycle of ca- document a continuing decline in pub- supply, thus reducing the need to inten- lamities. Dry spells continue, but their lic aid from well-off nations to develop sify production in the future effects have been reduced in recent ing countries, with a 4 percent drop in Yet exactly how much of the world years through good planning and aid from 1995 to 1996 (13). Though the harvest is really lost? Surprisingly little early-warning systems established by United Nations adopted a covenant as solid information exists on the precise international, national, and regional aid far back as 1966 declaring a universal amount and nature of loss. This is agencies, as well as allied nongovern- "right to adequate food," this proclama- partly because losses vary greatly by mental aid agencies. Yet famine's de- tion has a somewhat hollow ring as the crop, by country, and by climatic region, structiveness has not been eliminated. world approaches the end of the cen- and partly because there is no univer- The "natural" famines of the past have tury with hunger still much in evidence sally applied method of measuring been replaced with famines created as a (14). losses (1). As a consequence, estimates result of localized wars and the conse- Despite the discouraging news, the of total postharvest food loss are con- quent displacement of civilians. Often battle against malnutrition continues. troversial and range widely-generally those who foment these wars use star- Indeed, some countries have succeeded from about 10 percent to as high as 40 vation intentionally as a weapon. Even in reducing malnutrition. In the 10-year percent (2)(3). countries that are not experiencing con- period ending in 1991, Thailand re- Just how much of that loss can be pre- flicts are affected if they are neighbors duced nutritional deficiency in pre- vented, and by what degree of effort and of areas in upheaval. Hungry refugees school children by two thirds. It did so expense, is not known. Nor is there clear quickly become an entire region's prob- by establishing a national goal to in- evidence that if losses were reduced, the lem. Refugees suffer particularly serious crease the amount of protein and calo- food thus rescued would find its way effects because they usually have no ries in children's diets; an educational onto the plates of those who need it rights to land or other resources and are program stressing breast-feeding, hy- most. World Resources 1998-99 155 I notes that the importance of such quali- stored in elevated structures that main- SLe FW.2 Estimated 9ostharvest Rice Losses in tative factors is growing, and foods that tamed an ideal humidity level ( 10). Southeast Asia might have been acceptable before may Engineers at IRRI reduced rat dam- ACtIVITY ESTIMATED RANGE become "lost" now because they do not age to rice by rigging a simple plastic CTIVITY ~~~~OF LOSS (PERCENT) Harvest 1-3 meet the market's higher standards for fence around paddies, with a hole every Handling 2-7 acceptability (8). The demand for per- 5 meters leading to a trap. A r at, smell- Threshing 2-6 fect produce is especially common in ing rice, swims along the fenc(e until it Drying 1-5 the more affluent world. A tinv mark finds the hole-and the trap. Storage 2-6 Transport 2-l0 made by a bee early in the life of a pear Experts believe farmers could cut Total 10-37 can disqualify the end product for con- losses by altering production methods, Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na- sumer consideration. A recent review of such as moving from hand gleaning to tions (FAO) Available online at: http://vwN.fao.org./News/ FACTFILE/FF9712-E.HTM. food waste in the United States reported mechanical harvesting. As with all agri- that some 43 billion kilograms of food, cultural decisions, however, the cost of Nonetheless, there is little doubt that or 27 percent of the food available for an improvement is a deciding factor in the problem of food loss is locally sig- people to consume in the United States, its adoption. IRRI estimates the cost of nificant, especially where it concerns were lost in only three stages of the its rat-catching system at USS400 per staple crops. Rice is a good example. A marketing process-retailing, food hectare, and it lasts just a few seasons. study by the International Rice Re- service, and consumers. The total did This can equal one third or more of the search Institute (IRRI) in the Philip- not include losses elsewhere in the food value of a rice crop, and may be too pines has estimated that from 5 to 16 harvesting and distribution svstem (9). much for a farmer to pay ( 1). percent of rice is lost in the harvest pro- Whatever the source, postharvest Governmental policies, too, are im- cess, which includes cutting, handling, losseseprte sentmor pthanj sta portant to minimizing losses, especially threshing, and cleaning. During the food, Whent 2prcentoa hrst s. where commodity crops like rice and postharvest period, another 5 to 21 per- lost, then a l pcrp lo i j arvt of corn are concerned. Accordinig to cent disappears in drying, storage, mill- lost, the actual crop los is Just part Of agronomists, policies that promote a ing, and processing. Total estimated the problem. Also wasted iS 20 percent stable, sufficient supply of these crops in ofall the factors that contributed to.. losses, not counting later losses bv re- . an open, competitive marketplace tailers and consumers, run from 10 to producing the crop-20 percent of the stimulate food producers to be more ef- 37 percent of all rice grown (4). The land used to grow the food and 20 per- ficient and quality conscious (12). Food and Agriculture Organization of cent of the w used to irrgat it, th Unte Nain reot siia esti- along with the human labor, seeds, fer- the U,nited Nations reports simila r esti- tilizer, and evervthing else. In other mates of rice loss in Southeast Asia (5). e . I (See Table FW.2.) words, postharvest food loss translates Other recent scientific surveys place not just into human hunger and finan- rice losses in China at 5 to 23 percent cial loss to farmers but into tremendous (not counting processing) (6), and in environmental waste as well. The process of raising the world's food Vietnam at 10 to 25 percent under typi- Addressing the problem of posthar- has not always been kind to t]ue envi- cal conditions and 40 to 80 percent un- vest losses is complicated because losses ronment. iMany of the adverse environ- der more extreme conditions (7). occur in so many different ways; yet mental impacts resulting frorm agricul- Although these figures are already some recent efforts have shown prom- ture are connected either to tfe loss of high, they do not tell the whole story. ise. For example, a number of strategies natural habitat that occurs when land is Food losses, according to those who have targeted losses during food stor- converted to agricultural purposes or to study them, cannot be reckoned solely age, especially directly after harvest the use (or misuse) of pesticides and in terms of physical losses. There is a w hen foods' internal moisture is being fertilizers. Yet soil degradation has also natural inclination to focus on how reduced and they are prone to attack by been a factor, and one with inmplications many hungry people a ton of lost maize insects and other pathogens. In one ex- for food production as well. or potatoes would feed, but qualitative periment in Benin, hermetically sealing By 1990, poor agricultural practices factors are important, too. storage containers of beans and soy- had contributed to the degradation of Consumers' demand for cosmetically beans asphyxiated insect larvae that had 562 million hectares, about 33 percent perfect produce often means that much infested the beans, cutting losses sub- of the roughly 1.5 billion hec -ares in of the food successfully harvested is stantially. Also in Benin, yam losses fell cropland worldwide (i). (See Figure wvasted. One agricultural researcher significantly when the tubers were FW.5.) Some of this land was only 1 56 World Resources 1998-99 FEEDING THE WORLD ! g I -, gig . ' i .: L 8* 'forms of degradation can be remedied FIGURE FW.5 Human- nducedSo; - , a. - ,'''Cause, 1945 to .ate l9&Cs through painstaking reconstruction of the soil's health (8). omil ions of hectares degradedo How much has damage to the world's 350 _ __._ __ _ _ __ ._ ......... _ _ _ arable lands affected global food sup- WORLD TOTALS Causes 300 (million hectares) EN; VEGETAT ON PEMOVAL plh? Because total global food produc- (mllonh0toesVEtGFETAT ON REMOVAL 4 r -. ., Ar, - h RCUUTURALACTIVT ES tion has continued to increase over the 250 OVEREXPLOTATON years even in the face of significant soil .NRALAD 10NTIA d , it is temptingAL l - OVERGRAZNG degradation, to soil 200 - 1 .1 | - - decline as a minor matter. However, fac- 150 .- r ' I - , tors such as increased fertilizer use, ex- .______________________ Source: Wri o o Fresource Instter tension of irrigated lands, and higher 00 -, ', Nations Environment Drogramme cropping densities have masked the ef- and the Untited Nations Deveiop- fects of soil degradation so far. Substan- ment Programmne, V/end Resenwees O__ ___ U ___ I |_ b1992-93 (Oyford University Press, tial yield losses have already occurred in AFRICA NORTH AND SOUTH ASIA EUROPE OCEANIA New Yorh, 1952) Tab-n .p.29u certain regions, though few studies have CENTRALAMERICA AMERICA attempted to quantify these losses. One 1994 study estimated that soil degrada- slightly degraded, but an appreciable Poor water management on irrigated tion between 1945 and 1990 lowered amount was damaged severely enough cropland is a leading cause of degraded world food production some 17 percent to impair its productive capacity or to farmland. Inadequate drainage can lead (9). Regional studies have localized take it out of production completely. to waterlogging of the soil or to saliniza- these losses. In Africa, production losses Since 1990, losses have continued to tion, in which salt levels build up in the from soil erosion alone are estimated at mount year by year, with an additional 5 soil to toxic levels. With some 10 to 15 just over 8 percent (10). Data from sev- million to 6 million hectares lost to se- percent of all irrigated land suffering eral different studies indicate that the vere soil degradation annually (2). some degree of waterlogging and salini- decline in productivity resulting from Degradation comes in several forms, zation, these two problems alone repre- soil degradation may exceed 20 percent the best known of which is soil erosion. sent a significant threat to the world's in a number of Asian and Middle East- Most soil erosion-about two productive capacity (7). (See Figure ern countries (11). FW 6 ) ~~~~~~~~These losses are predicted to worsen thirds-is caused by water washing FW.6.) away topsoil, with another third caused Often, when climate and human ac- as soil degradation continues. Though tivities combine to turn once-healthy the total global harvest may not reflect by wind (3). One analysis of global soil soil into wasteland, the degradation is such losses immediately, they may be erosion estimates that, depending on seemingly irreversible. However, many noticeable in some areas, especiallv the region, topsoil is currently being lost 16 to 300 times faster than it can be re- placed (4). Soil-making processes are FIGURE Fl.6 Irrigated Land as a Percer.age cf Agricuiural and, 61-94 notoriously slow, requiring from 200 to 1,000 years to form 2.5 centimeters of sPerceoto topsoil under normal agricultural con- 12 WORLD ditions (5). - ASRA Farmland can be degraded in several LAT NAMERCA other wvays besides erosion. Physical -C EA HAME degradation from mechanical tilling can lead to soil compaction and crust- r ing. Repeated cropping without suffi- eaure Fogonios ron oftrho cient fallow periods or replacement of 4-- Jo tre Rsr.oo (FAnO, * . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~FA05TATStntistical nutrients with cover crops, manure, or D........ .. = * e *FAO, Reme, fertilizer can deplete soil nutrients. In 2 - 1997) addition, overapplication of agricultural ' Note: Aia and Europedo not include toe ceLntir eve)f chemicals can kill beneficial soil organ- o the former Soviet Union isms (6). 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 unt A99t. World Resources 1998-99 157 where degradation is severe and pro- farming region in ways in which it gressing quickly. For example, soil ero- could never be seen before. sion is expected to seriouslv compro- Where this technology is available, A . mise production in southeast Nigeria, such information can help farmers Haiti, and the Himalavan foothills, as manage their effect on the soil by iden- Aquaculture-the farming ol fish, well as in some parts of southern China, tifying those areas that are most amena- shrimp, shellfish, and seaweeds-has Southeast Asia, and Central America. ble to agriculture, as well as those most been a source of human protein for Salinization is expected to become a prone to damage. Researchers in Hon- nearly 4,000 years, especially in Asia (i). major threat in the irrigation systems of duras, for instance, have used GIS to Unprecedented growth in aquaculture the Indus, Tigris, and Euphrates River map the hilly Yoro area, where there is production in the last decade, however, basins, as well as in northeastern Thai- pressure to expand cultivation. As ex- has given it increased importance in the land and China, in the Nile delta, in pected, the richest soils and highest modern food supply. From 1984 to northern Mexico, and in the Andean productivity occur in the valleys, but 1994, world aquaculture production highlands. Nutrient depletion is likely to the maps make clear that high-quality more than doubled, making it one of be a serious problem in large areas of soils exist on some slopes as well. the fastest-growing food production ac- Africa and in a variety of other far-flung Farmers and policymakers can use tivities (2). locations from Myanmar to the Carib- this information to determine which ar- Globally, almost 20 percent of all fish bean Basin (12). eas are capable of substantial produc- and shellfish production in 1995 was at- tion with the least environmental harm. tributable to aquaculture, or about 21 Yet not all the news on soil degrada- Als no ob vroke r te m tiong Also not to be overlooked are other im- million metric tons (not courting sea- tion is bad. More soil-friencly farmin-g portant techniques to improve soil weeds) out of 112 million metric tons practices that minimize tilling and re- health including increasing organic (3). (See Figure FW.7.) Yet this indus- duce the erosive potential of the tilling content and nutrient cycling, as well as try's contribution to the human diet is that is done are coming into wider use, soil conservation through use of bio- actually greater than the numbers imply. are spreading into countries such as logicallv intensive management prac- Whereas one third of the conventional Morocco, the Philippines, and Thailand, tices such as green manures, cover fish catch is used to make fishmeal and and are expanding regionally in parts of crops, intercropping, agroforestry, and fish oil, virtually all farmed fish are used sub-Saharan Africa and South America. crop rotation, as human food. Today, one fourth of the These methods include contour farm- fish consumed by humans is the prod- ing, terracing, vegetative barriers, and uct of aquaculture, and that percentage improved land use practices at the farm will only increase as aquaculture ex- and landscape levels. Better water man- pands and the world's conventional fish agement practices that control saliniza- tion and lower the amount of irrigation water needed per hectare are also FIGURE F.7 Aquaculture Procctn as Share ofTotal Marine and Freshsnatee ish Harvest, 1984-95 spreading (13). Agronomists are beginning to realize that erosion and allied concerns are not 120 - ---- -- --- - - ---- - - TOTALCAPTURE just local problems but threats to entire _ i TOTAL AQUACULTURE watersheds; as such, they can be man- lo-- --- ------------- - - - aged most effectively when approached X in this way. Until recently, most re- - - searchers studied degradation on al- most a farm-by-farm basis and failed to * * * and see the big picture. Now the big picture Agrc turce Drganization of is available, literally, through geographic the United Nations (FAO), information systems (GIS). These data- 4- - -- The State of Worid Fisheries oqdAquacoore, 7996 bases integrate huge amounts of infor- (FAO,Rome, 1997),Tablet, mation-elevation, cropping practices, 20 p5 rainfall, slope, water flow patterns, and Note: [ncludes finfish and a s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~hellfntn on[,;does nor other factors-and construct custom- 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 include seawseed. made maps that depict a watershed or 158 World Resources 1998-99 FEEDING THE WORLD catch from oceans and lakes continues , I i , i i beyond its traditional stronghold in to decline because of overfishing and -ABLE FW3 S-are of C oba Aquacu ture Produc on, Asia (12). environmental damage (4). As currently . However, there are also serious con- practiced, however, aquaculture also PERCENT SHARE OF straints on aquaculture's future growth. environmental damage, ~COUNTRY GLOBAL PRODUCTION causes environmental damage, raising China 57 For one, fish farming requires both land questions about how best to meet food India 9 and water-two resources already in demands and preserve environmental Japan 4 short supply in many areas. In Thailand quality. Indonesia 4 both these resources have been diverted Asia dominates world aquaculture Thailand 3 in recent years to fuel the growth of the aquaculture, United States2 producing four fifths of all farmed fish, Philippines 2 aquaculture industry. For example, shrimp, and shellfish (5). China is by far Korea, Republic of 2 nearly half the land now used for the leading producer, contributing Other countries 17 shrimp ponds in Thailand was formerly nearly 60 percent of 1994 world produc- Source: Food and Agr.cu ture Organization of the United Na- used for rice paddies; in addition, water tion, or some 15 million metric tons (6). (FAO,Rome,T 997), p. 12. diversion for shrimp ponds has lowered Indeed, aquaculture accounts for more groundwater levels noticeably in some than half of China's total fish produc- high-income regions like Japan, Europe, coastal areas. In China, the concern over tion each year. India is the second larg- and the United States, carp make a di- loss of arable land has led to restrictions est producer, with 9 percent of the rect, significant contribution to the pro- on any further conversion of farmland world's aquaculture total in 1994 (7). tein needs of less affluent rural Chinese to aquaculture ponds (13). (See Table FW.3.) (10)(11). More serious still is concern over the Aquaculture products fall into two Can continued expansion of aquac- environmental impacts of aquaculture distinct groups: high-valued species ulture increase the global fish catch operations, especially the intensive pro- such as shrimp and salmon that are fre- enough to feed the world's growing duction systems and large-scale facili- quently grown for export, and lower- need for fish protein? Certainly, some ties used to raise high-value shrimp, valued species such as carp and tilapia growth in world aquaculture can be salmon, and other premium species. that are consumed primarily locally. expected, but just how much is not Shrimp farming has taken an especially China, for instance, raises a substantial clear One analysis projects that, under heavy toll on coastal habitats, with man- amount of shrimp in intensively man- favorable conditions, global produc- grove swamps in Africa and Southeast aged ponds along its coastline for the tion could nearly double by 2010 to 39 Asia being cleared at an alarming rate to lucrative export trade (8). Yet China's to- million metric tons. Several factors are make room for shrimp ponds (14)(15). tal aquaculture production is domi- pushing this growth in both intensive In just 6 years, from 1987 to 1993, Thai- nated not by shrimp but by carp raised aquaculture and in small-scale, farm- land lost more than 17 percent of its in relatively low-tech inland ponds for based efforts. Global demand for fish is mangrove forests to shrimp ponds (16). local consumption. The four major carp rising even as many ocean stocks are (See Table FW.4.) Destruction of man- species-silver carp, grass carp, com- declining, and aquaculture techniques groves has left these coastal areas ex- mon carp, and bighead carp-account and technology continue to improve. posed to erosion and flooding, has al- for more than one third of world aquac- In addition, small-scale aquaculture tered natural drainage patterns, has ulture production-nearly all of it in offers farmers a ready source of both increased salt intrusion, and has re- China (9). subsistence food and cash, and these moved a critical habitat for many These carp are raised primarily as a benefits are likely to promote expansion aquatic species (17). supplementary activity to regular crop agriculture on Chinese farms. Carp are . _ _ I _ herbivores and can survive on low-cost, TABLE FW4 Changes - t e Distr but on of Mangroves in 7haile^d, 1961-86 readily available feed material, rather than on the high-cost fishmeal that car- 1961 1975 1979 1986 nivorous species such as shrimp and REGION 1961 1975 1979 1986 1 . GulfofThailand-eastern coast ~~~ ~ ~~~~~490 441 280 salmon require to grow; thus carp farm- GulofTnailand-eastern coast GulfofThailand-northern coast 273 231 3 ing is both more economical and easier GulfofThailand-western coast 1,065 447 419 204 to integrate with other conventional Andaman Sea-eastern coast 3,679 3,127 2,873 1,964 farm activities than are other types of Total 4,744 4,337 3,964 2,451 aquaculture. Whereas farmed shrimp Source: M. Spau ding, F Blsco, and C. Field, eds., A'orrdMangrove Arlas (Inrteratioona Society for M9 a ng rove Ecosystems, Ok navva, tend to grace the tables of consumers in I Japan, 1997),p.68. World Resources 1998-99 1 59 Intensive aquaculture operations can The Food and Agriculture Organiza- and environmental policy (2.3). In addi- also lead to water pollution, which is tion of the United Nations asserts that tion, some shrimp farmers are advocat- also a major concern. When flushed some progress has been made in reducing ing an "ecolabeling" scheme that would into nearby coastal or river waters, the environmental impacts of aquacul- certify shrimp grown by pro lucers us- heavy concentrations of fish feces, un- ture. For example, several countries ing more benign farming practices (24). eaten food, and other organic debris can where salmon are farmed have insti- Progress in aquaculture research can lead to oxygen depletion and contribute tuted controls on production to ensure also be expected to help in the transition to harmful algal blooms. In Thailand that pollution is kept within acceptable to low-impact, high-productivity fish alone, shrimp ponds discharge some 1.3 limits (21). In some cases, new technol- farming in the future. For example, Chi- billion cubic meters of effluent into ogy has also helped. In Puget Sound, on nese researchers are developing a protein coastal waters each year (18). the west coast of the United States, one supplement based on yeast that can sub- salmon farmer is using a giant, floating, stitute for more than half the fishmeal in Paradoxially putsmome aquacure o- semienclosed tub to raise his fish rather aquaculture feed preparations. Further, duction also putoks, moreth pressreliing than the usual porous pens made of work on fish breeding has already pro- ocean fish stocks, rather than relieving netting. The tub prevents fish wastes duced a strain of tilapia that grows 60 pressure. Asntdfrom polluting surrounding waters and percent faster and with higher survival rous species like salmon and shrimp de- also keeps fish from escaping and inter- rates than native tilapia (25). pend on high-protein feed formulated mingling with wild salmon, which In the end, aquaculture's contribution from fishmeal-a blend of sardines, an- would contaminate the gene pool of the to the global food supply wil [ likely turn chovies, pilchard, and other low-value native fish (22). on how well these and other innova- fish. Some 10 to 15 percent of all fish- Even in the problematic shrimp- tions can help fish farms more closely meal goes to aquaculture feeds, and it farming industry, there are some initial mimic natural ecosystems, with better takes roughly 2 kilograms of fishmeal to signs of progress. In South Asia, a major recycling of nutrients and less waste produce a kilogram of farmed fish or shrimp producer has instituted a tem- generation (26). That will mean fewer shrimp. The result is a net loss of fish porary ban on new ponds until the gov- inputs and impacts, without eroding aq- protein (19)(20). ernment adopts an acceptable social uaculture's profitability and versatility. 160 World Resources 1998-99 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION The material requirements of modern industrial economies are enor- E - 1 I - mous, as are the environmental impacts of such consumption. In ' industrialized societies, an average person consumes many tons of -, raw materials each year, which must be extracted, processed, and ultimately disposed of as wastes. This section examines some of the repercussions of L 1 . :'''i ! - current production and consumption patterns and explores how companies What does it take to produce the goods and governments are beginning to adopt practices to reduce consumption's ands es tat u rpi ur lies?od environmental toll. ~~~~~~~~~~~and services that underpin our lives? A environmental toll. detailed study of Germany, Japan, the One way to measure the "environmental footprint" of industrial societies Netherlands, and the United States is to track the volume and kind of materials flowing through their econo- shows that for highly industrialized mies. A recent effort to make just such an accounting, reported here, re- economies, the total volume of natural veals that the environmental footprint of the most highly industrialized resources required can be staggering-in economies is surprisingly large, extending well beyond the industrial pro- the range of 45 to 85 metric tons of ma- cesses themselves and well past the point of consumption. The continued terial per person each year (1). trend toward greater consumption and wider environmental impacts is ap- That value is relevant today because parent in developed and developing countries alike. An analysis of global in many nations and will play a large paper consumption, for instance, shows that use of paper products has tri- part in the four- or fivefold expansion pled over the past three decades and is expected to grow by half again be- of the global economy expected over fore 2010. the next 50 years. But is it sustainable? Consumption's environmental profile is affected not just by rising de- The kind of resource-intensive produc- mand, but also by changes in markets and production methods. Coffee is tion that is commonplace in developed an example. For years, this crop was grown in a mixed forest setting that countries probably cannot be replicated provided habitat for migratory birds. However, new intensive methods of without causing serious environmental cultivation are greatly reducing the forest canopy. harm (2). Driven by pollution regulations, public pressure, and a growing aware- Specifically, this type of production ness that better environmental performance can be profitable, efforts to re- often requires moving or processing duce the impacts of industry and agriculture are on the rise. New technolo- large quantities of primary natural re- gies, redesigned products, and reconfigured processes are increasing the sources that do not end up being used efficiencv of resource use and driving down process wastes. New manage- in the final product. (See Figure PC.1.) effiienc . . . . ............................. .For example, fabricating the automo- ment practices are extending the range of business responsibilities to in- biles and other metal-intensive prod- clude the environmental and social impacts of goods and services, even on ucts for which Japan is well known re- distant communities or ecosystems. quires mining and processing a yearly Yet more remains to be done. Achieving industrial growth that is sus- per capita equivalent of about 14 metric tainable-both ecologically and economically viable over the long tons of ore and minerals (3). Growing term-will require more than just cleaner, more efficient industrial pro- the food required to feed a single US. cesses. Business leaders and analysts acknowledge that it will demand a re- resident causes about 15 metric tons of . . . ~~~soil erosion annuallv. In Germany, pro- orientation of business so that companies can derive traditional business soi ter energyu Isn Gear pr- ducing the energy used in a year re- success-higher cash flow, shareholder value, and return on assets-while quires removing and replacing more still contributing to public goods like clean water and air, robust food, and than 29 metric tons of coal overburden healthy ecosystems. The subset of companies that are actively trying to re- for each German citizen, quite apart structure their businesses along these lines is still quite small. from the fuel itself or the pollution caused by its combustion (4). These hidden material flows from mining, earth moving, erosion, and other sources-which together account World Resources 1998-99 161 Ii t ". UI01jT11 I1 111104M rial flows contributing to the Japanese the total materials used in the most in- FGURE PC 1 Direct Inputs and aidden Vateria Flows economy take place offshore (6). dustrialized countries. (See Figure as a FroDortion of Tcta! Mater al Requ rements of This raises real concerns about envi- PC.2.) This means that reducing fossil Selected Economies, 1991 ronmental equity and the global econ- fuel use is crucial to reducing the total omy, since the benefits and costs of this impact of industrial production, in ad- (metrctons per cap ta) DIRECTIN[LTS kind of industrial production are not dition to the other global benefits such a a00 E HIDDEN FLOWS equally shared. While these concerns reduction would bring in terms of im- so ian are not new, the scale of the material proved air quality and lower green- flows puts them in a new light. house gas emissions. 60l Likewise, more sustainable cultiva- 40 < _ tion methods are essential to stem the r I - igiQ.C f I - YESSS WM. AT L significant soil loss associated with 20asN TN- modern intensive agricultural systems. o _ _ _ _ Progress toward environmentally sus- Erosion, for example, accounts for 17 GERMANY JAPAN NETHERLANDS UNITED STATE,S indu t . ......... GERAW APN NTHRLADSUNIEDSTAES tainable industrial economies clearly percent of the total materials require- will require reducing the volume of the ment of the United States. This number IndoureA/dcrinaese artpsulicationvof:thetrdie- o hidden materialfws that precede in- has come down in recent years largely sourceslnstitute(WRI),theWupperta nstitite;the Nether- dustrial processes-the front end of the because the United States instituted a lands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning, and the Environ- industrial materials cvcle-rather than policy-embodied in the Coniservation ment; and the Nanional Institute for Environmental Studies (WRI,Washington,D.C,1997), p. 13. just cleaning up the wastes that result Reserve Program-to curtail agricul- from actual production. This has im- tural production in erosion-prone ar- for as much as 75 percent of the total portant implications for environmental eas. The program's success shows that materials that industrial economies policies. For example, it makes the policies that reduce hidden resource use-are easy to ignore because they do benefits of recvcling quite clear. Every flows like soil loss can significantly re- not enter the economy as commodities ton of iron recycled not only replaces a duce the environmental impacts of in- bought or sold and thus are not ac- ton that would have been mined but dustrial society (7). counted for in a nation's gross domestic also avoids the creation of several tons This and other hopeful signis show product. Hidden material flows like soil of mine tailings or overburden, as well that it might be possible to transform or rock may not be as toxic or environ- as ore-processing wastes. industrial economies. Over the past two mentally harmful on a weight-for- Yet not everything can be recycled. decades, the overall economies of Ger- mentally Coal or oil, for instance, can be burned many, Japan, the Netherlands, and the weight basis as many industrial wastes, Ca rol o ntne a ebre ay aa,teNtelns n h but they are quite important in terms of only once. Unfortunately, fossil fuels United States grew slightly faster than tettleicof in- and the hidden material flows associ- did their use of natural resources. If this dthertoal environmental im pact ated with them make up a large percent- modest trend toward decoupling natu- dustrial activities, since they represent a trlymasie caeofenirnmntl l age-between 26 and 46 percent-of ral resource use and economic activity trulv massive scale of cnvironmental al- teration (5). Significantly, the resulting impacts | _ - from these hidden flows, including wa- iLRE PC d Pr mary Contributions to -he Total Materia Requirer-ents of Selected Economies, 1991 ter pollution and landscape distur- metrictoa pe, capra) bance, are often felt far from the econo- 40 mies that benefit from them, since METALS & FUESTIAL MINERAL industrial economies import many raw 30 E CONSTRUCTION MATER ALS REEENEVALES materials from afar. More than 70 per- [ I . INFRASTRUCTUIE EXCAVATION cent of the materials that flow through 20 EROSION the Dutch economy, for example, never touch Dutch soil. This includes the a t [ H mine tailings, eroded soil, logging de- bris, and excavated earth and rock asso- GERMANY JAPAN NETHERLANDS UNITED STATES ciated with extracting the raw materials Source: A. Adriaanse et al., PResorce Flows: The Meterial Basisof Industnrale onromies, a joint publication of the World Resources Insti- used in nearly all Dutch industrial pro- tute (WRI),theWuppertal nstitute:the Netherlands Min stry of Housing,Spatial Planwing,and the Environment;and the National cesses. Likewise, 50 percent of the mate- i nstitute for Environmental Studies ('NRi, Washin_gton,D.C., 1 997), p.12. 162 World Resources 1998-99 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION were to intensify, it might indicate that future economic growth could take IGURE PC.3 AnnuaI Per Cap ta Paper and Paperboard Consumption place without increasing the alreadyi, eons per person) heavy burden these economies place on 025 1 1 1970 the planet. 1980 The realization of this goal is still a - 1990 long way off, however. At present, it 0.2 .-_- 1994 takes about 300 kilograms of natural re- sources, including hidden material 0.15 flows, to generate US$100 of income. r The member countries of the Organisa- l tion for Economic Co-Operation and Source: Food and Development (OECD) (8), which collec- Aatare or t zation of the Unitecl tively represent a large percentage of the 00a Nations (FAO),St9te I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~of toe Wvohdn Forests world's industrial base, have set a pre- 7 0 jf home liminary target of reducing this ratio by v { _ _ 997), p. 1 91 a factor of 10, to 30 kilograms per AFRICA NORTH/ SOUTH ASIA EUROPE OAEANIA WORLD US$100 income, over the next several decades. Without major progress to- In the developing world, paper con- local wood production, is likely to expe- ward this goal, there seems little pros- sumption is growing quite rapidly-by rience shortfalls in the supply of all pect for reducing the scale of environ- more than 7 percent annually between wood products, but especially pulp and mental impacts worldwide, especially as 1980 and 1994-but average per capita paper, soon after the turn of the century developing nations increase their use of consumption remains low, at about 15 (7). The critical questions concern how; natural resources to expand their econo- kilograms per year (3). This is well be- and from where, the future demand for mies and improve their lifestyles (9). low the 30 to 40 kilograms of paper per paper will be met. capita per year considered the mini- mum level necessary to meet basic 7HE ,APE,R t:Yc` E re ,t.g (' ; 'l i- . needs for communication and literacy. Ir .''X. ' ;-'.-w..¢;.a ,|I'- I h nusraie4outiscn Every stage of the paper production and . In the industrialized countries, con- consumption cycle is associated with a sumption is vastlyT greater-333 kilo- Paper remains the dominant and essen- range of potential problems. Most wood tial vehicle of modern communications. grams per capita per year in the United fiber, from which pulp and paper are In addition to such traditional products States and 160 in Western Europe (4) made, comes from natural forests man- as newspapers, books, magazines, and Unlike consumption trends in other aged for timber production in North writing paper, a new world of mail or- mature commodity sectors, paper con- America, Europe, and Asia, and from der catalogs, marketing and promo- sumption shows little sign of decou- plantations around the world. Onlv 2 tional materials, and household papers pling from economic growth. Globally, percent of wood fiber comes from has developed in recent years. In addi- paper consumption has increased by a tropical rainforests and virgin temper- tion, far from ushering in a paperless factor of 20 this century and has tripled ate hardwood forests (8). office, the advent of computers and over the past several decades (5). (See As demand rises, pressure on unman- other electronic equipment has fueled Figure PC.3.) aged forests is likely to increase, espe- paper demand. By one estimate, per- Paper consumption is projected to cially on the largely untouched boreal sonal computers alone account for 115 grow by about 50 percent by 2010. The forests of the former Soviet Union. billion sheets of paper per year world- biggest increase-over 80 percent-is Plantations, which in 1993 supplied 29 wide (1). Communications, however, expected to occur in developing coun- percent of global wood pulp, may offer makes up less than half of the world's tries in Asia, where demand is being one solution (9)(1o). In theory, the paper use; a bigger share is now taken driven by rapid growth of both incomes world's current total demand for wood by the booming packaging industry (2). and population (6). North America and fiber for pulp could be supplied from In many Western countries, high paper Europe are expected to be able to main- high-yielding industrial plantations to- consumption has come to be regarded tain their current balance between de- taling about 40 million hectares as a symbol of overconsumption and of mand and supply. Asia, however, despite (roughly the size of Sweden or Para- the wastefulness of modern society. having the world's fastest increases in guav)-an area equivalent to about 1.5 World Resources 1998-99 163 _ = g II stitute for wood pulp. Agricultural F SJRE PC 4 Paper Recovery as a Percentage ofPaoer ano Paperboard Production products such as these usual Iy require (percent recovered) the use of more fertilizers and pesti- 70 _-_-_ ...... -- -AFRICA cides, which can then lead to more pol- ASIA lution. Use of nonwood fibers also 60 -----------------------i-- .^_ _ CENTRAL AMER CA 60 \ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~ -- t--\- ~-~~-~-~-~ ~~7EUROPE makes chemical recovery more difficult - NORTH AMERICA because of the material's higlh silica 50 ~- ---~-t----~----------- OCEANIA SOUTH AMER CA component. In addition, nonwood fi- 40 / bers are bulky, expensive to transport, 30 /00 - \ and tend to be available only seasonally 50 / w Source: Food and Agrcu ture (13) (14). However, there are encouraging , .,, .,. ., . .. *.... , ,.Orgaroizaton ot the iUniEed signs that developing countries may be 2 . 1 . ' -Nat as (FAO),FAOSTATStatisi 20 ,,,,.- .. ' -~ ' ~-~~~- ticatoOtabose. Availabeon- willing to import paper rathe r than to line at: http://www.fao.org incur such high environmental costs. 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 (FA,me,1997) China has recently closed nearly 50,000 small paper mills and other factories percent of the world's closed forest area which no effluent is discharged, serious that cause high levels of pollution (I1). However, intensively managed problems are still common in small (15) (16). plantations often involve environ- pulp and paper mills in developing In industrialized countries, concerns mental, social, or aesthetic trade-offs countries (12). have focused equally, if not miore so, on compared with natural forests. Pollution could actually be worsened the ever-increasing volumes of waste Pulp- and papermaking can be a by a physical or economic scarcity of paper being created. Disposal of paper highly polluting process. Liquid efflu- wood fiber in the future, particularly in products in landfill sites leads to emis- ents from mills include a range of or- developing countries. Shortages could sions of the greenhouse gas niethane; in ganic, toxic, and chlorinated organic encourage greater use of nonwood fi- addition, there are suspicions that in- matter that adversely affects water qual- bers for papermaking-already a sig- cineration of chlorine-bleached paper ity and can be lethal to fish. While nificant raw material in China and In- causes the release of dioxins into the at- large-scale paper producers in some in- dia. Nonwood fibers from crops like mosphere. Disposal facilities of any dustrialized countries have succeeded kenaf or from the leftovers of sugarcane kind are increasingly difficult to estab- in achieving closed-cycle bleaching, in pressing, however, are not a perfect sub- lish due to public hostility. Th.ese prob- lems, together with consumer s' percep- tions of wasteful paper use and The German Packaging Ordinance excessive packaging, have led to numer- ........................................................................................................................................... ..............o sg v r m n ,pr v t - e t r n ous government, private-sector, and The German _ -- " i Ordinance of June 1991 and the national recovery rate c imbed voluntary initiatives intended to in- imposed reqjirements on packaging pmoducers to 44.8 percent 14). crease recycling rates. Between 1970 and distributors to rake back and reuse or recy- and 1994, worldwide paper recovery cle packaging materials including paper, card- References and Notes rates rose from 23 percent to 37 percent; board, gass, tirnplarte, and alu mir um. Coleton I. International Institute for E nvironment and at the same time, many count ries have quoras of 80 percent were established for pa- Paper Cycle: Ar, Independenzt Study on the achieved considerably higher recovery per and paperboard, recycli g q uoras were set Sustainability ot the Pulp anzd Paper Indus- try report prepared for the wAorld Business rates (17). (See Figure PC.4.) at 64 percert. Both quotas were to be achieved Council for Sustainable Development The use of paper is generally consid- by July 1, 1995. After sticking at 45 percent 'or (IIED, London, 1996),p. 180. n2. Food and Agriculture Organization of Ehe ered essential for modern living, and nearly 20 years, Gerroany's wasteps-per recy- U-nited NatElons llFAO), State of the Wotrld's the current paper cycle cannot be con- cling rate rose to 54 percent In 1994:the total Forests 1997 (FAO, Rome, 1997).p. 75. vol u m e of packa g ing n the Fed era I Repu b ic of , Siegbert Schneider, "Waste Management sidered sustainable while the needs of Case Study: Germany," paper presented to temjrt fpol ndvlpn Germany fe I by approximately m I ion metric the International WNVorkshop on P o the majority of people in developing tons betweer 1991 and 1993 (1) (2; (3). In a cif- Mfeasures for Changing Consumption Pat- countries remain unmet. The Food and ferent approachnthe US. paper ndus:ry has set terns (August 30- September 1, 1995, Seoul, Agriculture Organization of the United a vo untary goal ofa 50 percent recovery rate 4. American Forest and PaperAssociation, Nations suggests that no immediate cri- by 2000. United States paper mi Is sharply in- lape rogromsAvailao sis exists in terms of meeting near-term line at: http://svwwA.~afandpa.org/recycling/ creased their use of recovered paper in 1996, paper/programs.html (December 1997). demand for pulp and paper worldwide. i Over the longer term, however', antici- 164 World Resources 1998-99 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION pated growth in demand for wood In dollar value, coffee is the most im- Traditionally, coffee has been grown products of all types will probably ne- portant (legal) traded commodity after as a crop within a mixed-shade cover of cessitate changes in forest management oil in the world and is the primary ex- fruit trees and other hardwood species, practices, such as greater reliance on port of many developing countries, ac- which together form a forestlike agro- plantations and even the use of wood counting for as much as one third of ex- ecosystem. Such "shade" coffee planta- products grown on smaller scales in port earnings in several Latin American tions-which are more often than not farm woodlots and agroforestry sys- countries (1). It is also a significant small farms-provide a rich habitat tems (18). source of employment, with some 20 particularly valuable to migratory birds. Improved operations in pulp and pa- million to 25 million people-most of Biologists in Mexico have found that per mills is an urgent need on both en- them small farmers-dependent on in- traditionally managed coffee planta- vironmental and health grounds. Con- come from the world coffee crop (2). tions support at least 180 species of servative estimates suggest that More than two thirds of current world birds, a number exceeded only by un- bringing all mills worldwide up to a coffee production is exported from disturbed tropical forest (6). Besides uniform "good" environmental stan- Latin America and the Caribbean, with coffee, a typical mixed plantation also dard could require an investment of much of the rest coming from African provides fruit, firewood, timber, and about US$20 billion, plus annual oper- and Asian producers such as Camer- other products that can be used directly ating costs of more than US$8 billion oon, C6te d'Ivoire, Indonesia, and or sold for cash, providing alternative (19). However, forest degradation and Papua New Guinea (3). However, most sources of income. This can be espe- pollution are currently most severe in coffee is consumed in the developed cially important to the many small cof- regions where financial and technical world; the United States and the Euro- fee farmers living at or below the pov- resources are limited and demand for pean Community together import two erty level (7). out of every three bags of coffee pro- In the past 20 years, coffee farmers paper is projected to rise most steeply. duced in the world (4). have increasingly converted to more in- in the developed countries, additional Coffee production has grown by tensive systems, involving high-yielding cling targets, certification or labeling nearly 200 percent since 1950 (5), and coffee varieties grown with no shade schemes to promote the use of sustaina- recent years have seen a surge in con- and high applications of chemical fertil- bly produced paper products, and fi- sumer demand for specialty coffees izers and pesticides. About 40 percent nancial incentives for paper recovery, such as gourmet blends, flavored cof- of the coffee planted in Colombia, Mex- nial inbcbln btivesf ar recove fees, and organically grown coffees. ico, Central America, and the Carib- willgprobably be neesaY t to secure (See Table PC. 1.) Indeed, fashionable bean has been converted to so-called greater efficiency in current patterns of coffee bars in many developed countries "sun coffee" which is grown in the open paper consumption. today are not unlike the coffeehouses of (8). While planting sun coffee has in- 18th-Century Europe, which flourished creased production, it has involved when the drink was first introduced. some significant environmental trade- Yet new consumer trends in coffee offs. For one, it provides a largely drinking are not the only change in the monocultural habitat and is associated -01i , *|1 g ,Xi i1 iEll | 1 | global coffee business. In a bid to mod- with higher rates of soil degradation ernize, the coffee industry has begun to and water pollution. f 0 @ l 2 jl9 shift from its traditional reliance on More significantly, because of the im- small coffee producers growing their portance of traditional coffee planta- For well over a century, coffee has been plants in fairly low-density, diversified tions as migratorv bird habitats, the a major export from Latin America, plots to industrial cultivation on larger conversion to industrial coffee produc- shaping both the economy and the plantations. Much of this shift has been tion systems may have devastating con- natural landscape of the region. Yet re- promoted and subsidized by govern- sequences for migratorv bird popula- cent changes in coffee production ment and international aid organiza- tions, as well as for other species. This is methods, driven by increased demand, tions as a way of raising the coffee sec- especiallv true in Central America and the desire to boost yields, and an inter- tor's productivity and promoting rural Colombia, where many migratory national trade agreement based on quo- development. However, as with other routes converge. In many parts of Cen- tas, threaten to erode many of the bene- agricultural modernization efforts this tral America, shade coffee plantations fits of traditional coffee culture on small century, changes in coffee production account for a large percentage of the re- plantations, with wildlife and small have had broad environmental and so- maining forest, as in El Salvador, where farmers paying the price. cial repercussions. they make up 60 percent of the nation's World Resources 1998-99 165 forest area. In effect, sun coffee conver- growers, although the costs associated and marketing strategy, basec on finan- sion is a form of deforestation, with with the certification process itself can cial, environmental, and health and consequent effects on species diversity. be significant (10). safety considerations (12). Studies in Colombia and Mexico show In addition, the so-called "fair trade" that sun coffee plantations support 90 movement has taken root in the world percent fewer bird species than do coffee market in the past few years. The j _ shade coffee plantations (9). movement's goal is to achieve a fair Although some farmers and large price paid to small growers for their cof- producers may benefit, especially when fee, which is distributed through small, coffee prices are high, many small farm- democratically run cooperatives, whose ers may suffer as a result of the conver- principles of shared profits free of mid- sion to sun coffee, since it involves con- dlemen are used as a commercial selling Business today is operating in a pro- siderable use of pesticides under point. While the fair trade criteria under foundly different world than iE: did 30 conditions that may lead to unhealthy which these cooperatives operate do not years ago. Environmental management exposures for farm workers. Loss of the explicitly require the use of shade cof- is no longer a relatively simple matter of noncoffee products that shade planta- fee, they encourage sustainable produc- controlling local pollution. To lay, tions produce can also be an economic tion methods and organic methods as manufacturing companies may be held blow, making farmers more dependent well. Fair trade coffee has been most responsible for the impacts of their op- on the notoriously volatile coffee mar- successful in Europe, capturing between erations at every stage from raw mate- ket for their sole income. 2 percent (Germany) and 5 percent rial extraction through distribution to Opposing this trend toward sun cof- (Switzerland) of most markets, and it is consumer use and final product dis- fee cultivation are small but encourag- moving from niche to mainstream out- posal. These impacts are sometimes dis- ing signs of growing consumer interest lets. For example, fair trade coffee is tant in space and even in time from in sustainably grown coffee, produced available in 90 percent of supermarkets each other. Managers must also deal under conditions that are better both in the United Kingdom ( 11). with the expectations of a more envi- for the environment and for small farm- Farmers producing for such coopera- ronmentally aware public and the reali- ers. Sales of certified organic coffee, tives receive significantly higher prices zation that reduced environmental im- which generally comes from coffee for their coffee and more secure mar- pacts must come without sacrificing plants grown under more traditional kets. In some cases, this stability and ex- product quality or function. shaded conditions, are currently grow- tra income are being used to support a This new set of ground rules offers ing faster than any other type of spe- conversion to fully organic production. progressive businesses fresh commer- cialty coffee, though they still represent Coocafe, a fair trade organization in cial opportunities to distinguish them- only 1 to 2 percent of the $5 billion spe- Costa Rica, is planning to produce only selves from their competitors on the ba- cialty coffee market. Certified organic organic coffee beans by 2002. The deci- sis of both product quality and coffee beans sell for 10 to 15 percent sion-which will affect 3 percent of environmental performance. For these more than standard gourmet beans, and Costa Rica's coffee production-was companies, cleaner productiorn pro- so can translate into higher returns for made as part of a long-term economic cesses, more recyclable designs, and new ways of delivering services with less material throughput represent aggres- . IT;:'>dr7 => sive investments in a changing market- TABLE PC.1 Coffee Prcduction ,n orthern Latin Amernca, 1950-90 place in which environmental values PRODUCTION PERCENT have greater business currency Yet these (000 metrictons) CHANGE companies are still the exception, not REGION 1950' 1960 1970' 1980 1990 1950-90 the rule. World 2,222 4,268 4,262 5,039 6,282 183 Industry analysts recognize a natural Central America 189 341 428 605 680 260 progression of phases that companies Caribbean' 107 136 121 134 139 30 Northern Latin America 711 1,102 1,214 1,707 2,104 196 have passedthroughi terms eftheir Source: Robert A. Rice and Justin R. Ward, Coffee Conserretion, and Commercein the Western Hemisphere (Smrithsonian Migratory commitment to environmental con- BirdCenterand Natural ResourcesDefense ouncil,Washington D.C., 996),Table2,p.39. cerns since the 1970s. Companies begin Notes: a. 1948-52 average.b. 1961-65 dverage.c. 1969-71 dverage.d Productirrnifigures [or Cenrtid Armierica [vanlude Mexico,Costa ih i c c wit e Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.e. Production figures for the Caribbean include Cuba, Dominican Wl basic compliance With environ- Republic, Haiti,Jamaica,Puerto Rico,and Trinidad and Tobago.tfProduction figures for northern Larin America include all the coun- mental regulations, then move - o envi- tries linted aboos.,plus Colombia. ronmental management aimed at re- 166 World Resources 1998-99 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION ducing emissions bevond basic , compliance, to broader concerns with FIGUREPC.S EIa ,U.S.DclarsGDPGeneratedBlIondustry SelectedCountries resource efficiency and waste minimiza- tion. The last phase involves proactive (metrctonsofolequi,aentpermIon.constant19877US$ goal-setting that embraces environ- 0 -. - - ---------------- - AUSTRAL A - AUSTCA mental, social, and ethical concerns (1). JAPAN 0.6…. --- - - - -- - - - By the mid-1990s, the majority of firms 06- AKOREA, REP UNITED KING06aM in industrialized nations were still in the 05 UN- NTED TATEO compliance phase. One recent estimate is that less than 20 percent of North American and European companies can 0.3 ---- - - -- t-- be described as proactive in their com- mitment to improving environmental 02 . - - performance in alignment with sustain- 0.1 … _- _ … - able development objectives, which hold that today's wealth and lifestyles 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 should not be achieved at the expense of future generations (2). Sources: World Bank, ldlorldDevelopmentlnocatos 97.97on CD-RUM (The Vorld Bank,Washlngton,DC., 1997j;nrtemsational Energy Agency, Energy Stotistics and Balances: Van OECD Countnes, 1971 1995, and Energy Statiscs and Balances: OECD countries, Those companies that have taken a 7960-1l99s both on diskette (Organisat on for Economic Co-Operalion and Developmentr Paris, 1997). proactive stance are, nevertheless, influ- Notes: Data for Un ted States not avaa able before 1977. Metric tons of oil equivalent (mtoe) is a measure in which a I energy ential in developing new concepts and sources are expressed in terms of a metric ton of o l. Countries were selected primar ly on data availabl lity. practices to reconcile business and sus- tainability objectives, gent powders-called Ultra deter- ever, a number of companies are going gents-that took up half the volume of bevond legal requirements and are at- Y A-ND PRODUC7 traditional detergents. The products tempting to reduce dramatically their STBWA9ARDSl-P cleaned the same amount of clothes, but raw material requirements and emis- were more convenient for consumers to sions through the development of The concept of eco-efficiency merges handle, used 30 percent fewer raw mate- "closed-loop" processing cycles in ecological and economic goals. In prac- rials, required 30 percent less packag- which wastes are completely recycled or tce, eco-efficiency involves improving ing, and substantially cut the energy reused and never enter the environ- the productivity of energy and material neddt' rnpr hmt akt() met needed to transport them to market (4). ment. inputs to reduce resource consumption Overall, resource efficiency has im- program estab- and cut pollution per unit of output- p lished at SC Johnson Wax in 1990 has in essence, making more and better proved by about 2 percent per year i cut the company's manufacturing waste products from the same amount of raw industralized countres since 1970 bv half, reduced virgin packaging waste materials with less waste and fewNer ad- (though energy efficiency has barely by 25 percent, and reduced the use of verse environmental impacts. As such, it changed since 1990) (B). (See Figure volatile organic compounds bv 16 per- represents a win-win approach that PC.5.) These gains are due to techno- cent; at the same time, production has benefits both the bottom line and the logical advances and structural eco- increased by more than 50 percent. The environment. An early pioneer, 3M nomic changes such as the shift away companv's largest plant extracts meth- Corporation, now claims that its Pollu- from energy-intensive heavy industry. A ane gas from a nearby landfill and re- tion Prevention Pays program has pre- key aim of eco-efficiency is to accelerate captures organic vapors from process vented more than 750,000 metric tons this process. (See Box on Eco- lines to obtain one third of its enercgy of polluting emissions since 1975 by Efficiency.) Indeed, the Factor 10 Club, needs; another plant continuously re- cleaning up and redesigning processes a group of prominent figures in envi- uses 95 percent of its wastewater so that and products, saving the company more ronment and development, have called it is never discharged. The company has than US$790 million (3). for a 10-fold increase in the average re- realized more than US$20 million in Eco-efficiency efforts cover a wide source productivity of industrialized annual cost savings (7). range of activities and often involve re- countries over the long term (6). Many There is also a growing trend to hold configuring a product without degrad eco-efficiency initiatives to date have companies responsible for the environ- ing its performance. In 1989, Proctor & been driven by legislated pollution con- mental impacts of their products and Gamble introduced concentrated deter- trols, either actual or anticipated. How- services throughout their entire life cv- World Resources 1998-99 167 E Seven Dimensions of pliances, and even cars at the end of vehicle and to develop a more durable their useful lives. In response, affected finish, rather than simply increasing the Eco-Efficiency companies are redesigning their prod- volume of paint it sells (il). . ..................................................................... co p n e ar r d si i gth rp o - v lu e fp i tit els ii. ucts by using substitutes for toxic or In other instances, the transformation 'Eco-efficiency is achieved by the delivery of ... hazardous materials, reducing packag- to sustainability may mean reconfigur- competitively priced goods and services I chat satisfy human needs an imorove ing, and improving recvclability. ing an entire industry. The plastics in- quality of life whi e progressively reducing In some cases, as with office equip- dustry iS a good example. Interest is environmental impacts and resource nten- ment, manufacturers are turning to re- building now in chemical prcocesses that sity throughout the life cycle to a level at conditioning or rebuilding old equip- depolymerize, or "unzip," used plas- l Ieast in line winh the Earth's estimated car- ment, rather than building every new tics-a step well beyond traditional re- ry ng capacity. machine from scratch. Xerox, for exam- cycling technology, since it w ill yield here are seven key dimensions of eco- ple, has developed aggressive product materials equivalent in quality to virgin efficiency that every business should take into pl,hsdvoedagsiepruc .accoint when dever sines producdtae introdc return practices to recapture old copiers plastic that could be used in all the ap- atcount when developing proucttsa introduc- . P ing process changes, or takina other actions for reconditioning (8). The company has pications of the original material. Poly- with environmenta imp ications.They are: found that even recycling low-value estercanaireadybeunzippec inthis 1. Reduce the material intensity of goods and items such as toner cartridges can be way i commercial quantities with a Services. profitable. In 1994, Xerox saved sone process perfected by DuPont, and work 2. Reduce the energy intensity o' goods ard US$2 million in raw material costs by is proceeding with nylon and other services. reusing toner cartridges-enough to common polymers (12). 3. Reduce toxic dispersion. cover the costs of collecting the car- Widespread use of this kind of recy- 4. Enhance material recyclability. tridges, including a cash incentive pro- clig process could help close the mate- 5 Maximize sustainable use of renewab e re- gram to prod customers to join the re- rials loop in the plastics industry, sources. effort (9) (10). greatly decreasing the need for virgin 6. cxtend product durability materials and ultimately saving on pro- 7. increase the service intensity of goods ard duction costs. Yet making thi6 kind of * services. PESHAI.NG iNCENTWEt5r recycling meaningful will mean increas- r~EMrAKNG;2 1NDUJSTMES The greater the mprovement n each of i I ing the collection and return rate of these dimensions-and the more dimensions Many business leaders have begun to plastics to a level that is much higher In which improvement occurs-the more realize that achieving truly sustainable than the current one. eco-efficient a product or process is (assum ng enterprises will require going beyond DuPont is working toward t-his goal, that it also increases one's economtc ve fare) incremental improvements in product at least with polyester, by licersing its Source: L vio D. DeS mone and Frank Popoff, and process efficiency to restructuring recycling process to others in the indus- vwith the World Business Counci for Susta nab e markets and changing the economic in- try and jointly developing a compre- Development, Fco-Efflcency: ThIe 35ne55 LinD; to centives that drive business and con- hensive collection system for used poly- Sustaiiobte Developmenc (MIT Press, Carn bridge, Massact usetts, '997), pp 47 56-57. sumer behavior. (See Box on Corporate ester. In other words, DuPont is ........ - -Responsibility Movement.) One point enlisting the help of the entire industry cle, known as product stewardship. A o of entry into this kind of transforma- to reshape the polyester business into a wave of new legislation and industry- tion is to begin defining business suc- more sustainable and profitable form, cess more in terms of the services or allowing the business to expand into gurovernm t hagreeendedts, esPellut ays i benefits provided rather than the quan- new applications While trading on poly- Erniple (ha h e tended the polluterP titv of products sold. In the UTnited ester's reputation as the "greenest" of Principle (which states that the pollut- . Kingdom, Ford Motor Co. used this ap- polymers (13) (14). ing party should be responsible for the proach to reduce costs and environ- The developments outlined above, financial costs of mitigation or cleanup) mental impacts associated with paint- and many others, are being incorpo- from the manufacturing to the use and ing its new vehicles when it hired rated into business culture and daily disposal phases of a product's life. Ex- DuPont to manage its entire paint shop operations through environmental amples of such measures include mate- operation, rather than simply to supply management systems, voluntary codes rial taxes, mandatory recycling targets, paint. Ford pays DuPont not for the of conduct, the use of perform ance in- and "take-back" requirements that di- amount of paint it applies, but for the dicators, and regular reports to "stake- rect manufacturers to collect and pro- number of vehicles painted. DuPont's holders,' including employees, the local cess various packaging and consumer incentive now is to use its chemical ex- community, environmental activists, products such as batteries, domestic ap- pertise to minimize the paint used per government authorities, and sharehold- 168 World Resources 1998-99 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION ers. The growth of innovative programs Above all, progress is still generally and self-regulation are important indi- confined to large companies and multi- The Corporate cators of change. Yet it is clear that the nationals; their achievements are not Responsibility Movement steps taken so far represent just the start matched by the vast mass of small- and of a complex, lengthy transition to more medium-sized enterprises. Smaller D ring the 1 980s, the "corporate responsi- sustainable enterprises. companies often lack the knowledge bi ity" movement emerged in response to Many environmentalists argue that and resources needed to make signifi- the retreat of the state from vhat has the voluntary approaches currently cant changes in their organization or been ca led tne "moral domain of the prevalent will be too slow to deal with technologies. Incentives are also lacking; economy"in the wake of widespread de the financial benefits of "going green" re- reg ulation a nd privat zation. Pressure on urgent problems of pollution and re- mancnrvril eetrve fthe private sector so consioer its wider so- source degradation and depletion. This mai iI A i f cal duies also increased from exterral in- is especially the case in newly industri- 500 firms across industrial sectors sug- terest groups such as environmental non- alizing countries where pollution is ac- gests that pollution prevention does in- governmental organizations.The result has deed benefit operating and financial per- been a move toward greater democ'acy celerating, but environmental concerns formance (15), but many small disclosure,ando. , particularly rank lower among business, govern- ment, and pubicprortiscompanies remain unconvinced (16). n industry sectors with a high pup ic or mI ion. Lingering skepticism suggests the environmental pro'ile in industrialized countries, progress in need for a greater focus on ensuring TI e socid dIimensioir of su5tdi idble devel- cleaning up production has not been that sustainable industrial development op ment is still poorly cefined from indu,stry's matched by improvements in resource is compatible with profitability. Govern- perspective, but it is coming to oe identified efficiency, especially when compared ment's best role may lie in restructuring with responshItes to local communires af- with the gains in labor productivity the ground rules-the environmental 5eced hy corporate ooeraton and o em with ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~np oyees ano tneir fa milies Ani additionai com-- achieved during this century. To date, and health regulations, tax codes, and ponent is a cons derat on of emhical issues policy measures intended to improve other government policies that influ- su rrou ndi ng, fo' example, co nservat on, biod-i resource efficiency-notably energy ence the business environment-to in- versity, and animal rights Measurement of a taxes-have been strenuously resisted crease incentives for embracing "green" company's social and ethnca performance s by industry. investments and practices. necessarily difficulL and was at f rst resisted by ousiness. However, 'social avditing is now emerginc as a pt 30r sions substantially, but the amount of 4CD Note: Ozone-deplet ng environmental protection these strate- otentoas oDP) tonshis sea gies buy is commensurately less and will depleting subsances are not protect many areas from serious 0 1 9 9 9 1 weighted according ro their acid deposition. In the end, perhaps the abilityrs destroy ozono WorldResourcesl998-99 177 production and consumption. Perhaps ozone-should peak between 1997 and fiscation of about 1,000 metric tons of of most concern is the increasing pro- 1999 and then decline gradually for illegal CFCs in Germany (14). duction and use of CFCs in some rap- more than a century (7). In turn, ozone One possibility is that damage to eco- idly developing nations. loss will diminish gradually as well un- systems from acid deposition may be The good news is that the speed of til, around 2050, the Antarctic ozone more fundamental and long-lasting the transition away from CFCs and hole disappears (8). than was first believed. For example, sci- other ozone-depleting chemicals has The bad news is that several factors, entists now report that acid rain leaches been more rapid than many thought key among them illegal trade, threaten as much as 50 percent of the calcium possible, given the ubiquity of these to undermine full compliance in the and magnesium from forest soils; these chemicals in commerce just a decade years ahead (9). Substantial demand for are crucial minerals which buffer or ago. As refrigerants, foam-blowing these chemicals still exists in the devel- neutralize acids and are essential for agents, solvents, aerosol propellants, fire oped world, mostly to service existing plant growth. If soil chemistry is retardants, and cleaning agents, these refrigeration and cooling equipment. In changed dramatically in this way, it may chemicals reached into nearly every most developed countries, servicing re- take many decades for all the linked household and workplace in the devel- quirements for these units can be met ecosystems to recover (15). A related oped world in one product or another. legally with either recycled CFCs or net problem is the continued leaching of In the United States, which alone ac- CFCs from preexisting stocks. Howoever, heavy metals and other substances that counted for roughly one third of global because these sources are limited, there acid rain has mobilized in the soil, pro- CFC use in 1987 when the M\dontreal is added incentive to illegally import viding a persistent source of loxicity to Protocol was negotiated, CFCs played a virgin CFCs. surrounding vegetation and aquatic life role in delivering some US$28 billion in Estimates of the size of the CFC black Even more troubling than black mar- goods and services and were essential to ket trade in developed nations is an un- the functioning of some US$130 billion market range from 20,000 to 30,000 expectedly rapid rise in the u se of CFCs worth of installed equipment such as metric tons annually worldwide (10). In and other ozone-depleting chemicals in refrigeration units and air conditioners late 1995, the chemical industry esti- some developing nations. The Montreal (2). Despite widespread use, most devel- mated that as much as 20percent of the Protocol permits increases in produc- oped countries were able to meet the Cs then in use in the world had been tion and use of ozone-depleting chemi- Protocol's 1996 deadline to cease CFC obtained on the black market (i ). A caLs in developing nations unil 1999, production. ~~~~~~good deaL of this ille al trade iS focused cl ndvlpn ain ni 99 production. good deal of this illegal trade is focused when production levels are to be frozen Reaching this goal required a remark- in the United States, which has imposed at 1995-97 levels; thereafter, production able level of cooperation among gov- a high excise tax on CFCs since 1990 to of ozone-destroying chemicals must be ernments, CFC producers, and various encourage recycling of CFCs already in cut progressively until it ends in 2010. industries. Reluctant at first, but faced use and to spur conversion of equip- However, from 1986-95, procLuction of with the international community's re- ment away from CFC use. Since the ex- CFCs rose nearly 2.5 times in the devel- solve to meet the problem head on, in- cise tax has substantially increased the oping world, while consumption rose dustry groups accepted the challenge of cost of CFCs in the U.S. market, it has nearly 40 percent (18). Most of this retooling products and processes to provided a potent driving force for the growth has taken place in a few rapidly avoid CFC use. Industry estimates of illegal trade. Europe has also experi- industriaLizing nations: Brazil, India, the final price tag for a global phaseout enced considerable black market trade, Mexico, and particularly China. For ex- of CFCs and halons are as high as probably in the range of 6,000 to 10,000 ample, China increased its production US$40 billion, excluding the costs gov- metric tons per year (12). of halons-typically used as fire retar- ernments and international organiza- In the United States, enforcement dants-from 4,000 metric tons in 1991 tions have incurred organizing and pro- agencies have begun to crack down on to more than 10,000 metric tc'ns in 1995 moting the transition (3). illegal trade, with some encouraging re- (19). (See Figure GC. 10.) This increase In response to these efforts, atmos- sults. United States Customs authorities is particularly worrisome because ha- pheric concentrations of CFCs are be- and law enforcement officials had im- lons destroy 3 to 10 times more ozone ginning to level off or decline (4) (5) (6). If pounded some 1,000 metric tons of than CFCs and were specifically tar- the plan to eliminate all ozone- smuggled CFCs by the end of 1997, and geted for early phaseout (1 994) in de- depleting substances proceeds as set authorities report some tapering off in veloped countries. Recent measure- forth in the Protocol, the levels of the flow of illegal materials (13). In ments show that concentrations of stratospheric chlorine-the CFC break- Europe, enforcement has recently taken halons continue to rise in the atmos- down product that actually destroys a significant step forward with the con- phere, offsetting some of the progress 1 78 World Resources 1998-99 GLOBAL COMMONS . i: I . , 1 .1 L i . .:11 , i some or all of the existing halon stocks F GURE SC 10 Annua Production of Halons, 1986-95 still in industrialized countries would (000 ODPDt-s significantly lower ozone loss (25). 2 00- ------- --- -- - --- - ___-. ____ _-_ __-___ . . _ _ - 200~~~~~~~~~~~ CH NA E INDUSTRIAL ZED COUNTR ES _ OTHER DEVELOP NG COUNTRIES Source: Sebastian Oberthur, Production aDO consumptino Ozone-Dep%eUag Substrances, 1 C 1986-1995 (Deutsche Gesellschaft fOr TechnDsche -£ Zusammenarbeit, Bonn,Germany, 50 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~19971, p. 30. Note: Ozone-deplet ng potential As a basic building block of plant and (ODP) tons s a measure by which animal proteins, nitrogen is a nutrient o1 -_ OZOD-depe aod ng to stacei ab essential to all forms of life. But it is pos- 1986 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 ity to destroy 0oone. sible to have too much of a good thing. Recent studies have shown that excess attained through declining CFC use ling acid rain will be to adopt energy- nitrogen from human activities such as (20). efficiency measures that cut overall en- agriculture, energy production, and The international communitv has al- ergy use and thus reduce emissions. If transport has begun to overwhelm the ready directed considerable attention to systematicallv employed, such energy- effects from inishe sil fertiit o helping developing countries switch saving measures could cut control costs toxic algal blooit to from CFCs before they become too de- from one quarter to one third, accord- toxic algal blooms (1)(2)(3)- pendent on them. The Multilateral ing to the World Bank's analysis; in ad- Until recently, the supply of nitrogen Fund, which was set up under the dition, these measures would yield an- animals-has-an ulimitely to Montreal Protocol to help pay for new cillary benefits such as better air quality though it is the most abundant element technologies, equipment conversion and lower greenhouse gas emissions i t the most n dan froment , < m~~~~~~~~i the atmosphere, nitrogen from the air projects, and training tn developing na- (12). cannot be used by plants until it is tions, has so far contributed to some Developed nations can help the de- chemically transformed, or fixed, into 1,800 separate projects in 106 countries veloping world by continuing to aggres- ammonium or nitrate compounds that at a cost of US$565 million. When com- sively fund conversion projects through plants can metabolize. In nature, only plete, these projects will phase out the the Multilateral Fund. The United Na- certain bacteria and algae (and, to a equivalent of more than 80,000 metric tions Environment Programme lesser extent, lightning) have this ability tons of CFCs (21). A typical example is (UNEP) estimates that the US$466 mil- to fix atmospheric nitrogen, and the Venezuela's Plasticos Molanca plastic lion that developed countries have amount that they make available to foam factory, which used Multilateral agreed to add to the fund over the next plants is comparatively small. Other Fund money to pay for 80 percent of its several years should be sufficient to al- bacteria break down nitrogen com- conversion from the use of CFCs to bu- low developing nations to meet the 1999 pounds in dead matter and release it to tane as a foam-blowing agent (22). Simi- deadline to freeze production levels of the atmosphere again. As a conse- lar projects, aided by strong govern- ozone-destroying chemicals (23). But quence, nitrogen is a precious commod- ment commitment and substantial additional funds, as well as increased ity-a limiting nutrient-in most un- private investment, have allowed some transfer of CFC-free technologies, will disturbed natural svstems. developing nations to proceed quickly be needed in the years after 2000 to All that has changed in the past sev- toward total phaseout. complete the phaseout (24). eral decades. Driven by a massive in- Less ambitious and lower-cost strate- Other steps could hasten the healing crease in the use of fertilizer, the burn- gies can also cut acid-forming emis- of the ozone layer. Developed nations ing of fossil fuels, and an upsurge in sions substantially, but the amount of could encourage faster phaseout of their land clearing and deforestation, the environmental protection these strate- own remaining CFC use by requiring amount of nitrogen available for uptake gies buy is commensurately less and will retirement or retrofit of CFC-using ma- at any given time has more than dou- not protect many areas from serious chinery. In addition, more rapid elimi- bled since the 1940s. In other words, hu- acid deposition. In the end, perhaps the nation of halon production in the devel- man activities now contribute more to most cost-effective option for control- oping world and the destruction of the global supply of fixed nitrogen each World Resources 1998-99 179 year than natural processes do, with Excess nitrogen can also wreak human-generated nitrogen totaling havoc with the structure of ecosystems, TABL GC 4 Global Sources o' Biological y Ava able (Fixeo) Ni:rogen about 210 million metric tons per year, affecting the number and kind of spe- while natural processes contribute cies found. Researchers in the United ANNUAL RELEASE OF about 140 million metric tons (4). (See Kingdom and the United States have ANTHROPO6ENIC FIXED NITROgEN Table GC.4.) found that applying nitrogen fertilizer Fertilizer 80 This influx of extra nitrogen has to grasslands enables a few nitrogen- Legumes and other plants 40 caused serious distortions of the natural responsive grass species to dominate, Fossil fuels 20 nutrient cycle, especially where inten- while others disappear. In one British Biomass burning 40 sive agriculture and high fossil fuel use experiment, this effect led to a fivefold Wetland draining 1 0 coincide. In some parts of northern reduction in the number of species in Land clearing 20 Europe, for example, forests are receiv- the most heavily fertilized plots Total from human sources 210 ing 10 times the natural levels of nitro- ( 0) ( 11). In the Netherlands, where ni- NATURAL SOURCES gen from airborne deposition (5), while trogen deposition rates are among the Soil bacteria,algae, 140 coastal rivers in the northeastern highest in the world, wvhole ecosystems lightning, etc. United States and northern Europe are have been altered because of this shift Source:Peter M.Vitousekerat, "HumanAlterationof the receiving as much as 20 times the natu- in dominant plants, with species-rich Global Nitrogen Cycle Causes and Co9sequepces,'!ss4ese6 ral amount from both agricultural and heathlands being converted to airborne sources (6). Nitrate levels in species-poor forests and grasslands many Norwegian lakes have doubled in that better accommodate the nitrogen flux of nitrogen from agricultural less than a decade (7). Although many load (12). runoff (15). One of the more troubling of the nitrogen trouble spots tend to be Although terrestrial ecosystems are aspects of this nutrient assault on in North America and Europe, the vulnerable to the global nitrogen glut, aquatic systems has been a steady rise in threat of nitrogen overload is global in aquatic ecosystems in lakes, rivers, and toxic algal blooms, which can take a scope, as both fertilizer use and energy coastal estuaries have probably suffered heavy toll on fish, seabirds, arid marine use are growing quickly in the develop- the most so far. They are the ultimate mammals (16). (See Figure GC. 11.) ing world. In fact, global nitrogen depo- receptacle of much of the nutrient over- The nitrogen glut also impinges on sition may as much as double in the load, which tends to accumulate in run- the health of the atmosphere when the next 25 years as agriculture and energy off or to be delivered directly in the nitrogen-containing gases nitric oxide use continue to intensify (8). form of raw or treated sewage. (Sewage and nitrous oxide are releasecd into the The effects of this surfeit of nutrients is very high in nitrogen from protein in air, either from fossil fuel bur:aing, land reach into every environmental domain, the human diet.) In these aquatic sys- clearing, or agriculture-related activi- threatening air and water quality and tems, excess nitrogen often greatly ties. Nitric oxide, for example, is a po- disrupting the health of terrestrial and stimulates the growth of algae and other tent precursor of smog and acid rain, aquatic ecosystems. Natural systems aquatic plants. When this extra plant and nitrous oxide is a long-lived green- may be able to absorb a limited amount matter dies and decays, it can rob the house gas that traps some 200 times of additional nitrogen by producing water of its dissolved oxygen, suffocat- more heat than carbon dioxicLe. Nitrous more plant mass, just as garden vegeta- ing many aquatic organisms. oxide can also play a role in depleting bles do when fertilized. Atmospheric This overfertilization process, called the stratospheric ozone layer. Nitrous deposition of nitrogen emissions on eutrophication, is one of the most seri- oxide concentrations in the atmosphere some heavily cut forests in North ous threats to aquatic environments to- are rising rapidly-about 0.2 to 0.3 per- America and Europe seems to have day, particularly in coastal estuaries and cent per year (I17) (18). spurred additional growth in this man- inshore waters where most commercial Curbing the world's nitrogen over- ner. But there is a limit to the amount of fish and shellfish species breed (13)(14). load will mean acting on several fronts. nitrogen that natural systems can take Partially enclosed seas such as the Baltic Making fertilizer applications more effi- up; beyond this level, serious harm can Sea, the Black Sea, and even the Medi- cient is one of the most prom. sing op- ensue. In terrestrial ecosystems, nitro- terranean have also been hard hit by tions. Agriculture accounts for by far gen saturation can disrupt soil chemis- nitrogen-caused eutrophication, and an the largest amount of human- generated try, leading to loss of other soil nutri- extensive "dead zone" of diminished nitrogen-some 86 percent (1 9). Fertil- ents such as calcium, nmagnesium, and productivity has developed at the izer use was scant until the 1950s but potassium and ultimately to a decline in mouth of the Mississippi River in the since then has increased exponentially. fertility (9). Gulf of Mexico because of the large in- (See Figure GC.12.) 180 World Resources 1998-99 GLOBAL COMMONS FIGUREGC.11 Majoro, Recurring Harmf Alga Booms,BeforeandAfter1972 * - Pre.1972 i - - Post1972 * S ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.0 PR * PR Source: Donald Anderson, "Expansion of HAB Problems in the U.S.,ffNationa Office for Marine Biotoxins and Harmful Agal Blooms,Wloods Hole OceanographiclInstitution.Available online at: http://habservl .whoi.ed u/hab/HABd istri bution/ha bexpand.htmI (February 10, 1998). Note: The increase in alga b ooms may be attributable to anumber of causes, inc uding an increase in waterborne nutrients from human activities. In fact, one half of all die commercial Cutting airborne nitrogen emissions excess nitrogen before it can damage fertilizer ever produced has been ap- from fossil fuels will also be important aquatic systems. plied since 1984 (20). The problem is and will benefit from many of the same But none of these steps is easy or ob- that about one half of everv metric ton strategies used to reduce carbon diox- vious, and there seems little likelihood of fertilizer applied to fields never even ide emissions, including a greater em- of concerted action until the nitrogen makes it into plant tissue but ends up phasis on energy efficiency, a gradual threat is elevated to a higher global pro- evaporating or being washed into local shift toward alternative energy sources, file. While the risks of global warming watercourses (2i). A combination of and the use of low-nitrogen technol- from a buildup of greenhouse gases in better timing of fertilizer applications, ogy in power plants and cars. Other the atmosphere are fairly common more exact calculation of doses, and strategies make sense as well, such as knowledge today, the dangers of the more accurate delivery could cut this restoration of wetlands, which are world's heavy nitrogen habit have gone waste substantially. natural nutrient traps that sponge up largely unheralded so far, although this habit may be as pervasive and hard to | z 1 a _ ^ s a u z ] < _ ~~~~~~~~address as cutting greenhouse gas emis- FIGUREGC.12 TrendsinFertilizerUlse,1961 94'511S (mIllon r,et,cton,s) ASI 120 - --- _-_-__- _.___. ............... NORTNH AMER CA _ ~~~~~~~~~~~SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA Although there has been major progress 80 . _ _. __ _ 2 __ ____ _ _ __-------_-_- WORLD in controlling acid-forming emissions in some countries, the global threat 6 .Source: Food and Agriculture from acid rain is far from over yet. In Sore oadAdro EpninoflBPolm nteUNtoaOf efrMrn i_ n n -umflAa los od oeOengrpi nttto.n,alolnOrganization ofthe United Natbons (FAO)AFAOSTATStttistichl fact, the ddmenshons of the acbd ra19 NoteThinreaeialabomsayetiteto numerof causes,ncsongnre t abase (FAO, Rome, 1997). problem are growing rapidly in Asia, n fact one hlf of al the ommercil Guttngair orne: nitafrogeand Emissonso it ecssunitroe beforie itO aedm agiosex plied 6 1970 1975 l980 1985 l e notfinclude th couftries ofthe Buthnnlfu these(Step issyorsob- of9fertilizerformer Soviet Union ugriat 1 991 pected to as much as tiple from g990 levels by 20b10 if current trends con- World Renources 1998-99 1h8e 1 tinue. Curtailing the already substantial I _ I - acid rain damage in Asia and avoiding FGUREGC.13 Past and Projected Su fur Dioxide Emissions for Asia,Europe,and the United States and Canada much heavier damages in the future will require investments in pollution control -mllionmetric tons5 pe year) on the order of those made in Europe 120 ------------------------- __ 1111I ASIA and North America over the past 20 I- i EUROPE /1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ UN TED0STATES years (1). AND CANADA Even in developed countries where n - there have been serious efforts to con- 60 trol acid rain, the story is more compli- 40 --------------- cated than it once appeared. Questions 20-- remain in regards to how much damage has been done to forests, lakes, and 1990 2000 2010 2020 streams over the years; whether current progress is sufficient to protect the most Source: R.Downing,R.Ramankutty,and i.Shah,RAINS-AS A:An Assessment Model forAc d Deposition in Asia (The World Bank, vulnerable ecosystems; and how soon Washlogton, D.C., 1997), p. Il . acid-damaged areas will recover. Acid rain emerged as a concern in the ject, particularly in North America. The out harm) suffered a 49-percent reduc- 1960s with observations of dying lakes most recent and authoritative assess- tion in yield compared with wheat and forest damage in northern Europe, ment of forest conditions in Europe re- growing 22 kilometers away < 6). In the United States, and Canada. It was ports that 25 percent of trees sampled in southwestern China, a study in Guiz- one of the first environmental issues to more than 30 countries were rated as hou and Sichuan provinces r evealed demonstrate a large-scale regional damaged (having lost more than 25 that acid rain fell on some two thirds of scope, with the chief pollutants-oxides percent of their leaves). Damage has the agricultural lands, with 16 percent of sulfur (SO) and nitrogen (NO) been increasing over the past 20 years of the crop area sustaining some level from combustion of fossil fuels-able and, while the report notes the difficulty of damage. Other ecosystems are also to be carried hundreds of miles by of identifying definitive causes, nearly beginning to suffer. A study of pines winds before being washed out of the one half of the countries participating and oaks in acid rain-affected areas of atmosphere in rain, fog, and snow. in the survey mentioned air pollution as the Republic of Korea, both rural and As evidence grew of the links be- a cause (3). urban, showed significant declines in twveen air pollution and environmental Acid rain is now emerging as a major growth rates since 1970 (7). damage, legislation to curb emissions problem in the developing world, espe- One possibility is that damage to eco- was put in place. The 1979 Geneva Con- cially in parts of Asia and the Pacific systems from acid deposition may be vention on Long-Range Transboundary region where energy use has surged more fundamental and long-lasting Air Pollution and its subsequent and the use of sulfur-containing coal than was first believed. For example, sci- amendments set targets for reductions and oil-the primary sources of acid entists now report that acid rain leaches of sulfur and nitrogen emissions in emissions-is very high. An estimated as much as 50 percent of thec alcium Europe that have largely been achieved. 34 million metric tons of SO, were and magnesium from forest soils; these The 1970 and 1990 Clean Air Acts have emitted in the Asia region in 1990, over are crucial minerals which buffer or led to similar improvements in the 40 percent more than in North Amer- neutralize acids and are essential for United States. ica (4)(5). Acid deposition levels were plant growth. If soil chemistry is Scientific uncertainties about acid particularly high in areas such as changed dramatically in this way, it may rain persist, however. In the case of for- southeast China, northeast India, Thai- take many decades for all the linked est damage, the contribution of acid land, and the Republic of Korea, which ecosystems to recover (15). A related rain is hard to isolate from other are near or downwind from major ur- problem is the continued leaching of stresses such as drought, fire, and pests ban and industrial centers. The effects heavy metals and other substances that that figure heavily in forest health. In are already being felt in the agriculture acid rain has mobilized in the soil, pro- Canada, for example, losses to fires and sector. Researchers in India found that viding a persistent source of toxicity to insects exceed the volume of timber wheat growing near a power plant surrounding vegetation and aquatic life. harvested for industrial use (2). For this where SO, deposition was almost five As a result, damage to natural ecosys- reason, the contribution of air pollution times greater than the critical load (the tems and crops is likely to increase dra- to forest damage is a controversial sub- amount the soil can safely absorb with- matically. Large regions of southern and 182 World Resources 1998-99 GLOBAL COMMONS I . ' . 9 I . , declines in SO, emissions are likely to FGUREC-C.14 Trends in SO, and ' in NorthAmericaand Europe (OECDCountriesOnly),1980-94 be partially offset in the future by emis- (000 metric tons) sions of NOO which have remained 60,000 ---NC-------- - ----------------- -------- - ----------- ---- - __ N broadly constant in the OECD coun- _ 50 tries since 1980. (See Figure GC.14.) In 55,000 much of Europe, NO, emissions are now creeping up again, due mainly to 50,000 increased vehicle numbers and usage 45,000 (14). Overall, however, acid-forming emis- 40,000 . sions have been largely decoupled from - - ~ - - - _ economic growth, and transboundary 35,000 pollution has fallen substantially in the 30,000 ___________________________________________________________past 25 years, resulting in less acid rain. 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 It has therefore been somewhat of a mystery why damaged trees, streams, Source: OrqanisationforEconomicCo-Operatonand Deveopment(OECD), OECD EnvwronmentaltDataCompendium 1997(OECD, and lakes have not bounced back in Paris, 1997);The Swedish Secretariat on Acid Rain, Acid News 5 (Int. Forsurningssekretar atet, 1996), p. 14. Note: DoesostincudeAustralia,Creece,Japan,Mexico,NewZeaand,andTurkeyduetoincompletedata. those areas where acid rain has dimin- ished. eastern China, northern and central gies buy is commensurately less and will One possibility is that damage to Thailand, and much of theKoreanpen notpotectmanareasfromserious ecosystems from acid deposition may Thailand, and much of the Korean pen- not protect many areas from serious be more fundamental and long-lasting insula could experience damaging sul- acid deposition. In the end, perhaps the than was first believed. For example, fur deposition levels (9). In some indus- most cost-effective option for control- scientists now report that acid rain trialized areas of China, for example, ling acid rain will be to adopt energy- leaches as much as 50 percent of the acid deposition levels may some day ex- efficiency measures that cut overall en- calcium and magnesium from forest ceed those experienced in Central Euro- ergy use and thus reduce emissions. If soils; these are crucial minerals which posland kh Cziangeh,Republ a nd south- of systematically employed, such energy- buffer or neutralize acids and are es- eas,thGerman wzechRereuboth acid rai v- saving measures could cut control costs sential for plant growth. If soil chemis- east andeforest damae wee acue rin thev from one quarter to one third, accord- try is changed dramatically in this way, 1980s (a10). ing to the World Bank's analysis; in ad- it may take many decades for all the dition, these measures would yield an- linked ecosystems to recover (15). A re- modern pollution control technologies cillary benefits such as better air quality lated problem is the continued leach- such as flue-gas scrubbers, are widely and lower greenhouse gas emssions stances that acid rain has mobilized in adopted and if low-sulfur fuel is substi- (12). the soil, providing a persistent source tuted where possible. In fact, the World of toxicity to surrounding vegetation Bank calculates that use of the best OrF EQ -r (T TH ' 'L'r.E DIEVIELUQPE: and aquatic life. available pollution control technologies F1 0fLD It is also becoming clear that the could cut acid deposition levels in half In industrialized countries, environ- long-term impacts of acidification can- from 1990 levels by 2020 in Asia, even mental regulations restricting sulfur not be studied in isolation from other though energy use is projected to triple emissions and market forces that favor environmental problems. Climate during this period. But the price for this greater use of natural gas-which con- change and acidification have led to de- level of environmental protection is tains little sulfur-have proved rela- creases in dissolved organic carbon steep: roughly US$90 billion per year tively effective in cutting SO2 emissions. concentrations in North American throughout the Asia region, or about 0.6 However, even this success may not be lakes. Carbon absorbs ultraviolet (UV) percent of the region's gross domestic enough in some sensitive areas. A recent radiation, which has, in turn, increased product (1 1). Canadian report concluded that SO, due to depletion of the ozone layer. In Less ambitious and lower-cost strate- emissions might have to fall another combination, these changes have re- gies can also cut acid-forming emis- three quarters if ecosystems in a large sulted in much deeper penetration of sions substantially, but the amount of area of southeastern Canada were to be UV radiation into lake waters and environmental protection these strate- adequately protected (13). In addition, higher death and disease rates among World Resources 1998-99 183 fish and aquatic plants (16). This effect carbon levels low enough to be at risk of made, forest recovery is likely to take can be compounded by drought when deep UV penetration (18). decades. Acidification of sur[ace waters sulfur compounds stored in lake sedi- These data suggest that the problem in some areas is likely to increase de- ments oxidize in response to falling wa- of acid rain in developed countries does spite falling deposition levels, as ozone ter levels (17). About 140,000 lakes in not end with reduced emission. Al- depletion continues and the climate North America are estimated to have though important progress has been continues to warm. 184 World Resources 1998-99 RESOURCES AT RISK D espite growing awareness and increasing investments in environ- offset by reforestation efforts, new forest mental protection, pressures on the world's natural resources and plantations, and the gradual regrowth a J ecosystems continue to increase rapidly. The impacts of human and expansion of forested area in devel- _JL_.O' eosystms cntinu to ncreae raidly.The mpact of uman oped countries. The result was a net loss activities reach into every corner of the natural world. For instance, betweenop oue There s aetwlos one third and one half of the Earths land surface has been substantially 1980 and 1995, or an average annual transformed by agriculture, urbanization, and commercial activities of vari- loss of 12 million hectares (1). ous kinds; about one quarter of all bird species have been driven to extinc- According to FAO, the rate of defores- tion; and more than one half of all accessible surface water, as well as an tation dropped slightly during its last enormous quantity of groundwater, is diverted for human uses. These uses survey period. Between 1990 and 1995, have brought unquestionable benefits to human welfare. But the upshot of annual forest loss in developing coun- this growing human domination of the planet is that no ecosystem on Earth tries was estimated at 13.7 million hec- is free from pervasive human influence.tares. This rate compares with a rate of 15.5 million hectares annually between This section considers some of the more widespread and pressing threats 1980 and 1990 (2). (See Figure RR.1.) to the planet's physical and biological resources. Global forest cover, for ex- This small decline is largely due to re- ample, faces enormous pressure in both tropical and temperate regions ported decreases in the deforestation from conversion to agricultural and urban uses, as well as from logging. rate in the Amazon in the early 1990s. Deforestation rates in many developing countries continue to increase, Even this small decline is disputed by even as the condition of many forests in developed countries is degraded some forest experts, who regard FAO 's calculations for 1990 to 1995 as under- by air pollution. Risks to the world's rich array of living species are also estimates (3). climbing. These threats to biodiversity are particularly intense in aquatic In any case, there is no dispute that systems such as coral reefs and freshwater habitats in rivers, lakes, and wet- deforestation rates remain high in many lands. Bioinvasions from exotic species introduced accidentally through countries; indeed, in the majority of global trade and tourism or by deliberate import for agriculture comprise a countries that FAO surveyed, deforesta- kind of "biological pollution" that also poses a growing threat to the tion rates have actually increased. In ad- world's biodiversity, both aquatic and terrestrial. dition, evidence from other sources suggests that deforestation rates in some Other resources face critical depletion in the near future. In the absence important regions have increased since of strict management schemes to reduce fishing pressure, many marine the assessment. fish stocks continue to decline, endangering an important source of food In the Brazilian Amazon, for example, and employment. Meanwhile, water availability is set to become one of the the annual deforestation rate declined prime constraints on development in many regions in the near future. This from a peak of more than 20,000 square section also reports on recent efforts to put a price tag on the services that kilometers in 1988 to just over 11,000 natural ecosystems such as forests and wetlands supply the world without square kilometers in 199 1. However, newly released data from the Brazilian charge. This preliminary effort to assign economic values to these essential Government show that it rebounded to services is a powerful way to demonstrate the costs of continuing to de- more than 29,000 square kilometers in grade the world's vital systems. 1995 before declining to 18,100 square kilometers in 1996 (4). (See Figure -1 . -- - .rli<.j~s i ; --of the world's forests, recently released ffiestates of azon de- - . - is.Pt4 #1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~forestation in 1997 are not available yet, by the Food and Agriculture Organiza- but there are indications that the defor- l. .. 1 S jl l l J - tion of the United Nations (FAQ), mdi- estation rate may have risen again. Sat- cates that total forested area continues ellite data for the Amazon region show a Although public awareness of the im- to decline significantly. According to the 50-percent increase from 1996 to 1997 pact of global deforestation has in- FAO analysis, deforestation was concen- in the number of forest fires set by creased in recent years, it has not slowed trated in the developing world, which farmers to clear land for cultivation or the rate of deforestation appreciably. A lost nearly 200 million hectares between pasture. Many of the fires are set to clear comprehensive assessment of the state 1980 and 1995. This loss was partially old cattle pastures or secondary forest World Resources 1998-99 185 -I_ rainforest, the impact has nonetheless Nor do deforestation numbers reflect FGURERR.1 Percentage of Tropica ForesiCbeared by been high, destroying habitat for avari- the reduced ecological and aesthetic Region Betvveen 1960 and 1990 ety of wildlife species from orangutans values of plantations that sometimes re- to tigers. The fires may increase pres- place natural forests. Between 1980 and Ipernent) sure on adjacent virgin forests by in- 1995, forest plantations in the developed creasing access to formerly remote sites countries increased from approximately (7) 45 million to 60 million hectares to The FAO analysis concludes that the about 80 million to 100 million hectares 30 -_ -----________ leading causes of deforestation are the (9). In the developing world, the area in for- 20 ------ - extension of subsistence farming (more est plantations doubled from about 40 mil- I _ _ - common in Africa and Asia), and lion to about 81 million hectares over the 10 - government-backed conversion of for- same period. More than 80 percent of plan- ests to other land uses such as large- tations in the developing world are found ° ASIA AFRICA LATINAMERICA WORLD scale ranching (most common in Latin in Asia, where demand for wood-based America and also Asia). Poverty, job- panels and paper continues to boom. Source: Dirk Bryant, Daniel Nielsen, and Laura Tangley, The lessness, and inequitable land distribu- Forest quality in the developed coun- Last Frontier Forests: Ecosystems and Economies on the Edge tion, which force many landless peas- tries is also of concern. FAO reports that (World Resources Instute,Washington,D.C.,1997), p ants to invade the forest for lack of other forest cover in Europe (excluing the ants~~~~~~ ~ fome Sovade Unioe inreste robyK rone areas, but about one third of the fires economic means, continue to drive for- former Soviet Union) increased by are set to clear virgin forest and thus est clearance for subsistence farming in more than 4 percent between 1980 and o r . ~~~~1994 (10), but forest conditions wors- represent one of the principal means of many regions. Often, people move into ened Trees are be ndamaged bfre, deforestation in the region (5). forest areas as logging activity creates Fire-related deforestation also rose roads that open formerly inaccessible drought, pests, and air pollution. More sharply in Indonesia in 1997, as severe regions. As for centrally planned forest t1an 25 percent of trees assesoed in a drought conditions helped spread fires conversion schemes, these are often 1995 survey of forest conditions in set by plantation workers and farmers used to spur short-term economic de- liation. Annual European sur-vey results into forest areas. Preliminary estimates velopment, gain better political control showithe numbEropetey health of the forest area destroyed run from of remote forest regions, and expand tr e ngmfrom 69 mperent i198to 150,000 to 300,000 hectares (6). Al- agricultural output (8). trees fall3g from 69 percent in 1988 to though most of the burning took place The state of the world's forests is not in secondary forests rather than virgin simply a matter of their extent. Increas- Overall, the convergence of popula- in sconaryforstsrater hanvirin impl a attr o thir xtet. ncras- tion growth, rising demand for lumber ing attention is focuscd upon the health, and fuelwood, and the conversion of genetic diversity, and age profile of for- forests to agriculture (particularly in FIGURE RR.2 Annual Deforestation in the Brazilian ests, collectively known as forest quality. Africa) are expected to put increasing Amazon, 1988-96 Measures of total forest area do not re- pressure on the world's forests in the veal the degraded nature of much re- next few decades. The result will likely Deforerr,nt.Rate,qu.,e ..ete,s per,year) growth forest. For example, in FAO's be a considerable loss in forest area and 30t000 forest assessment, logging is not quality, with the remaining forest frag- 25,000 ------------- - counted as deforestation, since logged- mented into smaller isolated Iracts (12). ...... si-----------------------/ ----\ over areas can, in theory, regrow to fully (See section on Fragmenting Forests.) 15,000 ---\-------JF ___ __ functioning forests. But logging often Continued forest loss and clegrada- onto - - does degrade forest quality, inducing tion will have serious implica-ions at lo- soil and nutrient losses and reducing cal, regional, and global levels. Exploita- s,0 ooo ---------___ _ __ _ the forest's value as habitat. Logging tion and clearance of natural forests are 01988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 pressures in many of the remaining destroying the environment and way of large, virgin rainforest areas continue to life for tens of thousands of ir.digenous Source: Brazilian Institute for Space Research (.NPE),Avernge increa§e,.with logging activities shifting people. Disappearing forest cover also AnnualDeforestationRateintheLegalAmazon. Availableon- from the largely deforested areas of represents incalculable losses in biologi- ine at: http://www.inpe.br/armz-04.nttm (January 29,1998). Note: The 1988 value represents the average annua Southeast Asia to the rainforests of the cal diversity and ecological services, in- deforestation rate for 1978-88. Amazon region, Papua New Guinea, cluding nutrient recycling, watershed and the Congo Basin. management, and climate regulation. 186 World Resources 1998-99 RESOURCES AT RISK _ . I . . . I I I . i of world forests. Frontier forests differ FIGURE RR.3 The Current State of Earth's Origina Forests significantly from the dissected, human-modified forests that dominate the planet today. For one thing, frontier (m Ilions of square kilometers)C 20 ------- ----------------------------------------------- ---------- -- - FRONTERFOREST forests are large and natural enough to KFAT1 NON FRONTIER ensure the long-term survival of their FOREST plant and animal species, including the .CLAE biggest mammals with the most exten- sive home ranges. As secure habitats for native species, frontier forests are in- | - . ! I ~ -I valuable refuges for global biodiversity. s5 ! ! - --- I a _ ' | Forests are home to between 50 and 90 j m .- - _ Source: Dirk Bryant, Daniel percent of the world's terrestrial spe- RUSSIAAND ASIA NORTH AND SOUTH AFRICA OCEANIA Nielsen,and Laura Tang ey,The cies-plants and animals that have pro- EUROPE CENTRAL AMERICA Lste Frontier Forests: Ecosystems m t f AMERICA andEconomies on the Edge vided much of the food and other basics (World Resources Institute, that humans need to survive (2). Washington,D.C., 1997), p 12 Frontier forests also contribute a large portion of the ecological services that been heavilv altered by humans, often make the planet habitable. They take up illL*BS * 1 * * ^ b deredinto heavy palteore by hmans,loften tremendous amounts of carbon dioxide rendered into a patchwork of smaller (CG2), for example, and are therefore an a * * a forested areas. According to a 1997 important factor in regulating Earth's World Resources Institute (WRI) as- climate. Recent calculations suggest that sessment, just one fifth of the Earth's frontier forests store approximately 430 original forest remains in large, rela- billion metric tons of carbon (from Over the past 8,000 years, nearly one tively natural ecosystems-what are COr)-more carbon than is likely to be half of the forests that once covered the known as frontier forests (1). (See Fig- released by fossil fuel burning and ce- Earth have been converted to farms, ure RR.3.). ment manufacture over the next 70 pastures, and other uses. But the human This fragmentation process is one of years or so (3). impact on forests did not stop there. the most serious consequences of the Remaining frontier forests occur ei- Most of the forests that are left have current deforestation and degradation ther in far northern climes or in the TABLR RR 1 Threats to Frontier Forests PERCENTAGE OF THREATENED FOREST FRONTIERS AT RISK FROM PERCENTAGE OF FRONTIER MINING,ROADS, EXCESSIVE FOREST UNDER MODERATE ANDOTHER AGRICULTURAL VEGETATION REGION OR HIGH THREAT' LOGGING INFRASTRUCTURE CLEARING REMOVAL OTHER' Africa 77 79 12 17 8 41 Asia 60 50 10 20 9 24 North and Central America 29 83 27 3 1 14 Central America 87 54 17 23 29 13 North America 26 84 27 2 0 14 South America 54 69 53 32 14 5 Russia and Europe 19 86 51 4 29 18 Europe 100 80 0 0 20 0 Russia 19 86 51 4 29 18 Oceania 76 42 25 15 38 27 World 39 72 38 20 14 13 Source: Dirk Bryant, Daniel Nielsen, and Laura Tanqley, The LaserFronheeForests:Fcosysrems rndEcoromies on the Edge (Wor d Resouices rIstitute,tWashington, D.C., 1 997), p. 17 Notes: a. Frontier forests considered under immediate threat, as a percentage ofall frontier forest assessed for threat.Threatened frontier forests are places where ongoing or p anned human activities are likely, if continued over coming decades,to result in the significant loss of natural qualities associated with a or part of these areas. b "Other' includes such activities as overhunting, ntroduc-ion of harmful esotic species, isolation of smaller fronrer forest islands through development of surround ng lands, changes in fire regimes,and plantation estab ishment. c Oceania consists of Papua New Guinea, Australia, and New Zealand. World Resources 1998-99 187 tropics: 48 percent of frontier forests are - T _I boreal forests (a broad belt of primarily FIGURE RR.4 Water Withoravvals by Region coniferous trees located between Arctic PERCENTAGE OF WATERRESOURCES WITHDRAWN tundra and the temperate zone), while 0 10 20 30 40 50 44 percent are tropical forests. By con- WORLD PE RC-- s'NL1TALWATHDRES trast, only a tiny fraction of Earth's fron- AFRICA tier forests are in the temperate zone. EUROPE A country-by-country breakdown ASIA r___ = = _ - shows that 76 countries have lost all of SOUTH AMER CA their frontier forest. Another 11 nations CENTRAL AMERICA _ are close to losing their last remaining NORTH AMER CA frontier forests, having fewer than 5 per- OCEANIR Source Data Tabia 12.1. cent of these forests left, all of which are 30 oBe: Years ofdata Nary by countTy threatened. More than three quarters of W s Ao 1000 1,500 2,000 2W500 3W000 3c500 frokr 1987 to 1995. all frontier forests fall within three large tracts that cover parts of seven coun- tries: two blocks of boreal forest (one forests-including all temperate fron- Globally, water supplies are abundant, blanketing much of Canada and Alaska tier forests-are endangered by human but they are unevenly distributed and the other in Russia), and one large activity (7). among and within countries. In some tropical forest covering South America's areas, water withdrawals are so high, northwestern Amazon Basin and Guy- relative to supply, that surface water ana Shield. Three countries alone-Bra- supplies are literally shrinking and zil, Canada, and Russia-contain nearly * groundwater reserves are being de- 70 percent of all frontier forests (4). pleted faster than they can be replen- A significant number of frontier for- ished by precipitation (2). (See Figure ests that have survived into the 20th RR.4.) Century are threatened today. WRI's as- The world's thirst for water is likely to This situation has already caused se- sessment found that 39 percent of become one of the most pressing re- rious water shortages to develop in Earth's remaining frontier forests are source issues of the 21st Century. some regions, shortchanging human endangered by human activities. One Global water consumption rose sixfold water needs and damaging aquatic eco- surprising result was that logging repre- between 1900 and 1995-more than systems. A 1997 United Nations assess- sents by far the greatest danger to fron- double the rate of population growth- ment of freshwater resources found that tier forests (5). (See Table RR. 1.) and continues to grow rapidly as agri- one third of the world's population lives The assessment found good news in a cultural, industrial, and domestic de- in countries experiencing moderate to few parts of the world. Seven nations mand increases (1). high water stress. To arrive at its esti- (Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Guyana, Russia, Suriname, and Venezuela) and I M one Overseas Department of France F GiRE RR S Water Vvithdraw'a s by Sector, 1987 (French Guiana) have kept a large number of their frontier forests, and 1 AGRICULTURAL many of these ecosystems do not face AFRICA INDUSTRIAL imminent risk. However, these currently DOMESTIC unthreatened forests remain vulner- : able-particularly in the tropics-be- _ _ cause they contain high-value resources such as timber and gold and other min- erals (6). c, ,7 The majority of frontier forests that . _ are not threatened today lie within bo- OCEANIA real regions, inhospitable to most devel- O Source: Dati Table 12.1. opers. Outside of boreal forests, how- 0 20 40 60 80 100 ever, 75 percent of the world's frontier (percent) 188 World Resources 1998-99 RESOURCES AT RISK mate, the United Nations determined vet connected to sewage treatment op- times the value of the same water used each country's ratio of water consump- erations (7). in agriculture (12). tion to water availability-its use-to- The situation is far worse in many de- Better management of water resources resource index-which is a good gauge veloping countries. Water scarcity has is the key to mitigating water scarcities in of overall pressure on water resources been exacerbated and human health the future and avoiding further damage (3). Moderate to high stress translates to gravely damaged by accelerating con- to aquatic ecosystems. In the short term, consumption levels that exceed 20 per- tamination of usable water supplies, es- more efficient use of water could dra- cent of available supply (4). pecially in rapidly urbanizing areas. matically expand available resources. In The U.N. assessment makes clear that Many developing countries undergo- developing countries, for example, 60 to the global water situation will get con- ing rapid industrialization are now 75 percent of irrigation water never siderably worse over the next 30 years faced with the full range of modern reaches the crop and is lost to evapora- without major improvements in the way toxic pollution problems-eutrophica tion or runoff (13). Although the use of water is allocated and used. In fact, the tion, heavy metals, acidification, persis- water-efficient drip irrigation has in- United Nations projects that the share tent organic pollutants (POPs)-while creased 28-fold since the mid-1970s, it of the world's population in countries still struggling to deal with traditional is still employed in less than 1 percent of undergoing moderate or high water problems of poor water supply and lack the world's irrigated areas (14). stress could rise to two thirds by 2025. of sanitation services (8). The pollution In the longer term, however, the U.N. Population growth and socioeconomic threat is particularly serious when it af- water assessment makes clear that development are currently driving a fects groundwater supplies, where con- looming water crises in many regions rapid increase in water demand, espe- tamination is slow to dilute and purifi- must be addressed through hard policy * 11 r 1 1 * 1 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~decisions that reallocate water to the cially from the industrial and house- cation measures are costly. Ground- mostseonomicallycand socially be hold sectors. Industrial water use, for water reserves are estimated to provide most economically and socially benefi- example, is predicted to double by 2025 more than 50 percent of domestic sup- cial uses. Far greater emphasis on if current growth trends persist (5). p.lies in most Asian countries (9); yet, water-efficient technologies and pollu- if current growth trends persist (5). plies in most Asian countries (9); ye .t, tion control is also essential. However, Water use in agriculture is slated to these countries are currently experienc- even with measures to contain the increase as world food demand rises. ing rapid growth in the mining and growth of demand and use water more Agriculture already accounts for about manufacturing sectors-two big efficiently, new supplies will be needed. 70 percent of water consumption wvorld- sources of groundwater contamination. The World Bank has estimated that the wide, and the United Nations projects a As clean water supplies have dimin- financial and environmental costs of 50- to 100-percent increase in irrigation ished, competition for them has been tapping new supplies will be, on aver- water by 2025 (6). (See Figure RR.5.) growing, usually between expanding age, two or three times those of existing Much of the projected increase in wa- urban areas and rural users. Where sys- investments, because most of the low- ter demand will occur in developing tems of water law and allocation exist, cost, accessible water reserves have al- countries, where population growth and water markets can operate to transfer ready been exploited (I15). industrial and agricultural expansion supplies between buyers and sellers for The U.N. study also highlights the will be greatest. However, per capita an agreed price. Such systems are oper- potentially desperate situation of devel- consumption continues to rise in the in- ating with some success in an increasing oping countries that combine high wa- dustrialized world as well. number of countries, including the ter stress with low per capita income. Water pollution adds enormously to western United States (0o) and Australia The majority of these countries are existing problems of local and regional (1 1). However, effective water pricing, found in the arid or semiarid regions of water scarcity by removing large volumes which sets water prices high enough to Africa and Asia. Many use most of their of water from the available supply. Water discourage waste, remains a highly sen- available water supplies for farm irriga- quality in most of the developed countries sitive issue in low-income countries, tion and suffer from a lack of pollution has steadily improved in recent years, where most people depend on irrigated controls. Future development in these thanks to strict legislation and major in- agriculture for their living. Even so, countries appears severely constrained vestments in new water and sanitation in- socioeconomic development in water- because they have neither the extra wa- frastructure. Even in the developed world, scarce countries may depend critically ter nor the financial resources to shift however, wastewater is not necessarily on more rational distribution of scarce development away from intensive irri- treated before discharge. In the southern supplies. Planners in China have esti- gation and into other sectors that would member states of the European Union, mated that a given amount of water create employment and generate in- about 50 percent of the population is not used in industry generates more than 60 come to import food. Figure RR.6 gives World Resources 1998-99 189 *'I . a 1 I,i 'i*'i*iss, .Jiz; i; . -"" FIGLURE RR.6 Projected Water Vuinerabi ty in 2025,Taking Into Account Nationa[ Econom c Stctus No vulnerability Low vulnerablliy s . fl S 4,( O Medium vulnerability fX H gh vulnerability U ' f' , Source: Paul Raskin, ComprehensiveAssessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World (Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm, 1997), pp. 66-67. Note: Data for map taken from mid-range projections, Water Resources Vulnerab lity Index 1,Conventiona[ Deve opment Scenario for 2025. an idea of the future vulnerability of na- In extent, freshwater ecosystems are About 6 percent of the world's fish tions to water scarcity in 2025, taking quite limited, covering only about 1 per- catch, or 7 million metric tons per year, into account their income level and cent of the Earth's surface. Yet, they are (8) come from rivers and lakes, as well as their ability to cope with water stress highly diverse and contain a dispropor- the bulk of the world's irrigat .on water. both economically and socially. tionately large number of the world's Rivers and lakes are also crucial as species. The Amazon River, for instance, transportation and shipping r outes, as is home to more than 3,000 fish species. power sources, and, unfortunately, as Lake Victoria in Africa has-or had be- waste sinks. All of these human uses fore recent depredations-as many as take their toll on freshwater ccosystems. 350 species of a single family of fish Dams and channelization remain the (cichlids) (3). The Mississippi River in two most pervasive threats to freshwater In a world in which it seems that nearly North America contains almost 300 ecosystems today, with dramatic effects every natural ecosystem is under stress, freshwater mussel species (4). In all, on species abundance and diversity. freshwater ecosystems-the diverse more than 40 percent of the world's fish Since 1970, when Egypt's AswA an Dam communities found in lakes, rivers, and species (5) and some 12 percent of ani- came into operation, the number of wetlands-may be the most endangered mal species in general (6) reside in commercially harvested fish species on of all. Some 34 percent of fish species, freshwater habitats, with many of these the Nile has dropped by almost two mostly from fresh water, are threatened species restricted to extremely small ar- thirds, and the sardine catch iri the with extinction, according to the latest eas and therefore quite vulnerable to Mediterranean has fallen by more than tally of the World Conservation Union disturbance. 80 percent (9). On the Rhine River, more (IUCN), which tracks threats to the The majority of the world's popula- than 100 years of channelization and world's biodiversity (1). Freshwater eco- tion lives near and depends on fresh- riverside development have cut the river systems have lost a greater proportion water environments, with most inland off from 90 percent of its original flood of their species and habitat than ecosys- cities lying adjacent to a river or lake (7). plains, and the native salmon run has tems on land or in the oceans; in addi- In addition to being biologically rich, nearly disappeared (10). tion, they are probably in greater danger freshwater systems play a vital role in The scale and extent of these human of further losses from dams, pollution, the lives of many people, providing a impacts on freshwater systems have overfishing, and other threats (2). source of water, food, and employment. risen precipitously in recent yoars. In 190 World Resources 1998-99 RESOURCES AT RISK 1950, there were 5,270 large dams; Freshwater ecosystems face many -,, today, there are more than 36,500 (on). other risks as well: F9GJRE RR./ Waterways Altered for NavigatoTn (See Figure RR.7.) Meanwhile, the In t discharges and agricul 1680 -980 number of waterways altered for navi- number ofs waterowaysnalter f oom er n - 9tural and urban runoff are pervasive flometers) gation has grown from fewer than 9,000 stresses. By the early 1990s, acid rain 500soooo 400- in 1900 to almost 500,000 today, with a had caused a 40-percent decline in consequent decline in their viability as fish species in Canadian lakes (18). 400,000--- - - - habitat (12). Given their benefits to shipping, agri- @ Overfishing, which plagues many 30,000- culture, and power production, dams freshwater systems, is currently driv- and channelization projects remain im- ing various sturgeon species toward 200,000 --------- - portant components of national devel- extinction in the Caspian Sea and its opment strategies, even though their tributaries (19). 100,000 -- environmental impacts are well known. Water diversions for agriculture and 200 3, 25 8,750 In Southeast Asia, dozens of dams are urban water supplies have rendered 1680 1800 YEAR 1980 being planned along most of the length all native fish species in the lower WATERWOYSALTEREDFORNAV000ON of the Mekong River and its tributaries. Colorado River either endangered or The Mekong River Basin has few dams extinct (20). Source: Janet N.Abramowitz,Imoperiled Waters, so far and retains one of the world's mpoverished Future:The Decline of Freshwater Ecosystems,' richest troves of freshwater biodiversity. e Siltation from soil erosion has been Washington DC 1 p l3 Estimates of the number of fish species cited as a major factor in the decline vashington.C.,1996tp 13. in the basin run to 500 and higher, and of endemic fishes in Sri Lanka (21). Everglades National Park in Florida the annual fish catch on the Mekong P Competition from nonnative fishes E24 No25Fr and its tributaries is a vital part of the in Lake Victoria has driven 200 spe- local food supply (13)(14). Experience cies of native cichlids to extinction To mecsmize further damage to fresh- with one of the few dams in the basin and endangered 150 more (22). water ecosystems, the signatory nations shows how vulnerable this resource can be. After the Pak Mun Dam was built in In response to these threats, concern Diversity have agreed to focus on risks the early 1990s on Thailand's Mun for freshwater systems is growing. At the to freshwater ecosystems at their next River, a Mekong tributary; all 150 fish World Bank and other development meeting in 1998 (the Fourth Confer- species that had inhabited the river vir- banks that have traditionally looked fa- ence of the Parties). With the scale of tually disappeared (15). vorably on dams and other major water water developments still growing world- In South America, the Hidrovia-or projects, policies have shifted to empha- wide, experts stress that the need for co- Water Highway-project will create a size a more thorough examination of ordinated action is urgent. 3,400-kilometer shipping corridor, the fiull benefits and costs of the these opening landlocked Paraguay and Bo- projects. For instance, the Inter- livia, as well as parts of the Brazilian in- American Development Bank so far has - ''';: - I terior, to river trade. The project in- refused requests to bankroll the Hi- _ . volves dredging, widening, and drovia project in light of its environ- straightening large sections of the Para- mental impacts (23). guay and Parana rivers to allow large More positive still is a nascent trend What are Mother Nature's life-support convoys of barges to pass into the conti- toward restoring some damaged fresh- services worth? In one sense, their value nent's interior. Unfortunately, the Para- water ecosystems. In Romania, officials is infinite. The Earth's economies would guay River runs through the Gran Pan- at the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve, soon collapse without fertile soil, fresh tanal, the world's largest and most with funds from the World Bank's water, breathable air, and an amenable pristine wetland. Dredging and chan- Global Environmental Facility and climate. But "infinite" too often trans- nelization through the area could lower other foreign donors, are breaching lates to "zero" in the equations that the water level considerably, imperiling dikes and dams that were built to con- guide land use and policy decisions. the 600 species of fish, 650 varieties of vert the immense delta wetlands at the Practitioners in the young field of eco- birds, 80 types of mamnials, and more mouth of the Danube to farmland. In logical economics believe more con- than 90,000 varieties of plants that in- the United States, engineers are at- crete numbers are required to help na- habit the Pantanal (16) (17). tempting a similar restoration at the tions avoid unsustainable economic World Resources 1998-99 191 , - . ._, .1._ largely taken for granted because they they do not explicitly account for the FIGURE RR8 Estimates of Human Econom cActvities are free. That is nearly twice the value of degradation in ecological services that and Ecosystem Serv/cat the global gross national product(GNP) industry and commerce cause (5). For GLOBALGNP (US$18tilion) of US$18 trillion (i).(See Figure RR.8 example, valuing forests only for the and Table RR.2.) marketable timber they produce, which Even those involved in the study ad- is as much as the GNP can conveniently mit their number is a first approxima- measure, ignores the many in direct tion, but they consider it an essential costs that society bears when forests are starting point for further analysis and logged: soil erosion, nutrient loss, in- debate that will help nations overhaul creased flooding, declines in fisheries their economic and environmental de- and water quality, reduced carbon stor- --= - M cisionmaking. Not everyone agrees with age capacity, changes in regional tem- 5ERVICES (US 33 tr Iion) this approach, however. Some critics be- perature and rainfall, and diminished lieve the effort to assign prices to eco- wildlife habitat and recreational oppor- Sosurce: Adapted tram R. Cestasca et al., The Valae of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital, Nature, Vo. system services is fundamentally flawed tunities. 387 (1997), p.25s6Table 2. since these services can never be traded There have been many attempts in in open commerce, which is how prices the past few decades to estimate the choices that degrade both their natural of conventional goods and services are value of various separate ecological resources and the vital services that determined (2). Others believe that, even services. The US$33 trillion calculation healthy natural ecosystems generate. if such prices can be reasonably calcu- is a synthesis of results from more than In one of the first efforts to calculate a lated, they cannot reflect the full value 100 published studies using a variety of global number, a team of researchers of these services, which reaches well be- different valuation methods. In synthe- fronm the United States, Argentina, and yond their importance to the world sizing these results, the research team the Netherlands has put an average price economy. In fact, the study team also looked at the value of 17 categories of tag of US$33 trillion a year on these fun- readily acknowledged that there are services such as waste treatment, polli- damental ecosystem services, which are moral, ethical, and aesthetic reasons to nation, climate regulation, food produc- value and protect nature quite apart tion, and recreation in each of 16 types from its benefits to humanity (3). of ecosystems, from coastal estuaries to IZ .. ,i;r.=1rss*4 . s 1 But the reality is that human societies tropical forests, rangelands, lakes, and TARL RR.2 Estirrates of Various Ecosyster i servces put price tags on nature every day. deserts. They calculated an average dol- VALUE Every land use decision involves im- lar value per hectare for each type of ECOSYSTEM SERVICES (trillion VUSE plicit assumptions about value, even service in each ecosystem, then multi- Soil formatiots 17.1 when no dollar figure is assigned. The plied that dollar value by the total area Recreation 3.0 problem is that the value of services each ecosystem type occupies on the Nutrient cycling 2.3 provided by the Earth's ecological infra- globe (6). Water regulation and 2.3 structure does not fit into current eco- This exercise clearly highlighted areas supply nomic equations, partly because most where much more work is needed. For Climate regulation 1.8 of the benefits fall outside the market- some types of ecosystems, such as des- (temnperature and precipitation) place. Such services are public goods erts, tundra, and croplands, so little is Habitat 1.4 that contribute immeasurably to human known that the valuation columns un- Flood and storm 1.1 welfare without ever being drawn into der nearly everv ecological service re- protection the money economv. For instance, the main blank (7). That is one reason the Food and raw 0.8 materials production cycling of essential nutrients like nitro- study team considers the US$33 trillion Genetic resources 0.8 gen and phosphorus, which is not re- a minimum value; it will likely increase Atmospheric gas 0.7 flected in any nation's GNP, accounts for as more ecological services are studied balance US$17 trillion of the US$33 trillion in and the complex interactions among Pollination 0.4 annual ecosystem services, according to ecological processes are better under- All other services 1.6 the study team's estimate (4). stood. Values are also likely to increase Total value of 33.3 ecosystem services Indeed, economic indicators such as as these services become more de- Source: Adapted from R.Costanza etal, "The Va ue of the GNP are increasingly recognized as graded and scarce in the future (8). World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capita ," Nature,Vol. flawed measures of both economic Whatever the eventual number, eco- 3e7 (1997),p.256,Table 2. progress and sustainability, because logical economists consider the global 192 World Resources 1998-99 RESOURCES AT RISK dollar figure itself less important to pol- wood and other wild products-bene- not know the actual condition of the icy than to the potential application of fits that would be greatly diminished by vast majority of the world's reefs. In the this valuation concept to local and re- the project. Thus, even without ac- Pacific, for example, 90 percent of coral gional land use decisions. Although the counting for such services as wildlife reefs have yet to be assessed (3). average value of wetland services may habitat, the wetland is far more valuable Although definitive data on reef con- not be the same per hectare in Brazil, to more people in its current state than ditions are some years off, a preliminary Indonesia, or Uganda, the very exis- diverted for irrigation (11). analysis of current reef threats indicates tence of the global estimates calculated Although ecological valuations like that a high percentage of the world's in the study should broaden the context these are still rare, further development coral reefs are at risk of degradation. of local decisionmaking (9). In fact, in a of the concept promises to provide a The ongoing assessment, which is being small but growing number of cases powerful tool for protection and sus- conducted by the World Resources In- around the world, the benefits of pro- tainable use of natural ecosystems and stitute, the International Centre for Liv- posed projects are being weighed the vital services they provide. ing Marine Aquatic Resources, and the against the social costs of lost ecosystem World Conservation Monitoring Cen- services. tre, looks at four broad categories of po- In some parts of the United States, for tential threat to coral reefs: coastal de- instance, attention is now focused on .? ___ velopment, overfishing and destructive the benefits of protecting natural water- fishing practices, land-based pollution sheds to assure safe and plentiful drink- ;Q fi*-.-p (especially sediment) from deforesta- ing water supplies, rather than on build- tion and agriculture, and marine pollu- ing expensive filtration plants to purify Around the worldt coral reefs are under tion from oil spills and the discharge of water from degraded watersheds. New assault from a multitude of sources De- oily ballast water. The analysis, due to be York City recently found it could avoid pending on their location, reefs have published in June 1998, does not meas- Yor Ciy rcenly oun itcoud aoid been damaged directly through harmful ure actual reef conditions but estimates spending US$6 billion to US$8 billion practices such as coral mining, fishing the threat to reefs based on the proxim- in constructing new water treatment with dynamite, or overfishing in gen- itv and intensity of known nsk factors, plants by protecting the upstate water- eral; haphazard coastal development; or such as ports, urban centers, coastal shed that has traditionally accom- even careless pleasure diving by tour- scasporultio es,turband centers, coastal plished these purification services for ists. Reefs have also suffered indirectly tPPu (4d(Sie Fo sye RR u9 p) free, Based on this economic assess- from sediment from inland deforesta- terfnsd(4) gse Figcure RR.9.) owng ment, the city invested USS 1.5 billion in tion and removal of coastal mangroves Key findings include the following: buying land around its reservoirs and from industrial pollution; and from nu- $ Globally, 58 percent of the world's instituting other protective measures, trient pollution contributed by sewage, reefs are at risk from human activi- actions that will not only keep its water fertilizers, and urban runoff, ties, with about 27 percent of reefs at pure at a bargain price but also enhance Just how much reefs have suffered high or very high risk. recreation, wildlife habitat, and other from these depredations on a global ba- tn Significant regional differences exist ecological benefits (1o). sis is not yet clear. Both anecdotal and regarding the degree of risk that In the traditionally prosperous scientific reports of reef damage have coral reefs face. The reefs of South- Hadejia-Jamaare flood plain region in increased over the past 20 years, and east Asia, which are the most northern Nigeria, where more than one reef specialists agree there is a serious species-diverse in the world, are also half of the wetlands have already been global decline (11. In 1992, Australian the most threatened, with more than lost to drought and upstream dams, reef ecologist Clive Wilkinson esti- 80 percent at risk, including 55 per- ecosystem valuation has been used to mated that some 10 percent of the cent at high or very high risk. On the weigh the costs and benefits of propos- world's reefs were already severely de- other hand, the reefs in the Pacific als that would divert still more water graded; he predicted that figure would region, which contains more reef away for irrigated agriculture. The net rise to 30 percent within the next two area than any other region, face benefits of such a diversion priced out decades, with further losses continuing comparatively less risk. Forty-one at US$29 per hectare. Yet, the intact as populations in the coastal tropics percent of Pacific reefs were classi- flood plain already provides US$167 surge (2). But these are just rough esti- fied as threatened, and just 10 per- per hectare in benefits to a wider range mates, based on expert opinion. To date, cent face a high risk. of local people engaged in farming, fish- no survey of reef conditions has been This ongoing assessment suggests ing, grazing livestock, or gathering fuel- conducted worldwide, so scientists do that overexploitation (overfishing and World Resources 1998-99 193 destructive fishing practices) and largely dead reef framework to rubble, 1= coastal development pose the greatest with the result that living corals that FIGURERR.10 - 'Reefs atR PI from potential threat to reefs, with each of used to cover half of the seafloor in the lndiv dual Threat Factors these threats affecting about one third shallow nearshore waters off Jamaica of all reefs (5).(See Figure RR.10.) now only cover 5 percent of the bottom 40 Overexploitation of reef resources has (7). Some scientists claim this is a har- = MEDIUM several effects. Destructive fishing prac- binger of events to come as reefs around HGH tices, such as dynamite or cyanide fish- the world continue to be overfished. 30-- ing and trawling in deeper waters, cause Others argue that these major ecosys- direct physical damage to corals. The tem effects maybe reversible (8). 20 indirect effects of overfishing appear to Coastal development also gives rise to be more widespread, although poorly several harmful effects. Direct effects understood by scientists. At a mini- come from coral mining, shoreline fill- l_ mum, overfishing results in shifts in fish ing for land reclamation, and harbor size and species composition within dredging. Indirect effects, however, are COASTAL MARINE OVER- AND-ASED reef communities, which may precipi- more pervasive. Algal blooms resulting EATIoro POLLUrION tate large-scale ecosystem changes (6). from nutrient-laden sewage released In parts of the Caribbean, this pro- nearshore can block sunlight in the wa- Source: Lauretta Birke eet alReefs ot Risk:Ahvap-Based nr4- carorofPotentiai Threats to the Worlds Coral Rees, draft report cess appears to have led to major ter column, stunting coral growth and (World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., 1998) changes in reef composition, particu- interfering with reproduction. Shoreline larly near Jamaica. Widespread over- construction disturbs sediments, which the critical role they play in fostering fishing in the region over many decades smother corals. Warm water discharges the productivity of the tropical oceans. has led to very low levels of herbivorous from power plants and industrial efflu- Coral reefs are often compared with fish, which normally play an important ents also take their toll (9). tropical rainforests in terms of their im- part in keeping algae from overgrowing Even tourism, where it is unregulated, portance as habitat and the biological reefs. In the absence of herbivorous fish, can pose a threat. For example, recrea- diversit the harbor. Some 4b000 spe- the role of keeping algae levels in check tional divers in the Gulf of Aqaba, a fin- ciesy th and S00 speyr - fell to a species of grazing sea urchin. ger of the Red Sea, have caused consid- ciles of fish and 800 species of reef- When an epidemic nearly wiped out the erable coral destruction through building coral have been described to beneficial urchins on Jamaican reefs in trampling and the dropping of dive- date, but the total number of species as- the early 1980s, algae quickly overgrew boat anchors (10). sociated with reefs is probablymore and killed the corals. Subsequently, hur- The prospect of widespread reef than 1 million (11) (12). ricanes in the region reduced the now losses is particularly worrisome given Reefs are also an integral part of the livelihood and food supply of the hu- man populations that live near them. It has been estimated that about one quar- FIGU RE RR 9 Cc:al Reef Area, bv, Recgo-, '-lassified by Risk Categery P C.RE PP 9 Core Reef Area, by Pee s", CassAeo ~ Risc '~ ter of the potential fish harvests in de- veloping countries come from coral aEomeoo reefs (13). Properly managed, reefs can Region Percent at Risk HIGH ORVERY HIGH yield, on average, 15 tons of fish and soeos Middle East 61 Caribbean 60 MEDO M other seafood per square kilometer each 80,000 Indian Ocean 54 LOW year (14). Reefs yield tourist dollars as Southeast Asia 82 70,000 Pacific 41 well. Caribbean countries, which attract 60,000 Total 58 Source: Lauretta Burke et of, millions of visitors annually to their 50,00_ Reefs atRiskhA Map-Based Indi- beaches and reefs, derive one half of 40_000 Cator of Porential Threats to the 40,000 1sVVorlds Coral Reefs, draft report their gross national product (( dNP) 30,000 (World Resources Institute, from the tourism industry, valued at 20po00 1998_ Wshingsos.C.,January US$8.9 billion in 1990 (15). Reefs also lo00 ooo ' Note: Reefs cassified as /ow risk provide essential services like coastal 10 ,00 are not considered in imminent protection, buffering adjacent shore- MIDDLEEAST CARIBBEAN INDIAN OCEAN SOUTHEASTASIA PACIFIC lines from erosive wave action and storm impacts. 194 World Resources 1998-99 RESOURCES AT RISK cw ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- __e Because reefs provide so many bene- ! . a I t.. lI! fits, degrading them is costly. A recent TABLE RR.3 Peak Harvest Year of, t. -, Fish by Region study found that the costs of destroying just 1 kilometer of reef range from YEAR OF MAXIMUM RECENT HARVEST MAXIMUM HARVEST FISHING AREA HARVEST (000 metric tons) (000 metric tons) about US$137,000 to almost US$1.2 million over a 25 -year period, j'ust Atlantic, Northwest 1967 1,007 2,588 million over a 25-year period, JustAnaci191218 counting the economic value of fisher- Atlantic,Southeast 1972 312 962 ies, tourism, and shoreline protection Atlantic, Western Central 1974 162 181 (16). Atlantic, Eastern Central 1974 320 481 The realization that reefs and their Pacific, Eastern Central 1975 76 93 many benefits are increasingly in jeop- Atlantic, Northeast 1976 4,575 5,745 ardy has begun to prompt action at Pacific, Northwest 1987 5,661 6,940 many levels. The International Coral Pacific, Northeast 1988 2,337 2,556 Reef Initiative (ICRI), started in 1995, Atlantic,Southwest 1989 967 1,000 stresses the need for integrated coastal Pacific, Southwest 1990 498 498 management to minimize the detrimen- Pacific, Southeast 1990 459 508 tal effects of coastal development. The Mediterranean 1991 284 284 ICRI now boasts the participation of Indian Ocean,Western 1991 822 822 more than 80 nations and includes a Indian Ocean, Eastern 1991 379 379 major effort to monitor global reef con- Pacific, Western Central 1991 833 833 ditions ( the International Coral Reef Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the Urnited Naeons (FAO), The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 1996 (FAO Monitoring Network) -an essential component of any effort to manage reef impacts (17). gion in turn reaches its maximum pro- At the national and local levels, a duEtivity and then begins to decline. number of governments and communi- i * a a - (See Table RR.3.) This same boom- ties have taken steps to protect and re- and-bust cycle of exploitation has typi- store coral reefs. In general, these exam- fled the exploitation of other of the plestore gooral stewardsh. p I eneal, e exam- l;a3 a world's renewable resources from for- pies of good stewvardship involve a combination of planning, management, World fisheries face a grim forecast. ests to whales. In effect, fish are the last law enforcement, environmental educa- Forty-five years of increasing fishing wild creatures to be hunted on a large tion, and legal protection. Approaches pressure have left many major fish scale. stocks depleted or in decline. Despite Sixtv percent of the world's important range from building sewage and indus-I trial waste treatment facilities, to regu- the increasing attention of policy- fish stocks are "in urgent need of man- makers and industry representatives, agement" to rehabilitate them or keep lating access and use of reefs (for exam- ple, bv establishing community progress toward better management of them from being overfished, according ple' by establishingecommunity fish harvests has been slow, and the gov- to a recent analysis bv the Food and Ag- ownership ovr.e i ernment policies and market forces be- riculture Organization of the United stricting development in sensitive hind the trend toward global overfish- Nations (FAO). This analysis, based on coastal areas (18). ing remain largely in place. fish harvest records from 1950 to 1994, Australia's Great Barrier Reef, the Overfishing was recognized as an in- found that 35 percent of the most im- largest reef in the world, illustrates the ternational problem as far back as the portant commercial fish stocks show a potential of careful reef management. early 1900s. However, prior to the 1950s, pattern of declining yields and require The reef remains in good condition, al- the problem was confined to relatively immediate action to halt overharvest- though sedimentation from runoff is a few regions such as the iNorth Atlantic, ing. Another 25 percent show steady threat in some localized areas. Careful the North Pacific, and the Mediterra- yields but are being fished at their bio- zoning of the reef-20 percent is pro- nean Sea (1)(2). With the expansion of logical limit and are vulnerable to de- tected, the rest is managed for multiple global fishing activities in the 1950s, the clines if fishing levels increase (3). The use-along with strict enforcement and exploitation of global fish stocks has harvest of overexploited fish stocks has environmental education has preserved followed a predictable pattern, pro- dropped 40 percent in only 9 vears, this globally important resource (19). gressing across the oceans as each re- from 14 million metric tons in 1985 to 8 World Resources 1998-99 195 ' s i . L; h ' . . " I . .r4 ' .,,, . i 11 4 . J i L I . Substantial potential exists for in- FIGURE RR.11 Commercia Harvests in the Northwest Atlantic of Some Important Fish Stocks, 1 95C-95 creasing the ocean fish harvest with bet- ter management of fish stocks, although Noncod Cakh (O00 metric tons) Cod Catch (000 metric tons) COD CATCH sound management is neither easy nor 300 2,000 C0d ATLC obvious. FAO estimates that marine ,70 NONCOD CATCH HADDOCK catches could rise some 9 mi]lion metric 1,500 FLATFISHES(floonders,hal,buts,etc) fis c 200 RED HAKE tons u nshmg pressure were r educed 1,200 overall and juvenile fish were allowed to 1,000 live longer before being caught. Experi- 100 750 ence in Cyprus and the Philippines l000 shows that substantial increases in catch 250 Source: United Natons Food and Agri- O J w v _ 0 culture Organization (FAO),Fishsrat-PC from better management can some- 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 (FAO, Rome, 1997). times appear in as little as 18 months in tropical waters. Such quick improve- million metric tons in 1994. These under the most optimistic scenario, ments are unlikely in colder waters, numbers mask more precipitous drops with aquaculture production doubling however. For instance, cod stocks in the in certain fish stocks such as Atlantic and overfishing brought under control cold waters off the Canadian Atlantic cod, haddock, and redfish, which have so that ocean fish stocks can recover. coast have not rebounded qu ickly since all but collapsed in some areas of the However, it is more likely that aquacul- their collapse in the early 1990s, even North Atlantic (4). (See Figure RR.I 1.) ture growth will be moderate and that thing til very recently Such declines prompted the World the ocean catch will plateau at current to fishing until very recently Conservation Union in 1996 to add sev- levels or decline, leaving a substantial ( 12)u( 18) ( 14) ( 15u. eral commercial fish species-including gap between supply and demand and The urgency of the current fisheries Atlantic cod, haddock, and bluefin also raising fish prices (7) (8). decline has begun to galvanize both tuna-to its influential "red list" of spe- Any shortfall in fish supplies is likely governments and the private Sector, at cies whose survival is in some degree to affect developing nations more than least in the developed world. Such na- endangered (5). developed nations. As demand and fish tions as the United States, Canada, and Fish are an important element of the rie exot.ffs the members of the European Union human food supply, and fishing is an prices nse, exports of fish products have recently adopted tougher fishing from developing nations will tend to controls and have started to shrink the important factor in global employment, rise as well, leaving fewer fish for local s o Curretit harvest trends and fishery con- 'size of their fishing fleets. Unilever, a Currensput har t tredse and f Fisher acn- consumption and putting fish protein major fish processor and marketer in ditions put both of these at risk. Fish ac- increasingly out of reach for low- count for roughly one fifth of all animal . Europe and North America, has protein in the human diet, and around I icome famiies (9) pledged to purchase fish only from sus- billion people rely on fish as their pri- Employment within the fisheries sec- tainably managed fish stocks by 2005. mary protein source. Indeed, produc- tor is also likely to change profoundly, To develop criteria for what "sustainably tion of fish products is far greater than especially for small-scale fishers who managed" means, Unilever has joined global production of poultry, beef, or fish for the local market or for subsis- with the World Wide Fund for Nature pork. However, new projections suggest tence. Already, these fishers, who (WWF) to form the Marine Steward- that the contribution of fish to the number some 10 million worldwide, ship Council, which will establish global food supply is likely to decrease have been losing ground over the past industry-wide principles for sustainable in the next two decades as demand for two decades as competition from com- fishing and also set standards for indi- fish increases and production flags (6). mercial vessels has grown (1 o). Off the vidual fish stocks. Fish harvesrted ac- Currently, some 80 million metric west coast of Africa, for instance, sur- cording to the Council's standards will tons of fish are available each year for veys show that fish resources in the be eligible for certification, or eco- direct human consumption. FAO ex- shallow inshore waters where these arti- labeling, which may increase its con- pects demand to increase to 110 to 120 sanal fishers ply their trade dropped sumer appeal and provide a m arket in- million metric tons in 2010 as world more than half from 1985 to 1990 due centive for producers to adopt the population grows. By FAO's estimate, to increased fishing by commercial Council's recommended fishing prac- such demand could be satisfied only trawlers (11). tices (16)(17)(18)(19). 196 World Resources 1998-99 RESOURCES AT RISK Threatened Birds as a Percentage of Total Knon Avian Species -. N~~~.0 5iZM5-US:____~~~~a... / w > M\,¶ 1j' -'>-2_-i PERCENTAGETHREATENED -t 0-2h. 3-S5 ~>~w _ 6-1 0 t No datas Source: Data Table 14.2 Approximately I11 percent of all known bird species are threatened with extinction. Habitat fragmentation or loss is the principal factor in this decline, but harvesting for food and trade and competition from nonnative species are important as well. a a Si E x E E E l m In fact, invasions of natural ecosys- environmcntal summit in Rio de Ja- second to habitat loss as the major calls on participating nations "as far as IBM ~ ~~~~~~threat to biodiversity (2). The sparse possible and as appropriate [to] prevent data available so far suggest that the the introduction of, [to] control, or [to] o n ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~pace of invasions is accelerating in par- eradicate those alien species that Ever since humans began traveling over allel with the growth of global trade. In threaten ecosystems, habitats, or spe- land and sea, assorted livestock, crops, the San Francisco Bay area, for instance, cies" (5). Participating nations are now pets, pests, and weeds have tagged the rate of successful aquatic invasions exploring how to begin implementing along. Nearly every region of the globe has climbed from one new species every this cnormous task (6). has benefited economically from intro- 36 weeks since the 1850s, to one every duced species. Yet, new arrivals that be- 24 weeks since the 1970s, to as many as A BIOLOG6ICAL (CONVl\EYOR BELT come invasive have also created major one every 12 weeks in the past decade problems for agriculture and other hu- (3). Some ecologists predict that as the Burgeoning world trade poses a par- man enterprises and disrupted distinct number of potential invaders increases ticular threat in terms of its potential to communities of native plants and ani- and the supply of undisturbed natural increase bioinvasions. Most species in- mals. Today, ahnost 20 percent of the areas declines, biological pollution by troductions are unintentional, and trade world's endangered vertebrate species alien invaders may become the leading opens up major dispersal opportunities. are threatened in some way by exotic in- factor of ecological disintegration (4). Food- and waterborne disease organ- vaders, including 13 percent of vulner- (See Table RR.4.) isms, agricultural pests and weeds, and able mainland vertebrates and 31 per- The Convention on Biological Diver- other nuisance species hitchhike to new cent of those on islands (1). sity adopted at the 1992 United Nations lands aboard ships, airplanes, and World Resources 1998-99 197 ; .1 * .1 R I ; certainty the invasive potential of any TABLE RR.4 Percentages of Introduced Plant Species in Selected Countries given plant, animal, or microbe (13). For NATIVE INTRODUCED PERCENTAGE this reason, a few nations such as New COUNTRY/REGION SPECIES SPECIES INTRODUCED Zealand-where 47 percent of the flora Antigua/ Barbuda 900 180 10 is already exotic (I14)-have adopted the Australia 15,000-20,000 1,500-2,000 10 precautionary principle, banning im- Sydney 1,500 400-500 26-33 portation of all exotic species except for Victoria 2,750 850 27.5 a few clean-list species that are known Austria 3,000 300 10 to be benign. In contrast, most nations, Canada 3,160 881 28 if they have any import restrictions at Ecuador all, use a dirty-list concept, only deny- Rio Palenque 1,100 175 15 ing import of known problem-i pests or Finland 1,250 120 10 weeds (15). France 4,400 500 11 Guadeloupe 1,668 149 In the case of unintentional introduc- Hawaii 1,200-1,300 228 17.5-19 tions, the first line of defense is a system Java 4,598 313 7 of quarantines and regulatiorns designed New Zealand 1,790 1,570 47 to limit the free flow of specie s through Spain 4,900 750 15 trade, transport, aquaculture, agricul- Source: Vernon H. Heywood,"Patterns, Extents,and Modes of nvasions by Terrestrial Plants,/in Biologicallnvosious:A GlobalPer- ture, forestry, game farming, horticul- spectiveSCOPE 37, J.A.Drake etat,eds.(John Wiley & Sons Ltd,Chichester, U.K., 1989). p.40. ture, the pet trade, recreation, tourism, and travel (16). Strengthening these bar- riers will not be easy in light of potential conflicts with treaties such as the Gen- trucks, stowing away in shipping con- where it feeds voraciously on rice seed- eral Agreement on Tariffs anc. Trade tainers and packing materials or riding lings, causing significant crop damage (GATT) that promote fewer, rather than on nursery stock, unprocessed logs, (t0). more stringent, restrictions on interna- fruits, vegetables, and seeds (7). On any Of course, not all newvly arriving spe- tional trade (17). given day, for instance, some 3,000 cies become problems, but those that do Yet, some steps are already underway. aquatic species are moving around the can cause not only biological damage The 156-nation International Maritime globe in the ballast tanks of ships, a bi- but also economic damage. In the Organization has been developing regu- otic conveyor belt that has already al- United States, roughly one fifth of 4,500 lations to control ballast water dis- tered the ecological makeup of much of established exotic species cause serious charge, which is the source of many ex- the world's coastal waters (8). economic or ecological harm. Estimates otic species in coastal estuaries (18). In Deliberate introductions of exotic of economic losses, not including dam- the interim, several countries have acted plants and animals for commcrcial and age to native species or to ecological individually to protect their own waters agricultural purposes also can pose services, range up to several billion dol- from invasions. In the Great Lakes bor- risks. The bulk of the diet of most of the lars per year in the United States alone dering the United States and Canada, world's population comes from crop t. I t P i n mandatorv controls on ballast water re- ( 11). In the Philippines, estimates of eco- and livestock species that originated no losses associated with the golden leases from commercial shipping have elsewhere (9), and land managers, agri- nomicpleosna assoneraned with theS$425e been in place since 1990, in reaction to cultural scientists, and other sectors of apple snail alone ranged from US$425 the invasion of the zebra mussel (19). society have ctear economic incentives million to US$1.2 billion in 1990 (12). More recently, the United States has ex- to continue importing exotic species for tended voluntary ballast water controls food, timber, horticultural, and other ERECTING BARRIERS AGAINST to other U.S. ports, requesting that ships uses. INVASIONS filter or exchange their ballast water at But these intentional imports do not What can be done to stem the tide of sea before entering port (20). Chile and always prove benign. The golden apple bioinvasions? For one, before intention- the port of Haifa, Israel, have also insti- snail, which was introduced into Asia ally introducing an exotic, it would be tuted mandatory ballast water require- from South America in 1980 to be culti- helpful to thoroughly aeialyze potential ments, and Australia has a program to vated as a high-protein food source, has risks and trade-offs of the introduction. control ballast water releases as well dispersed into the region's rice paddies, However, biologists cannot predict with (21)(22). 198 World Resources 1998-99 RESOURCES AT RISK Other strategies to deal with the databases of information on known of invasions-such as the land area larger issues of invasions of both harmful invasives in various regions dominated by exotic plants-as well as aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems are that can serve as an early warning sys- techniques for rapid and regular reas- taking shape at an international level. tem for other nations. Other approaches sessment of the extent of bio-invasions These strategies include computerized include a global assessment of the status (23)(24). World Resources 1998-99 199 S~ 7 .,t 5 D G1E ci AFRICA Population and Human W ell-Being UrbanandRuralPopulationilrends, Life Expectancy (1995-00): 53.8years 1950-2030 Total Fertility Rate (1995-00): 5.3 children perwoman Pop uat,i mlionO) Infant Mortality (1995-00): 86 per 1,000 live births lo000 Crude Death Rate (1995-00): 12.9 per 1,000 people 80 Percentage of Population that is: AO Rural (1995): 65 percent 60 Urban (1995): 35 percent 40 UnderAge15(2000): 43percent 20 Over Age 65 (2000): 3 percent Motor Vehicles Per Capita (1991): 0.02 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 Televisions Per 1,000 People (1994): 40 URBAN -RURA Number of Cities with Populations Greater than 750,000 (1995): 44 Trends in Age Structure, 1950-2050 Popu abon (ml I ors) 2,500 2,000 Total Population (1998): 778,484,000 people 1,0 Total Land Area (1994): 2,963,468,000 hectares s0 1950 1970 1990 2010 2030 2050 E AGE<15 X AGE 15-65 lAGE>65 Eco n o m i cs Total and Per Capita GDP in Constant 1987 Gross Domestic Product Per Capita (current $US)*: U.S. Dollars, 1970-95 Exchange-Rate-Based (1994): $639 Purchase-Power-Parity-Based (current $1) (1994): $2,174 (ill s o01987 U S.dlars) (1987 U.s dollars) Average Annual Growth Rate (1990-95): 1.3 percent 400,000 900 ........ . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . ... . .. I . .. ......... ... . .1. .1. ................ 1 ........, ..... ............ ..... .. . .. ................................ .. 3 50,000 Official Development Assistance (1995): $20,327 million 000000 800 Total External Debt (1993-95)**: $301,943 million 250,000 CGDP data for Africa exclude a total of 25 countries, 200,000 _ 700 including the Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Libya, Tanzania, and Uganda. 15c,000 *e Data are collected only for developing countries. 100,000 600 50,000 0 500 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 -TOTAL GDP - PER CAP TAGOP Note: See Data Tables in Part Ill for regional definitions, data sources, and technical notes. 200 World Resources 1998-99 AFRICA Agriculture Index of Total and Per Capita Food Cropland: Production, 1961-96 Total (1994): 190,022,000 hectares R969O 5IW= ) .0 Per Capita (1994): 0.27 hectares 110 _ Cereal Production: 1so Total (1996): 127,583,800 metrictons .............. ~ ~70 Per Capita (1 996): 0.17 metric tons 60 .. . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . ~ ~ -........ . . . . - ~ ~ ~ ~ .. . . . . . 150 Hectares of Permanent Pastureland (1994): 883,812,000 40 10 Annual Fertilizer Use [I 994): 18 kilograms per hectare 2~0 Average Cereals Yield (average 1994-96): 1,220 kilograms per hectare o0 Net Trade in Cereals (average 1993-95): 31,242,000 metric tons 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1989 1990 1995 2000 Net Trade in Cereals (average 1993-95): 31,242,000 metric tons -TOTAL PRODUCr ON ' PER CAPITA PRODUCTION Energy Total and Per Capita Energy Consumption, Commercial Energy Production (1995): 1970-95 Total: 22,610 petajoules TotolErergyConsooptior Pr CapIaCooorpo,on PerCapita: 31.4gigajoules (petajoues) (gigajoesl ... .... .................... .. ... 1000 15 Commercial Energy Consumption (1995): 10. .. . . .,000 15 Total: 9,451 petajoules 8,000 13 Per Capita: 13.1 gigajoules 7;000 Traditional Fuels as a Percentage of Commercial Energy (1995): 71.5 percent s o, Percentage of Electricity Supplied by Renewable Sources (1995): 15.5 percent 4,000 9 Energy Efficiency (terajoules per million $GDP) (1994): 24.1 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 -TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPT ON PER CAPITA CONSUMPT OCN Forests Export Value of Forest Products, 1995* Total Timber (Roundwood) Production (1995): 583.5 million cubic meters . .... . .. ... .. .. ................................................................ ....... . . . . . .. . . . . .... -..... ...... . Total Forest Extent (1995): 520,237,000 hectares IMDNUORIAL FUELWOODANDCHARCOAL 07% ............ ........... .......... . ..........ROJNDW OOD 36.4% OTH004 R 0.5% Natural Forest Extent (1995): 515,455,000 hectares / WOOD-BASED ..... . ..... / ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~PANELS 8 2°/, Plantation Forest Extent (1990): 4,416,000 hectares Percent Change in Total Forests from 1990 to 1995: -3.5 percent VWOOD PULP Percentage of Original Forest Remaining (1996): 33.9 percent 01806% Value of Forest Products Exported ($US) (1995): 2,819.4 million ......... .. . ' ..... ............ ......... 9APER A - `NRWOOD AND lRepresents export trade of each country regardless of destination. PAPERNUAKD1 52% SLEEPERS 20A1', Atm osphere Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1950-95 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (1995): Tol oosoos Ero.s0oroEerCapza Total: 745,594,000 metric tons ImIlion metr c tons) (metr c ton1) Per Capita: 1.1 metrictons 1,000 1.5 Percentage of Emissions from: ,000 1, Solid Fuels: 36.8 percent 0.0 ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . .. . . . . . . . . . .......... . . . . . . . . . .. Liquid Fuels: 36.1 percent 0.6 Gas Fuels: 13.5 percent 0.3 11 0 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 -TOTAL EMISSIONS - PERCAPITAEWASSIOVIS World Resources 1998 99 201 Fresh W ater Water Use by Sector, 1 995 Renewable Water Supply (1995): AGR CULTURAL 8S009 Total: 3,996 cubic kilometers Per Capita: 5,S54 cubic meters ,DSRA 4 Annual Water Withdrawals (1995): -DOMESTIC 7.0% Total: 145 cubic kilometers Per Capita: 202 cubic meters Percent of Cropland under Irrigation: 6.0 percent Oceans and Fish Trends in Marine Fish Catch, 1950-95 Marine Fish Catch (1995)*: 3,006,300 metrictons ..... . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ma, ne Fish Catch mnetric tons) Aquaculture Production (1995)**: 82,014metrictons . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . . . . . - - - . . . . Average Annual Balance of Trade in Fish ($US) (1993-95): 299.6 million Length of Coastline: 40,142 kilometers Diadromous fish excluided. J,C,00W C> Data exclude plants. 2,000,000 1,500,000 1,000,000 000,00 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 200D Biodiversity and Protected Areas Percent of Land Area Protected (1996): 5.2 percent Number of Protected Areas Larger than: 100,000 hectares: 209areas ...............~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................. ...... ........ .... ..... 1 million hectares: 36 areas Percent of Internationally Protected Land Area Found in Africa (percent) 100 80 PERCENTAGE OF MAMMAL SPECIES THAT ARE THREATENED 40 < -oi 20 l o -:.t'g31* o | ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~No data 0 Wold Biosphere Wetlands of Heritage Reserves Iernationa1 Sites Importance 202 World Resources 1998-99 R' i at Gla-c EUROPE Population and Human Well-Being UrbanandRural PopulationTrends, Life Expectancy (1995-00): 72.6years 1950-2030 Total Fertility Rate (1995-00): 1.5 children perwoman Pop. atin lons) ,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , - -... .. . . . . . . . . . . . I Infant Mortality (1995-00): 12 per 1,000 live births 600 Crude Death Rate (1995-00): 11.5perl,000people Percentage of Population that is: Rural (1995): 26 percent 409 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - .. ... ... ... ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .............................. Urban (1995): 74percent 3C0 Under Age 15(2000): 18 percent 200 Over Age 65 (2000): 15 percent 100 MotorVehicles PerCapita (1991): 0.27 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 Televisions Per 1,000 People (1994): 412 URBAN -RURAL Number of Cities with Populations Greater than 750,000 (1995): 84 Trends in Age Structure, 1950-2050 Ppu ation (mill Dns A0S Total Population (1998): 729,406,000 people QO Total Land Area (1994): 2,260,320,000 hectares 200 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 * AGE<15 L AGE15-65 * AGE >6S 10A00i~-~0ASSOOOS.2a 00 Economics Total and Per Capita GDP in Constant 1987 Gross Domestic Product Per Capita (current $US): U.S. Dollars, 1970-95 * Exchange-Rate-Based (1994): $11,804 . PCapitaGDP Purchase-Power-Parity-Based (current $1) (1 994): $9,643 (millions of 1987 U S dollars) '1987 U.S.dol a,,) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......!. ^ Average Annual Growth Rate (1990-95): not available for Europe 4,500.000 _ 0,000 .......... .................. 7,500~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7,0 OfficialDevelopmentAssistance(1995): -$11,866million 4000,000 7000 Total External Debt (1993-95)*: $216,556 million 6,500 350,00 6,000 * Data are collected only for Eastern Europe and the countries of the former Soviet Union. 5,0sc "Data do not include Germany or the countries of the former Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia. 3,000,D00 5,900 2,500,000 4,500 4,000 2,000,000 0.500 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 TOTALGODP -PER CAPIrA GDP Note: Some time series for Europe show a jump because of the inclusion of countries of the former Soviet Union. World Resources 1998-99 203 Agriculture ... .... .. . Index of Total and Per Capitai Food Cropland: Production, 1961-96 TotalI (11994): 316,378,000 hectares it1989-91 1boo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~ . . . . . . . . .1 4 Per Capita (1994): 0.43 hectares 140 Cereal Production: 120I . . . . . . . .100. .__ Total (1 996): 389,960,300 metric tons 90 Per Capita (11996): 0.54 metric tons 700 ____ Hectares of Permanent Pastureland (1994): 179,132,000 40 Annual Fertilizer Use (1994): 157 kilograms per hectare* 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - . . . . . . 2 0 10 Average Cereals Yield (average 1994-96): 2,884 kilograms per hectare _______________ Net Trade in Cereals (average 1993-95): -20,823,000 metric tons 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 ............ - ......... .. .... - ~~~~~TOTAL PRODUCT 0N0 PER CAPITA PRODJCTION Data do not include countries of the former Soviet Union. 85 - I~~~GINNWOMA Energy..Total and Per Capita Energy Consumption, Commercial Energy Production (1995): 1970-95 Total1: 9,783 petajoules Total Energy Consumption Pet Capita Consumption Per Capita: 124.7 gigajoules (petajoules) (g,gaJ,oiot . . .......... ................... ....... ~ ~~~~~~~~~~130,000 180 Commercial Energy Consumption (1995):17 Total: 105,339 petajoules 1(0,000 Per Capita: 144.6 gigajoules 90,000 I Traditional Fuels as aPercentage of Commercial Energy (1995): 1.9 percent 3 Percentage of Electricity Supplied by Renewable Sources (1995): 17.5 percent 00 120 70,000 1 10 Energy Efflciericyf(terajoules per million SGDP) (1994)- 20.8 1970 1975 1900 1905 1990 1995 -TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION -5PER -APITACONSUMSPTION Forests Export Value of Forest Products, 1995* Total Timber (Roundwood) Production (1995): 478.2 million cubic meters Total Forest Extent (1 995): 145,988,000 hectares 'R 84.0 NDL3TR1A-ROUNDWOOD 3.0%0 Natural Forest Extent (1 995): not available for Europe .HAI.COAL 0.2% Plantation Forest Extent (1990): not available for Europe , OTHER 1.3% Percent Change in Total Forests from 1990 tol1995: 1.3 percent PANELS AS9% Percentage of Original Forest Remaining (1 996): 58.4 percent 89/ Value of Forest Products Exported ($US) (1995): 62,501.6 million - NOCDPULP 95% Represents eXPOTt trade of each countrv regardless of destination. -. 'SOWNwUD AN9SLEEPERS 13.2% Atmosphere Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1950-95 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (1 995): Tota Em ssions Per Capita Emissions ........ . ...... ..... ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(mrnllaon metrc ions) (mettic tons) Total: 6,247,094,000 metric tons 70 1 Per Capita: 8.5 metric tons ' Percentage of Emissions from: 9,000 Solid Fuels: 36.2 percent Liquid Fuels: 33.2 percent ooo000 IEP6 Gas Fuels: 27.5 percent 1,000 4 1900 1900 1960 1965 1970 1970 1980 1985 1990 1995 TOTAL EMISSIONS 2-- PER CA 'ITA E11159 0N9 204 World Resources 1998-99 EUROPE Fresh W ater Water Use by Sector, 1995 Renewable Water Supply (1995): ................. ........ . .................. . .. ............. . ....... .......... . . -i TURAL 31096 Total: 6,234 cubic kilometers DOMESTIC 14.U Per Capita: 8,561 cubic meters .. ..... .... . . ~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~. . . ...... ....... .. . . .............. . - ......... Annual Water Withdrawals (1995): Total: 455 cubic kilometers . Per Capita: 625 cubic meters ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . Percent of Cropland under Irrigation: 8.7 percent ...................................................................... ......... INDUSTRIAL' ' . -. - - - Oceans and Fish Trends in Marine Fish Catch, 1950-95 Marine Fish Catch (1995)*: 14,869,500 metric tons ................... . .. ......... Mar ne Fi sh Catch (metric tons) Aquaculture Production (1995)**: 1,535,702 metrictons 22,000,000 Average Annual Balance of Trade in Fish ($US) (1993-95): -504.4 million 20,000.00 ... ................................................... l 8,000.000 10,000,00 Length of Coastline: 113,725 kilometers 16,000P0. Diadromous fish excluded. 14,000,000 Data exclude plants. 12,000,000 1,0,000,000 8,000,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Biodiversity and Protected Areas Percent of Internationally Protected Land Percent of Land Area Protected (1996): 4.7 percent Area Found in Europe Number of Protected Areas Larger than: (percent) 100,000 hectares: 209 areas too 1 million hectares: 11 areas .............. .............. . ......... 8c 60 40 20 World Biosphere Wetlands of Heritage Reserves International Sites Importance PERCENTAGE OF MAMMAL 'SPECIESTHAT ARE THREATENED <5 5-10 - _>t j_ 10-20 > 20 No data World Resources 1998-99 205 K * - t G Cfla ' - NORTH AMERICA Population and Human W ell-Being Urban and Rural PopulationTrends, Life Expectancy,(1995-00): 76.9 years 1950-2030 Total Fertility Rate (1995-00): 1.9 children per woman Infant Mortality (1995-00): 7 per 1,000 live births 350 ...................................... ........................... ............................. .. . ....... .... .... ,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,Crude,,Death Rate (1995-00): 8.6 per 1,000 people 300 Percentage of Population that is: 250 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .I . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . ............................. ,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,, R,ural (1995): 24 percent20 ~~~~~~~~~...... ........ .. ... ... ... ...... ..... . ........................... . - ..... . 2100 Urban (1 995): 76 percent Under Age 15 (2000): 21 percent ... ,,,,,,,,, ...... ,O,ver Age 65,(2000): 12 percent lCIoo Motor Vehicles Per Capita (1991): 0.72 . 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 Televisions Per 1,000 People (1994): 793 URBAN -RJORAL Number of Cities with Populations Greater than 750,000 (1995): 51 Trends in Age Structure, 1950-2050 Populaton (md ions) 3000 Total Population (1998): 304,078,000 people 20 Total Land Area (1994): 1,838,009,000 hectares I _ .i,, I. 1Q . :t iO !'d 14;u :|0}) .0ilu :624i*3| .04i 2o:0 *AGE65 Economics . ...... . ......... . Total and per Capita GDP in Constant 1987 Gross Domestic Product Per Capita (current $US): U.S. Dollars,1970-95 ........................................ . ...... -. ........I ......... .. ... . .. .... ... ... ........I........ . .. .......... ..... . --...... . .... .. . ... ... . ...... .. .. ....... U .S . D o la s 1 9 0 9 Purchase-Power-,P,arity-Based (current $1) (1994): $25,448 (n Per Capita GDP ... .. ...... . .. . . .. . ................................ .. -... -.11. ........ (millions of 1937 U.S dollars) l1 907 U.S dollars) Average Annual Growth Rate (1990-95): 2.3 percent 63000,000 20,000 Official Developmenl Assistance (19951: -$9,434 million _ 19,000 Total External Debt (1993-95)*: not applicable for N.A. s,000,000 1 17,000 ...... .. ...... .. .. .. .. .. .. ........ ... ......... ... ... .... .. ........... ..... ............. ....... . .. . . . ............. . , 61,000 Data are collected only for developing countries. 4,000,00 _1,000 14,000 14,000 3,000,000 12,000 11,000 2,000,000 10,000 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 -TOTAL CDP - PER CAPITA GDP 206 World Resources 1998-99 NORTH AMERICA Agriculture Index of Total and Per Capita Food Cropland: Production, 1961-96 Total (1994): 233,276,000 hectares (1989 91=100) Per Capita (1994): 0.79 hectares 163 Cereal Production: 140 ................... . . .........2................................. ..........12D Total(1996): 397,073,300metrictons Per Capita (1996): 1.33 metric tons 80 Hectares of Permanent Pastureland (1994): 267,072,000 60 Annual Fertilizer Use (1994): 92 kilograms per hectare 40 ..... .. ............... .......... .20 Average Cereals Yield (average 1994-96): 3,679.5 kilograms per ha ............ . ........................ .........I. I. I..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ...............960...1965.....1970.....1975.....1980....1989651951979195 961195599 195000 Net Trade in Cereals (average 1993-95): -108,419,000 metrictons 1980 198 1990D19 00 ................. ~~~~- TOTAL PRODUCT ON0 PER CAPITA PRODUCTION Energy Total and Per Capita Energy Consumption, Commercial Energy Production (1995): 1970-95 Total: 83,999 petajoules To,I E,seougyC .ss.pt so Pm ap0s C-ois-oo Per Capita: 283.2 gigajoules 1C0,000 350 Commercial Energy Consumption (1995): Total: 96,782 petajoules 000030 Per Capita: 326.3 gigajoules Traditional Fuels as a Percentage of Commercial Energy (1995): 2.9 percent s0,000 310 Percentage of Electricity Supplied by Renewable Sources (1995): 17.9 percent Energy Efficiency (terajoules per million $GDP) (1994): 16.3 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION - PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION Forests Export Value of Forest Products, 1995* Total Timber (Roundwood) Production (1995): 689.7 million cubic meters Total Forest Extent (1995): 457,086,000 hectares PAPER 0A6D - ENDUSTRIAL ROUNDJWOOD 6.7% ............... ~~ ~~~~~~PAPERBOARD SEL ODOR Natural Forest Extent (1995): not available for N.A. 36F.UEO CHARCOAL 01D Plantation Forest Extent (1990): notavailableforN.A. OTER 1.0% .........~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... WO-AE 'COD-BASED Percent Change in Total Forests from 1990 to 1995: 0.8percent PANE.S 5.2% Percentage of Original Forest Remaining (1996): 77.3 percent i Value of Forest Products Exported ($US) (1995): 45,935.2 million WOOD PULP 27.2% Represents export trade of each country regardless of destination. ANVTN Atmosphere Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1950-95 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (1995): Total Em ss ons Per Capta Emissions Total: 5,904,312,000 metrictons (mi lon mentctons) (metr cnns) ................. ........ ........................ . ....... ...... . ...... 6,000 ,.21 PerCapita: 19.9metrictons Percentage of Emissions from: s,oo o 19 Solid Fuels: 37.9 percent 4,500 1E Liquid Fuels: 38.9 percent IA00 6 Gas Fuels: 22.3 percent s,0 o _ 2,500 14 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 -TOTAL EMISSONS -->PER CAPITA EMISSIONS World Resources 1998-99 207 Fresh Water Water Use by Sector, 1995 Renewable WaterSupply (1995): INDJSTRIA! 480% - Total: 5,309 cubic kilometers Per Capita: 1 7,896 cubic meters OMESTIC 130% Annual Water Withdrawals (1995): Total: 512 cubic kilometers Per Capita: 1,798 cubic meters Percent of Cropland underlIrrigation: 7.4 percent - ... .-JLTRAL 39.0% Oceans and Fish ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Trends in Marine Fish Catch,' 1950-95 Marine Fish Catch (11995)": 3,939,1100 metric tons .......................... .... ...... .. - - ....... ~ ~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Nlari- Fish Catch (metic t..S. Aquaculture Production (1 995)**: 479,580 metric tons 6,CO0O o0 Average Annual Balance of Trade in Fish (SUS) (11993-95): 10.7 million 0,500.000 Length of Coastline: 110,832 kilometers 0000 4,500,3000 Diadromsous fish excluded. 4,000,300 Data exclude plants.35000 0,000,000 2,500,03, 2,000,00 1950 1960 1970 1960 1990 2000 Biodiversity and Protected Areas Percent of Land Area Protected (1 996): 11.7 percent Number of Protected Areas Larger than: 100,000 hectares: 262 areas 1 million hectares: 47 areas Percent of Internationally Protected Land Area Found in North America (percent) too 50 60 PERCENTAcE OF MAMMAL 40 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~ SPECIES THAT ARE THREATENED 40~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~< 20 5-10 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ *~~~~~02 WaddS Biophere Wet andso a0 Heriage Resees International Siee repartee,e k odata 208 World Resources 1998-99 R . 3o t G ce CENTRAL AMERICA Po p u I atio n a nd H u m a n WeHll - Bei n g . Urban and Rural Population Trends, Life Expectancy (1995-00): 71.7 years 1950-2030 Total Fertility Rate (1995-00): 3.0 children per woman Populaton(mIions) Infant Mortality (1995-00): 33 per 1,000 live births 160 Crude Death Rate (1995-00): 5.3 per 1,000 people 140 ........,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,PretgofPp!tothti:....... . . . .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Percentage of Population that is: 120 Rural (1995): 34percent SC Urban (1995): 66 percent 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ................ Under Age 15 (2000): 35 percent 40 .........~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..... . ................... ,............ ........ ... ....... , ,,,,, ,,,,. ,,,,,, , Over Age 65 (000): S percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . ........... .. . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Motor Vehicles Per Capita (1991): 0.11 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 Televisions Per 1,000 People,(1994)*: 171 - URSAUE - RURAL Number of Cities with Populations Greater than 750,000 (1995): 21 .......- . . ... .. .. .. ............................- -................................ .. .. ...........................- -......... Trndsin.geStrctue.150-05 Value is for Central and South America combined. Trends in Age Structure, 1950-2050 Populatlion (millons) 250 200 150 Total Population (1998): 130,710,000 people 10/ Total Land Area (1994): 264,835,000 hectares 52 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 * AGE <15 ' AGE 15--65 * ACE <65 Economics Gross Domestic Product Per Capita (current SUS): Total and Per Capita GDP in Constant 1987 .................. ...... . . ..................................................... ....... -... - - .-....................... U.S. Dollars, 1970-95 Exchange-Rate-Based (1994): $3,354US.Dlas190 5 , , , , , . ........ . .. . ................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... I......... $ 3... 3. . .. ... . . . . .. . .. . Purchase-Power-Parity-Based (current $1) (1994): $6,704 GDP PerCapitaGDP . .... .... .... .... .... ..................................................................................................................I...........I........................... . . . . . h ors..of..1987....S.do . . . . . . . 1987.J..S.d _l_ s. Average Annual Growth Rate (1990-95): 1.4 percent 400000 1,900 .. ................... . . . . . ...... - -............. .... - -. . . . . . . . . .... .......... - .- .'. . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . , , .. . ._. Official Development Assistance (1995): $3,205 million 350,000 -n Total External Debt (1993-95)*: $146,888 million 300,000 250,0000_ Data are collected only for developing countries. 200,00 1,50 150,000 100,000 1,3200 50,000 1,100 0 1,OOC 1970 1975 1990 1985 1990 1995 - TOTAL GDP - PER CAPITA GOP World Resources 1998-99 209 Agriculture~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0T Ag ricu ture ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Index of Total and Per Capita Food Cropland: Production, 1961 -96 Total (1994): 41,112,000 hectares 18 10 Per Capita (1 994): 0.34 hectares 160 Cereal Production: 140 COPEEDTNTAVLOL Total (1996): 32,304,700 metric tons_______________ .. . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I .. . . . . . . . . . . I. ... .. ... .. . . . . . . . . .1 0 0 Per Capita (1996): 0.26 metrictons 8 Hectares of Permanent Pastureland (1994): 98,472,000 60 Annual Fertilizer Use (1994): 58 kilograms per hectare 40 Average Cereals Yield (averagel1994-96): not available for C.A. ________________ Net Trade in Cereals (averagel1993-95): 12,216 metric tons 16 9517 9518 9519 9520 Energy Total and Per Capita Energy Consumption, Commercial Energy Production (1995): 1970-95 Total1: 9,160 petajoules ToTl~ E-egy Conu.,ption PE, Capte Consa-ption Per Capita: 74.2 gigajoules (ptaoes60iaod' Commercial Energy Consumption (11995):700 .... .. . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . - -.. ...... . . . . N0T 5 Total: 7,063 petajoules . 6,000 . . . . ............ .. .......... ..........II .... .......... -- -...... ; ; ;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~*55 Per Capita: 57.2 gigajoules 0,000 Traditional Fuels as a Percentage of Commercial Energy (1 995): 14.6 percent 4,000 45 Percentage of Electricity Supplied by Renewable Sources (1 995): 25.8 percent 3,000 40 Energy Efficiency (terajoules per million $GDP) (1994): 28.6 2,000 35 .......... .... .................. ............... - ............. ~ ~1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 -TOTAL ENERGY CONSUN1PTION -PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION Forests Export Value of Forest Products, 1995* Total Timber (Roundwood) Production (1995): 71.1lmillion cubic meters Total Forest Extent (1995): 79,443,000 hectares PAPER A60 PAPERBOARD 36.0% INDUSTRIAL00O60DW000 5.056 .. .. ... ..... ........... - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ . . . ... ..... . .... . ',,j j j , ,~ 'PUELW OODD AAN Natural Forest Extent (1995): 78,958,000 hectares 044 COTAL 060o Plantation Forest Extent (1990): 501,000 hectares OTHER 4.6% Percent Change in Total Forests froml1990 tol1995: -6.1 percent W OOD-BASED Percentage of Original Forest Remaining (1 996): 54.5 percent WTOODOPULP 10% Value of Forest Products Exported ($US) (1995): 410.8 million Represents export trade of each countrv regardless of destinationl. 0AWNWO000400SLEEPERS 37.2%' Atmosphere Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1950-95 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (11995): Tmt Enm,n,oon Per Cop wEnrinrio.. Total: 477,045,000 metric tons 50 Per Capita: 3.6 metric tons Percentage of Emissions from: Solid Fuels: 5.0 percent .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . ..... ..... . .......0 0 Liquid Fuels: 74.7 percent203 Gas Fuels: 15.5 percent 100 2... 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 - TOTALEWMIO[S1 -~" PER CAI AEMISSO OS 210 World Resources 1998-99 CENTRAL AMERICA Fresh W ater Water Use by Sector, 1995 Renewable Water Supply (1995): Total: 1,057cubickilometers INDUSTRAL8.0% Per Capita: 8,558 cubicmeters Annual Water Withdrawals (1995): DOMESTIC 60% Total: 96 cubic kilometers Per Capita: 916 cubic meters Percent of Cropland under Irrigation: 16.3 percent ......~~~~~~~~~~~............. ............. ............. .............. ...................................... CULTURAL860Yo Oceans and Fish Trends in Marine Fish Catch, 1950-95 Marine Fish Catch (1995)*: 18,311,300 metrictons Aquaculture Production (1995)**: 120,625 metric tons Marne Fish Catch (metric tons) Average Annual Balance of Trade in Fish ($US) (1993-95): -39.0 million Length of Coastline: 28,172 kilometers 20,000,000 Diadromous fish excluded. ls.oosooo* * Data exclude plants. 10,000,000 h v 5,000,000 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Biodiversity and Protected Areas Percent of Internationally Protetted Land Percent of Land Area Protected (1996): 5.6 percent Area Found in Central America Number of Protected Areas Larger than: (percent) .... . ........ .............. ......... ..... . .. ... . ......... .. ...... ..... ........... ................... ................. .... 1 00,000 hectares: 34 areas too 1 million hectares: 3 areas 0 60 40 20 0~~ ______ World Biosphere Wetlands of Heitage Reserves International Sites Importante PERCENTAGE OF MAMMAL W SPECIES THAT ARE THREATENED <5 5-10 10-20 > 20 No data World Resources 1998-99 21 1 Rc,ion)S Ult (a Glat ce SOUTH AMERICA Population and Human Well-Being UrbanandRuralPopulationTrends, Life Expectancy (1995-00): 69.0 yan 1950-2030 Total Fertility Rate (199500): 2.5 cdilrren perwoman Infant Mortality (1995-00): 36 per 1,OK live births Crude Death Rate (1995-00): 6.8 per 1,000 people Percentage of Population that is: Rural (1 995): 23 percent Urban (1995): 77 percent - Under Age 15 (2000): 30 percent Over Age 65 (2000): 6 percint Motor Vehicles Per Capita (1991): O. " 1 am | Televisions Per 1,000 People (1994): 171 - URaA _ ; Number of Cities with Populations Greater than 750,000 (1995): 38 Value is for Central and South America conibined. Trends in Age Structure, 1950-2050 Total Population (1998): 331,89,000 people 200 Total Land Area (1994): 1,752,925,60 ires M om om im iceim nurm me mN M nome * AGE *:15 * AGE 15-65 * : Economics ___________ Total and Per Capita GDP in Constant 1987 Gross Domestic Produc Pr Cat (srre $111): U.S. Dollars, 1970-95 fthangewRaBased (1994): $3,562 Purchase-Power-ParltSIased kurre tS) (1994): $5,822 m.ilon, n' 1437 US dollam U 3 7n. AverageAnnual GrowthRate(1990-95): 3.8 percint Officdal Deveop!Asstance (1995): $2,775 million n Total External Debt (1993-95)*: $311,140.6 million Dati are collected only for developi.g courlLaa ' 197l Is 1 1 Im im Ilf -TOTAL GDP PER CAPI'A ,OF 212 World Resources 1998-99 SOUTH AMERICA Agriculture Index of Total and Per Capita Food Cropland: Production, 191-96 Total (1994): 114,961,het hares Per Capita (1994): 0.37hectares Cereal Production: _ Total (1996): 94,64,2160 metric tons Per Capita (1996): .29 metr tons Hectares of Permanent Pastureland (1994): 494,727,666 Annual Fertilizer Use (1994): 60 Mlegrams per helare Average Cereals Yield (average 1994-96): 2,547 kIbgrams per here Net Trade in Cereals (average 1993-95): 4,361,6011 metric tns Energy Total and Per Capita Energy Consumption, Commercial Energy Production (1995): 1970-95 Total: 17,724 petaosemgs o: -c,. -_.- r Per Capita: 5.J ginjemeks Commercial Energy Consumption (1995): Total: 11,939 petajoules Per Capita: 37A3 glgajeuls Traditional Fuels as a Percentage of Commercial Energy (1995): 19J percent , Percentage of Electricity Supplied by Renewable Sources (1995): 81 A percent Energy Efficiency (terajoules per million SGDP) (1994): 186A UN 57 ITS m 1 1 5e 1.5 IUS TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTIO PER CATA CONSLMPTION Forests Export Value of Forest Products, 1995" Total Timber (Roundwood) Production (1995): 392.0 millon ahlc metrs SAWNWOOD AND Total Forest Extent (1995): 870,594,1111 acts SLEEPERS 14.3% P PERANDPAPERI0ARD 'U0- Natural Forest Extent (1995): 863,315,666hemtares _ * Plantation Forest Extent (1990): 7,264,666 hectares Percent Change In Total Forests from 1990 to 1995: -2.7 percent INDU51, Percentage of Original Forest Remaining (1996): 69.1 prcut Value of Forest Products Exported (SUS) (1995): 6,343.9 million Representsexporttr deofeachcountryreprdieus of destination. o - WOOODPULP 4464- Atmosphere Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1950-95 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (1995): "'i *, Total: 747,331,6 metric tons Per Capita: 2A metrctons Percentage of Emissions from: Solid Fuels: 10.3 percent SOC . s Liquid Fuels: 60.3 percnt Gas Fuels: 21.5p5 cnt . , 1. ItlS ti IR NS ISSUUS1 1. IR ISISi IOTAL EMISSIONS PfR CAPITA EMISSONS World Resources 1998-99 213 Fresh Water Water Use by Sedor, 1995 Renewable Water Supply (1995): Total: 9,526cubickilometers INDUSDOMESIC 18.0 ....... . .. ................................... ....................... .. DO ES I 18 0 Per Capita: 30,005 cubic meters _ Annual Water Withdrawals (1995): Total: 106 cubic kilometers Per Capita: 335 cubic meters Percent of Cropland under Irrigation: 7.7 percent .,CULTURAL 5.0% Oceans and Fish Trends in Marine Fish Catch, 1950-95 Marine Fish Catch (1995)*: 933,852 metrictons Aquaculture Production (1995)**: 328,931 metrictons 1,400,000- .... .. . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1,400,000 Average Annual Balance of Trade in Fish ($US) (1993-95): 1,211.9 million 1,200,000 Length of Coastline: 30,663 kilometers X oooo [ Diadromous fish excluded. 800,o00 * Data exclude plants. 600.000 400000 200,000 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Biodiversity and Protected Areas Percent of Land Area Protected (1996): 7.4 percent Number of Protected Areas Larger than: 100.000 hectares: 198 areas I million heclares: 24 areas Percent of Intemationally Protected Land Area Found in South America Percent 100 ' . 8 - PERCENTAGE OF MAMMAL SPECIES THAT ARE THREATENED 40 , <5 5-10 20 10-20 _0 _ >20 o _ _ _ ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~No datax 0 Wadd Biosphere Wet andsof Heritage Reserses Inenational Si5es Importance 214 World Resources 1998-99 o S v i t - G I tV ASIA Population and H uman Well-Being Urban and Rural PopulationTrends, LifeExpectancy(1995-00): 66.2years 1950-2030 Total Fertility Rate (1995-00): 2.7 children per woman Popu awo (milonsr . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . ... I..... . . . . . . . Infant Mortality (1995-00): 56 per 1,000 live births 30C0 Crude Death Rate (1995-00): 7.9 per 1,000 people 2,53O Percentage of Population that is: 2,0C0 Rural (1995): 65 percent ...... ... ...~.......... .......... ........... -.~ ...... .......... ..........................._ Urban (1995): 35 percent Under Age 15 (2000): 30 percent Over Age 65 (2000): 6 percent Motor Vehicles Per Capita (1991): 0.03 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 Televisions Per 1,000 People (1 994): 130 'JRBAN - RURAL Number of Cities with Populations Greater than 750,000 (1995): 184 Trends in Age Structure, 1950-2050 Populat on (mil 0Gns) 6,000 5,000 4,000 Total Population (1998): 3,588,877,000 people c 0 Total Land Area (1994): 3,085,414,000 hectares 2,0 1,00O0 195 0 1970 1990 2010 2030 0500 * AGOE5 E AGE15-6S N AGE >65 Economics Total and Per Capita GDP in Constant 1987 Gross Domestic Product Per Capita (current $US): U D 1970-95 * Exchange-Rate-Based (1994): $2,241 Purchase-Power-Parity-Based (current $1) (1994): $3,430 0GDP00 Per Cap tU " oP . ............ ...... 1 .....ri bor of 1987. POOLlar) ' 87US dol arsC Average Annual Grow[h Rate (1990 95): notavailableforAsia s.soo.ooc _ 1,70 Official Development Assistance (1995): $3,092 million 5,00,000 1,500 ........................................................... .... .... .. . . ' 4,S00,00000,00 TotalExternal[Debt(1993-95)*: $564,986million 1,34,000 .. ............ ~~~~ . ~ - - - . - .............. . - 4,C000 000 Data are collected only for developing countries. 3,'OOO.O0 1,100 3,500.0O0 900 Total GDP figures for Asia are not available before 1988 because of insufficient data. 2,500.0C0 700 2,000,000 1,S0C,000 500 1,0,00__________________________ 300 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 WTOTAl GoP uER CAPITA 2OP World Resources 1998-99 21 5 Agriculture Index of Total and Per Capita Food Cropland: Production, 1961-96 Total (1 994): 621,590,000 hectares (1989-91 = 00 Per Capita (1994): 0.18 hectares14 Cereal Production:12 Total (1996): 973,121,600 metrictons. 0 Per Capita (1996): 0.28 metrictons 807 90 Hectares of Permanent Pastureland (1994): 1,046,888,000 50 .. ........... .. 4 0 Annual Fertilizer Use (1994): 129 kilograms per hectare * so .. .... . . .. . . ... ...... - - . - .- .... ... . . . . I......... .20 Average.ere.Is.Yield (averagel1994-96): 2,895 kilograms per hectare 10 Net Trade in Cereals (averagel1993-95): 77,933,000 metrictons 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1955 1990 1995 2000 ............ ... .. ... I.......I. ... . ... ...... ... .......... ...... . .. TOTAL PRODUCTION - PER AsP TA PRODLCTIONs Data do not include countries of the former Soviet Union. ________________________ Energy Total and Per Capita Energy consumption, Commercial Energy Production (1995): 1970-95 Total: 111,998 petajoulesToEnr9CnmloFe ptsosmpo Per Capita: 32.6 gigaoules (9etaios es) (gigajouleo) .................. ................. .... ~ ~~~~~~~~~140,000 40 Commercial Energy Consumption (1995): Total: 120,967 petajoules .I0 O Per Capita: 35.6 gigajoules ........... .. .. .. . ..... . .............. . 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 Traditional Fuels as aPercentage of Commercial Energy (1995): 21.6 percent 4~0,005 - . . . . . - ......... . . . . . . . - ....... . . . . . . . -1 ..... .... I . . . . . . . .I... ........I - ... .... . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .0 Percentage of Electricity Supplied by Renewable Sources (1995): 17.7 percent 2 20,00_______________________ 15 Energy Efficiency (terajoules per million $GDP) (1994): 19.4 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 IMTOTAL ENERGYCONSUMPT9 ON SM PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION 0 m~~~~~ONUNINU Forests Export Value of Forest Products, 1995* Total]Timber (Roundwood) Production (1995): 1,146.6 million cubic meters Total Forest Extent (1995): 474,172,000 hectares PAPE RAA 4 D AP9EROA R0 33 5% INDUSTRIAL Natural Forest Extent (1 995): 255,751,O000hectares 9 5N0O0 Plantation Forest Extent (1 990): 56,115,000 hectares SAWNWOOD WOOD Percent Change in Total Forests from 1990 to 1995: -3.4 percent SAEPRNDCA Percentage of Original Forest Remaining (1996): 28.2 percent, is 00HER1 Value of Forest PrdcsEpre ($US) (1 995): 16,515 million WLOLP'0-AE Represents exporttOrade of each country regardless of destination. NELS 37.4% Atmosphere Carbon Diox(ide Emissions, 1950-95 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (1995): Tt nsnnPsso mso Total: 8,270,648,000 metric tons Itm I son meotrictons) Imtnetc tons) Per Capita: 2.3 metric tons 1,0 . Percentage of Emissions from: 8,000 Solid Fuels: 47.9 percent 6,000 . Liquid Fuels: 33.9 percent 00 Gas Fuels: 9.3 percent 20000 0.5 Note: CO, and per capita CO, emissions do not include countries of the former Soviet Union until 0992. 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 19805 1985 1900 1995 0AL EM SSJONS - PER CAl ITA EMISSIONS 216 World Resources 1998-99 ASIA F res h W ate r .............. Water Use by Sector, 1995 Renewable Water Supply (1995): ~~~~~~~~~....................................... .................................................. 'N DUTIL99 Total: 13,207 cubicukilometers k0 Per Capita: 3,841 cubic meters m _ N Annual Water Withdrawals (1995): - DOMESTC Total: 1,634 cubic kilometers 6 0% Per Capita: 542 cubic meters Percent of Cropland under Irrigation: 25.1 percent AGRICUL, ............................................................... .... 85 0% Oceans and Fish Trends in Marine Fish Catch, 1950-95 Marine Fish Catch (1995)*: 20,124,900 metrictons ..................... ........................... ...................... ' ' A4ar ne s5 Catch (metri tons) Aquaculture Production (1 995)**: 18,239,947 metric tons 25,000 .Ct Average Annual Balance of Trade in Fish ($US) (1993-95): -3,635.0 million Length of Coastline: 252,776 kilometers 20,00C,000 ..... ................................... ... .. . ..._ Diadromous fish excluded. 15,000,000 s Data exclude plants. 10,000,000 5,000,00c 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Biodiversity and Protected Areas Percent of Land Area Protected (1996): 5.3 percent .. . . . .....~~~~~~~~~~~~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of Protected Areas Larger than: 100,000hectares: 227areas 1 million hectares: 25 areas Percent of Internationally Protected Land Area Found in Asia _' (percnt) 00 60 PERCENTAGE OF MAMMAL SPECIES THAT ARE THREATENED 40 <5 20 ~ 5-10 - - - 10-20 Wrd Biosphere Wetlandsof Heritage Reserves International > 20 Sites Importance No data World Resources 1998-99 217 r ^;.^ at a C/a7- OCEANIA Population and Human Well-Being UrbanandRuralPopulationTrends, Life Expectancy (1995-00): 73.9 years 1950-2030 Total Fertility Rate (1995-00): 2.5 children per woman Popo atm0 (m Ilocs) Infant Mortality (1995-00): 24 per 1,0001ive births 35 . . .... . .... .. . ............... . ........ . ......................................................... .... ...... . .................... Crude Death Rate (1995-00): 7.7 per 1,000 people 30 Percentage of Population that is: 25 Rural (1995): 30 percent 2C Urban (1995): 70 percent 15 Under Age 15(2000): 26 percent 10 _ Over Age 65(2000): 10 percent s MotorVehiclesPerCapita(1991): 0.43 1940 1960 19S0 2000 2020 2040 Televisions Per 1,000 People (1994): 386 URBAN -RURAL Number of Cities with Populations Greater than 750,000 (1995): 6 Trends in Age Structure, 1950-2050 Popu ation (mi I o,,) 50 40 3~ Total Population (1998): 29,460,000 people 2 Total Land Area (1994): 849,135,000 hectares , 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 * AGE <15 AGE15-65 M AGE >65 Economics Total and Per Capita GDP in Constant 1987 Gross Domestic Product Per Capita (current $US): U.S. Dollar, 1970-95 Exchange-Rate-Based (1994): $14,686 ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -........... . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . .-.......,.,,.,.. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .t Purchase-Power-Parity-Based(currentS$)(1994): $15,181 DsP Pe, CaptaGDP Average Annual Growth Rate (1990-95): 3.6 percent 350ooC 12,000 .....,.................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Official Development Assistance (1995): -$316 million 3 00,1108000 Total External Debt (1993-95)*: 2,891 million _ l00 250,000 9,000 'Data are collected only for developing countries. 200,000 8,000 7,000 150,000 8,000 100,000 5,000 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 -TOTAL GDP -- PER CA'ITA GDP 218 World Resources 1998-99 OCEANIA Agricu Itu re Indexof Total and PerCapita Food Cropland: Production, 1961-96 Total (1994): 51,515,000hectares (1989-91=100) Per Capita (1994): 1.84 hectares 130 Cereal Production: 1 - Total(1996): 35,485,100metrictons 10 PerCapita(1996): 1.24metrictons 70 Hectares of Permanent Pastureland (1994): 428,638,000 50 40 .0 Annual Fertilizer Use (1994): 46 kilograms per hectare 20 Average Cereals Yield (average 1994-96): 1,779 kilograms per hectare 0 Net Trade in Cereals (average 1993-95): -13,382,000 metric tons 1960 1965 1970 1975 1900 190S 1990 19950 M0 ....... - ~~~~TOTAL PRODJCOON - PER CAPITA PRCDLOTFION Energy Total and Per Capita Energy Consumption, Commercial Energy Production (1995): 1970-95 Total: 8,334 petajoules Tota 0-ergy CcnsumprroP r Crp 17 Cersrrrpon Per Capita: 294.4 gigajoules oetaoues) lq pjpP es Commercial Energy Consumption (1995): Total: 5,282 petajoules 4500 T ITC Per Capita: 186.6 gigajoules 4,00 _ _ Traditional Fuels as a Percentage of Commercial Energy (1995): 4.5 percent 350O 16C ......... ..... ......-...... .............. Percentage of Electricity Supplied by Renewable Sources (1995): 23.6 percent 3,000 0.000 140 Energy Efficiency (terajoules per million $GDP) (1994): 14.7 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 - T(AL ENER'YCONSJVPT0ON --I PERCAPITACONSU9MPEOIN Forests Export Value of Forest Products, 1995* Total Timber (Roundwood) Production (1995): 50.1 million cubic meters UFLELWO0DANDC0ARCOAL 00% Total Forest Extent (1995): 90,695,000 hectares ... OTHER i 2 3% Natural Forest Extent (1995): 41,752,000 hectares * . . ...... . . . ............ ......... . s s ............ .......~~~.. ........ ... WOODDPULP 11l % Plantation Forest Extent (1990): 149,000 hectares Percent Change in Total Forests from 1990 to 1995: -0.5 percent Percentage of Original Forest Remaining (1996): 64.9 percent + SAWNODDAND Value of Forest Products Exported ($US) (1995): 3,071.9 million Representsexporttradeofeachcountryregardlessofdestination. j PAPRAAPERBOARD 13104 NDUSTRIAL ROUNDWOOD 52.2% Atmosphere Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1950-95 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (1 995): Tota '1-s Per .pota E. -rrns Total: 322,535,000metrictons mirob-tnctmetrIor Imorcn) Per Capita: 11.3 metric tons ............ . . . . . ... . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3 Percentage of Emissions from: 1 ... ....................... ........... ....... .... ..... 250 _ Solid Fuels: 57.2 percent ...........................0....... ...... -00 Liquid Fuels: 29.2 percent Gas Fuels: 12.5 percent ,co 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1959 - TOTAL EM S ONS -7 ER CAP TA EM SSIONS World Resources 1998-99 219 Fresh Water Water Use by Sector, 1995 Renewable Water Supply (1 995): - URAL 34.0% Total: 1,614 cubic kilometers Per Capita: 57,031 cubic meters Annual Water Withdrawals (1995): Total: 17cubickilometers Per Capita: 591 cubic meters - Percent of Cropland under Irrigation: 4.8 percent ... ..... JSTRIAL 2.0C Ocea ns a nd Fish Trends in Marine Fish Catch, 1 91i0-95 Marine Fish Catch (1995)*: 598,277 metrictons Yamre F sh Catch (met,, tors) Aquaculture Production (1995)**: 95,974metrictons 600,0C0 Average Annual Balance of Trade in Fish (SUS) (1993-95): 294.0 million Length of Coastline: 30,663 kilometers / Diadromous fish excluded. i Data exclude plants. 3C0,000 A 200 00 10,000__ 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Biodiversity and Protected Areas Percent of Internationally Protected Land Percent of Land Area Protected (1996): 7.1 percent Area Found in Oceania Number of Protected Areas Larger than: (percent) 100,000 hectares: 124areas loo 1 million hectares: 13 areas 60 40 207 VP World Biosphere Wetandsof * H~~~~~~~~edtage Reserves Intemnational Sites Importarte PERCENTAGE OF MAMMAL SPECIES THAT ARE THREATENED 5-10 10 -20 -> 20 I No data 220 World Resources 1998-99 INDICATOR MAPS WORLD BANK INCOME GROUPS ''k'* Low incomer Lowermiddleincome _ Upper middoe income H[gh sncone No data ;' I er capita income in the industrialized countries of North America, Europe, and Source: The World Bank, World Australia exceeds per capita income in the largely agriculture-based economies of much Develoomentlndictors, 7997, of Africa, South America, and Asia. (See Data Table 6.1.) *.Li Li . il l *II.. i .i1...L ., -: M. W. _ - + . f> ' X- i . - / , t C -/~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~V POPULATION DENSITY (persons per square - j kilorneter) - -,r 2- - S 140-400 - Cl a0-o , ,L,37 - M ssiss,ppl ,; 27 T agus 5 3r' 38 - Nelson - - . 28-Una 9 5 sa 39 - Rio Grande - - 20- Vistata vs 6 40- St. Lawrence 4- * 30-vojga 41 -VYuon 21 - Weser 3 2 . ii -'n _ - South America 45 -. .- -. . - Source: 42 - Amazon a- * - G ob IARC GIS Data- 44-mocol3 6-d r a- 44-GIOnoco 7 -1080ang -. -0-mos5' base on CD-ROM, 45 -Parana , 6 nge 55- Indus 66- lapt` 2 data produced by 46 - Sao Fnancisco - r9- Sea 56- Ira-addy 67- Tgris & Euphrates the U.S Army CERL 47 Tocantins lO-Volta 57- Ko.y]a 68 - X.n Jiang and Rutgers Univer 48- unuguay 11 - Zambez Ksna 66- Yemse sity CRSSA, 1996. - -- ----- ----- Watersheds-formed by rivers and the land area they drain-are the basic unit for un- derstanding freshwater resources. Sound water management must be undertaken at a whole-watershed level, rather than just at a local or national level. (See Data Table 12.4.) w~ c, NIGHTTIME LIGHTS Lights detected . Source: City Lights dataset, produced by the National Oce- anic and Atmospheric Admin- istration National Geophysical - - - - - - ___ - -- -__ __ - _ -j Data Centre from nighttime___ imagery from the Defense Me- The density of lights correlates well with general economic activity and energy use. The I teorological Satellite Program J . n: - .t , 1ti . .-,donesia and Australia is due to lack of satellite data. Operatonal Linescan System 224 World Resources 1998-99 EN DNOTES PART LI: GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS Chapter 4: Critical Trends/Population and Human Well-Being Population Growth-Stabilization? 13. Op. cit 9 p~ 23. enbourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, 14. Op. cit. 6, p. 2. Norw-ay, Portugal, Spain, Swedeni, Switzerland, Tur- 1. United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, WVorld 13. Op. cit. 9 P p9 keyn the United Kingdom, and the United States. Population Prospects 1950-2050 (The 1996 Revi- 16. Op. cit. 9, p7. 3. Op. cit. 1, p. 9. sion), on diskette (UN., New York, 1996). 17. Japanese economist Jukio Ikemoto, quoted in Jo- 4. The U.S. Comnmittee for Refugees, tUVorld Refugee 2. Ibid. hanna San, 'Widening Wealth Gaps Stoke Social Survey, 1997 (The U.S. Committee for Refugees, 3. Op. cit. 1. Tensiona in South East Asia,"Ittterpress Sersice f/PS Washington, D.C., 1997), pp. 3, 12. 4. United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Terravivra), Vol. 4, No. 151 (August 8, 1996). 5. Ibid., p. 6. Popuilation Prospects 1950-2050: The 1996 Revision, 18. Op. cit. 9, p. 1. 6. United Nations High Comnmission for Refugees Annex 1: Demographic Indicators (U.N., New 19. Op. cit. 9, p.~38. (U-NHCR), "Home is Where the Hurt Is)' Internally York, 1997), pp. 11 -45. 20. Johanna San, "Widening Wealth Gaps Stoke Social Displaced Persotts, Issue 103 (UNHCR, Genera). 3. Ibid., p. 12 1. Tensions in South East Asia," Itnterpress Service (IPS Available online at: http:I/svw'swunhcr.chlpuhsl 6. Op. cit. 4, pp. 124-125. Terruivival, Vol. 4, No. 151 (August 8, 1996). rmtO3IrmIO307.htm (July 26, 1997). 7. Op. cit. 1. 2t1. Thomas Homner-Dixon andi Valerie Percival, REnt'i- 7. United Nations High Comm issio-n for Refttgees 8. Op. cit. 4, Table A.tS, pp. 120-122. ranmrnetal Scarcity, and Violenit Conflicir Briefring IUNHCR), 'Ottt of Sight, Out of Mind)' tnter,,allv 9. United Nations Fund for Population Activities Rook )Amnericatt Association for the Advattcement Displicted Persons, Issue 103 )UNHCR. Geneva). I UNFPA), Couintry Profile: United Republic of Tan- of Science and University College, University of To- Available online at: http:/twwssunhcr.chtpuhs/ zattia (UNFPA, Near York, 1992). ronto. 1996), p. 17. rmlO03/rm1I0307.htm (July26, 1997). 10. Op. cit. 4, pp. 164, 179. 22. Government of the People's Republic of Chtina, The 8. Thomas Homer-Dixon and Vitlerie Percival, Ertvi- 11. Wolfgang Lutz, Warren Sanderson, and Sergei Peoples Republic of China:N..ational Report oni Sus- roannte'ttsScarcivy anid Violent Conflict: Briefing Scherbov, Probability WolddPopulatiott Projections tuitttable Development (Government of the People's Rook (American Association for sh~e Advancement Based on Rxpert Opinion. 'Working Paper (WP-96- Repuhlic of Chinia, Beijing, 1997), pp. 41-42. of Science and Unn'ersity College, Toronto, 1996), 17) (International Institute for Applied Systems p. 13. Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria, 19961, p. 20. 9. The World Bank, Wodld Development Indicators 12. Ulnited Nations Development Program (UNDP), Urban Growth 19917 (The World Bank, Was~hington. D.C., 1997). Humnan Developmnent Report 1997 (Oxford Univer- I.UieNaon UN)PputonDvsn,Wrd pp.326-327. sitv Press, Ness York, 19971, pp. 3-4. . Unhed NzationPrspeUtN: Poultio 196 heisioni, World 10. Op. cit. 1, . 12. 13. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), The Tables (U.N., News York, 1997), pp. 44. 48. Progress of isateiotts 1997 (UNICET, Nesw York, 2. World Resources Institute in collaboration with theEdcto 199~~~~~~). ~~~United Nations Environment Programmne, the RxFor Health:Edcto 14. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural United Nations Development Programme, and the 1. The W4orld Bank. "Expanding the Measure of Organization (UNESCO), Statistical Yearbook 1996 World Bank, 14ordt Resottrces Report 1996-97 (Ox- Wealth: Indicators of Sustainable Development," (ULNESCO, Paris, 1996). Table 2.2, p. 2-9. ford Univershty Press, News York, 1996), p. 3. CSD Edition, Draft for Discussion (The World 3. The World Bank, lAbrld Developotetit Report 19917 Baink, Washington, D.C., 1997), pp. 5-15. Ecotioniic Growth aizd Human (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997), p. 23t1. 2. United Nations Development Programme )UNDP(, Econonuc Growth and Human ~ ~~~4 Op. cit i,pp. 66- 7 . Hunian Developntettt Report 19971 UNDP, Ness Development 5. United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, Con- York, 1997), p. 76. rise Report oni tlte Vsrorld Papztlatioti Situation int 3. Ibid. 1 .World Resources Institute in collaboration wsith the 1995 (U.N., New York. 19951, p. 26. . Uie ain eeomn rgam UD) UnitedNation Envirnment rograme, the 6. United Nations General Assemnbly, Foarth Reviets Hutnani Developmnenit Report 1996 1 UNDP, Ness Unhted Nations Development Programme, and the and Appraisal of thie W'orld Population Plai of Ac-Yok196,p74 WAorld Bank, World Resources 1996-97 (Oxford YoorkN11/C3 ac 119 Pear- 5 bd,p 796)p.74 University Press, Ness York, 1996), p. 223. toreCmmite frbridn.rnaioalConernc 2. The World Bank, World Developntent Ittdicators on Population and Development, Third Session, 6. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 1997 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997), p. Item 41. p. 19. For further discussion of the social Hunt,n Development Report 1995 (UNDPO Ness 289. and environmental imnplications of urbanization, York, 1995), p. 29. 3. Ibid., p. 235. see World Resouirces Instituite in collaboration with 7. Op. cit. 2. p. 30. 4. Op. cit. 2, pp. 235-238. the United Nations Environment Programme, the 8. Op. cit. 2, p. 30. 5. The Norwegian Forum for Ensironment and Do- United Nations Development Programme, and rhe 9. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United velopment, Att Utnwantted Child Has Grown Up, re- World Bank, W~orld Resources Report 1996-97 lOx- Nations )FAO), VVonmen Reed the World, FAO Fact- port from the Ness Development Options Confer- ford University Press, New York, 1996), Chapters sheet for World Pond Summit IFAO. Rome, 19961. once (The Norwegian Forumn far Environmnent and 1I6. 16. World Resources Institute (WRI), VWbrld Resources Developmnent, Oslo, 1995), p. 27. s. Arie D. Djoekardi, "Urban Land Use Planning Pol- Database 1998-99, on diskette (WRI, WAashington, 6. United Nations Development Programnme (UNDPI, icy in Indonesia;' paper presented at the Interna- D.C., 1998). Human Dtevelopnment Report 1996 (UNDP, Nesw tional Workshop ott Policy Measures for Changing 11. World Health Organization (WHO), The WVorld York, 1996), p. 1. Consumption Patterns, Seoul, Republic of Korett, Health Report 1996 (WHO. Geneva, 1996) p. v. 7. Op. cit. 2, pp. 127,291. August 30-September 1, 1995, pp. 3-4,12-13. 12. Ibid., pp. 14-16. 8. The Wordd Bank, ltborldi Development Indicators 13. Op. cit. 2, pp. 226-227. 1996 (The World Bank, Wlashington, D.C., 1996), ItrainlM rton14. The World Bank, IVorld Developmnent Report 1997 pp. 11-12. 6nentoa Mgain(The World Bank, Washington. D.C.. 1997), p. 33. 9. United Nations Development Programnme IUNDPI, 1. United Nations (U.N.) Population Dh'ision, "World 13. Hans P. Binsavanger and Pierre Landell-Mills, The Hamatt Development Report 1997 (UNDP, Ness Population Prospects: The 1996 Revision;' Popusla- l'sbrIdBattk's Strategy,for Reducintg Povert,v and York, 1997), pp. 28-29. tionSles'e'letter, No. 62 (December 1996), pp. 9-10. Hunger: A Report to the Developtttcttt Comnnunity, 10. Op. cit. 2, p. 31. 2. The OECD member countries are Australia, Aus- Environmentally Sustainable Development Studies 11. Op. cit. 2, p. 3 1. trio, Belgium. Canada, Denmark, Finiland, Prance, and Mvonographs Series No. 4 (The World Bank. 12. Op. cit. 2, p. 3 1. Germnany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland. Italy, Japan, Lux- Washington, D.C., l995), p. 22. World Resources 1998-99 225 16. Leela Visaria and Pravin Visaria, -Indiaes Popula- wvanted Chzild Has Grown Up, report from the New tion in Transition;' Populatton Bulletin, Vol. 50, No. Developmnent Options Conference (The Norwegian AIDS Toll Climbs 3 (1995), p. 22. Forum for Environment and Developnsent, Oslo, I1. The Joint United Nations Programmre on 17. Op. cit. 4, pSI8. 19951, pp. 14-17. HlVIAlDS (UNAIDS) and the WAorld Health Or- 18. Mvohammed Basheern "Kerala: Health and Educe- ganization (WHO), Repert on the Pl1obal tion Progress Desphte Poverty," in The Norwvegian HDIV/AIDS Epidemic (UNAIDSIW HO, Geneva, Forumn for Environment and Development,-An Un- 19971. 2. The World Bank, CenfrontittgAID3: Public Priori- ries in a Global Epidemnic (Oxford UJniversity Press, New York, 1997), p. 13. Chapter 4: Critical Trends/Feeding The World Food Production: Have Yields stricth', defitned as a nutritional disorder resulting Andersen, David Nvgaard, and AnitouRatta, "The from ialyor in adequate nutrition. It is also used Righit to Food: Widely Acknowledged and Poorly Stopped Rising? ~~~~~~~~~to describ'e dietary deficiencies (e.g., micronutrient Protected;' Intetnational Food policy Research lon- I1. World Resources Institute calculation using data deficiencies such as vitamin A, iodine, or iron). stitute (IFPRI) 2020 Brief 22 (IFPRI, Waahington, from Food and Agriculture Organization of the 2. Food and Agriculture Organieation of the United D.C., 1995). The United States didl tint sign the United Nations (FAO),FPAOSTAT Statistica Data- Nations IFAOI, Agriculture and Food Security'Thcoeatbauepiymkrfaedtmgten base (FAO, Rome, 1997). Sitiuation Toda,t'-Hunger A4mtd Plenity. Available courage lawsuits by malnourished c itizenst U.S. 2. Mark D. Wvinslows; special assistant to the associate online at: http:Ik~vsstv.fao.org/svfs/fs/e/agricult/ General Accounting Office,-Poed Security: Prepare- director general (research), International Crops AgSit-e.hitm (September 25, 1997). tiens for the 1996 lNorld Peed Summit, GAO!- Research Institute for the Semni-Arid Tropics, July 3. United Nations Development Programmne, Hunien NSIAD-97-44 (GAO, Washington, 13.C., 1996), pp. 16, 1997 (personal communicatian). Developmenit Report 1997 (Oxford University 6-7. 3. Op. cit.t1. Press, New York, 1997), p. 148. 15. Op. cit. 3, p. 30, 4. Nikos Alexandratos, ed., ht7rldAgricustlure: To- 4. Peter Uvin, "The State of World Hunger;' in The wards 2010 (Food and Agricultuire Organization of Hunger Report: 1993, Ellen Miesser and Peter Uvin, the United Nations and John Wiley andl Sons, eds. (Gordon and Breach Publishers SA, Amster- Disappearing Food: How Big Are Chtchester, 19951, pp. 168-169. dam, 19961, P. 1. Uvin uses 1993 FAO figures c orn- Postharvest Losses? piled in 1994 end assumes the average per capita S. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Pro- caloric requirement is 2,350 kilocalories per day. ~ roosMcu,Fo n giutr raie gram Reportfor 1995 (IRRI, Los Baftos, Philippines, 5. Nikos Alexandratos, ed., WVorld Agriculture: Toward t Fai~on s of theunite od Natins FA)AgrclueOrg-anutiza- 1996), p. 3. 2010 (Food and Agricultute Organization of the aind Postharveste Matinagmn Servic, ARome,duJulye S. Agnes C. Role anad Prabhu L. Pingali, Pesticides,anPotrvsMnge ntSvi ,Rm,fl Rice Producticiep and Famers' Health (Interna- Uited Nations and Jonh Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997 (personal comnmunicationl. tional Rice Research Institute and \World Resources 19951, p.44.n,lbldDvlomn ndctr 2. Morton Satin, Food end Agriculture Organization Institute, Los BeSot, Philippines, end Washington, 6.TeWrdBn,(UI eeomn niaosof the United Nations IFAO), Agro-lndustries and D.C., 19931, p. 21. 1997 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997), p. Postharvest Management Service, Rotme, July 1997 7. Osamu Ito, International Rice Research Institute, 83'rl HatOrnitonWD)ThtRid (personal commnunication). Juy10, 1997 (personal comnmunication). 7. ol elhOgnzto W O,TeI'rd 3 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United S.Itrnu oaly osRserhInttt frteHealth Report 1997 (WHO, Geneva, 1997), pp. Nations, "Estimated Post-Harvest ke sses of Rice ini 8. International Coops Research Institute foe she ~13-14. Semi-Arid Tropics and Food and Agriculture Or- Southeast Asia. Available online at: ganization of the United Nations, The World Sot- 8. According to the World Health Organizationi http:l/~iws'cfao.orglNesvs/F.ACT- ghum and Millt Economies: acts, Tretids and Our- 6HO). underweight is defined as more than 2FILE/FF19712-E.HTMI (July 16, 19971. lookm (Int ilernationalCopsiesearchs Institute for Othe standatd deviationas belowv the medlian weight of a SemkI-AernaidTopics Andhps PRaeserh, Indtia,t 19961,e reference population. WHO, WVorld Healthi Statistics 4. Dante De Padua, "Rice Post-Production and Proc- SemiAridTropcs, ndhr Praesh,Tndi, 196), Aninttal 1995 (WHO, Geneva, 19961, p. xi. easing: Itea Significance to AgricuhturelI Develop- P.. 9. Op. cit. 6, p. 85. ment," in Accelerated Agricultural Dev'elopmnent, J,.D 9. Op. cit. 2. Drillon anid D.E. Sangit, eds. (SERCA College, La- 10. Nurul Islam, ed., Poptdlation and Food in the Eadly' . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United guna. Philippines, 1976). Tsv'entp-Fire Cestttcry: Meriseg FuturePood Detnand Nations, Agricultetre and Pood Security: Looking 5 p i.3 ofantyIncrtCeasingrPopulationg Funtuento Food DePn ortvard-Cotttinuted Gain, Continued Pain. A'vail- 3 Pci.. ofan ncreaing Ppulaton (IternaionalFoodable online at: http:I/svs~vsvfao.orglsvfs/fs/e/agricultI 6. H. Yong et al., "Grain Post-Production Practices Policy, Research Institute, Washington, D.C., 19951. AgLoo-e.htmt (September 25, 19971. and Loss Estimates in South China;'Agricultural pp. 208-209. 11. UntdNtos(N)Dprmn fPic,Co- Mechanization in Asia, Africa, and LatinA.merica, 11. iMark Rosegrant and Robert Livernash, "Growing UntdNtosU.. eatetofPlc or ol. 28, No. 2 (1997), pp. 37-40. Mlore Food, Doing Less Damage;' Eneirontment, Vol. dination and Sustainable Development, Critical 38, No.7(1996), p'30. ~~~~~~~~~Trends: Globatl Change and Sustainable Develop- 7. H.H. Phan and L.H. Nguyen, "Drying, Research 38, No. 7 (1996), p. 30. ~~ment (U.N., New York, 1997), p. 49. and Application in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam," 12. Op. cit. 7. 12. WAorld MNeteoirological Organization (WMNO). A in Proceedings of the 17th ASEAN Technical Semi- 13. Op. cit. 7. Comprehensive Assessment of the Preshwataer Re- oar on Grain Postharvest Technology July 25-27, sources of the World (WIvIO, Geneva, 1997), p. 28. 1995. 13. Oganiatio forEconmic o-Opratin an De- 8. Mark Bell, International Rice Researcs Institute, Food Itisecurity: A Trend Towardvelopment, "Aid and Other Resource Flows in July 1997 (personal communicatrion). Huiiger ~~~~~~~~~~~~1996;' lone 18, 1997 (press release). Available on- 9. Linda Scott Kantor et ai., "Estimating and Address- line at: http://xevAsooecdwvash.org/PRESS/PRES- log Amnericas Food Losses;' PoodReview, Vlol. 20, I. Even though in general parlance the words "bun- RELS/news9757.htm (September 8, 1897). No. 1,1(19971. ger' "starvation," "undernutritionT end "malnutri- 14. The UTnited Nationis first spoke of a humnan right to 10 MNichel Grolleaud, "Post-Harvest Losses: Discover- tion" are often used interchangeably, FAO mnakes food in its 1948 Universal Declaration of Human ing the Full Story," draft paper (Food and Agricul- some distinctions among them. Individuals experi- Rights. In 1966, the body adopted an International tore Organization of the United Nations, Rome, encing "undernutrition" have an insufficient intake Covenanit on Economic, Social, and Cultural 1997), pp. 49-52. of energy for normal growth and physical develop- Rights, recognizing "the right of everyone to an 11. Graeme Quick, scienitist, International Rice Re- ment, bodly maintenance, and for pursuing ordi- adequate standard of living for himnself and his search Institute, Los Bahlos, Philippines, 1893 (per- nary' human activities. "Mvalnutrition" is more faemilyt including adequate food" (Per Pinstrup- tonal communication). 226 World Resources 1998-99 END NOTES 12. Dante DePadua, scientist,lInternational Rice Re- 8. Sara Scherr and Satya Yadav, LatndDegradattion in 3. Ibid., p. 3, Table I. search Institute, Los Batios, Philippines, July 1997 the Developinlg W~,orld: Implications for Food, Agri- 4. Op. cit. ', pp~ 4-5. (personal comtnunication). ctdntire, atnd the Envitroonment to 2020, a synthesis ot 5. Op. cit. 2, p. 12, Figurec 12. recommnendations from an initerniational wvorkshop; 6. Op. cit. 2, p. 59 Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discus- 7.O.ct2,p.113p 4 Fgr14 Disappearinig Lanid: sioni Paper No. 14 (International Food Policy Re- 7. O ..cit. 2,.p. 1.13 P.. 14,dre Fingure St 14. 'h Soil Degradation search Institut, Washington, D.C., 1990), p. 3.Price Prawn? Shrimp Aquaculture's Imnpact in Asia:' Soil Degradation ~~~~~~~~~~9. Pierre Crosson, "Degradation of Resources as a Eoci`ronrunet, Vol. 38, No. 711996), pp. 12-14, 33. 1. L.R. Oldeman. "The Global Extent of Soil Degrade- Threat to Sustainable Agriculture;' paper presented tion)' in Soil Resilience and Sustainable Land Die at the first Wodld Congress of Professionals in Q.ut2.p.1-2 (CAB International, Oxon, U.K., 1994), p. 11 5. Agronomy, Santiago, Chile, September 5-8, 1994. to. Op0. cit. 2, p. 59. 2. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 10. Rattan Lal, "Erosion-Crop Productivity Relation- 11. Bob Holmnes, "Blue Revolotionaries,)' New Scientist Global Enviroonment Outlook (Oxford University, ships for Soils of Africa," Soil Scienice Society of (December 7, 1996). p. 34. Pr-ess, News York, t997), p. 230. America journal, Vol. 39, No. 3 11995). pp. 661-667. 12. Opo. cit. 2, pp. 24-25. 3. World Resources Institute in collaboration with the 11. Op0. cit. 8, pp. 1-2. t3. Op. cit. I1. pp. 35-36. United Nations Environment Programme and the 12. Sara Scherr and Satya Yadav, Land Degntidation in 14. Op. cit. 9. pp. 1 2-13. 33-39. United Nations Development Ptogramme, World the Detel aping World: Issues attd Policy Optiottsfor 13. Op. cit. 1, pp. 192-216. Resources 1992-93 (Oxford Univershty Press, New 2020, 2020 Vision Policy Brief No. 44 (Interna- 16 Op. cit. 1 1, p. 36. York, 1992),p. 114. tional Food Policy Research Institute,WN'ashington, 17. Op~. cit. l. pp. 177-216. 4. C. Barrowv, Land Degradatton (Cambridge Dniher- D.C., 1997), p. 2. 16. Op. cit. 1 1, pp. 34-35. sity Press, Camnbridge, U.K., 19911, cited in Henry 13. Ibid. 19. Op. cit. 2, p. 22. Kendall and David Pimentel, "Constraints on the 20. Op. cit. 1 1, pp. 34-35. Expansiort of the Global Food Supplf'Atsnbio. Vol. Fa 23, No. 3 (19941, p. 200. POiling Fish: 21. Op cit. 2,p. 22. Henry Kendall and David ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~22. lon Christensen, "Cultivating theAWorld's Demnand S. HnyKnaladDvdPtmentel, "Constraints The Aquaculture Boomn for Seafood)' Nese York Timnes (March 1, 1997), pp. oni tlst Expatisiuti of slle Global Food Supply)'Amn- 27-29. bio, Vol. 23, No. 3 119941, p. 200. 1. George K.Ilwana, "Interactionshbetsveen Aquacul- 2.O.ct ,p 2 0. Op. cit. 3, p. 1 13. tore and the Environment)' Critical Reciewss int En- 23. Op. cit. 22, p. 22. 7. 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The basis of some experts objections to FAO's re- pthensired Assessmenteoath Freswate Resurcs9o Nations (FAO), The State of Eborld Fi Pieties and tent deforestationi estimates it that these estimates th ol W O eea 97,~Aquacuilture, 1996 (FAO, Rome, 1997), p. 5. derive primarily from mathematical models hated -. Ibid., P. 10 9. Sandra Postel, "Dividing the WAaters: Pond Security, mostly on human population trends, swith few on- 3. Raskin et al., "Water Futures: Assessment of Long- Ecosystem Health, and the New Politics of Scarcity,' the-ground forest inventories for corroboration. Range Patternis and Problems)' Conmprehensise As- WNorldwatch Paper No. 132 (Worddvatch Institute, 4. Brazilian National Inttitute for Space Research sessoient of the Freshwvater Resources ofthit W'orld (Vashingtoni, D.C., 1996), p. 29. (INPE). Average Annual Deforestation Rote in the (Stockhollm Lyn)TiroMent lr.stitu1te, Stockholmn, 10. Op. cit. 3, p. 15. Legal Amiazon. Available online at: 4. Op. cit. 1997 ,pp. 2 ,1. 11. Op. cit. 3,p. 13. inlie.br/armz-04.htm (January 29, 1998). 4 Opci.1p. ,4 12-. Op. cit. 3, p. 13. 5. Stephan Schwartzmnan, Fires In the Amazon: Ani 5. Op. cit. l, pp. 1, 20-2 1. 13. Maurice Kottelat and Tony Whirten,'Freshwater Analysis ofNIsOAA-12 Saitellite Data, 1996-1997 6. Op. cit. 1, pp. 1.2 1. Biodiversity in Asia With Special Reference to (Environmental Defense Funid, Washington, D.C., 7. European Environment Agency, Environment in the Fish)"'AWorld Bank Technical Paper No. 343 (The 1997), pp. 1-2. Eutropean Union 1995: Report for the Reviets of the WAhrld Bank, W'ashington,DC,19)p.720 6. European Union GIS/Remote Sensing Expert Fifth Fnrironniental ,Action Programme (Office for 14 ei .Ga, "DmBid.C., E996) pp.7on20ov Gcoup, Fires in Indonesia, September 1997',a report the Official Puiblications of the Euiropean Commoj- crtyb Energy, Thirst May Tame Mighty, River)' Wasli- to the European Union (European Union, Brussels, nstses, lnxtembourg, 1995), p. St1. I.ngton Times (May 26, 19971, p. At14. 19971, pp. 1-3. 8. World Health Organization (WHO), Health and 15. Op. cit. 3, pp. 29-30. 7. Charles Barber, Asia/Pacific Representative, World En6rotmOtpi.Sicrinb.eOe3lonpnt:Fie Yar Resources Institute, Manila, )anuary 1998 (per- After the Earth Sunittnit (WHO, Geneva, 1997) ,p. 1.0 i.3.2. sonal communication). 54-55. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~17. Peter Mluello, "South American Wharer Project Hits 8. Robert Repetto, The Forest for the Trees? Govern- 9. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Ecological Snaggs)' Washington Tinies (May 26, meait Policies and c/eic isuse of Forest Resouirces Division of Environment Information and Assess- 1997), p. A 14. ( World Resources Institute, Wisthington, D.C., ment, Chit racterization and Assessmenit of Groand- 18. Op. cit. S, pp. 155-I156. 1988). pp. 43-31, 73-80. ~~~~~~~a'ter Quatlity Contcertts in Asia-Pacific Regiont 19. H. Reed, "Caviar Trade Threatens Caspian Sea 9. Estimates are appsoixima'.eciase to~ the difficulty of (UNEP, Nairobi, 1996)( p. 3. Sturgeon)' TRAFFIC USA. Available online at: separating plantations from niatural forests in de- 10. Sandra Postel, 'Watrt and Agriculture,' in Waiter int http://ses-vs.ssAf org/nesvltraffic/dec9i'/trafcav.htm veloped countries. Op. cit. 1, p. 140. Crisis: A Guide to rthe VtbrldS Fceshwvater Resoarces, (December 1997). 10. Op. cit. l,p. 17. Peter H. Gleick, ed.(Oxford University Press, New 20. Op. cit. 5,pp. 136-137. 11. United Nations Economic Commbision for York, 1993S'p. 60. 21. Ope ir. 5, pp. 151-152. Europe/European Commission (EC-UN/IECE), It. John Langford, "An Australian Apptoach to the 22. Op. cit. 3, pp. 48-49. Forest Condition in Europe: Results af the /995 Sur- Sustainable Us e of Water)' paper presented at 23. Marco Ehrlich, Environmenital Specialist, Inter- rep (EC-UN/CE, Brusses, 19961, p. 10, 121.Workshop on Policy Measures for Changing Con- American Development Bank, Washington, D.C.,, 12vUied E-Nations Envronment, Programme. (UP21 , surrpltion Patterns, Auagust 30-September 1, 1995 February 9,1998, (personal communication). Globa/ Enrironmet Outlook (Oxfor University iMistrv of Environment, Kwcacheon, Republic of 24. Marlise Simons, 'Big, Bold Effort Brings Danube Press, New York, 1997), pp. 240-241, Figures 4.6 Korea, 1995). Back to Lifie.'Newt York- Tintes (October 1, 1997), p. and 4.17. 12. Op. cit. IO,p. 60. I,sec. 1. 13. Mvark W. Rosegrant, Water Resources iii the 25. Op. cit. 9. p. 34. Twenity-F/rat Centutr 'v: Cha//lenges and Itstplicatiotis Fragmenting Forests: The Loss Of fisr 4cr/oni, Fond, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper 20 (International Food Policy Re- Valuing Ecosystem Services Large Frontier Forests search Institute, Washington, D.C., 19971. p. 4.' 14. Op. cit. 10, p. 6 1. ~~~1. Robert Costanza et al., "The Value ofthie World's I1. Dirk Bryanit, Daniel Nielsen, and Laura Tangley, t4oystrOp.rvcciindNat10iCapp.l 6aur. Thze Last Front/er Forests: Ecosystems and Ecoomes 15. Ismael Seraggeldin, Tow'ards Sustaiinable Manage- EoytmSrie n aua aia) aue Iconoiies nenit of Wkater Resources (The World Bank, Slash- Vol 38 (19)V 259. on the Edge (World Resources Institute, WHashinig- toni, D.C., l997l, p. 1. ungton, D.C., 1995), p. 14. 2. Mark Sagoff, "Can WNe Put a Price on Nature's Serv- ices))' The Institute fot Philosophy and Public Pol- 2. Walt Reid and Kenton Meillern Keepinig Options icy. Available online at: hittp//wwwpuaf.umdc.edu/ Alive: TIne Scieititfic Basis for Conserv/nig Biodiver- The Decline of Freshwater ippp/nature.htm (November 28, 1997). sity, (WAorld Resources Institute,AWashington, D.C., 3 p i.1 .25 1989), p. 15. Ecosysterns 3. Op. c/t. I, p. 2S9. 3. Calculated by multiplying regional frontier forest area by per hectare carbon estimates for forest at- 1. The World Consersation Union (IUCN), 1996 5. Robert Goodland and Hermnan Daly, "F nviron- eas, presented in ER.K Dixon etral., 'Carbon Pools IUCN RedfList of Threatenied Aninmals (IUCN, mental Sustainability: Universal and Nc'nnegotia- and Flux of Global Forest Ecosystems)' Scienice. Vol. Gland, Switzerlanid, 19961, pp. Intro-24. ble)'FEcologica/ App/ications, Vol. 6, No.'- (1 9961, p. 265; pp. 185-190. Dixon et aCt~ estimates are for 2. Don E. NIclAllister, Andresw L. Hamilton, and Brian106 closed and open forests for both soil and above- Harvey, "Global Freshwater Biodliversity: Striving 6. Op. cit. i,pp. 2513-260. ground vegetation. For this reason, and because for the Integrity of Freshswater Ecosystems)' Set 7. Op. cit. t, p. 256, Table 2. these averages include degradedi forest twhich con- Wind, Vol. I1t,No. 3 (19971. p. 7. 8. Op. cit. 1, p. 259. taints less carbon than intact forest), the text figure 3. loner Abramnovitz, "Imperiled Waters, Impover- 9. Stuart L. P1mim, 'The Value of Everytbing)'Nature, on total carbon stored in fronitier forest is likely an (shed Future: The Decline of Freshsvater Ecosys- Vol. 387 (1997), p. 252. underestimate. Soil carbon figures include peat. We tenms) Worldwatch Paper No. 138 (Wotldwvatch In- to. Richard M. Stapleton, Protect/ng the source: Land used averaged per hecrare carbon figures in esti- stirure, WAashington, D.C., 1996), p. 59. Conservat/on and the Future ofAmerica,: Drinking mating carbon stored in frontier forests that con- 4. Ibid. ,p. 5. Water (The Trust for Public Land, San F -ancisco, rain more than one dominant forest type (eg.tem- 5. Peter B. Moyle and Robert A. Leidy, "Lost ofEBiodi- 1997), pp.85-6. perate and boreal forest). versity in A'quatic Ecosystems: Evidence from Pith 11. .E.B Barbier et al., "An Economic Valuation of Wet- 4. Op. cit. 1, pp. 19, 2 1. Faunas;' in Conservation Biology, the The or`v arid land Benefits)' in The Hladejia-Nguru We tlands: En- 5. Op. c/t. 1, p. 17. Practice ofNatare Coniservation, Preservation, and vironment, Economy. and Susta/nable De 'e/opment 230 World Resources 1998-99 ENDNOTES n10 ~Env0 r. of a Sahelian F/sad Plain tt.brland, G.E. Holliis et at., 5. Wlilliam Stevens, "Pierce Debate Erupts Over Do- (Directorate for Nature Maniagement/Norwegian eds. (World Conservation Union-IUCN, Gland, gree of Peril Facing Ocean Species;' New York Times Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim, Norway, Switzerland, 19931. (September 17, 1996). p. C-i1. 1996). 6. Mlervl Williamns. The Transition in the Contriburtion 7. Jeffrey A. McNeely, "The Great Reshuffling: How C ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~of LivingAquaitic Resources to Food Security, Food, Alien Species Help Feed the Global Economy;' in Coral Reefs: Assessing the Threat Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Pa- Proceedingo of the Norway/ UN Confewence on A/ien per 13 (International Food Policy Research Insti- Species, The Trondheim Conferences on Biodiversity, 1. Stepen C. Jmeson zal., Stte of te Reefs lie-tute, Washingron, D.C., I996), pp. 3, 24. Ju/y 1-5,1996, DVT. Sandlund et al., eds. (Director- giotial and Global Peropectives, Background Paper, 7. Op. cit. 1, pp. 24-27. ate for Nature Management/Norwegian Instttute Executive Secretariat, International Coral Reef Ini- S. Op. sir 6, pp. 25-26. for iNature Research, Trondheim, Norwas; 1996), p. tiath'e (U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric53 Administration, Washington, D.C., 19395), p. 24. 9. Op. cit. 6,pp. 27-28.53 2. Clive Wilkinson, "Coral Reefs of the World Are 10. S. Garcia and R. Grainger, 'Fisheries Management 8. Op. cit. 5, p. 1 00. Facing Widespread Devastation: Can We Prevent and Sustainability: A Newv Perspective of an Old 9. Op. cit. 7, p. 53. This Through Sustainable Management Practices?," Problemf 'paper prepared for the Second World 10. Rosamond Naylor, "Invasions in Agriculture: As- in Proceed/ngo of the Tth Intternational C'oral Reef Fisheries Congress, Brisbane, Australia, July 1996 sessing the Cost of the Golden Apple Sniail in Asia;' Symposiuntt, Vol.1I (University of Guamn, Guam, (Food and Agricuhture Organieation of the United Ambio, Vol. 25, No. 7 (1996), p. 443. 19931, pp. 11-21. Nations, Rome, 19961, p. 13. 11. Peter Jenkins, "Free Trade and Exotic Species Intro- 3. Elizabeth Pennisi, "Brighter Prospects for the 11. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United ductions," in Proceedings of the Norway/UN Confer- Wosrld's Coral Reefs?," Science, Vlol. 277 (July 25, Nations IFADI, "Resiew of the State of WVorld Fish- ecte on Alien Species, The Trondheinm Conferences 1997), p. 492. cry Resources: Marine Fisheries," FAD Fisheries oni Biodiversity. July 1-5,1996, O.T. Sandlund et al., 4. Lauretta Burke et ail., Reefs tit Risk: A ic/ap-asdCircular No. 884 (FAD, Rome, 1995), p' 22. es DrcoaefrNtr iaeretNre p-Basedt edp 4. ia Ist iretorte for Nature Mesanagemerntdoree-, Indicator of Potential Threats to the WorldS Cora/l 2 p i.2 .8 lnIsiut o aueRsac,Todem Reefs, draft report (World Resources Insthtute, 13. Edward Trippel, "Age at Maturity as a Stress Indica- Norway, 19961, p. 145. \s'ashington, D.C., 19981, pp. 3-1 1. torci Fisheries;'Bioscience, Vol. 45,No. 111(19951, :2. Op. cit. IO,p. 443. 5. /bid., p. 2. pp. 768-69. 13. H.A, Mooniev anld J.A. Drake, "Biological hinvasionsb: 6. Op. cit. 4, p. 9. 14. David Spurgeoni, "Canada's Cod Leaves Science in A SCOPE Program Overview," in Biological Inva- 7. Terrence P. Hughes,"'Catastrophes, Phase Shifts, Hot WlaterS INature, Vol. 386 (1997), p. 107. sioets: A Global Perspective, SCOPE 37, J.A. Drake et and Large-Scale Degradation of a Caribbean Coral 15 Anthonv DePalma, "Newfoundland to Ease Ban on al., eds. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichesten, U.K., Reef;' Science, Vol. 265 1(September 9, 19941, p. Fishing; Some Say It's Too Soon," New York Tienes 19891, pp. 499-500. 1547. 1April 18, 1997), p. A-7. 14. Vernon H. Heywood, ~'Patterns, Extents, and 8. Op. cit. 3,pp. 491-493. 16. Op. cit. l, P, 15. Mvodes of Invasions byTerrestrial Plants,"in Bio- 9. Robert H. Richmond, "Coral Reef Resources: Pot- 17. "EU: Milnisters Agree on Fishing Limits;' Green- logical Invasions: A Global Perspective, SCOPE 37, lution's ImEpactos,Foramt for AppliedlResearc/c and weire, Vlol. 6, No. 234 1April 16, 19971, Item number J.A. Drake er al., eds. fjohn WAiley &Sons Ltd., Public Policy (Spring 1994)D, p. 55. 16. Chichester, U.K., 19891, p. 40. 10. Global Environment Facility, 'The Hashemite 15. Alison Maitland, 'Unilever in Fight to Sare Global 15. Michael)J. Bean, "Legal Authorities for Contrulling Kingdom of Jordan: Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Fisheries;' Financial Times )February 22, 1996, Eon- Alien Species: A Survey of Tools and Their Effec- Action Plan;' Project Document No. 1529010, don). tiven ess;' in Proceedings of the Nomnvy/ UN Confer- Global Environment Division, Environment De- 19. Michael Sutton and Caroline Whitfield, "The Ma- ence on Alien Species, The Trondheiin Conferences partment (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., rine Stesrardship Council: Newv Hope for Mlarinec on Biodiversiry, July 1-5,1996, O.T. Saridlund et al., 1996), p. 3. Fisheries 1 . .1 _.. I - , )WVorld Wide Fund eds. (Directorate for Nature Management/Norwe- 11. Gustav Pauialy, "Dtversitv and Distribution of Reef for Nature and Unilever, London, October 1996), p. gian Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim, Organisms'" in Life and Deatit of Coral Reefs, Char- 2. Norsway, 19961. pp. 204-210. les Birkeland, ed, (Chapman and Hall. New York, 16. Thorbjorn Berntsen, 'Opening Speech," ini Proceed- 19971, pp. 302-304. of Th oTriheimonferences Confeec BodAiverSipy,iJul 12. David Irlalakoff, "Extinction on the High Seas;' Sci- Bioinvasions: Sic 'i i,, .[I,. iThe Tide ~ nsof TeTrnheimronference Confrenc B niodiensiSpecies, ence,'Vol. 277 1July 25, 1997D, p.487. Exotic Species 1-5, 1996, O.T. Sandlund et al., eds.l(Directorate for 13. Op. cit. 1, p. 24. Nature lvlanagement/Norwsegian Institute for Na- 14. Hermarl Cesar,Economnic Analysis oflndoncsian I . Ian A.W. lvlacdonald ot al., "'Wildlife Conservation tare Research, Trondhseim, Norsway; 1996), p. 8. Coral Reefs, (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., and she Invaston of Nature Reserves by Introduced 17. Op. cit. 1 1, pp. 145-147. 19961, p. 16. Species: A Global Perspecth'e;' in Bio/ogical Inva- 18. Op. cit 5,p. 10 1. 15. Dy. cit. l,p. 24. sions: A Global Perspectiive,SCOPEF37. J.A.Drake et 19. US. National Research Council Committee on 16. Charles Barber and Vlaughan R. Pratt, Sullied Seas: al., eds. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester, U.K., Sip's Ballast Operations, Stemming the Tide: Con- Strategiesfer Combating Cyanide Fishing in Souith- 1989), pp. 232-233. trolling Inrroductions oflsoinindigenous Species by ease Aslia and Beyond (World Resources Institute 2. Edward 0. Wilson, Tue Diversity of Life )XW.W. Nor- Ships'Bailast VBrarer (National Academy Press, and International Marine Life Alliance, Washing- ton & Co., Nesw York, 1992), p. 253. 'Washington. D.C., 1996), pp. 59-60. toni, D.C., and Mianila, 1 997), p. 4. 3. Andrew Cohen, i : . : i.' ' Water Invaders," 20. The White House Office of the Press Secretary, 17. Clive Wilkinson, Coordinatoe, Global Coral Reef Native Species Netweork, Vol. 1, Issue 2 (Spring 'Statemnent by, the President;' October 26, 1996. Monitoring Network, Tosvnsville IvIC, Australia, 1996),p. 1. . . ).NtoaAaIen fSine,Semn h ie December 1997 (personal commuznication). 4. Jeff Crooks and Michael E. Soule, "Lag Times in 21. natrionalAcademouctiencs, Stoiniemming thecTide: 18. Op. cit. 4, p. 23. Population Explosions of Invasive Species: Causes Cnrlignrdcin fsidgnu pce and Implications;' in Proce-edinigs of the Ncrwvay/UN by Ships'Ballast Water, National Research Council 19. Op. cit. 4. p. 25. Conference on Alien Specieo, The Trondheima Confer- ComteonSi'BalsOprinsfthN- ences on Bioditersity, July 1-5,1/996, O.T. Sandlund tional Academy of Sciences (National Academy Diminishing Returns: ~~~~~~~~~~er al., eds, (Directorate for Nature Manage- Press, Washington, D.C., 19961, p. 59. DiminishingReturns: ~~~~~~ment,/Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, 22. Australian Quarantine and Inspectioni Service World Fisheries Under Pressure Trondheim, Norway, 1996), p. 39. (AQISI, 'Australian Ballast Water Management o. James T. Canlton, "Invasions in the StorId's Seas: Six Strategy," AQIS. Available online at: http:// 1 . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Centuries of Reorganizing Earth's Marine Life;' in vwwsv.dpie.gov.au/aqis/homepage/inadvice/ Nations (FAD), The Stare of Itbild Fisherieo anid Proceedings of the Norway/UNF Conference on Alien bstrategy.html (Junie 6, 1997). Aquaculture, 1996 (FAD, Rome, 19971, p. 13. Species, The Trondheim Conferences en Biodiversity, 23. Harold A. Mooney; "The SCOPE Initiatives: The 2. R. Grainger and S. Garcia, Chronicles osfMarine July 1-5, 1996, O.T. Sandlund ct al., eds. (Director- Background and Plans for a Global Strategy on In- Fishery Loaidings (I1950-1994): Trend Analysis and ate for Nature Management/Norwegian Institute vasive Species," in Proceedings of the Norway/UN Fisheries Potential, FAD Fisheries Technical Paper for Nature Research, Trondheim, Norway, 19961, p. Conference on Alien Species, The Teondheim' Confer- 359 (Food and Agricuhture Organization of the 100. ences on Biodiversiry, July 1-5,1996, O.T. Sandlund United Nations, Rome, 1996), pp. 8-9, 42-43. 6. O.T. Sandlund et al., eds., Proceedings of the Nor- et al., eds. (D:irectorate for Nature Manage- 3. Ibid., p. 31. seapsUN1 Conference on Alien Species, The Trond- ment/Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, 4. Op. cit. 2. pp. 10-1 1. helmn Conferences on Biodiversiry, July 1-5, 1996 Trondheim, Norway,l996), pp. 30-33. World Resources 1998-99 231 24. Michael N. Clout and Sarah J. Love, "Reducing the Group 'in Proceedings of the Norway/UN Confer- eds. (Directorate for Nature Management/Norwe- Impacts of Invasive Species on Global Biodiversity: ence on Alien Species, The Trondheini Conferences gian Institute for Nature Research, 'rondheim, The Role of the IUCN Invasive Species Specialist on Biodiversity, July 1-5,1996, O.T. Sandlund et al., Norway, 1996), pp. 34-38. 232 World Resources 1998-99 PART III Data Tables his section presents some of the data required to build a basic picture of the state of the Earth in its human, economic, and environmental dimensions. WNhere possible, the data tables assembled here show howv these dimensions have changed over time. In an increasingly interdependent wvorld, a picture of the whole is needed to understand the interactions of human development, population growvth, economic growth, and the environment. Managing communities, nations, or global resources for sustainable development requires this same information. Our understanlding of the state of the tions provide the locus for some infor- Earth, including its huLmlall and natural mation. The United States funds the resources, their spatial extent, and their Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis rate of change, remainis fragmented in Center (CDIAC), which houses much of part because no single organization is the basic data related to atmospheric charged with assemblillg such informa- chemistrv and greenhouse gases. tion. As a consequenice, tti)rlh RcSourccS Yet, for manv areas of information, 1998-99 depends on the work of a Xvari- there are no institutions with a viable ety of people and organizations. Some mandate for assembling all the available of these organlizationls. especially the national data. Data on urban air quality, United Nations (U.. )-affiliated organi- for example, exist for many cities in zations, are given specifi. mandates for manv countries, but no single organiza- information gathering from their memii- tion is charged with assembling that in- ber countries. The U.N. Food and Agri- formation. The World Resources Insti- cultural Organization (FAO . for exam- tute has assembled such data wvhere ple, is charged with assembling data on possible. For many more areas, no data agricultural productioni. even exist. For instance, data on the Others, such as the Organisat ioI for health of the world's remaining wild Economic Co-Operation andi Develop- grasslands are not collected at a national ment's (OECD's) Internationial Energ! level, much less compiled internationallv. Administration, expand their mandate The sources of these data tables are to describe the energy balances of n1on1- varied but depend primarily on the co- member as well as member countries. operation of many international organi- In some instances, several interniationial zations. WNtorld economic data are main- organizations come together to create anl tained at the World Bank, which has institution to generate essential inforimia- supplied the basic economic indicators tion. For example, the World Conserva- used in this edition, including data on tionlMolitoring Cenitre (%C%IC) in national income, debt, investment, and Cambridge, United Kingdom, provides the prices of commodities. The U.N. essential information on the status of Population Division is the source of data animal and plant species. Individual na- on population and population parame- ters (rates of growth, fertility, and mor- information to enable readers to under- 1998-99 Database Diskette, which con- tality). The World Health Organization stand the general method used to gener- tains all the vital economic, population, (WHO) provides the bulk of informa- ate the data and to assess their relative and environmental resource statistics tion on public health issues and infec- quality. The data compiled here vary in found in the print edition of 11orld Re- tious disease. The FAO is the source for quality (coverage, accuracy, and preci- sources 1998-99 plus an expanded 20- data in this book on agriculture, irriga- sion) from topic to topic and country to year time series for many variables. tion, land use, forestry, deforestation, country. For example, estimates of sec- In the following tables: water, and fisheries. The U.N. Statistical toral energy use are far superior to esti- * "0" is either zero or less than one Division has provided data on energy mates of sectoral water use, and in both half the unit of measure; production and consumption. Other im- instances, the data for developed coun- "X" is information not available or portant data sources include WCMC tries are based on much more detailed not applicable; and (biodiversity information), CDIAC monitoring than the data for most devel- * negative numbers are shown in (greenhouse gases),OECD (air pollu- oping nations. Some data, such as green- parentheses. tion), the International Energy Agency house gas emissions, are modeled rather Regional summaries include the (energy balances), and the U.N. Chil- than measured directly. Where possible, countries as listed or, in the case of eco- dren's Fund (UNICEF) (children's WRI has included the Internet address nomic regions (such as developed and health). Many other organizations and from which to download data directly developing), as defined by the data individuals have also helped prepare from the original data supplier. WRI has source. These latter definitions may these tables. also provided information on data quali- vary between tables. Regional time- Each data table in this section is ac- ty so that users can carefully assess the series data are sometimes unavailable companied by an extensive listing of appropriateness of these data for any due to difficulties in aggregating or dis- sources and technical notes. These tech- particular use or analysis. An additional aggregating information from the coun- nical notes attempt to provide sufficient source of data is the World Resources tries of the former Soviet Union. ECONOMIC INDICATORS t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~k I f Economic Indicators World Resources 1998-99 235 Data Table 6.1 Gross National and Domestic Product Estimates, 1995 Sources: The World Bank and United Nations Population Division Gross National Gross Domesfic Product (GDP) Average Annual ,P,,dcl (GNP) .= = S$) Purchasing Powe, Gro:heRate I, ('t'.. m ethod) '..ed Parity (PPP) (1995 Int$) n) Distribution of Total Pe la la, Per Capita Per Capi- GDP GDP, 1995 (percent) r capi To To'a' (million US$) (US$) (millin Us$) (US$) (milli.., Ints) (Int$) 1975-85 1985-95 Aariculture Industry Services WORLD 27,687,323 4,890 27,846,241 4,896 5 a 33 b E3 b AFRICA 1-4 5 3 -- Algeria 44,609 0 -,;-4- -I5741O  60T- 61 0.3 47 41 Angola 4,422 410 3,722 344 12:655 !J70 x 0.4 2 59 28 Benin 2,034 370 1,522 a 289 a 8,730 a 1,660 a 17 x 34 a 12 a 53a B"t na 4,381 3,020 4,318 2,978 8,164 5,630 10 8 7 1 5 46 48 Buvkina Faso 2,417 0 32S 22 78 799 4-5 2 9 34 a 27 a 39a Burundi 984 160 1,062 175 3,881 640 4.6 0 9 56 1 8 Camei n 8,615 650 7,931 601 30,342 2,300 8.0 (2 1) 39 23 38 Central Afrcan Rep 1,123 340 1,128 345 3,535 1,080 1 4 10 44 a 1 3 a 43a Chad 1,144 180 1,138 iso 4,498 710 2.4 2.6 44 b 22 b 35b ,Dem 3 1_3 ____120 Congo,Rep 1,784 680 C6te d'lvo re 9,248 660 10,069 735 24,238 1,770 35 01 31 20 53 Egypt 45,5C7 790 47,349 763 241,553 3,890 95 22 20 21 59 Equatorial Guinea 152 380 169 421 x x x x 50 a 33 a 17a EL,trea x x x x x x X- 1-1- 20 6) Ethiopia 5,722 100 5,287 94 25,946 460 x 3 6 57 a 10 a 33a Gabon 3,759 3,490 4,691 4,360 3,943 a 3,983 d 19 (0.5) 8 a 52 a 4)a Gambia, The 354 320 384 346 1,055 950 34 2 6 28 a 15 a 53a Ghana 6,7 1  390 6,315 364 35,196 2,030 (O 9) 4 4 46 16 33 Guinea 3,593 550 686 502 694 d 577 X  24 4S ZT"Iea-BIssau- 265 7 5-0- 257 240 855 800 2 6 3 7 46 24 37- Kenya 7,583 280 9,095 335 38,825 1,430 45 15 29 17 5.1 Lesotho 1,519 770 1,029 508 2,513 1,240 4.0 7 0 11 40 49 L bena x x 1,202 c 467 c X x 0.2 x x x Libva X x 21,864 c 4,984 c Y, A I 0 x x x X Madagascar 3,178 230 3,198 --15 -10 14 0.9 34 13 5-3 Malawi 1,623 170 i,465 151 7,448 770 4 D 2 1 42 27 3 Ma, 2,41 250 2,431 225 b,045 560 2 6 4 3 46 17 3-' Maur,tan,a 1,049 460 1,068 470 3,684 1,620 1 1 3 1 27 b 30 b 4o3b MaLir[tius _ _2,81 5 3 380 9 9 508 823 3,270 5 9 9 33 58 Morocco 29,545 1' 10 32,412 1,222 92,038 3,470 5.4 2 6 14 33 S'; Mozambique 1,353 80 1,469 85 15,707 910 x 5 8 33 a 12 a 55a Namibia 3,098 2,000 3,033 1,974 6,298 4JO0 x 3.2 14 a 29 a 5t,a Niger 1,961 220 1,860 203 6,863 750 0 8 1.4 39 b 18 b 4zb Nigeria 260 40,477 362 146,355 1,31 4 3.8 28 53 Rwanda 1,128 i8o 1,128 218 2,799 540 6 1 (4 8) 37 17 46 Senegal 5,070 6(a 4,867 586 15,211 1,830 2 9 2 8 20 18 6 Sierra Leone 762 ISO 824 196 2,601 620 2 5 (1 5) 42 27 31 Sornalia x x 917 e 106 e 7,923 c 933 c 6.2 x x x > South Africa 130,91 B 3,1 60 ____L3,035 281 21 7,L77 5,24O 1 5 3 1 4 Sudan x x 5,989 d 239d 17,852 f 726f 3 6 x x x x Swaziland 1,051 1,170 1,073 1,252 2,528 2,950 3 8 3.5 x x x Tanzania 3,703 120 3,602 120 20,11 7 670 x 3 6 58 17 24 Togo 1,266 310 1,263 309 4,739 1,160 25 09 38 a 21 a 41a Tunisia 16,369 820 ___L8_035 2,007 2 2 9 59 Uganda 4,66 240 5,655 287 29,337 1,490 x 57 50 14 36 Zambia 3,605 400 4,073 504 8,000 990 0.1 0 5 22 40 37 E IFa-na-- ---- 2,1-9' - 6-70 - 2-,l -9-2- --6 48- -- - x -x- x 3.3 56 21 23 Austria 216,547 26,890 233,427 29,01'5 171,51 9 2 1,320 22 25 2 a 34 a 63a Warps, Rep 21,356 2,070 20,561 1,986 43,996 4,2SO x x 13 35 52 Belgium 250,710 24,710 269,081 26,571 218,338 21,560 18 21 2 e 30 e 68e Bosnia and Herzeqovina x x x x x x x x x x x Bulgna 11,225 1,330 1 2,366 1,453 39,992 4,700 X (I 6) 13 34 53 Croatia, Rep 15,508 3,250 18,081 L,014 x x x x 12 25 62 Czech Rep 39,990 3,870 44,772 4,362 100,2 70 9,770 x (08) 6 a 39 a 55a Denmark 156,027 29,890 172,22 32,973 114,854 21,990 2E 1.7 4 a 29 a 67a Estonia, Rep 220 64 Finland iO5,174 20,580 12 5,432 24,561 94,684 18,540 28 13 6 a 37 a 57a France 1,451,051 24,990 ,536,089 26,437 ,230,643 21,180 23 21 2 a 27 a 71a Germany 2,252,343 27,510 2,415,764 29,607 1,641,671 20,120 x x 1 f 38 61 Greece 85,885 8,210 90,550 8,662 121,685 11,640 2.9 13 21 a 36 a 43a H2L22a  4,325 67 3.1 (0.2) 8 33 59 _ _12,129 12 0 3,712 50 5,680  Iceland 6,686 24,950 7,052 26.21 5 5,67 21,080 4.2 2O 12 f 28 60 Ireland 52,765 14,710 60,780 17,141 63,119 17,800 40 45 8 f 10 82 Italy 1,088,085 1 9,020 1,086,932 1 9,001 1,1 54,377 20,180 2 8 2.1 3 a 31 66 Latvia, Rep 5,708 2,270 5,689 2,243 8,521 3,360 4 1 (5. 1) 9 31 60 Moldova, Rep 3,996 920 3,518 793 17,434 f 3,976 f x x 50 28 22 Netherlands 371,039 24,000 395,900 2 5,572 307,782 19,880 1.9 25 3 a 27 a 70a Noay I 36,077 31,2SO 145,954 33,692 97,253 22,450 4.3 25 3 S5 62 p 11 7,663 3,052 209,3t5 30 0 8 54 Portugal 96,689 9,740 102,337 10,427 124,552 12,690 2 5 10 6 e 38 e 56L Romania 33,488 1,480 35,533 1,563 99,776 4,390 x (2.4) 21 40 39 Russian Federat on 331,948 2,240 346,383 2,333 715,577 4,82C 44 (3 9) 7 a 38 a 55a Slovak Rep 15,848 2,950 17,414 3,262 1 9,217 3,600 x 0 8) 6 33 61 Sweden 209,720 23,750 228,679 26,022 169,696 19,310 1.8 1 2 2 a 32 a 66a Sv,atzerland 296,014 4('630 300,S08 41,935 178,433 24,900 0.8 1 4 x x x Ukraine 84,083 1,630 80,12 7 1,548 126,287 2,440 x y IS 42 41 United Kngdom 1,094,734 18,700 1,105,822 19,040 1,1 20,925 19,300 1 8 2.2 2 a 32 a 66a Yuqosla.ta. Fed Rep XI x x -X 55,523 e 5,467 e x K x x x 236 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 6.1 continued ECONOMIC INDICATORS Gross National Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Average Annual Product (GNP) Exchange Rate Purchasing Power Growth Rate 1995 (Atlas method) Based (GDP) (1995 Us$) Parity (PPP) (1995 lnt$ (percent) Distribution of Total Per Capita Total Per Capita Total Per Capita GDP GDP, 1995 (percent) (million USS) (US$) (million US) (US$) (million Int$)_ (IntS 1975-85 1985-95 Agriculture Industry Services N!ORTH AMERICA ______ Canada 573,695 19,380 968,928 19,350 643,904 21,900 3,6 2.2 3d 3 1 d 966 (ErhTAA.L -AMERICA Costa Rica 8,884 2,610 9,233 2,699 20,270 5,920 2 9 4.5 17 24 58 CLaba 9 71 1 71 1 71 1 71 1 71 XI Dominr.can Rep 11,390 1,460 11,277 1,442 29,2 56 3,740 3.6 3 6 1 5 22 54 El Salvador ___ 9,057 1,610 9,471 1,673 r4,721 2,600 (1 1) 4 0 -14 - 22 65 G;UateTmala 1- 4,2535 ,4 ,9 134 3,4 3,290 2.42 33i 29 a 9 a 56 a -laiti 1,777 250 2.043 2 87 6,554 920 2 0 1298) 44 a 12 a 44 a Honduras 3 566 600 3,937 696 11.534 2.0D40 46b 3 2 2 1 33 46 ~amaica 3,803 1,5JO 4,406 1,785 12.167 4,930 i 4) 3.6 9 38 53 Mexcc) 304,596 3,320 2 50.036 2,743 61 5,229 6,750 4 7 1.0 6 26 57 lacaragna 1,~~~--6-599 - 380 1.91 1 74 63 1-0,1 (T-- 2,430 71 7 3 0a 4 6a Panama 7,2395 2,750 7,413 2,818 16,470 6,260 4.6 2 3 1 1 1 5 74 RILUTH AMfEACA Bo.iv a 5,905 600) 6,131 927 19,670 2,680 1 3.0 33 g 32 g 35g Braz 1 579,787 3,640 688,285 4,327 874,583 5,500 71 71 4 37 49 Ch e 59,5S 4,160 67,297 4,736 1 38,263 9,730 2.7 6 7 6 g 41 g 50g9 Colombo ___ 70,263 1,910 76,112 2,125 7' 6,330 4.0 44 14 o 32 5 54 b Ec,.aor 5997 ,390 7,93 1,95 .: 4,-560 -4.8- 2 7 1 9 5 Guyana 493 590 595 717 2,141 2.380 (I 71 24 36 a 37 a 27 a Paragu,ay 5,158 1,690 7,743 1,604 17,926- 3,630 66 35 24 a 22 a 54a4 Peru 95019l 2,310 57,424 2,440 89,422 3,800 14 2 0 7 38 55 Venezenna ____65,382 3,020 75,016 3,434 1 76,936 8,100 1.0 2 8 5 98 56 Af-ghan`istan,Is-lam c-State - 71 71 1< 1< 71X--X 00- 00 71O- 71 71 x Armenia, Rep 2,752 730 2,843 783 8,281 2,280 73 (10 3) 44 35 20 Azerbaijan 3,601 480 3,473 461 10,995 1,460 1 71 27 b 32 b 41 b Bangladesh 28,599 240 29,112 246 193,156 1,380 44 4.0 31 18 52 Bhuslan 295 420 304 1 72 2,283 1,290 X 63 40 a 32 a 29 a Ca-mbod a 2,719 27-0 2,771 --2-76 71X 71-- 7 5 4 34- China 744,890 620 697,647 572 3,624,065 2,970 8 7 9 6 21 49 91 Gleorgia 2,358 440 2,325 427 6,066 1,480 90 (16 7) 67 22 1 1 noia 319,660 340 324.082 349 1,319,187 1,420 5 0 5 2 29 29 4~ ndonesa i90.105, 960 __16~7 _,0 783,916 3970 72 72 17 42 41 Ira n, Isla m I -Rep 71-- - 71 110 771 o 1.756 n 379.426 9.990 1 0 1 9 25 34 40 Iraq 71 71 48,422 c 2,755 c 71 7 0.6 1 71 1 71 Israe[ 97,875 1 5,920 91,965 16,645 92,268 16,700 97 5 3 71 71 7 Japan 4,963.587 39,640 5,108,540 40,946 2 742,741 21,930 4.1 2.9 2 a 36 a 60 a Jordan 9,354 1,510 6,109 a 1,187 a 21.292 a 4,140 a 71 7 8 a 27 a 65 a Korea, Dem Pecipe s ep 71 71 X1 1 71 71 x 71 x Korea, Rep 435,137 9,702 455,476 10,142 518,699 1 1,590 6 6 8.4 7 a 43 a 50 a Kuwa t 29,941 17,390 26,650 15,760 97,303 22,060 19.2) 97 0 53 46 Ksrgyz 9ep 3,15~ ~ ~~~~8 700 3054 689 ,028 1,80 71 7 44 32 L.ao Peop~es Dem Rep 1,694 350 1,760 391 7,404f5 1,709 f 71 52 52b is1 n 30b Lebanon 10,679 2,660 11,149 3.703 1 71 71 7 7a4 24 a 69 a Ma aysia 76 321 9,890 85.3' 1 4.296 ~ 91.739 9.520 67 7 4 13 43 44 Mongo a 767 310 891 349 4,951 2,010 71 093 17 f 26 57 Oman 10,578 4,820 12,102 5,489 20,635 9,350 11.3 49 3 9 53 d 43d4 Pak sran 59,991 460 60,649 445 301,128 2,2 10 6.7 9 1 26 24 50 Rn,thlpines 71.865 1,050 74,180 1,093 197,236 2,760 2 8 3 4 221 32 46 Saudn Arabia ____ 133.540 7,040 125,501 6,875 5,3 86919 29 6e 50e 4 Singapore7931 2,0 83,695 25,156 75,223 22,610 7 4 7 9 0 36 64 Srl a.nKa 12.616 700 12,315 727 98,983 3,290 5 9 3.8 23 25 92 Syrian Arab Rep 15.780 1,120 16,783 1,182 80,247 5,690 6.5 4 2 29ea 24 e 48 e Tajlkistan), Rep 1,976 340 1,999 343 5,653 970 1 71 27 e 34 e 39e Tha..and 159,630 270 1,96 2.868 49046 7.710 8 9 9 0 11 40 49 04rne5 169,L52 ~~~~~~ ~~~~2,780 164,78 2,09 95217 5,510 4 4 4 3 16 31 53 Turkemenristan Rep 4.125 920 3,917 961 15,469 e 4,21 7 e 7 7 32ea 30 e 98e United Arab Emirates 42.909 17,400 39.107 17,696 3,:912 14:440 99 71 2b5 57 6 40b6 Uzbekis:ar. Rep 21,979 970 21,956 947 93,946 2,370 71 7 393a 34 a 94 a Vietnam 17,694 240 20,351 276 71 71 7 6.3 28 30 42 Yemen 4,044 260 470 397 1 X 7 2 7 l 5ct 1, AUsira a 337,9-09 18g,720 348,782 9,522 350,710 19,630 3 2 3 0 93a 28 a 70 -a F9 1,899 2,440 2,068 2,938 4,861 8,200 2.1 3 2 20 c 21 c 599 New Zea and 51.653 14,340 57,070 19.,026 61.214 17,190 1 4 1.9 8 e 26 a 66e Papua Nem Guiinea 4.976 1,160 4,901 .,139 1 ,183 2,600 1 1 405 26 38 a 34 a LOW INCOME 1,381,813 430 1,352.256 421 X X X X 25 38 38 MIDDLE INCOME 3,797,316 2,390 3.744,877 ai 2,357 a X X X X 11 a 35 a 52 a HIGH INCOME 22,508,193 24,930 20,487.539 a 22,692 a X XX X 2 b 32 b 66 b Notea: a. 1994.6b. 1993. c. 1889.4d 1992. e 1990, f. 1991 g. 1988. World Resurces 1998-99 237 Data Table 6.2 Official Development Assistance and Other Financial Flows, 1983-95 Sources: Organisation for Econoodo Co-Operation and D-selopmert the World Bank. and United Nation Population Division Debt Average Annual Total service Direct Cer tral Official Development ODA as aTotal Debt as a Percentage Foreign Government Asaistance (ODA) Percentage 1995 ODA External Debt service of Total Investment Expenoliturea (mill ion US$) (a) of GNP {a} Per Capita (million US$) (million US$) Exporta (million US$) (millioit US$) 1983-85 1993-95 1993-95 (USS) {a) 1983-85 1993-95 1993-95 1993-95 1993-95 1993-95 WORLD Algeria I3 359O 11 16,841 29,603 6,197 57 13 X Angola 87 390 11 39 1,707 11,087 286 9 351 A Benin 38 274 13 51 736 1,587 40 7 5 A Botlswana 101 109 3 63 286 678 92 4 (771 1,616 b Camrneron 155 573 6 34 2,995 8,352 426 21 71 1,769 b Central African Rep 110 167 14 49 288 900 16 8 11) A Chad 130 227 19 37 211 835 17 8 10 A Cbte d'lvoore 132 1,186 13 88 9,021 18,472 1,128 3: 41 X Egypt .8664 2.363 6 32 32,841 32,755 2,278 14 782 111,734 b Equatorial Gutinea 14 39 26 82 124 282 2 Ii 17 A Gabon 87 143 3 133 1,013 4,113 289 11 189) X Gamb,a The 48 68 ~ 9 42 223 424 28 13 10 76 b Ghana 173 603 9 37 1.962 5,407 349 25 196 1,254 b Gounna 101 38_1 3 ,56 3066 _ 111 3____ Guinea-Bissau 59 131 52 111 290 852 43 1 A K00y0 412 765 11 26 3,770 7,220 755 28 13 1,764 c Lesotho 100 ~ 24 9 56 147 597 34 6 1 9 398 b Liberia 1 13 102 A 56 1,108 2,046 13 X 0 A L ~~~~(43) 7 A 1 >1 A A A 110 A Madagascar 173 318 - 10 20 2,228 4,079 71 1 1 10 592 Ma aw: 137 465 26 44 926 1,987 85 22 1 A MaJi 303 451 1 8 5 1 1,235 2,839 83 1 5 9 X Mounrania ~~~~ ~~~185 273 2 98 1,382 2,2 117 25 7 A Maunrtus _ _ 34 _ _21 1 2 1 580 >--414 153 8 _ 1 6 7899 Morocco 501- 81 1 4,6 2,7 3,391 34 444 1 Mozambique 257 1,159 86 6 1 1,568 5,547 143 34 3 3 5 Namicia 2 160 5 122 II A A A 46 1,044 b Nigns 213 331 1 6 29 1,038 1,605 -72 2 3 1 21 Nj _ ____ __8 26 1 - Rwanda 165 561 42 118 X - -b1 Senegal 325 604 11 80 2,281 3,757 213 13 22 II Sierra Leone 63 230 32 49 658 1,403 91 X 13) 159 c Somalia 349 540 5 20 '.518 2,598 0 21 I A Swaziland 219 54 5 64 227 238 24 21 66 21 Tanzan a 544 932 24 29 3,677 7,028 207 22 73 X Togo 110 137 1 1 46 889 1,412 27 6 0 21 Tunisia _____ 182 135 1 8 4,346 0,323 1,432 1 9 419 ____ iUganda 160 723 19 41 1,103 3,320 484 88 A Zambia 25;9 1,207 33 251 4,054 6,761 1, 120 78 60 603 Austnia 11961 16551 (0) 1951 1 A 13 21 1 77,710 BNarus, Rep A 176 1 21 A 1,296 104 3 15 A Belgium 1455) 1857) (0) 1102) 3 X A A X 111,306 c E X _i- ... 1 509 _XA0 E.. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~i 2,725 11,620 752 13 98 4,363 Croatia, Rep 21 1 0 0 X 3,047 362 6 64 6,115 Czech Rep 21 129 0 14 2,936 12,148 2,156 10 1,367 15,153 Denniark (4281 (1,4701 (1) (3111 A 21 A 21 2 66,122 .1 - . A ~ ~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 216 22 1 192 (99 c A A X X 21 40,,15Sc France 13,023) 16,275) (1) 1145) X 1 21 21 2 642,0160 Germany 13,500) 7,096 0 92 21 3 21 A X 715,1199 Greece 12 22 c 0 0 3 11 21 2 1,004 31,i138 Iceland 1 21 X 0 1 21 1 21 X 2,0128 c Ireland 1261 (11101 10) 143) 13 21 X X 2 20,;225 b Italy (1,0221 12,4571 (0) (281 21 A A 1 21 515,454 c Latvia, Rp 21 48 I 23 A 357 23 1 146 1,2120 e Moldova,Rep 21 48 A 14 21 493 29 3 e 30 X Netherlands 11,200) (2,756) ill (208) A X A X X 180,135 Norwsay (566) (1,13221 (1 (287) 1 21 1 21 X 49,9.90c Rorania 21 193 1 12 7,965 5,473 646 8 285 8,654 c Russian Federatror 2 1,932 1 10 17,019 118,441 4, 104 5 1,118 81,680 Slovak Rep 21 74 1 16 894 4,653 840 9 195 21 139 X X 188,590 6 Sweden (776) (1,7641 (11 (1941 X A A A A 98,345 Switzerland (3031 19531 10) (1511 A A 1 21 A 62,871 c Ukra.nep A 310 5 6 A 5,862 475 2 e 209 21 Urnted Kingdom 11,523) 13,091) (0) (54) X 21 21 A 2 429,427 Yuacisl-oa,FnedRep 2 1.718 1 0 15 1 A A Ii A 238 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 6.2 continued ECONOMIC INDICATORS Debt Average Annual Total Service Direct Central Official Development ODA as a Total Debt as a Percentage Foreign Government Assistance (ODA) Percentage 1aa5 ODA External Debt Service of Total Investment Expenditures (million US$) {a} of GNP {a) Per Capita (million USS) (million US$) Exports (million US$) (million USS) 1983-85 1993-95 1993-95 (US$) fal 1983-85 1993-95 1993-95 1993-95 1993-95 1993-98 ?jC,P T . AM,1fFl. A Jnited Statrs 8,732) 1919 01 129) X43X 1,53~6967 CENTRAL. AMERICA__ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Selize 7 2 7009 202 15181 Costa Rica 250 67 1 7 4r193 3,999 567 16 3~14 21391 Cuba 14 52 4 6 3 4 4 4 5 4 Com ncan Rep 165 66 1 16 3:981 4,424 425 9 198 1,725 El Salvador 299 343 4 54 1,907 2,261 305 12 25 1,035c Gr,7ternala 75 21T4 2 19 2,2722 - 3,~90 309 12 941. 13 1 , Hat1 139 486 27 103 652 776 34 17 4 4 -londuras 249 35C 10 73 2,381 4,359 449 29 37 4 Jamaica '73 117 3 44 3,718S 4,232 604 19 121 X J I. , - I S ~~~~~~~~~~~~~-- - - - ---- Parama 63 57 1 19 4,504 7,086 356 4 192 1,875c 3uur -.Ar-ir-ca Argentora 45 244 0 9 48,574. 79,252 7 S6C 34 1,801 Boiv a 182 616 11 93 4,397 4,815 351 3' 65 1,393 BrazlI '25 314 0 2 101,992 151,497 16,591 31 3,074 163,231 b ChIle 14 167 0 11 19,357 23,641 3,644 23 1,426 1 1,539 Cormora ______ 79 i56 a 6 12,566 10,1 ~5 3,571 29 1,0 7,311 b Fcu,iadr 1 12 231 2 21 821 14 391 11224 490 23688 Guyoana 27 92 22 106 1,333 2,232 120 4 2 4 Paraguay SI 129 2 30 1,597 1,957 275 X 164 894 b Pe" ~~~~~~309 475 19 12,124 26,976 1,694 30 1,978 8,959 Sur.qame 7 72 21 179 4 4 4 ( 211 X j~~~, ay ~ ~ 0 981 ~ 25 3,494 5,074 8662 19 127 5,280 Venezeela 12 43 0 2 36,941 39,745 4,9 1999 11,103 c Armer a,Rep 11 171 9 59 4 2A 1 5 2 3 4 Azerba jan X< 91 2 14 lv 156 3 4 37 3 Bangladesh 1,122 ~ ,470 5 11 9,129 1 5,737 633 14 9 4 Ch na 803 3,344 1 3 12,799 101,491 12,123 10 32,384 44,977 c Georgv a1 161 6 37 4 1,093 13 X 0 4 irdia 1,701 1,841 I 2 35,599 96 412 10,580 27 731 49,327 Indonesra _____ 673 1,683 1 7 32,990 97,841 14.929 32 2,827 27,900 ~ran, ls~amnc Rep 25 151 X 3 9, 178 22,672 3,978 4 (1 0) 19,149 raq 42 255 11 16 4 4, 4 X 0 4 srael 1,529 049 1 61 3 4 4 4 4 3 5,r182 Japan 13,903) (12 996) (01 119) X X 4 3 1 1,01 6.209 b Korea, DernPeople's Rep 2 11 2' 1 X 11 4 4 0 4 Korea Rep 110) (321 10) I 4 4 11 4 4 67,983 Kuwait 5 5 0 4 4 21X 4 4 14,242 Kyrgyo Rep X ~~~~~~ ~~~~~183 5 64 4926 2 C 8 X Lao People's Derr Rep 34 249 16 64 529 2,077 25 6 92 L,ebaronr 96 189 2 6' 982 2,010 198 12 16 2,493 c Malaysia 244 92 0 6 18,851 32.012 5,753 9 9,051 17,892 MongolIa 1 1 73 24 94 1 444 35 9 9 4 S4ynemm 329 135 4 3 2,59~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~S7 6,27 17 c 96 9r Nepal 210 414 12C 20 504 2,24 1 83 8 7 644 Omar 72 53 1 7 1,816 2,990 947 9 126 4 985 Pakistan 742 139 2 6 12,494 27,337 3,004 20 c 391 12,853 Pnil,ppines 422 1,14'3 2 13 25.069 39,456 4,957 27 1,436 1 0,030 b Sa,jd Arabia (3,09 I 25 0 1 X 11 4 4 (521 1 SingaGore 26 19 0 ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~5 X 1 4 ~ 106,1950 Sr Lanka 465 60 ~ 5 31 3,139 7,699 399 9 141 3,207 Syrran Arab Sep 698 450 3 24 9,3 53 20,919 325 6 129 1 0,129 b TaJkrastan, Rep 4 52 2 11 21 547 1 0 8 4 7urernerstan, Rep 4 25 91 36701 c 0 4 Jr 'ec, Arab Emirates 4 (2) 101 4 4 3 X 3X 4,263 c Jv2ekrstanl, Sep 4 39 0 4 X 1,295 124 3 70 X V etnam 110 660 4 1 ~ 56 25,640 426 9 783 4 Yemen 417 219 6 11 3,049 6,085 109 4 307 5,429 b OCEANIA, .,, F,i ~~~~~32 48 3 55 432 292 79 X 54 532 New, Zealand 1571 (I1 '01 10 135) 4 X 4 4 4 17,954 Pacua New 04 nea 303 336 7 86 2,023 2,786 789 27 149 1,610 Solomorn Islards 23 97 16 123 48 154 11 4 16 2' LOW INCOME 174,327 505,848 i5 MIDDLE INCOME 767,232 1,419,580 18 Notes a. For Official Development Assistance (ODA) flows to recipients are snown as positive niumbers, flows from donors are shown as negative numbers (in parentheses), b. 1993.c. 1993-94. d. 1995. e. 1994-95. f. 1994. World Resources 1998-99 239 Data Table 6.3 World Bank Commodity Indexes and Prices, 1960-96 Source: The SrlId Bank Commodity Indexes (based on constant prices with 1990 = 100) 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 PETROLEUM 34 29 21 '01 224 173 100 83 73 69 63 53 78 NON-ENERGY CQOMMODITIES 189 187 174 165 174 133 170 93 86 86 151 113 101 Total Agroicuure 209 193 181 177 i9' '45 100 96 88 93 112 110 110 Total Food 184 196 184 221 191 124 100 97 94 93 97 98 108 -Grains '95 21' 36 238 187 130 100 99 95 88 93 11)1 123 -FatssandOils 251 283 257 226 206 135 100 102 106 103 114 1'5 129 -Other Foods 124 113 123 195 :81 88 '00 9' 84 83 85 113 83 Beverages 237 216 228 18' 233 239 100 91 73 79 135 1;7 ill Raw Materia s 220 173 143 119 143 103 103 97 82 104 114 13 il1 -Tmrber 129 130 127 92 110 86 100 1C2 107 143 142 117 122 -other 282 202 153 138 '69 135 0o 94 82 77 95 ill 104 Metals ano Minera s 139 173 162 118 132 102 100 87 81 70 77 85 78 Ferliloer 80o 173 121 350 179 130 100 100 90 79 85 87 305 Commodity Prices (in constant 1990 US$ per unit measure) 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993 199'I 1995 Cocoa kg 2 85 1 69 2 69 2 76 3 62 3 29 127 1.1 7 103 1.35 1.27l 1.20 Coffee (Other MA Idsl 19 4,46 4 64 4.37 3,19 4691 4 71 1 97 1 83 1 32 147 3.0(1 2860 Tea (Loncon Auction) kg 6.92 5.92 4.36 3 06 3 10 2 89 2 03 180 1 38 1 75 1 66 1 38 Sugar (FrneeMarket) kg 0 33 0 22 0 33 100O 0688 0 13 0 28 0 19 019 0 21 020. 0 25 Maize Mt 235 13 204863 232 67 260.60 174.03 163.56 109.30 103.03 97.80 96.04 97.67 10C3.60 R ce (Indicative) Mt 513.59 549 95 503 22 755 37 370 48 287 07 27063~ 266.97 251.61 221.46 242382 269 13 Sorghumn Mt 182.13 218.52 206.37 247 57 1 797C3 1 50 15 103 90 1 0234 36 39 9336 34 26 3987 Ol1,Coconut Mt 1,507 25 1,610 19 1,582387 370 58 93 583 860 06 33630C 423 68 541 84 423.57 531.27 562 08 Oil, Groundnrcc Mt 1,576 33 1,499507 1,503 37 1,698.23 1,193.06 1,319.24 963.70 37 5.54 372 14 695 25 928.09 831.36 Oil, Palm Mt 1,102 42 1,261 57 1,036 25 960.62 81 0.42 730.32 269.80 331.70 369.14 353.36 479.51 326 85 Meal, Groundnut Mt 405.80 472.22 006.37 009 73 333 75 214 29 '84380 146387 '46 03 158 14 152 75 141 76 Meal, Soybean Mt 376.61 435 13 410 36 342 92 363 89 228 86 207 20 192386 191 74 96383 1 74 6 165 27 Palm Kernels Mt 777 78 828.70 665 34 457 96 479 17 414 72 183 05 2 1 526 215 76 216 37 X X Sor mp eg cc X x X X 15 29 10 79 11.30 10 27 10.72 '1.87 11.23 Cotton, ,noex eg 3.14 297 2.32 257 234 192 1.82 1.64 130 120 160 1 79 Jute ~~Mt 1,658.70 1,175 93 1,091.63 820380 427 78 849 71 406 30 372 14 299 79 257 13 270 66 306 76 Logs, Ma ays an m0 154 30 162 15 '73 4 149.36 271355 177 6 177 19 167 36 196.54 366 7' 273 06 214 45 9ywooo sheet X X 411 2.69 3.80 3.07 3.55 364 3957 3 22 5 46 4 90 Sawnwvood m- 727 65 725 69 693383 494,33 330.28 0-4771 3533.06 340.63 369.62 713.31 748.04 620.76 Bauaite Mt 36.23 34.72 47.81 49 12 44 44 32 04 35 50 36 50 34 05 32 93 31 76 X Copper Mt 3,270 53 5,972.22 5,629 43 2,736 73 37032356 2,066 16 2,661 30 2.288 45 2,139 32 1,799 70 2,093395 2,462 76 Golb troy0 cz 171.98 162 04 143 19 359726 844 31 463 43 383017 354 36 322 45 333.45 348 47 322 28 Manganese Ore 1I/0 Mnl rn.: 42' 346 2 17 306 2 '6 206 336 3.77 3 43 2.73 1.90 1.70 N cke Mt 7,331 1 6 83.23201 11,333.44 '0,1I11 06 9,033.75 7,141 55 3,834 10 7,980 04 8,567 76 4,979 70 5,753.01 6,902 72 Silver :.r1V040 4.42 5.93 7.06 378 26 66 6 95 4692 3 95 3.69 4.54 4690 4536 Tin k 1 0.61 18 01 14 64 152'i 23 30 16682 6 09 5 47 3 72 4 86 4 96 5 21 Zinc kg 1 1 9 1.44 1i13 1 64 1 06 I 14 1.51 1 09 1 16 0 90 0391 0387 Diammyonium posphate Mt X X 215 14 337 61 303 61 246 36 17100C 163 13 136 17 121 46 1 56 80 181 69 Phosphate Rock Mt 05 22 80 19 43382 148.23 64.83 49.42 40.50~ 41 59 33 17 31.04 29 95 29 36 Potassomr Ch orine m:t X X 125350 179.67 1 60.97 122.43 98.10 106.51 103.1 3 101 05 95 93 98.73 Coa Mt X X 3 >1 59 86 67393 4' 67 40861 38709 35 75 33'So 32.866 Crude PetroJeum bbI 7.67 6.57 4982 23 06 61 21 39 62 22638 16 95 17384 15384 14 42 14 41 Gas, Europe mmrbtu S _S 2 43 472 59 25 0 2 40 251 2 22 2 29 Notes: kg = kilogram; ml metrin ton; m0 cubbc molar; oz = ounoce, Fe iron: bb1 = barrel: mmnblu mrillion British Thermal Units. 240 World Resources 1998-99 ECONOMIC INDICATORS LtIL Sources and Technical Notes regression-based numbers, using the results of the Gross National and Domestic International Comparison Programme (ICP). OfiilDevelopment Assistance The ICP benchmark studies are (essentially) Ofca Product Estimates, 1995 multilateral pricing exercises. The intercountry and Other Financial Flows, Sources: 1995 Gross national product (GiYP), price comparisons have been reported in seven 1983-95 gross domestic product (GDP), GDP based on pur-: phases: 1970, 1973, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990, and Ofca eeomn sitne(D) chasig powr paity (PP),nnualgrowh rats of 1993. PPP studies recast traditional national ac- Sources: Ofca eeomn sitne(D) GDhadstibutione ofit GDPPP, andua percapthatPPP GDP counts through special price collections and the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Or- and average annual growth rates of same: derived disaggregation of GDP by expenditure compo- vlpet(ED,DvlpetC-prro fromThe orldBank Word Deelopent ndir- nents. ICP details are reported by national sttsi- (ED,Prs,18, 19 86, 19 87, 19 88, 19989,n 199 0, ndGo frorsTh Wo9ron CD-ROM (oldDevelopmentaIaGroup calaoffices.O199, 1992s, 1993, 1994, 1995,1and 1996,1andGeo tors 1997 on CD-ROM (Development Data Group, cal offices.graph ical Disrriburion of Financial Flows to Devel- The World Bank,Washington, D.C., 1997). Popula- The international dollarvalues,which are differ- oping Counrries 1981/84, 1983/86, 1984/87, tion figures for calculations: United Nations (U.N.) ent from the U.S. dollar values of GNP or GDP, are 1 986189, and 1988/91 (OECD, Paris, 1986, 1988, Population Division, Vtorld Population Prospects, obtained using special conversion factors designed 1989, 199 1, and 1993); Geographical Distribution Of 1950-2050 (The 1996 Revision), on diskette (U.N., to equalize the purchasing powers of different cur- Financial Flows to Aid Recipienrs, 1989-93 (OECD, New York, 1996). rencies. This conversion factor, the PPP, is defined Paris, 1995) and World Developmnent Indicators Data for years prior to 1993 (1992 for PPP) have as the number of units of a country's currency re- 1997 on CD-ROiM (Development Data Group, The been converted to 1995 U.S. dollars (US$) (1992 In- quired to buytdie same amounts of goods and serv- W'orld Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997). ODA as a ternational dollars [Int$] for PPP) using deflators ices in the domestic market as $1 would buy in the percentage of Gross National Product (GNP) was dierived from U.S. data. United States. The computation involves deriving calculated using World Development Indicarors Gross nationial product is the sum of two compo- implicit quantities from national accounts expen- 1997 on CD-ROM. Population figures for per cap- nents: the GDP and net income from abroad. GDP diture data and specially collected price data and ita estimates of ODA: United Nations (U.N.) Popu- measures the final output of goods and services then revaluing the implicitrquantities in each coun- lation Division, World Population Prospects, produced by the domestic economvy Net incomne tryatasingle set of averageprices.Because the same 1 950-2050 (The 1 996 Revision), on diskette (U.N., from abroadis income in the form of compensation international price averages are used for every New York, 1996). External debt, debt service, debt of employees, interest on loans, profits, and other country, cross-country comparisons reflect differ- service as a percentage of total exports, direct for- factor payments that residents receive from abroad, ences in quantities of goods and services free of eign investment, and central government expendi- less payments made for labor and capital. Most price-level differences. This procedure is designed tures: The World Bank, World Development Indica- countries estimate GDP by the production method, to bring cross-country comparisons in line with tors 1997 on CD-ROM. This method sums the final outputs of the various cross- time real value comparisons that are based Net average annutal official development assis- sectors of the economy (e.g., agriculture, manufac- on constant price series. PPP estimates tend to rance (in current U.S. dollars) is the net amount of turing, and government services), from wvhich the lower per capita GDPs in induistrialized countries disbursed grants and concessional loans given or value of the inputs to production have been sub- and raise per capita GDPs in developing countries. received by a country less repayments of conces- tracted. The average annzual growth rates of GDP are sional loans. Grants include gifts of money, goods, GYP estimates in U.S. dollars are calculated ac- least-squares estimates of the real growth of output. or services for which no repayment is required. A cording to The World Bank Adlas methodology. Growth rates are computed from constant price concessional loan has a grant element of 25 percent GYP estimates in local currencies were converte data to exclude the effects of inflation. or more. The grant element is the amount by which to 1U.S. dollars using a three-year average exchanige The distribution of GDP is calculated using cur- Use face vatue of the loanl exceeds its preseiit miarket rate, adjusted for domestic and U.S. inflation. The rent local currency units provided in the World De- value because of below-market interest rates, favor- Atlas method of averaging three years of exchange velopment indicators 1997. Agriculture includes ag- able maturity schedules, or repayment grace peni- rates smoothes fluctuations due to the currenicy ricultural and livestock production and agricul- ods. Nonconcessional loans are not a component of market and provides a more reliable measure, over tural services, logginig, forestry, fishing, and bunt- ODA. time, of overall income than do estimates based on ing. Industry comprises mining and quarrying; ODA contributions are shown as negative numn- a single year's exchange rate. manufacturing; construction; and electricity, gas, bers (in parentheses); receipts are shown as positive The gross domestic product estimates at pur- and water. Services include wholesale and retail numbers. Data for some developing countries (e.g., chaser values (market prices) are in 1995 U.S. dol- trade; transport, storage, and communications; Republic of Korea) are shown as negative numbers lars (based on 1995 exchange rates), and are the banking, insurance, and real estate; public admini- because of net repayments of concessional loans. sum of GDP at factor cost (value added in the agri- stration and defense; ownership of dwellings; and Data for donor countries include contributions culture, industry, and services sectors) and indirect others. The distribution of GOP does not ashvays made directly to developing countries andi through taxes, less subsidies. World Bank GDP estimates are add up to 100 percent due to rounding. muhtilateral institutions. in accord with the United Nationis System of Na- Although considerable effort has been made to ODA sources include the development assis- tional Accounts. standardize economic data according to the United tance agencies of OECD and Organization of Pe- Per capita estimates of GNP and GOP for 1995 Nations System of National Accounts, care should troleumn Exporting Countries members as well as are calculated using mid-year population data. be taken when interpreting the indicators pre- other countries. Grants and concessional loans to GDP and GDP per capita using purchasingpower sented in Data Table 6.1. Intercountry and in- and from multilateral development agencies are parity (PPPI are GDP estimates based on the pur- tertemporal comparisons using economic data in- also included in contributions and receipts. OECD chasing power of currencies rather than on current volve complicated technical problems that are not gathers ODA data through questionnaires and re- exchange rates. GDP in PPP terms is derived by ap- easily resolved; therefore, readers are urged to read ports from countries and multilateral agencies. plying the ratio of GDP to GYNP in local currency to these data as characterizing major differences be- Only limited data are available on ODA flows the World Bank's estimates of GNP in PPP terms. tween economies rather than as precise, quantita- among developing countries. These data are in- The estimates are a blend of extrapolated and tive measurements, eluded when known. World Resources 1998-99 241 The GNP data used to calculate ODA as a per- those for public debt; manycountries do not report centage of GNP were GNP estimates calculated ac- these data through the DRS. 't'hese data are in- cording to The WorldBank Atlas methodology (us- cluded in the total when available. World Bank Co mmodity Indexes ing exchange rates averaged over three-year peri- Total debt service (in foreign currencies, goods. and Prices, 1960-96 ods) . For full comnparabilitv of these ratios, the GNP figdrs).Foruldcbmpaturabinityprteseratio,theNP and services) comprises interest payments and Source: The World Bank, unpublished data (The using single-year exchange rates, like the ODA fig principal repayments made on the disbursed World Bank, Washington, D.C., June 1997). ures. long-term publc debtandpvate, nonguaranteed Price data are compiled from major interna- The 1995 ODA per capita estimates are calcu- debt IMF debt repurchases, IMF charges, and i tional marketplaces for standard grades of each lated using 1995 ODA estimates in current dollars trest payments on sboa-term debt. commodity. For example, maize refer3 to No. 2, yel- and United Nations Population Division popula- Debt data are reported to the World Bank in the low, FOB (free-on-board) U.S. gulf ports. The 1990 tion data. units of currency in which they are payable. The U.S. constant dollar figures wvere derived by con- The World Bank operates the Debtor Reporting WVorld Bank converts these data to U.S. dollars, us- verting current average monthlyprices in local cur- System (DRS), which compiles reports supplied by ing the IMF par values, central rates, or the current rencies to U.S. dollars using average monthly ex- the Bank's member countries. Countries submit de- market rates, where appropriate. Debt service data change rates. These average monthly dollar figures tailed reports on the annual status, transactions, are converted to U.S. dollars at the average ex- were then averaged to produce an axerage annual and terms of the long-term external debt of public change rate for the gihen year. Comparability of dollar figure, which was adjusted to 1990 constant agencies and of publicly guaranteed private debt. data among countries and years is limited by varia- dollars using the manufacturing unit value index. Additional data are drawn from the World Bank, tions in methods, definitions, and comprehensive- This index is a composite price index of all manu- the International Monetary Fund (IMF), regional ness of data collection and reporting. Refer to the factured goods exported by the G-5 countries (the development banks, government lending agencies, World Banks World Debt Tables 1994-95, Vols. I United States, the United Kingdom, France, Get- and the Creditor Reporting System (CRS). The and 2, for details. many, and Japan) to developing coun:ries. CRS is operated by OECD to compile reports from ODA figures are derived from the annual ques- The aggregate price indexes have lhe following the members of its Development Assistance Com- tionnie completed by each Development As.s components: mittee. For further information on international C . b f 1. Petroleum debt, refer to Global Development Finangeo D.C, bets, values are based on information published by 2. Non-energy commodities: individual commodi- Vo9s7) and 2 (The World Bank, 'ATashirigton, D.C., governments or provided directly to the OECD by ties listed under items 4-12,below. 1997). them 3. Total agriculture: total food, beverages, and raw Total external debt (current U.S. dollars) in- materials. cludes long-term debt outstanding, short-term External debt data pertain to only those coun- debt, use of IMF credit, and private nonguaranteed tries within the DRS, which focuses on low- and 4 Totalfood: grains, fats and oils, and sther foods. debtoutstanding.Along-term debtisanobligation middle-income economies. Many economies are 5. Grains: maize, rice, wheat, and grair sorghum. with a maturity of at least one vear that is owed to not represented within the system, and the esti- 6. Fats and oils: palm, coconut, and groundnut oils; nonresidents and is repayable in foreign currency, mates that are presented maynot be comprehensive soybeans; soybean oil; and soybean meal. goods, or services. Long-term debt is divided into due to different reporting frameworks. These data 7. Otherfoods: sugar, beef, bananas, and oranges. long-term public debt and long-term publicly do not account for the term structure and the con- 8. Beverages: coffee, cocoa, and tea. guaranteed private debt. A short-term debt is a cessionality mix of debt, which can lead to a mis- 9. Raw materials: cotton, rubber, tobacco, and tim- public orpubliclyguaranteed private debt that has a representation of a country's underlying solvency. ben maturity of one year or less. This class of debt is es- Direct foreign investment is the net inflow of 10. Timber: logs and sawnwood. pecially difficult for countries to monitor. Only a capital to acquire alastingmanagement interest (10 Il.Metals and minerals: copper, tin, n.ckel, alumi- few countries supply these data through the DRS; percent or more of the voting stock) in a country num, iron ore, lead, and zinc. the World Bank supplements thiese dsta with creditor-country reports, information from inter- other than that of the investor. It includes (as shown 12. Fertilizers: phosphate rock and triple super- national clearinghouse banks, and other sources to in thebalance of payments) equitycapital, reinvest- phosphate (TSP). derive rough estimates of short-term debt. ment of earnings, other long-term capital, and Thecommoditypricesreportedherearespecific Use of IMF credit refers to all drawings on the short-term capital. to the mark:ets named. The commodlities them- Fund's General Resources Account. Use of IMF Centralgovernment expenditures include the ex- selves are often defined more specifically than is credit is converted to dollars by applying the aver- penditures of all bodies that are agencies or instru- suggested in the table (e.g., coffee (ICO), indicator age special drawing right exchange rate in effect for ments of a central government authority In coun- price, other mild arabicas, average New York and the year being calculated. tries with strong subnational authorities, these fig- Bremen/Hamburg markets, ex-dock). Further in- A private debt is an external obligation of a pri- ures can substantially understate total government formation is available at the World Bark's Web site vate debtor that is not guaranteed by a public entity. expenditures, thus care should be taken in making on c ommo dities at http: //wWww world- Data for this class of debt are less extensive than national comparisons. bank.orglhtml/ieccp/ieccp.html. 242 World Resources 1998-99 POPULATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Population and Human Development World Resources 1998-99 243 Data Table 7.1 Size and Growth of Population and Labor Force, 1950-2050 Source: United Nations Population Division and Internatronal Labour Organisation Average Annual Average Annual Average Annual Increment Growth of the Population Change to the Population Labor Force Population (thousands) (percent) (thousands) (percent) 1950 1998 2025 2050 1985-90 1995-00 2005-10 1985-90 1995-00 2005-10 1980-95 1995-10 WORLD 2,523,878 5,929,839 8,039.130 9.366,724 1.7 1.4 1.2 89,998 80,848 80,011 1.9 1.5 AFRICA 223,974 778,484 1,453,899 2,046,401 2.8 2.6 2.5 18,330 20,083 24,232 2.7 2.9 Algeria 8,753 30, 1 7 5 - 47,322 ~ 58,991 2.6_ 2.3 t.9 ~ 61 0 698 - 690 ~ 3.8 T 3.9 Angola 4,131 11,967 25,547 38,897 2.9 3.3 2.9 245 393 461 2.4 3 3 Benin 2,046 5,881 12,276 18,095 3.0 2.9 2.9 132 1 63 227 2.5 3 2 Btoswana 389 1,651 2,576 3,320 3 3 2 2 2.0 39 34 39 3 2 2 4 Caineroon 4,466 14,323 28,521 41,951 2 8 27 27 301 387 496 2.6 2 9 Centtai African Rep I,314 3,469 6,006 8,215 2 4 2.1 2 1 66 73 89 1.8 2.1 Chad 2,656 6,892 12,648 18,004 2 0 2.8 2.3 106 187 200 2.1 2.6 Congo, Cern Rep 12,184 ~~~~~~49,208 105,925 164,635 3.3 2 6 3 0 1,142 1.259 1,943 3.1 2.9 Congo, tep ~~~~ ~~~~808 2,822 5,747 8,729 30 - 2.8 -2.7 6 2 78 99 2 8 2.9 C6te d Ivoire 2,776 14,567 24,397 31,706 3.3 2.0 2.2 359 290 395 3 3 2.6 Fgypt 21,834 65,678 95,766 11 5,480 2.5 1.8 1.6 1,313 1,205 1,197 2.6 2 8 Equatorial Guiena 226 430 798 1,144 2 4 2.5 2.4 8 10 13 3 6 2.8 Eritrea 140 3,549 ,0 ,88 13 3 2.3 37 18 104 1 8 3 0 Ethiopia 19,434 62,111 136,288 212,732 3 1 3.2 30 1.401 1,954 2,480 27 3 Gabon 469 1,1 73 2,118 2,952 3 1 2 8 23 26 32 34 2 3 2.1 Gambia, The 294 1,194 1,984 2,634 42 2 3 20 35 27 29 3.6 2 2 Ghana 4,900 18,957 36,341 51,205 3.1 28 2 6 436 518 636 3.1 3 0 Gunna 2, ...1550 7 673 15,286 22914 29 4 2 154 02 2 7 2 2.9 _2.3 Guinea-Bissau 505 1.134 1,921 2,674 2.0 2.0 2 0 18 22 28 1.6 2.0 Kenya 6,265 29,020 50,202 66,054 3.3 2.2 2 4 721 638 980 3.6 2.9 Lesotho 734 2.184 4,031 5,643 2.6 2.5 2.4 44 53 67 2.4 298 L,benia 824 2,748 6,573 9.955 3.2 9.6 3.0 75 227 123 0.8 4 4 Libya 1,029 ~~~~~~ ~~~~~5,980 1285 19,109 3 33 30 12 198 246 3 . Madagascar 4,229 16,349 34,476 50,907 3 4 3 1 3 0 395 504 643 3.0 3.3 Malasvi 2,881 10,377 20,391 29,825 5 1 2 5 2 6 417 262 341 2.7 2 5 Mali 3,520 11,632 24,575 36,817 3 0 3 0 298 259 353 441 2.7 2 9 Mvauritania 925 2,453 4,443 6,077 2.5 2 5 2 4 47 61 73 2 2 2.6 Mauritius 43 114 141 ,64 0.8 1.1 1 0 8 12 13 2.1 1.3 Morocco 8,953 28,012 39,925 47,278 2.1 1 8 -1 4 ~ 479 ~ 492 4 37 2.6 ~ 2.5 Mozamb que 6,199 16,691 35,444 51,774 0.9 2 5 2 5 128 481 582 2.0 2.5 Namibia 511 1,653 2,999 4,167 2.7 2.4 2.3 35 39 48 2.3 2.4 Niger 2,400 10,119 22,385 34,576 3 1 3,3 3.1 225 331 418 3.0 3 2 Nigeria 32.935 ~~~~~~~~~121,773 238,397 338,1 _ : Rsnanda 2,123 6,528 12,991 16,937 .I Ki Senegal 2,500 9,001 16,896 23,442 2.8 27 25 190 237 286 2 5 2.7 Sierra Leone 1,944 4,577 9,200 11,368 2 2 3 0 22 82 134 125 1 9 2.7 Somalia 3,072 10,653 23,669 36,408 1 8 3 9 31 150 408 445 2 0 3 3 Swaziland 264 931 1,675 2,228 2.7 2.8 24 15 25 28 2.8 3.2 Tanzania 7,886 32,199 62,436 88,963 3.1 2.3 2.6 740 732 1,098 3.2 2.7 To90 1,329 4,434 8,762 12,655 3.0 2.7 2.6 99 118 150 26 2.8 Zamnbia 2,440 9,690 16,163 21,965 2 4 25 25 163 210 275 2 2 30 tiLiopI' 6417 :11 29 Jri1, C)7 'slOi' sI 0 J. ri Ol 128 217 104.11 0~ JI A bania 1,230 3.445 4,295 47;47 21 06 .o 6 5 . 22 28 2.1 12 Austria 6.935 8,2'0 8,305 7,430 0 4 0 6 0 1 29 49 9 0.7 0 4 Belatus, Rep 7,745 10.323 9,841 9,726 0.5 (0 1) (0 21 52 114) 122) 0.3 0.3 Belgium 8,639 10,213 10,271 9,763 0.2 0 3 0 0 19 26 4 0.4 0.0 Croatia, Rep 3,850 4,494 4,243 3,991 0 2 (0. 1) (0.2) 9 (4) (8) 0 1 (0.1) Czech Rep 8,925 10,223 9,627 9,572 00( (0 1) (0.2) 0 (1 41 (1 6) 0 3 (3 1) Denmark 4,271 5,258 5,324 5,234 0 1 0.2 0 0 5 10 1 0 5 (0 4) France 41,929 58,733 60,393 58,370 0.6 0.3 01 310 191 67 0 5 0.3 Germany 68,376 82,401 80,877 69,542 04 0 3 (0 11 339 219 (571 06 0 1 Greece 7,566 10,551 10,074 9,013 0.6 0.3 (0.21 57 29 (17) 1.1 0.3 Ireland 2,969 3,564 3,723 3,809 (0.3) 0.2 0.3 (1 0) 6 11 0 8 1.0 Italy 47,104 57,244 51,744 42,092 0.1 0.0 (0.3) 50 (2) (175) 0 8 (0.2) Latvia, Rep 1,949 2,447 2,108 1,891 0 7 (1.1) (0.5) 18 (28) (12) (0.2) (0.5) Moldova, Rep 2,341 4,451 4,869 5 138 0 7 0 1 0.4 30 4 19 0 2 0 7 Netherlands 10,1 4 1 5.739 18,141 14,958 0 6 0 5 0 1 92 78 20 1 6 0 1 Norway 3,265 4,379 4,662 40694 0 4 0 4 0 2 18 15 10 0 9 0 3 Romania 16,311 22,573 21,098 1 9009 0.4 (0 2) 10)21 96 (45) (47) (0.2) 0.1 Russian Federation 102,192 147,231 131,395 114,318 0.7 (0 3) (0 4) 993 (453) (513) 0.1 0.1 Slovak Rep 3,463 5.360 5,455 9,260 0.5 0.1 0.2 03 7 8 0.9 0.5 SRLonena Re 1473 1919 04 (.) ( 3)7 2 ,, ,,) 03 ( 2,, Spain 28,009 39,754 .0.4 0 1 (0.1) 160 35 (57) 1 3 0.3 Sweden 7,014 8,883 9,511 9,574 0.5 0.3 0,2 42 22 22 0 8 00 Switzerland 4,694 7,325 7,581 6,935 0 9 0 7 0 2 60 49 15 1 5 05 Ukraine 36,906 51,219 45,979 40,802 04 (0.4( (0 4) 190 (1911 (175) (0 21 0 0 United Ksgom50,616 58,249 59,535 59,733 0.3 0 1 0 1 189 51 37 0 5 0.1 Yuqoslavia, Fed Rep) 7,131 10,410 10,679 10,979 0.6 0 5 (0.0) 62 50 (11 0 6 0 4 244 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 7.1 continued POPULATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Average Annual Average Annual Average Annual Increment Growth of the Population Chang e to the Population Labor Force Population (thousands) (percent) (thousands) (percent) 1950 1998 2025 2050 1985-90 1995-to 2005-10 1985-90 11995-00 2005-it 1980-95 1995-10 liOr)rin Al"1ERl.:L rI 9 17 319l *T9i 1.19 '1I6 38J 95I IC 49 9 3Q6 '. 2 J38 I 3 CENTRAGL Ar.IE.8.40 3E 920. l3'. 'ir '80- 1I3 18.12 I1 I a. l5 1.) iri Ž29 2 Costa R ca 862 3,650 5,608 6,902 2 8 2 1 - 7 79 7 5 74 3.5 2 4 Cuba 5,850 1, I115 11,798 11,284 10 0 4 0 3 100 42 29 2.2 08 Dom ncan Rep - 2,303 8,202 11, 64 13,141 2 2 17 12 147 134 117 3 0 23 Haiti 3,261 7,534 12,513 17,524 20 193 190 122 1 39 1 69 1 5 -8 Honduras 1,380 6, 47 101,856 13,920 3 I 28 22 139 66 '71 20D 37 Jama ca 1,403 2,530 3,370 3,886 0 5 059 1.2 1 1 24 32 198 1 5 Panarra 860 2,767 3,779 4.365 2.0 1.6 1 3 46 45 40 00 2.1 SoCuth 4126.1.0 ''12 IS 131 9i: Jizi 2.19 4zi' ;A 9 '0 I1 011r a I Md -,M:. IS Bos va 2,714 7.957 '3,131 18,968 22 23 20 136 183 191 26 26 8-a7l 53,975 165,158 2 6,596 243,299 1 8 1 2 1 1 2,546 2.037 2,067 2.8 1.4 Cs e 6,082 14,824 19,548 22,2 15 1 7 -4 1 210 200 17 5 26 2 0 G3uyana 423 856 I,'14 1,239 01 10 10 0 9 10a 22 9 Paraguay 1,488 5,222 9,355 12,565 3 1 26 23 122 1 34 153 2 9 3 1 Peru 7,032 24,797 45,518 42,232 20 1 7 1 4 41 5 420 418 29 2 8 0 6 3 5 17 18 18 4 9 ______ 1162.~~~~~~~~~1Ž . 14i P ~ -;J53i6'13 St I-I i 12 aIl 50'. i'I Afgl-an s-lan, Islamic Srate 8,958 23,364 45,262 61,473 0.3 5.2 2 4 47 1,136 737 1 3 3 2 Airmer a, Rno 1,354 3,646 4,105 4.376 1 2 0 2 0 7 41 6 25 1 3 1.4 Azerbajan 2,896 7,714 9,714 10,081 1 4 0 8 0 9 98 59 72 1 2 1.6 Bangladesh 41,783 124,343 129,960 218,188 20 1 6 1 6 2,091 2,016 2,396 2.3 24 Comoa 554,760 1,r255,051 1,480,433 1,516,664 1 0 0 9 0 7 1 7,026 11,215 8,076 1 9 0 8 Georgia 3,527 5,428 5,762 8,028 0 6 1011 0 2 3 5 (61 11 0 2 0 4 india 357,561 975,772 1,330,201 1,532,674 21 168 13 '6,571 1 5,553 14,020 1 9 1 9 [raq 5,~58 2 1,755 41, 600 56,129 3 3 28 20 552 603 731 28 3 5 Israel 1,258 5,883 7,977 8,144 1 8 1 9 1 2 85 10o 83 31 23 Japars 83,825 125,920 12',348 109,548 0 4 0 2 10.0) 540 272 1430) 1 0 i10.0 Korea, Dem Peop.n s Rep 6,488 23,206 30,046 32,873 1.5 I6 09 284 303 232 28 I 1 Korea, Rep 2C,357 48,115 52,534 52,146 1 0 019 0 6 413 395 288 23 1 3 Kuwait 152 1'809 2,904 4,406 4 4 3 0 17 90 55 40 15 4 0 Lebanon 1.443 3,194 4,424 5,189 10 91 8 11 123) 56 41 1 9 27 Malaysia 6,110 21,450 31,577 38,089 26 20 1 5 443 432 382 2 8 27 Maongo a 761 2,624 4,052 4,980 30 21 18 61 55 58 2 9 28 _Myanmar 17832 47625 67,43 80,890 1 8 1 62 87 790 2 1 20 Neoal 7,862 23,168 40,554 53,621 286 2 5 2 3 454 578 657 2 3 2 7 Gmat 456 2,504 8,538 10, 930 4 5 4 2 3 8 72 102 137 3 8 430 Pan stan 39,91 3 147,811 208,904 357,353 3 3 2 7 2 4 3,589 3,950 4,606 3 3 3 4 Psi ppises 23,988 72,164 105,184 130,51 21 20 1 6 1,222 1,440 1,342 26 2 4 Sauni Arabia 3,201 20,207 42,383 59,812 4 8 434 2.9 680 681 793 49 34 Singapore 1,022 ~~~~~~ ~~~~3,481 4212 4 190 2 1. 07 61 52 27 0 Sr Lanka 7,678 18,450 23,934 26,995 1,2 I 0 1 1 195 179 224 2 1 1 7 Syrias frst Rep 3,495 15.335 26 303 34,463 3.5 25 2 3 390 385 046 35 339 Talkista,, Rep 1,542 6,1061 9 747 '2,366 3 0 19 19 147 114 14r 23 3 2 Thailano 20,010 59,612 69,089 72,969 1 7 0 8 0 6 880 451 391 23 0 9 Ts,rkny ~~~~~~~20,809 63,75S3 8--5,791 97,911 22 1 2 151 979 834 2 7 2. Turkmen stan, Rep 1,2 11 4 31 6 6,470 7,8186 2 6 19 17 88 61 85 2.4 2 7 .aoted Arab Emirates 70 2,354 3,297 3,668 4 3 20 .5 74 47 42 4.7 I5 Uzbekistan, Rop 6.314 24, 155 36,503 45,094 2 4 19 7 468 451 495 2 4 2 8 Vietnam 29,954 77.896 110,107 '23,763 22 1 8 1 2 1,358 1,351 1,083 25 1 9 1'. 4 I".:.'? 2196 ui 16,.7 lRII I] 1 Ž JŽ1 71 Autr-alia 8,219 18,445 23,93 1 25,288 1 5 1 I 1a0 249 194 201 20 1 0 Frij 289 822 1, 170 1,393 03a 16 15 5 13 14 2 4 23 Nev, Oea and 1,908 3,680 4,878 5,271 0 7 1 I 1 1 24 40 03 19 1 2 Papua New Guinea .,613 4,602 7,546 8,637 22 22 20 73 ~ 02 i14 22 23, Solomanonslasos _ 90 417 844 ',132 3 4 32 28 10 13 10 35 3 0 DEVELOPING 1.711,191 4,748,310 9,818,880 8,204,993 2.0 1.7 1.4 80,235 77,729 78,204 2.3 1,8 DEVELOPED 812.687 1,181,530 1,220,250 1,161,741 0. 0.3 0.2 6,781 3,121 1,806 0.7 0.3 Note Word sodi regional totals inc ade couintries not slted sore World Resources 1998-99 245 I 1 - 1 1- 1 - i - ; -- i --- I I I - -, . -, . . . -, . - . . -, -, -, .. I - - -,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-- - - - - - - eLS. i I, , I ,1 1, I ,III[ , 1 ,,,, , j o I I I i. . . - - ---- fcc! ...,.5._- 4|-;;-' 2 -I. , I| s2 -, . ;, -, . . . . - , - . -- - - - - - - : _I n . 4 _ .. , -. :, . . - ':,,,___, t X 8 ot 4c-r. - . - - - -.,.t I-:._, - 1 -1. V- t C - IS -Fr Dmtt sL rL nF, . t. rs ' 2~ . - - ¼'.,' -. - - . : - 1 ' - - - - ---- ns 8 < b , I . 1 . ,- 1 1 - v~~~~cr coa t= m moo v I_ - _ ::- _ . _ - - __ l _: - : _ ~-:: - c- :_'~ ___ _ - :crrn m ~~~_ oo u!-- - - - -:' ---- --'i-. ---ii-- -' ! --, o @ Eo E Q o 1-i - 'I ' ! ' - - - - -I ;; o co aomooto ro@tDr-m ol l I , I ' , , _ _ - :': - - :; ,,, I, _ I, 2^, O IID -iC rOO1 q - __ ., - X %O c 1')- '; * I IL III I-- f L- t fL:1 mmm's1 qj r *, = F m O O - - -D ii - i i .0 DuXN r Z:- mi i . + :s;: f 1;,, X :0 t~;t.o:: , b co~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IW(l '. w O~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I== I C~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~ (U IAI- a.- .Ifi --:--- -. - % 0> w 0 I _ H ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0> - H - -.- :. - .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~O 'p uJ 7----~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~c LU ~ ~ C -. 7..: - ii'- 1I .-I--- N wf~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a x E~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- 0 E~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~.1 Data Table 7.3 Distribution of Income, Land, and Poverty, 1977-96 S.-- ThW,,rld B.nk..d th F-d-d A,,-.It- 0,g--ti.. fthe Un,td Xtinns Population in Poverty Percentage of Income Distribution of Agricultural International Natic-nal Income Distribution in Each Quintile of Population Land Ownership Poverty Line Poverly Line Survey Gini Poorest Richest Survey Gini % Owning (<1IntS/daV) (b} (national criteria) Year Coefficient la) 0 -201/. 20-401/ 40-60% 60-801/.80-100% Year Coefficient fal <10 ha Year(s) (percent) Ye :percent) WORLD _,FRICA A geria 1988 9 6.8 11.0 49 20 7 46 6 x x X 1988 1 6 x x Ango a x A x x x x x x x x x x x x Bei,i x Y, x x x x x x x x x x 1995 310 Botsw' na 1986 54 36 6 9 1 14 19 2 58 9 x x X 1985-86 34 7 x x -Bu kira Faso x x x x x x x x x x x x x x burucol x Y, Tx x x x x x x x x 990 36 2 cam roon 1983 49 x x x x x x x x x 1984 40 0 Certral Ar can Rep 1992 55 x x x x x x x x x x x x Cnad x x x x x x x x x x x x x __CoMo, D(m x x x y x 1990 39 4 x x x x x congo'Rep x X. x x y x Y, K x x - 7T- 6 8 112 15 8 222 44.1 x x x 1988 ,bte d'lo re 1988 37 17.7 x x Egypt 1991 32 27 125 16 3 21A 41.1 x x x 1990-91 7 6 x x Equator a) G jigea X x x x x > x x x x x x x x -Lr,trea   x x x x x x x X x --L- 2 Ettnop a x x x x x X 1989-92 32 3 100 0 1981-82 318 x x GaLon 1977 63 29 4.6 9.6 16 6 66 3 x x x x x x Gamb a, Thp x x x 'X x x x x x x x 1992 64 0 Gl-ana 1992 '; 7.9 12.0 '6.1 21 8 42 2 x x x x x 1992 31 4 Gu,nea x x x x x x 1989 18 9 994 1991 26 3 x y Gumea-Bissaj 991 56 21 65 12 0 20 6 589 1988 NA 99 8 19921 87 0 1991 48 8 Ken ya i992 511 34 67 0 7 17 3 61 8 x x x 199 50 2 1992 46.4 Lesotho 1987 56 2 9 6 4 1 13 19 5 60 0 x x x 1986-87 50 4 1993 49.2 L bena x x x x x x x x x x x x 72 4 x x x x Madagascar 1993 43 5 9 9 8 1 41 20 4 49 8 x x 1993 72 3 x Ma awi x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Nla x x x x y x x x x x x x x x Maur tan,a 19SE 41 3 5 7 16 2 23 3 463 x x x 1988 314 990 57 0 7 57 22 6 43 _a,Lr t us_ ...... 7 6 7 1 6 4 x x 992, -0 6 Morocco 1991 39 E 6 10 5 15 0 21.7 46 3 x x x 1990-91 1 1 1990-91 13 1 Moza,oique x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Namibia x x x x x x x X x x x x x x N ger 1992 36 7 5 11 8 15 5 21 1 44 1 x x x 1992 61.5 x x _jjna 8.9 JL4 23 4 49 3 x x X 1992-93 28 9 1992-93 341 Rwanda 19873 29 9 7 13 1 i67 21 6 38 9 x 1983-25 45  1993 2- Seregal 1991 54 3 5 7 0 11 6 19 3 58 6 x x X 1991-92 54.0 x y Sierra Leone 1968 6 1 2 8 2 6 11 1 21 6 62 0 x x x x x x x So,,a,a x x x X x x x x x x x x x x Souti- Afr Ca 1993 62 2 3 4 9 9 5 18 8 64 9 x x x 1993 23 7 x x Sudan 1968 39 82 83 2C 9 16 7 46 0 x x x x x x x Svvaziland x x x x x x y x x x x x x x Tanzaria 993 3s 6 9 IC9 1 5  21 5 45 4 x x x 1993 1154 1991 51.1 TDgo X x x x x x x y x x x x 1987-89 32 3 Turisia 1990 4' 5 9 1 0 1990 3 9 1990 14 1 Uga,da 1992 L 1 6 8 x 14 4 20.4 4&1 1991 62 2 96 5 992-93 55 a Zarobia i991 5 0 x x x x x 'X x x 1993 84 6 1993 86 0 ZMbab'e - 1990 57 4 n 6 3 1 0.( 17.4 62 3 x x X 1 HO-9 -0--i-99091 -s 5- EUROPE A bania x x x x x x x X x x x x 1996 19 6 Austna x x x x x x x 1990 44 6 53 2 y x x Be aris, Rep 1995 29 &7 13.7 77 22.7 37 3 x x x x x x x Begum 1992 27 8. 1 14 2 8 s 23 8 35 0 1990 26 8 53 4 1992 09 c 1992 2.6 c X x ----L--X ------2--X B3gana 1993 34 7 1  2 2 16 6 22 4 41 7 x x X, 1992 2 6 x Crcat a, Rec x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Czecl- Reo 199 28 97 135 17 0 27 38 1 x x x 1993 3 1 x x Denmark 1992 3 5 5 12 1 19 2 255 37 8 1989 27.3 18.1 1992 0 9 c 1992 4 1 c 4 1 45 8 x x X 1993 6 D 1994 &9 F n ard 1991 2b 78 14 6 19 7 241 33 8 x --- 8-C France 1984 35 66 124 1E7 223 42 0 19S8 26.7 37.7 1984 0 8 c 1984 4.3 c GerTary 1924 32 6 6 12 8 is 0 23 8 38 9 x 1989 0 7 c 1989 5 2 c Greece 1988 35 6 2 11 6 17 0 24 0 L 1.2 x x x x x x x _.tua, . . I L93 1 4 38.r x x x 1993 0 7 1993 25.3 ceand x x x x x 'X x reland 1987 35 49 97 15 8 24.9 44.6 1991 x 254 1987 1.4 c 1987 4 4 c taly 1991 32 S 4 13 2 17.7 23.3 37.4 1990 768 87 7 x A 1991 2 7 c Latvia, Rep 1993 27 9 6 13 6 17.5 22.6 36 7 x x x x x x x __ithuania Rp _______.993 42.1 x x x 1993 2.1 x x Macedor a, FYR x x x x x x x x x x x x x Modova, Rep 1992 3z 69 11.9 16 7 23 1 41 5 x x x 1992 6.8 x x Netler ands 1991 29 69 14.2 i89 237 36 4 1989 x 484 1991 1 9 c 1991 4 3 c Norway 1991 33 54 11 2 17 3 24 9 41 6 x x x 199r 04 c 1991 24 c 63 2 7 _B23 5 3 95 X 993 6 8 1993 3 8 Portugal 1991 36 6 1  2 1 7 2 24 3 40 4 1989 71 6 91 5 x x x x Romaria 1994 29 87 13 4 17 6 23 0 37 3 x x x 1992 177 1994 21 5 Russ an Feceration x x x x x x x x x A 1993 11 1994 30.9 Slovak Rep 1992 1( 11 9 1 5 a 18 8 22 2 31 3 x x x 1992 12 8 x x Sweden 1992 32 6 7 122 17 6 24 5 39 0 x x X 1992 03 c 1992 42 c Svi tzer and x x x x x x x 1990 23.2 52 3 x x x x Ukraine 1992 26 95 141 180 22 9 35 4 x x x x x 1995 31.7 United K,ngdorn 199i 32 7 6 126 16 0 23 0 408 x x A 1991 05 c 1991 67 c Yjqos(av,a, Fed Rep 1990 32 73 12 x x x x x x 248 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 7.3 continued POPULATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Population in Poverty Percentage of Incomne Disribution of Agricultural International National Income Distribution in Each Quintile of Population Land Ownership Poverty Line Poverty Line Survey Gini Poorest Richest Survey GCni % Owning (91 71 50 7 Braz 1999 60 20 3 9 9 2 19 3 6902 50 50 1K 909 29 7 1990 17 4 C-tie 1994 99 3 609 10 9 191 91 0 K It K ~ 902 15s0 7K 5 Gu~ara 1993 47 31 1 31 1 31 3 0 1K 0 n 31 3 Paracuay 1 n 31 1 1 31 31 1991 9 3 9196 7K XI 1991 20 Peru 1994 45 409 9.2 Al 214 004 3 50 7 1994 4934 1991 940C a Sic A-'ghansnan. slamucState 31 50 31 7K 1 7K 0 K 31 K 31 1 3 ArmemaRo3p 19890 39 17 1 19 19 0 20.9 40 6 n 4 31 31 50 n Azerbaijan 1 31 1 50 0 7K K 3 0 3 31 50 K 7K Bangladesh 1992 35 50 50 1< 7K 7K 503 50 31 190r,27 75 Comna 1992 39 690 10 7 1598 299 8 47 31 1 0 ~ 993 29 4 1990 9 6 1992 32 90s 1295 1692 21 4 41 1 1999 4298 99 0 1992 5705 50 7 indonesa 1993 32 9 7 ~23 1 63 22 1 407 7 31x 7 1993 14.5 1090 19 LanslamuRep 199~ ~~4 43 3 3 3 31 1 1 1 -- Iraq 1 31 4 2 n A K 3 31 0 31 9 3 / Israel X 7K 31 5 31 31 3 1 3 K 7K 3 / Japan 1990 35 4 0 7K 7 3 K 31 1992 02c 1992 9< Konrea,Dem Peocle sRep 31 K 31 7K 31 7K 7K 0 3 31 50 7K Korea,Rep 1989 34 7 4 123 19 3 219 42 2 7K 3 31 3 7K x Kuwait 7K3 31 31 31 K 50 7K 47 31 7K 4 eba,nonr 50 AK 7K 31 3 7K 50 7 K 7 4 3 7 Ma ays a 1989 49 49 9 3 130 20 4 537 31 0 50 1999 40 1999 155 Mongolo a1 31x 3 31 3 7K 33 31 31 10195 36 3 Myarmw 2 3 31 7K 3111 X ~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 99 32 42173 Nepal 1094 30 9 1 120 067 210 3995 1992 33 2 097 1995-96 50.1 1395 96 4'S0 Oman 7K 0 31 0 3 7K 31 3, 3 1 7 3 K 31 Pakstan 1991 31 9 4 129 16 9 222 39 7 1995 37 1 03 2 1991 116 1991 34 0 Phil pprrnes 1991 49 7K 5 3 7K 31 1 31 1099 279 1991 5470 SaudcArabia 31 31 7K 5 4 K 5 Kr 31 7K 31 3 Sr ank a 1990 30 9 9 131 10 9 21.7 39.3 31 31 1990 4 0 1991 22 4 SyrinoArab Rep 7K 50 4 7K 4 7K 50 73 3 31 7K 3 Taiekstan, Rep 7K 50 50 50 7K 7K 7K A 31 31 3 Thaland ______ 992 52 3 7 76 11 6 196 0085 1998 12 9 u 1992 SI ' 992 13 7Ture 10 44 52 90 14 212 49 1991 40 94 3 K7 Th-kmennStan, Reo 5 31 31 50 31 K 7K K 5 1999 4 9 7Kx United Arab Emirates 0 31 50 50 31 50 50 7K 5 7K 7 Uzbekista,-, ep 1 31 K 3 50 K 50 7K 7 0 31 7K 31 Vietnam 1992 39 703 114 15 4 22 4 430 0 0 31 50 3 1993 55 9 Yemen 7K 31 31 31 7K 31~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~ 31 -- 31 50--- 50 50-- o 10392 191 P9j 1977 43 31 K 31 K 31 1991 74 3 090 7K 31 31 Nea, Zeaand 1990 40 4 6 109 5 63 23 9 44 7 01 31 K 7K 50 3 3 Panua NercOunnea 50 5 / 5 55 7 / x x x< >x x Solomor slands X 31 31 AK 31 7K 3 1 3 1 7K 7K 7 Noses a Grnr,coefficients measure theequal tyof distr nut on 10.oulo obeperfectly eqna,-100 oetfectyunequall b Adjusted forpurcna[n9gpontsrpaoity. o Lnuxebourg Income Study estm~ates (national poverty s neredefined s40% ofthnn at ona meolan income) World Resources 1998-99 249 Data Table 7.4 Social Investment, 1990-96 Sources: United Nations Childlren's Fund; the WSonld Bank; Unted Nations Educational, So-ntific and Cultural Organteation; and Nlational Center for Education Statistics Public Education Health Expenditure Expenditure as a Percentage of Population with Access to: (a) as a Percentage Percentage of: Number of Safe Drinking Water Adequate Sanitation Health Services of GDP (a) Total Gov't Public 1990-96 1990-96 1990-96 Total Public GNP Expenditure Libraries Urban Rural Total Urban Rura Ttl UbnRrl oal 9095 1990-95 1995 1995 1990-96 (a) WORLD AFRICA Algera- 91 Ed 78 SE 80 91 100 95 98 4 6 3 3 . 2. X Angola 69 15 32 34 8 16 . 2. 2. 2 4.0 2. 2. 2 Benin 41 53 50 54 6 20 2. 2 180 b 2 1.7 3.1 15.2 12 Btoswara 100 91 93 c 91 41 55 2. 2. 2. 1.9 9.6 20 5 2. Burkina Faso 2. 2. 78 42 11 18 100 89 90 5.5 2.3 3.6 11.1 21 Otoodi 93 54 59 60 51 51 l00 79 80 2. 0 9 29a 2, 2 Caeroo 57 43 50 64 36 50 96 69 90 1.4 1.C X 2. 2 Central A-rcan Rep 50 23 38 83 36 52 89 30 52 2. 17 2. 2. 2 Chrad 491 17 24 73 7 21 64 2. 30 X 1.8 22 2. X Oongo,OemRep 69 26 ~~~ ~~~ ~~~42 53 6 16 40 17 26 b 2. 2. 2. 2. Corgo, Rep 53 7 34 X 2. 69 97 70 63 b 6 8 3 6 59 14 7 2. C0teoalvo re 2. 2 75 2. 2 43 2. 2. i 3.4 14 2. X 2 Egypt 2. 2 79 X 2. 32 100 99 99 4 9 X 56 23 8 2 Equ,atcral Guinea . :1 x 2. A . 2. 2. 2. 2. 18 5 6 3 Eritrea 2. 7 3 2. x 2. 2. 2. 0 2. 1 . Ethiop a 91 19 25 97 7 19 2. X 46 2. 1.1 4.7 13 0 Gabno 90 50 686b < 2. . 3 A. . 2. 05 2. 2. 2 Gamb a,The 67 2. 48 51 50 37 II i 93 2. 1.8 5.5 16.0 2 Ghana 88 52 65 62 44 05 92 45 60oa 2. 10 2. X 2 G.irnea s0 56 0 84 1 21 00 70 80 2. 0.0 2. 2. 2 Gu nea-B ssau 32 67 59 24 32 30 X 2. 40 2. 1.1 2.2.2 Kenya 67 49 53 69 81 77 2. 2. 77 2. 1.9 7.4 X 21 Les-Tho 44 59 96 42 25 2S 2. 2. 80 b 0 36 99 2. 2 Ldibena 79 13 46 06 4 30 50 30 39 b 2. 2. 2. 2. 1 Liboc 97 97 07 99 94 98 100 85 95 2. 2. 2. 2. Madagascar 83 1 2 2 3 3 91 19 38 2. 1 0 2.2 2. Mauai 80 32 37 22 4 6 91 29 35 2. 23 57 150 7 Mal, 46 43 40 58 21 31 . 2. 40 X 13 2 2 X 2. Moauritan a 67 65 86 b 34 2. X 2. . 2. 03 2. 5 5 0 161 X Mauritius 95 100 99 99 99 99 130 100 100b a 2 22 4 3 1 73 2. Morocco 94 16 66 69 19 41 100 60 70ob 3 4 16 9 6 229 X MDZamb.quie 2. 2. 63 2. 2. 54 100 30 39 b 2. 4 6 2. 2. Nam ba 87 42 57 77 12 34 87 42 59 7 6 3.9 9.4 213 2. Niger 46 55 54 71 4 15 99 30 32 2. 2 2 2. 2. Sn7era 94 40 61 84 48 58 2.~~~~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ 2. 51 2. 2. 2. 2. 76 Rwanda 2. 79 2. 2 83 2. 2 . 8 . 192 .2 Senegal 95 28 52 63 40 58 100 85 90 1.6 X 36 331 26 c S erraLeone 59 21 34 17 6 11 90 20 39 2. 16 X 2. 2 Somalia 2. 28 31 6 2 12 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. South Afrca 99 6 9 8 2 53 2. . 2. 7.9 39 69 20.5 2. Sudan 84 41 60 79 4 22 2. X 70 0.3 11 2. 2. 3) Swaz ard 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. i 2. 2. 81 21 7 2 Tanzania 73 29 66 96 84 89 2. 2. 42 2. 298 2. 2. Toga 74 59 63 56 10 23 30 2. 2. 2. 17 5 6 18 7 23 Tuni.i 100 95 99 96 62 80 2. 2. 2. 5 9 30 6 8 17 4 250 c Ucoanda 60 35 38 36 47 6z 99 42 49 39 1.8 2. 2 17 Zamb a 80 17 27 89 /3 64 2. 2. 2. 3 3 2 6 18 2. 2. Znimbbe6 4 7 9 8 66 98 80 85 2. 2 1 965 2. EURO PE ____ ____ ____ ____ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ _ __ __ __2_ ___7_ __ __3__ __4_ Albarna x.6 2 . 3 2 . 2 2.2 . . .2 Aostr a 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 97 6.2 5.9 10.2 2,592 Belarus,Rep 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 6.4 5 3 586 17 1 9,121 Belgiim 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 9.2 7 2 6 7 10 2 1,101 Bosn a andHerzegovna 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2 2. 2. 2. Bolger.s 2. 2. 0 2. 2 2. 2. 2.X 4.0I 40 2. 4,879 Croatia,Rep 2. 2. 2. 2. . 2 . 2 2. 0.1 8 5 5 3 2. 250 c CzechRep 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 9 9 7 8 6 1 16.9 7,986 DenmarK 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 69 58 83 12.6 904 Esroca,Reg 2. 2. 2. ~ ~~~~~~~ . 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 5 9 6 9 25.5 773 F,nlaroo 2. 2. 3 2. 2. 2. 2. 8 3 6 2 7 6 1 1.9 1,339 Franca 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 9 7 7 6 5 9 10 9 3,366 Germsany 2. . . 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 9 5 7.0 4 7 9 4 13,032 Greece 2. X 2. 2. 2. . 2. 2. 64 2. 3.7 9 9 669 H.itaay 2. 2. . 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 7 3 6.8 66 6 9 4,4698 Iceland 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 0 12 0 190 ire ard 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 7 9 6.0 6.3 13 2 518 Italy 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 93 5.9 4.9 8 8 2,368 Latv,a, Rep 2. X . 2. 2. 2. . 2 . 2. 3.7 9.3 16 8 1,0372. Lthuan a,Rep 2. 2. 2. 2 .. 2 2. 2. 4.8 9.1 21 8 1,511 - Macedonia,FYR 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 7 7 68. 5.5 19 7 122 Moldova, Rep 98 18 55 90 8 50 2. 2. 2. 2. 51 61 22.9 2. Netherlands 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 9.8 6 9 5 3 9.5 1,265 Norway 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 7.3 69 83 150 1,157 Polano,Seo 2. 2. 2.~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ . 2. 3 2. 2. 2. 2. 496 46 2. 950 Porugal 2. 2. . 2 2. 2. 4 2. 7 6 43 54 2. 1612. Romana 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 3 3 3 2 9.1 2,917 c Russian Federato 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 498 41 4 1 9.6 96,177 Slovoa Rep 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 63 61 3,005 Slovenma,ReD 2. 2. 3 . X 2 . 2 7 2. 7 9 5 8 12 6 954 Spun 2. 2. 2 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 78 5 0 2.6 4,890 Sweden 2. 2. 2. 2. . 2 2. 2. 7 7 6.4 80 11 0 1,658 Swaitzerland 2. i 3 2. 2. 2. 2 2. 9 6 6 9 5 5 1596 2,555 Lakra,e 2. 2. . X 2. 2. 2 . 2. 5 4 7 7 2. 21.857 UnitedK rgdom 2. . . 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 69 5 8 5 5 1: 4 24,869 s'joosiav,a,Fed8en 2. 2. 2. ~ ~~~~ ~ 2. 2. 2. 2 2. 2. 2. 2. 800 250 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 7.4 continued POPULATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Public Education Health Expenditure Expenditure as a Percentage of Population with Access to: fal as a Percentage Percentage of: Number of Safe Drinking Water Adequate Saniitation Health Services of GDP (a} Total Gov't Public 19901-96 1990-96 1990-96 Total Public GNP Expenditure Libraries Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total 1990-95 1990-95 1995 1995 1990-96 (a) NORTH4 AMERICA Urited States 17 X < 14 X 7 17 17 1 14 3 6 3 5 3 14 2 122,663 d CENTRAL. AMERICA Bei,ze X 7 17 2 7 17 7 s 17 A 6 1 2 3 17 CostaoRce 133 92 96 65 70 84 5 17 5 85 6 3 4 5 19 9 602 Cuba 96 69 89 95 82 92 A 17 150 5 79 17 10 2 354 c Domnorczn Rep 65 17 e5 76 83 78 84 67 78 5.3 2C 19 13.2 1 Ha,t 37 23 28 42 16 24 17 39 60 36 13 17 17 1 honeeres ~~~ ~~~ ~~96 79 67 97 76 67 66 55 69 56 26 639 16 5 3 Jamaica 17 17 66 130 60 65 17 17 90b 54 35 62 7 7 17 Panama 51 e 93 7 17 63 17 1 70 7 5 5 4 5.2 2059 17 Argentit-6 77 29 71 73 37 66 60 21 71 b 10.6 4 3 4 5 1 55 1,545 c 301ore 67 36 66 72 32 55 77 52 67 5.5C 2 7 6 6 82 250 Braz. 6 5 69 7 3 565 4 44 17 17 1 7 4 2 7 17 6 1 Chile 96 6 1 17 66 17 17 17 97 o 6 5 2.6 2.9 14 0 266 Guyana 17 7 6 17 7 X 17 7 17 7 17 4 1 6 1 Paraguay 75 13 42 65 '4 41 90 39 636b 4.3 171 2 9 16.96 Reru 75 16 72 56 25 57 17 A 44 4 9 2 6 36 171 Afgoanistan, lslormc State 36 5 12 13 7 17 6 1 7 29 5 0 71 X Armnenia,Rep A 17 17 17 17 7 1 17 7 8 3.' 17 1 1,263 c Azerba:jam 7 17 17 01 17 17 7 1 7 5 1 4 3 0 17 5 4,647 c Ban,gladesh 99 96 97 76 44 46 17 1 45 2 4 172 2-3 67 17 Seina 97 56 67 74 7 24 10 6i 3 86 3.6 1.6 23 17 23379 George a 7 17 7 17 17 17 1 17 1 53 5.2 6 9 3,929 I,,d 6 5 79 61 70 1 4 29 105 60 65 3 5 57 36s 1 21 17 Indonesia 79 5 2 7 0 51 99 9 1 93 1 5 0 7 17 17 1 Iran, lslrerc Sep 93 62 65 86 14 6 1 150 75 69 4.6 2 8 43 ~ 76 1,302 raq 92 44 78 66 37 75 67 76 93 b 17 7 17 17 4 sraee 4~ 7 1 17 17 17 1 4 17 4.1 6.6 12 3 1,160 Japan 150 65 97 66 17 17 1 7 17 7 0 55 368 1568 1,350 Korea,GemRPeople's ep X x < 17 7 17 7 17 7 17 7 17 17 1 KoreaeRep 155 76 93 100 ISO 155 150 Os 190 5 4 1.6 3 7 17 4 329 Krsset 17 17 1 105 17 Xo 17 17 O b 7 0 XI 5.6 17 16 Kyrqy~~~ 64 3 17 65 15 30 17 so 17 17 - ~50 Ix Lao People's Demr Rep 60 6~ 52 96 1 6 23 17 1 67 b 26 Lesenon 96 88 94 61 6 63 96 65 95 6 3 '7 2 0 17 1 Malavsia 96 66 76 17 5 94 7 17 17 1 14 5 3 ' 56 471 Meongn a 150 59 6GO 100 47 74 7 5 956h 4.7 4 4 6 6 5 1 M~~~anmer 76 55 65 56 36 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 43 100 47 65 5 9 0.5 1 3 14 4 17 Nfepel 66 65 63 56 12 '8 17 1 1 5 0 12 2.9 132 17 COrer 17 1 62 5X 1 78 105 94 96 17 2 5 4 6 162 20 Rek,sra, 62 69 74 77 22 47 99 35 556b 1 96 17 4 15 Phlipp nes 92 80 66 66 66 77 17 71 2 4 1 3 22 A 17 Sri Lanka 66 52 57 66 62 63 17 0 1 19 14 31 61 17 Svrian Arac Rep 92 76 65 64 62 83 96 64 90 17 7 17 17 1 Tajk,stan, Rep 62 49 17 46 7 7 3 1 17 1 6 4 6 6 r79 17 ThaiIane 94 65F 1 0'-. . 'orkey 91 5- - .1~9 Tuorkmenistan, Rep XI 17 74 7 17 95 17 x 17 rO 1 2.6 3 17 United Arab Emirates 17 17 95 93 22 77 17 1 99 22 1 9 1.s 16 3 17 JzbekSTnrr, Rep 62 49 62 46 17 22 7 17 11 3 5 9 5 24 4 1 V eraem 7 17 17 0 7 17 17 17 5 2 11 17 17 1 OCEANIA--- Aort'ale -17 7 II 7 17 7 17 7 17 8.4 5.6 66 13 6 Fij 17 17 1 17 1 7 17 17 17 17 5.4 16 6 17 New Zeaeand 150 82 97 17 17 17 17 5 75 5 7 6 7 17 2 17 PapuaeNew C eae 64 17 28 82 if 22 7 17 96e b 1 268 17 17 Solomconislands 7 5 7 5 17 17 1 17 7 17 17 17 1 1 Notes 0 Deta ore fo- otre roost recent yee, ava (eble, mstb.e the aenge giver b. Gore are for yeers other tboe noted, d ffer frorm the stenderd definit on, or refer to only oart of acountry c Refers to number of admirnstrrte une t s, number &; I brer 40, or sero en nolrS, 15 1 kelv the some or greerer d Deta ere from 1995-95 World Resources 1998-99 251 Sources and Technical Notes lation. Births are distributed by an assumed sex ra- The total fertility rate is an estimate of the Size and Growth of Population tio, and the appropriate age- and sex-specific sur- number of children an average wooman would have vival rates are applied. Future migration rates are if current age-specific fertility rates remained con- and Labor Force, 1950-2050 also estimated on an age- and sex-specific basis. stant during her reproductive years. Sources: Population data: United Nations (1. N ) Combining future fertility, mortality, and migra- The percentage of populiItion ini specific age Population Division, A no al Populaitions tionratesyieldstheprojectedpopulationsize, (7'er- groups shows a country's age structure: 0-14. 1950-2050 (The 1996 Revision), on diskette (U.N., age annual population chanige, and average annual 15-65, and over 65 years. It is useful for inferring New York, 1996); part of lAorld Populationi Pros- inicremetit to the population. dependency,needsforeducationandemplo%-ment. pects: The 1996 Revision (U.N., New York, forth- Assumptions about future mortality, fertility, potential fertilityand otherage-related factors. For coming). Labor force data: International Labour and migration rates are made on a countrv-b- additional details on data collection. estimation. Organisation (ILO), Economically Active Popula- country basis and, when possible, are based on his- and projection methods, refer to the Sources and tion, 1950-2010, 4th edition, December 1996, on torical trends. Four scenarios of population growth Technical Notes for Data Table I. 1. diskette (ILO, Geneva, Switzerland, 1996). are created by using different assumptions about Population refers to the midyear population. fertility (high fertility, medium fertility,low I ertil- Most data are estimates based on population cen- ity, and constant fertilitv). For example, the suses and surveys. All projections are for the medium-case scenario assumes medium level, Of Distribution of Income, Land, medium-case scenario. (See the following discus- fertility-an assumption that may vary among and Poverty, 1977-96 sion. ) Average annual population change takes into countries. Refer to the source for further details. Al- Sources: Gini coetficient (income), income distri- account the effects of international migration. though projections may be of questionable quality, butin d t Th World Bak 1to1ldDeel MlanyofthevaluesinDataTables7.1-7.3arees- U.N. demographic models are based on surveys Indicators 1997 on CD-ROM (The World optietit niaos19 n DRM(h ol timated using demographic models based on sev- and censuses with well-understood qualities, Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997). Gini coefficient eral kinds of demographic parameters: a country's which makes these data fairly reliable. (land) and g (ln)adthe percentage of people owning less population size, age and sex distribution, fertility The labor force includes all people who produce than 10 hectares: calculations based on the 1995 and mortality rates by age and sex groups, growth economic goods and services. It includes all em- round of the censuses of agriculture compiled by rates of urban and rural populations, and the levels ployed people (employers, the self-employed, sala- the Food and Agriculture Organization of the of internal and international migration. ried employees, wage earners, unpaid family wvork- United Nations (FAO) at gopher :/lgo- Information collected through recent popula- ers, members of producer cooperatives, and mem- pher.FAO.ORG:70/t tgopher_root%3A°S5Bfao. tion censuses and surveys is used to calculate or es- bers of the armed forces) and the unemployed. The census.wcares.t OffS/s5D. Poverty estimates for se- timate these parameters, but accuracy varies. The a verige ani nua l growth of the la bor force was deter- lected developed countries: Timothy MI. Smeeding. U.N. Population Division compiles and evaluates mined by using the exponential growth rate [ equa- Finantcial Poverty in Developed Countries: The Elvi- census and survey results from all countries. These tion: r = ln(pn/p,)/n * 100 wherepni and p are the dencefron LIS (Final Report to the UN'DP), Luxem- data are adjusted for overenumeration and undere- last and first observations in the period, nm is the bourg Income Study, Working Paper No. 155 (LIS, numeration of certain age and sex groups (e.g., in- number of years in the period, and It is the natural Syracuse, New York, and Walferdange, Luxem- fants, female children, and young males), misre- logarithm operator]. This growth rate is based on bourg, 1997). porting of age and sex distributions, and changes in continuous, exponential growth between two time The World Bank uses a variety of data sources, definitions, when necessary These adjustments in- points and does not take into account intermediate including reports of governments, international or- corporate data from -I,. 1 ,.... ....u...r..... values between the two points. ganizations, and household surveys when neces- surveys, earlier censuses, and, when necessary, sary to compile estimates of the distribution of in- population models based on information from so- come within countries. cioeconomicallv similar countries. (Because the Theyearof data collection is shown for each sec- figures have been adjusted, they are not strictly Trends in Births, Life tion of this table. comparable to the official statistics compiled by the The Gini. , ii.. .-,. (income) measures the ex- U.N. Statistical Office and published in the Detio- Expectancy, Fertility, and Age tent to which the actual distribution of income dif- graphiic 1-arbook.) Structure, 1975-2000 fers from a perfectly equal distribution. A coeffi- After the figures for population size and age/sex cient of zero would reflect perfect equality, a coeffi- composition have been adjusted, these data are Source: United Nations (U.N.) Population Divi- cient of' 100 would represent perfect inequality scaled to 1990. Similar estimates are made for each sion,Deoiographitc Indicators, 1950-2050 (The 1996 Graphically, the index is the area between a Lorenz Revision), on diskette, (U.N., New York,t1996), part Grpial,tendxsthaeabwenaLez 5-year period between 1950 and 1990. Historical . curve (the cumulative percentage of total income data are used when deemed accurate, also with ad- ofU.. Population Prospects: The 1996 Revis against the cumulative percentage of recipi- justments and scaling. However, accurate historical ents-starting with the poorest indivdual or data do not exist for manydevelopingcountries. In The crude birth rate is derived by dividing the household) and a hvpothetical line of absolute such cases, the U.N. Population Division uses avail- number of live births in a given year by the midyear equality (expressed as a percentage of the area un- able information and demographic models to esti- population and multiplying by 1,000. der the line). mate the main demographic parameters. Projec- Life expectancy at birth is the average number of Incomie distribution is the share of total income tions are based on estimates of the 1990 base-year years that a newborn baby is expected to live if the that accrues to each of the different quintiles of the populationi. Age- and sex-specific mortality rates age-specific mortality rates effective at the year of population ranked according to income (starting are applied to the base-year population to deter- birth apply throughout his or her lifetime. Life cx- with the poorest 20 percent and moving up the in- mine the number of survivors at the end of each 5- pectancy of fetales as a percentage of miiales shosws come ladder to the richest 20 percent). %ear period. Births are projected by applying age- the difference in life expectancy between the two The Gini coefficient (land) adapts the concept of >pecific fertility rates to the projected female popu- genders, expressed as a ratio. income inequality to estimate the extent to which 252 World Resources 1998-99 POPULATION AND H MA DEVELOPMENT I-' ata Taibles the actual distribution of land ownership differs Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). Total ex- such as pit privies, pour-flush latrines, septic tanks, from a perfectly equal distribution. A coefficient of penditure on health as a percentage of GDP and communal toilets, and other such facilities. Rural zerowouldreflectperfectsharingoflandresources, public expenditure on health as a percentage of populations withaccesstosanitationaredefinedas a coefficient of 100 would represent perfect ine- gross domestic product (GDP): The World Bank, those with adequate disposal, such as pit privies quality.Graphically,theindexistheareabetweena World Development Indicators 1997 (The \orld and pour-flush latrines. cumulative frequency distribution (the cumulative Bank, Washington, D.C., 1997). Public expenditure Percentage of popuilationt with access to health percentage of total land area against the cumulative on education as a percentage of gross national services is the portion of the population that can percentage of owners-starting with the land product (GNP) and numberof publiclibraries(ex- reach appropriate local health services via local poor) and a hypothetical line of absolute equality cept for the United States): United Nations Educa- means of transport in no more than I hour. How- (expressed as a percentage of the area under the tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization e%er, as noted by UNICEF. many of the data on ac- line). (UNESCO), 1996 UNESCO Statistica7l Yearbook cess to health services are quite old i.e.. pre-1990). The percentage of people owning less titani 10 (UNESCO, Paris and Bernan Press, Lanham, In addition, the quality of these data are question- hectares was calculated directly from agricultural Maryland, 1997).Numberofpubliclibrariesforthe able. Many countries may report distance to health census data. United States: National Center forEducation Statis- services rather than the time it takes to get to them. The percentage of people falling belo^ the inl ter- tics surveys, as reported by the American Library and the definition of "appropriateserv icesvaries. aTihuei poieretagite ofeasl calclated bylo the Wotrld Association. Tot,il htealith expenditure includes public and pri- na7tional povPertly linle WaS calculated bv the World Bank from primary household survey data ob- WHO collected data on drinking water and vate outlas tor the provision of health services tained from government statistical agencies and sanitation from national governments in 1980, preventive and curativel. population activities. \orldBankcountrvdepartments.Itisthepercent- 1983, 1988, and 1990 using questionnaires com- rlutritih Iti doities, and energenc aid designated age of peoplelivingonless than S1 aday (at 1985 In- pleted by public health officials,WI-HO experts. and expenditures for wa- ternational prices) adjusted for purchasing power resident representatives of the United Nations De- ter and sanitation. Pulblic health expenJiture ex- parity (for more information, see the Technical velopment Programme (UNDP). In 1990, the joint cludes prilate expenditures but icludes recurrent Notes to Data Table 6.1). Monitoring Programme was established by WHO and caplital government expenditures osn health The percentage of people falling below the - and UNICEF to build national capacity in measur- care) including government and social securit ex- tional poverty linte is calculated using World Bank ing all aspects of water and sanitation services. The penditurcs tor medical care ) and donor assistance tionalpoverty lissessmens calcued usin g h horld Bank most recent round of data collection from the Pro- for health services. poverty assessments based on household surveYs. Pbi ttciii xedtr spbi xeii The line Is defined by the appropriate authorities in gramme yielded figures for access to clean water public eiucation epus pubiicf ependi- and sanitation for many countries as of 1 994. tuenpblcdcainlssbiisfoprve each nation. Data for poverty, in selected dev-eloped -.. educationi. It is not possible to show private expen- countries are the product of the Luxembourg In- Definitionsofsatedrinkingwaterandappropri- diture on education because of a lack of data for come Study)(LIS). The definition ofa national pov- ate access to sanitation and health services varv de- many countries. Public expenditure includes edo- ertv line chosen here (40 percent of the mediain in- pending upon location and condition of local re- cational expenditure at every level of administra- come) is just one of several alternative definitions sources, thus, comparisons can be misleading. In tion according to the constitution of the countrv offered by the LIS. Forty percent of the median in- addition, urban and rural populations sere defined (I.e., central or federal government, state govern- by each national governmentcetralor andrl goemight,stnotgoebe come prosvides a close approximatiori to the per- by each national government aiid might not be memnt, provincial or regional authorities, and mu- centage of poor reported by the United States ( 14.5 strictly comparable. The official definiitionis of ac- nicipal and local authorities). For almost all coun- percent in 1994-using a more complex algorithm, cess to safe drinking water, adequate sanitatioin, anid tries,data on GNP are supplied by the World Bank. U.S. Departmentof Commerce, StatisticalAbllstriict health services are listed below, but, countries are at For further information on W\brld Bank data, of the United Staites 1996 [ U.S. Department of Coni- liberty to adapt these definiitionis to reflect local visit the World Bank's Web site at: http://ks%-%vw merce, Washington, D.C. 19961, p. 472.). With the conditions. worldbank.org. exception of the United States and the United King- Perce ntage of population with aircess to sa) ' drink- Puiblic libriaries are defined as those that serve the dom, these developed countries do not commonly imtg water is the portion of the population with rea- population of a community or region free of charge report poverty estimates. All poverty data are lim- sonable access to an adequate amount of safe water or for a nominal fee; thev mav service the general ited. In general, such estimates do not include al- (including treated surface water and untreated wa- public or special categories of users such as chil- lowances for goods and services-in-kind benefits ter from protected springs, boreholes, and sanitary dren, members of the arned forces, hospital pa- such as housing. food, medical care, schooling, wells). WHO defines "reasonable access' to safe tienits, prisoners, workers, and emplovees. etc-provided, for example, by a government. drinking water in urban areas as access to piped wa- UNESCO counts libraries in numbers of adminis- ter or a public standpipe within 200 meters of a trative units and service points. An administrative dwelling or housing unit. In rural areas, reasonable unit is any independent librarv or group of libraries access inmplies that a family member need not spenld under a single director or a single administration; a Social I Investment, 1990-96 a "disproportionate"part of the dav fetching water. service point is anv librarv that provides in separate Percentage of popultition *eith access to iidequate quarters a service for users, whether it is an inde- Sources: Access to safe drinking water, adequate saintitationi is the portion of the population with at pendent library or part of a larger administrative sanitation services, and health care: United Nations least adequate excreta disposal facilities that can ef- utnit. Children's Fund (UNICEF), The State of the Worlds fectively prevent human, animal, and insect contact For further information on libraries in the Children 1997, (UNICEF, New York, 1997), includ- with excreta. Urban areas with access to sanitation United States, visit the American Library Associa- ing input from NMultiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, services are defined as urban populations served by tion's Web site at: http:u/wwws-%.ala.org/librarv/ the World Health Organization (WHO), and connections to public sewers or household systems factl.html. World Resources 1998-99 253 HEALTH ".~ - -.t -r -.f Health World Resources 1998-99 255 Data Table 8.1 Nutrition, 1971-96 Sources: UTnited iNations Chtldren's Fond, United -Nations Statistical Dtvision, and the World Health Organization Daily Per Capita Percentage Percentage Percentage Calorie Supply Percentage Percentage of Households of Children of Low- Percentage of Children Under 5 as a Percentage of Pregnant Year of Children Consuming Under S with Birthweight Suffering from (1 990-96) Ia) of Total Women Of Aged 6-11 Iodized Vitamin A infants Under- Requirements Aged 15-49 Anemia with Goiter Salt Deficiency 1990-94 fa) weight Wastina Stunig 1890a With Anemia Data- 1971-91 {al 1992-96 [a) 1971-95 (a) WORLD AFRICA Ang3ola 19 51 It I 80 >1 7g 0 3 Bermn It 1 It X 104 It 24 35 8 Boctstana 3 158 b It 44hb 97 3 9 27 It Cameroon 3 1 4 3 24 95 X 26 86 20 central Afr cur Rep 105 27 7 34 82 It 63 28 X Chad 0 4 3 I 73 31 169g 31 5 _ 7a,2Em-fe2 - - -11 _34 rO 45 96 It9o, 13 Congo,Rep ilB 24 b 4 8 218 33I 6- p 26 C6:aed'lvotre 14 24 6 24 Ill 11 6 r 0 47 Egypt 5 3 24 132 It 5 90 5< Eqrruatoria Guinea 4 It t It t It '0 g It 4 trttua 13 41 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ 10 66 It 4 60 It Ethiap a 16 48 8 64 73 322 0 56 G-aona a, 3 4 4 104 4 63 4 It Garnba, The 3 It 4 4 4 I 20 a 0 It Ghana 7 27 It 26 93 It lOg a I Kenya 16 23 8 34 89 It 7g 100 1 esotho 1' 2' 2 33 93 3 16 31 78 Liberra 7 It It I 98 78 1982 c 6g It I Malaiam 20 30 7 48 88 t ~3 56 2 Mal 1 7 31 h 1b 24 a 96 30 1987 a 29g9 20 80 MAauntame I 23 7 44 106 It Xt 44 Mozan-Lique 20 27 5 55 77 68 1386 a 20 g 62 Namibia 1 6 26 6 28 3 It 36 80 20 Niger I15 36 1 6 32 95 It 9g 0 2 Senegal 1 1 20 9 22 98 I 12 I 10 72 SierraLeo 7e 1 1 29 9 35 83 It 7 g 78 It rSteaS1a 16 It 4 XI 1 4, 7 g 2 Svazurlard 3 It 4 It It 3I g 3 It TanZanita 14 23 6 47 95 It 37 74 47 Taco 20 24r b r 308 b09 It 22 0 10 Zamnia 13 29 6 53 87 X 51 90 18 Zmhban,we 14 16 6 21 94 It 42 80 onia 7 It t It 1 07 4 41 t It Austna 6 It Is 0 33 t It It I Be arts, Rep 4 4 It It Is 22 37 It B8o3arr 6 It It It 149 It 5 3 3 Roan,saorll-,orze0ovina 3 It _ I _ _ 4 It_ _3--- 103 It It 4cgana 4 Ao It I 148 4 2 g It I C roat a,Rep It It 3 0X 4 25 100 It CzecrnRem 6 Xt 4 t It 8g It I Denmark 6 4 7 I '30 4 3g It I Frarce 5 so 4 143 t Sg It 3 Germanay t It 4 4 It I 10g It It Creece 6 It 3~ It 161 It I g It I Irelran 4 4 It I 1057 3 It 0X Italy 8 It 4 I 139 3 20g 3 It Lasc a, Rep 3 A It It It It 15 I Voldova,Rep 4 It 3 t It It I t It N'ethe'Iards 4 4 3 It 114 4 3 g 4 It Non'say 4 4 It I 120 t It It I Rcrmaria 11 t 3 It 116 It 10g It It Rtssian Fecdemann It t 6 It It I 10 a 30 It Slotvak Roo t It It tI t 4 3 It Sween5 ' I - I Savitzer and 5 It It 130 t t It It J~anIre It x It 4 ItI It 0c 4 It Unated Kingdom 7 It It 130 1 2 1990 af 3 It I Yu.osola a, Fed Rep t It t It It I 5 9 70 3 256 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 8.1 continued HEALTH Daily Per Capita Percentage Percentage Percentage Calorie Supply Percentage Percentage of Households of Children of Low- Percentage of Children Under S as a Percentage of Pregnant Year of Children Consuming Under 9 with Birthweight Suffering from (1990-96){(a) of Total Women Of Aged 6-11 Iodized Vitamin A Infants Under- Requirements Aged 15-49 Anemia with Goiter Salt Deficiency 1?'... 9-1Iat~.i Var. 4urling- .6 OOii Ar. .a.r.a usIa lii I 151 1 C2 I: raIn~ rjoritH- AIERIC:A CENTRAl- AMERCA ESeize 21 21 21 21 65 1984 21 10 Closta Rca 8 2 2 8 121 21 3 81 I Cuba 3 21 lb 21 135 21 lO0g 0 21 Dominican Rep I1 10 1 19 102 21 1 40 22 E_Savador I I 1 1 1 23 102 21 25 91 38 CGuatema a ill 27 3 5o 103 21 20 93 26 Hlai ~5 28 8 32 89 11- 10 8 Honduras 9 ~ 8 2 40 38 21 9 89 20 Jarraca 1 0 120 4 6 11 4 62 1982 21 103 21 Panama 9 2 1 9 98 21I 13 92 2 I'; I - ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~114 212 212 SOUITH I AERiCa SAnte ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~12 18 4 23 84 3 21 92 1 Brazil 11 72b 26b 186b 1~4 14 70 55 Child 5 1 0 3 102 3 9 9~ 21 Guyana 21 2 21 7 2 68 1938 21 21 Paraguaay 5 4 0 17 116 3 49 64 21 Peru 1 I11 1 37 87 21 36 90 22 Venezuela 9 6 a 2 a 6 a 99 52 1987 a 11 65 ____2 Afghaac stac, Isamac Slate 20 21 1 2 22 21 20 g - 2 -- 2 Armen a, ep 4 21 1 21 21 2 10 g 4 2 Azetbajan a 21 21 21 209 g Bangladesa 53 67 1 7 63 88 21 I1 44 5 Chire 9 18a 4 32 11 2 21 51 1 9 Georgia 21 1 21 21 2 20 g 21 3 aara 33 53 18a 52 101 88 1985-86 9 g 67 1 ndones a -14 35 21 X1 So 9 65 ma, a;lan a Rep 9 6 7 13 * 82 21 Iraq 1 5 1 2 a 22 1 28 1 7 g so 2 msae. 7 21 Ia 2 125 1 21 21 2 Japan 7 21 21 2 1295 9 21 21 2 Korea, Dem Peopeaea5RI 4 21 x 21 111 1 1 5 5 21 Korea,Rep 9 21 4 2 120 21 21 21 Kuwait 7 Sob 3ob 126b 1 21 21 21 Kypgea5~~~~~~~~~~~~p X X 21 21 21 15 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~209q X1 3 LeaoPeop e s em Rep 1 8 44 1 63 8 1-11 21 2 g 2 Lebanan 10 21 21 21 1 27 4 1 5g 92 21 Malavsia 8 23 21 21 1 20 21 20 g 21 1 2 Macogal a 6 2 2 26 97 21 7g 21 21 Omnar 6 12 21 12 9 21 212 21 Pan Stan 25 38 9 59 99 7X 32 g 1 9 20 Philippanes 1 5 30 8 33 104 48 1 987 1 5 40 21 Sr,Lanka 25 38 16 24 121 21 14 7 1 Syr an rab Rep 11 1 2 8 27 126 21 73 21 211 Tabkisarn Rep a 21 1 21 21 2 20 g 20 21 To kmrasna:nRep 9 21 4 2 4 2 20 g 0 2 UnitedArabEn-rartes 6 9 21 X 4 21 21 21 Uzbekistan,Re'p / 3 21 1 21 21 18 0 21 V,etaca, 21 21 1 21 21 20 g 21 1 Yemen 19 39 13 2 39 21 __ 2132_q 21 60 OCEANIA Aasrmm 6 21 21 21~~~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~ -24 X 2 X12 Hl 21 21 21 0 40 1975-82 47 g 21 Ntew2 ealand 8 2 21 4 131 1 21 21 2 Pa7uaaNew Ga ea 23 35 6 21 2 114 21 32 c 21 92 Salmoano Islands 21 1 21 21 2 32 1989 21 2 2 Nates a Dale are far mast reacert year ava lab e, withan the rapce giveea. b. Dale are tor years other than anore, 6 tfer tram the standard aeisfinr on, or refer to oaiy part atea aconrtry a Dana 'or lvlanrovia anyv a Retereace year car knovwn, pab iaatioa year given instead e Data tar Macridoany I Gala are far a wamen g Dera arc ectimated f-amr asubar one data and toare ca ter rate preva encae at carder regiacs in aeighoriang acarnr es World Resources 1998-99 257 Data Table 8.2 Mortality, 1975-2020 Sources: United Nations Population Division and United Nations Children's Fund Average Annual Materttial Change in Mortality Rate Infant Mortality Rate (a) Under-5 Mortality Rate Under-5 Mortality (per 100.0003 Crude Death Rate (per 1,000) (per 1,000 live births) (per 1,000 live births) (percent) live births) 1975-80 1995-00 2015-20 1975-80 1995-00 2015-20 1960 1990 1995 1960-80 1980-95 1990 WORILD 11.0 8.9 8.0 87 57 35 X X X X X X AFRICA 77 129 84 120 86 55 X X X X X x Algeria 13.4 5.6 4 6 112 44 21 243 145 61 (2 61 167) 160- Angora 24.4 16 7 111I 1 60 124 79 345 261 292 (I141 0 7 X Ben n 21 11 2.4 6.9 122 84 46 3120 176 '42 12.81 (1.41 390 Botswana I1 3 13.0 7.5 76 56 33 170 94 52 13 0) (3 91 .15C Cameroon 17 6 1190 65 1 02 58 34 264 '73 106 (2 11 13 3) 13 0 Contral Africarn Rep 236 13-'4 C 3 122 96 60 294 202 165 ( I9 9 1' 4) "00 Chad 23.1 17.3 1 13 154 115 79 32 5 254 152 (231 12 0) 1,1100 Cot.e dIlvo re 1 75 139 6.87 117 66 54 320 180 150 12 Si (0.81 1110 Egypt 14 2 7 1 620 131 54 25 258 160 5 1 (1 8 18.4) 170 Ecluatnoa Gusiea 22 7 16 2 10 7 149 107 73 316 243 X 14 14 1 Eritrees *8.9 14 7 9 0 1 30 98 57 X4 4 13 (.6 I 9) 1 a.00 Eth,op.a 22.1 16 2 9.4 '46 '07 65 294 260 '95 10.6) (I 91 1 /00o Gaonna 19 2 14.3 9 3 122 85 47 267 1954 146 12 0) (1.81 500 Gambia. Tne 24 9 17 4 1 23 167 122 85 375 278 110 12 0) (3.51 1,100 Ghana 15 3 10 4 6 9 103 73 43 216 157 130 (1'S) 11.2) 740 Guinea 2 54 16 4 12 1 1 67 124 67 337 276 219 (10 (1 5) 1,600 Guinea-8 usas 26.2 20 6 1 40 ~ 176 132 94 336 290 227 (0.71 (I 6) 910 Kenya 15.5 11 3 6.2 66 65 37 202 112 90 (2.9) (1 51 630 Lesotno 16 5 10.6 6.6 121 72 37 204 173 154 10 8) (061) 610 Liberia is61 15.3 820 167 153 67 266 235 216 11 0) (0.61 560 Lions 127 6~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~~9 4 5 107 66 25 239 150 63 141 10.2)220 Miaidagascar 16 1 9 9 6 0 150 77 42 364 216 164 (2 61 11.6) 490 Malawi 24 0 22 4 12 6 177 142 93 365 290 219 (1.11 11.9) 550 Mal 24.1 17.1 '1.1 19'7 149 '07 400 310 210 11.3) (2.6) 1,230 Mdauritania 20 0 '3.1 668 125 92 59 321 249 195 11.3) (1.61 530 Maur tiLs 6 3 6 5 6 9 36 1 4 42 23 34) (.1120O Mzorocco 13 0 6 7 56 8 10 51 24 215 14, 35 12 01 (0.4:) 6170 Mozambique 20.8 17 5 11 1 160 110 74 33' 269 275 (1 01 0'1 1,6D0 Namibia '5.1 11 8 7 4 98 60 36 206 114 76 (3.01 12.5) 370 Niger 23.6 17 1 10.9 157 114 79 322 320 320 0.0 0 0 14 NigerFa 19.2 '3.9 92 105 77 31 3 9204 196 '9 02) (2 101 Rwanda 20.2 19 7 11 7 133 125 84 11 22 139 0.6 (3.11 1.3)0- Senegal 21 7 14.5 8 6 97 62 39 303 221 110 1' 6) (4.61 1,2100 Sierra ncone 29 0 267 16 1 192 169 114 385 30' 264 (1 21 10 4) 1,8100 Somralia 22 7 16 9 10.7 149 112 77 294 206 211 (0 91 C) 1,6100 Soutn Africa 124 7 0 72 48 27 126 91 07 (16 212110 Sudan 176 8 1.7 8.4 97 71 45 292 210 115 11.9) (3 71 SliD Swaziland 162C 9.2 5 7 106 65 34 233 151 X a 1 1 Tanzawa 16 4 13 5 621 1'3 83 51 249 202 160 ) 6) (0.8) 770G Togo 17.4 14 9 6 5 117 66 52 264 '75 126 12.01 12.') 6/0 Tunisia '00 59 5.5 68 37 18 244 102 37 (4 41 167) 120 Uganda 1 7.6 210 10.7 114 113 72 216 181 195 (0.9) 0 2 1,2C0 Zambia 16 5 '8 0 9.3 94 103 55 220 160 223 11.6) 1 6 940 Z mbabwe 31 1.c. 86 68 39 161 125 74 116 31570 EUROPE 105 1. 24 22 12 8 X X X X X X Anbaria 6 4 62 7 1 50 92 20 iSI 57 40 (4 91 12.4) 65 Austria 12 4 12~0 1207 17 6 5 42 17 7 (4 61 156) 10 Be arus, Rep 9.4 121 13 3 22 15 10 X 14 20 X (3 1) 37 Belgium 11.7 '05 11.3 14 7 5 35 15 10 (4.3) (301 12 Bosnia ann Herzeoov.na 6.5 7.3 1069 36 13 9 14 1 7 170 54 K Bu~gara 10 5 13 3 13 9 22 18 10 70 25 19 15 11 11.8) 27 C roat a, Rep 126 1' 7 13 4 21 '0 7 1K x 14 '4 121 (3l .4 CzecntRep 1 3.2 122 12 3 i8 9 6 7s 75 10 14 ~ 46) 15 Denmark 10 4 11a 11 8 9 7 5 25 10 7 (44 12 8)9 Eston,a,Rep) 12.1 131 '3 2 1 4 1 22 1 1214' F nand 9 3 '0.2 11.3 9 5 5 28 9 5 (59) (3 61 117 France 10 3 9'~ 10 5 11 7 6 4 14 9 1489) (2 31 1i Germany 12 2 10.9 1296 15 6 5 40 16 7 (4 7) (5.5) 23 Greece 6 8 8 9 12 3 25 8 7 64 23 10 (5 2) (5.6) i H unoary '2.8 14 6 1435 27 14 9 57 26 14 (3 91 142) 31) Iceland 6.4 6 8 7.4 9 5 5 22 9 14 14 14 Ireland 10 2 8.6 8.9 15 6 5 36 14 7 (4.6) 14 6) 11 italyv 96 959 12 4 is 7 6 14 14 8 (5.3) 15.31 12 Latvia, Rep 12 4 1368 14.3 23 16 11 14 14 26 14 (2 21 41) L.ithuana, Rep 9 9 '3 1239 22 '3 7 14 14 19 14 (2.61 361 Macecnonia, FYR 7.1 7 4 9 3 57 23 13 14 14 31 (4 7) (5.31 X4 Mo~dova. Sep 1 0.6 1 08 10 6 46 26 19 14 14 34 14 124) 60) NeT.herlands 8.' 8 8 '0.3 10 6 5 22 11 8 (3.4) (2 41 11 Norway 10 0 307 1 0.3 9 5 5 14 14 6 13.6) (2.21 Poland RelD 9 2 1 0.7 711 23 13 8 70 24 13 15 3) (271 IS_ Portugal 1 03 10.9 1' 7 30 8 3 112 31 11 16 4) (6.91 11 Romania 9 7 1' 6 12 8 31 24 '4 62 36 29 (41 1 1 I4) 130 Russiar Federation 1203 14 5 14.8 30 19 12 14 1 30 4 12 4) 73 Slovak Rep 1 0.4 10.5 '0 8 22 12 8 4 14 15 14 127) 14 Slovenia, 9eg '0.4 10.7 ' 3.3 17 7 5 14 1 4.1 (2 13 Spain 8' 9.4 1)3 16 7 6 57 16 9 16 2) (371 7 Swseden 10 9 112 10.4 8 5 5 20 9 5 (4 1) (3.9) 7 Sw nzerland 920 91 10 4 10 5 5 27 11 7 (4.5) (2.71 6 Ukraine 11 0 139a 14 4 23 18 '0 14 1 24 X (117) 50 United Kingdom '1.9 11 1 11 0 14 6 5 27 14 7 (311 14.3) 9 Y..ooslaara, Fed Rey 92 9.~ ~ ~~7 '1.6 38 18 12 14 14 23 (50 4)1 258 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 8.2 continued HEALTH a tna Average Annual Maternal Change in Morta lity Rate Infant Mortality Rate {al Under-5 Mortality Rate Under-5 Mortality (per 100,000 Crude Death Rate (per 1,000) (per 1,000 live births) (per 1,000 live births) (percent) live births) 1975-80 1995-00 2015-20_ 1975-80 1995-00 201-0 16 19 95 1960-80 1980-95 1990 N4ORTHAMR~IEtCA aR n 6.t 1.] - - - .' 13~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6) 6 WiTRALr AMERICA5 5i 56 2 i 6Ž 3r C csta Rca 48 98 47 30 12 6 112 29 16 16.6) (3 8) 60 Cuba 60 72 69 22 9 6 50 26 10 (33) (160) 95 Domin can Rep 6 4 5.3 5 6 84 34 1 9 152 94 44 (2 4) 150) 1 Ha, 1iI60 1 28 98 1 21 82 5 270 193 124 11 41 130) 1.000 H-ondu,as II0 5.4 49 6 1 35 2 1 209 102 38 (3.6) (6 4) 220 Jamaica 7 4 568 5 3 25 ' 2 7 76 39 1 3 (301 r72) ~ 20 Nicaragu-a 11 3 58 418 90 44 28 209 143 S0 (1 9) 156S) 160 Panama 63 5 1 48 35 21 13 104 31 20 6 0, 12.9) 5s iUTH4M 1I~C a r 8 72 ?i . ArgenTtina 3 79 7 5 39 22 4 68 41 27 (2 5) '2, 00I c Bolivia 16.0 9. 6 4 131 66 33 2 52 1 70 1 05 (2 0' Q. 2) 650 Brazl1 9.1 7 1 7.4 79 42 26 1681 93 60 0S3) (2 91 220 Ch e 75 5 6 6.6 45 13 9 138 35 1 5 ~ 69) 15.6, 65 Ecuador 99 60 6 0 62 46 --29 I8SO 101 40 - 2 9) ' 21 I5 G3uyana 9 2 74 70 67 56 3 7 ~ 26 96 X X A 7) Paraguay 76 5.4 4 7 51 39 27 n0 61 34 I9) 13.9) 160 Pero 10 9 6 4 6. ~ 99 0.5 24 236 130 55 (3, i5 71 280 Armeola, Rep 59 75 9.0 22 25 19 1K 7 31 X 10 61 50 Azerbaijan 70 5 6 7 3 41 33 24 7) 7 50 Y 1 )22 Bang adesh 1689 97 6 7 137 76 38 247 211 115 )0.8) (4 0 550 Bhutan 21 2 137 6 0 165 1 0l 56 324 20'9 189 021 3) 1911,0 Oa-rnuod,a -- - 400: 172.~2 -61 -263 10i 2 55 -217 330T 17a - 2 1 14 3) 900 OLna 67 71 8.2 5~ ~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~2 39 20 709 65 47 ~ 5 a' 1)2 95 Georgia 6.7 95 ' 0.7 36 23 1s 7) 7 26 X (2.9 33 Ind.a 1 39 90 7 6 129 72 41 236 177 115 (1 4) (2 91 570 Iraq 66 6 .5 4 5 64 95 23 171 83 71 (9 6' I0 310 Israel 6.8 6 4 6.5 1s 7 0 39 19 9 on 6 (50) 7 Japan 6.1 92 i2.1 9 4 4 40 1l 6 ;66' 1351 6B Jordan 9 6 468 3 7 65 30 15 149 66 25 (41 ( n4) 150 ~azaksnl aRep 66 65 87 5 3 4 7 ) 4711 121 0 Korea,Dem People sRep 6 2 5 5 607 36 22 i3 20 43 30 (5 11 125) 70 Korea, Rep 7 1 6.4 6 4 30 9 6 124 16 9 (961 144) 130 Kuvvaa: 4.2 2 2 0.0 34 14 7 7) 7 14 166), (6.2) 29 Lebanon 9 7 6 4 6 0 46 29 17 9' 62 40 13.6) 20 300 MaIaysra 7 2 468 51 34 )] 7 505 42 13 (4 61 179) 80 Mong6ia 11 4 6.9 52 86 52 33 165 112 74 (241) 126) 65 NePa~ 94 110 66 .471 32 40 279 177 114 124) 19.0, 1.500 Oman 1 24 4 3 3.2 95 25 12 300 95 25 15 7) (8991 190 Pakisranr 15 4 79 5 2 130 74 45 221 151 137 11.9) (0 61 340 Ph, pprnes 9 0 67 5 3 62 35 '6 ~ 02 70 53 11 91 116) 280 Gongapomc 5.1 3 0 7.1 13 5 5 40 13 6 (56). 15) 10 Sr L.anka 7 1 5 9 6 6 44 15 6 130 52 19 14 6) (6.7) 140 Syrian Arab Rep 6.9 4 9 4 0 67 33 17 201 73 36 15 1) (4 71 160 Tajikisan, Rep 6 9 669 5 5 69 56 38 X 3 79 7) (3 11 130 Thailarnc 6 3 6 6 7 4 56 30 13 '46 6' 32 )4 0) 14 2) 200 Tu.rkey 10 2 6.5 67 120 474 22 217 14, 50 (221 16916 Turkmsenistan, Rep 9.6 7 6 6.0 73 57 36 X X 83 7) 12 Er 55 United Arab E-nirates 7 4 29 6 0 39 is 6 240 64 19 16 6) )8.4 26 Unbseuan, Rep 95 66 57 58 49 30 7) 7 62 7) (311 55 Vietnam I14 70 58 62 37 21 219 105 X A) 11 7 X5E LI, ,- SAa 5 . Tost r-aI a- ~ 7 7 7.5- 9) 1 - 3 - 6 - - 214 - 713 9 17301 1-3 5) 9 F ji 5.6 4 6 5.5 37 20 12 97 42 3 A) 4 7 New Zealand 9 2 7 9 6.0 14 3 5 26 16 9 12 5) (4 01 25 Papua Nev Gu nea 1 50 6 9 7 0 77 61 37 248 95 95 )L.8) 0 0 930 SoocmonIs ands 7.4 4 1 394 47 23 12 1< x K A) 7) DEVELOPING 11.5 9.5 7.4 98 62 38 X X X X X X DEVELOPED 9.5 10.3 11.2 18 9 7 X X X X X X Note a Under I pear of a99 World Resources 1998-99 259 Data Table 8.3 Reported Cases of Infectious Diseases per 1 00,000 Population, 1 985-95 So,Tce: WoTd He.1th Organization Cases per 100,000 Population Tuberculosis Mea5les Malaria Polio Cholera 1985 1990 1995 1985 1990 1995 1988 1991 1994 1980 1988 1995 1987 1991 1995 WORLD x x x 58 25 11 101 104 620 1.17 0.68 0A 1 0.97 11.08 311 AFRICA 70 87 83 224 79 47 5.41 23.72 9.88 Xgeoa 63 47 49a 92 7 29 x x 0 62 0.04 0. x Ango a 108 112 72 285 315 6 x y 6,377 0.46 0.23 1 4 8 Ben n 5 1 45 44 328 72e 194 x X 1 0,398 4.48 0.70 0 13 x 154.93 3 75 Botswana 251 230 38, 156 96 1 6 x x 2,089 0.11 0 00 0.00 x x x Burkma Va,. 58 7 14 222 i 08 54 x x 4,637 2 IC 0.24 0 11 x 5 75 i 3.85 Burund 49 83 62a 774 242 244 x x 14,022 1.04 0 23 0.16 10 36 0 05 37 88 Camer or 34 5 57a 473 184 1 9 x x '365 2 95  13 0.06 0 99 34.10 4.65 centra Afr[can Rep 20 73 lai 94 44 28 x x 2,562 0 91 1.93 0 12 x x x Cnad 33 47 so 128 132 la x x x 0.00 0.00 3 03 x 244.68 X. SMg2, DernRe 1 5b 53 c 91 62 12 12 x x x x x x 3 41 10.45 1.22 Congc), Rep 138 26 40 395 62 84 1,428 8 15 0 DS 0 Oa x x Ctte d'lo re 58 65 84 90 1 52 219 x x x 0 57 0 30 0 85 x 5 (O 3 5 46 gypt 4 37 1 1 2 3 x x x 4 59 1.02 3.11 x x x Eqjato,,al Gu nea 5 74 77 149 9 1 1 x x -,241 0 00 a 00 0 00 x x x Er trea x 120 608 x x 6 x x x 0.00 0.00 0 32 x x x Etiiopia 174-18-- 2 6 -I62 4-1  T-x--x -0 6 4- 0 2 9-0 3 -5- x7x- -X- Gao3r 87 so 94 65( 79 x x x X O 13 0 34 0 94 Y, x x Gambia, Te x x 92 219 0 i2 x x x 0 16 0 59 0.00 x x 35 Ghaia 25 43 24 503 215 232 x x x 1 34 0 42 0.20 x 85 16 2-1,10 ]u nea 26 35 52 60 222 15 x x 8,567 0 72 4 76 0 37 x x 88 53 i-5 2 27 --'-X -X 03 8 -0 4- -00CF---Y6-965 X- 1 : -1 i- Kenya 5 3 5 0 10, 561 328 1 2 x X 23,068 2.74 7 E7 0 04 1 20 x ',.68 Lesotho 87 141 236 47 123 15 x x x 2 63 0 DO C 00 x x x L bona 37 d 46 122 72e 3 x x x 5 22 0 24 C.00 1 37 5 28 161 09 J Malaw 74 '32 172 1,747 0 44 x X 49,410 1.13 0.13 0 Co x 85 09 c ol Mal 20 32 2  316 15 31 x > x 3 41 1 40 0 24 4 19 x IE 97 Maur',ania 249 264 169 856 69 9 x x X 025 0 99 0.22 84 93 x x Mairt us il 11 14 0 0 1 x x 3 0 00 0 00 0.00 x X x [jo-rjc`c--------Ti3--Fl -47-10 - i-- 7 O2 7 0`6-0 -C 0 -0- -- --- --x -- -x Mozarrb que 42 112 112 122 127 24 x x x C 54 0 05 0 00 x 53 60 x Namibia 411 198 110 x 350c 112 x X 27,209 0.00 0.00 0 98 x x x N aer 11 67 22 919 265 743 A > 9,2s8 5 57 0 45 C) 44 x 40.52 2.88 -ElLe r 18 21 12 195 120 11 x x x 1 13 1.6l[ 0 39 1 47 60.03 0 95 Bwaria- 22 -91 -53-7 80  6- Senegal 17 68 91 104 c 68 73a x x x 2 49 0 26 C.01 46 69 x 38 76 "Ier-a Leone 24 16 4 '33 2 9 x x x 0 34 , )O 0 00 14 91 X 245 11 Somal  35 15 e 3 2 12 e x y x x 0.00 165 0 00 x x 97 51 South Africa 180 217 21C S4 29 3 x x 25 0 38 0 49 0 00 0.11 0.03 x Sudan -x -T,-2-2-o 4(T--o-T8 -x Sv,azilanj 3i9 i 193 e 240 501 197 20 x x X 34 29 0 28 0.00 x x x T izari a 63 87 1 Z' 211 59 11 x X 27,343 0 49 0 02 J.07 8 17 21 53 5 66 Togo 25 37 3/ 650 129 150 x x 8,274 6 81 0 75 0  2 x 65 97 59 qisz 35 5 21-1 7 8 x x x U3 0.03 0 00-- x Uganca 9b 82 120 x 16 217 x Y, x 0 28 0 10 0 51 0 91 1.62 2.73 Zamba 98 281 135 796 93 106 x X 44,498 4 8 1 23 0 07 )< 1 78 02 x Zimbabwe ;7 92 27A 266 139 Sfi x x 2,964 0 45 0 C4 0 01 x x x -X ---I Austria 19 20 18 x x x x x 0.01 0.00 0 Co x x x Be arj,, Rep 49 30 42 x 13 c 15 > x x 0 Co 0 00 0 Co x x C.)3 Belgium 20 6 14 x 817 e 0 x x x 0 0 0 00 0 00 x x x iie-rKeaclvlna 0 0-0 Bu gana 29 25 37 11 2 2 x x x c 17 0 OD 0.00 x x x Croat,3, Rep 8 S7 47 x 3 c is x x x 0 00 c 00 0 00 x x Y, Czech Rep 30 19 18 x 8 c x x x 0.00 0.00 0 00 x x x Denma,k 6 7 9 258 4 a x x x 000 0-00 0 Co x x 0-06 F n ard 37 15 13 13 0 0 x x x 0 00 0 00 c 00 x x 0 02 France 20 16 15 1 254 c x x x x 0 02 0 00 C 00 0 01 0 ol 0 Di Germany 26 is x 88 c x x x x c 01 0 OC 000 x x x 5,eece 16 9 x is 2 1 x x x 0 00 0 00 0.00 x x 5 (1 00 0 20 icclano 5 7 4 155 5 0 x x x 0 Co 0 00 0 00 x x x I,eland 23 18 x 279 16 7 x x x 0 13 0 CO 0 03 y x x Italy 7 7 1 C) 132 9 65 x x I 0 00 0 oc ( 00 x x x Lt,a, Rep 47 34 60 x 0c 0 x x x 0 00 0 0a D.00 x x x Mced3n a, FYR X X 36 x 9c 11 x x 112 D.00 0.00 0 00 x x x Modova, Rep 65 40 66 x 14c 26 x x x x x > x x 5 41 Ne-her ands 9 9 11 0 a I x > 2 0 00 0 Co 0 (O x x 0.06 Nowav 9 7 5 32 2 0 x x x 0 DC C, 00 c OD 32 0.02 2 2 6 0 (10 p Do Port.ga 7( 63 57 x 4 2 x x x c 00 0.00 0.00 x x 0 01 Rcmana 56 70 102 22 20 10 x x x c 56 a 00 0 00 x 0 98 0 52 ussian Federat on 45 34 58 x 14c 4 x x 0 D.00 0.00 ( 10 x x 0 01 Slovak Rep 39 27 0 x 4c 3 x x 0 00 0.00 0 00 x x K Spaii 28 19 22 210 55 22 x x x 0 05 0 00 c 00 0 01 x 0 C? Sweden 8 7 6 4 0 0 x x x c 00 c 00 0.00 0 01 x OM Sw tzer and is 79 i2 x 34 0 x x x 0 02 C Oa 0 00 x x 0 0 3 J'a'ne 47 32 42 x 10z 4 y K x 0.(O 100 0 00 x 0 14 1 (I Un ted Kingdom 12 10 V 185 185 13 x x 3 (.01 0.00 ( cc x 0.01 0 02 26 257 69 4 x x x 0.04 0 00 0 03 x x 260 World Resources 1998-99 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -a t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,Ixx,x Ix1 r U ~~~~~I i ONxxI x ~ "I x xx -' aS -X. - x Vo I 4< 010 0 I S - = 0 ~ 4<0.j: xZ>~5. ~ . x a44'0 r~ xxx 4< .4J~0Z<0~ x - -.SKxsOKx> N04<~ 004X X ~ ~ ~ ~ Z 0 ~ Z 0 00 0 4 4 0 0 =O 4- V 5 Zlx N > N V > ~ Z44N-S N 4< Oi 0 0 0 0 0 I ON.1 -~~~~~~ 0~~~~~ J2~~~~~~~~i II.- ~ ~S~o = .0 Data Table 8.4 Health Care, 1971-96 Sources: United Nations Children's Ftind, the ,-odd Health Organization, and the World Bank Percentage Percentage Contraceptive of Births of Pregnant Prevalence Attended Women ORT ja,dj (percent) by Trained Percentage of 1-Year-Olds (mmunized Aclainst Immunized Use Any Methadl Population per j a) Personnel TS (b) DPT {C) Polio Measles for Tetanus (percent) Modern Method Doctor Nurse 1990-96 la) 1992-95 tal 1992-95 [a) 1992-95 la) 1980 195- 1992-95 [a) 1990-96 1971-96 {a) 1980-83 1990-93 1980-83 1990-93 WORLD x x x x x x x x 57149 3,770 x x x _!F.RICA x x x x x x x x AJgeria 77 93 83 83 x x 52 99 52/49 x 1,062 T Angola x 40 21 23 x 32 14 x x X 23,725 x x Benin 45 91 79 79 x 81 77 60 9/0.5 13,408 x 1,7 55 4,182 Botswana 78 81 78 78 63 68 56 x 33/32 6,906 x 7o3 x Bukina Faso 42 78 47 47 x 55 39 100 33 x Burund 19 77 63 62 x 44 30 9/1 X 17,153 x 4,778 Carneroor 54 54 46 46 x 51 12 x 16/4 X 11,996 x 1,999 Centra! African Rep 46 73 38 37 12 70 so 34 24/4 23,302 25,920 2,193 11,309 Chad is 36 17 16 x x 53 x 1 e X 30,030 x x '16 26 27 18 4 1 5 1 _SO Xl 355 Co,ngc, Rep x 94 79 79 x 39 75 41 x 8,425 3,713 516 1,401 Cbte d'lvo re 45 48 40 40 x 57 22 is 1114 X 11,739 x 3,244 Egypt 46 95 90 9 1 78 39 64 43 47/46 732 1,316 7E2 489 Equatora Guinea x x x X x x x x x 3 S% y 2,286 Er t,ea 2 1 57 45 4b x 29 19 38 5/4 x x x x Ethop a r4 63 5i 48 4 38 22 95 4/3 88,119 x 4,9S 8 x Gaboi so 73 56 57 x x 29 X x 2,305 x 225 x Gambia, The 44 98 90 92 x x 93 x 12/7 x x x x Ghana 44 70 55 55 16 54 64 93 20/10 x x 640 x Goinea 31 86 '3 73 x x 56 3s 1 7 445 Guirisa-B ssau 27 100 100 98 x 53 x I e 7,491 x 1,130 x Kenya 45 92 84 84 x 35 72 76 33/27 8,319 21,970 942 8,675 Lesotho 40 59 58 59 x x 1 2 42 23/19 A 24,095 2,040 Licer a 58 92 62 62 x x 77 94 6/5 9,396 x 1,382 x 99 96 96 65 92 45 49 x 693 957 35D 340 Madagascar 57 77 64 63 x 59 33 85 17/5 9,991 8,385 1,721 3,736 Maawi 55 91 76 80 49 x 77 78 13/7 53,605 x 3,024 x Mai 24 75 46 46 x 49 i9 x 7/5 25,997 X 1,343 x Mauntana 40 93 50 so x x 28 3 1 3/1 X 15,772 X 2,261 Mauribus 97 87 89 89 x X 78 x 75/49 1,817 x 583 x [ViDrocco 40 93 90 90 x 88 37 29 50142 15,493 x 91 5 x Mozarnbique 25 58 46 46 x 71 61 83 4 e 37,948 x 5,759 x Namibia 68 94 76 74 x 57 72 66 29/26 x 4,328 X 317 Niger x 32 is is x 38 57 20 4/2 X 53,986 X 3,765 57 27 27 x x 21 x 6/4 ___ft709 X 8 5 6 X Rwanda 26 96 7 57 X x 88 47 21/13 34,797 x 3,659 x Senegal 46 90 so 80 x 80 39 18 7/5 13,039 18,192 1,931 13,174 Sierra Leone 25 60 43 43 36 x 61 x 4 e 18,973 x 2,07E x Somalia 2 37 28 28 9 x 11 97 1 e 25,334 x 2,80S x South Africa 82 95 73 72 x x 26 x 50/48 A x x Sudan 69 88 76 77 x 77 65 x 817 9,582 x 1,40E x Swaz land x x x x x 94 x x 20/1 7 18,698 9,566 1,04E 628 Tanzan a 53 92 88 86 45 75 7 1 76 201i3 x x x x Togo 54 81 73 71 x 65 43 x 12/3 21,357 11,385 1,657 3,060 Tunisia 69 89 92 92 65 91 49 x 60/51 _ s,642  ,549 1 Ugarda 38 98 79 78 x Y, 76 46 1 5/8 21,832 x 2,049 x Zambia 51 63 72 72 x 78 44 99 15/9 7,327 13,917 765 x Zimbabwe 69 95 80 8c x x 46 63 j8/4' 7,074 7 384 97 594 EUROPE x x x x 72/45 x x x x Albania 99 97 97 98 x 91 x x x 1,075 735 x x Auslr a ico x O 90 x x x X 71/5E 43E 231 170 x BeJarus, Rep 100 93 90 93 x x x x 50/42 283 236 98 89 Beg dr, 10, x 97 94 x X x x 79175 370 274 ios x __osn,a and ezeqov na X X X Y Bulgaria 100 98 100 94 x x x x 76/8 s85 306 188 162 Croatia, Rep x 98 90 90 x x 93 x x x x x K Czech Rep x 96 98 x 96 x x 69/45 x 273 A x Denmark 100 x 89 100 x x x x 78/72 420 360 140 153 Eston;a, Rer) x 99 94 89 74 228 253 89 127 F nland 100 IGO 100 ioc x 98 x 80/78 460 406 93 x France 99 78 89 92 x x x x 77f70 462 x ill x Germany 99 x 45 80 x x x x 75/72 433 x A x Greece 97 30 78 95 x x x x x ;94 x 370 x 100 100 A 73/64 381 306 157 x Ice arid x x x x x x x x x 435 x 87 x Irejand x x x Y, x x x x 60 f 775 x 141 x ita y x x 50 98 x so x x 73/32 750 x 250 x Latvia, Rep x 100 65 70 x 85 x x x 242 278 102 118 97 96 89 x 9 243 235 87 92 Macedoma, FYR x 96 88 91 x x 91 x x x 427 x x Modava, Rep x 98 96 99 x 98 x x x 295 250 100 90 Nether ands 1 DC x 97 97 9 1 x x x 78/76 480 399 168 x No.ay 100 x 92 92 x x XI x 76172 460 308 70 73 ±2La 99 94 95 95 92 x x x 75/26 541 451 227 189 Portuga 9( 94 93 95 54 94 x x 66/33 494 353 x K Romania 100 100 98 94 x 93 x X S/ls 612 538 277 x Russian Federatiori x 96 93 92 x x x x x 235 222 85 90 Slovak Rep x 98 99 98 x 99 x x 74/41 x 287 x 105 x x x x x x x x x Spain 96 x 88 88 )< x x x 59/38 362 261 277 x Sweden 100 x 99 99 x x x x 78/71 410 394 95 x Switzerland 99 x x x x x x 71/65 x 'X 129 x Ukraine ]co 92 94 95 x x x x x 84 227 94 37 United Kingdom 10, x 92 94 x x x x 82/X 612 x 120 x Yuqosava, Fed Rep x 68 92 93 x x x x x 290 232 x x 262 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 8.4 continued HEALTH Percentage Percentage Contraceptive of Births of Pregnant Prevalence Attended Women ORT (a,d) (percent) by Trained Percentage of 1-Year-Oids Immunized Against Immunized Use Any Methrod/ Population per (a) Personnel TB (b) DPT (ci Polio Measles for Tetanus (percent) Modern Method Doctor Nurse 190-6 a) 1992-95 fa) 1992-95 (a) 1992-95 la) 19B0 1995 1992-95 (a) 1990-96 1971-96 (a) 19B0-B3 1990-93 19B0-B3 1990-93 NORTH AMERICA X X X X X X X X 71167 X X X X CEahada 99 93 39 4 7K 7K 7 73/70 960 464 123 Icy L I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- . Costa Rica 93 99 85 86 30 94 90 31 79/65 7K K 7K XI Cuba 90 98 100 93 .48 100 31 7K 70167 721 275 7K 7 Dom[nicar Rep 92 74 83 80 29 35 52 7K 56/52 7K 949 1,209 7K h-alt 21 68 34 34 7K 7 49 31 18,14 9,079 10,855 7K 85945 Hcerd eras 88 99 96 96 05 90 49 32 47/35 3,100 4 7K 7 Jama ca 82 100 92 92 7K 83 82 7K 62/58 2,786 8,420 9 489 Mexico ____ 77 98 92 92 35 90 42 81 03/45 Nic,aragua SI 100 85 96 13 81 49 54 49/4S . Panamna 96 100 33 86 47 84 24 34 84/58 1,010 7K 0 9 So ivia 47 85 85 88 10 83 65 43 45/18 1,911 2,348 7K 7 Braz, 91 100 83 83 56 88 70 3 66/57 1.301 7K 1 140 7K Ch le 38 96 92 32 97 35 7K 43e 7K 942 3 0 Coomba a5 99 93 95 14 83 57 45 72159 x 7K 7 7 Ec,rador' 84 91 72 70 34 73 21 64 57i46 7K 652 7K 1,853 Guyana K X 7K 9 9 77 3 9 31/28 9 8,948 7K 890 Paraguay 66 92 79 79 19 75 86 33 06/41 1,743 1,231 9 11 Peru 52 96 95 33 01 97 21 92 59/33 1,1034 908 7K 9 Surmana,e 9 7K 9 4 9 78 9 7K 0 9 1274 7K 270 Lrug,ra/ 3~ ~ ~~~ ~~~6 ~ 99 ~ 88 86 5s0 8 13 9 3 601 K 7K 9 ASIA 3 x3 21 1 21 It 2 59/58-21x x A/gear stan, Islamic State 9 31 41 58 ]i 7 3 3 2/2 13,237 7,001 8,859 9 Armrer a, ReQ 0 83 83 92 7K 9 9 9 7 275 281 114 10' Arerbajar 9 83 93 98 9 9 9 4 9 284 257 113 106 Banoladesl- 14 94 88 89 9 96 78 86 47/39 8,424 12 884 14,750 11 549 8eutar 15 98 S7 86 71 83 70 85 159a 9 761 4,256 20 2,576 Car,bucia 47 95 79 80 AK 75 38 7K K '6,286 9,374 7K 1,231 Cl- na 84 32 92 94 9 93 11 85 83/80 1,003 1,063 1,705 1,490 Georg a 3 30 58 82 4 3 7K K 9 i99 '82 88 85 erda 34 96 83 98 9 78 79 3' 41/37 3,703 2 4,674 7K Irdonesia 36 86 78 79 9 92 74 39 55/32 3,412 4 7K 3 ran, Islamic Rae 7--7 ~ 99 ~ 97 97 39 96 82 37 65/45 2,949 4 '179 9 rag 54 99 91 91 35 98 72 7K 14/10 1 760 1,859 2 195 1.398 srael 99 9 92 93 88 9 9 11 9 345 7K 107 3 Japan 100 91 85 91 69 9 4 /, 59/53 735 3 210 9 Jordan 67 9 '00 39 29 92 59 41 35/27 887 554 862 548 KCazahstae,Rep 98~ 89 93 94 9XK7 X 59/47 294 284 95 8-1 1 I 12 1993 1 3omne 2,931 73 1994 Is Is X I Is Is Is _____ Pa~~~Trrn -1294 -159 f 1993 Is-X Is Is-Is Is___ Is Is Lodr 063 Is~ ~~~ ~~ ~ Is 29 1995 3 I 21 r995 ~ 3 195 Slorak Rep Bratislava 951 93 1995 x.I Switzerland Gereva 192 29 1995 Is Is Is Is 13 1995 99 1990 G esgow 900 Is Is Is Is Is Is 1995 49 1995 London ~7,60 Is Is 1 4 1992 29 1999 25 1999 77 f 1995 Muonnesrer 243~~4 Is 4 19 '995 Is I 26 1995 09 1995 NORTH AMERICA Montreal 3,320 34 1993 Is Is Is Is 10 1993 42 1993 Ottawa 1,057 Is Is Is Is Is Is Is 40 1993 Tororto 4,3 19 36 ~ 993 Is Is Is Is 17 1993 43 1993 (nicag 9,940 Is Is Is Is 34 1995 14 1995 99 f '995 Dalfas 3,609 Is Is Is Is 30 999 Is X 26 1995 Denver 1,609 X Is Is Is 24 1995 11 1995 95 f 1995 DCetro t 3.723 Is Is I 3 35 1995 17 1995 41 199S Los Angeles 12,410 Is Is Is Is 39 1995 9 1995 73 f 1395 M ami 2,080 s Is Is X 24 1995 Is Is 21 1995 New York 16,332 s Is Is I 29 1995 26 1995 79 -' 19c95 W'ashraritlr, D C. 3,693 A Is Is Is 23 1999 22 1995 43 '9095 264 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 8.5 continued EALH a EALTH Mean city Mean Annual Mean Mean Mean Population Annual Year Black Year Annual Year Annual Year Annual Year 1995 TSP [a} of Smoke {b} of PM-i0 IC) of S02 id) of N02 je} of Citv Name (OOO) fuglm3) Data (uo/m3) Data (uqlm3)- Data -fuctmri Data (ug/m3) Data CENTRAL AMERICA Cuba 1-avna 221 X 1 1K K X1995 5 1995 SCLuT"- ArMPAICA Argent na Coob i 124 97 f -1992 X4 XK xK x K 4 97 19 Mendoza 931 X 1K 51 1995 71 X 3 1995 20 1995 Cu,enca 223 K 1K 99 f 1995 4 4 16 1995 1K 4 EsmeraJdas 157 X 7K 7 1f 1995 3 4 3 1988 4 1K Guayaqu 1,631 ~ 27 f 1995 -55f5 1990 1K -X 15 1990 4 X Chengdu. 4,323 366 g 1995 X K X 4 77 f 1995 74 f 1995 Chongq ng 3,525 327 g 1395 4 3 1K 1 340 g 1995 70 f 1995 Gu,angzhoe 4,056 295 g 1995 1K K 1K 4 57 f 1995 136 g 1995 Harabin 3,303 359 g 1995 4 1K 1K 1 23 1995 30 1995 L,upanshui 3,915 408 g 1995 K 15 4 4 102 g 1993 X 1K Quingdao 3,139 1K 4 1K X 4 1 190 g 1995 64 1995 Shanghai 13,584 246 g 1995 4 5 1K 4 5 3 5 1995 73 f 1995 Shernyang 3,116 374 g 1995 4 in 1K 99 f 1995 73 f 1995 Tianjir 4,415 306 g 1995 4 Xs 11 4 82 f 1995 50 1995 vVu,han 4,247 211 g 1995 AK 1K 1K 40 1995 43 ~995 Zibo 7_7,9 X_53 ~ 95 1 K 1 9 9 9 5 43 1 99 5 ;dia Anmesasad 3,711 299 g 1990i 4 1K 1K 30 1994 21 1994 Bangalore 4,799 123 f i991 1K K 1K 4 23 1991 13 1991 Borrbay 13,1~38 245 g 1994 1K 1 1K 4 33 1994 39 1994 Calcuttla ~ 1,923 375 g 1994 1K K 1K 4 49 1994 34 1994 Deh 9,948 415 g 1994 71 4 1K 1 24 1954 41 1994 Hyderabad 5,477 123 f 1994 1 1K 1K 1 12 1994 17 1994 Jaipur ,489 293 g 1994 X 1K 71 1 9 1994 29 1994 Kanpur 2,22 7 459 g 1994 4 K 4 ix 19 1994 14 1994 Luz1know 2,075 463 g 1994 1K A1 >1 1 29 1994 25 1994 Madras 6,052 131 f 1994 K 1K 1K 1 15 1994 17 1994 Nsagpur 1,951 185 g 1994 1K 4 1K 1 6 1994 ~ 3 1990 Pune2,9 o2C ,, 208,, 199' 7K 1K 4 1 17 1991 1991 Kawasaaki 1,150 52 1994 1K K 4 1K 16 1994 62 f 1994 Osaka 10,909 43 1993 1K 4 44 1994 19 1994 63 f 1994 Tokvo 26,959 49 1993 1K 1 47 1994 19 1995 68 f 1995 Kwarjin 1,424 64 1995 K 1K 1K 1 26 1995 38 1995 PL,55n 4,062 94 K 1994 K 71 1K X 60 f 1995 51 f 1995 Seoul 1,659 84 1995 1K 5 1K 4 44 1995 90 f 1995 Taegu 2,432 72 1995 1 1K K 1K 91 f 1995 62 f ~995 Taejeon 1,265 99 1995 4 1K 4 1 44 1995 39 1999 Esk senI, 585 4 4 59 K 1995 71 X 124 g 1995 7 1995 stanbce 7,911 71 1 66 1995 1K 120 g 1995 1K 1 zm- 2,03l 4 K 915f 1994 4 9 1 71 1K 1 Kocael 453 1K 4 625f 1995 1K 1K 89 f 1995 1K 1 Samsun 384 1K A 27 1995 4 15 46 1995 1K 7 6CEANIA Me bourne 3,294 35 1995 1K 1 19 1995 0 1999 30 1995 Perth 1,220 45 1995 15 4 22 1995 3 1995 19 1995 Sy'dney 3,590 54 1995 1K 1 24 1995 28 1990 1K 4 Crrstch-urch 196 04 1995 1K 1 22 1995 6 1995 17 1995 Notes a rota suspended partiulates lTSP) eltie air in micrograms per cub c meter b Black smoke (parlic es large or dark enough to be seen a, soot or smoke) measu,red in micrograms oer cub c meter. c FParticulate martter ncludes partic en with aerodynamic size less loan or egual to a standard particle with a diameter of 10 micromererSr meas,,red in micrograms per cubic molar. cd Sulfuir dioxise mneasured in micrograms per Ccubic meter a. Nitrogen dioxide measured in mifcrograms per cub c meter f Level exceeds Wor d Hea 1h Organization JWHO) guidelines g Level is more than doub e WHO gs. dea nes World Resources 1998-99 265 Data Table 8.6 Lead in Gasoline and Lead Production, 1986-96 Source: United Nations Departmient for Economic anod Social Information and Policy Analvi, Stati6ti- Dwi-iiowTh World Baok; United States Geological Sur-ey Lead in Gasoline Consumption Gasoline Market Share Maximum Lead Production of Motor Cost per of Leaded Concentration of Mines Gaso line Liter Gasoline Lead irn Gasoline in Concentrates Refineries (000 metric tons) (million Iles (US$) (percent) (grams/liter) (000) metric tons) PriMary Secondary 1995 1996 1992-1996 {al 1992-1996(fa) 1986 1996 1986 1996 1986 1996 WORLD 1,064,280 X X X 3,335 2,920 3,193 2,830 2,359 2.650' A~geria 2,837 7 40 100 0...o 4 1 1 0 8 AngoJa 99 1K 100 0.77 0 0 2 0 0 0 Ben nft 038 100 0.84 0 0 2) 0 0 0 Botswana 1K 0.38 100o 0 44 0 0 2 0 1 c turkina Faso 91 0 81 00o 0.8L 0 0 7 0 C C Beyondi 30~ 052 102 08B4 0 0 0 2) 0 0 Cameroon n78 0858 100 0 84 0 0 0 0 0 Centra, African Rep 22 7482 4 .0 0 0 2 0 0 Chad 9 s80 100 0 84 0 0 .. 0 0 0 Congo, Dem Rep 20. K1 Congo,Rep 72 X 1K 1 1 9 0 0 2 Cdte dilvo re 769 0.83 :00 0 26 0 0 0 0 C C Egypt 2,607 029 XK b 0 80 2 0 0 0 0 Equaotorial Girrea 7 X X 1K 0 0 0 a 0 0 Er trea 1K1 1K 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 Etniopo a72 23 120 0.78 0 0 2 0 0W-- - 0 Gabon 39 X 120 0.80 0 0 4 0 0 0 Gamboa,The 28 A0 1 X 0 2 3 0 2 2 Ghana 455 0 38 102 0863 0 a 0 4 C 0 Gutnen 99 11 1K aK 0 0 2 0 0 Guinea-Brssa. 20(~ >21 K 2 Kenya 458 2 56 120 0 40 1 0 2 0 2 0 LenoItho 1K K >2 0 0 0 ID 0 0 0 -iberia 39 1K too 0 77 0 2 4 0 0 2 Linv 2,162 1K i0009 0 Co 0 0 ____ 0 0 Madagascar 103 0 47 102 0 80 2 0 0 2 0 0 loaiaw, 92 1K 100 2 33 0 0 0 0 0 Mall 82 2 82 100 080 0 0 2 0 0 0 Mauritania 308 0 94 120 0.25 0 0 4 0 0 0 Mactitan ~13 0.53 120 0 40 0 2 0 0 0 2 Mvlzamb que E3 K 102 065 2 0 0 2 0 0 Namiba 1K 1 102 2 40 30 19 40 10 0 0 N ge' 63 2 79 100 0.695 0 2 0 0 0 !Nien L_____ 0199 0173 120 0.69 0 4 2 0 ____1 0 RiwandaO 1K >2 1 0 2 4 0 0 0 Senega 242 0.94 '00 0.60 0 0 '2 0 2 2 Serra Leone 41 1K 1K > 0 2 4 0 0 0 Somalia 1K 1K 1K 3 0 0 2 0 0 So.thnAfrica '4 133 2 48 80 0 42 99 99 0 2 41 36 Sonar 262 25 K1 Swvaz,anc .01 K 1K 0 0) a 0 0 0 Tanzania 149 0.96 2 1K 0 2 0 0 0 2 Togo 86 0.47 XI 1K 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tunisia 42 K10 5 2 3 1 Ugarda 127 00-8 100 084 0 0 2 0 -0 Zambia 149 260 K 1K '5 0 7 0 0 0 A.,s:ra 3 286 1 is 0 00 c 5 0 6 2 19 22 Belaras,Reo 1 74 1K 3 292 2 0 0 0 0 0 Begum 3.846 1 19 26 c15s 0 69 94 34 26 Boana ann lerze avna 0__.4 1K K 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bu gar a 1,551 0 46 99 0'S 95 21 97 00 17 10 Croat a,Rep 767 0.70 70 060 0 C 0 0 2 2 Czech Rep 2 41 3 0 83 45 0 19 0 C 0 8 C 0 Deinmars 2 607 1.19 2 020 2 0 0 2 1 0 Eatania,Reo 61~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~~1 0233 2229 0 0 F nland 2,940 1 20 0 0 02 2 0 0 0I 0 Foante 21,908 1.19 063 0. 19 3 0 132 135 99 '60 Geomary 42 996 1 11 5 0 'S 17 0 8 190 0 190 Greece 39-38 0.93 67 0 40 c 2' 22 i9 0 2 2 luongaryo __ __ 2___ 293 _ _ 0 74 36 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 celand 194 12 501 C 0 0 Ire and 1,402 ' 4 35 2 15 36 40 0 0 10 '0C Itapy 23.295 1 22 56 2 15 '1 14 29 47 102 96 Latv a,Rep 557 C241 1K 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 Ltlhuan,, ~Ra ___822.62 ___ 2 - - 0'S - o 0 2 4 0 -- 0 0 M3acedoiao, F046 282 0.93, > 1K 0 15 0 8 2 2 Moldova, Rep 304 0 102 0 40 2 0 0 2 Netre-lands 1 1250 16 14 2 15 0 0 0 2 33 25 Norevay 3.010 1 34 2 215 3 1 0 2 0 0 tomana 1,484 0 29 94 0 60 34 19 38 20 16 9 'Russ an Federationi 35.231 0.40 50 0 60 0 16 0 15 C 12 S ovak Rep 676 0 66 2 00 co 2 1 0 C 0 0 S_o r___e~ 1.I11 0059 46 2 15 0 0 0 0 0 7 Spain 11.960 0091 77 0.02 80 30 89 75 42 80 Sweden 5.892 1 17 0 0.00 89 '00 40 43 28 35 SwOtzearicn 4 999 1 02 13 0 '9 0 2 8 0 3 6 Ukra ne 5,382 1K 16 0 37 0 0 0 12 0 2 Jantet Kingdom 29.032 0 92 30 0 15 1 2 156 ;69 173 178 Ys,nosluua, Faa Ran 173 ~~~~~~ ~~0 76 K 1K 2 17 0 1 0 0 266 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 8.6 continued HAT Lead in Gasoline Consumption Gasoline Market Share Maximum Lead Production of Motor Cost per of Leaded Concentration of Mines Gasoline Liter Gasoline Lead in Gasoline in Concentrates Refineries (000 metric tons) (million liters) (USS) (percent) (grams/liter) (000 metric tons) Primary Secondary 1995 1996 1992-1996(fa) 1992-19969(a) 1996 1996 1996 _1996 1996 1996 NORTH AMERICA 47,037 X X X X X X "X X X Car ada 35,184 01000 349 241 170 194 69 115 7Eljr,4.AL . AErPiC. 4 f u Beize 35 JO to Jr 0 0 0 0 0 CcstakRca 047 0 41 2020 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 Cu,ba ',293 X 100 0 84 0 0 0 0 Dominica, Rep 311 Jr 69 0 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 Savador 080 047 47 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ocatemax 5 76 30 5 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hant 73 to o to 0 0 0 0 0 0 h-onduras 303 0 40 35 Jr '3 3 0 0 0 0 Jamalca 467 0 27 70 0 77 0 0 0 01 Mexico 35,261 _ _0.09 44 0 26 180 170 182 144 33 1-0 'dicarapia 151 ~~~~~~~~~~0 80 '00 to 0 0 0 0 0 0 Panamna 403 309 7 0 63 0 C 0 0 0 0 SCu TH rME RJ0 rr t A'gerntna 8,407 0984 0 000o 27 10 16 2 IS 26 Bolivia 548 0 60 0 0 00 3 16 0 0 0 0 Brazil 18471 0.65 0 0 00 13 0 33 15 52 3 ChMe 2,814 0 55 72 02~1 2 1 0) 0 0 0 -0ommma 7,533_ 0 34 0 0.00 0 0 0 0 4 4 Guyana 97 JO to t 0 0 0 0 0 0 Paraaguay 326 0 40 99 0 20 0 0 0 0L 0 Peru 4 0 77 76 0 40 194 249 86 90 0 0 Surnarme 99 21 '00 to 0 0 0 0 0 0 Jr,,guay 401 ~~~~~~~~~~~0 93 90. 0 79 0 0 0 0 0 0 Afghan stan, Islam c State 101 Jr A 0 0 0 0 0 0 Armen ar ep 74 to to t 0 0 0 0 0 0 Azenbajan ,216 to 94 0737 0 0 0 0 0 0 Rannladesn '77 0 39 100 090o 0 0 0 0 0 0 China 369593 0 28 00033 227 500 200 430 40 '0 Georgia 69 d to to t 0 0 0 0 0 0 ndla 5,893 0 54 to e 0 42 39 31 20 33 11 27 neones a 7,830 7 10 f 045 0 0 0 0 0 ,san, Islam Oy',4 o1001 2 1 41 Iraq 4,039 to 100 0 60 0 0 0 0 0 01 tsrae 2,706 0S52 90 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 Japan 50,723 1 09 0 0 00 40 8 233 141 129 147 lordan 657 Jr 100 0 30 0 40 0 0 0 0 Korna, Dem Peop e s Rex 2,492 A t t 110 80 95 75 0 Korna, Rep 9,439 0 79 '7 Jr 12 5 32 99 76 10 Kuwait 1>990 015 100 C053 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kpymelep- 293 ----- J 0 0 0 0 0 0 LaoPeople s oem8ep 26 . . 7 100 .. . 040------ 6 0 0------ ' -- - ----- 60-0--0. 6' Lebanon 1,r729 J '00 0 80 0 0 0 0 0 0 Malaysia 5,531 to 45 0 5 0 0 0 0 14 34 Mon6ox 250 A to Jr 0 0 0 0 0 Myanmar ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~282 to to J 18 3 0 0 0 INecal 30 0 52 to J 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oman 952 to 100 0 62 0 0 0 0) 0 0 Pak stan '.459 043 100 0 42 0 0 0 0 1 2 endJ pplnes 2,276 .4 90 0 15 0 0 0 0 7 ' Saud Arania 1 3,247 016a 100 0 40_ 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sinrga-por-e- 1,785 to - -------- 4-0 ----- 019 0 0 0--- 0 0 0 SriLanka 249 0 74 100 0 20 0) 0 0 0 0 0 Syran Arab Rp 1,382 to 100 0 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 jailirtan,Rep 4007 d a J A 1 0 0 0 0 Tqaiiand 5,919 0.31 0 0 15 29 20 0 0 9 ' Turkmrenistan, Rep 676 to to t 0 0 0 0 0 Urictd Arab Emrirates 1,594 to 100 0 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 UzbekeStan rRep 2,209 to Jr t 0 JO 0 0 0 0 Vietnam 1,390 0 34 100 0 40 00 0 0 0 0 Yemen >50t 100 0 45 0 0 0 0 0 0 Aestralma ~~~~~~~1 7,836 0 94 96 0 45 g 448 522 156 204 15 20 F p 61 4 o to 0 0 0 0 a 0) NewmZealand 2,795 0963 59 Jr 0 0 0 0 4 0 Papua New Guenea 109 to to t 0 0 0 0 0 0 So omon sanos 11 XJ x 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vot es a Data are for most recent year vana axlie b Cnleaned casol ne has been icroorcdced recenty c 0.095 in Atoenes d Data are foi 1933 e Onleaded gasoline foes ~argest cites on y.S f ss than 1 % unecaded Pasoal ne, in. Jakarta sniy J 19OSI. g Vas es ny stale World Resources 1998-99 267 Data Table 8.7 Demographic and Health Surveys, 1990-95 Source: Demographic and Health Surveys Percentage of Households Without Maximum Percentage of Children Maximum Year Piped Own Flush Finished Radio or Number of Under S With Number of of DHS Water Toilet Floor Refrigerator Television Households Diarrhea a Cough Households Survev Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Surveyed Urban Rural Urban Rural Surveved AFRICA_ _ Burkina Faso 1992-93 74 99 97 '00 14 83 87 i0 . - - - : - - Cameroonr 1991 83 99 86 99 25 78 75 98 29 55 3,407 17 18 30 27 3,188 Central African Rep 1994-95 96 1i0 98 100 74 37 99 100 39 64 5,387 20 25 65 59 2,577 Cotend naaire '994 49 96 so 99 2 43 79 96 33 95 5,515 25 20 37 33 3,645 Egypt 1992 9 55 54 94 6 60 22 71 8 28 10,628 13 13 30 22 8,089 Gchana _-- 1993 6_R 9E 90 100 2 23 77 99 4 5 _ 6 _537 _ 7 21 21 24 __ Kenya 1993 43 89 77 99 21 8R 88 99 31 52 7,532 12 14 37 43 5,620 Vadagascar 1992 70 99 9- 10i 63 93 92 1oe 34 69 9,961 1' 13 41 37 5,007 Morocco 1992 24 91 22 82 4 54 43 99 6 19 6,364 10 14 30 33 4,848 Namibia 1992 18 87 17 94 12 80 44 95 19 41 3,927 14 24 37 45 3,573 Niger 1992 77 100 97 100 36 97 87 100 3S 72 5,173 20 29 17 23 5,702 Nineria _990 _ _ X C C C C C X 2 20 - 17 20 _ __,069 Rwvanda 1992 92 100 100 100 a3 92 90 100 X X 5,976 21 22 37 46 5,020 Seinegal 1992-93 46 93 86 99 8 67 79 99 19 35 3,362 16 23 26 30 5,108 Tanzania 1991-92 59 98 97 100 47 92 96 100 43 74 8,026 15 13 34 27 7,230 Ugarda 1995 67 100 93 100 33 33 95 100 32 67 7,368 20 24 42 50 5,431 Zambia '992 45 97 57 99 13 84 85 99 39 77 5,872 20 25 X X 5,387 tr-, rE - - - -' - - - - - - - - - -1 16 ' 3' 3--4 Dominrcan Rep 199' 72 92 50 93 3 24 42 82 7 41 6,229 17 19 34 39 3,645 j,uTr,r htAErEiCf Bolivia 1994 22 77 59 98 22 77 58 93 5 30 9,560 31 28 34 30 3.333 Brdzl '991 23 87 28 83 8 39 39 S6 16 37 5s733 17 i3 40 39 3,158 Coomnia 1995 5 88 10 87 6 41 28 71 4 '4 9,417 16 17 43 40 4,891 Paraguay 1990 / X X X X X X X X X X 8 8 X X 3,809 hera __ 1991-92 25 982 42 _97 _ _23 93 __45 99 _ 3S_ 30 _ _'2,314 _ 19 22 0_ 35 _ _ 991 ASIA Bangadesr 1393-9a 74 100 31 98 49 99 X X 47 77 9,939 11 13 40 45 3595 Indonesia 1994 77 98 X X 16 58 79 39 16 40 33.626 12 -2 33 27 15,870 Jordan 1990 X i C C C X C C C X 9 8 16 15 7,955 Kazakstan, Rep 1995 3 68 26 98 69 96 7 29 4 12 4,180 15 16 20 11 779 Pakistan 1990-91 53 95 100 100 X X 66 96 28 70 7,285 15 14 37 32 5,833 Phn'ippines 1993 56 88 37 57 42 66 58 87 X X i2,432 10 10 32 34 8,493 Turkey 993 25 99 16 89 23 58 5 26 3 10 8,271 23 28 25 323,531 268 World Resources 1998-99 HEALTH Sources and Technical Notes Daily per capita calorie srspply as a percentage Of total requtiremenits are calories from all food Nutrition, 1971-96 sources: domestic production, international trade, Mortality, 1975-2020 stock drawv-downs, and foreign aid. The quantity of Sources: Crude death rate and infant mortality rate Sorens:uLoe-infrtheih infancgts, understn chid food available for human consumption, as esti- data: United Nations (U.N.) Populiation Division, dtentig sufeing frmpner weait ght,ri wupvastn ander mated bly the Food and Agriculture Organiization of hb'rld Population Prospects 1950-2050 fTlhe 2996 setanige dfoaily pequrcapita , calori hosupphlyds ao pe- the United Nations (FAD), is the amount that Revision), on diskette (U.N., New York, 1996). suming iodized salt: United Nations Children's reaches the consumer. Per capita supplies bvweight Undier-5 mortality rate, average annual change in Fund (UNICEF), State oft/se Gist/rl's Chyildren 1997 are derived from the total supplies available for ho- under-5 mortality, and maternal mortality rate: (UNICEF, New York, 19971, including information man consumption by dhviding the quantities of United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEFFtState o f from World Health Organization (WHO), Demo- food by the total population actually partaking of the WVorld's Childiren 1997 (UNICEF, New York, graphic and Health Surveys, and Miultiple Indicator the foodc supplies duting the reference period. In al- 1997), including information from the DTiN. Popu- Cluster Surveys. Pregnant women aged 15-49 with most all cases, the population figures used are the lation Division, U.N. Statistical Division, the World anemia: United Nations (U.NT.) Statistical Division, midyear estimates publishedi by the U.N. Popula- Bank, the U.S. Bureau of Census, and the World Department for Economiic and Social Information tion Division. The calories actually consumed may Health Organization (WHO). and Policy Analysis, W4omieni's Indicators anzd Statis- be lower than the figures shown, dependingohw The cr-ude deatlh rate is derived by dividing the tics (Wistat Version 3.0, New York; I11 disks). Total much food is lost during home storage, prepara- nubrodetsiagvnyarythmder goiter rate in children aged 6-11: W5HO, Global tion, and cooking, and on how much is fed to pets population and multiplying by 1,000. The in1fant Prevalenice of Iodinie Deficiency Disor-der-s (WHO, and domestic animals or diiscarded. Estimates of miortality rote is the probability of dying by exact Geneva, 19931. Children under 5 with vitamin A daily caloric requrmnsvr o niila g ,mlile v100 deficiency: WHO, Global Prevalensce of Vitianin A quiremetsovaraforyidividuliagehe multiliedlbi1,000 co untries according to the population's age distri- The nuider-Smraiyrt stepoaiiyo Deficienicy (WHO, Geneva, 1995). bution and estimated level of activity. For further dlying by exact age 5, multiplied by 1,000. UNICEF The percenztage of loiv-birlhiv'eighsr in/bars refers information on FAO data, visit the FAO web site at: poie hschr esr,wihi eie to all babies weighing less than 2 ,50o grams at birth. ht:/v faor.from Child Mortility Since the 1960s: A Database WHO has adopted the standard that healthy babies, Thetper/w ew.fageofp.org. t vtenae 54 'fb Developing Countrties (U.N., New York, 1992) regardless of race, should weigh mnore than 2,500 Teprntgopeiirwnenad1-9 and from infant mortality estimates provided by grams at birth. These data are provided by UNICEF weith anemnia is an indicator of nutritional status, the U.N. Population Division. The mix is the result and WHO, and refer to a single year between 1990 dietary practices, and prenatal care. A woman be- of a move from miodeled estimates to estimates and 1994. comes especially susceptible to iron-deficiency, based on aperiodicallvupdatedchild mnrtalityda- Unider-weight refers to children under S whose wbile pregnant and where mialnutrition is wide- tabase. Nonetheless, this variable should not be weight-for-age is belowv minus 2 standard devia- spread. Anemi~a can be easily treated with iron sup- compared to the UT.N. Population Division's infant tions (for moderate underweight) orbelow minus 3 plements. mortality rate, which is derived from population standard deviations (for severe uniderweight) from The percentrage of- 6 .. -I1 ivitli goiter models where otherwise not available. the median weight-for-age of the reference popula- is the percentage with a visible goiter. Iodine defi- The overage animal( chaimge iniitinder-S mortality tion. i -. current acute malnutrition ciency is at least partially duie to environmental is UNICEF's separate estimate of the average an- and refers to the percentage of children undler S causes and is found in areas with iodine-depleted nual reduction in the rate of children dlying be- whose weiglit-for-heiglittis below miiius2 staridlaid soils due to leachingand floods,in inouiitainous at- tween birth and exact agc S for the range of ycars deviations from the medians of the reference popu- eas, and in high-elevation areas subject to high specified (either 1960-80 or 1980-95). lation, as defined by the U.S. National Center for rainfall. Iodine deficiency is theworld's greatest sin- The isiateriial mnortaility rate is the annual Health Statistics (NCHS). Stuanting, an indicator of gle cause of preventable brain damage and mental number ofdeaths from pregnancy- or childbirthre- chronic undernutrition, refers to the percentage Of retardation. Peiveizrage of houisehmolds conisusnimig io lated causes per 100,000 live births. A maternal children under S5whose height-for-age is below ml- di,ed salt is derived from surveys at she household death is defined by WHO as the death of a woman nus 2 standard deviations from the median of the level conducted by UNICEF, call'ed Multiple Indics- wvhile pregnant or within 42 days of the termination reference population. NCHS, among others, has tot Cluster Surveys of pregnancy from any cause related to or aggra- found that heahthy children in one country differ Th 4l ne hii vatedi by the pregnancy, including abortion. Most little, as agroup, in terms of w,eight and height from official maternal mortality rates are underesti- healthy children in other countries. WHO has ac- ' dfcec'isteprnagofheue-Sou- mted because of underreporting, incorrect classi- lation affected by vitamin A deficiency, including m cepted the NCHS weight-for-age and weight-for- . fication, and unavailable cause of death informs- height standards; howvever, several countries still those affected clinically and subclinically. Vitamin tion. In some countries, over 60 percent of women's use lcal efernce opultion, an thAsiae deficiency is at least partially due tto environ- deaths are registeredi without a specified cause. Ma- provided nsav use several sources, rathier than- solely mental causes and is foundi in areas with water tertial deathisare highest amionig womeli aged ID-Ic or primarily the \VHO database. Children with low shortages andi high, constant temperatures. Vita- years, over 40 years, and in women with five or more weight-for-age are at a high risk of mortality. Data min A deficiency is the most important cause of children. Data are provided to UNICEF by WHO on wvasting and stunting, provided to UNICEF by childhood blindness. Criteria used to define the se- and refer to a single year between 1980 and 1990. WHO, refer to a single year betwveen 1990 and 1996. verity of vitamin A deficiency include prevalence Of Data for a few countries are outside the range of Data for' ,- ........ 750 '000 Urban Population (000) Percentage Urban Urban Rural (percent) 1980 2000 2020 1980 2000 2020 1980-85 2000-05 2020-25 1980-85 2000-05 2020-25 1995 2015 WORLD 1,754,308 2,889 ,855 4346,897 7 1.1 0.4 (0.1) x x AFRICA 129,842 309,651 646,106 27 38 49 4.4 4.0 3.0 2.2 1.6 0.9 x x A geria 8,127 18,727 30,949 AB 59 70 4.9 3 2 1 8  6 05 (O 1) 1 3 1 5 Ang0ja 1,467 4,371 10,697 21 34 47 5 6 4 9 3 8 1 8 20 1 2 1 9 25 Benin 946 2,63C 6,109 27 42 56 5 4 4 6 3 3 2 1 5 1 0 c 0 Botswana 1 37 1,191 2,142 1 5 74 89 13 7 4.2 1.6 a 9 (5 5) 0 2 0 0 13 urkina Fa5o 8 18 31 8 6 5.6 4 4 2.0 21 15 8 14 Burund 179 62 5 1,875 4 9 17 6 5 5 9 4 7 2.6 21 1.4 0 0 Cameroon 2,71 9 7,401 15,671 31 49 62 5 4 4 2 3.i 15 12 0 9 18 24 Centra Afr can Rep 811 1,499 2,897 35 41 53 3 0 3 3 2.9 19 1.3 0 5 0 Chad 843 1 729 3,909 19 24 3,1 3 4 4 0 3 9 20 1.9 1 c 13 is 670 39,648 29 30 43 2 7 4 5 4 1 3 4 2.3 1.4 1 1 14 685 "865 3r671 41 63 72 58 3 7 29 05 1 0 1 1 39 46 C 2,849 7,046 3,3 51 3 5 47 5 9 53 3 6 2 2 2 9 11 0 0 2 0 2 5 Egypt 19,178 31,297 51,098 44 46 5 6 2.6 2 6 2 1 26 1a (O 2) 2 3 2 6 Equator al Guinea 5 9 218 461 2 7 48 6 4 8 9 4 5 2 8 6 6 0 3 0 7 a 0 Eritrea 322 714 1,738 9 2 2 19 0 9 0 0 Ethiopa 3,812 11,679 34,429 1 0 1 8 2 4 6 5.7 4 7 2 2 25 1 7 4 Gabon 235 682 '319 34 5 5 6 S 5 8 4.C 2 5 1.4 C 4 0.5 0 0 Gamb a, The 126 404 838 20 32 46 5 8 4 1 3 0 23 10 0.4 0 c Ghana 3,368 7,644 1 E,742 3 1 38 51 4 2 1 2 3.2 3.1 1.7 0 7 'O 12 Giinea 19 33 46 5 3 4 9 3.7 14 18 11 21 30 Guinea-S,ssau 35 280 613 17 24 35 3 6 3 9 3 6 15 1.4 0 8 0 a Kenya 2,673 1 0, D43 22,468 16 33 48 7 7 5 0 2 6 27 12 01 7 IC) Leso' 'ho 183 641 1,544 13 28 42 6.8 5 1 3 4 20 13 0 8 0 0 Loer a 656 1,560 3,457 35 48 60 5.5 4 5 3 4 8 21 1 45 5 1 9 597 1 0 41 0 69 88 4 1 0 8 1 1 46 46 Madagascar 1,660 5,133 13,088 1 8 30 43 5 8 5 1 3 8 26 21 1 1 6 8 Malaw 565 1,686 4,657 9 1 5 26 5 8 5.2 4 5 2 9 20 1 4 0 0 Mal 1,267 3,773 9,462 8 30 43 5 4 5.1) 3 8 2.2 19 1.2 9 1 2 Maumania 424 1,499 2,865 27 58 7 1 7 5 4 1 2 4 0.4 (C.1) 0.5 0 Maur!tiu5 42 4 1 52 0 5 1 8 19 1 4 -5 (0.5) 0 0 Morocco 7,969 6,03 5 25,188 4  55 67 3 9 2 7 1.8 1 0 0.0 (O 3) 1 7 1 9 Mozarnbique 1,586 7,869 1 7,344 1 3 40 55 10 1 4 8 3 2 0 8 0 7 0 9 1 3 1 9 Namtha 235 708 1,528 23 41 56 57 4 5 2 9 17 0 7 0 6 0 C) Niger 704 2,222 6,362 1 3 21 32 5.S 56 45 3( 2 5 1 6 0 0 -a2ftn-a- 4,888 27 44 58 5 5 4 6 3 0 18 1 2 0 8 1 1 4 Rwanda 243 472 1 0 4 4 4 5 4 8 31 22 1 3 0 0 Senega 1,988 4,463 9,090 36 47 59 3 9 4 0 28 2 2 13 0.6 21 25 Sierra Leone 779 1,783 3,719 2A 37 50 4 3 4O 31 13 iI C6 0 0 Soma a 1,492 3,1 70 8,193 22 27 39 41 48 41 29 25 1 4 1 1 14 Swaziland 100 351 777 18 36 50 7 0 4 9 2 8 20 12 0 4 0 0 Tanzan,a 2,741 9,376 23,354 15 28 42 6 7 5 2 3 7 25 1.7 1 0 9 14 Togo 599 1 556 3,589 23 33 46 5 9 4 3 3 6 2 0 1.8 1 a 0 a Tunisia 3,323 15 2 5 1 6 O 3)  (O 1) l 9 1 Uganda 1,1 54 3,180 9,333 9 14 23 5 5 4 8 21 25 1 7 5 7 Zambia 2,285 4,067 8,019 40 45 55 2 S 3 3 2 9 8 18 0 6 16 22 Zimbaovve 1,587 4,387 8,928 5 25 10 0 0) 1 3 i 9 EUROPE 480,186 54 162 570,353 69 75 80 0.8 0.3 0.1 (0.6) (1.2) (1.6) x x A ban a 90 1,367 2,096 34 39 51 2 6 1.9 2 0 1 8 0 1) (a 5) 0 0 Austria 4,90 5,361 5,925 65 65 71 (O 0) 0.6 0 3 0. (C 2) l 6) 26 25 BeiarU5, Rep 5,456 7,654 8,004 56 74 82 2 5 0 5 (D 0) (1.9) (2 4) (1.7)  7 1 9 Belgiurn 9,402 9,985 10,109 95 97 98 0 1 0 2 0 0) (2.7) (2 1) (1.3) 1 1 1 1 ,872 2,352 36 43 54 2 2 1 2 0 (1 5) 0 0 Bu garia S,420 5,820 5,867 6 1 70 77 1 3 o 0 i (i 6) (1 7) (i 8) 1 4 1 5 Croatia, Rep 2,- 91 2,589 2,871 50 58 67 1.3 0 6 0 4 (O 5) (1.2) (1 7) 22 26 Czech Rep 6,542 6,755 7,127 64 66 73 0.3 0 2 0 1 (O 4) (O 9) (1 8) 12 12 Denma,k 4,289 4,522 4,711 84 86 89 0.1 0 3 0 2 (O 8) (D 8) 13) 25 25 -8 i" so 0 9 0 3) (O 2) (O 1) (1 8) ( 9) 0 0 Finland 2,859 3,366 3,850 60 65 73 0 5 0 7 OT o 5 (I 0) 1 4) 71- 24 France 39,497 44,630 48,740 73 76 81 0 6 0.5 0.3 0.2 (O 8) (1 3) 22 22 Germany 64,696 72,386 73,807 83 88 91 0 2 0.2 0 0) (I 8) (I 5) (1.4) 44 45 Greece 5,56-1 6,368 6,908 58 60 67 0 3 0.5 0 3 0.3 G 6) (1 7) 39 41 Hunaary 6,08; 0 7 0 1 (o 1) (1.5) (2 0) _g) 20 22 Iceland 201 260 308 88 92 94 1 1 0 0.6 (I 1) (O 8) (0.7) 0 0 Ireland 1,882 2,C92 2,475 55 59 66 1 2 0.7 0.6 0.4 05) (I IT" 26 26 Italy 37,608 38,31 7 38,681 67 67 73 C 2 0 1 (0. 1) 0 0 (O 7) (i 9) 23 24 Latvia, Rep 1,726 1,781 1,732 68 74 80 1 0 (0.4) (0.2) (O 5) (2. 18) 36 42 Litnuania, Rep 2,092 L755 2_901 61 75 81 0 0 3 a Macedoma, FYR 960 ,385 1,765 53 62 71 2.2 3 0.9 0 4 (O 6) 013) 0 Moldova, Rep 1,601 2,460 3,178 40 55 66 2.9 1 A 1 0 (O 3) (I 3) (1 1) 17 21 Netherlands 12r503 14,18 14,808 88 89 92 0 5 0 4 01 0 3 (0.6) (1 3) 14 14 Nomay 2,882 3,269 3r672 71 74 79 0 6 0 6 0 5 0.3) (O 7) ! 2) 0 0 58 66 73 1 5 a 7 0 5 (0.0) (I 0) (1 3) 22 23 2,876 1 0 (0.3) (r 0) Portugal 3,719 4,752 29 38 50 6 1 3 (I 5) 19 24 Romana 10,897 13,100 14,508 49 58 6H 14 0.6 0 3 c 5) 14 (I 7) 9 10 Russ an Federation 96,717 13,567 112,020 70 78 83 13 0.1 (O 2) (0.8) 18) l 8) 21 22 Slwak Rep 2,57C 3,283 3,846 S2 61 70 6 0,9 0-5 (OA (I 1 ) (1.4) 0 0 880 1 1 2 0 4 0.3 (o. i  (c 9 (1.9) 0 0 Spain 27,326 30 895 31,587 73 78 83 1) (O 6) (I 1) (I 8) 19 20 Sweden 6,905 7,414 8,084 83 83 86 c 1 0 3 0 5 0.1 (0.3) (1.1) 26 26 Switzerland 3,602 4,638 5,370 57 63 70 1 1 1 0 0 4 0 0 (0.5) (I 5) 0 0 Ukraine 30,870 36,838 37,364 62 73 79 13 0 2 (O 1) (I 3) (I 9) (I 8) 19 21 United K ngdom 50,017 52,198 54,163 89 89 91 0.1 0 2 0 2 (O 1) (O 6) (I 2) 27 26 Y,qosla,,a, Fed Rep 4,409 6,286 7,461 46 60 70 2 1 1 0 0 6 O 7) (1 5) 1 3) 12 12 274 World Resources 1998-99 4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N ON -~~~~. CflrJ tf N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r fl~~~~~~~~- - >1- - i OCeo~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I I I I Li~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C flW J I- 4 _ -comoonaa4o :0h-0-1toio ' o 000- -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6 ~~-ar-----.-o0o~iuu -. - -C - ;Lc OKOC() Data Table 9.2 Urban Characteristics, City Level, 1993 Source; United Nations Centre for Human Settlements and United Nations Population Divis,on Socioeconomic Indicators, 1993 Average Urban Percent Ann ual Residential Gross City Percent of of Female- Growth Rate (al Density Product Informal Percent of Female- Headed Population (000) (percent) (persons/ha) Per Capita Employment Poor Headed Households City Name 1950 (a) 1995 (a) 2015 fb) 1970-75 1990-95 1993 (1993 US$) (percent) Households Households thtat Are Popr WORLD AFRICA Angola Luanda 138 2,081 4,969 7.5 5 2 14 1 36 3S6 ~ 17 _ 41 teninr PortodNovo X 183 1 14 14 1 491 92 32 32 14 Botswana Gaborone 14 473 r 1< 14 14 594 a 45 55 9 40 BujroIna Faso Ouagadougou 30 824 2,546 6 9 65 71 323 60 t 1 12 X Bu rundl YLmLa3 28a 1 X4 X4 2 16 t 42 19 1 Cameroon Ocuala 131 1,320 2,894 5.3 5.5 l2 ,694 66 31 19 49 Yaounde 53 1.tt9 2,533 6 8 6 2 14 1,167 57 27 25 25 Ceertra. African Rep Bango 14 471 c 14 4 14 4 14 83 40 22 27 Congo, Demn Rep Kinshasa 173 4,241 9,433 4.7 4 2 208 14 80 70 14 80 Congo, Rep Brazzavil e 218 t,004 2,064 2.8 48 14 328 d 53 48 34 14 Cote a Ivore Abidjan 59 2,793 5,259 11.3 49 424 863 85 37 14 X Egypt Cairo 2 410 9,690 14,418 2.6 2 3 14 14 43 14 1 Erhiop a Add sAbaba 392 2.43t1 6,578 4.8 4 8 314 14 61 4 14 14 Gabort Libreapl;e 14 362 a 14 X 14 14 58 14 23 14 Gamba, The tanjol 14~~~~~~~ ~ ~ 479 a 4 14 1 129 389 67 17 19 14 GI-ara Accra 253 1.673 3,469 3.3 3.5 65 14 70 25 42 14 Guinea Conakry 39 1,558 3,527 80 6 6 164 487 73 41 7 85 Kenya Na rob: 87 1,812 4,228 4 9 51 93 744 d 52 27 16 25 Lesotho Maser,u 4 '12e 14 14 14 1 31 49 23 59 Malawi Lilongvve 14 220rc 14 14 14 1 51 66 14 1 Mal I amako 52 919 2,249 7 2 404 14 357 36 36 16 14 Mauritan a Ntouaacnro 3 576 XI 14 14 132 451 41 25 55 14 Nsamibia vWinohoek 1 142 a 14 14 1 37 5,735 d 30 29 14 Niger N amey 14 500 1 14 14 45 525 5i 42 11 93 Niger a Ihadan 427 1,484 2,968 2 6 28 31 14 77 62 19 14 Laqos 288 10,287 24,643 9.8 57 194 14 69 66 17 67 Rwanda K gal 14 275a 14 4 9 8 75 50 14 1 Senega Dakar 223 t .708 3,489 530 40 14 1,302 47 1s 23 14 Sudan Knnr.oum 192 2 249 4,867 62C 4 2 67 56 15 70 17 24 Tanzania Dar es Saloaam 5 2.323 e 14 14 1 191 4 14 20 17 14 Toga_ Lome 14 802 c 14 4 14 14 27 12 14 1 Tunsa Tunis 472 1.722 2,533 32 1 9 90 >,750 28 6 14 12 Uiganda Kampala 53 954 2,548 3 2 4 7 14 433 46 77 27 36 2ambia Lusaka 2 6 1,317 2,923 6.3 630 14 14 17 2 89 Z nbabwe Harare 84 1,413 3:164 5.5 63 14 2,373 d 17 14 14 EUROPE _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ A banla Tirana 14 310r 1 4 14 198 14 4 14 14 1 Be arus, Rop M nsk 323 1,784 1.603 3.7 1 6 4 14 4 14 14 1 Bulgarn aSof a 547 1.198 1 188 17 2I0) 163 1,364 12 14 27 14 Croatia, Rep Zagreb 334 98r 1,148 1 5 2.9 14 4,195 20 6 9 2 Czech ~Re Pronge 1.032 1,2 20 0 9 3.2 111 4,155 14 3 24 14 DenmarK Copenhagen 1,212 1,326 1,326 3 0 (0 3) 14 34,333 X4 X435 Bsrcnia, Rep Tallnn 14 488 c 4 14 5 73 2,429 X 7 31 14 France -,yon 572 1,319 1,403 1 3 0 8 14 14 14 29 14 Varse In 4 503 c 14 14 1 98 21,179 13 15 28 24 Parts 3,441 9,523 964 39 0 4 139 35,363 14 1 29 14 Germany Esser 5,256 6,482 6,996 (3.4) 34 4 14 14 14 14 Le pzig 14 481rc 1 4 14 14 14 14 36 14 GSreece A:hens 1.753 3.393 3,118 1 7 3 2 95 6,327 14 1 23 14 HuongarV Buapnest .8618 2,317 2,01 7 08 3 .0 123 4,750 14 37 14 5 1 tap Milan ~~~~~~ ~~~~~ ~~3,833 4,25' 4,251 00 (11.6) 14 14 14 14 14 Latvoa,Rep Riga 490 921 921 ~ 6 030 1 1 14 23 25 14 Lr1huania, Rep VInus 14 673 c 4 14 4 14 7734 d1 15 4 14 Moldova, Rep Coisona 14 662 c 4 14 6 105 233 d 16 92 14 2 Nletherlands Amsterdam 855 1,108 1,171 I 0 1 a 152 28,251 2 14 39 29 Poland, SeaoVrao .1 ,1 ,0 . 05 ill 3,821 5 17 13 Romania Bucharest 1,111 2,100 2,192 23 34 271 3,853 6 41 Russian Federar on Moscows 3,356 9.269 9,299 1 4 3 5 14 5,100 16 IS 29 63 Njzhny Nogcgrod 796 1.461 1.461 15 3 2 14 2.164 17 24 26 64 annva Rep Bratislava 14 651 a 4 5 14 71 4,350 14 X 14 1 Jk,arane Donet5k 365 1,153 1.162 7 0 5 4 14 14 14 3< Lonted Kingdom Card) ff 336 c 14 14 1 54 23,283 4 14 31 14 Lordlon 8,733 7,640 7,640 11 0) iO 2) 14 3 3 14 3 Yugoslav,a, Fen Rep Be grade 432 1,204 1,303 2 1 0 7 96 6,791 14 2 14 1 NORTH AMERICA Unit60 Srates Atanta 513 2.462 3,341 32 2 5 9 26,44.4 14 25 3 45 Los Angeles 4,346 12,410 14,21 7 1 3 1 6 X 14 4 14 14 1 Seatlte 627 >,937 2,391 1 2 20 19 29,633 14 7 2 24 Cuba Havana 1,147 2,22 1 2,422 39 1 21 14 4 14 14 1 ESanvador San Sn vaoc, :62 1,214 2,055 4 1 3 2 24 2,249 39 40 7 14 Guntema a Guatemala 313t 426 2,205 4,467 1.6 5 5 147 4,833 XI so 24 73 276 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 9.2 continued URBAN DATA Socioeconomic Indicators, 1993 Average Urban Percent Ann ual Residenti al Gross City Percent of of Female- Growth Rate (a) Density Product informal Percent of Female- Hieaded Population (990) (percent) (persons/ha) Per Capita Employment Puor Headed Households City Name 1950 (a) 1995 (a) 2015 (b) 1970-75 1990-95 199 (1993 USS) (percent) HHouseholdsHHouseholdsttaatAArePPoo SOUTH AMERICA Argent na Burenos Aires 0,042 11,802 130,856 1 7 1 2 X 21 X 21 2 X Bo va E Ano 2 726 c 21 1< 2 173 896 17 87 26 86 LaPaz 265 1,2 50 2.125 33 36 X 1.384 1 7 62 26 6 1 Brazil Brasilia 36 1,778 2,440 8 0 2.8 29 3,366 36 i9 1 2 1 Rio de Janeiro 2,864 10,161 11,'860 22 1.0 106 5,660 34 1 9 26 22 Sao Paulo 2,423 16,530 20,320 4 4 1.8 21 x X 21 1 2 Chile Santiago 1.332 4,661 6,066 2 7 1.7 X 4.150 20 22 26 20 Quto 206 .2986 2,101 46 30 282 21 34 25 21 Guyana Georgetown 21 160 c 21 X 2 214 21 ~ 4 41 46 44 Paragu.ay Asuncion 223 1,081 1,656 40 3 1 1 56 2,545 41 34 28 24 _________ ~~~~~~Valencia 108 1462 2,546 57 5 12 33 21 4 Armenia, Rep Yerevan 371 1,278 1,478 3.2 i1 2 2 17 27 51 21 5 Azerbaijan Baku, 783 1,848 2,335 2.3 211 68 283d a 2 2 29 08 Bangladesh Chittagong 629 2,477 4,857 2.5 4 0 61 218 21 51 7 51 Dhaka 420 8,546 19,486 7.6 6 4 2 219 51 54 7 21 Chengd,i 725 4,323 7,840 2 5 4 3 X 465 21 X 11 2 Foshan 21 385 c 21 21 X 2 1,717d 3 1 16 21 H-e fe, 256 1,319 2,323 36 36 21 2,564 d 2 21 21 2 2,091 5,118 7.71 5 11 19 21 X 0 21 21 2,374 9,415 13.530 3 3 14 X 1 X 21 X 0 VVuhan 1,228 4,247 6,509 '3 21 21 2 51 2 21x led a Bangalore 764 4,799 8,005 54 3.5 246 264 32 12 17 21 Bombay 2.901 15,138 26,2 18 33 4.2 603 275 68 17 1 7 Calcutta 4,446 11,923 17.305 26 1.8 X 51 1 21 21 2 Lucknow 488 2,078 3,959 2 2 5 1 375 165 48 22 6 21 Madras 1,397 6,002 9,173 3 5 23 296 204 61 19 13 X Tuminur X 194 c 21 1 21 196 97 63 25 15 21 Varanasi 348 1.102 ~~~~~~ ~~1,846 2 7 26 242 167 49 28 6 23 edneesia ~~~~~~Bandung 511 2,866 5,089 33 3 3 2 739 32 11 ~ 8 6 Jakarta 1,452 8,621 13.923 4.1 24 X 2,643da 33 9 7 6 Meoan 284 1,699 2,746 4,4 2 0 189 925 41 9 21 4 Semarang 371 795 1,121 3.4 ( 121 165 576 35 7 17 6 Scraoaia ~~~~679 2,253 3.5 0 18 26 1,065 35 5 19 3 ran. Islamic Rep Mashhad 173 2,016 3,656 6 0 36E 51 3 X 5 7 X Tehran 3,290 6,630 10,211 5 2 1 5 1 21 21 2 7 5 Israel Tel Avsv 418 1,976 2,580 3 2 2 0 21 3 X 21 21 Japan Osaka 4,147 10,609 10,609 1 0 0 2 21 21 4 11 21 l4azakstnae Rep Almaty 21 1,1 73 c 21 21 2 120 665d4 12 37 9 74 Korea. Rep Seoul 1,021 11,609 12.930 5 0 19 8 21 2 21 21 Kyrgyz Rep Rishkek 21 703 c 5 21 21 85 810 32 21 21 Nepal Bharatpur 21 63 e 21 21 161 21 90 21 51 Kathmanodu 21 472 e 21 21 2 13 21 1 21 104 Pak stan Karach 1.028 9,733 19,327 4 9 4i1 21 4 X 21 0 Metro Manila 1,544 6,286 14.657 6 9 3 1 148 2 134 20 1 3 1 9 Sr .anka Colombo 21 2,190 c 21 21 868 1,036 19 14 51 40 Thailand Bangkok 1,360 6,547 9.644 42 2 1 21 21 21 0 21 Vietnamn Hane. 280 1,236 1,762 22 2 0 21 695d o 51 39 21 Yemen Sana 21 886 e 21 15 96 247d 65 2 4 21 OCEANIA Austral a Melbourne 1,331 3,094 3,506 1 9 0 6 67 1 21 21 6 2 Oil Suva 21 141 e 21 21 21 A 2.960 51 25 1 21 New Zea and Auckland 319 945 1,194 2.8 15 4 1 5,884 21 2 40 21 Nones a. United Nat en-s estimates of poulsat on of Lrbna agg onmerarnion 5. Unired Nan en-s projections c. 1 993 data from Un red Nations Centre for Human Sent emnents (Habilarl 4. According to Hahitat, reported gross crty produrct seems either too sigheor noo ow to he anccrate 14 ffers from countrry GNP 0y/60 percent o, more) e 1 993 data from H-ahitat, also refers no popular on of menroportan, area. World Resources 1998-99 277 Data Table 9.3 The Urban Environment, City Level, 1993 Source: United Nations Centre for Human Settlements Transportation Per Per capita Households Percentage Crowding Capita Waste- Solid with of Work Murders (floor atea/ Percentage of Urban Water water Waste Garbage Cats per Trips per person) Households Connected to Use Treated Generation Collection i,0011 by Public 100,000 City Name (inl) Water Sewerage Electricity (I/day) (percent) (kg/day) (percent) Population Transport Population WORLD _APRICA _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Angoua Landa ts 4 13 10 50 0 x 50 16 3 31 Benin Porto Novo S t6 t 43 22 31 0.5 25 60 0 31 Botswana Gaboronee 13 40 33 24 t25 95 31 98 33 42 Bjrluma Faso ouagadouaoo 12 32 0 35 26 0 0 7 40 37 31 X Snund, Ss~~~~~~~ombita S ~~~~~ 35 29 33 79 4 14 41 it 31 5 Cameroon Dona a 13 19 3 42 33 5 0 7 60 29 11 2 Yaoncoe 13 22 3 47 61 20 098 44 17 6 8 Central African Rep Bangui 11 13 1 12 30 0 31 25 3 7 7 Congo, Dern Rep Kinshasa 3 50 3 tiC 45 3 1 2 0 25 61 31 Congo, Rep Btazzac, e 14 63 C 45 50 0 0 6 72 16 22 Cate d'lsoire Ab dan 7 62 45 64 11l 56 0 70 36 493 Egypt Cairo 12 69 91 99 X 98 3 5 65 59 56 1 Ethoipia Add s.Ababa 31 59 0 96 27 1 31 2 21 31 213O Gaton L:brevdIe 12 40 3 66 100 0 X 40 34 38 5 G_am bia TLhe ____anu 12 _ 46 1 6 3 33 06 Ghana Accra 6 46 12 17 4 0 04 60 X 47 X Guinea Conakrry 2 49 17 51 90 3 3 7 53 24 26 31 Kenva Na rob : 76 33 40 116 93 4 47 134 68 6 Lesoth.o Maseru X 30 5 3 1 C 31 7 19 31 3 Lnteeu Vonnrsa 14 1 1 22 23 0 , 31 6 75 X Madagascar Anla-nana`roo 6 7 - 31T i 17 60 40 a 03 0 127 30 16 Masa., L, ongwe 7 17 :2 in 139 30 31 3 11 5 X Mai Bareaks 3 26 2 30 93 0 31 95 70 12 4 Mauntan a Nouakchott 10 16 4 22 39 10 3.9 15 61 45 7 Nannibia nVdhoek 90 25 64 133 99 0.7 93 4 9 : N ger N amey 8 30 0 42 75 0 1 0 25 40 17 7 Nigeria lbadon 9 68 0 73 63 31 1 1 40 4 43 1 _ _La.gas 0 63 2 103 73 2 03 0 4 54 2 Rwsnos ~~~~~Kga 31 36 31 37 133 20 0 6 31 27 32 X Senegal Dakar 0 41 25 64 69 4 0 7 75 36 53 4 Sudan Knarr onm 22 52 3 45 50 43 31 12 40 63 6 Ta,zaona Dar es Salaam 5 22 9 37 s0 2 1 3 25 20 48 tO Lorne 1~ ~ ~~~~2 43 0O 20 39 31 97 X30 13 Tunisia Tues 12 32 73 94 70 82 0 5 6 1 38 1 St Utganda Kampala 4 30 9 42 29 27 60 20 53 45 26 Zamba Lusaka 7 36 36 27 175 36 4 C 31 65 31 Bela-cs, Rep Mnsk ~ 7 31 31 3 471 07 3 0 100 98 31 5 Eusga,a Sofia 17 99 98 100 339 71 31 95 310 75 3 Croatia,Rep Z59g0b 22 860 80 100 116 4 2 2 100 215 52 3 ConeSLp . 5 .. Pr_aue 26 10 94 1 00 108 ~ 89 - 015 - 100 900 6OC - 7 4 Denmark Copennagen 44 100 100 100 220 100 1 4 00 223 27 10 Estonia, Rep Tallinn 2 ~ 99 95 100 403 95 1 ~ 99 233 4 23 France Lyon 31 '00 90 too 275 tOO 1i 100 542 31 4 Malrse:ile 31 99 99 100 315 100 1.3 99 1 31 4 Pr s 30 00O 98 100 212 45 1.3 100 426 40 6 Germany ~~~~Esser 31 1 21 1 X 31 4 31 3 4 Leopoip 33 100 95 130 66 80 1 2 100 396 33 2 Greece Athens 26 100 95 100 130 90 1 1 90 354 34 3 Hungary Budapest 29 98 90 100 222 92 0 5 100 266 66 9 Lansv a,ep "s19 09 97 100 270 96 4 85 104 57 33 LO bja nia Rep .-.10 95 94 100 220 so 05 95 215 49 14 Moldo,a, Rep Ch,sinau 15 93 06 too 527 100 4 93 60 48 15 Ndel,er ands Amsterdam 38 10`0 100 100 139 90 1 1 100 351 4 7 Rissian Federation Moscows 20 100 100 100 555 130 008 100 136 85 30 Nizhor' Novgorod 17 96 95 100 329 65 2 7 100 09 78 30 Slovak Rep Bratislava 22 99 96 00o 265 98 008 100 282 72 3 _Slo0ena Ret . . . r.a.3..100ub90a99 160 00 16 00 416 4 5 Sweden Stockho m 40 100 00o 100 228 90 1 2 100 390 37 Lkra ne Donersk 4 100 75 100 106 76 31 3 76 31 14 Unted Kinodom Cardiff' 100 100 100 420 X 3 8 100 350 13 London 31 4 31 4 4 5 0 31 4 Yu9oslav a, Fot Rep Belgrade r9 99 71 97 It 12 4 96 30 64 It NOR-TH AMERICA -- Un ted Slates Atlanta II 130 90 4 358 100 31 3 473 20 12 LosAngeles t X 4 4 31 1 4 3 31 4 K Seattle ri 10 100 4o 207 100 31 3 634 16 5 New York 31 100 99 1( 466 103 17 31 232 51 23 CIENT-RAL AMERICA Cuba Hsavas 16 05 05 95 103 100 1.6 100 32 50 El Salvador San SaJvador 7 80 00 90 196 2 3.9 46 113 4 12 Guatemata Guatemala cit/ 0 52 31 3 240 3 4 53 109 53 33 278 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 9.3 continued URBAN DATA Transportation P.r Per capita Households Percentage Crowding Capita Waste- Solid with of Work Murders (floor area/ Percentage of Urban Water water Waste Garbage Cars per Trips per person) Households Connected to Use Treated Generation Collection i.gttt by Public igt.gltt Bo vi El Alto x 33 20 33 L3 0 0 4 95 1 8 La Paz 8 85 58 94 73 0 085 92 71 51 6 Brazl Brasi a 17 80 74 98 213 54 0 5 95 301 X 20 ocde Jane.-o 19 95 87 100 299 23 1.1 89 177 87 75 Sao Pau o 8 8 8 8 7 8 8 0 8 8 8 cqle Santiago 14 83 92 94 286 2 X 95 90 04 3 Quinn ~ ~ ~~~ ~~9 94 93 100 8 5 7 8 89 82 8 4 Guyana Georger,own 11 64 77 85 427 23 8 26 24 8 X Paraguay Asuncion 8 98 10 59 236 4 0 8 78 87 31 is Peru. _Lima 26 70 ~ 69 26 21 8 0 57 Venezueea Caracas 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 Azerbajan Bakus 13 95 79 100 248 61 1 5 8 46 80 10 Banglaclesh Cn ttagcrg 5 86 83 70 115 82 X 50 a 8 8 Dhana 3 80 44 74 118 85 01 88 7 X 3 Cuengou 13 99 37 100 273 37 0.9 0 39 X 8 'oshan 16 100 100 100 is 8 15 0 8 8 8 Hefei 1' ~ 00 57 100 22' 07 05 0 69 a 8 Indca' Banga ore 9 47 35 82 93 88 04 06 130 46 4 Bombay 3 55 81 90 127 0 05 890 5 ~ 79 14 Calcutla 0 8 0X 8 8 3 8 8 0 8 Lcsrsca 8 33 30 76 158 0 0.8 74 130 1 - M/adras 6 34 37 82 70 7 08 9O 102 42 2 uimkur 7 31 0 87 75 a 0 4 87 65 71 2 alkarta 15 15 0 59 188 16 26 84 69 38 1 Msedan '4 51 19 93 166 16 0 3 10 39 44 2 Semarang 12 43 0 95 162 IS 20 89 37 '4 1 Tehran 23 99 X 107 8 8 8 103 68 36 22 Israel Te Aviv 28 8 75 X 8 8 8 8 200 40 2 Jaoan Osaksa 8 8 a 0 8 8, 8 X 8 Kazakstan, Rep A maly 15 83 88 100 372 79 8 83 106 43 20 Korea, ep Seou 8 8 8 8 5 8 X 8 8 8 8 Ky-gyz Rep Brshknk 8 92 65 100 161 '00 1.4 89 25 17 Nepal, Bharatpur 8 10 8 45 120 0 01 70 8 10 5 Kathmandu 8 71 25 83 90 0 05 57, 3 26 7 Pakstsan Karach 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8( 8 8 8 Metrcn Mandla 34 95 30 88 8 is 0 7 85 94 40 q OSrLarka Colormbo 19 84 60 61 8 0 05 94 07 74 8 Thailand Banglok 8 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 15 Vietnam banic, 8 80 40 107, 110 X '2 45 8 2 Yemen Sana 4 27 12 95 70 10 038 51 104 8 4 6OCE~N-IA --. --- --- Fi.i Suva 8 99 87 88 203 87 1 1 8 868 8 2 New Zealand Auckland 40 98 98 98 807, 8 3 8 500 8 2 World Resources 1998-99 279 Sources and Technical Notes populations and definitions of "urban;" see U.N. citydependingontheneighborhoodcanddonotin- Population Division, VWorld Urbanization Prospects: dude "commuter" populations. Urban Indicators, 1980-2025 Thle 1996 Revision (U.N., New York, 1997). Gross city productper capita is an indicator con- Sources: Urban population, percentage urban, ur- For a complete description of the Habitat Urban structed to reflect urban productivitfv-the value of ban growth rates, and rural growth rates: United Indicators Programme, see United Nations Centre the goods and services produced within the urban Nations (U.N.) Population Division, Urlban andRu- for Human Settlements (Habitat), The Global Ur- area-consisting of essentially the gross domestic ral Areas, 1950-2030 (The 1996 Revision), on disk- ban Observatory, Programmle Activities: Analysis of product of the city. It is seldom available from direct ette (U.N., New York, 1997). Population in urban Data and Global Urban Indicators Database (Urban data sources. Habitat requested thai cities attempt agglomerations greater than 750,000: U.N. Popula- Indicators Programmre: Phase Oze: 1994-96) [Habi- to calculate theirproductivity usingvarious formu- tion Division, Urban Agglotnerations, 1950-2015 tat, Nairobi, 1997]). The data in this table svere se las that include national accounts figures, house- (The 1996 Revision) on diskette (U.N., New York, lected from the Habitat programme database for hold income, and employment data. The gross city 1997). 237 cities covering 43 indicators. These data wvere product was divided by the population to get a per UTrban population and pei-centage zfrban refer to originally collected from questionnaires filled out capita figure and was then adjustel to 1993 U.S. the census population of areas defined as urban in by citv officials. Assembling these indicators and do s each of the countries of the world. Because each adjusting them to 1993 was a substantial accom- nformal employment Is defined s the percent- country sets its own definition of "urban'" there is a plishment. The resulting indicator set provides in- age of the employed population wi.ose activity is country ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~part of the "informal sector.' The iniformal sector wide range of definitions around the world. Gov- formation for a broad range of social, economic, ca a differt tys f ernments of small or relatively rural countries may and environmental variables and reflects the diver- ... .. . ~~~~generating activities, but generally consists of declare one or more settlements urban, regardless sity of the world's cities in terms of size and regional - a labor-intensive, small-scale, or family-based enter- of size or function. In many countries, the defini- representation. For more information and data, prises. The informal sector includes all unregis- tion is based on a threshold number of inhabitants; please see the above publication or access it online tred cmercal enterpiselad al. no er- when the population of a region exceeds a certain at: http://w.AsNv.unon.org/unon/unchs/indicat/ tered commercial enterpri ses and al. noncommer- threshold, that region is considered urban. This indihome.htm. terms of organization and operation In developing threshold ranges from a fewv hundred, as in Peru However, these data should be used with care. countries, the informal sector often comprises a and Uganda, to more than 10,000, as in Italy and Because different data collection methods and defi- major part of labor market activities.nd has played Senegal. These definitional differences can skesw in- nitions may have been used in each city, compari- an increasing role in the expansion of production. ternational comparisons. For more information on sons can be misleading. There is evidence of consis- However, xw'orkers in the informal economy often country definitions of urban, see the text version of tent misreporting of certain indicators in some cit- have no legally defined rights, no acc ess to govern- United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, 1W'orld ies, possibly because informal settlements have ment welfare in the event of illness or old age, and Urbanization Prospects: The 1996 Revision (U.N., been left out of calculations. Furthermore, because may work under unsafe conditions. New York, forthcoming). data are only provided for 1993, it is impossible to Femnale-headed households are cefined as the Rural is defined as not urban. Urban and rlural determine whether an indicator is improving or de- percentage of households headed by women. This population growthl rates include the etfects of ur- clining indicator mav vary due to a range of definitions of ban-rural migration. Population in urbath ogglonm- Popiulation refers to the population of the urban "head of household:" In some cities, data include erations greater than 750,000 is the percent of the agglomeration (i.e., the population contained onlysingleparents,whereasinothers,theydonot. popu aon in eah couny in cities of population wthin the contours of a contiguous territorv in- Poor households and fenmale-heaaed households of 7500000 ormare habited at urban levels without regard to adminis- thatarepoorare defined as the percentage of house- trative boundaries). It incorporates population in a holds situated below a locally defined poverty line. city or town plus the suburban fringe lying outside Countries were asked to submit an absolute pov- of, but adjacent to, city boundaries. It should be erty line at the city level, taken as the income neces- Urban Characteristics, noted that these population numbers are estimates sary to afford a minimum nutritiornally adequate City Level, 1993 and projections andnotactualcensus data. There- diet plus essential nonfood requirements for a fore, they incorporate assumptions (which may be household of a given size. If the poverty line was not Sources: Urban population and urban agglomera- false) and are sometimes based on old data. 'Be- defined at the city level, a national pcverty line was tion growth rates: United Nations (U.N.) Popula- cause the U.N. does not report data for cities with used. Poverty lines differ among countries and cit- tion Division, Urban Agglomerations 1950-2015 populations less than 750,000 in 1990, WRI used ies, so comparisons should be made with caution. (The 1996 Revisionj), on diskette (U.N., Newr York, 19 aafo aia o mle iis 1997); urban residential density, gross city product 1993 data from Habitat for smaller cities. per capita, informal employment, percent of poor J-1 '9- ,j,,. h I . households, percent of households headed by fe- age annual growth rate of the urban agglomeration The Urban Environmen: Cit males, and percent of female-headed households during a five-year period. These rates include esti- ' y that are poor: United Nations Centre for Human mates of the effects of urban-rural migration, Level, 1993 Settlements (Habitat), The Global Urban Observa- changes in administrative boundaries, and natural Source: United Nations Centre for Hluman Settle- tory, Global Urban Indicators Database, Urban In- increase. ments (Habitat), The Global Urban Observatory, dicators Programme (Habitat, Nairobi, 1997). Urban residential density is defined as the Global Urban Indicators Database, Urban Indica- The U.N. provides estimated and projected number of persons per hectare in residential areas. tors Programme (Habitat, Nairobi, 1997). populations for major urban agglomerations of the City densities should be regarded as rough esti- For a complete description of the Habitat Urban world. Estimates and projections are based, to the mates because the reported area of residential land Indicators Programme, see United Nations Centre extent possible, on actual recorded data. For a com- maynot referto the samejurisdiction as population for Human Settlements (Habitat), The Global Ur- plete description of the sources of data for urban figures. In addition, densities vary greatly within a ban Observatory, programme Activities: Analysis of 280 World Resources 1998-99 URBAN DATA Data and Global Urban Indicators Database (Urban for 1993, it is impossible to determine whether an Per capita solid waste generation is defined as Indicators Programme: Phase Ot,e:1994-96) [Habi- indicator is improving or declining. solid waste generated per person, in kilograms per tat, Nairobi, 1997]). The data in this table were se- Crowding is defined as the floor area per person, day. This indicator should be regarded as a rough lected from the Habitat programme database of 237 the median usable living space per person in meters estimate because it is difficult to account for waste cities covering 43 indicators. These data were origi- squared Percentage of urban ouseholds connected tdisposed nerated, or com- nally collected by questionnaires filled out by city to services is defined as the percentage of house- ..P ,t , of toias ssebigths nirvr n djsig h I... is deie as th pecntg of house- officials. Assembling these indicators and adjusting holds with connections to water, sewerage, and the percentage of households enjoying regular them to 1993 was a substantial accomplishment. electricity networks. waste collection. Regular waste collection can in- The resulting indicator set provides information for a broad range of social, economic, and environ- Per capita water use is defined as average con- clude household e. . . . r "dumpmaster" mental variables and reflects the diversity of the sumption of waterin liters per person per day, for all group collection, but not local dumps to which the world's cities in terms of size and regional represen- uses. Consumption ofwater per person depends on household must carry garbage. tation. For more information and data, please see the availabilitv and price of water, the climate, and Cars are measured as a ratio of the number of the above publication or access it online at: the uses to which water is customarily put by indi- automobiles per t,000 population. Automobiles in http://www unon.org/unon/unc-hsindicat/indi- viduals (e.g., drinking, bathing, washing, and gar- this case are taken to include all vehicles used for tm'tp . deninu)n personal transport. Percentage of work trips bypub- However, these data should be used with care. Wastewater treated is defined as the percentage worade bbus, tram, or train Bus or minibus Because different data collection methods and defi- of all wastewater unidergoing any form of treat- includes road vehicles other than cars taking pas- nitions may have been used in each city, compari- ment, including primary (physical and mechanical inges oa vehing other t cars tainclude sengers on a fare-pa-ying basis. It does not include sons canbe misleading. There is evidence of consis- processes that remove 20 to 30 percent of the bio- other means of transport commonly used in devel- tent misreporting ofcertain indicators in some cit- logical oxygen demand [BOD]), secondary (addi- oping countries such as ferry, taxi, animal, or rick- ies, possibly because informal settlements have tional use ofbiological treatments that remove 80 to shaw. been left out of calculations. Some indicators such 90 percent of BOD), and tertiary (advanced added Murdeis are defined as the number of murders as the murder rate have been signiticantly underre- chemical treatments that remove 95 percent or reported annually per 100,000 population. Re- ported in cities that are known to have a high crime more of BOD). The form of treatment varies dra- ported figures on crime may be misleading or un- rate. Furthermore, because data are only provided matically among cities and countries. derreported. World Resources 1998-99 281 FOOD AND AGRICULTURE Food and Agriculture World Resources 1998-99 283 Data Table 1 0.1 Food and Agricultural Production, 1984-96 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Average Average Production Averacle Index of Agricultural Production Index of Food Production Production of Cereals of Roots and Tubers Production of Pulses (1989-91 =100) (1989-91 100) (090 metric % Change (000 metric % Change (000 metric 0,%Change Total Per Capita Total Per Capita tons) Since tons) Since tons) Sin ce 1984-86 1994-96 1984-86 1994-96 1984-86 1994-96 1984-86 1994-96 1994-96 1984-86 1994-96 1984-86 1994-96 1984-86 WORLD 91 110 99 102 99 103 91 '111 1,970,331 8 622,036 9 56,798 12 AFRICA ~~~84 112 97 98 96 98 84 112 113,585 30 157 38 7,268 27 Algeria 8~~~4 VS5 96 102 95 102 84 115 2,569 12 1,022 30 42 (34) Angola 98 125 113 l06 112 t08 97 126 372 13 2,641 41 169 76 tee n 79 140 92 122 94 tOS 8t 125 687 26 2,595 40 72 37 Botswara 97 90 115 63 (tO 83 97 95 60 73 9 22 14 2 Cameroon 94 112 109 97 107 99 93 114 1,162 26 2,193 6 91 31 Coontal African Rep 87 109 98 97 96 99 85 110 10 121) 827 12) 25 54 Chad 27 i21 85 106 68 109 s0 124 966 41 535 (7) 34 1161 COte dlvoore 87 114 98 98 100 105 85 123 1,768 39 1,953 19 463 20 Egpto 84 117 95 106 92 107 81 119 16,146 47 83 17 8 8 Fquatornal 3,,ron 96 90 109 84 107 82 94 93 Sr 8 109 X 42 8 Gubon 89 105 102 92 102 92 88 106 27 40 6 0 4 11) Gambia, The 99 95 122 70 122 69 99 83 100 (21 9,953 95 20 26 Gonna 87 144 102 125 102 123 97 142 1,740 45 781 19 60 21 at inn inc` up un no n 1ll Oli r7O i Kenya 90 103 94 89 94 88 80 102 3,278 19 62 55 5 (51 Lesotho 93 113 1 06 99 104 93 9~ 106 197 27 523 39 3 (51 Libor,a K _r Sr Sr S x Sr X 54 (443) 129 19 12 9 Malam, 9 106 i16 101 122 97 96 102 1,610 12 26 7 36 127) Mal 78 116 91 99 94 97 81 114 2,319 41 5 (71 17 129) Mauritania 84 100 96 88 96 88 84 1 00 218 56 20 (71 2 16 Maur,sliO9 0 102 96 99 98 96 103 2 12091 989 26 212 (77) Morocco 70 101 79 91 77 51 70 101 7,179 22 4,030 7 123 32 Mozambiqu.e 93 105 98 87 99 86 83 105 1,067 30 225 11 8 19 INam ba 83 107 95 94 94 94 82 107 88 12 263 7 435 54 1Niger 79 121 92 102 92 102 79 121 2,300 31 55,829 69 1,663 63 Senegal 83 112 95 98 95 98 83 ill 1,01 7 7 294 56 41 21 Serra Leone 92 94 102 59 103 86 93 93 415 (31) 42 (4) 13 (381 Somalia r S X A, 8 Sr X S 361 (47) 1,473 27 76 (331 Swazilard 93 92 107 80 110 84 96 97 107 (55) 7,003 1211 355 112) Tanzania 90 99 106 84 106 84 91 98 4,160 15 846 2 29 117) Togc 79 106 91 91 38 90 84 104 534 27 250 39 72 (3) Zamb a 81 56 91 86 91 96 91 97 1,208 5 588 37 24 70 Zimbabwe 93 97 108 85 109 80 93 91 2,92 151 176 37 46 17) EUROPE X X X X X X X X 3382 X 147,785 X -10,461 X Albania r Sr r X 8 Sr X X 622 (65) 119 20 23 1 Austria 98 101 100 97 100 97 98 101 4,416 (21) 704 (501 114 59 Bela,us, Rep Sr 92 r 11 r 9 Sr 83 5,464 2 9,474 X 439 Sr Be gum la) 93 114 94 112 94 112 93 114 2,468 3 2,31 1 25 25 72 B_osnia and Hezgon r X X 1 Sr Sr S 891 X 301 X 16 Sr Buslgaria 110 67 '07 96 104 70 107 68 5,465 (41) 437 48 167) G-ronati,Rep Sr 59 X 569 S 63 X 59 2,/05 Sr 640 8 26, 8 Czech Rep Sr 87 r 86 Sr 98 X 86 6,690 X 1,440 Sr 148 X Denonark 94 102 95 101 95 101 94 102 8.796 4 1,491 25 316 145) France 100 101 103 99 103 99 100 101 56,530 3 5,932 1231 3,092 63 Germany 101 90 104 89 103 88 101 90 39,527 5 11,539 (71) 206 (17) Greene 97 106 100 104 101 100 98 102 4,764 (71 1,105 6 42 (47) -L=aogn 1,00 71 98 73 98 73 10 1 1,2 31 1.015 (38) 191 (52) loelano 119 96 126 91 125 02 119 97 X X 9 (89) X X Ireland 97 105 96 104 99 104 97 108 1,950 118) 964 19) 19 93 Italy 100 100 101 100 101 101 100 101 19,793 5 2,099 (1 9) 162 )68) Ltvmia,IRep 11 67 Ar 71 S 71 Sr 67 830 Sr 997 r -5 Sr Mo dova,Rep Sr 63 X 62 X 63 Sr 64 1,926 X 402 X 65 X Netherlands 99 904 101 100 101 100 98 104 1,506 16 7,503 8 22 (4011 NIonize3 97 100r 99 59 99 97 97 99 1,290 2 424 (41 Sr S Romnan a 120 97 122 99 122 100 120 38 17,437 (13) 3,058 1991 90 (2071 Russian Federatron X 64 X 64 Sr 64 6 64 89,524 X 37,419 Sr 1,824 Sr Slovak Rep 5 75 11 74 X 74 Sr 75 3,733 Sr 469 X 171 Sr Swveden 108 96 111 93 1ll 93 109 96 4',972 (231 1,216 (4) 74 )61) Sw tzerland lot 97 1OS 93 105 93 101 97 1,312 20 635 (30) 10 67 LJbra,ne Sr 74 X 74 Sr 75 Sr 75 29,535 X 1 6,410 Sr 2,000 Sr United Kongdom 100 101 102 100 102 100 100 101 22,102 (1 1) 6,682 (3) 692 38 Yuqoslav,a, Fed Rep 8 93 X 93 X 92 Sr 93 89 80 Sr 116 8 284 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 10.1 continued FOOD AND AGRICULTURE Average Average Production Average Index of Agricultural Production Index of Food Production Production of Cereals of Roots and Tubers Production of Pulses 11989-91 1001 11989-91 = 100) - (000 metric % Change 1000 metric % Change (000 metric % Change Total Per Capita Total Per Capita tons) Since tons) Since tons) Since 1984-86 1994-96 1984-86 1994-96 1984-86 1994-96 1984-86_ 1994-96 1994-96 1984-86 1994-96 1984-86 1994-96 1984-86 NORTH AMERICA 94 9 0 8 to 88 94 91 375,767 0 563 20 0__,584 57 Canada 93 1 11 100 105 99 14 93 110 51,790 5 3.751 24 2,006 83 United States 98 114 103 109 104 109 99 113 323,947 2,, i 892 10 1,79 2 CENTRAL AMERICA X X X X X 31,357 3 4,154 8 2,086 18 Belize 78 134 99 117 88 117 78 134 35 34 4 14 3 56 Costa R~ca 91 1 19 93 109 92 109 90 123 209 174) 209 69 29 19 Cuboa 99 62 104 60 104 59 99 61 3 12 (107) 759 (221 19 0 Dominican Rep 95 103 106 94 103 96 93 100 555 (9) 259 13 84 il) El Sa vador 99 104 107 93 90 90 92 107 934 1 8 110 72 54 1 8 Guatemala 95 106 98 92 9 1 95 79 110 1,232 14) 72 3 0 19) Hart 110 91 121 99 122 94 110 92 391 11 5) 771 (01 79 119) Honduras 92 107 96 92 97 90 83 105 693 20 31 31 05 933 Jamaica 92 11 5 94 110 94 110 92 115 4 (101) 341 27 8 5 Mex co 96 119 106 1 09 106 109 96 119 261255o19 152 2 Nircaragrla 11 2 1 13 1l2 5 99 1 10 10O4 99 120 601 20 91 0 99 38 Panama 94 103 104 94 105 94 95 103 346 1 7 67 (26) 1 2 42 40JTr. Ar.EPICa hr. I' N '06 mi9 '1.6 6 6 if vie6 I i) 1.t6 I Argenlina 101 11 5 1069 109) 11 0 109 102 117 29,259 (91 2,599 12) 296 198 Bol via 79 119 97 105 96 105 77 119 1,090 1 8 1,364 11 0) 27 0 Braz!l 96 110 94 1037 92 109 84 119 47,1 64 275 28,278 7 3,073 198 Cmie 77 125 94 115 83 1196 79 129 2,654 1 0 873 (5) 94 (561 Colomb,a 9 1 107 89 97 98 99 80 109 3.523 1 0 4,901 24 196 2 1 Ecuadoer 90 179 90 115 90 119 80 130 2,095 56 575 19) 59 43 liiYana 124 170 175 199 124 163 124 170 475 41 47 37 1 5 Paraguay 75 104 87 91 97 99 74 113 1.196 59 2,946 131 04 19 Peru 91 120 100 109 99 112 99 122 2.379 19 3,119 21 126 11 Saniname 112 93 119 99 119 99 112 293 221 ) 3 1 60 100 rU 7guay 89 15 91 111, 91 115 99 119 1,790 44 191 11 01 6 4 Venezu ea 99 117 100 104 10Q 105 98 1 1 i7 1 3 34 ASIA X X X X X X~~~~~~XX 94 X360297 _2,34X Afghanistan, Is am c Slate X X I c c Ic X X 3,019 (81 260 4 40 3 Armenia, Rep Ic 83 X 91 11 92 X 94 256 Ic 425 X 4 0 Azerbaijan I 58 Ic 55 1< 51 2 54 991 2 i89 c Ic X Bangladesh 99 104 99 96 96 95 97 104 27,897 14 1,982 4 531 11) Bhutan 101 109 114 101 1)4 101 101 109 ill 15_i(4i 6 1) 5' Cambodia 73 119~~~~~~~~ll 9 103 99 102 73 18 3,024 42 133 52 19 6 China 92 140 99 132 99 136 91 144 416,954 15 163,572 iS 4,777 12;) Georg a Ic 62 3 62 Ic 67 0 67 543 X 337 Ic Ic S India 93 114 92 105 92 104 83 114 2 13 326 23 24,840 25 15,143 16 lIndones a 94 115 91 107 91 107 93 IS 5,97 28 7 9_2 862 Iran, s amc Rep 85 135 102 117 102 117 84 135 16,944 36 3,1 20 37 948 47 Iraq 101 97 119 97 119 97 10i 97 2,312 9 406 68 3 7 21 Israel 101 107 112 90 108 91 96 107 153 .117) 284 27 8 7 Japan 102 98 105 97 104 07 101 98 14,566 19) 5,081 1171 128 117i Jordan 85 147 107 116 109 117 96 148 93 34 99 798 13 Kaana, Rp I 82 S 61 I 61 c 62 2,40 Sc 1,80 Ic435 Korea, Gem Peop~e s Rep c 5K Ic Ic c Ic Ic 5,022 (33) 2,050 (1111 300 3 Korea, Rep 91 113 96 108 95 109 90 113 6,977 (29) 700 1851 24 1961 Ku,wait 144 125 177 159 170 157 142 129 2 127) 1 49 Ic 1 _KyrgoReoI 6 I 5 I 7 c 7 1,,(_2 _c 434 I cI Lao People'snDem Rep 91 114 106 99 107 99 92 114 1,485 4 211 10 43 42 Lebanon 69 118 67 101 68 100 68 117 76 03 324 41 39 67 Malaysia 78 115 98 102 79 109 70 122 2,158 19 530 9 Ic I Mongolia 94 79 109 70 109 59 94 75 264 (1971 51 1144) 1 1571 _M08032ar Ill 199 123 127 121 127 110 9 2,4 25 291 (141 106 40 Nepa 82 107 93 94 92 94 61 107 5,688 19 984 41 188 26 Gman 92 90 irs 72 114 71 91 89 5 59 6 64 Ic I Pakistan 79 119 92 104 94 109 80 125 23,818 21 1,457 45 766 2 Pl-hlppies 90 117 100 lOS 100 106 90 119 15,119 18 2,781 8 39 1 SaudiArab a 62 98 79 86 79 86 61 98 3,7 1 48 3600 977 -Sing-apore- 14 4 1369 8 39 147 42 X c SI X Ic I Sr ,anka lOS 108 112 1 09 119 103 107 109 2,313 113) 436 (791 39 (1171 Syrian Arab Rep 101 130 120 119 122 115 102 132 5,918 59 443 24 224 37 Ta).e sran, Rep 3 59 1< 54 X 58 Ic 94 288 Ic 121 100 0 Ic Tha lane 91 110 99 105 100 101 92 19 5,9 5 17,980 (31 ~ 37 (41 Tuirkey 99 lOS 99 97 100 97 99 15 28,179 3 4 694 20 1.779 12 Turkmenistan, Rep a 99 X 90 Ic 95 Ic 105 989 Ic 25 3 I I Joited Arab Emirates 71 165 88 144 89 145 70 199 7 19 4 16) 3 Ic U,zbekistan, Rep Ic 93 Ic 75 3 78 Ic 87 2,719 Ic 499 ( It 2 Vietnam 82 126 92 114 92 113 93 125 28,040 37 4,260 11 8) 217 21 Yemen 83 ~~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~113 98 87 97 86 82 112 759 29 183 1516 37 OCEANIA - - 97 ill 105 lilA 105 107 97 i1r, 26 929 (01 3 137 8 2099 45 Fyi 95 107 98 99 99 99 95 107 20 1321 48 (40) 59 NlemZealand 104 114 108 108 106 113 102 119 819 1421 296 3 72 13) Papua NessGuinea 98 108 109 96 110 98 99 107 3 29 1,267 9 2 22 Solomon Islands 121 106 144 90 144 90 121 109 X Ic Ill 14 2 2 DEVELOPING 85 122 94 ilt 94 113 85 123 1,137,967 19 436,491 21 40,442 19 DEVELOPED 98 96 tOl 94 101 94 98 97 832,364 171 185,545 (201 16,357 4 Notes a Data for Be g um and Luxemboarg are come ned under Be g um W'or d and regiona totas5 incluide some countr es not fistd here World Resources 1998-99 285 Data Table 10.2 Agricultural Land and Inputs, 1982-94 Source: Food aud Agriculture Organization of the United Natiorts and Ui,ted Notions Populationi Dirison Cropland Irrigated Land Annual Tractors Harvesters Total Hectares Total Hectares as a Fertilizer Use Percent Percent. Hectares Per Hectares Per Percentage of (kilograms per Average Change Average Change (000) Capita (008) Capita Cropland hectare of cropland) Number Since Number Since 1984 1984 1994 1994 1982-84 1992-94 1984 1994 1992-94 1982-84 1992-94 1982-8'4 WORLD 1,208.584 0.25 1,238,812 0.22 17 19 107 113 25,981,850 11 4,134,798 8 AFRICA ______ 179,281 0.34 190.022 0.27 6 6 18 18 539,098 18 40_! ,332 (26iL Algosa 2,510 0.33 8,043 0 29 4 7 27 15 95,062 78 0,786 92 Angola 3,400 Q 4. 3,500 0 33 2 2 2 3 12,300 0 X it Seun t ,818 0.47 13880 0 36 0 4 11 140 25 0 3< Botswaona 400 0.38 420 0 30 I 0 3 2 6,000 13 95 tO Cameoroon 6,956 0.22 2,040 0 55 0 0 6 4 500 (21 3 2 Centtto African Ron t',082 0 78 2 020 0863 0 0 1 1 2t0 24 20 76 Chan 3,1350 0.64 3,256 093~ 0 0 2 2 270 6 17 0 Corgo, Corn 000 7,000 0.~~ ~ ~~20 29 00 0.18 0 0 1 1 2,430 t4 21 0 Congo,Rep 158 0.08 t70 002 t t 18 1i 207 4 23 88 Coto d'lvcoro 3,488 0 37 4,t590 03' 2 2 12 16 8,200 18 60 44 Egypt~ 2,493 0.03 3,265 005 ~ 00 100 341 264 22,648 81 2,370 t1 Equatorial CGu nea 230 0.78 230 0 59 0 0 0 0 00o 2 21 2 Gabon 452 0 58 480 0 44 t 1 6 i 1,500 15 21 21 Gamb a,The 169 0 24 t72 0.16 1 1 12 5 45 4 5 25 GShana 3,300 0 31 4,5005 027 0 0 2 3 4,100 12 540 50 Kenya 4.255 0 22 4,320 0 17 1 t 18 31 10,000 73 650 50 Lesoton 20 0 20 320 016 1 t tO 19 t,630 22 33 17 Lberia 371 018 370 017 1 t 0 327 6 21 2 Moanaw 1445 0 21 1,700 018 t 2 31 16 1,420 11 21 2 Ma 2093 027 3,000 028 3 3 24 8 2,383 93 50 9 Majrrania 135 0I' 200 0 09 23 24 3 10 303 7 X 21 l.Irccniqs.e 3,080 0 23 3,182 0 10 3 3 1 2 3,250 0 11 2 Narribia 662 056 750 050 1 1 0 0 3,150 17 Ic I Niger 3,335 035 4,500 051 1 2 1 1 180 39 21 21 Senega 2,300 030 2,365 029 3 3 8 81 550 20 155 2 S eraLeote 523 015 540 013 5 5 2 6 550 34 6 38 Sornal a 1,020 013 1,020 011 18 18 -4 0 1950 2 21 21 Swat and 128 020 191 020 39 35 47 70 3,060 12 21 2 Tanzania 2,835 014 3,675 2 13 4 4 12 10 6,600 1231 21 1 logo 2,360 080c 2,400 0 60 0 0 3 5 370 42 X 21 Zambia 5,198 0382 5,273 0 67 0 1 11 11 6,000 i9 233 8 A 0010a 713 025 702 0.21 35 49 132 21 9,050 ~ 112) 902 18351 Austria 1,522 020 1,513 0:~9 0 0 257 168 345,753 6 24,932 117~ PeauSs, Fep 21 21 6,223 0.60 A1 2 21 67 123,937 10 35,242 21 Brg um (a] 775 0 03 794 0.08 0 0 538 402 113,047 l41 9,190 (1~ C'oca-a, Sop 1 21 1,221 0.27 21 0 21 152 4,173 50 1,025 21 Czech Rep 21 2 3,366 0.33 21 1 21 00 43,151 11 6,823 10 Donrmarn 2,62 7 031 7,374 0.46 15 18 251 196 130,084 714: 32,912 (117 France 19,145 233 19,488 0 34 5 0 302 242 1,366,667 (81 154,000 4 Gormany 12,428 216 12 037 0 15 4 4 381 241 1,307,300 120 136,927 1231 Greece 302 40 3,502 0 34 25 32 167 152 230,403 36 8,1 73 14 toand 1,044 2 30 1 317 0 37 2 849 569 167,300 10 3,100 i21 ta y '2,2332 2 22 11 143 019 20 23 171 170 1,435,192 24 43,643 27 La, an, eo 21 21 1 740 0 68 1 0 21 55 53,200 0 35,233 21 Mio dna, Ren 10 1 2,130 0 49 21 14 21 53 5 1,911 >c 6,400 21 Neth-eslands 046 0.56 920 0206 61 61 851 392 182,000 101 5,537 14 Norway 355 0.31 921 0 21 10 11 235 227 149,033 -4 18,000 1(8~ Roman a '0,574 0.47 93926 0 43 24 31 142 48 1 55,380 19) 42,533 12' tuss.an Federat on 1< 1 132,322 08 Be 1 4 X 11 1,227,187 21 344,928 it S onas Rep 1 21 1 611 030 21 13 21 59 2 1,220 3 3,913 21 OSwodon 2,033 033 2,780 032 3 4 156 116 165,000 1121 40,000 11 71 Switzerarid 12 006 Th4 0 06 3 6 437 336 114,000 10 4,000 116 Ueta no 21 0 34,357 066 21 8 21 33 445,282 21 99,218 K O,n ted Kingdom 6.990 012 5,949 010 2 2 371 381 500,000 15) 47,000 11 61 Yugos ava, Pot Sep 0 In 4,085 0 40 X 2 11 21 403,916 21 5,1 57 X5 286 World Resources 1 998-99 Data Table 10.2 continued FOOD AND AGRICULTURE Ciropland Irrigated Land Annual Tractors Harvesters Total Hectares Total Hectares as a Fertilizer Ute Percent Percent Hectares Per Hectares Per Percentage of (kilograms per Average Change Average Change (000) Capita (000) Capita Cropland hectare of cropland) Number Since Namber Since 1984 1984 1994 1994 1982-84 1992.94 1984 1994 1992-94 1982-84 1992-94 1982-84 NORTH OAA8RICA 2395 94 0 89 299 2'r, n79 9 0 94 92 5 S1O 0At 3 p1' 9n09 (2) CostaR Ca 518 0 20 53C 016 '7 23 180 243 7000 15 1,190 12 Cuoa 3.337 0.33 4,512 04? 22 2.4 174 27 29.000 18 7,400 8 Domincan Rep 1,430 0.23 50 0 24 12 14 42 51 2,350 6 6 6~ El Sa vador 720 0 16 755 0 14 10 16 76 101 3,430 2 40 24 7catremala -1-,785 0c23 - T, 9 o 0. 19 5 s 4 4,300 0 3,050 11 -rant 902 0 16 910 2)13 a 0 4 6 230 21 6 6 Hondu,ras 1,777 0 44 2,030 0 37 4 4 21 28 4,391 33 0 7 Janaca 220 0 10 219 0 09 10 15 100 1~9 3.080 0 3 6 mea,co 248688 0.33 34,730 0 28 20 25 67 62 172,020 14 10.500 10 Nicaragua 1,663 0 54 2.069 0 64 5 4 29 12 2,700 iD6' Panama 586 0 28 665 0 26 5 5 48 45 5,000 (61 1 000 f26) jo~~,~~o4aneTonooc,,,~~~~. j18,,,,,,, 0.10 122 0 10 18 ~~~~~~~ 18 02 49 2,000 8 6 x SOUTH AMERICA 104,544 0.40 114,901 0.37 7 8 44 60 1 214 1)9 --2~1 121 "72 19r 27,200 21 27.200 06 6, 63 17 - ~~~~~~ ~~~~2,217 0 38 2,470 0.33 6 4 2 4 5,3502 19 123 I Braz, 51,680 0 39 60,000 0 38 4 5 65 79 230,000 19 48,000 29 Crhil 4,025 0 36 4,154 0430 26 30 42 95 40,974 19 8,767 5 Colombia 524 06 ,20 0 18 8 14 69 92 27,000 (161 2,8550 27 Ecua4or 2,505 0 26 3.038 1227 16 9 29 01 8,920 20 780 24 G,iyana 495 0 63 496 0 60 26 26 30 30 3,630 3 44C 6 Paraqiar. 1,667 0.56 2,270 0 46 3 3 5 IC 16,506 72 X Per, 4,691 0 19 4 140 0 16 34 43 21 41 ~ 2,933 8 7 6 Suriname 09 2 1 6 68 0 16 79 89 166 04 1,330 10 275 25 Uruguay 1,348 0 45 1,304 0.41 7 11 39 77 0300 2) 4,067 2 Armen a, Rep 10 600 017 6 49 X 12 '5852 6 2.085 6 Azerbajan 7 10 2,000 0 27 X 54 15 20 31,000 6 4.237 6 Bangladesh 9,1312 0 09 6 700 0 07 20 37 05 120 5.300 13 6 6 Bhuia, 127 209 140 0 09 24 29 1 6 7 6 6 Cambodia 2,112 029 3.639 ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~0.39 0 4 1 5 1,190 131 0 CJ,,a 98,745 0 09 93,762 2.08 45 32 200 309 540,425 (121 56,761 61 C-eo,g a 4 10 `127 2 21 6 44 6 28 20,067 2 1,271 India 1069,076 0 22 1 69,700 0 19 24 29 49 80 1.196,266 136 3J~67 21 Indonesia 25 934 0 16 32,1 71 0 10 17 15 72 80) 46,976 353 237,149S 1,L00 Iran, Is amc Rep 15 540 0 33 16,500 0 26 40 39 60 54 229,335 107 5,480 79 Iraq 0 430 0.37 5,750 029 32 64 22 65 92,000 rOl 1.900 2241 Irrae 419 2 10 434 0 06 54 44 229 240 25.707 (5) 260 1251 Japar 4 780 0 04 4.422 0 04 62 62 440 396 2,031,333 29 1 168,367 16 10r46n 351 010 405 08 12 7 43 30 7,378 55 75 17 7oazakran, Rep 7 x 34,979 2 09 o 6 6 3 299,580 8 79,623 Korea, Dem People's Rep 1 945 010 2,000 0 09 63 73 398 377 75.000 22 6 XI Korea. 30a 2 153 0 05 2,039 005 61 65 361 472 76.555 903 66,373 030 Kuraat 3 6 5 090c 57 73 152 200 120 329 X, 6 Leoanon 298 211 306 010 29 29 170 114 3.800 27 97 7 Mnalaysra 5,300 0 35 7.004 0 39 6 5 105 155 34,617 263 6 6 Mango a 1.338 072 1,320 055 4 0 ~ 3 1 9,107 (24, 2.001 C2 11 Omran 47 003 63 0 03 92 95 20 153 150 44 45 246 Pak stan 20.330 021 21,510 010 76 60 62 96 269.433 l'9 1,633 173 Philpires 6,920 0.1 7 6,370 014 16 17 29 64 11.500 24 700 35 Saud Arab a 2,423 020 3_,800 021 34 34 106S -- --- Slrgapore 6 6 1 0 00 2 0 833 Sr,iLanka 1,972 0. 12 1.883 0.11 23 29 7102 113 31,500 21 6 64 Syr an Arab Rep 5.654 0 58 5,971 0 43 10 17 39 59 74,428 96 4.,428 50 TajikssanarRep 0 0 860 0 15 0 89 0 81 31.909 6 1,100 X Tnai,ard 16331 0~38 20,449 35 1 22 23 64 99,549 266 55,67 85 0.,uesj 27.413 0656 27,771 0486 11 15 56 54 745,246 44 11,400 (1 6r Turamerritan, Pep 10 5 1,480 0 37 5 90 .6 84 552105 X 14.672 6 Ur -od Arab Em rates 32 0.02 82 0 04 165 69 118 432 175 5 5 67 Uzoekrstar, Rep 6 6 4.500 0 20 6 69 0 135 173.333 6 7.333 6 \/ietnarm 6,590 0 11 6.758 0209 28 28 57 192 37.209 31 6 0 Yemen 1,465 _2186 1,540 0 II 220 9 I ,4 12 56 22 OCEANIA 51,849 2.15 91,519 1.84 4 5 34 46 401,384 (5) 60,095 (3) O,,,srrai,a 47,3 37 4,205 2 67 4 6 35 315,000 13) 56.500 ~ 22) Fij 190 0 28 260 2 34 i 1 63 69 7,01 7 43 6 News Zeoaad 3500 1 09 3,071 2 87 7 9 147 212 76.000 216, 3, i00 .2162 Papua New Gu nea 376 0 11 440 0 10 0 0 15 30 1,140 16, 475 14 Solomon slands 5 0257 0 10 0 0 0 0 6 6 6 DEVELOPING 763,202 0.21 799,479 0.18 21 23 63 89 5,730,613 44 63,0 13 DEVELOPED 677,068 0.61 667,273 0.57 9 10 121 78 20,221,237 4 3.498.591 (2) Notes a Data for Belgiumn ard Laxembooag are comb ned u,nder Belg urn. SSor 4000d regiona -:otas n clice some courtr es not rtad here World Resources 1998-99 287 Data Table 10.3 Food Security, 1982-97 Sources: Food and Agriculture Organization tfithe United Nations., United Nations Popalation Division..ad U.S. Department ofAgrianiteer Average Annual Grain Grains Fed to Average Average Yield of Average Annual Donations or Consumption Livestock as Average Daily Average Daily Yield of Cereals Roots and Tubers Net Trade in Receipts of as a Percent a Percent of Pee Capita Per Capita Kilograms Percent Kilograims Percent Cereals Cereals of Domestic Total Grain Calorie Supply Protein Supply Per Change Per Change (000 metric tons) (000 metric tons) Production Consumption (kilocalories) (grams) Hectare Since Hncture Since 1983-85 1993-95 1993-85 1993-95 1983-85 1993-95 1985-819-718-41929 92819-4 1994-99 1984-86 1994-)6 1984-86 WORLD 40 40 2,924 2,709 62 72 2,917 10.t 12,7li2 2 AFrica n- H ŽJ2 r7.16 ~~~~~~~319' 1ta ISI 23 r 2 6 O Angola 336 443 69 22 5 233 32 1 0 0 1966 1,756 50 39 405 (6 7) 6,011 38 Benin 12 t 32 13 16 126 1 22 0 0 t,983 2,325 46 56 1,006 1 76 6,2715 10 Botswana 215 1 72 43 5 1,634 472 0 0 2,216 2,268 70 69 300 43 6 6,0110 10 Cameroon 25: 339 9 3 133 132 0 2,247 2,167 55 91 1,313 6.3 6,0-6 iS) Centra Afrcan Rep 22 47 16 2 136 146 0 0 2,154 1,959 36 41 790 126 2) 3,210 123) Chad 70 62 130 14 142 07 0 0 , 441 1,840 41 93 639 14.0 4,163 (171 COte n ane 656 665 0 44 1 66 143 3 4 2,740 2,356 96 90 I,1l1 140 5,7~2 (1) Egypt 3,206 7,046 16585 208 2t8 152 35 31 3,054 3,227 78 67 6,062 256 21,4(,4 5 EquatorialfGu nea 1 XI 6 3 0 2 6 11 2 12 2 15 12 1 2,6-2 (191 ET mra 14 1 27 a Et-i,opia 476 4261 . ' I I- i Gaonn 79 98 0 0 069 470 0 0 2,523 2,472 795 73 1779 tOO 9544 9 3 Gambia, Then 70 94 25 6 206 203 0 7 2,226 2,295 49 47 1,106 119 7) 3,000 0 Ghnna 210 383 101 96 136 126 4 3 1,662 2,360 40 90 i396 39.3 10,999 50 Gaunea-E ... ',.. i ~ .. Kenya 262 270 229 135 1 22 113 3 1 2,542 914 55 50 1,822 1 2 9,031 3 Lesotqa 196 220 59 32 281 253 27 21 2,267 2,164 67 60 1,560 56 2 14,804 141 Lner.a 144 153 a 46 153 165 640 0 0 2,496 1,729 12 0 1,110 113 31 7,356 1 5 Moaiaw (90I 459 5 1 52 96 ~ 39 2 3 2,168 1,911 64 54 ',194 44 4,692 0 Mai 229 72 202 16 1 33 104 I 1 1,954 2,040 56 56 606 1661) 5,007 1 7 Majr,tan a 302 241 176 37 792 236 1 3 2,31 7 2,978 76 79 750 16.2 2,002 5 Mau,t us 13 20 1~3 0 6,414 '4,073 0 0 2,669 2,942 61 76 4,330 Morocco 2,31 962 373 46 164 1 63 24 2 1 2,33 3114 76 64 1,236 Mozaaob qjn 400 537 424 903 2227 197 0 0 1,809 1,695 32 31 647 18 3 4069 0 Nlamibia 795 109 0 4 196 233 12 1 2,179 2,1 74 62 60 26A )43 51 84393 (31 NIgeT 164 145 145 32 121 1038 0 0 2,139 2,1~54 6 1 62 339 i 841 7,452 (81 Senegal 660 656 1959 22 109 1 66 0 0 2,368 2,289 66 66 624 11.3 3,39 1 126) Sierra Leona 89 211 33 35 123 199 0 3 1,974 1,668 42 42 1,192 119 4) 4,969 19 Somalia 1 73 234 a 226 34 197 194 2 4 1,969 1,533 12 3 426 (81 1) 10,004) 17) Swaz and 86 107 4 9 1 74 2393 0 2,5 29 2-, 6 53 64- 63 1,739 112 0 1 93!) 1291 Tarzania 318 219 1 37 60 1 14 10D7 2 3 2,296 2,054 56 49 1,310 3.6 7,71 3 1151 Togo) 97 66 1 4 8 1 27 118 2 1 9 2,108 2,052 46 49 762 110 31 9,71 6 1371 Tu s a 96--27 1,3 2 2 8 60 28 26 2839 3,66 77 64 1,64 30 13,544 1 Ujganda 4 i491 19 49 102 193 0 0 2.246 2.160 50 52 65S2 20.7 5,727 19) Zambia 233 192 998 3 2 1 32 116 2 3 2,114 1,954 5 5 5' 1,638 117.4) 5,370 12) tLIItC'It:01 19 St 1.* 2 0'lJ3 AU5tria 1984) 1364) 118SI1 12i 97 9 1 73 68 3,365 3,474 96 lOt 5,384 6 0 25.645i (S 8elaras, Rep 12 510 A 62 12 1 09 76 67 12 3,235 12 101 2,161 12 13,261 11 Balgium 1b) 1,993 2,297 1521 1391 187 199 39 44 3,381 3,700 02 106 7 369 17.1 41,031. 15) C roata,Rep 12 7171 12 12 X 96 2 12 12 2359 12 60 4,340 5 9,691 12 Czars Rap 12 4091 4 0 1 94 12 68 12 3,012 b 11 92 a 4,1 67 12 17,817 12 Denmtark :6971 il,5241 1151 i431 66 51 64 81 3,390 3,722 67 102 5,934 125 30,352 (3) Franca 125 154) 129,943i i216) 11901 52 44 6L 07 3,453 3,544 114 11 5 6,696 15 3 94,527 9 ISermany 5,565 15,600) 0 0 115 65 12 64 3,367 3,382 96 96 6,049 16 3 33,407 17 Graece i924( 1651 101) 112) 81 96 57 46 3,606 3,669 109 113 3,590 5 2 22,025 17 Ireland 280 275 141 151 113 116 73 60 3,598 3,630 110 114 6,697 17.3 29,377 26 Italy 3,635 2,443 (I Sis 1116) 120 112 50 51 3,392 3.464 104 108 4,716 16.6 23,411 23 Latnja, Reap 1 9 2 0 12 102 74 60 12 2,958 12 92 1,894 It 12,564 12 VcidRea9o 4 157/ 3 1`0 12 111 62 93 X 2,892 2 81 2,711 12 6,6111 1 Nathearands 3.519 3,8696 U41 136) 7) 364 358 46 43 3,046 3,343 94 100 7,752 10 6 42,046 1 N-orway 367 577 1311 1351 126 141 67 69 3,155 3,244 99 101 3,807 1O001 23,320 151 Romania 1441 897 0 25 105 105 68 66 3,335 3,191 99 02 2,612 112 4) 12,218 1551 Ru,ss, an Federatron 12 936 12 865 x 102 64 60 12 2,927 12 93 1,3 13 12 11,214 14 S nsakRep 12 '3621 < 0 3 -89 11 64 12 2,774 6 14 86 b0 4296 12 112397 14 Sianban (1,1651 12211 (60) 192i 79 94 73 76 3,006 2,914 97 '00 4,399 77 34,735 8 Swaitzerland 1,268 634 13 1521 221 146 66 53 3,4I8 3,292 95 93 6.362 1 1 36,737 151 Ckra ne 12 783 0 5 12 102 69 48 X2 3,212 12 89 2,410 11 10,683 14 United Kongrom 12,0401 (2,0901 11291 (1771 91 69 83 54 3,123 3,21 6 88 64 6 909 11 9 36,179 7 Yugas,aa.a, Fed PeaD 8 11 14 277 12 103 12 3 X 2.984 3 68 3,471 14 5,17 12 288 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 10.3 continued FOOD AND AGRICULTURE Average Annual Grain Grains Fed to Average Average Yield of Average Annual Donations or Consumption Livestock as Average Daily Average Daily Yield of Cereals Roots and Tubers Net Trade in Receipts of as a Percent a Percent of Per Capita Per Capita Kilograms Pertent Kilograms Percent Cereals Cereals of Domestic Total Grain Calorie Supply Protein Supply Per Change Per Change (SSG metric tons) (335 metric tons) Production Consumption (kilocaiories) (grams) Hectare Since Hectare Since 1983-85 1993-95 1983-85 1993-95 1983-85 1993-95 1985-87 1995-97 1982-84 1992-94 1982-84 1992-94 1994-96 1984-86 1994-96 1984-86 NORTH AMERICA (1 18,959) (108,419) (764 573 2 8 8 65 t It X X It I 22,863 38 Canada 125.074, (23,158) (992) (594) 44 52 79 78 2,984 3,058 3 9 ,0 59 2,0 c:EiJTuLAAi, 1L S 2, 2Ir3 as I I- ill I 1 Costa Rica 132 521 107 3 195 394 30 51 2,595 2,779 92 95, 3,429 329 22,392 91 OCub 2,249 1,536 0 5 459 677 0 0 3, 33 2,504 74 56 1,877 (42 51 5,425 (12) Cominican Rep 408 995 129 4 199 292 40 63 2,304 2 225 50 SI 4,034 11 5 99845 9 Ha 5 2 393 a 109 104 144, 225 3 3 2,025 1,72 1 0 1< 929 s9.2) 3,91 5 0 Honduras 100 275 119 59 140 152 23 54 2,133 2,3 52 51 55 1,435 3.9 3,5306 0 Jasnaca 431 439 152 95 7, P9 ~,75 29 39 2,575 2,652 93 97 ~ ,374 (2775) 15,291 20 Panama 113 253 1 2 140 179 29 43 2,395 2,420 9' 65 2,079 234 5 739 129) zC,uiMur.lAfuCs ,. J, I.r 12 ti ? ii ii. Si 359 2-3 4- Bolivia 353 297 237 149 179 139 40 33 2,059 2,190 53 59 1 551 191 5,505 4 Braz 4,992 9,129 7 19 115 120 55 54 2,530 2,797 92 99 2,393 277 13,020 7 n,ile 929 1,039 14 1 140 139 30 39 2,574 2,735 99 79 L,409 31 9 14,999 5 Guyana 1~~~~~~~42) 11391 0 3 9 75 5 9 2,512 2 010 94 94 3,907 9 I 10577 32 Paragiay 52 ~ 49) 5 1 112 95 1 2 2,534 2,372 73 74 2,137 259 6 4,044 i3) Peru 1,349 2,025 212 299 153 220 23 42 2,143 2,121 55 54 2,915 19.2 9,195 10 Armen a, Rep 9 452 0 307 a 377 50 21 5 10564 5 57 1,431 9 13,043 0, Azerbajan 51 929 0 221 5 195 49 00 X5 2,293 11 70 1,599 0 11,599 x Banglacdesh 2,219 1.539 1,395 809 115 ~09 0 0 1,954 2,C23 42 44 2,902 179 105635 51 China 10,949 109987 200 199 103 123 19 2,991 3,092 59 59 49673 1996 19,593 9 Ceorg a 15 732 9 479 9 352 51 29 X1 2,249 7 65 1,951 55 139624 11 sadra 1,452 (2,5901 279 304 101 99 2 4 2,157 2,397 54 59 2,136 29 0 19,939 15 Iraq 4,07 7 1,299 0 93 309 153 29 19 3,172 2,294 94 53 717 131 2) 19,102 13) Isiae 1,53 7 2,51 2 9 0 749 1,524 59 40 3,1310 3,119 194 105 1,424 r14.3) 37,055 13' Japan 29,597 29,275 i397) )522r 271 312 49 54 2,903 2,590 99 95 5,119 356 29,990 7 Korea, Dern Peope's Sep 131 90L 0 270 102 122 3 0 2,991 2,51 0 94 SI 3,472 (Is191 12,059 '91 Korea, Rap 9,445 11,907 0 3 171 270 35 54 3,093 3,229 01 94 5,913 0 3 20,090 (9: Kuwmaa 481 474 4 0 29,710 20,999 45 42 3,070 29 10 33 93 4,937 2 3 19 434 7 Lebanon 509 724 25 9 1,929 1,097 27 43 2,909 3,275 79 93 1.999 31I 7 2 3,041 15 Vnalaysia 2,192 3,912 0 0 229 297 39 59 2,709 2,792 59 55 3,052 12.9 9,701 4 40,go~ a 19 91 0 12 '02 129 0 0 2,399 1,9 17 79 57 733 ~ 73 1 7,505 'SOr Oman 75 0 11 1 100 100 0 0 0 5 51 5 2,190 27 9 22,917 4 Pak stan (715) 1,101 455 53 09 105 3 4 2,1 77 2359 53 SI 1,943 1496 14 233 22 Pih lipppres f524 2,590 101 39 114 119 19 31 2,191 2,370 51 55 2,293 19 7 9,990 0 Sri Lanka 910 1 092 344 269 145 150 0 0 2.295 2,242 47 49 2,599 ill 4) 9,903 I17 Syr an Arab Rep 1,591 479 33 35 172 139 29 21 3,245 3,245 99 55 '.990 459 198,710 9 Tajikntar, Rep 9x 539 9 131 9 399 36 19 X1 2,190 75 99 1,109 1 00 0 22.309) 100 TIkrrmen sa,a, Rep 5 599 7 53 a 155 42 37 9 2,99 1 5X s0 2,570 100 3 4,903 00o J-ited Arab Emn,ates 295 599 0 0 5,244 10,3962 25 15 3,009 3,323 104 102 7,529 399 ' 9,741 42 Uzbekrstan, Rep 15 1,703 3 0 51 '99 40 19 X5 2,599 55 79 1,762 0 10,159~8 Vretlamr 299 11. 729) 19 52 102 90 0J 0 2,249 2,302 50 55 3,533 23 3 6,933 hr) .-.Cc ''i 21 'i 3? 21131ŽI 12 1-3r iiI ', , Fr1 99 149 1 3 475 905 0 0 2,571 3,023 94 73 2,533 11 01 5,532 1901 Nsea,Zea and rid];) 272 0 0 95 135 45 37 3,1 53 3,3 14 37 103 5,359 137 29.212 1171 Papne Nem On nec 204 293 0 0 7,344 9,3296 0 0 2,1567 2,237 34 49 1,6999 3001 7,073 (II -Solomon slands ----,-13 -25 0 0 - 23 0 0 15 0 2,229 2,349 57 44 5 9 7,51- DEVELOPING 72,135 85,968 It It It It It It 2,436 2,555 38 84 2,898 14.5 11,617 8 DEVELOPED (78,402) X It It It It 65 64 3,260 3,223 72 98 3,183 6.9 16,570 (5) Notes a Data fas 1 992-94 7. Cama for 1993-94 cData for Beigrum and I.u,embnnrur rei combined undeer Belqnnm ~myosts aid (nod a.d reca ptn are shonos as posit va an,mbrs ecpotsa ann (nod aid nonatrons a'e shown as negative numnbers in pareantesas Woarld ard req ona toalas nclude some countr en not sand here World Resources 1998-99 289 Sources and Technical Notes some cases, trade figures include goods purchased Food and Agricultural Agricultural Land and Inputs, by a country that are reexported to a third country without ever entering the purchasing country. For Production, 1984-96 1982-94 information on the definition used by a particular Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the Sources: Food and Agriculture Organization of the country, see the FAO Trade Yearbook 1996 (FAO, United Nations (FAO), FAOSTAT Statistical United Nations (FAO), FAOSTAT Statistical Rome, 1997). Data base (FAO, Rome, 1997). Database (FAO, Rome, 1997). Per capita figures: Average annualdonations or receipts of cereals re- Indexes of agricultural produiction andfood pro- United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, W47orld fers to the donation or concessional sale of food duction portraythe disposable output (after deduc- Populfation Prospects, 1950-2050 (The 1996 Revi- commodities. Cereals include wheat, rice, coarse tion for feed and seed) of a country's agriculture sion), on diskette (U.N., New York, 1996). grains, bulgur wheat, wheat flour, and the cereal sector relative to the base period 1989-91. For a Cropland refers to land under temporary and component of blended foods. Food aid data are re- given year and country, the index is calculated as permanentcrops,temporarymeadows,marketand ported by donor countries and international or- the disposable average output of a commodity in kitchen gardens, and temporarily fallow land. Per- ganizations and are shown as eith-r positive or terms of weight or volume during the period of in- manent cropland is land under crops that do not negative numbers: receipts are shown as positive terest multiplied bv the 1989-91 average national need to be replanted after each harvest, such as co- nurmbers and donations as negative numbers in pa- producer price per unit. The index represents the coa, coffee, fruit trees, rubber, and vines. Human rentheses.Forcountriesthatarebothrecipientsand total value of the commodity for that period in population data used to calculate hectares per cap- donors of food aid, donationswere subtracted from terms of the 1989-91 price. The values of all crop ita are for 1994. For trends in cropland area, see receipts. and livestock products are totaled to yield an aggre- Data Table 11.4. Irrigated land as a percentage of gated value of agricultural production in 1989-91 croplauzd refers to areas purposely provided with Grainsfed to livestock as a percen; of total grain prices. The ratio of this aggregate for a given vear to water, including land flooded by river water for crop conlsumption was calculated using USDA grain con- that for 1989-91 is multiplied by 100 to obtain the production or pasture improvement, swhether or sumption and feed numbers. Grains include wheat, index number. not this area is irrigated several times or only once rice (milled weight), corn, barley sorghum, millet, The multiplication of disposable outputs with during the year. rye, oats, and mixed grains. Grain crnsumption is the 1989-91 unit value eliminates inflationary or Annualfertilizer use refers to the application of the total domestic use during the local marketing deflationarv distortions. However, the base period,s nutrients in terms of nitrogen (N), phosphate yearoftheindividualcountry.tisth sum offeed relative prices among the individual commodities (P105), and potash (K,O). The fertilizer year is July food, seed, and industrial uses. are also preserved. Especially in economies with 1-June 30. Average daily per capita calorie supply and aver- high inflation, price patterns among agricultural Tractors generally refer to wheeled and crawler age daily per capita protein supply are from FAO commodities can change dramatically over time. tractors used in agriculture. Garden tractors are ex- food balance sheets. Figures are arri-ed at by add- The continental and wvorld index values for a cluded. Harvesters refer to harvesters and thresh- ing values from all food sources: domestic produc- given vear are calculated by totaling the disposable ers, tion, international trade, stock draw-downs, and outputs of all relevant countries for each agricul- For more information, please refer to the foreign aid. The quantity of food available for hu- tural commodity Each of these aggregates is multi- FAQSTAT Statistics Database at: http://Nwvftao.org. man consumption, as estimated by the FAO, is the plied by a respective 1989-91 average "interna- amount that reaches the consumer. The calories tional" producer price and then summed to give a E and protein actually consumed may be lower than total agricultural output value for that region or for the Figures shown, depending on how much is lost the world in terms of 1989-91 prices. This method Food Security, 1982-97 during home storage, preparation, and cooking, avoids distortion caused by the use of international Sources: Trade, food aid, calorie-supply, protein- and how much is fed to pets and domestic animals exchange rates. The agricultural production index supply, and vield data: Food and Agriculture Or- or discarded. includes all crop and livestock products originating ganization of the United Nations (FAO), FAOSTAT Crop yields (overageyield of cereals and average in each country. The food production index covers Statistical Database (FAO, Rome, 1997). Population )yield ofroots and tubers per unit area) .re calculated all edible agricultural products that contain nutri- data: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, from production and area data. Area refers to the ents. Coffee and tea are excluded. W'orld Population Prospects. 1950-2050 (The 1996 Averageproduction of cereals includes cereal pro- Revision), on diskette (U.N., New York, 1996). Feed barley, sorghum, millet, rye, oats, and other grains duction for feed and seed. Cereals comprise all ce- data: Economic Research Service, U.S. Department as m grains and buckwhat.t and tu- reals harvested for dry grain, exclusive of crops cut of Agriculture (USDA), PSeID lView, online data suchasmixedgrainsandbuckivheatE>ootsandtu- for hay or harvested green. Average production of (USDA, Washington, D.C., 1997). bers include all root crops grown principally for roots atid tubers covers all root crops grown princi- Figures shown for food trade are net imports or human consumption, including yautia and arrow- pally for human consumption, such as cassava, exports. Exports svere subtracted from imports. root. Root crops grown principally for feed-such rucca, taro, and yams; root crops grown principallv Trade in cereals includes wheat and wheat flour as turnips, mangels, and swedes-are excluded. for feed are excluded. Average production of pulses rice, barley, maize, rye, and oats. For more information, please refer to the includes those harvested for dry harvest onlv, such Two definitions of trade are used by countries FAOSTAT Statistical Database at: http://www.fao. as lentils, pigeon peas, cowpeas, and vetches, and reporting trade data. "Special trade" refers only to org. A PS&D (Production, Supply, and Distribu- does not exclude those used for feed. imports for domestic consumption and exports of tion) view of USDA can be found at For more information, please refer to FAOSTAT domestic goods. "General trade" encompasses total http:l//l-vw.mannlib.cornell.edu/data-sets/inter- Statistical Database at: http://wwtv.fao.org. imports and total exports, including reexports. In national/93002/. 290 World Resources 1998-99 FORESTS AND LAND COVER Forests and Land Cover World Resources 1998-99 291 Data Table 1 1.1 Forest Cover and Change, and Forest Industry Structure, 1980-95 Source5: Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United Nations sod International Topical Tiu,b, Orgoi,ti.n Forest Area Forest Industry Total Forest Natural Forest Plantat'ions ja3 Structure J) Average Annual Average Annual Average No. of No. of Exte nt Extent Extent Percent Extent Extent Percent Extent Annual Enter- Employ- 1910 1990 1995 Change 1990 1995 Change 1990 % Change prises ees (00. I) (o 00 ha) (000 ha) 1980-90 1990-95 (000 ha) (000 ha) 1980-90 1990-95 (000 ha) 1980-90 1995 1995 WORLD fcl X 3,510,728 3,454,382 x (0.3) x x x x x x x x 78 520,237 4 1,438 175,718 Algeria 2,236 1, 78 i'86i 1.2) (I 2) 1,493 1,376 (2.6) (I 6) 485 5 x x Angoa 24,922 23,385 22,200 (0.6) (I 0) 23,265 22,080 (O 6) (1.0) 120 1 x x Be n 5,652 4,923 4,625 (1.4) 2) 4,909 4,611 (I 4) (1.3) 14 5 x x Botswana 15,030 14,271 13,917 (0.5) 5) 14,270 13,916 (0.5) (O S) 1 0 x x Burkina Faso 4,744 4,431 4,271 8 x x Burundi 260 324 317 2 2 0.4) 232 225 (0.6) (O 6) 92 x Camer on 21,573 20,244 19,598 (O 6) (0.6) 20,228 19,582 (0.6) (0.6) 16 14 414 113,235 Central African Rec 31,854 30,571 29,930 (0.4) (O 4) 30,565 29,924 (O 4) IC 4) 6 48 x x Chad 12,322 11,496 1 i'025 (D 7) 0'8) 11,492 11,021 (O 7) (c 8) 4 6 x x 2,946 106,245 10 x 21i,000 d C. 20,20G 19,745 19,537 (3.2) (O 2i 19,708 19,5(0 (0.2 (3.2) 37 iz x 6,000 d C 12,128 5,623 5,469 (7 7) (O 6) 5,560 5,403 (7 8) (0.6) 63 7 276 14,000 Egypt 28 34 34 1 8 co 0 0 0.0 00 34 2 x x Equatorial Guinea 1,899 1,829 1,781 (O 4) a 5) 1,826 1,778 (0.4) (O S) 3 0 x x __rltrea x 282 282 x 0.0 233 233 x 00 x x x x Ethiop a e] 14,621 13,891 13,579 x (0.5) 13,751 13,439 x (0.5) 189 10 x x Gabon 19,411 18,314 17,859 (0.6) (O 5) 18,293 17,838 (0.6) (O 5) 2 1 5 330 29,938 Gannbia, The 106 95 91 1 1) (o 9) 94 90 (i 1) (O 9) 1 0 x x Ghana 10,973 9,608 9,022 (1.3) (1 3) 9,555 8,969 (I 3) (1.3) 53 2 411 7S,500 Girrea 5 x x Gu nea-B S5au 2,181 2,361 2'409 0.8 (O 4) 2,360 2,308 0.8 (O 4) 1 0 x x Kenya 1,358 1,309 1,292 (O 4) (O 3) 1,191 1,174 OLS) (O 3) 118 1 x x Lesotho 1 6 6 14 6 ( 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 7 16 x x Liber a 4,892 4,641 4,507 (0.5) (O 6) 4,635 4,501 (O 5) (O 6) 6 1 5 2,000 d __L   290 400 400 i9c 0 a 0 0 210 7 x x Madagascar 14,889 (i 0) M 9) 21 7 2 x Malawi 4,067 3,612 3,3 39 (1.2) 1 61 3,486 3,213 0 4 (1-6) 126 8 x x Ma 13,208 12,1 54 11,585 (O 8) (i 0) 12,140 11,571 0.8) (1.0) 14 27 x x Maurtagia 554 556 S56 0 0 0.0 554 554 0 0 0.0 2 24 x x Maint us 11 12 12 1 2 3.0 9 2 x x Morocco 4,032 3,894 3,835 (O 3) ((.3) 3,573 3,514 (0.6) (O 3) 321 4 x Mozambque 18,701 17,443 16,862 (03) ro 7) 17,415 16,834 (0.7) iO 7) 28 4 x x Namioia 13,OGO 12,594 12,37 4 0 3 0 3 2'5S4 12,374 (03 (C, 3) 0 x x N ge, 2,554 2,562 2,562 0.0 0 0 2,550 2,550 0 0 0.0 12 10 x x Senegal 8,072 7,629 7,381 (O 6) (O 7) 7,517 7,269 (C. 7) (O 7) 112 25 x x Serra Leone 2,01 5 1,522 1,309 (2 3) (3.0) 1,516 1,303 2.8) (3 0) 6 3 x x Somalia 786 760 754 (O 3) (0.2) 756 750 (0.3) (O 2) 4 0 x x Soutq Africa 2 x x Sudan 47,909 43,376 41,613 (I 0) (O 8) 43,173 41,410 (1.0) (C 8) 203 6 x Svvaz land 14S 146 146 0.0 0 ( 74 74 0 0 0.0 72 0 x x Tanza iia 38,004 34,123 3 2,51 C (I. 1) (I 0) 33,969 32,356 (I 1) (1.0) 154 8 x x Togo 1,576 1,338 1,245 (l 6) (1 4) 1,317 1,224 1.8) (1 5) 17 12 2 45 Tunisia 521 570 555 369 354 8 x x Uganda 7,011 6,400 6,104 (O 9) (O 9) 6,380 6,084 (0.9) (1 0) 20 0 x Zambia 35,958 32,720 31,398 (O 9) (0.8) 32,677 31,355 (0.9) (O 8) 48 6 x x Zmbao,ve 0,6) 84 2 x x EUROPE x 144,044 145,988 x 0.3 x x Aiban a x 1,046 1,046 x 0 0 x x x x x x x x A'str a x 3,877 3,877 x 0 0 x x x x x x x x Bela,,_,s, Rep x 7,028 7,372 x 1.0 x x x x x x x x Belgium x 709 709 x 0.0 x x x x x x x x x 0 C x x x x x X x Buigara x 3,237 3,240 x 0 0 x x x x x x x x Croatia, Rep x 1,82 5 1,825 x 0 C) x x x x X x x x Czech Rep x 2,629 2,630 x ( 0 x x x x x x x x Denmark x 417 417 x 0 0 x x x x x x x x x i 0 x x x x x x x x F n and x 20,112 20,029 x 0 1) x x x x x x x x F,ance x 14,230 15,034 x I 1 x x x x x x x x Germany x 1 0,740 10,740 x 0.0 x x x x x x x Greece x 5,809 6,513 x 2.3 x A x x x x x x H.nqa,,/ x 1, x x x x x x X_ Ice and x 11 11 x 0.0 x x x x x x x x Ire and x 500 570 x 2 6 x x x x x x x x ay x 6,467 6,496 x ( I Y, x x x x x x x Latv a, Rep x 2,757 2,882 x 0 9 x x x x x x x x Lthuan,a, Rep x 1,920 1,9 x x x x x x x Macedonia, FYR x 989 988 x (0.0) x x x x x X x 77- Moldova, Rep x 357 357 x 0.0 x X X x x x x x Netherlands x 334 334 x 0.0 x x x x x x x x Norway x 7,938 8 073 X 0 3 x x x x x X x x 72 8,732 x x x x x x Portugal x 2,755 2,875 x 0 9 x x x x x Romania X 6,252 6,246 x (O 0) x x x x x x x x Russ an Federation x 763,500 763,50C x 0 0 x x x x x x x x S ovak Rep x 1,977 1,989 x 0.1 x x x x x x x x _Si 77 x 00 x x x Spa n x 8,388 8,388 x 0.0 x x x x x Sweden x 24,437 24.42 5 x (0.0) x x x x x x x x S-tzer and x 1 130 1,130 x 0 0 x x x x x x x x Uk,a ne x 9,213 9,240 x 0 1 x x x x x x x x Un ted Kingdom x 2,326 2,390 x 0.5 x x x x x x x x Yjqoslavia, 0 x x x x x x x A 292 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 1 1.1 continued FORESTS AND LAND COVER Forest Area Forest Industr Total Forest Natural Forest Plantations (a) Structure (b) Average Annual Average Annual Average No. of No. of Extent Extent Extent Percent Extent Extent Percent Extent Annual Enter- Employ. 1980 1990 1995 Change 1990 1995 Change 1990 % Change prises ees (00h)(000 ha) ( 00 h) 980-90 1990-95 (000 ha) (000 ha) 1980-90 1990-95 (000 ha) 1980-go_ 1995 -1995 Pir,PT. AME1Rrc(. .is 3 2 7 .1s'uO a uC2 1'*. CElJrAAL9rilEgIC~~~~~ 063a4 5~4' 2E 7IiCi I ra ., II' 8. 1 , u ,s2 i 50 I is lus '133 CE A E- C aj 3 - ,, I`- I. C osta Rica 1,925 1,455 1,248 (2 8) (3.') 1,427 1,220 (3.0) (311 28 27 X 21 Cuba 1,398 1,960 1,842 (0.2) ( 12) 1,715 1,597 (1 0) (I14) 245 5 )( 2 Dom n.can Rep 1,432 1,714 1,582 1 8 (1 6) 1,707 1,575 1.8 (1 6) 7 6 21 2 H-ait 38 25 21 (4.3) (3 5) 17 13 18 11 (5.2) 8 33 X X Honduras 5,720 4,526 4,11 5 (2.11 (2 3( 4,623 4,112 (2 1( (2.3) 3 24 21 10,030 d Jamaica 5~6 254 175 7 11 (7.5) 239 160 (7.5) (89 15 5 21 X Panama 3,764 3,118 2,800 (19) (2 2) 3,112 2,794 (1 9) 12 21 6 9 .4 363 IruT A - R. -I -5 8a a 615: 4 I 1. . I IF. , 6 -3 6 55,582 51,217 48,310 (0 8) 11.2) 51,189 48,282 ( 1 ) ( 2) 2 " 0OC Brazl1 600,762 563,911 551,139 10.61 (0.5) 559,011 546,239 (0 7) 40 51 4,900 5 X 400,(000 d Cni e 8,087 8,038 7,892 10 11 (0.4) 7,023 6,877 (0.8) (0 41 1,315 8 21 2 Guy'ana 18,597 18,620 18,577 0.0 1O001 18,612 18,569 00 (0.0) 8 29 529 13,320 Paraguay 16,886 13,160 11.527 (2.5) 12 61 13,151 11,518 12 51 (2.7) 9 15 21 ( Peru 70,714 68.546 67,562 (0 3) (0.31 68,462 67,378 10 31 (0.3) 184 7 367 219,250 Venezu,ela 51,78 4.91 43 .995 111) (t1 48 259 43,742 ) 1(( 253 11 41 45ArA J9ui612 4112 ?-I-I 5'i. 606 61, ?z I 1', ii, IFi .1 555 zli2017 Armen a,Reo 21 292 334 40 2 7 11 21 21 21 21 X Azerba.jan 0 990 990 A1 0 0 1 21 21 4 21 2 A1 Bangladresh 1,238 1,054 1.010 118) (0 9) 819 700 (33) 13 1) 235 7 21 X China 128,398 133,756 1 33,323 08 6 10. 1) 101,925 99.523 (0.4) 1091) 31,831 4 X 21 Georg.a 21 2,988 2,988 21 00 X X 1 21 1 21 21 2 India 58,259 64.969 65,005 1.1 0 0 51 739 50,385 10 61 (0.6) 13,230 14 21 500,000d Indnoesia __24jj,47 115.213 109,791 (0.8 1 0 109,088~ 103,866 1 1 10 ,25 8 2 0 000 ITrran-, lam,c Rep~ 2,016 1.986 1,544 (1.8) (1 8) 1,607 1,465 (2 1) (1 9) 79 10 212 Iraq 83 83 83 0 0 0 0 69 69 00a 0.3 14 a 11 2 Jsrae 21 102 102 X 0 0 21 21 1 21 1 .0 21 Japan 21 25,212 25,146 X (0 1) X 21 11 ( 1 21 21 1 Korea, Dem Peope's Rep 9,400 6,170 6,170 1.3 0 0 4,700 4,700 0 0 0.2 1,470 7 1 21 Korea, Rep 6,304 7.691 7.626 2 0 10 2) 6,291 6,228 1001I (0 2) 0 0 21 21 Kuwait 0 5 5 33 8 00a 0 0 00a 03 5 34 21 21 ac Reopen s em Rep 14,470 13,177 1 2,435 10 91 (1.2.. .I a Lebanon 84 78 52 (0 71 (8.1) 65 39 (0.8) (10 31 13 0 21 21 Malaysia 21,564 17,472 1 5,471 (2 11 12.4) 17,391 15.371 (2.1) (2 51 8 ~ 15 3,499 204,163 Mongol a 9,406 9,406 9,406 0 0 0 0 9.406 9,406 0 0 0.0 0 0 21 21 _MLan ar 3L2,01 29,088 27, 151 (1.2) 114 .- ..II . . 109 13,224 Nepa 5,580 5,096 4,822 (0 9) (I111 . - .- 2 21 Oman 21 0 0 11 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 21 Pakistan 2,749 2.023 1,748 13 11 (259) 1,895 1,580 (3 5) 13 21 168 3 21 21 Ph ipp nes 11,194 8.078 6,766 13 31 (3.5) 7,875 5,563 (3.3) 1356) 203 0 203 204.650 Saudi Arabia 248 231 222 10(71 (0a 230 221 (0.7) 10 81 I 0 211 ngqaporn 4 4 4 0 00 4 4 0 7 (1 4) 0 0 21 21 Sri Lanka 2,094 1,897 1,796 (1 0) (11) 'i ,758 1.657 (1 4) (1 2) 139 6 0 0 SynianArab Rep 191 245 219 2.5 12 21 118 92 13 2) (5 0) 127 15 21 21 Taj,k,5tan, Rep 21 410 410 21 00 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 Thuila-id 18,123 ,3j277 11630 (31) 126 2748 1,0 (31 (256) 529 8 45 6002 Tnrkej 21~ ~~~~~~ ~~ 8,856 8.856 21 00 X 21 21 1 21 21 21 Turknen stan Reo 21 3,754 3,754 21 00 21 21 21 X 21 21 21 21 Jnited Arab Emirates 1 60 60 46 6 0.0 0 0 0.0 0 0 60 47 21 21 Uzbekistan, Rep 21 7,989 9,119 21 2.6 21 21 21 21 21 21 V etnam 10,653 9,793 9,117 (0 9) (I 4) 5,323 7,647 (1 5) (1 71 1,470 4 3 21 '2CEA.leA c1 1.15 c1,66 so 1 1 Sat .11 -'i2 6 1 0 1.16. 6 1,0 isioS Fi 839 853 835 0 2 (0.4) 775 757 (0 51 (0 5) 78 10 48 3.800 N'ewmZealand 11 7,667 7.854 21 06 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 Papua News Guinea 37,149 37,605 36,939 01 (0.4) 37,575 36,909 01 10 41 30 7 712 156,050 Solonnon hiamd5 2.453 2,412 2,399 101 (.) 234 231 (.) (2 6 2 21 21 TiROPICAL REG`IONS 1,930.,061 1,79-6,927 1,733.959 (0.7) (0.7) 1,766,116 1,701,989 (0.8) (0.7) 30,801 9 X X NONTROPICAL REGIN .13,801 1.720,423 X 0.1 X X X X X X X X Nlotes: a Plantation figu.res for 1995 are approxiimatn ythe differernce between total ann natural fo-est Toey are not included in this tabIe because FAO consders tnerr lobe unrel able O On y inc udes Internat o-ta Trop ca T inner Organizat on0(ITT0) oroducer countries c Wor d and regonal rota s nclune conuntr es not sled n ITT0 estimate e, 1 980 figures inc ude Ertrrea f nciudes Luxembourg World Resources 1998-99 293 - 0 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ f;- -~~~~~~~~~~~~~> 3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IA rD CIO~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~ - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~sc . . . . . . . .0 .. . 0. 000- 010. 00 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I - . . . . . . . . .. .-.0-.I, o 0. . . .o.0. . . . :,oXXoxc : ~ - i -- - - 15 C :Ioo ooox ooojo 0 0 - 0 01 -.0 0S. U I o ~~~17 / Iv oo ooooot 00000 .7 -c- ,ooo101>00 0XX0X0000O00000>0 0X0000.1> 0XIo o ..000 - I x x I. 40. aX =f. 1 I = , . n . - - - - -. - - -. I I . X . . X a X .--.~:..~--0 -J 0.000 C7a: =~ . I _ . _. I I . X . I - X a * j i 2 ! I ; E4 1>0000 h i 1 a~~~~~~~oc -fz - 0 0 11 O OI ' I 0 , _ .0a 010 m - >. = >5 > 00 0 m .0 - 0>.. 0 0 I I~~~~~~~ 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~0 E <1 I 0 aa 7 20 I , .1>~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0 10.- 1>0 1> 1090~~~-ru 22 0 -- >0~~~~~~~~~~~~ Data Table 11.3 Wood Production and Trade, 1983-95 Source: Food and Agriculture Grganiearioe of the United Nation Average Annual Roundwood Production Average Annual Production Average Annual Net Trade in Roundwood Total Fuel and Charcoal industrial Roundwood Sawnwood Paper Quantity {a) Balance cf Trade {b) Cubic Percent Cubic Percent Cubic Percept Cubic Percent Metric Percent Cubic Percent Percent Meters Change Meters Change Meters Change Meters Change Tons Change Meters Change Value Change (OtO) Since (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (million US$) Since 1993-95 1983-85 1993-95 1983-85 1993-95 1983-85 1993-95 1983485 11993-95 1983-85 1993-95 '1983-85 1993-95 1983-95 WORLD (ci 3,374,1100 9 1,891,608 17 1,482,492 (1) 430,894 (6) 272,082 46 AFRICA 567,133 33 502,378 34 64,754 23 8,76t 18,,,,,,,3~~~~~8ft,,,,3jJ~71flj~~9 988744 222 Algeria 2,499 35 2,091 29 408 81 13 0 86 ~271 SI (79) 114,133) (57) Aogela 6,794 32 5,830 33 964 2t 5 a0 0 (II 3,926 £12 9,563 Boo n 5,725 36 5,413 36 312 44 24 227 21 1 (11 21 33 21 Botswana 1,538 39 1,443 36 96 39 21 X 21 21 21 21 . Bu,rkina Faso 9,770 31 9,328 31 442 30 2 00 V V VV Burundi 49828 36 4.723 35 104 145 21 Cameroon 15,253 30 1 2,065 32 3,197 24 1,268 13£ 5 0 (991i) 62 156,3 51 2£? Central Alicac Rep 3,795 10 3,250 15 545 13 68 13 2< 2 (62) (24) 186,674 33 Chad 4,407 26 3,273 26 833 29 2 133 21 21 21 X 21 COle d mvoire 14,296 18 11,204 44 3,094 :29) 667 17) 21 3711 ( 16 53,160 169) Egypt 2,643 27 2,520 27 123 27 21 2 223 65 262 (111 (168,4710) (621 Equator ai Guinea 721 26 447 0 274 122 5 183) 21 21 (213) 160 29,07 229 Gabon 4,717 36 2,813 35 1,905 37 165 59 10 21 (1,2551 5 343,682 241 Gambia, Th-e 1,206 41 1,094 31 112 442 1 0 21 1 0 21 1361 21 Gonna 25,990 59 24,331 56 ,660 67 727 141 21 21 (4471 413 66,131 1,260 Keenva 40,353 42 36,462 42 1.691 25 165 7 132 81 101 69) 35 (961 Lesctno 690 32 690 32 21 1 21 21 21 21 21 2 2 nieona 6,181 45 5,220 36 961 01l 60 1441 21 21 1600) 171 69,62C 149 Malaw, 10,196 56 9,669 55 527 70 45 133 21 21 01 21 21 21 Ma.1 6,34 36 5,537 36 404 36 13 151 21 2 0 21 )143r 21 Mainr,rana 13 33 6 33 3 33 21 21 21 10) 1) 96 21 Maurrt us 16 (1) M 0 9 4 172 21 9 841 (2,146) 750 Morocco 2,263 14 1,432 14 631 13 63 (291 153 1 424 103 (57,0871 152 Molocamb que 17.852 19 16,844 20 1.358 8 34 (61 1421 113c1 630 1,202 62 Narrniba t 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 N ger 5,672 38 6,322 36 355 39 4 5 21 2 0 21 0 21 Senega 5,i07 25 4,405 23 702 36 23 541 0 21 33 14 (3,947, 9 S ern Leone 3,249 23 3,126 25 124 (12) 5 (631 4 21 :5 6 21 Somal a 6,648 19 6,543 19 lOS 13 14 0 21 21 0 (100) 0 1100) Swacltand 1466 (341 560 0 936 (45) 75 (27) 21 > 0 21 21 1 Tanzania 35,680 36 33,533 36 2,147 57 29 (71) 25 21 191 1,429 1,716 3,203 Togo 2,063 175 163~6 207 217 47 8 301 21 5 16 '3181 26 (126) Zamara 14,422 39 13,331 35 1,061 111 35: 601 3 1201 (301 (443) 1,286 1223) 442 ti., ties i( i] li :1 ,, U1 Austra 14,074 0 3,156 80 10,518 (II) 7,367 15 3.501 80 5,727 76 (255,824) 200 Bearus, Roy 1 0,020 21 614 21 9,206 21 1,645 21 146 21 (1731 St (6,745) 21 Be g mn )J 4,2 55 36 350 2 3,705 43 1,201 57 1,108 31 2,626 0 177,994) 26 Ctoat a, Rep 2.674 21 903 It 1,772 21 630 21 192 11 12321 21 (t 7,9611 21 Czech Rep 1 ,766 21 779 21 1 0,976 21 3,200 21 694 21 12~060 21 (93,8231 21 Denma-k 2,286 1131 464 30 1,804 (20) 583 (31) 343 6 204 (1201 (11.856) (1981 France 43,086 (1 10,466 0 32,630 15 9,6894 9 6,432 58 1662) (66) (50,674) 70 Germnany 37,312 21 3,796 21 33,5 7 21 13,036 21 14,106 21 (3,922) 21 (60,639) 21 Greece 2.467 114) 1,293 133) 1,374 34 337 6 750 164 36 (81) 1901 (I100) Ireland 2,014 70 60 3) 1,964 7~ 685 142 0 (100) (400) 28 5,362 169 Italy 9,406 4 5 2 3 12 4,192 :4 1,766 (22) 6,569 44 6,593 24 1635,360) 73 Lat,ra, Rep 6,650 10 1 146 21 4,704 21 869 21 7 21 :2,536) 21 (866265) 21 Mv6otoa, Rep 21 21 1 1 1 21 21 21 21 16 21 659 21 Nether aeds 1,076 12 (79 54 889 3 399 3~ 2,944 58 86 (59) (36,665) 39 Naorwvay 6,163 (51 466 (44) 6,697 (2) 2,383 4 2,120 41 2,656 152 (146,1 581 266 Romanoa 11,653 50) 2,527 (451 9,132 (511 1.988 (56) 337 166) 5 11061 1,006) (1931 Russian Federatlon (33,566 21 33,413 21 100.143 21 32,770 21 3,980 21 (12,965) 21 1722,174) 4 S ova< Reon 6,297 9 516 21 4,779 21 632 21 310 21 (714) 21 128,406) 21 Swneden 56,757 8 3,624 (14) 52,933 10 13,771 16 9,078 35 5,452 90 (253,3661 (67 Sm tzer(and 4,61 5 842 2) 3,789 7 1,403 (15) 1,411 45 (148) 1 881 47,567 1,608 Ukraine 21 1 21 21 21 2 21 21 12) 21 (962) 21 lJnaed Krmgdcn 7,956 56 250 77 7,697 63 2,197 36 5,777 65 607 11,3191 (10~,413) 606 Yurjosla,ia, Fen Reo 860 c 33 21 647 21 _430_ 21 21 (32) Ic (1,909) 21 296 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 11.3 continued FORESTS AND LAND COVER Average Annual Roundwood Production Average Annual Production Average Annual Net Trade in Roundwood Total Puel and Charcoal industrial Roundwood Sawnwood- Paper Quantity (a) Balance of Trade (hi cubic Percent Cubic Percent Cubic Percent Cubic Percent Metric Percent Cubic Percent Percent Meters Change Meters Change Meters Change Meters Change Tons Change Meters Change Value Change (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (000) Since (million US$1 Since 1993-95 1983-85 1093-go 1983-85 1993-95 1983-95 1993-95 1983-85 1993-g5 1983-85 1993-95 1983-85 1993-95 1983-85 1`j06T. AM,ERiC4 694 2v 11 a9 69zo :1 3 UJRP GOt 14- 2)6. 2.4 :63 46)j J6 II] 391' 1251 6Ž1 6)1 66 CEIjECA4L ARAERCiC iv tSr; Ž6i ir 5.'d 26 ivI- IJI 4 J110v 26 2 8,Ž6 16 05' 72; Ii C's1 12 I tezen 196 19 126 4 62 64 14 (51 1) X 13) 743 342 326 Costa Rica 4,550 34 3,287 33 1,263 46 776 105 20 51 8 1,417 (543) 266 Cuba 318 (41 2,537 16) 611 17 130 23 57 (53) 0 (991 12) (130) Demniscan Ren 982 1 976 6 0 X 4 7 (26) 9 1751 (598) 198) Halt, 6,294 21 6,055 22 239 0 14 0) 4 . I Y 1751 4 Hnennias 6,306 28 5,703 35 603 (14; 324 (27; 3 1< (681 2,06 1 13,140 2,298 Jamaica 7/2 19 679 27 63 (30) 19 (34; 2 (881 16 1,6(1 (4,1691 1,290 Mexece 2211 1639 4 6,09 (IS) 2527 26 2670_ 21 (286) 12,389) 1L4,505 606 \icaraga 3,662 19 3,530 36 132 173) 55 (70) 4 / 1,381 (116) 292 Panama 1,053 11 635 22 116 134) 37 (23) 28 (24) 10 f2341 (970) 373 srJulrk PiMEACHC 352- 945 Ž 2%,3 21 1614 59 2 9 I S ) 9io 1 ; 119 I71 Argentmna 1 1,756 4 5,5159 (41 6,236 13 1,053 7 943 5 1762) (1 0,1761 49,61 5 (3,6221 BeIsra 2,432 92 ,296 23 1,134 434 235 346 0 1103; (12) 1K 5,393 4 Braz 280,572 22 197,395 23 83,1 77 26 18,803 7 5,646 51 11,225) 113,816) 64,852 11,276) Chile 30,962 103 9,859 54 21:103 139 3,280 70 551 53 16,848) 541 308,097 762 Colombia 20,240 15 7,504 20 2,7365 7 661__ 0 852 63 (7) 3 93 Eciader 8,470 ~~~ ~ ~~27 475 9 3.735 59 1,165 12) 88 159 1371 0 3,211 1K Gujana 417 109 34 113 363 109 76 17 11 4 1161 15 1,979 Ill Paraguay 0,061 37 6,210 32 3,643 46 357 152) 13 15 (31 3 65 8 Pers 11,399 45 9,423 45 1,676 47 630 30 158 9 1 70 1971 I37) Armer a, Rep 1K 8 X 8 5 K X 10 11 1 0 X (II 0 Azerlbajan 4 4 X 0 4 4 '1 11 10 I (1) 3 82 3 Bangladesh 31,353 20 30,627 22 726 1291 79 1431 157 17 4 1881 146-31 (841 China (91 330,863 17 202,726 21 96,137 10 2 5,197 12) 25,488 162 4,262 (66) 1733,1361 125) Gee-g a 3 X 4 4 3 a 1K x 10 10 (1 5 391 10 ITscia 294,016 21 269,223 22 24,793 6 17,460 9 2,837 85 272 3,520 (37,277) 3,502 Iraq 157 16 107 29 50 0 6 0 16 142i 3 10 I 3 lssae i13 14) 13 18 150 (71 5 0 239 64 203 35 141,3201 88 Japan 24,608 125) 380 1351 24,308 (241 25,55 3 (121 38,652 48 46,672 13 (7,092,729; 93 Korea, Gem Pee p e's Ren 4,676 9 4,276 11 600 0 2 83 80 3 176) 12621 3,728 11671 Korea, Rep 6,485 (15) 4,491 117) 1,994 110) 3,503 10 6,,372 134 9,342 47 11,187,1991 110 Kuswains 3 4 0 Ic 5 K II 10 4 1 50 23 )2,827) 52 Lebano 497 6 490 9 7 (641 9 1581 42 (71 46 196 (1,5241 361 Mala's a 46,333 17 9,631 29 30,731 i5 8,850 42 634 1,185 18,445) 154) 1,012,700 ~1111 Molngol a 541 1771 326 (72) 165 (64) 157 (67) 0 3 124) 1K 1,472 10 Oman Ic 1 3 10 is 1K 3 10 1 (0) 11011 13271 (691 Pak stan 29,239 43 27,330 42 1,930 65 1,299 119 395 413 116 541 (8,6531 373 Fl- jopines 39,277 (I 35,793 25 3,483 1481 375 168;, 553 97 274 11221 1192,6341 ~28)1 Saud Araba 3 0 5 0 10 3 10 0 4 1 113 (391 (9,6411 173) O egapese 123 10 1~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~20 3 5 1 3 80 (45; (11l5) 15,03j5) 187) Sn, Lanka 5,498 11 8,815 13 683 121 5 (83) 30 35 1 (131) (539) (1211 Syr an Arab Rep 55 8 20 17 35 3 9 0 1 (73) Il 1681 1,78 911 laikistan, ep A1 10 11 3 1 1 4 1 3 4 0 10 X Turkmernstani,Rep 10 x 0 3 10 0 3 1K 3 4 0 10 1 10 Lnten Arab m rates 4 5 3 0 K 10 3 1K 3 5 56 .3 12,5041 .5 .Jzbekrstzn, Rep 10 ) X 10 10 10 10 3 10 3 3 31 / Vietnam 34,213 21 29 813 24 4,399 3 721 85 120 121 )24R) 12.479) 23,765 12,083) GCEAN'~~~~~ 15165 59 6 ~~~~~~~~~5a 2 19 46 s~~~~~c "11 21 lul 21 16 166 1 1 2.I 1 3 3 ¾'j Fji 562 147 37 9 525 172 108 28 X 51 )394i 5,472 16,626 3,61 5 New Zealand 16,482 75 53 0 16,432 75 2,873 31 868 22 (5,4401 384 476,966 1,133 Papia Ne. Guinea 8,955 16 5,533 0 3 422 64 188 52 3 A5 (2,2501 72 545,137 683 So omen [sands 732 29 138 18 584 32 13 1181 3 10 4 / 0 10 DEVELOPING ~~~2,060,995 20 1,038,028 20 422,966 19 111,975 10 58,723 139 (10.284) 25 947,616 253 DEVELOPED 1,294,267 (1) 1692 (24) 1.057.365 18) 319.119 (110) 215,140 33 21,932 47 (4,343.5721 82 Njotes a Q ia ntsty ef net tra de s def(nen as tIme ba lan ce o f i mpo rts mi nus n. potts. b B alanrce oR t rade s deRinen as eAports mnsnus imports c Werld and regiona totals ncloode ceuntr es eon listen here d lInc sdes Etrate e. Inc edes Namnibia. f Inc udes Lux,embourg g Incindes Taisan World Resources 1 998-99 297 Data Table 11.4 Land Area and Use, 1982-94 Sources: Food Oganizotion of the Jouted Ntions and T.Jnted'Nations Poputat- Dmsion Domes- Land Use (000 hectares) Population ticated Cropland Permanent Pasture Forest & Woodland OtherLand Land Density Land as a Percent Percent Percent Percent Area (perl,000 % of Land Change Change Change Change (000 hectares) Area fal Since Since Since Since hectares) 1996 1994 _I 992-94 1982-84 _1 992-94 1982-84 1992-94 1982-84 1992-94 1982-84 WORLD {b) 13,048,300 442 37 1,465,814 2.0 3,410,203 3.2 4,177,088 (2.2) 3,992,533 (1.0) AFRICA 2,963,468 249 36 189,803 6.5 889,350 0.0 713,405 (0.3) 1,171,024 (0-8) Algeria 238,174 12, 17 8,088 9 1 3 1,024 (2 8) 3,949 (10 0) 195,197 0 4 Ango a 124,670 90 46 3,500 2 9 54,000 0.0 23,OOC (O 9) 44,170 0 2 Benm  I'OE2 503 21 i'880 3 9 442 C) a 3,40C (I I C) 5,340 7 0 Botswana 56,6 /3 26 46 420 5 0 25,600 0 0 26,500 0 0 4,1 53 (O 5) Burkina Faso 27,360 394 34 6,000 0 0 1 3,800 0 0 4,082 ] 7 7) Burundi 2,5158 2,L23 BE 1,120 (5.) 9 1 325 0 0 43 Carflercon 46,540 291 19 7,040 1 2 2,000 0 0 35.9CO 0.0 1,600 (4 9) Central African Rep 62,298 54 8 2,020 2 5 3,003 0 0 46,700 0 0 10,578 (c 5) Cnac 25,920 52 -'8 3,256 3 4 45,000 0 0 32,400 0 0 45,264 (0.2) Conoo, Derr ReQ 34,15C 78 30 19,90C 0.0 4,080 (O 4) Congo,Rep 226,705 206 10 7,900 2 5 1 5,000 0 0 166,000 0 a 37,805 (O T) C6te d ivoire 31,8co 441 54 4,031 22 5 I 3,000 0 c 9,600 is 9) 5,149 (3 0) Egypt 99,545 636 3 3,1 37 26.5 x x 34 9 7 96,374 (O 7) Equatorial 6uinea 2,8C5 146 12 230 0.0 104 0 1,830 0 0 641 0 0 Entrea I('020 328 75 366 x 4,622 x 523 x 1,15S x Ethuop,a I 00,0CO 582 31 12,197 x 28,267 x 1 3,633 x 49,269 x Gabon 25,767 43 20 460 1 8 4,700 Do 19,900 lO 4) 707 11 3 Gamb,a, Tn I'OC3 1, 41 37 i65 (1( 6) 1911 2  94 (6 M 547 4 I Ghana 22,754 784 57 4,407 is 0 8,400 0.0 9,300 (3 1) 647 (29.7) Guiriea 787 10 2 10,700 0 0 6,70, 0 0 6,385 O 1) Gjf,qea-Bssau 2,812 388 5c 340 1 0. '080 0 0 1,070 c 0 322 Kenya 56,9'4 488 45 4,520 5.6 21,30C 0 j 16,800 0 0 14,294 1.6) Lesotho 3,035 685 76 323 10 6 2,000 0 C) x A 7 1 5 (4 1) ,ce, a 9,632 233 25 3/1 (D It 2,000 0 0 4 6CL) 0.( 2,661 0 J 32 9 2,1 /O 31 Madagascar 58,154 264 47 3.1 05 31 24,000 11 0 23,200 0 0 7,849 (1.2) Malaw 9,408 1,046 38 1,700 19 9 1,840 0.0 3,70C (l 1) 2,168 (10 0) MaL 122,019 91 27 2,569 251 30,000 0 0 11,800 (I 7) 77,650 (D 4) Maurtania 102,522 23 38 208 67 39,250 0 c 4,410 (2 0) 58,654 0 1 Mair t us 20 56 106 - - Morocco 44,630 605 68 9,686 Mozamb que 78,409 227 60 3,180 3 2 4,1,OOC 0 0 1 7,300 0 0 :3,929 (0.7) Namibia 82'29 1c) 47 704 6 6 38,000 0 0 12,500 a 0 31,125 (01) N ge, 126,670 75 12 4,035 1 9 10,440 13 1 2,500 0 0 1 09,695 (1 5) 1,263 80 3_2,_579__ _6 Rwanda 2,467 2,188 75 '' 1 50 5 4 695 250 0 a 372 12 7) Senega) 19,253 443 42 2,355 0 2 5,700 0 0 7,467 i 8) 3,731 3 6 S erra Leone 7,162 600 38 540 4A 2,20 7 (O 1) 1,947 2 5 2,474 (2 6) Somalia 62,734 157 70 1,026 1 1 43,000 0 0 16,000 6 7 2,708 (27 2) Soutq Ar,ca I 5,20D 5 4 81,433 rj 1 17,271 0 8:) Sudan 237,60C 115 52 '2,975 3 3 i I ),000 1 2 2 42,367 (1.5) 72,258 (I 4 Swazdand 1,720 512 73 191 24 3 1,070 (s 1) II( 16.6 340 0 9 7anzaqia 88,359 349 44 3,660 23 7 3 5,000 0.0 33,067 O 9) 16,632 (0.4) Togo 5,439 772 48 2,42 20 2 5 200 ( 0 9w (11 8) 1,919 3 2 Tun s a 3,416 1 8 Uganda 19,965 1,013 43 6,780 9.1 1,800 0 c 6,300 5 0 5,085 I 4 6) Zambia 74,339 ill 47 5,273 2 2 30,000 0 0 32,000 6 7 7,066 (23 0) Z mbabwe 2 5 i- 0 A 9,819 5.8 EUROPE 2,260,320 322 22 F-- , x 947,761 x 816,036 x .4 bania 2,740 7,241 41 702 (l 2 424 5 6 1,049 1 7 565 (5.2) Austria 8,273 980 43 1,506 (3 3) 1,985 (I 0) 3,233 (O 3) 1,550 5 4 BeaTjs, Pcp 20,748 49q 44 6,245 x 3,070 X 7,109 x 4,324 x Belcium c 3,28' , 3,22 1 45 790 2 4 687 (9.0) 709 2 0 1,095 3 4 Bosi,a and He 033 _X_9 73 _ X Bu arrna 1 1,055 756 54 4,286 S.5 1,811 ii 1 0) 3,348 c 1 1,609 5 0 Croatia, Rep 5,592 80S 41 1,242 x 1,088 x 2,075 x 1,187 x Czeci Rep 7,72S 1,32e 55 2,265 x 588 x 1 753 y 547 x Denmar, 4,243 1,234 63 2,488 (5 31 241 2 1 41-1 (13 8) 1,097 2 3.1 343 3 1,145 x 753 x Finland 30,459 168 9 2,585 4 5 12 f2l 7) 23,186 (0.6) 4,575 1 2 France 55,010 1,060 55 19,387 1 7 10'840 i 1 3.4) 14,938 2 3 9,854 11 5 Germany 34,927 2,346 50 11,885 (4.5) 5,255 (10 S) 1 0,700 4 0 7,087 12 5 Greece 12,890 814 68 3,502 (11 3 5,252 (O 1) 2,620 0 0 1,516 42 2 i,088 66 1,71 7 5 1 ce and 10,025 27 23 6 (21 7) 2,274 0 C) 120 C.0 7,62 5 0 0 Jreland 6,889 516 64 1,266 21 6 3,137 (32 8) 570 14O 1,91 6 18i 8 tay 29,406 1,946 53 11 594 (5.8) 4,479 11 2) 6,794 6.4 6,519 14 9 Latv a, Rep 6,205 404 41 1,720 x 908 x 2,841 x 836 x Moldova, Rep 3,297 1,348 78 2,195 y 363 x 358 x 381 x Netieriands 3,392 4 592 58 922 108 i'060 (10 0) 334 12 6 1,076 (O 9) No,vva 30,1583 142 3 891 5-r 124 25 7 8,330 0,0 21,338 (( 3) 1,268 6i 14,673 (1.0) 4,049 (O 7) 8,732 0 7 2,988 3 9 Por-,ugai 9,150 1,072 43 3,057 (3 0) 900 7 4 3,1 02 4.6 2,091 (47) Ronran:a 23,034 984 64 9,942 (5 S) 4,851 9 6 6,681 18 1 559 4.6 Russiar) Federat on 1,688,850 88 13 131072 x 86,858 x 767,347 x 701,573 x Slovak Rep 4,808 1,112 51 1,074 x 557 y 1,326 x 249 x Slovenia, Rec 2,012 1,077 x 98 x Spain 49,944 794 62 19,910 (2 9) 10,416 0 5 16,063 1 3,555 1 7 Sweden 41,162 214 8 2,776 (5 6) 576 (17 0) 28,02 5 0 1 9,652 i 3 Sw tzerland 3,955 1,827 40 433 5- 1,148 28 6) 1,186 12 7 1,187 34 6 LJkraine 57,935 89i 72 34,410 x 7,483 x 9,239 x 6,803 x United K ngdom 24,160 2,407 71 6,224 (10 9) 1 1,090 14) 2,390 8.2 4,456 19 7 Yugoslavia 61 4,080 x 1, i 19 x 1,769 x 2,233 x 298 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 11.4 continued FORESTS AND LAND COVER Domes- Land Use (800 hectares) Population ticated Cropland Permanen.t Pastur Forest & Woodland OtherLand Land Density Land as a Percent Percent Percent Percent Area (per 1,000 % of Land Change Change Change Change (080 hectares) Area (a) Since Since Since Since hectares) 1996 1994 1992-94 1982-84 1992-94 1982-84 1992-94 1982-84 1992-94 1982-84 NORTH AMERICA 1__,838,008 _ 183 27 233,26 (1.1) 287,07 2 (1.2) 749,280 2.89 588,371 (2.65) Canada 922.097 32 3 459500 11I3 27,900 13 1) 493,320 3 9 390,397 (33) 3eize 2,280 36 6 31 522 49 1 4 2.130 2.0 90 (343.4) Costa Rica 5,106 6,99 56 530 2.9 2,340 6 9 1,570 (3 4) 066 (14 4) Cuba 10,982 1,333 31 3,749 12 4 2,700 09s 2,5030 16 2 2,027 (11 8) Dominican 1ep L,333 1 346 31 1,742, 21 9 2 390 (0.) 603 (4 1 401 (4 6) hait 2,2906 2,634 51 910 1 2 495 (2 2) 140 02 1 211 00c Hndiras0 11,139 522 32 1,967 1)2 1,524 1 6 6,320 00c 1,698 11l 4) Jamaica ,033 2.330 44 219 (1 9) 297 0 0 199 30 422 298 Panama 7,443 330 29 662 14 0 1 483 91 3,263 116 0) 2,033 2536 Sal v.a 1~~~~~~~03,433 70 27 2,273 339 23,5003 ( 7) 93,3000 31 21 033 1 2 Bran 340,651 190 29 53,667 153 189330 5 9 5573367 338 43,719 (34 1) Chi e 74,330 193 29 4,216 (2.0) 13,103 ( 041 1 6500 0 0 41,033 0 3 Colombio __a _ 103,970 30! 40 ,073 105.7 4,3 )0; 93,167 23 3i 4547 291 Ecuador 2~~~~~ ~ ~~7,934 423 23 3,010 23 900 8 c 1I 1 19,600 0 6 4,069 131 91 Gnvana ~ 9,335 43 3 496 0 2 1,230 0 3 16,4361,03 ( 37; Paraguray 39,73,0 123 60 2,270 17 6 24J,700 27.3 12,330 2316 290 43 6 Peru 23,003 197 24 3,767 l34 22,120 0 0 343300 ( 01 12,213 (1 4~ Suri nama1960e2 1 63 193 21 125 15,020 121 3) .Yugnap ~~~~~~ ~~17,431 133 85 1,304 (57 1)3,520 1091 930 39 ~ 72 Afg5an 5:an, Islamic S:ala 65,239 320 93 3,054 3 0 3;0,003 32 1,703 (10 5) 25,455 338 Armen a, Rep 2,320 1,290 46 332 1 633 41 413 41 1,137 41 Azerlbajan 3,660 372 43 1 907 41 2,200 41 902 11 3.543 11 Baog)adesh 13,017 9,224 71 8,949 131; 300 0 0 1,39 ( 1 3; .,677 452 China 929,123 1,321 a 53 95,145 (3.6) 400,030 125 123,330 (I 1) 1305,324 s)1 4i Ceo-g a 6 970 73~ 43 1,036 0 1,332 3 2,098 41 334 41 Innira 297,319 3,1 77 91 1 63.539 3 5 1 r424 (43~) 63,173 1 2 48,~36 121) Isndnesia (61 1 57 1.107 23 3 1-146~ 1 99 11300I 1OI 2 11,1 16) 26,695 (311 Iran loa cRp 16,0 3 9 13,530 21 7 44,200 3.0 11,430 0 0 33.300 30) Iraq 43,737 421 22 5,550 9 4,300 3 0 192 02 93,935 .093) lsrae 2,062 2,707 28 434 4 6 145 538 126 '617 1,357 )O22i Japan 37,652 3.329 13 4,467 .7 01 663 0 9 2 5,110 (3.2) 7 416 498 Korea, Dem Pooipa's Sap 12,4 1 966 17, 2,037, 3 7 30 02 7,370 CO0 2,6)14 1271 Korea. Rep 9,373 4,590 22 2,053 15 Oi 91 3038 6,463 11 3) 1,273 1635 Kuwait 1,732 947 a 9 114 3 132 2.2 2 090 1,633 1031) JKasooLe -_____ 19,33 290 1332 41 6900 4 9 ,6 Lao Peop e' Dam Rap 29,030 213 2 900 is5 300 a30 12,060 (4 1; 0,323 4 7 Lebanon 1,023 9,015 31 306 2 7 14 43 030o (36) 623 (1.5. Malaysia 32,900 620 24 7,530 46 6 291 0 9 22,243 0.0 2,730 (46 4) Mongo a 156,650 16 70 1,357, 4 4 1 17,933 (4 4r 1 3,250 (9 4) 23.560 03 5 65753 653 16 10,067 (3.~~~~~~~~~0 354 6 8) 32,398 06 22,93 5 11 0) Nepal 14,3310 1,540 3' 2,396 12 0 1 57 (9 4) 5,752 4 7 4,237 1691) Oman 2 1,246 10 5 03 4493 1,300 0.0' 3 0 23,193 1011) Pak otan 77,093 1,31 6 34 21 323 4 7 5,000 3.0 3$77 15 1 47,233 (2 9) Ph licit nas 29,317 2,3-24 26 9.320 9 0 1,230 14 3 13 630 1 56 5,617 133 Saud Araba 214~,963 395 ,7(7 2,0 3 30 33 3,9 303) Snga ooie 61 55,475 2 1 83 32 0 41 3 0.0 57 9 6 So, Lanko 6,403 2,931 36 1,339 1 3 440 0 2 2.100 23 2 2,034 015 6) Sy,ran Arab Rap 83323 733 73 5,935 5.2 3,191 (I 9) 430 12 4) 3,713 23 6) Toj kioan Rep '4,360 422 31 346 3 3,333 41 537 41 9,144 4 Tuskman stan, Rap 46,993 69 67 1 471 41 33.202 a 4,902 1) 3,320 c( Uorn taA-aL Sm rales 8,360 270 4 76 148 4 260 43 0 3 03 0,002 ii5) Uz,bekostan, Rap 41,424 560 61 0,313 3 21,493 41 ,311 A1 14,005 7 Vieloam 32,649 2,31 0 22 6,733 2 3 323 5 1 93650 (3.9) 1 5.333 1 4 Fj. 1,927 436 24 260 435 174 29) 1,995 0 0 209 135 5 NLam Zealand 26,799 134 02 3,3 (5 5i 13 774 (2.2) 7,667 260 2,061 17 2 Papua 9am Go nna 43,236 97 1 423 130 90 (4 6) 42,9000 03 2,773 (1 5) Sonomon sands 2,799 __ 143 3 57 6 9 39 3 0 2,450 (3 5 5 DEVELOPING 7,585,848 605 3~ ~~~~~ ~~~~~~9 9714 .8 2.94,347 46 2,273,406 (0.0) 2,320,982 (5.4) DEVELOPED 5,462,358 215 24 668,690 (1.1) 1,218,858 1.0 1,803,682 (4.8) 1,671.541 8.8 lJ0res a. Cornest cocoa lanad sIt-e soos of crop aord and parmanent pastare o. Dons not ioc ode Anlao-tnca S,Vor d ann regional Incas nclaea countr as Sal osted haer cInclunes L.u~esnoarg a nclades Taiwan. World Resources 1998-99 299 Sources and Technical Notes dustrial and nonindustrial usage. Reforestation Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, C6te d'lvoire, does not include regeneration of old tree crops Guinea-Bissau, and Sierra Leone. Forest Cover and Change, and (through either natural regeneration or forest man- The reliabilitv ofthese modeled esl imates hinges Forest Industry Structure, agement), although some countries may report re- partly on the quality of the primary data sources 1980-95 generation as reforestation. Many trees are also feeding into the model. For the FRA 1990, FAO as- plantedfornonindustrialuses,suchasvillagewood sessed the quality and appropriaten ss of the na- Sources: Forest cover and change: Food and Agri- lots. Reforestation data often exclude this compo- tional forestry inventories and their contribution to culture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), nent. The data presented here reflect plantation the reliability of the reported state and change as- Forest Resources Division, State of the World's For- survival rates as estimated by FAO. sessments. The variation in quality comprehen- ests 1997 (FAO, Rome, 1997) and Forest Resources Average annualpercent change is shown as a per- siveness, and timeliness of the forest information is Assessment 1990: Global Synthesis (FRA 1990) centage of the exponential growth rate. If negative tremendous, and acute information deficits in re- (FAO, Rome, 1995). Forest industry data: Interna- (in parentheses), these figures reflect net deforesta- gard to forest resources can easily be observed. tional Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), An- tion, which is defined as the clearing of forest lands Although the deforestation model allowed stan- nual Review and Assessment of the World Tropical for all forms of agricultural uses (shifting cultiva- dardization of country data to a common baseline, Timber Situation 1996 (ITTO, Yokohama, Japan, tion, permanent agriculture, and ranching) and for a number of additional factors may siave contrib- 1997). other land uses such as settlements, other infra- uted to discrepancies in forest area and change esti- Totalforest consists of all forest area for temper- structure, and mining. In tropical countries, this mates for specific countries. Potential forest cover ate developed countries, and the sum of natural for- entails clearing that reduces tree crown cover to less estimates for dry forests and the related adjustment est and plantation area categories for tropical and than 10 percent. It should be noted that deforesta- function are of unknown reliability; ir. addition, for temperate developing countries. For developed tion, as defined here, does not reflect changes somecountries,socioeconomicfactorssuchaslive- countries, forest cover data were obtained from of- within the forest stand or site, such as selective log- stock projects in Central America and resettlement ficial sources in response to a questionnaire from ging (unless the forest cover is permanently re- schemes in Indonesia may have playe( a larger role the United Nations Economic Commission for duced to less than 10 percent). Such changes are in deforestation. FAO acknowledged these short- Europe and the FAO liaison office in Geneva termed forest degradation, and they can substan- comings implicitly and noted that country esti- (UN-ECE/FAO). The countries surveyed include tially affect forests, forest soil, wildlife and its habi- mates are "not intended to replace the original countries in Europe, North America, and the tat, and the global carbon cycle. Thus, the effects country information, which remain a unique former Soviet Union, as well as Japan, Australia, fromthereporteddeforestationfiguresmaybeless source of reference' and New Zealand. Forest areas in developed coun- than the effects from the total deforestation that in- Because of these shortcomings, readers are en- tries are defined as land where tree crowns cover 20 cludes all types of forest alterations. Positive change couraged to refer to the original source s and the lat- percent of the area, including open forests; forest figures reflect net afforestation within a country or est country inventories that use satellite data or ex- roads and fire breaks; temporarily cleared areas; region. tensive ground data for estimates of forest cover young stands expected to achieve at least 20 percent Forest area information for tropical and temper- and deforestation. crown cover upon maturity, etc. Forest areas in de- ate developingcountries isbased on FAO's forest as- Figures for the number ofenterprise: and number veloped countries are not broken down into the sessments. It is extracted mainly from the publica- of employees in theforest industry are obtained for subcategoriesofnaturalforestsandplantationsdue tion State of the World's Forests 1997. Only forest ITTO producer countries through responses to the to the difficulty in distinguishing the two in many cover data for 1980 and plantation figures for 1990 ITTO Forecasting and Statistics Enqtiiry. In 1995 countries. Comparable forest area data for 1980 are are based on FAO's Forest Resources Assessmetnt there were 25 ITTO producer countries. For those only available for developing countries due to 1990: Global Synthesis (FRA 1990). Comparable countries that did not respond to the 1995 Enquiry, methodological constraints. plantation figures for 1995 were not sufficientlv re- estimates are provided by ITTO based on FAO sta- FAO defines a naturalforest in tropical and tem- liable for publication. Please note that forest cover tistical reports, Year 2000 progress re ports, ITTO perate developing countries as a forest composed data for 1980 were estimated by the World Re- project reports, trade association statistics, etc. Fig- primarilyofindigenous (native) tree species. Natu- sources Institute based on the FRA 1990 natural ures are for enterprises and employees participat- ral forests include closed forest, where trees cover a forest and plantation figures. FAO's forest assess- ing in forestry activities including logging and high proportion of the ground and where grass mentsproduceconsistentestimatesonforest status processing mills (sawmills, veneer mi.ls, plywood does not form a continuous layer on the forest floor for common reference years (1980,1990,and 1995) m1ls etc-). (e.g., broadleaved forests, coniferous forests, and and forest area change for the periods between bamboo forests), and open forest, which FAO de- these years. The estimates are made using a model l Dt fines as mixed forestlgrasslands with at least 10 per- to adjust baseline forest inventory data from each cent tree cover and a continuous grass layer on the countrytothe commonreferenceyears. Thismodel Forest Ecosystems, 1996 forest floor. Natural forests in tropical and temper- correlates the share of forest cover for each subna- Sources: Land area: Food and Agriculture Organi- ate developing countries encompass all stands ex- tional unit to population densityand growth, initial zation of the United Nations (FAO), FAQSTAT Sta- cept plantations and include stands that have been forest extent, and ecological zone. Existing forest tistics Database. Available online at degraded to some degree by agriculture, fire, log- inventory data at national and subnational scales http://Nvww.fao.org (FAO, Rome, 1997). Closed for- ging, and other factors. For all regions, trees are dis- are reviewed, adjusted to a common set of classifi- est data: D. Bryant, D. Nielsen, and L. :1angley, The tinguished from shrubs on the basis of height. A cations and concepts, and combined in a database. Last Frontier Forests: Ecosystems and Economies on mature tree has a single well-defined stem and is To accomplish this, FAO uses a geographic infor- the Edge (World Resources Institute, Washington, taller than 7 meters. A mature shrub is usually less mation system to integrate statistical and map data. D.C., 1997). Forest ecosystems: S. Iremonger, C. than 7 meters tall. For the latest update (1995), forest inventory data Ravilious,andT.Quinton,"A Statistical Analysis of Plantations refer to forest stands established ar- additional to that available for the 1990 assessment Global Forest Conservation:' in S. Iremonger, C. tificially by afforestation and reforestation for in- was used for Brazil, Bolivia, Mexico, Cambodia, Ravilious, and T. Quinton, eds., A Global Overview 300 World Resources 1998-99 FORESTS AND LAND COVER of Forest Conservation CD-ROM (World Conserva- conservation information. In general, WCMC as- Sawnwood production includes wood that has tion Monitoring Centre [WCMC] and Centre for sumed that the land cover categories shown in the been sawn, planed, or shaped into products such as International Forestry Research, Cambridge, U.K., source maps were correct and translated the leg- planks, beams, boards, rafters, "lumber" sleepers, 1997). ends directly to the 25 type classes for the world etc. Wood flooring and wood-based panels are ex- Closed forests exclude some woodlands and without attempting to assess the accuracy of the cluded. Sawnwood generally is thicker than 5 milli- wooded savannah. source data. Documentation for the source data is meters. Originalforestas a percentage of land area refers given in full byIremonger et al. (1997). Paper production includes newsprint, printing to the estimate of the percentage of land that would Shrub-dominated lands were not included in the and writing paperpackaging paper, household and have been covered by closed forest about 8,000 WTCMC publication, but areas with sparse tree sanitary paper, and other paper and paperboard. years ago assuming current climatic conditions, cover were. Although the aim was to exclude areas u i ? , , . , before large-scale disturbance by human society significantlyaffectedbypeoplefromthesparsetrees ance of imports minus exports. Exports are shown began. These data of estimated forest cover were andparkland category, the source data for these ar- as a negative balance (in parentheses). Trade in developed by WCMC based on numerous global eas generally gave vegetation structure and did not roundwood includes sawlogs and veneer logs, fuel- and regional biogeographic maps. These data over- specifydegree of anthropogenic disturbance. Some wood, pulpwood, other industrial roundwood, and estimate where forests were in the northern boreal patchworks of disturbed forests and grasslands the roundwood equivalent of trade in charcoal, regions, particularly in Russia, because tundra- may have been included. The forest type categories wood residues, and chips and particles. Figures are forest transition zones were considered forest. were split between "tropical" and "nontropical.7' the national totals averaged over a 3-year period in Current forests refer to estimated closed forest Tropical forests included all forests located between thousands of cubic meters. Imports are usually on a cover within the last 10 years or so (this varies by the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. All other for- cost, insurance, and freight basis (c.i.f.) (i.e., insur- country). Only closed moist forests are depicted for ests were put into the nontropical category. Mon- ance and freight costs added in). Exports are gener- Africa and Asia. tane forests within the tropics that were classified in ally on a free-on-board basis (FOB) (i.e., not in- Frontierforests are large, relatively intact forest the source maps as "temperate" were registered in cluding insurance or freight costs). ecosystems. They represent undisturbed forest ar- the "tropical" forests category in this study The Balance of trade is defined as exports minus im- eas that are large enough to maintain all of their WCMC categories that included plantation forests ports. Figures are the national totals averaged over a biodiversity, including viable populations of wide- and disturbedforestswere excluded from this table. 3-year period in millions of U.S. dollars. Imports ranging species associated with each forest type. A However, as the source data for plantation forests are usually on a c.i.f. basis. Exports are generally on frontier forest must meet the following criteria: were scant, most of the plantation forests in the an FOB basis. Imports are shown as surplus over s It is primarily forested. world were not recorded as such in the WCMC exports (in parentheses). study and are therefore included in the categories Alldatarefertobothconiferousandnonconifer- e It is large enough to support viable populations describing natural forests. For example, all forests ous wood. FAO compiles forest products data from of all species associated with that forest type, in Europe are classified as "natural" forests. responses to annual questionnaires sent to national even in the face of natural disasters (such as hur- governments. Data from other sources, such as na- ricanes, etc.) of a magnitude to occur once in a Percent protected icludes forest areas that fall tioal statistical yearbooks, are also used. In some century. within the protected areas i the world that are cases, FAO prepares its own estimates. FAO con- listed as the World Conservaton Unionls (IUCN) * Its structure and composition are determined managementcategories I Pleaserefertolremon tinually revises its data using new information; the mainlyby natural events (such as fires, etc.), and r et al. (1997) or to the Sources and Technical latest figures are subject to revision. it remains relativel~ ~ ~ h gereal(]9)otoheSucsndThml Statistics on the production of fuelwood and it emans elaivey unmanaged by humans, al- Notes of Data Table 14.1 for a description of these Saitc ntepouto ffewo n though limited human disturbance by tradi- charcoal are lacking for many countries. FAO uses tional activities is acceptable. management categories, survey data when available to estimate fuelwood. Annual change is estimated based on population * In forests where patches of trees of different ages change. occur naturally, the landscape shows this type of For more information, please refer to the heterogeneity Wood Production and Trade, FAOSTAT Statistics Database online at: * It is dominated by indigenous tree species. 1983-95 http://www.fao.org. * It is home to most, if not all, other plants and ani- mals that typically live in this type of forest. Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), FAOSTAT Statistics Data- Percent of frontier forests threatened refers to base. Available online at: http://www.fao.org (FAO, Land Area and Use, 1982-94 those frontier forests where ongoing or planned Rome, 1997). human activities such as logging, mining, and other Sources: Land area and use: Food and Agriculture large-scale disturbances will eventually degrade Totalroundwoodproductionreferstoallwoodin Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the ecosystem through species decline or extinc- the rough, whether destined for industrial or fuel- FAOSTAT Statistics Database. Available online at: tion, drastic changes in the forest's age structure, wood uses. All wood felled or harvested from for- http://www.fao.org (FAO, Rome, 1997): popula- etc., and would result, if continued, in the violation ests and trees outside the forest, with or without tion density: calculated from FAO land area data of one of the abovementioned criteria. bark, round, split, roughly squared, or in other and population figures provided by United Nations Forest ecosystems data for forest cover are for forms such as roots and stumps, is included. (U.N.) Population Division, World Population Pros- 1996. The WCMC analysis was carried out by over- Fuel and charcoal production covers all rough pects, 1950-2050 (The 1996 Revision), on diskette laying forest maps with maps of protected areas us- wood used for cooking, heating, and power pro- (U.N., New York, 1996). ing a Geographic Information System. The forest duction. Wood intended for charcoal production, Land area and land use data are provided to FAO maps were created by WCMC from many national pit kilns, and portable ovens is also included, by national governments in response to annual and regional maps showing forest extent. The leg- Industrial roundwood production comprises all questionnaires. FAO also compiles data from na- ends of these maps were harmonized into 15 differ- roundwood products other than fuelwood and tional agricultural censuses. When official infor- ent tropical and 1 nontropical forest types for the charcoal: sawlogs or veneer logs, posts, pitprops, mation is lacking, FAO prepares its own estimates globe, defined specifically fqr this study. The classi- pulpwood, and other roundwood industrial prod- or relies on unofficial data. Several countries use fication was designed to be of relevance for forest ucts. definitions of total area and land use that differ World Resources 1998-99 301 from those used in this chapter. Please refer to the data, please refer to the Sources and Technical Permanent pasture is land used for 5 or more original sources for details. Notes to Data Table 7.1. years for forage, including natural craps and culti- FAO often adjusts the definitions of land use Domesticated land as a percentage of land area vated crops. This category is difficult for countries categories and sometimes substantially revises ear- provides a crude indicator of the degree to which to assess because it includes wildland used for pas- lier data. For example, in 1985, FAO began to ex- national landscapes have been heavily modified ture. This means that shrub land and savannah ar- clude from the cropland category land used for through agricultural use. Domesticated land,as de- eas can be reported either under this category or shifting cultivation but currently lying fallow. Be- fined here, is a sum of FAO's "cropland" and "per- underforest aind soodland. In addition, few coun- cause land use changes can reflect changes in data- manent pasture'land use categories. This indicator tries regularly report data on permanent pasture. reporting procedures along with actual land use may overestimate or underestimate the actual de- As a result, the absence of a change in permanent changes, apparent trends should be interpreted gree to which a country's land area has been modi- pasture area (e.g., 0 percent change for many Afri- with caution. fied.Permanentpasture,forexample,mayincludea can and Asian countries) may indicate differences Lanzd use data are periodically revised and may significant proportion of rangeland in some coun- in land classification and data reporting rather than change significantly from vear to'vear. For the most tries, while consisting largely of heavily modified actual conditions. Grassland not used for forage is pasturelands in others. Domesticated land area included under other land. recentland use statistics, see the FAOSTATStatistics does not include built-up lands or plantation for- Foiestandwoodlandincludes land undernatural Database online at: http://wwvtfao.org. ests, the latter constituting a major portion of heav- or planted stands of .ii ' :'. i-over ar- Land area data are for 1994. They exclude major ily modified land area in many countries of the eas that will be reforested in the near Luture. Forest inland water bodies, national claims to the conti- world. and woodland areas used exclusively for recrea- nental shelf, and Exclusive Economic Zones. Cropland includes land under temporary and tional purposes are excluded (these areas are re- The population density and land use figures for permanent crops,temporary meadows, market and ported under other land). These data are not com- the world refer to the six inhabited continents. kitchen gardens, and temporary fallow. Permanent parable with data for total forest area presented in Population density was derived by using the popui- crops are those that do not need to be replanted af- Data Table I I 2. lation figures for 1996 published by the United Na- ter each harvest, such as cocoa, coffee, fruit, rubber, Otlier land includes uncultivated land, grassland tions Population Division and land area data for and vines. It excludes land used to grow trees for not used for pasture, built-on areas, wetlands, 1994 from FAO. For more details on population wood or timber. wastelands, barren land, and roads. 302 World Resources 1998-99 FRESH WATER L 7- 'b , - ? Fresh Water World Resources 1998-99 303 Data Table 12.1 Freshwater Resources and Withdrawals, 1970-98 Sources: Various Annual Internal Renewable Water Resouirces Annual River Flows Annual Withdrawals 1998 From Other To Other Total Percentage Per Capita Total Per Capita Countries Countries Year of (cubic of Water (cubic Sectoral Withdrawals (percent) (cubic kin) (cubic meters) (cubic kmn) (cubic kin) Data kin) Resources meters) Domestic Industrial Agricultural WORLD 41,D22.01) 6.918 1987 3,240.00 8 645 8 23 69 _A~FRICA 3,996.00 5,133 1995 145.14 4 202 7 5 88 Algeria 13 87 460 0 4 0.7 1990 4.50 32 180 25 15 60 Angola 184.00 15,376 0 0 1567 0 48 0 57 14 10 76 Benin 10 30 1,751 15.5 X 1994 0 15 1 28 23 10 67 Botsw na 2 90 1,870 11.8 X 1992 0 11 4 34 32 20 48 Cameroon 268.00 18,711 0 0 0.0 1987 0 40 0 38 46 19 35 Central African Rep 141.00 40,413 0 X 1987 0 07 0 26 21 5 74 Chad 15.00 2,176 28 0 0 1987 0.16 1 34 16 2 82 ConaooDem Rep 935000 1,1 64 X 1990 0.36 0 10 61 16 23 Congo, Rep 222 00 78,666 610.0 0x 1567 0.04 0 20 62 27 11 C16te danoire 76 70 5,265 1.0 0 1967 0.71 1 67 22 11 67 Egypt 260 43 55.5 0 0 1993 55 10 1,968 921 6 6 86 Equatorial Gu, nea 30 00 69,767 0 0 0 1967 0 01 0 15 61 13 6 Eritrea 280 789 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X Ethilopa 110 00 1,771 0 0 0 1967 228 1 366 Gabon 164 00 140,171 0 0 0 1967 0 06 0 70 72 22 6 Gambia, The 3.00 2.513 5 0 0 1982 0 02 1 29 7 2 91 Ghana 30 30 1,607 22 9 X 1970 0.30 1 35 35 13 52 GL.e 220 944 0 1967 0.74 0 142 10 3 87 Guinea-Bissau 16 00 14,106 11.0 X 1691 0 02 0 17 60 4 36 Kenya 20 20 696 10.0 X 1990 2 05 10 67 20 4 76 Lesotho 5.23 2,395 0 0 X 1967 0 05 1 30 22 22 56 Liberia 200 00 72,790 320 X 1967 0 13 0 54 27 13 60 Liy 0.0100 00a 0.0 1994 4 60 767 660 1 1 2 67 Madagascar 337.00 20,614 0 0 0 0 1964 16 30 5 1,579 1 0 99 MaJawi 17 54 1,690 1 1 x 1994 0.94 5 96 10~ 3 866 Mali 60 00 5,071 40 0 0 1967 1.36 2 162 2 1 07 Mauritania 0 40 163 11.0 0 1985 1 63 407 923 6 2 92 Mauritius 2 21 1,915 0.0 0 0 1 974 0 36 16 410 16 7 77 Morocco 3000- 1,071 0 03 1992 1085 36 433 5 3 92 Mozamb que 100 00 5,350 116 0 0 0 1992 0 61 1 40 9 2 89 Namibia 6.20 3,751 39 3 0 1991 0 25 4 179 29 3 68 Niger 3.50 346 290 0 1968 0 50 14 69 1 6 2 82 Senegal 26 40 2,933 13 0 X 1987 136 5 202 5 3 92 Sierra Leone 160 00 34,957 0.0 0 1987 0 37 0 98 7 4 89 Somala 6.00 563 7.5 0 1987 0681 14 99 3 0 97 SouthnAfrica 44680 1,011 5 2 0 1990 13 31 30 359 17 11 72 Sedan 35 00 1,227 119 0 65.5 1995 17680 51 666 4 1 94 Swvaz,andl 2 64 2,636 1 9 0 1980 0 66 25 1,171 2 2 56 Tanzania 60 00 2,465 9 0 0 1994 1 1 6 1 40 9 2 69 Togo 11 50 2,594 0 5 0 1987 0 09 1 28 62 13 25 Tanisia 3.52 371 0.6 0 0 1990 3.07 87 376 9 3 89 Uganda 39 00 1,829 27.0 0 1970 0 20 1 20 32 8 60 Zambia 90 20 9,229 35.6 X 1994 1 71 2 216 16 7 72 Zimbne 40 1,182 55 9 1--- in 9 136 14 7 79 EUROPE 6,234.56 85711a89, 41iS29 7 625 14 55 31 AlIbania 44 50 2,903 I11 X 1970 020 2 94 6 187 a Austf a 56.30 6,857 34 0 0 1991 2 36 4 304 33 58 9 Belarun, Rep 37.20 3,595 2098 5469 1990 2 73 7 264 22 43 35 Belgium 8 40 822 4 1 X 1960 9.03 106 917 11 65 4 a Croatia,Rep 61 40 13,663 0 X 0 0 >1 0 X 0 Czech Rep 58.21 5,694 0 0 1991 2 74 5 266 41 57 2 Denmnark 11 00 2,092 212 0 1990 1 20 11 233 30 27 43 a Ealna Re 22 8,4 1995 0 16 1 107 56 39 5 Finland 110 00 21,334 30 0 1991 2 20 2 440 12 65 3 a Fiance 180.00 3,065 180 ( 20 5 1990 37 73 21 665 16 69 15 a Germany 96 00 1,165 7560 0 1991 46.27 48 560 11 70 20 Greece 45 15 4,279 135 3 0 1980 5.04 11 523 6 29 63 a Hungary 6006_0_4 114. ~O x 1991 6.6__ 1 ------114- 60___ 53 iceland 168 00 806,496 0.0 00 1991 0 16 0 636 3 1 63 6 a ire and 47 00 1 3,187 3.0 0 1980 0.79 2 233 16 74 10 a Italy 1 59 40 2,785 7 6 0 0 1990 56 20 35 986 14 27 59 a Latva, Rep 16 74 6,685 18 7 0 1994 0 29 2 114 55 32 13 Moldova, Rep 1.00 225 11 7 12.0 1992 2 96 296 667 9 65 26 Netnerlands 10 00 635 800 0 1991 7 81 78 316 5 51 34 a Norway 384 00 87,661 8 0 0 1965 2.03 1 488 20 72 8 a Romana ~~~37 00 1,639 110 1994 26 00 70 1,139 6 33 59 a Rasnian Federation 4.312 70 29,115 185 5 54 0 1994 77 10 2 521 19 62 20 S evak Rep 30 79 5,745 0 0 1991 1 78 6 337 0 0 0 Spain 110.30 2.775 10 17.0 1991 30 75 26 761 12 26 62 a Sweden 1 76.00 19,858 40 0 1991 293 2 340 36 56 9 a Sw tzerland 42 50 5,802 7 5 X 1991 1.19 3 173 23 73 4 a Ukraine 53 10 1,029 665 .0 1592 25599 49 304 16 52 30 United K ngdom 71 00 1,216 0.0 X 1991 11 79 17 204 20 77 3 a Yu nanaPdRoI 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 304 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 12.1 continued FRESH WATER Annual Internal Renewable Waler Resources Annual River Flows Annual Withdrawals 1998 From Other To Other Total Percentage Per Capita Total Per Capita Countries Countries Year of (cubic of Water (cubic Sectoral Withdrawals (percent) (uiki)(uic meters) (cubic kinm cbc i) Dt kmn) Resource mtr) D estic Industrial Agricultural NORTH AMERICA --5,3108.50) 17,458 1991 512.43 10 1,798 _ 13 473 C7anada 2,45I47 5 < 18 41 ,0 8 70 1 2a ('E!sTu.i Ar.ERIC A I ':6V 6Ok 9.o'9 966 5 8, Belize 16 09 69,560 7< 7< 1987 0 02 0 109 1 0 0 90 a Costa Rica 95 00 26,027 7< 7 1970 1 25 1 780 4 7 889a Cuba 54 50 3,10C4 0 0 X< 1975 810 29 970 9 2 89 a Dem vicar, Rep 2003D 2,40R0 30 1 1997 2,97 1 5 446 5 8 89 a El Salvador 18.93 3,128 7< 0 1975 1 00 5 244 7 4 89 a Ovuaneoaka 194 1,97< 5 1970 0 73 1 139 9 1 7 7 Ha-TI 11 03 1,480 7< A 1987 0 04 0 7 24 8 688a Hondurar 55 42 9,0 I5 8 0 8 0 1992 152 9 294 4 5 91 a Jama ca 830 3,269 00 3< 1975 032 4 1 59 7 7 86 a Panama 144 05 52,042 a 7< 1975 1390 1 754 12 11 77 a 4CUtH A!,1ER,C'4 992 d - 6 -- 53 I34c. 10i 21 1 335 5i - Ž Argent na -694 03 19,212 300 0 X< 1978 27.60 - 4 - 1,043 -9 189 73 a Solvia 300.03 37,70'3 10 7 1987 124 2 201 130 5 95 a B-az 5,1I90,00 31,424 1,760 0 7< 1990 38 47 1 246 22 1 9 59 a Cniie 468 00 31,070 < v 1 97 5 18 80 4 1,820 6 5 898a Colormba 1,070 03 28,383 7< v 1987 _534 0O 174 41 1I6 43 a Eccuador 3140 28917< 1987 562 51738 a Guvana 241 00 281,542 A 1 1 992 146 1 1,818 I 0 99 a Paraguay 94 03 18,001 220 0 7< 1987 0 43 0 i12 15 7 798a Peru 40 00 1,613 XI 7 1987 6 10 IS 300 19 9 72 a Suriname 200 00 452,488 7< 7 1 982 0 46 0 1,192 ___ 6 5 89 a Uruguay 59 00 825 65 0 7 1965 0,65 1 241 0 3 91 a 4's.. ~ ~ ~ 1Ž66- 3 6-0) '6 I., 9'2 912 Aficjan sv:an, Is amic State 58 00 2,954 1 00 a 1987 25 85 47 1,82 5 1 0 99 a Ammane a, Rep 9 07 2,492 1 5 5,2 1994 299 32 804 30 4 866 Azeraijan 9 12 1,069 222 < ~ 985 18 53 204 2,1 77 5 25 70 Bang adesh 1,3700 10,940 1,000 0 3< 1987 22050 2 2 17 3 1 86 a Cl-ma 2,800 00 2,231 0 0 X 1 980 480 00 1 6 481 6 7 87 a Georgia 58 13 1 0,682 5,2 202 18990 3 47 6 637 21 30 59 Ind a 1,850 00 1,836 23 50 7< 1975 380 00 2 1 612 3 4 93 a Indonesad 2,530 00 1 2,2 51 X< X 1987 1 6,59 1 86 193 1 1 76 a iran, slamsc Rep 128,20 1,755 93 558 1993 70 03 55 1,079 6 2 92 Sraq 30520 1,61 5 40 2 7< 1990 42 80 122 2368 3 5 92 srae, 170 289 00 0,0 1 989 198 109 407 18 5 79 Japan 547 00 4,344 0 0 3< i 980 9080o 1 7 735 1 7 39 50 a Jordan 0 68 114 0,2 Sc 1993 0 98 145 201 22 3 75 Kazaksta Rep 744,8 34 320 19 23745 2,0022 171 Koena, Dem People's Rep 67 00 2,887 v 7< 1987 14 16 2 72 7 1 1 16 73 a Korea, Rep 86612 1,434 X, 7< 1992 27860 42 632 19 35 486a KUwnaat 0 02 1 1 0,0 7 1894 0 54 2,680 307 37 2 60< Lecanor 4.20 1,31 5 0 6 0 9 1994 129 31 444 28 4 688 Mnalavs a 456800 2 1,259 7< 7 1975 9 42 2 768 23 30 47 a Mnongolia 24 60 9,375 7< A 1987 0 55 2 271 11 27 62a _jjyanmar - -- 1,084200 2.2,7 i9 X< lv 987 399 C__ 101 - 7 . 3 _ 90 a Nepal 17000C 7,398 7< 1 1987 268 2' 154 4 1 95 a Oman 0 99 393 0 0 55 1991 122 124 658 5 2 94 Paksstan 248 00 1,878 170 3 7< 1991 458 0 63 1,289 2 2 97 Phil pp nes 32300O 4,476 0.0 7< 1970 29 50 9 688 18 21 61 a Saud Araora 2 40 119 0.0 X< 1892 17 02 709 1,003 9 3 _ 90 Sioga poren 080 172 0 0 7 1975 019 32 84 45 51 4 a Sr Lavea 43 20 2,341 0 0 7< 1970 6~30 15 003 2 2 96 a Sprian Ares Sep 700O 406 37 7 32 0 1993 ~ 4.41 208 1,069 4 2 94 Tajik stan, Rep 66 30 11,171 50 3 86 9 1994 11 87 19 2,001 3 4 92 Tha and_ 110,30C 1,845 69 0 A 1987 31 90 __ 29 6 02 4 6 90 a T.urrkey 196 CO 3,074 78 60.4 1992 31 60 18 544 18 11 72 urrvmer snan, Pep 1 80 232 700 02u6 1994 23 78 2,378 5,723 1 1 98 Urited Arabd Em ratns 0 15 64 0 0 A 1995 2 51 1,405 954 7 1 92 Uzbekvstan, Rep 16E,34 704 341 11 1984 50805 355 2,501 4 2 94 V etnam 376800 4,827 7< 1 1992 28 90 8 418 13 9 738a AcEr- 1All4 1441 -" 16 I MA'' ~ l 2 5] Australia 343.00 18,596 0 0 7< 1985 14 60 4, 933 65 2 33 a Fli 285~5 34,732 0 0 7< 1987 0.03 0 42 20 20 80 a N-ew Zea and 327 00 88,859 00 3250 1991 2.00 1 589 46 10 44 a Papua New% Guinrea 801,50 1 74,055 1< 7 1987 0 10 0 28 29 22 49 a Solomor, sands 44.70 107,184 0 0 7< 198 000 040 20 40 a Nones a Secnoral wirhoraswal eszirimaces are for 1987 Regional and world Soles include cornlrres not. anSne Tonal ,vithorawvals may esceed 100 percern due c.o grousos-aener nrae40ovns, vnathdra,sals from river nflom-s, and roe operat on of deral nizat on plants. World Resources 1998-99 305 Data Table 12.2 Groundwater and Desalinization, 1998 Sources: Economic Commission for Europe, Organisatiori for Economic Co-Operation and Development, and Food and Agriculture Organization of the UJnited Nations Average Annual 1990 _Groundwater Recharge Desalinated 1998 Annual Groundwater withdrawals Water Per Capita Percent of Per Capita Production Total (cubic Total Annual (cubic Sectoral Share (percentage) (million (cubic kin) meters) Year (cubic kmn) Recharge meters) _Domestic Industrv Agriculture cubic meters) WORLD AFRICA Algeria 1.70 56 1985 2 117.6 91 1 21 X 30.00 Angola 72.00 6,017 X 1 21 1 21 21 2 0.14 Benin 1 80 a 306 X 1 21 1 21 1 X 21 Boetwana 1.70 a 1,096 X 1 21 X 21 X X 2 Burk na Faso 0.50 a 833 21 21 1 21 1 21 21 Burundi 2.10 b 319 21 1 21 1 21 1 21 X Cameroon 100.00 b 6,962 21 21 1 X 21 X 21 Central African Rep 06.00 b 16,050 21 21 1 X 21 21 x Chad 11.00 b 1,669 1990 0 07 15 3 29.4 00a 70 6 21 Contgo, Dem Rep 421 00 b 149,165 21 X 21 1< X 21 _____ 0.20 Congo, Rep 198.00 b 70,163 21 21 X 1 21 x 21 C6te d voire 37 70 a 2,066 21 X 21 1 21 1 2 X Egypt 1.30 a 20 1960 3 2610 683 X 21 2 1000o Equatorial Gaines 10 00 h 23,256 21 X , 21 1 21 21 2 Eritrea 1 21 21 X 21 1 21 21 X Ethiopia 44.00 b,c 709 21 x 21 2 x 21 21 2 Gabon 62.00 b 52,991 1989 0 0 0 0 6 100.0 0.0 0.0 X Gambia,The 0.50 0 419 X 21 1 21 1 21 21 2 Ghana 26 30 a 1,326 X 1 21 1 21 21 X 2 Guinea 38.00 b 4,952 21 1 21 1 X 21 21 2 Guinea-Bissau 14.00 o 12,346 1 X 21 X 1 21 21 2 Kenya 3.00 a 103 21 1 21 1 21 1 21 X Lesotho 0.00 b 229 21 1 21 1 21 1 21 X Liberia 60 00 b 21,834 21 X 21 X 1 21 21 L bya 0 50 a 84 1985 2 420.0 554 7 13.3 4.3 82 5 3 00 Madagascar 55.00 b 3,364 1984 5 8.7 461 2 100.0 0 0 0.0 2 Malawi 1 40 b 135 21 1 3, x 1 21 21 2 Mali 20.00 a 1,690 1989 a 0 5 11 2 7.1 0 0 92 9 21 Mauritania 0.30 a 122 1985 1 2833 498 3 21 2 x 1.70 Mauritius 0.68 a 589 21 1 X 21 1 21 1< 2 Morocco 7 50 a 268 1985 3 40 0 136.6 21 21 2 4.00 Mozambique 17 00 h 910 21 21 1 21 1 2 X 0.10 Namib a 2 10 h 1,270 X 21 1 21 X 21 2 3 00 Nigler 250C a 247 1988 0 17 9 57.7 3.8 369 5X N,geria 6~~~~~~~7.00 6 714 21 21 3, 1 21 21 3 00 Rwanda 3.60 b 551 21 21 21 21 2 1 Senegal 7 60 u) 644 1985 0 33 39.2 25.0 0 0 750 0 05 Sierra Leone 50 00 b 10,924 21 21 21 21 21 21 Somalia 3.30 b 310 1965 0 91 38 1 21 21 21 0.10 Souith Africa 4680 108 1980 2 373 61.4 106 5 6 633 17.50 Sudan 7 00 240 1985 0 4 0 13.0 21 21 21 0.40 Swaziland 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 Tanzan a 300 Co 5 932 21 21 1 21 1 21 21 Togo 5 70 a 1,286 1 21 1 21 < 21 21 2 Tunisia 1 21 a 127 1985 1 101.7 167 7 13.6 0.0 8664 9 00 Uganda 29.00 5 1,360 1 21 1 21 1 21 21 2 Zarnbia 47.10 5,420 21 21 21 21 1 2 21 Zimhoe50 u 419 X 21 21 21 21 2 21 21 EUROPE Albania 7 00 b 2,032 X 21 1 21 1 21 21 2 Austt a 22 30 h 2,716 1990 1 50 144.7 521 42 7 St f 21 Belarus, Rep 16.00 1,740 1985 1 5.9 106.0 55.6 14.1 30 3 21 Belgium 0 86 a 64 1960 1 90 7 79 2 66 3 27.0 4 8 21 Bosnria and Herzecioina 21 21 21 21 2122 21 2 Bulgaria 13 40 a 1,596 1968 5 37.3 566 1 X 21 21 2 Croatia, Rep 21 1 21 1 21 1 21 21 0 2 Czech Rep 21 21 1990 1 21 77 9 X 21 1 21 Dernmark 00.00 5,706 1985 1 3.7 215 1 40.2 22 0 37 9 f 21 Estonia, Rep) 4.00 2,716 21 212 1 3 X 3 X Fin and 1.90 369 1990 0 12 4 47.3 64 9 10 8 243f 21 France 100.00 b 1,703 1990 6 6 2 109.5 52 5 30 2 173 f 21 Germany 45 70 b 555 1990 8 g 16.9 97.4 46 6 47 5 39 f 21 Greece 2 50 h 237 1960 2 74 8 193.9 12 8 27 84 5 21 Hluonaa 6.80 6 685 1990 1 151 991 350 47 5 175f 0 2 Iceland 24 00 b 86,643 1965 0 0.4 394 2 X 21 21 2 Ireland 3.46 a 971 1980 0 4.9 50 0 34 5 36.8 28 7 21 Italy 30.00 b 524 1985 12 40 0 211 4 53.1 13.3 33.7 21 Latvia,Rep 2.20 879 21 21 21 21 21 21 L4tbJania, Rep 1.20 322 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 Macedonia, FYR 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 Moldova,Rep 0.40 90 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 Nethet ands 4 50 h 286 1985 1 25 3 78.7 320 44.5 234 f 21 Norway 96.00 b 21,923 1986 0 01 26.5 273 72 7 0 0 21 Poland,Rep 36 00 931 1990 2 6 7 63 2 70 0 30 0 0 0 f 21 Portugal 5.10 a 521 1990 3 60.1 310 6 386 22.8 3866 f 21 Romania 8 30 h 366 1975 1 14.2 90 5 61.0 38.1 0.8 21 Russian yederation 788 00 5,320 21 21 0.0 21 21 21 21 21 Slovak Rep 21 2 1990 1 21 142 5 21 21 21 21 Slovenia,Rep 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 Spain 20.70 i 521 1990 6 26.6 140 0 21 22 2 j 776 f 21 Sweden 20 00 a 2,2957 1990 1 3 0 69.8 91.7 63 0.0 21 Switzerland 2 70 369 1990 1 351 138.6 94 7 93 0 0 1 21 Usirane 20 00 368 1965 4 21 1 62.6 30.5 17 5 52 1 21 United Kingdom 9.80 168 1990 3 27 6 47.1 51 3 46 6 21 1 f21 Yunoslav+a, Fed Rep) 21 21 21 21 1 21 21 21 306 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 12.2 continued FRESH WATER Average Annual 1990 Groundwater echarci Desalinated 1998 Annual Groundwater Withdrawals Water Per Capita Percent of Per Capita Production Total (cubic Total Annual (cubic Sectoral Share (percentage) (million (cubic kin) meters) Year (cubic kin) Recharge meters) Dometc Iduty Ariculture cubic meters) NORTH AMER~ICA Carada 369.60 12,241 1990 1 003 39 8 43.3 14 2 42 5 71 . - . -- - . . ' I I . .' I . -- I I UNrTRAL ANI,ERIEA Belize 1K K 1K K 71 1K K 1K 1K 1 Costa Rica 21 00 b 5,753 4 K 71 1K K 1K 1K 1 Cuba 8 00 b 720 1975 4 47.5 408 3 K >< 1K 1 Comincan Rep 300 b 364 K 1K K 1K K 1K 1K 1 El Salvador K 1K 4 K 1K 4 1 71 1K x Giuatema a 31 00 b 2,681 1K K 1K 1K 1K 1K 1 Ha t 2 50 b 332 K 1K K 1K K 1K 1K 1 Honduras 39 00 6,345 K 1K K 1K K 1K 1K 1 Jamaica 1 1K K 71 K 1K 1 1K 71 1 Nicaragua 59 00 5 13,217 K 1K 1 1K K 1K 1K 1 Panama 42 00 6 15,179 71 71 71 1K 1K 1K 7 f;OL'~ ANIEiPIa Argentina - - -128 00 6 3,543 -1975 - - 7 180 4 I 10.6 -19.1 - - 70 2 - 1 Bolivia 130 00 b 16,338 1K K 1K 4 1K K 1K 4 Brazi 1,874 00 b 11,347 1K K 4 1K K 1K 1K 1 Chile 140 00 b 5,444 K 1K K 1K K 1K 1K 1 Colornba 51000o b -13, 533 1K 1K 71 7 1 1K 1K -Ecuador 130 106 1 K1 K x 1 K1 Guyana 103.00 s 120,327 1K K 1K 4 1 1K 1K 1 Paragu.ay 41 00 b 7,851 K 1K K 1K 1 1K 71 1 Peru 303 00 b 12,219 1973 2 0 7 139 4 25.0 15s0 60 0 1K Venez-ela 227 00 9 ,767 XK XK XK 1K K 1K 1 Armen a,Rep 4 20 1,154 K 4 4 1K 1 1K 1K 1 Azerbaijan 6 50 856 K 1K K 1K K 1K 1K 1 Bangladesh 34 00 274 1929 3 10 0 39 6 129 09 86 2 1K Ch-na 870 00 b 693 1985 75 8.6 692 7 46 4 j 53 6 1K Georg a 17 23 3,166 K A1 K 1K K 1K 1K 1 ndia 3 50 00 b 359 1979 150 42 9 222 4 31 1.3 95.27 ndlonesia ____ 226 00 b _1,064 1K 1K __ K 1K 1 K4 Fran, s1amic Rep 4900O 621 1980 29 59 2 238 8 1K 1K 2 90 k ,rao 120 55 1985 0 1 67 131 ~ 55 6 44.4 0 0 1 Irael 1 10 a 187 198 1 10951 279.1 X 71 1K Japan 185 00 b 1,469 1990 13 7 0 104 3 293 40 7 301 1K Jordan 0 59 a 97 1985 0 70 7 ,,, 7 1K 1 2.0 Kazakstan, Rep 35 87 2,13 X 1KK XK 1K 1K 1K Korea, DemnPeople's Rep 1K X 1 1K 4 K 71 K 71 3 Korea,Rep 1K 5 1985 1 71 29 4 0.0 93 3 j 16.7 1K Kuwat 71 K 71 K 1K K 1K 71 7 231001I Lao People's Dem Rep 500 co 6 9,332 K 71 1 1K K 71 1K 7 Lebanon 3 20 b 1,002 1995 1 1998 224.9 K 1K 1K 1 Malays a 71 00 b 3,310 K 71 K 1K K 1K 1K 7 Mongolia 23 00 3 9,765 K 1K 1 1K K 1K 1K 1 Nrp, K 1K 1K 1K 1 71 1 1K 1K Oman 0 96 381 1995 0 41 9 290 7 1K 1K 1 34 00 m- Pakistan 55 00 372 1980 45 9198 5278 6 11 1 1 9889 1K Ph lippines 180 00 6 2,494 1990 4 2.2 92 9 0.0 50.0 50 0 1K Saudi Aiaoia 2 20 109 1999 7 337.7 597 4 5 4 9.1 96.5 714400 m Sri Lanka 17 00 b 921 1K 1 1K 1 X 71 1K 1 Synan Aran Rep 429 280 1985 4 955 353.0 K 1K 1K 7 Tajikistarn, Rep 6 00 1.011 K 1K 1 71 1 1K 71 7 Tiurkmenistan, Rep 3.36 778 1 1K 1K 1K 71 1K 7 UoIred Arao Em rates 0.1 2 51 1995 0 1K 251 3 2X 1K 1 385 00 m Uznbekistan, Rep 19.69 848 1 71 71 1K K 1K 71 Vietnam 84.00 b 1,079 X X 71 XI K 1K 1K 1 Y~e mjen 15 9 1 8 00 139 __ _ 7 __ _ _71 _ __ _ 1 _ _ _ 1 0 Puj 72 00 a 97,591 71 K 1K K 1K 1K 4 7 New Zealand 199 00 b 53,904 K 1K K 1K K 1K 1K 1 Papua New Guinea K 1K K 1K K 71 K 1K 1K 1 Solomon Islanos 71 1K 71 1K 71 1 K1 7 Notes a Sum of all acgu fer recharge flows 6 Sum of all groundwater flows (as a consttunet of surface snarer flows) c Ethiopia incaudes E-itrea 4 1988 e 1992 fSectroral data predate other sithdrawal sara g. Sum ofthe total gioundwater flow roar is eXploitable. h Combined wsh 1975 wthdrawa data from rho former German Democratc Repub. c i Sum of groundwater flows collecred by water courses ans rhose roarsd schrgie directy to toe sea I Domesric ans ndustria withdrawals combined. k 1991 I1993 m 1 995 n 1989 World Resources 1998-99 307 Data Table 12.3 Water Quality in European Lakes, 1994 Source: European Environment Agency Catchment Years Concentration of Surfae Volume Maximu. Mean A'_ of S-ECII" Chlorophyll Phosphorous Nitrogen Chloride Are, Lake Countries (kri (X) Depth (m) Depth (m) (W) .ta ..Plh (M) {a} pH (14/1) {pq/l) (ri (mg/[) Arn mersee DE 47 18 81 38 993 1975 4.0 x x 55 x x A(reso DK 42 0.1 6 3 258 1990 0.4 9 5 345 514 3.5 x Atlersee AT 46 3.9 171 84 464 1975-79 8.0-9.0 8.0 x 7 x x Balaton HU 593 1.9 12 3 5,181 1979-83 06 8.4 8-36 30-86 0.7-1 4 x -Bodensee AT, DE, CH 539 49,0 ____ 252___ 90 ___10.900_ 1991 ---- __x x x 32 --1,0 x Bolsena T 114 92 151 81 273 x 7 0 x x 25 x x Bracciano IT 57 5 1 165 89 147 x 50 x x 10 x x Chiemsee DE 80 20 73 26 1,399 1983 x x 6 30 x x Como T 146 22.5 410 153 4,570 x 1 0 x x 48 x x corrib :R 170- X x x __ X ____ 1991I _4.7 X_ 3 11 x ___x Derg IR 116 0.9 36 8 10,280 1991-92 1.7 x 17 43 x x Dospat reservoir BG 22 0.4 46 20 432 1984-86 x 65 45 60 0.8 x Dubasari MD 68 0.3 20 4 53,590 1991 x 8.0 x ill 1.9 49 C) EemmeeT & Gooimeer NL 54 x 0 2 x 1990 x 3.8 130 680 0 4 x Femunden NO 204 60 150 30 1,7 0 2 x Garda IT 368 49 0 350 133 2,290 x 50 x x 10 x x HarlngvWt NL 96 x 38 10 XI 1990 1.0 S. 1 9 195 0 3 x Hjblrnaren SE 478 3 0 20 6 3,569 1990 2.0 76 12 46 07 12.0 ijsselmeer NL 2,000 x 6 5 x 1990 1 0 85 81 170 0.1 x 11 2 9 10 3 66,400 x x x 3 70 0.9 280 inari Fl 1,102 15.1 96 14 13,400 1991 80 72 1 4 0.2 x Iseo IT 6 1 7.6 251 123 1,736 x 4.0 x x 32 x x Lac Leman FR, CH 584 89 0 310 153 7,975 1991 80 x 6 52 0.7 60 Lac Lucerne CH 114 11 8 214 104 1,831 1991 x x x 5 0.6 x Lac Neijchtel 64 2,670_ __1991 12._O__84____ 1 20 1 3 x Ladoga RS 17,670 908 a 258 51 258,600 1976-85 3( x 3 27 0.6 x Lago Maggiore IT, CH 213 375 372 177 6,598 x 2.0 &S 3 14-25 0.9 x Lago Trasirneno IT 124 06 6 5 396 x 1 0 x x 55 x x Lebsko PL 71 3.1 6 2 1,536 199c) 1.0 x 100 137 16 x Loch Awe 94 32 780_ 1977-78 3.0 69 2 x x x Loch Lomond UK 71 2.6 190 37 781 1991-92 x 8.9 137 120 2.2 x Loch Morar UK 27 2.3 310 87 142 1977-78 6-10 6.6 1 x x x Loch Ness UK 56 7 5 230 132 1,775 1977-78 4,0 6.7 1 x x x Lough Neigh UK 396 4 8 34 12 4,453 1975-87 1A 8.3 49 108 2.2 x MAlaren SE I'l 3 1990 1 0 7 6 10 32 09 &O Marnry P61nocne PL 26 0.3 44 12 596 1990 4 0 x 3 60 1.0 x Markemeer NL 670 x 5 4 x 1990 x 83 10 45 0 1 x Mask IR so x x X x 199, 4 5 x 3 11 x x Mjosa NO 362 56.2 449 153 16,420 1991 9.0 7.1 3 7 0,4 x Murtz 31 8 x x 2.0 x x 80 x x Neustedtersee AT, HU 30c) 0.3 2 1 1,000 1977 x 8.7 12 102 x x Niegocin PL 26 0.3 40 10 378 1990 1 a x 34 300 1 3 x Ohri AL 363 52 6 287 145 599 x x x x x x x Onega R5 9,670 292 0 120 30 52,970 1967-89 4 0 x 4 12 0 6 2O Oulu aNi Fl 893 6 8 35 8 19, 7 14 0 4 x Oyeren Nb 85 1 1 70 13 40,000 1991 3.0 7 2 4 9 0.4 x Paijanne F 1,054 17 8 98 17 25,400 1991 x 7 1 x 7 0 5 x Peipus FE, RS 3,570 27 0 47 7 44,350 1980-86 1 8-3.6 78-8.1 14 x 08 S 3-11.8 Pielinen F[ 867 83 60 10 12,823 1991 4.0 6.4 3 10 0.5 x prespa AL, GR 329 5.9 35 18 599 x x x x x x x Randsfjorden NO 137 6.1 121 44 3,663 1991 8 0 7.3 1 5 O.S x Ree JR 105 0 7 35 6 4,530 1993-94 1 5 x 15 40 x x Saimaa Fl 1,147 13 9 82 12 60,100 1991 4 0 6.9 3 6 0 5 x Shkrodra AL, FYROM 362 29 10 8 1,026 1972-73 4 C) 7 8 x x x x S 0 7 23 6 2,42 7 115 1 1 x Sn&avatnet NO 121 5 5 121 46 1,433 1988 4 0 7 1 2 5 O2 x Starnberger See DE 56 3.0 128 53 258 1978-79 8 0 x 6 26 x x Storsloen NO 51 7 1 309 145 1,912 1990 x 7.0 2 8 0.2 x TningvalIa is 84 29 114 34 x 1975 x 7 3 x x 0.1 7.0 Thrichonis x 215 1978 6.0 8 3 1 24 0.2 x Tyr,fjo,den NO 121 13.8 29 9,808 1991 7 0 x 2 5 0.4 x VoNi GR 67 0.9 23 14 1,247 1985-66 1,6 9.5 x X, 0 0 x Vanern SE 5,670 152 0 106 27 41,180 1990 50 7.4 2 9 O'S 6 0 Vattern SE 1,912 74 0 128 39 4,447 1990 1 2 0 7 5 1 6 O7 90 Vortjrv EE 270 0 8 6 3 3,10 2 43 2 4 17.0 Windermere UK 15 0 3 64 24 231 1991-92 x 7 0 23 20 1 ( x ZGrich See CH 90 1991 x x x 45 0.8 x Notes, a. Indicates water transparency AL: Albania; AT Austria; BG Bulgaria; CH: Swftzerland, DE: Germany; DK: Denmark, EE. Estonia, Fl Finland, FR France; FYROM: FormerYugoslav Rep of Macedonia, GR Greece, HU Hungary, IR. Ireland, [S Iceland; IT: Italy; MD Moldova, NL: the Netherlands, NO: Norvvay; PL: Poland; RS Russian Federat[on, SE. Sweden, UK I K ngdom. 308 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 12.4 Major Watersheds of the World, 199 FES WTE Sources: Various Modeled Number of Land Use Percent Nutrient Watershed Countries Population Percent Original Percent Percent Percent Number Concn-traticon Area la' within Dniy PretPercent Developed Porest Arid Wetlands Protected of Ramsar NitratePhos`phate Major Watershed (000 k m2) Watershed fbi grIm)Coln Forest Area {c( Loss {dl Area Area Area Sites (e) (mg/1) (mg/I) CIrori ~~~~~ ~ ~~~~549 5 11 0 19 0 6 01 99.9 34 2 225 13 4 0 4 2/ Congo 3.80 9 14.5 7 43 4 X 45 9 0.0 90a 4 7 3 11 1 Jeub-Slhbe i 834 3 1827 586 21 01 76.5 75 1 29 1 4 2 2/ 2 L.impopo 421 4 351 27 9 09 8 9920 47 3 23 9 1 1 7t 2 2/ger 2,262 10 312 50 03 i 050 0 41 40 uravaogo 121g 4 29 55 19 11 0 2 7598 4.~ 12.11 4 . Oranige 941 4 123 9.8 02 2/ 99 9 72 0 008 4.7 11 072 2 Senegal ~~~~~ ~ ~~~~420 4 119 4 9 00 01 99.9 92 0 36 5.7 4 51 1 Volta 407 9 -2.2 109 P. 3 09 000 50a 5 57 EUROPE.. . -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Onreper ~~~~~ ~ ~~~~502 3 87 0 09.4 3.0 9.9 77.8 3.6 8.2 1.2 0 0.20 0.01 Dniester 89 3 104 7 82.2 7.2 9 8 89.0 9.8 1.1 IA4 0 1.00 0.10 Don 459 2 40.1 83.0 1 8 9.0 79.4 33.1 09 5 04 1 X x Ecro 83 in 379 57 1 10 3 15~4 yd849 70 0 01 lI 14 ,Jaronne 54 3 59.2 749 9 7 16 4 84.8 0.0 01 7 1 0 150 2o10 Gia'nu 42 1 28 3 1 2 512 19 4 5 9 0.0 19 4 2 3 0 42 0.01 Guadalquvir 53 1 679 49 4 31 22.6 955 348 31 137 3 0 1/ Kemqocki 52 3 23 0 3 257 0 2 20 0" 0 n ho ~~~~ ~ ~~~~~ ~~~77 2 2153 48 4 139 220 80 4 00 19 91 9 142 008 Rh ne-Maas 199 8 3041 64.2 7 2 26 2 710 0 0 1.9 19 0 20 3 88 0 40 Rhone 101 2 973 61.0 113 210 99 6 0 0 0 9 13.8 4 2.01 001I Jral 244 2 1 30 02 8 29 0 0 322 99.5 0 2 10 2 2/ V451./a 182I 46 1314 801 39 14.9 922 0 0 3 2 10 2 2 4 2/ Volgo 1,494 26 414 59 2 230 10 3 502 ~ 89 2 6 1 9 0021 002 Wleser 45 1 1981 78 9 28 20 2 78 2 0 0 21 19 5 4 4 95 0 57 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA~ Coloracno 703 2 12.0 0.8 235 2 7 42 8 891 25 81 0 2 30 01 0 Columbia 657 2 9 0 6 2 49.4 95 21.5 497 6 3 75 0.11 003' F,aser 245 2 5.8 0.5 89 0 4 7.0 25 17 118 0 .09Q 205 Macrenzir 1,200 1 0 2 3 0 622 1 7 x 79 2.0 48 9 50 3 0 14 0 04 is.rri-riopi /0 21 5 48 221 4. 7 755 00 1 5 8 10 O NersonSaskratchewan 1,099 2 2 2 94 3 342 0 24 3 215 86 8 4 0 5 0 03 2 05 Ro Grande- 608 2 1 56 5 2 1328 995 921 96 0 21 23 1 0 29 4 St Lawren,e 1,049 2 4186 1 67 461 1 8 4 22 7 00 472 7 9 7 0 22 0 22 Yuken 943 2 0 2 0 0 51 0 2/ 23 1 00( 27.0 29 9 1 0 12 02O Am-azon ~6 144 7 4 4 29 0 3 0 8 . 1 0 M3agooleaa 293 I 78 8 0806 06.6 10 0 879s 72 02 4 0 0 0.25 5 12 Orinoco 954 2 13.1 99 498 2 8 22.5 8.5 13 23 7 0 0 08 0 01 Parana 2.583 4 23.5 44 5 1127 3 5 70 6 9.9 10 9 298 7 003 207 S9oeFrancisco 618 1 1796 814 098 2.4 64 4 3220 9 7 0 5 0 4 4 Tocanmus 764 1 59 9~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~627 9 10 4O- 9 7 -02_191 ] 3 ~ 1 ~ 002 900) Uru.guay 297 3 2486 44 1 6 7 3 0 92 4 0 0 399 1 5 0 0 30 002 Branmapotra 651 4i 173 8 29.2 19 4 25 73 2 0 0 2027 3.7 0.82 0 08 Gorges 1,016 4hr 374.6 70.9 4.2 9 0 84.5 28.0 ~ 77 5 6 4 0.9 2/ Godaoar 322 1 194 5 633 99 727 790 47 0 On4 2 -' .. .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I . . . 017 002~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~017 30 /rrasaOOy 414 3 29 5 30 6 56 3 17 6059 02c 62 0 6 0 0 4 Kolyma 682 1 05 0 0 92 2/ 55 9 00 19 0 2 0 0 09 2 Krshna 225 249 2 69 5 29 9 4 90 2 413 16 2 42 0 0 19 Lena 2,307 1 13 1.2 83 6 086 19 1 07 0.6 1 3 0 20 9 0 01 klanuanan 149 ~1 ~ 191 8 58-4 92 f 6 1-79 4 0 03 360 / Mekoong 828 6 77 6 37 9 41.5 22 69.2 2 0 8 7 5 4 0 2/ 0 Miorray-Dar irg 9,53 1 2.1 29 9 31 2/ 63.9 67.' 3 1 4 2 9 00C3 017C uNarmada 95 1 191.9 755 09s 76 21 3 2598 09 392 012 0 02 Ob 3,029 4 9 4 22 3 211 5.2 39 4 42 2 111I 19 4 02 209 Sakseen 272 0 2586 ss us; uu II eI Or .1 Hijio6 giawste 7eo 4 57 6 24.6 13 920 99 9 30 9 2.9 0 4 0 0 . XueJanog 409 2 209 6 78.4 114 63 3284 0 0 1 3 I;0 60 6o 02O0 Yangtze 1,722 1 223 7 06 3 10. 5 3 5 84 9 IC0 3 0 12 7 2 2 77 92oi Yemsry 2,499 2 2.3 12 3 4985 1 7 19.3 10.5 2.7 3.3 1 0.10 0.01 N/ores a Warershed urea coal o.gtaully derivrd from e noaion, data. b Numoer of countries muy oiF'er from rho .. 9 s31i0g onder lhe Pr9.stry of rinleroat 01; 9 sell du.e to recent changes onlihicol bounedaries of marn5 co.in:r es. c Burro on stable irghrtimr ights dora These f gures overestimate lee actual 0reu I t Dala were nor aaai ab e 'or a regions of the wonod ClOosed forest corer err mated to exist 8,050 years ago arrsom ng curner:, c imare conditions e vVer aeds of iolernal onal [mpolf ance f The numoer of countries snaring the Wle hasin has ncreosed 1010 will roe oncependeoce of Eritrea g VWarersned nc udes ntermitten-, triourarnes i0 Botswona (Northern fialahar desert) h huoldes countries thar haoe <1e4 urea in the watershed Sus.n nec odes tne tieal area of rho Sr Lawrence R ver WVorld Resources 1 998-99 309 Sources and Technical Notes Annual internal renew,able water resources refers ter resources and desalinization activities: Food to the average annual flow of rivers and recharge of and Agriculture Organization of the United Na- Freshwater Resources and groundwater generated from endogenous precipi- tions (FAO), Irrigation in Africa in Figures, Water Withdrawals, 1970-98 tation. Caution should be used when comparing Reports 7 (FAO, Rome, 1995); FAO, WiaterResources Sources: Water resources and withdrawal data different countries because these estimates are of Africazn Couturies:AReview (FAO, Rome, 1995); come from a variety of sources: J. Forkasiewicz and based on differing sources and dates. These annual FAO, W;7aterResourcesoft/seNeaETEc stRegion, Water J. Margat, Tableau Mondial de Donlildes Nationales averages also disguise large seasonal, interannual, Report (FAO, Rome, 1997); FAO, Irrigation in the d'Econoimie de l'Eau, Ressources et Utilisation (De- and long-term variations. When data for annual Near East - . in Figures, Water Reports No. 7 partement Hydrog6ologie, Orteans, France, 1980); river flows from and to other countries are not (FAO, Rome, 1995); FAO, Irrigaticn in the Former J. Margat, Bureau de Recherches Gbologiques et shown, the internal renewable water resources fig- Soviet Union in Figures, WaterRepart(FAome Minieres, Orleans, France, April 1988 (personal ure may include these flows. When such data are forthcoming); and FAQ, WraterResources of theFor- communication); and Alexander VT Belyaev, Insti- shoxvn, they are not included in a countrys total in- nser Soviet Union, Water Report (FAO, Rome, in tute of Geography, U.S.S.R. National Academy of ternal renewable water resources. Per capita annual preparation). Sciences, Moscow, September 1989 and January internal renewable water resources data were calcu- Average annlual groundwater recharge is the 1990 (personal communication). Withdrawal and lated using 1998 population estimates. Actual an- amount of water that is estimated ao annually infil- sectoral use data for the United States: Wavne B. nual renewable water resources available for use is trate soils, including water from rivTers and streams Solley, Robert R. Pierce, and Howard A. Perlman, usually less than the sum of internal renewable re- that lose it to underlying strata. In general, this fig- "Estimated Use of Water in the United States, in sources and river flows. This is due to the fact that urewould represent the maximum amount of water 1990,' U.S. Geological Sutvey Circular, No. 1081 not all resources can be mobilized for use and that that could be withdrawn annually without ulti- (U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, 1993); part of the flowcoming from upstream countries or mately depleting the groundwater resource. These European Communities-Commission, Environ- leaving for downstream countries might be re- data are estimated in a variety of ways (see foot- sment Statistics 1989 (Office des Publications Offi- served to those countries by treaty or other agree- notes and J. Margat), and caution should be used in cielles des Communautes Europeennes, Luxem- ment. For example. Sudan's actual water resources comparing values for different countries. bourg, 1990); United Nations Economic includetheflowoftheNile,lesstheamountthatitis Per capita recharge is the amouint of water that Commission for Europe (ECE), The Environment committed bv treaty to deliver to Egypt at Aswan. annually infiltrates soils on a per-person basis, us- in Europe anti North America (U.N., New York, Anniual withdrawals as a percentage of water re- ing 1998 population estimates. 1992); ECE, ECE Environsneintal Statistical Data- sources refer to total water withdrawals, not count- Annual total grosiiidwater witlsdrawals refer to base, on diskette (Statistical Division, U.N/ECE, ing evaporative losses from storage basins, as a per- abstractions from all groundxvatcr sources-even 1995); Organisation for Economic Co-Operation centage of internal renewable water resources. Wa- nonrenewable sources. The percent of annual re- and Development (OECD), OECD Environmnental ter withdrawals also include water from nonrenew- charge refers to total groundwater withdrawals. Data Compenditiin (oECD, Paris, 1995); Food and able groundwater sources, river flaxes from other Per capita annual withdrawsa were calculated AgricultureQOrganization of United Nations (FAO), countries, and desalination plants in countries using national population data for the year of data 1W1i'ater Resources of Africaisz Couintries, A Reviewi, where that source is a significant part of all water shown for withdrawals. (FAC, Rome, 1995); FAQ, Irrigatio9 in Africa in9 Fig- withdrawals. Per ctipita annual withdraxvals were Sectoral s/rare of withdrawals (if groundwater is urea, 1a7ter Reports No.9 (FAO, Rome, 1997); FAQ, calculated using national population data for the classified as dotestic (drinking waiter, homes, com- port (FAQ,Romes 1997); FAQ, rrigati n i te Rea year of data shoawn. mercial establishments,public services [e.g.,hospi- East Region in Figures, WVater Reports NO.7 (FAQ, Sectoral withdrawals are classified as domestic tals],and municipal use orprovision); inidustty (in- EastRegon i Fitire, Rport No - (AO, (drinking xwater, homes, commercial establish- cuigwtrwtdant oltemeeti Rome, 1995); FAO, Irrigatioas in the Former Soviet . eludig water xvthdrawn to cool thermoelectric Unioai iiiFigures, WaterReport (FAO,Rome,forth- ... 1.. ... ...1 1 I " .- plants);andagr-iculture(irrigationaandlivestock). coming); and FAO, Winater Resoarrces of the Former pal use); industrial (some countries include water Desalinated water production refers to the re- Sotviet Union, Water Report (FAO, Rome, in prepa- withdrawn to cool thermoelectric plants, while moval of salt from saline waters-usually seawa- ration). others do not; these can be significant amounts of ter-using a varietv of techniques including re- Population: United Nations (U.N.) Population total water withdrawals); and agricsultsral (irriga- verse osmosis. Most desalinated water is used for Division, Wvi`orld Popsslatioar Prospects, 1950-2050 tion and livestock). domestic purposes. (The 1996 Revision), on diskette (U.N., New York, Totals mayknot add because of roundTg. Totals max not add because ot rounding. 1996). Withdrawal data in this table were updated or confirmed from individual country reports !': when possible. For example, this was accomplished Groundwater and for Egypt, Morocco, South Africa, the Republic of nia 1 LWater Quality in Eurk1pean Korea, Vietnam, Honduras, Brazil, Guyana, and Ja- Desalinization, 1998 Lakes, 1994 pan, based on reports prepared by each country for Sources: Groundxvater resources and withdrawal the United Nations Conference on Enxironment data come from several sources: J. Margat, Les Eauix Source: Physical lake characteristics and water and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. Souterraines Dans LeMonde (BRGM-Services Sol quality data: P. Kristensen and H.O. Hansen, Euro- B .i .>.'. ,i .i . p I , |!1. .: .1 ,, et Sous-Sol, Departement Eau, Orleans, France, pean Rivers and Lakes-Assessnment of Their Envi- ments (including national, United Nations, and December 1990); Organisation for Economic Co- ronrmental State, European Environment Agency professional literature) and from estimates, when Operation and Development (OECD), OECD Err- Environmental Monographs No. t (European En- necessary, of resources and consumption from vironmtental Data Compenidiuin 1993, (OECD, vironment Agency, Copenhagen, 1994). models using other data, such as area under irri- Paris, 1993); and Economic Commission for These data were compiled from questionnaires gated agriculture, livestock populations, and pre- Europe (ECE), The Environment us Europe aind distributed to the European cour.tries, scientific lit- cipitation. North Anmerica (U.N., New York, 1992). Groundxxa- erature, National State of the Enx ironment reports, 310 World Resources 1998-99 FRESH WATER and from the International Lake Environment cial Affairs of the United Nations, Perganmon Press, Comnmittee Foundation database. Because these Oxford, U.K., 1978). Several additional river basins data are from very different primary sources, lake Major Watersheds of the World, were added to this table from the Atlas of rile Wvorld data are not strictly comparable. The table, how- 1 998 list of major river basins to gain more complete geo- ever, provides a good indication of the lake water graphic coverage. The basins in this table represent quality in various European regions. Sources: Watershed selection and nutrient concen- approximately 42 percent of thle world's land area. The majority fErpa lakes have a small sur- tration: United Nations Environment Programme Most of th data in this table were obtained of European ~~~~(UNEP)/Global Environment Monitoring System through geographic information system (GIS) face area between 0.01-1.0 sqluare kilometers. Ther ar 16000laks wth asuraceare lager (GEMS), Wiater Quality of World River Bissins, anal-ysis of muktiple data sets. The ba'se data layer Ther are16,00 lkeswitha srfac ara lager UNEP Environmental Library No. 14 (UNEP, Nai- used for geographic definition of the watersheds than 1 square kilometer, Of these, 14,525 are lo- robi, 1995), and Oxford Univ'ersity Press, Atlas of wvas a 5-miinute resolution data set (one-twentieth cated in the Nordic countries and the Russian Fed- the WVorld, Second Edition (Oxford University of a degree latitude longitude) of major watershed eration. For the purpose of this table, a subset of the Press, Inc., New York, 1993). Modeled watershed basins. There are some limitations as'sociated with most well-known lakes in Europe was selected. area: Center for Remote Sensiag and Spatial Analy- the scale of this base data: watershed boundaries are These were data-rich lakes representing different sis (CRSSA), Cook College, Rutgers University, and coarse, and some smaller basins and small iributar- r. L ~~itidentifiedi by the name U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engi- ies are not identified. Subbasins were then aggre- most commonly usedi in the country or region neering Research Laboratories (CERL),MaIjor W'a- gated to include all tributaries of the major river where they are located. tershsed Basins o -f the W'orld in Global ARC GIS Oa- systems. Summary statistics for each watershed tabaseC-O CSANeBrnwc,Nw wrdiialexrcebyoelynthbsn Measurements of suirface area are generally re- ersv CD-ROM an CRSitdAb Nhew BArunswisouckNew weedgtIxrcenb-vrain h ai ported as the largest area for lakes subject to normal Jre,96)addidbyteW ldRsucsI- map onto other existing digital data' sets. size variations and usually include the area of any suturte. Number of countries within watershed: En- iWodleled watershed areas was estimated using an islands within the lakes. ~vironmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) equal area projection and summing the number of islands within the lakes. software (ESRI, Redlands, California, 1995). Mean 1 km2 cells within each basin. The derived basin Calculation of rooltsi and mean depth requires population density: National Consortium for Geo- area was compared to the U.N. data from the Regis- detailed knowledge of the lake bottom andi is usu- graphic Information and Analysis (N`CGIA), ter of Internationasl Rivers and only those whose ally estimated. MVaximusm depth can be measured Global Demography Project, Gridided Population of aresadid not vary more than 10-15 percent from the directly. Mlean and maximum depths and wvater the W4orld, data set for 1995 distributed by the Con- U..dt eeiclue ntetbe hr rw v,olume are important factors in understanding po- sortium for International Earth Science Informs- lionNetwrk (IESII, aailale olineat: exceptions to this: the Okavango and the St. Law- tential productiity. tion Netwok (CIESIN), avalable online at rence River basins. Intermittent tributaries are in- Centchia enproductiisty eae ftedang ai http:/Iwwssr~ciesin.org/datasets/gpwv/globldem. eluded in the northern part of the Kalahar-i desert in (excluding the area of the lake) that provides water doc.htmll(CIESLN, 1995). Cropland and forest: U.S. Botswana within the Okavango basin. The tidal Geological Survey (USGS), University of Ne- to the lake, rsajitRsac etrfrteErpa area ot the St. Lawrence River is excluded. H,ater Years of data shows the years for which water bramiska-oint Researc Cente fovr CactheEropeain surface of rivers and lakes (e.g., the Great Lakes in quality data were available. Some countries speci- database, distributed by USGS Earth Resources the St. Lawrence River watershed) are included in fled annual averages, while others provided only Observation System (EROS) Data Center, available the drainage area. summer averages. For countries showing more online at: http://edcwNwwcr.usgs.gov,/landdaac/ NubroIonre ihnwtrhdwr dn than one year, water quality data represent an aver- glcclglcc.btml1 (USGS, 1992-93). Developed area: rifled using updated 1995 countryboundaries from age for the period showvn. T'herefore, care should be National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- the Environmental Systems Research Institute taken when making comparisons. For some coon- tion National Geophysical Data Center (NOAA- IESRI). Countries includied in each basin are listed tries, the year or period of the data is unknown and NGD C), NTighittimte Lights of the W,orld database, below. Countries are listed in descending order as to has been marked as missing data. available online at: http://wxxw.ngde.noaa. their share at the basin (i.e.. countries with mnore Gov:8080/production/html/BIOMASS/night. land within a basin are listedi first). The countries Secchi depth is a measure of transparency of wa- html (NOAA-NGDC, 1994-95). Original forest listed may differ with the U.N. due to the recent in- ter obtained by lowering a white disk into the water data: D. Bryant, D. Nielsen, and L. Tangier', The Last dependence of many countries (i.e., the Nile basin until itris no longer visible. Frontier Forests: Ecosystems aiid Economies on the now, includes both Ethiopia and Eritrea). Chari: The pH of the water can range from pH 4 for Edge (World Resources Institute, Washington, Chad, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Sudan, acidic waters to a pH 11I for alkaline waters. A pH 7 D.C., 1997). Arid ares: UNEP, WtorldAtlas ofDeser- and Nigeria. Congo: Dem. Rep. Congo. Central Af- is neutral. tification GlobalAridity Zone Map (UNEP, Nairobi, rican Republic, Angola, Rep. Congo, Tanzania, Concentrations of chlorophyll, phosphorous, ni - 1992). Wetlands areas and protected areas: World Zambia, Cameroon, Burundi, and Rwanda. Juibei- trogen, and chloride provide information on the no- Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), Biodi- Shibeli: Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya. Limppopo: triet ad plloionlevls f alak. Lkesloctedin veraity Map Library, software (WCMC, Cambridge. South Africa, Botswana, Mozambique, andi Zim- prisntin area usullyuavt lwnurin levels (talk. ae otal i U.K., 1996). Ramsar sites: Ramsar Convention Bu- babwve. Niger: Mali, Nigeria. Niger, Algeria, Guinea, pritin aras sualy avelownutien leels(toal reau, List of Wetlands of lnternationial Importance Cameroon, Burkina Paso, Benin, C6te d'lvoire, and phosphorous concentrations are less than 10 to 20 (Rarmsar C-onvention Bureau, Gland, Switzerland, Chad. Nile: Sudan, Ethiopia, Egypt, Uganda, Tanza- micrograms per liter and total nitrogen concentra- 1997). nia, Kenya, Oem. Rep. Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, tiuns are less than 0.5 milligrams per liter). The no- The miajor wvatersheds included in the table are and Erirrea. Okavango: Botswana, Namibia, An- trient levels in alake depend on the external loading from the 82 major watersheds of the world identi- gola, and Zimbabwe. Orange: South Africa, Na- and on the characteristics of the catchment area, fled by UNEP/GEMS. This list includes major river mibia, Botswana, and Lesotho, Senegal: Mali, Mao- Lakes in catchment areas with intensive agriculture syste ms and smaller river systems of regional sig- rirania, Senegal, andi Guinea. Volta: Burkina Faso, have more nutrient loadings from fertilizer runoff, nIificance. Sixteen watersheds were excluded for Ghana, Malih, Toga, C6re d'Ivoire, and Benin. Zam- etc. high nutrient levels produce an increase in their small size or because our derived basin area bezi: Zambia, Angola, Zimbabwe, Mvozambique, phytoplankton (chlorophyll levels). which in turn differed considerably from the United Nations esti- Malawi, Botswana, Tanzania, and Namibia. Da- increases the turbidity of the water (low water mate of river basins in the Register of International nube: Romania, Hungary, Serbia, Austria, Get- transparency) and can alter the biological compo- Rivers (Center for Natural Resources, Energy; and many, Slovakia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, sition of the aquatic community. Transport of the Department of Economic and So- Croatia, Ukraine, Czech Republic. Slovenia, and World Resources 1998-99 31 1 Moldova, and with less than 1 percent of the basin overlaid on population data, and the population regions above 500N in North America and above area: Switzerland, Italy, Poland, and Albania. Dnie- density was calculated for each basin. Data are pre- 80°N in Asia. per: Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. Dniester: sentedasthenumberofpeoplepersquarekilome- Percent originalforest loss was calculated bydi- Ukraine, Moldova, and Poland. Don: Russia and ter. viding the difference between original and current Ukraine. Ebro: Spain, and with less than 1 percent Land use: The USGS Global Land Cover Charac- forest cover by the extent of original forest cover of the basin area: France and Andorra. Elbe: Ger- terization database with the International Geo- within each basin. For definitions of original and many, Czech Republic, Austria, and Poland. Ga- sphere Biosphere Programme (IGBP) classification current forests, please refer to the Sc urces and Tech- roeine: France, Spain, and Andorra. GlaJma: Nor- was used to identify the extent of different land Pcen ri ara iate tp ag h way. Gtadalqauivir: Spain. Kernmiok-i: Finland, Nor- cover types within each basin. The land cover data- basin that falls in an area defined ais semiarid, arid, way, and Russia. Loire: France. Po: Italy and Switzer- base is derived from 1 -km resolution satellite data or hvperarid on the tUbrld Atlas o (Desertification land. Rhine-Maas: Germany, France, Switzerland, spanning April 1992 through March 1993. Percent Global Aridity Zonie Map. This map is based on an Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, and cropland indicates the percentage of the basin de- aridityindexderived from the ratio of mean annual Liechtenstein. Rhone: France and Switzerland. fined as cropland or a crop/natural vegetation mo- precipitation to the mean annual potential evapo- Seine: France. Tajo ( :. - Spain and Portugal. saic. Percenttforest indicates the percentage of the transpiration. Ural: Kazakhstan and Russia. Visttula: Poland, basin defined as evergreen needleleafforest,ever- Percentwetlandsareaxwascalculstedbydividing Ukraine, Belarus, and Slovakia. Volga: Russia and green broadleaf forest, deciduous needleleaf forest, the sum ofthe areas of wetlands within thebasin by Kazakhstan. WVeser: Germany. Brazos: United deciduous broadleaf forest, or mixed forest. The the total watershed area. It includes all areas desig- States. Colorado: United States and Mexico. Colurio- Nighttime Lights of the W4,orld database used for the nated as wetland in the Biodiversty Mwap Library bia: United States and Canada. Fraser: Canada and percent developed area is a 1 -km by 1 -km resolution software. United States. Mackenzie: Canada. Mississippi: map derived from nighttime imagery from the De- Percenitprotected area was calculated by dividing United States and Canada. ATelson-Saskatchesva7: fense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) the sum of the protected areas that fall within the Canada and United States. Rio Grande: United Operational Linescan Svstem (OLS) of the United World Conservation Union (IUCN) I-V manage- States and Mexico. St. Lawrence: Canada and States. The data set contains the locations of stable mentcategoriesinthewatershedbythetotalwater- United States. Yukoni: United States and Canada. lights, including frequently observed light sources shed area. For a description ofthe I'JCN categories, Amazon: Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, such as gas tlares at oil drilling sites. Time series please refer to the Sources and Technical Notes of Ntenezuela and Guyana. Magdalena: Colombia. Or- analysis is used to exclude transient light sources Data Table 14.1. inoco: Venezuela and Colombia. Parana: Brazil, Ar- such as fires and lightning. The extent of "lit" area Raoisar sites are sites designatec. as "wetlands of gentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia. Sao Francisco: Bra- may be slightly overestimated due to the sensor's international importance" according to the terms zil. Tocantins: Brazil. Uruguay: Brazil, Uruguay, and resolutionandfactorssuchasreflectionfrom water of the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, Argentina. Amutr: Russia, China, and Mongolia. and other surface features. It is a good indicator of 1971). Spatial accuracy of the coordinates varies. Bralmaputta: China, India, Bangladesh, and Bhu- the spatial distribution of settlements and infra- For more intormation, please refer to the Sources Braospur * and Technical Notes of Data Table 14.1. tan. Ganges: India, Nepal, China, and Bangladesh. structure but should not be interpreted as a meas- The concentration of nitrates and phosphates Godavari: India. HwangHo: China. Jttdus: Pakistan, ure of population density (The mean settlement provide information on the nutria at and pollution India, Afghanistan, and China. Irraswaddy: Myan- size required to produce enough light tobe detected levels ofriversand lakes. Nutrient lvels willdepend mar, China, and India. Kolyma: Russia. Krishna: In- is much greater in developing countries than in in- in part on the runoff from agricultural lands and dia. Lena: Russia. Mtahanadi: India. Mekotngg Laos, dustrialized countries because of differenaces in en- water discharge from urban centers that carry high Thailand, China, Cambodia, Xrietnam, and Mlyan- ergy consumption.) The Nighttime Ligltts of the loads ofphosphorous and nitroger from fertilizers, mar. Murray-Darlisg: Australia. Narntada: India. Vorld data are more highly correlated wvith meas- animal waste, and municipal sewage. High nutrient Ob: Russia, Kazakhstan, China, and Mongolia. Stli- ures of economic activity and energy consumption levels produce eutrophication of rivers and lakes weett: China, Niyanmar, and Thailand. Tapti: India. and are therefore considered a measure of relative (i.e., an increase in biomass such as algae that can Tigris aitd Etphrates: Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria. development within the svatershed. The percentage alter the chemical makeup of the vater and there- Xun Jiang: China and Vietnam. itngtze: China. of developed area was calculated by dividing the fore the biological composition of he aquatic com- Yettisey: Russia and Mongolia. area within a watershed indicated as "lit" by the to- munity). For more detailed inforriation on nutri- Popuslation density was extracted from a global tal area ofthe watershed. Dataxwere not available for ent concentration, please refer to the original 5-minute resolution population map. Basins were regions below the equator in Africa and Asia or for source. 312 World Resources 1998-99 OCEANS AND FISHERIES , -1 Oceans and Fisheries World Resources 1998-99 313 Data Table 13.1 Marine and Freshwater Catches, Aquaculture, Balance of Trade, and Fish Consumption Sou,ces:FoodandAgricultureOrganizat,onoftheUnited',,atioi,sand UnitcdNat,onsP.pulationDwisio. Average Annual Average Annual Per Capita Annual Marine Catch (a) Freshwater Catch fa) Average Annual Aquaculture Production Average Annual Food SLIPPIY from (000 Percent (000 Percent 1993-95 (metric tons) Balance of Trade (b) Fish an J Seafood metric Change metric Change Dia- Fresh- Molluscs 1993-95 (million LJSS) Total % Change tons) Since tons) Since Marine dromous water & Crus- Molluscs & Fish 1993-95 Since I993-95 1983-85 1993-95 1983-85 Fish Fish Fish taceans Fish Crustaceans Meal (lq) 1983-85 Wo RID IC) 91,219.2 23 17,152.7 102 472,243 1,287,589 11,204,330 5,590,184 13.4 9.2 AN 31 1,3731 19 14,597_ 1,788 54,785 4,511 299.6 868.2 (62.4) 6.8 13 6) ,Jge,a 114 2 74 0 3 862 53 - I4 2 1 67 18 Angola 775 0  6 7 (I x x x x (S 6) I2.7) 0 0 12.4 51 ) Benm 135 192 25 2 i8 x x 98 x (9 0) 0 6 (O 0) 10 2 (58) Bc'. vana X x 2 0 41 x x x x (4 6) (o 6) (O 1) 7 1 98.4 Burkina Fa5o x x 7 7 5 0 0 0 0 (3 6) (O 0) (O O 1 3 (22.3) 75'rind, _9__467__14 (92) O _O _5_3___ 8__9 3- Cam roon 419 25) 2 3 2 is 0 0 51 0 22 2) 7 C 3) 8 5 41 2) Centra Afr can Rep x X 133 1 0 0 E67 0 0.7) (O 0) 10 4.5 (19 7) Cl-ad x x 75 8 57 x x x x (O.E) (0.0) 0.0 5 9 102 1 _.ongo, D2.rn Rep 4 0 140 166 7 27 0 0 733 a (40 1) (0.1) 0 0 5 1 (44.1) Congo,Rep 175 (8) is 8 38 0 0 5 0 (13 5) 0 (23 9) Cbte dWo re 57 5 (22) 141 (41) 0 0 255 0 i2 1 44 08 12 5 (22 6) Egypt 1161 225 19C0 33 11,732 26,859 0 (64 4) 04 IS 4) 6,( 40 Ecijatooa Gu nea 33 15  4 48 x x x x 1 6) 0 0 0 0 x x Ertrea 2 4 x 0 0 x X x X 0 0 x 0 0 x x Tt-h 'boo 0-3 ___X -5 _0_0 0 __X C-abor 24 0 28 25 39 0 0 6 0 (10 3) 3.2 O 0) 44 0 (18.8) Gambia, Toe 19.5 124 25 (9) 0 D 0 0 08 3 1 (O 0) 1 7 5 &2 Ghana 2996 34 527 24 0 0 5C5 0 1 7 7 5 9 (O 9) 22 8 5.S Guinea 60 3 130 41 130 0 0 5 0 2 0 48 0 0 6 7 (18 0) Guinea-Bissau 53 75 0 3 17 x x x x 0 6 (5-1-- _ 70 -0- 5 6 __T49 4- Kenya 1076 86 860 112 c 314 823 68 20 1 c 9 ID 3) 5 7 12 4 Lesotho ( a 367 0 0 66 0 5 12 0 O.C 0 0 0.0 4.0 13 7 L 3 8 i6II 3 9 3) a 0 0 0 0 9) 0.3 0 0 x x Ltb) year a 332 162 0 1 x 0 a 90 a 16 2 (O 5) O 8) 3 9 19.1 Modagascar 85 1 ISO 32 0 (12) 0 0 2,521 1 -1-71-6- 6-0 5 O 5 7 3 --7-14- Mtw x X 57,5 0 -) 0 0 231 5 0 1) (O 0) (O 6) 6 8 25.9 Ma 5 2 5 81 6 53 0 0 84 0 (I 5 IC 0) 0 0 6 4 12 4 mauntarra S6 6 6) 5,2 l 4 x x x 19 7 127 O 0) 16 2 23 4 Maur tius 19 a 74 O'l 270 29 0- 42 72 6.9 3 7) 2 2) 277 56 4 Morocco 738 6 59 1 7 40 1,030 :98 200 148 241 '__ 99 _2 _(O_T)_ _ -6 - B- 7 Mozambique 24 8 (27) EA  5) 0 0 54 0 10 7) 69 8 (O 1) 2 1 (40 6) Nam,,,,a 304.5 2,336 11 183 0 0 4 42 58 7 0 a 6 7 10 8 5.0 Niger x X 2 8 0 0 0 29 0 (i 6) .0 4 (O ) 0 4 (28,1) (I 3) 6 9 (27 1) a 0 x x Senegal 329 7 43 30 7 45 0 29 14 S8.7 32 2 0.6 26.6 22 1 Sjerra Leone 47 1 34 14 7 (10) 0 a 22 0 3 4 106 0 0 15 C, 16 8) Somal a 15.4 (3) 0 3 (6) x x x x 5 0 2 5 0 D x x Souti AM,ca 5522 (32) 09 16 23 937 117 2,942 119 5 50 2 f56 1) 7 6 (14.7) 7u d a -o  35 - - - 7-0- 3-96 50 0 467 0 I2 4) 0 0 (O 0) 1 7 23 9 'waz land x x D 29 0 0 23 0 x x x 0 0 x Tanzan a 243 4 68 100 (21) 0 0 183 0 9 8 C) 9 0 0 11 8 (8 5) Togo 6 7 23 5 9 69 1 0 607 0 i12 4) ) 5 ' 0) 13 7 12 () Turiso 84 0 7 0 4 x 676 206 174 108 17 7 56.3 (00) 7.9 (18 6) __D_gar_da _6 3 6-Tl 7-6 ____f_9___0  0-__ff3______O 0___ Zamb,a 11 0 (1) 57 1 3 0 0 4,422 0 C 0) (O 0) (O 4) 9 2 71 Zirnbaavve 19 6 72 1 1 (74) 0 100 37 13 (8 4) (O 7) (O 5) 2 2 7 1 EUROPETe)-- -'F7,-567-2- ;---4-4 -1-k- 34,235 55_7,258 _258_,074__6_2_3,_4_26-S50_4 -4) --( 94_f __(260_Q__!_78 ____X Alban a 2 3 (651 _Yr(73) _- 20 -9 2 Y___158 3) Austr a 3 ( I 5 rli c 2,997 1,37 4 (137 8) k2l.3) (10 5) 12A 62 7 Belarus, Rep 0 0 14 4 x 0 9 13,727 0 (1 2) (I 5) (0.6) 0 0 x BeIg,um 35 5 (2 0 7 307 546 300 a (327 3) (224 8) (23 7) i9 8 f 5.8 t Boso, ad H,zeg.v rL 0.0 x 2 5 X x x 2 (4 7) (o (o O x x 0 _f_4__(T3 -6) Bulgara 13 _28)  0 744-_7'355 (F4_1 __U_8_7_12,1 'Qat'a' Rep i96 x 4 x 264 301 E,706 152 29 8 0 0 (8 6i 0 0 x Czech Rep 0 9 A 217 x 0 609 20,888 0 32 9) (I 1) (B 8) 5 0 x Denmark 1,870 8 2 0 3 l 2) 0 42,397 1 0 702.9 63.9 140 7 23 2 (9 0) Estonia, Rep 13 2 x 3 2 'X C) 288 66 0 74.4 0 4) 0.4 0.0 x Fn ard 129 0 6 3- 5 0 _____4 F,ance 822 1 2 13 1 175 3,504 50,702 8,653 216,671 (1,155 7) (743 0) (35 3) 28 5 13.9 Germany 267.4 !44) 28 3 (2) 0 25,300 13,233 1 6,249 (1,220 8) 290 2) uO 6) 16 1 24.9 G,eec, 192 8 93 14 1 77 1 5,471 2,309 223 14,799 7 0 (24 1) (1 7 3) 26 2 56.9 -iingary 0 4 180 210 (42) 0 38 9,579 0 (11 6) (O 3; (19 8) 4 2 (23 1) Iceland 1_,630 6 2 1 -d 1 _76--_-T ___U893 1-__U71 2- Ireia,d 344 7 6i 1 9 x 6 13,439 0 17,93  79.2 53 7 (4 5) 19.8 26 4 Italy 571 6 1 :1 5 21 9,117 4 1,294 5,441 134,892 (1,241 4) (641A) (40 3) 22.7 15.6 Latvia, Rep 142 4 x 1 2 x 0 7 468 0 35 3 (0.2) 0 6 36 4 x L,thuania, Rep 70.3 x 3 2 x 0 0 2,165 D 3 1 0 4 (I 9) 33 2 x Macedon a, FYR 0 6 Moldova, ep 0 0 K 4 8 x 0 0 4,754 0 (2 51 0 a (O 4 i I x Nelher ands 526 3 f2) 1.6 (6) 0 1,545 973 85,479 295 6 118 6 54 4) 15 8 18 7 Nor,vay 2,640 1 7 x x 527 223,887 0 20 2,266 5 92.7 (1 0) 45 3 5 6 Poland, Rec - 397 1 42) 47 8 53 0 4,500 18,240 0 i43.2) 2 2 l 1) 101 (26 8) Portuga _7ff  (5, -___(T0_ 636 ___T8_d'_T_13 -8) Romana 19.9 (89) 29 0 I46) 387 20,057 D (8 3 (0.1) (9.3) 1.9 (79 6) Russian Federat on 4,032.5 x 170 4 x 60 2,442 72,504 1,273 936 8 355 3 (4.8) 1 5 4 x SIOVaK Rep 0 9 x 2 4 x 0 841 847 0 (1E 7) 0 1 (3 9) x x Slovema, Rep 2 6 CA x 47 497 179 29 (9 5) (5 5) (2 6) 5 9 x   T 11 3 68 660 21,462 318 3,11 7 7i Spain 304 3 (85-5 2) I_0_2T_1_ SedLn 333 1 49 i 6 07 0 S'515 0 1,462  1 31.5) 030 0) (3 0) 32 4 11 7 Sw,tzer and 1 9 is) 0 9 (56) x 1,142 35 0 (28C 4) (84.8) (13.8) 16 3 36 9 Ukra,,e 307 6 x 61 4 x 148 415 51,039 :396 99 1 1 5 O 3) 9 6 x Umted K ngdom 965 4 0 1 i 6) x 76,918 55 5,798 (404 4) l i 4 4) 1 09.9 20 3 13.4 Yugoslavia, Fed Rep 0 3 x 6 3 x x 6 1,433 1 (C 3) (O 0) (O 3) 2 0 x 314 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 13.1 continued _nvl_ OCEANS AND FISHERIES Average Annual Average Annual Per Capita Annual Marine Catch fal Freshwater Catch (al Average Annual Aquaculture Production Average Annual Food Supply from (000 Percent (000 Percent 1993-95 (metric tons) Balance of Trade lb] Fish and Seafood metric Change metric Change Dia- Fresh- Molluscs 1993-95 (million US$) Total % Chang( tons) Since tors) Since Marine dromous water & Crus- Molluscs & Fish 1993-95 Since 1993-95 1983-85 1993-95 1983-85 Fish Fish Fish taceans Fish Crustaceans Meal (kq) 1993-85 NORTH AMERICA 6,574.6 1 1 289.3 45 3,310 79,087 219,207 162,664 10.7 (2,275.6) (50.2) 22.2 16.0 ,23) 0 (17 4) 23 9 17 5 LJrited States 5,527 7 2 1 270 9 54 3,311 36,833 2 1 9,207 147,876 669 9) (2,876 2r 35 11r 22 0 5 9 UNTRAL 41_1 I J_ J!, 7:1 Costa R,ca 183 19 4 2 92 0 68 2,996 1,588 56 5 X 5 3 I 5 6 Cuba 71 2 (62) 20 5 34 5 0 18,701 442 ris 9) 98 4 C) 0 11 4 A2 7) Dom n can Rep 1  8 21 4 7 59 469 9 1,320 694 (34 4) 0 1 0 C) 12 3 225 E Salvador 9 4 S) 4 6 160 403 116 246 no 3) 26 9 (O 6; 2 3 2 17 (j_atema a _l 42 4 7 5 7-5 O ____CF___43-0 3,126 I 8) 25 6 (3a) 0-9-1  I 6 Hait L 9 (22) 0 5 78 x x x x 3 7) 1 9 0 3 x x -onduras 24 2 149 CO 3 119 0 0 190 7,377 57 60 1 (O 7) (9 47 , Jari 9 7 8 3 6 525 0 0 2,900 72 48 3) 9 2 1 0 22  04 3) Mex co 1,113 0 9 160 4 49 47 1,535 20,698 43,746 34 4 419 5 (2  0) 11 9 18 9 -gi-c a-r  _gL7- 1-0 91-61 __0 6 ___2_f9_ 1 ___4 __j S(T_j__7- __45 I- (0-1  -165-6 9 Panamd 1719 (14) 0.14 169 C 22S 5,4,9 7 I1 78 S 4 9 4 4 1C, Tr n dad ard Tobago 1 25 182 0 0 x 0 0 4 7 0 6 2 8 0 0 9A (65 soiji,, 4 ro i w 3 1 II] e 3.'A 1 :I I I3-: J I I I Bolivia 14 333 4 7 25 0 52 1 106 4) (O 2) (O1 7 72 Bra,,l 585 9 09) 214 1 2 G 867 26,500 3,033 Q?5 1) 11 3.9 01) 5 9 k 7i ChTe 7,109 4 61 0.0 1,100 30 10E,922 0 13,543 643.2 '82 6 4843 311 71 Coon-lba IOU 389 46 0 (6) 0 4,273 16,350 8,127 "I 7 103 4 25 2) 3 8 2 2 8 -G-T4-G)- , 41_64____r___T41_213 -98-EWS 1 1 _551 1---c Goyand 44 8 25 c 3 (4) 0 0 140 63 4 2 131 0 42 1 4 0, Paraguay x x 14 8 173 0 0 98 D (I 5 tO 2) ( 4 0 39 5 Peru 9,939 5 234 43 7 45 1 841 276 4,394 56 s 641 666 7 20 0 2 8 Sur iianie 2 2 225 0.2 2 7 0 C, 2 0 4? 0 OG 19 2 CG 7 -G-m-guay 1-21 2--,12r- O8 7-3 6 398 6 82 48 8 5 0 203 1,673 2,332 27 8 46 5 6 7) 15 -I 9 Z. I 1(. 4.0 E i Afgh,ns!aq, 1513-in'l- Slatc x X 1 3 '8 X x x x x x Armen a, Reo 20 x 2 R x 0 1,810 1,87, 0 (0.3) 'X x 12 x Azerbajan 333 X 2 7 x 10 0 1,946 0 (c 1 (C 0) x 48 x Paigla,esl- 88 5 72 713 5 36 0 0 25(,988 30,439 29 7 1651 0 S7 5 Bhutar X x 0 3 32 0 0 30 0 x x x x 7arrdt; 8 76 Z , T 0 _ ,;,9740 7 5 9 0 1 0 5 '9 9) C1- na 1 1,E)99 6 223 9,060 5 291 1 18,394 7,875,707 2,7 56,841 854 9 8632 (2691 4 5 147 2 281 x 2 7 x 0 10 2,661 0 0 5) (00) ic n) 5 E y 2,731 62 1,998 0 90 0 0 1,434,392 S6,90 19 2 874 4 4 3) 4c 235 ,clo,es,a __3 77 5 9 611 5 5 9,273 nan, isiaT,-cTe 282, 6 195 51 a I S8 C) J,aq 4 2 (24) i85 15 0 0 13,967 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 12 (18 4 Israel 4 9 (60 1 5 1 19 1,481 497 12,803 2 21 4) 0 8) 21 4) 20 3 235 Japan 7,221 4 36 70 0 (32) 250,770 79,93 17,27' 454,891 i7,989 3 (7,080 1) (22 51) 67 I 2) Jordar 1) 0 1 251 0 K 3 1. x 39 0 x 0 Korea, Dem People's Rep 1,697 7 0 113 6 14 C1 2,267 11,500 69,317 26 7 401 O 1) 46 3 27 Korea, Rec 2,610 6 7 25 5 (47) 6,825 4,957 14,841 307.853 470 4 2972 1 1 4r 5' 2 119 V.jv,a,t 8 3 (12) 0 0 x 33 0 a 0 98) (2 E,) 0 1 10 4 (24 6) z R2p 0 1 x 13 X 0 17 171 0 Lao People's Der, Red x 35 3 36 0 0 11,067 0 M 2) 0,0 M 0) 6,6 fll 4) ,ebarom 3 0 95 0 0 x 0 227 0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 7 30 5 Ma ays a 1,164 6 50 16 1 52 3, III 5,970 14,468 93,812 (74 8 I I I 1( 3) 28 3 23 Sr Nlo,ngha x x 0 1 n6S) x x x x I 8) O.C 0 0 9 (34 0: Mvanmar 610 6 30 220 7 53 c 5 61 2_0 _Tqpa X X 3 95 0 9,67, 0 J 0 0 0 D 0 x x Oma, 1 2 5O 19 a 0 x 0 0 0 0 46 4 5 0 x x Pakistan 441 1 44 130 3 90 0 20 14,365 43 73 9 88 9 C 0) 2 4 405 PN pp nes 1,961 9 24 305 3 0) 1,283 147,934 95,931 127,670 142 0 298 8 (49 0) 335 (3 8) Sr Lanka 213 6 37 15 0 (55) 0 0 2,833 2,876 (2 5.9) 26 8 (2 7) 1 S 7 0 5) Syrian Arab Reo 2.0 67 s 0 96 0 0 4,732 0 N 1) (c 1) 1 4:) 0 6 (75 2) ajWs',an, Reo a 0 x 3 8 x 0 0 3,550 0 0 1) c0 c6 x Tla ard ____3 (18 1 01- 33-5 SL0_ E28 7 676 7 110 63 8 8 T, I 573 3 7 301 3) 6,71 9,464 49 85 15 0 22 17 21 7 9 0 Turkmenistan, Rep 16 5 x 25 x 0 0 1j42 0 0 c 11c) x 8 4 x ,, ted Arab Em rates 42 0 0 6 0) (2 6'i (O 2 1 5 2 0) Uzisekston, Rep 0 0 x 2 1 7 C) 18 14,582 0 0 3 x I0 x Vietnam 862 4 55 2S7 6 29 0 141,667 58,300 44 1 399 9 (O 4) 131 4 7 Yemen 0 4 5 9 5 4i 72 4 0 0 6 2 (7 9) OCEANIA 910.0 83 16.3 - A l 301_ __j1 6 __5-7__ Austra'a 228 0 9 7 4 (35 1,298 8,684 25 1 ?,751 '129 13) 503 (6 51 2 1 2.' 6 F 28 8 14 33 44 c 'X 71 100 67 18 0 0 3 4 f15 0) New Zealand 523 3 146 0 1 158 < 2 618 x 54 006 444 1 224 6 3 9 ,, o ;15 6 Papua ise,, Gi, ie3 i47 7 11 0 (i) X 7 9 2 43 6) 9 9 'C 4 27 4 5 51 Solarroi 15[ands 46.4 X- __ x x x 9 22 0 - 0 9 - 0 0 21 3-,--(64 7 E,676.4 78 16,159.1 10 556,7,51 10,669.150 4,280,501 5,852.0 9,697.6 276.0 10.1 36.3 DEVELOPED 32,542.6 (2 291,126 730,838 535,180_ 1 09,683 (7,895.8) (10,912.1) (557.6) 25.0 22.5 Notes a Aquaculhj-e production is induced ir countr 'v tchais c Exnorts miqus impcrt Surpiuses of mports over epor5 are snown in parentheses c Aland arni regicral totals irc ude countries ict listed I-ere d Pricr to 1992, Ethiopia inc uded Er trea, therefore percent haic( since 1983-85 is not mean ngful and as been emitted e Due to recent ndeperdence of So-t repuN cs, percent change since 1983-85 is not mean nqfjl and therefore Tas been a, tted f Dat, are for BeIg ur, and _u,enrb.,rg World Resources 1998-99 315 Data Table 13.2 Marine Fisheries, Yield and State of Exploitation, 1 950s-1 990s Source: Food and Agriculture Organization ef the UJnited Nations Dliscards Average Marine Fish Catch Total l~as a % (000 metric tons) Average Marine Catch (c} oroverall Demersal Fishes [a) Pelagic Fishes {b} (000 metric tons) Status (di Fully caitch {e)) 1953-55 1973.75 1983405 1093-95 1953-55 1973-75 1983-85 1993-95 1953-05 1973-75 -1983-85 1993-95 in 1990 Fished by 1988-9 2 WORLD 7.018 18,836 18,098 18,219 9,505 24,986 34,818 42,753 21,978 56,910 71,378 87.380 X 1999 24 ATLANTIC OCEAN 4.870 9.510 8,429 7,177 5,145 11,467 10.308 9,909 11,893 24,046 23.091 21,889 I-P 1982 25 Northeast 3,1 79 5,688 5,200 4,832 3,252 4,973 4,782 4,963 6,937 11.557 11,266 1 0, 938 0 18~83 1 9 Nso,thwest 1,388 1,858 ,275 457 695 1,438 825 828 2,648 45013 2,786 27114 0 1971 27 Eastern Centra. 48 8504 403 322 195 2,190 1.882 2,165 340 3,288 2,836 2,8998 0 1084 47 w'estere, CeQtra 61 162 145 183 386 762 '.192 9 2 870 1,488 2,355 2,012 0 1987 14 Sou,theast 102 87' 5 83 295 886 1,824 1,498 U.1' 857 2,817 2,188 1,352 0 1878 27 ,irtC 16-.PJ i . i. -jh 5 i. 21 : .. .6I 1a88 28W i I: i8 - 'J P . 2 Nsorthv,est i175 5.71 2 8,1858 4,835 2,812 5,012 8,831 6,9~O 8,334 18,387 22,384 24,768 I 1 988 22 Fastern Cersral 25 125 75 78 239 682 5,73 885 349 883 1,373 1.388 0 1988 27 Western Centra 255 585 558 1,03 1 385 1,844 2,878 4.356 1,521 4,385 8,881 8,911 2503 33 So,,tieast 96 231 254 477 172 3,326 8,386 15,635 311 4.433 8,838 1 7,558 2551 21 .IJC1r51 2C'Cit4 :-6 , I I J:7 io im '28 tS8 ni S2 .69 2i 12 Eastern 87 181 268 485 140 312 703 71,0 434 1,273 ~2330 3 , 742 Il 5X 350 Western 223 818 543 917 288 803 1,26 .,748 758 1,88 ,45 350 22 ANDITERACKNEAN 103 167 266 343 339 680 1,224 974 659 1,123 1,871 1,818 F X 25 A~NTARCTIC 0 1 12 7 0 0 1 0 0 75 317 103 0 1980 10 ARCTIC 0 0 0 0 X X X X X X X X X X X Notes a 3emeiesal 'sit, species nclcde flounsders hal Utrn, soles, cobs, na203 21 33 3 4,203 2,030 204 1,416s .ordar71 ,,,, 7 ,. 3 4 638 ,00i l aaanar, Rep 3 4 10 i_ lv 0-iv Korea, Den' Pecple's Rep 3 0 7 is 0 2,808 1(2 Koina Rep ~~~ ~ ~ ~~49 3a 6 20 112 0 9 53 2998 224 6 ,6 KLIv,ait 21 0 I 7 2,3 1 224 iv 133 Lao) PeopIe's De-n Rep 172 13 30 0 43 1x Lebanon Sa4 0 0 03 103 0 3 ~ 3 4 3 MaJpays 286 26 42 9Y S01 3 4 1030 3,630 01 ,3 Mongolia 134 3 12 20 2 14 3 2,7 29 Mnann'ar 202732 000 2 299 I729 Kepa, ~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~167 1 28 2 6,300_,SC 3,13 27 Oman 56 2 9 0c17 a 5 3 1,2198 73- Pa 1 4 2 0 21 4~~C) 0 Cameroon 4 22 3 4 21 66 1 21 4 26 Certra~ Afiar,a Rep 21 I Y.2 0 2 4 21 0 Chad 21 1 4 21 0 2 21 4 0 .~coqg2 Darnle6 2 3 3 3 4X 5 2 Congc,Rep 4 2 4 4 I 0 Cote d'lvo re 3 4 21 2 3 1 21 4 0 Egypt 83 0 6 1is 0 0 1 70 EqaoaruraI Canea 4 3 2 4 4 2 1 4 0 Et)iap a 4 8 1 4 21 34 0 21 4 0 Gabon A 3 3 21 2 4 0 21 2 0 Gambia, The 21 1 21 21 0 C 2 79 0 Ghana 21 1 4 4 4 4 0 21 4 0 Kenya 187 '7 5 49 86 11 2 23 4 20 e Sotho 4 2 2 4 4 0 4 6 1 Libera 62 2 328 38 4 1 17 21 0 M2adagascar 232 222 17 66 144 146 2 36 40 13 MoaIw. 124 6 2 55 69 2 C 31 4 0 Ma.i 16 3 I 3 4 I 0 21 21 0 1yaunralla 4 3 4 4 2 0 2 2 0 Mororco 21 11 2 4 II 1 0 21 4 I "Anaamluqde 4 § 5 4 62 a is 0.1 2 Namibja 4 26 3 4 32 2 1 7 102 3 Niger 21 21 I 214 0 21 21 0 _ _ _ _ _ 4 2~~~60 Rwarada 21 I 21 21 I 3 21 4 0 Senegal 4 7 21 4 I 0 21 83 0 Srerra Leee 4 1 3 21 4 2 0 4 21 0 Sumn a 93 49 2 46 27 3 0 7 21 3 SeLrhAfrica 299 91 19 19 48 9 19 94 27 S.tuan I X 4 Swa:cand 102 1 0 85 40 2 0 33 o3 0 Tanzania 284 64 4 63 124 48 0 28 21 19 Togo 4 I 3 4 0 0 4 4 Uganda 149 2 1 52 50 1 0 17 291 23 Zambia 4 2 0 4 83 1 0 20 4 Z,nrbaovwe 133 2 0 40 i20 3 0 36 ___ 112 3 Austria 14 2 1 7 20 0 0 10 60 Belarts, Rec 8 4 0 3 12 0 0 4 21 Belgium 6 0 0 8 17 0 2 12 4 B.ulgara 33 3 1 Is 17 C 0 8 )5 Croania Rep 4 21 4 4 21 2 1 4 20 czect- Rep 21 21 21 21 21 4 21 Denmark 5 0 2 3 14 0 0 9 41 0 3o3onin.8o~~~~~~6 3~ 3 3 11 0 3 7 30 1 F,nland 5 C 0 2 5 0 0 2 68 1 rrance 32 0 3 32 3 2 9 63 3 Germany 12 0 0 4 20 0 2 6 71 7 Greece 61 3 8 22 ~ 3 2 1 6 98 16 Htntn3e 5~~~~~~~1 0 1 7 1 7 3 06 a 4 1 ! 4e,ard0 0 000 0 0070 Ireland I D 0 I 3 0 0 2 25 1 Italy 40 0 4 13 34 8 4 Il 45 9 Latsia,Rep 7 0 04 13 0 0 7 139 1 EAcloova, Rep 9 3 6 13 4 0 9 62 9 Nletherlands 7 38 24 ~ 6 0 0 10 4 1 Nan,vay 5 3 0 2 5 2 0 2 4 1 Romania 25 0 2 9 19 0 2 7 87 11 Rissrarr Feder'acrr 58 0 6 5 23 0 0 2 290 13 Slovak Rep 4 2 0 21 21 2 0 4 4 7 Sparc ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~53 9 6i525s32 01 Swneden 6 0 C 2 '3 0 2 4 4 Switzerlacd 14 0 0) 9 16 3 0 11 48 4 Ukra ne 19 1 2 6 16 0 0 5 4 12 Uerted K.ngdom 8 0 0 3 7 0 0 2 26 1 '7ugnsIava, Fen Rep A1 1 -. 1 21 x 1 4 4 1 324 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 14.3 continued BIO DIVERSITY Reptiles Amphibians Freshwater Fish Total Number of Known Species No. of Species Total Number of Known Species No. of Species Total Number of Known Species All Endemic Threatened per 10,000 All Endemic Threatened per 10,000 All Threatened Spce Species peis o'fa pcies Species Species km2 fal pce Species{b} NORTH AMERICA X X X X X X X X _ _ X X CErJTRAt A'AE.".l ' Behan 13; 2 3 31 ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~32 -1 - 2 3 Co'ta Rica 214 33 7 125 162 33 1 9> 130 Cuca 102 82 7 46 41 44 0 19 28 4 Dominian Rep 135 22 1.0 62 35 15 1 21 16 0 H-all 1302 29 6 73 46 23 1 33 1b 0 Hondurar 152 19 7 63 56 30 0 25 43 0 Jamanca 33 26 235 2 1 31 4 22 6 0 Meanco 687 334 138 ---- 1 20 285 125 3 30 334 69 Farama 226 23 7 116 134 22 3 84 101 1 Argertira 220 72 5 34 1035 46 3 23 410 l Bo va 228 13 3 440 12 33 0 24 3380 3 Braz 468 384 3 5) 502 333 5 54 4 12 Chile 72 36 17 -41 -3 3 13 40 4 Guyana Is 2 3 5 1 14 0 X 0 Faraguay 120 3 3 35 35 3 0 25 0 Peru. 2q3 93 9 60 313 loB 1 32 4 3 Uruguay X 1 0 A 7 4 0 71 3 - Venezueia 213 61 14 53 133 121 0 45 71 5 Aig~a-n-s-tan, IsanmcOnara 107 4 1 26 3 1 1 2 84 3 Armena,Raep 46 0 3 32 3 0 3, 4 71 3 rlzerba ]an 52 2 3 26 8 3 0 4 71 5 fanglacesh 113 I ~ 3 49 13 2 3 8 71 3 Chinra 340 79 15 35 263 156 27 683 28 Georgia 46 3 7 24 11 3 0 0 11 3 Iniad 333 137 16 37 137 123 3 23 71 4 lndonesia 5 1 335 19 90 __ 270 11l 2 48 1 63 -an sam,c Rep 364 27 3 32 11 0 2 2 263 7 raq 9) 1 2 23 3 3 0 2 Is 2 Isracl Is 1 5 71 XI 3 0 71 23 0 Japan 36 27 3 20 52 44 ~ 0 13 336 miorda 71 0 1 71 7 0 3 i 262 Kcrea,Dem People'sRep 19 1 0 3 1 4 71 3 6 / 0 Korea,Rep 25 2 0 12 14 2 0 7 133 0 Kuwa s 29 3 2 24 2 3 0 2 3 0 r9L 23 ~~~ 0 1 9 3 0 3 10___ _ 7 Lao Pecpes DemRep b6 1 7 23 37 1 1 3 2441 4 Lebanon Is 2 2 a 4 2 0 Is 71 Malaysia 268 73 '4 5 103 61 0 so 443 -4 hvoigoni,a 21 0 2 4 8 3 3 2 703 Neapal 1 5I 33 36 10 3 15 120 0 Omaon 04 13 A 23 4~ a 0 71 3 Fakistar, 172 23 4 31 17 3 0 4 122 -1 Ph lipponm 130 133 7 62 63 03 2 21 3 2n Sauco Arab a 34 0 2 14 ___ X J 2 A1 __ _ SoŽpora 1 71 ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ 1 3 0 0 5 71 73 Sr arika 134 75 8 77 39 230 21 65 3 Syrnarr.Oab Rep .9 2 3 9 71 0 717 0 Tajikssanar, Rap 38 0 I ~ 6 2 3 1 71 Tha and 298 36 16 81 ~~~~~~~~ Si107 17 223 n600 14 Turkmne-i5tao, Rap 30 71 2 22 2 3 0 1 71 5 1-nild Arab Fir,als 37 ' 2 13 71 2 0 71 5 1 UzIbersron, Rep 51 0) 3 '5 2 5 3 1 0 3 Vietnams 133 43 12 57 33 27 I 25 Is 3 SeYenie 77 31 2 21 X 1 3 71 5 0 : - Aj' F ji 23 1l 3 20 2 2 1 2 0 New Zeaaiad 43 36 11 13 3 29 7 6 Panua NawGs0neaa 233 77 10 73 137 117 0 53 262 13 Solomon Ilaiads 61 12 0417 9 0 2 X 0 Noles a Val~es are standord..nn u.sing a speins-omo nor~,' c Threatened species inclu.de a tnt' mnarne ounc,es c World totals incline counirne not ktrnJ 3~ VIA'rd tn:al includes5 both manrina>nd fresinmater fion specins, frshasonaer ,pecnes mare up around 43 50 percent of loin est mat horarenad slpacin' data ame as of 1996 World Resources 1998-99 325 Data Table 14.4 Endangered Species Management Programs, 1996 Sourc es: Word Conservatio Union, International Species Information System, cod other multiple sourcs ZooCess196 Number Number Number Crude Species Estimated of Zoos of of Rate of IUCN Management Wild Housing Captive Captive Change Species, Common Name Species, Scientific Name fa) Distripbution fbl Status (cI Progirams, (di Poplto pce nml lrh e A!MPNHBIANS puaton SpcesAnma,__rts e Saarnamader, Japanese Geant Arrdrasajaponrcus Japan V5J -X 5 7 0 0.90 Toao>k.eEo RrconCreserlelt n Ie dnor~ ___ oert Rico, 6rds. _gp slnd V 500 - 17 12 6 0 1.24 REPTILES Boo, Dumeril's Ground Acranrophrs darmessi Maoacr bS64 - 3 9 Boa, Modagascan Tree Sanziossa madlagascanieosms Madagascar Si UK X 32 193 2t1 1.13 Boa, Madacnascar Acrantopn/n mnaeaoanscarie,rsrs leadagascar Vi A N ' 0 57 7 1.09 Boa, Mona slans ,,,gaeroessnress Pet ioE 1 1 1 3 0 68 Bioa,Virgin s arois Ppicranes rsoneosrs graot Puertc R,c, Virg n Islands EN S 5 6 0 9 Crocodre, OLson Crocosoylusrhornn,fer ~~~~~~~'ubea EN 0 3,000-6,000 10 52 0 1.00 Creco djle, W Afnican Dwarf Gsneolaemus tetraspis Central ass West Africa Vi A, UK A 45 141 2 1.03 Iguana, Caywan Is, Ground Cyclura nmnbla lewvis Caymoan Ilsanss CR S 6 5 22 12 - 104 Iguana, Fr, Banded Brachylophors fascratus HpI, Tenae, Vancatu [let]I EN Ai 10,000 1 3 46 0 102 ig,,na, Jamna,can Cjclara colic: larna ca CR 5 5 0 104 0 1.27 Iguana, Rhinoceros Cyclura corsrsta lD ominican Rep , Heo ti, PLserto Rico Vi UK X 37 147 22 1 00 Lizard, Stripes Legless Daiwa swear AustraJ.a Si As 2 St1 0 2 29 Shirik, Chasmsn Gigo5omra hoinolooocsrn New Zealand Vi Au 5 1 3 0 X Skink, Robust Cyclodina alan' New Zealand SrI An 20 000 1 7 0 1I00 Tortose, Geometric ~~~Psarnwobates;. eornetrrcus Sounh Alrcoa EN A 2,000-4,000 I 1 0 0 1.03 Tortoise, Rad ated Geochelone radiians teadagascar, Macritius, Rernion Si A, 5 -. iln5S' 0 10 BIRDSn EVseeSa; Pedrruaubia Australia CR Au 55 1 135 38 1 24 Aao,Green-chnekee Amazona sninogenolos Mesico, Pooirno Rico 0t13, 36S. [ionI ENI E, UK 3,000-6,600 67 119 3 0099 Amnazon, Red-browede Armazona rhrodocorl,Oha trazi EN E 7 35 2 1 11 Amazon, Ree-taalen Awazorianrasiriensos Braz EN E 3,002-4,500) 4 ' 8 0) 1.02 Amazon. St Vincenr Amrazona quildmnqi, St Vincent VSIc 700-900 4 1 4 2 0398 Cassomary, Southern ~ClacasuasscmanarrusAutraia noeso, 50SUK 10-3000 52 125 12 1 04 Co~ckatoo, Phriplpu aas senrrpg Poi ppinucs CR B 1,020-4,000 7 24 0 1 1 Cockatoo. Ya mon-crostesd lcrawlces Indonnesia, Singapore orn. ~ vi 6, ~ 100 330 14 1.01 Cocsatoo, Yeiloss-oresned . - ~~~~~~~~~~~~Hong Kong [ntIl, ndoeneia S ogapore EN E 2,376 28 62 3 106 Condos, California -Jn le d States (re-int.} CR S 27 2 104 1 7 108 CrslW- _ _ __ro-ed-w- -ec-s-nEastAsLC_KMogaoa S ES K 1704 152 '2 101 Cr~ane, VVattled Grusncaruscuataus Africa Vi J, 5, UK l3,000-15,000 37 109 8 I 00 Crane, 'Nnite-rapped DUss Vrp'o East Asoa, Mongo ia Vi E,J, S, 5K 4,600 6 9 197 2 9 1.02 Cronnned-p.gson, Southern Doara soheeprmarren lndocesia, Papoa Newv GOsinea VU F.S 6 I l 25 6 1 04 Crowned-p.geon Victrsia Goura 'actona Indonesia, Papua New Go nna vU 0,S 6 51 127 135 1 06 Eag e, Ste lar's Sea Hooliaeetusrpeiagics Japan, North and Soutn Korea, Russia Vi I 6.000-7,000 5 20 0 1.01 Gsllocr, Cape Gyes coererheres Scutnsnrn Africa VU 0 6 5 36 2 1 05 Honeyeater, Regent Xantsornoza phryg.a Ausnsalia EN Au <1,000 ' 1 4 7 040 Kiwi, Erown ,Apterye arstrais rnanere6r (g, Nesw Zna and VS Au 6 1 1 50 14 1.01 Macaw, 0 un-throated Ara graacoguarsai Argentiva ti), to ,v a, Paraguay ('I EN E 1,000 9 36 4 11 11 Macass, Hyacinth ne Aeoeornyncnes nycirthrnus Oo av a, Braz I, Paraguay vu F, UK 3,000 86 320 11 15 Owl, Elackiston s Fish re,zoea hisk,stonr Oh noa, Japan, R,ss a EN 1680-600) 1 1 0 6 Paraknet, Arsipodes Cyanoromphus an/color Ness Zea and Sb Au 2,000-3,000 5 I12 2 0 92 Para20 000 55 133 9 0.90 Rh~Iy, Oieater -..- S Au 6 1 3 0 1 44 E son, Esiropeon E astern Rurope Ire- nt], Russ a [re-ir't ENE 1,670 40 249 40 0 s0 Cheetah Acinorja 5,000 23 222 46 0368 Dsg, Afr can Wvile ycaon prctas 7 Africa EN A, Er,0 3,000-5,200 43 241 62 1.03 Dog, Ra,sh Speorthos v'enatncs 5anama, Soars America P7 B6 1 3 24 84 19 1 05 DE,phest, Ars anCeptharetaeteto (0 Soils ass SoutFreast Asia EN' E,J,0 S 36,00-5t1,000 /31 460 A 090 Ferrer, t ack-footed Martena nigspes L irted Orates EW 5 63 1 4 138 161 3 Fessa Csyploprocre tercn Madagascar P7 E /0 7 29 2 t0O Gzeul e, Dame GazeSia samea North Atr Ca and rire Saeol EN O ebos, flues H-ly/uhees conesos r4/ Camnbos a, CE sa, Vietnams EN k, J 17,000 46 163 16 04 G sEen Pi eased H-y/uhates p/eases Cas-bed a, Lant, Thai end VJ E 30,000 1 5 55 1 1 01 Horse, Frzevalski W d Eocus przewalslr, Ch na, Mongoliai EW Au,S 5,3/ 69 546 35 0368 K,swne ~ Dasycerces byrne, Australia 5/3 E / 26 136 24 - 15 Lechwve, Katue Kobus lee/re kacensees ZarmE e vi UK /0 13 132 24 0.90 Lemur, Ring-railee Lemur cal/a Madagascar PU S /0 167 1,067 1 26 1 co Lemur, tufted easecie varregaeca [f,2 Maldagascar EN Ar, E, 1,0 /0 156 693 ' 35 1.03 Leopard, As-er Pan'/hera oasouo onrenraeso Cnirae North and Souls Korea, Russia CR E 28-31 44 144 16 1 05 Lsespar, Nssrs `e-sies Psrtr'hesa gerdr- seaxece/s Atghasisas, seen, Tcskmrrslren 64EN - Lespare, Srow Uncea uscre Himauayan rug cn EN E,13,5 4,000-7,350 142 467 36 1c00 Lion, At-ices Pe,s,hesaeo A'r Ca 017 4 OQCC- ICC,C50 192l 823 97 104 L os, Asiat c Peasthere res pesroca India EN E 300 23 73 7 063~ Macage. Lios-taileo macace siNenas .seEN 6 J.0, 7K 3,600-5. 000 53 356 2 1 /2 Ma,eag AusteSla CE Au 0 1 0O 1 1/6 Mermorer, GeoftroyrS Tafted-elar R~a2i vi U, USK 36 223 76 1.06 Mins, Eisopees j a Menkey, Co ombian Spider Aloies tr,scieps robses/s Co eombia, Panama VuL 0 31 1 45 4 0 03 Mtosusy Diarea West Afroca PU 6, UK /0 47 144 1 2 097 Cry,, Arabien or sX ieuccor,' Miss cO'ast EN 6,s 5 6 1 62 5 54 1 0/ C,yp, Se milur-sornue Cryxs dmmer Isrsee [ntl. North Africa CE Ac,"IS /0 60 697 165 / 61 Panda, Cianr Ailroepode melanoleaca Chnsa EN 5 1,100 0 9 / 064 Purees1, Coacoen Celagenas s-,agnes, - - . . N S 51 0 192 Puoi, SeuterErs Puce puda - . U P 10 3 1 1 51 42 1.09 Ha:, Cruelter Stirs-oust Lgepori!js sndtor Australia EN Ac <2,500 L 1 9 6 0682 Rhinoceros Blare. Dcieres birosrno 77 Aft ca CE, Au., E,1J, 5 UK 2,000o 57 170 5 1 07 L~Ksoless ut,ersa,sa costso~ India Nea ENI ,0 S 2,0 7C5 3 Rriuorceros, SAmassen Cicaro/rinsosrmatrsensesr /ff Southeest Asia CR S 250-400 2 4 0 0668 Shea roses Crure sopson psebaxese Vetrses- CS E Is 14 f44 44 1.06 Tamann, 'Cottos-top Sapuisas oeduoou tr7 Coaomei EN AL, 0,1J,3 2000-3,000 136 7/5 '52 1 0/ Tameris, GCodes Lion Lesnrss,thnces r reseira Brez CE Au 6 < e50 66 338 69 0 96 Tamernr s,_iCo drkae o uo/sleu h,sm/seiR Tap.r- Mensesa Taprs -nedicus SouLl-east Asia 07 Tger. Ame' Pest/erus tigers aisaaca Cl- na [ex?], Nerts Koree fee?] eRusia CR J,1,S 330-371 120 346 47 1.00 TIger, Sume-mtan Pansrumr s'g,ssewree '-'assre" C6 Ai,E , 5 ., LIK 400-502 56. /73 17D 01 Tree-kansarse, Goodfellow s Dersdrolagos goodfeliow, Papia New Guinea EN 6, 5 / 1 0 49 3 1 00 Wet, Red Lin rue Starus 03 5 02 31 134 7 /.02 Wooer se North Amnerica, North Europc, Monge ia PU 6 10 6 33 5 1.03 Zeera, Creep's Pearue grev,s Etsiopia, Kenya EN E,4 5, / 70 3372 25 4 99 ZeEra, Hlarlmnan's Mvounta n EOute zebra earlmeanee so] Ansosia, NarmiEia, Seerh Atfrca RN 0, 5 7,330 2 1 77 P 0 92 Nc/er-a Scestfi5c sewer P01ic,, the /396 ON Ree Jirst of -,hreatened Seimers somenclatrie b Plnm the ' 1696 JCN Ree Lisr tol) = intrredluce, ire-ins) =restredLced. tear) = belieeed leSse estincr, P71 = cnkoson /f sEle spec us is cirrentlpfui tes trme area c JON threaeneed sartus CR c r rically eseengeree. RN = eseesgerue, EW' = eneisrct s tre w. d V7= sunuseSrab e A=An rianPseErspagat eni Pogrsam 'APP), Au n Australasian Species Msaragerinst Prograrm IASMPI; 6 Zeoleg cal Society of Bras I Spermes Programn (OPEl, E = European) Erdesgerud Species Programs (EEP); J = Species Sirvica Comm steer tapes ~SOOJ. =n North Asses ca Speciss Survieal Elan ISSF), UK = Jnired KisgdorJom LA Management ot Species Committee 5.MSC; e A raeru / Is rdates a set sepLlarocn rncrease, a rates-1,saeer populatios dectuase, ass a rare = 1 indicates tEal the catrve pepilaton is stabSe P Zoo cersus date isolude a'l subspecies suing huSe~d caprice pv JOUN status I sled app cr1s to te species; the suespecies is nor lisped separately unoes rnee 996 JON Pus Lisl.. World Resources 1998-99 327 Sources and Technical Notes "Iffl 7f." Mm ~ ~~~~~~tiguous blocks. These data do not account for ag- mals (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, -,996). Higher glomerations of protected areas that together might plants data: WCMC, Biodiversity Data Sourcebook National and International exceed 1 00,000 or I million hectares. (World Conservation Press, Cambridge, U.K., Protection of Natural Areas, International protection systems usuallv include 1994). 1 997 sites that are listed under national protection svs- The total number of known specie.; may include tems. Biosphere reserves are representative of terres- introductions in some instances. Data on mom- Sources: National protected areas: Protected Areas trial and coastal environments that have been inter- mals, in most cases, exclude cetaceans (whales and Data Unit of the World Conservation MNonitoring nationally recognized under UNESCO's Man and porpoises), except where otherwise in dicated. Total Centre (WCMC), unpublished data (WCMC, the Biosphere Programnme. Theyhave been selected bird species listed includes only birds that breed in Cambridge, U.K., Mlay 1997). Biosphere reserves: for their value to conservation and are intended to that country, not those that migrate or- winter there. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and CuI- foster the scientific knowledge, skills, and human Only flowering plants are listed undEr total higher tural Organization (UNTESCO), Man and the Bin- values necessary to support sustainable develop- plant,s species numbers. sphere Programme, List of Biosphere Reserves mn.Ec eev utcnanadvre aua h ubro nei pce eest hs (UNESCO, Paris, April 1996). WAorld heritage sites: mn.Ec eev utcnanadvr,ntrl Tenme feiei pce cest hs UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Vt/orid Heritge ecosystemn of a specific hiogeographical province, species known to be found only withini the country List (UNESCO, Paris, December 1996). Wetlands of large enough to be an effective conservation unit. listed. The number of total endemic plant species international importance: Ramsar Convention Bu- For further details, refer to M. Udvardy, A Classifi- listed for each country includes floss ering plants, reau,Listof Wtlans ofIntenatinal mporance cati.on of the Biogeographical Provinces of the W4orld ferns, anid conifers and cycads. reamLsar ConvWetlndsonention ur auG lad SImotzrande (IUCN, Mforges, Switzerland, 1975), and to World Figures are not necessarily comiparable among December 1997). Resources 1986, Chapter 6. Each reserve also must countries because taxonomic concepts and the ex- All rotctedares cmbin naura ares o at includesa minimally disturbed core area for conser- tent of knowledge vary (for the latter reason, coun- All roteted reascomine aturl aras o at vation and research and may be surroundedi by try totals of species and endemics may,be underes- leas 1,00 ectaes n fve WrldConervaionUn- buffer zones where traditional land uses, experi- timates). In general, numbers of mnammals and ion (UCN) anageent ctegores. Ttallypro- mental ecosystem research, and ecosystem reha- birds are fairlywNell koown, whereas plants have not tected areas are maintained in a natural state, are bilitation maybe permitted. Several countries share been as well inventoried. closed to extractive uses, and encompass three biosphere re serves. These sites are counted only The number of threatened species listed for all management categories: once in continental and world totals. countries inicludes full species that are critically en- Category I. Scientific reserves and strict nature world heritage sites represent areas of "outstand- dangered, endangered, or vulnerable, but excludes reserves possess outstanding, representative eco- I systems. Public access is generally limited, with ing universal value" for their natural features, their introduced species, species wvhose stat is is insuffi- cultural value, or for both natural and cultural val- ciently known (categorized by IUCN as "data defi- only scientific research and educational use per- ues. The table includes only natural and mixed dient" [DD] I, those known to be extinct, and those mitted. natural and cultural sites. Any party to) the World for which a status has not been assessed (catego- Category II. National parks and provincial parks Heritage Convention may nominate natural sites rized by IUGN as "not evaluated" [NE] . ifsa species are relatively large areas of national or international that contain examples of a major stage of Earth's is listed' under the DD or NE categories, it should significance not materially altered byhumans. Visi- evolutionary history; a significant ongoing geo- notbe treated as anonthreatened species, but as one tars may use them for recreation and study. logical proce~ss; a unique or superlative natural phe- that has not been assessed. Threatened ;pecies data Category III. Natural monuments and natural nomenon, formation, or feature; or a habitat for a for animials presented in Data Tables t't.2 and 14.3 landmarks contain uinique geological formations, threatened species. Several countries share wvorld reflect estimnates presented in the IUCN Red List. special animals or plants, or unusual habitats, heritage sites. These sites, referred to as interns- Bird Life International compiles and provides bird Partially protected areas are areas that may be tional heritage sites, are counted only onice in conti- status assessments for the IUCN Red Ilist. Threat- managed for specific uses, such as recreation or nental and world totals. ened species data for birds are from Birds to Watch tourism, or areas that provide optimum conditions Any party to the Convention on Wetlands of In- 2: Thie W~orld List of Threatened Birds (Collar et al., for certain species or communities of wildlife. iternational Importance Especially as Waterfowvl BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K., 1994). Some extractive use within these areas is allowed. Habitat (Ramnsar. Iran, 197 1) that agrees to respect a The number of threatened species of birds is listed They encompass two management categories: site's integrity and to establish wetland reserves can for countries included within their breeding or Category IV. Managed nature reserves and wild- designate wetlands of international importance. wintering ranges. life sanctuaries are protected for specific purposes, Thr r 4ststa r ncie nbth the This is the first time that all knoswn marmmal and such as conservation of a signiificant plant or ani- Ramsa n h ol Hertgels. bird species have been assessed. This is also the first mal species. time that the new IUCN categories and criteria are Category V. Protected landscapes and Seascapes * *m . being applied to assess the risk of extinct ion of spe- may be entirely natural or mnay include cultural cies. A brief description of the new system is pre- landscapes (e.g., scenically attractive agricultural Globally Threatened Species: sented below. For more detailed informaslion,please areas). M m asBid,ndrefer to the 1996 IUCN Red List. Nationally protected areas listed in this table do M m asBid,ndHigher The IUCN classifies threatened species as "all not include locally or provincially protected sites, Plants, 1990s full species categorized at the global leve~l as Criti- or privately owned areas. Sources: Total and endemic species of mammals callyEndangered, Endangered, or Vulne -able." The Protected areas at least 100,000 hectares and I and birds: World Conservation Monitoring Centre definitions for these categories follow: million hecraresi in size refer to all IUCN category (WCIVCM), unpublished data (WCK4C, Cambridge, Critically Endangered: "Wthen a taxoni is facing I-Vr protected areas thatfallwithinthese two classi- U.K., April 1997). Threatened species of mammals an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in fications.Thetotals consistof an aggregation of sin- and birds: WACMC and WAorld Conservation Union the immediate future as defined by any & the crite- gle sites, and it is likely that some sites are not coni- (IUCN`), 1996 IUCNT Red List of Threatenied Ani- ria A-E." (See below) 328 World Resources 1998-99 BIODIVERSITY Endangered:"WVhenataxon is not Critically En- NP RI Mtion Action Plan (IUCN, Gland, 1993); IUCN/SSC dangered but is facing a very high risk of extinction Primate Specialist Group, African Primates: Status, inthewild in the near future as definedbyanyof the Globally Threatened Species: Survey and Conservarion Action Plan (IUCN, criteria A-F? ' Reptiles, A p ian,and Fish, Gland, 1996); 1. BaIlou, R. Lacy, and S. Ellis, Leon- Vulnerable: "When a taxon is not Critically En- Amphbias,topirhecus H:. The Second Population and Habitat dlangered or Endangeredhbut is facing a high risk of 1 9sViability Assessment for the Lion Tamarins (Leon- extinction in the wild in the medium-term future as Sources: Total and endemnic species data: WAorld topithecus): Review Draft Report (CBSG, Apple Val- defined by any of the criteria A-EB" Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCiMC), un- ley, Minnesota, 1997); Mary Emanoil (ed.) and For each threat category there are five criteria published data (WCMvC, Cambridge, U.K., April IUCN/SSC, Encyclopedia of Endangered Species (A-E, see below) used to assess species status. This 1997). Threatened species data: WCMNC and World (Gale Research Inc., Detroit, Michigan, 1994); B. process provides a more rigorous approach from Conservation Union (ii 'li, t 996 IUCN Red List Peyton et al., "Status of Wild Andean Bears and that used prior to revisions of the IUCN criteria, of Threatened Animals (IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, Policies for their Management", in Proceedings Species nieed to meet only one of the five criteria to 1996). from 10th International Conference on Bear Re- be listed under that particular threat category. The For definitions of allspecies, enzdemicspecies, and search and Management, Fairbanks, Alaska, July five criteria are: threatened species, refer to the Technical Notes for 1995; IUCN, Species, No. 28 (IUCN, Gland, June A-Declining population rate; Data Table 14.2. The world total for the number of 1997), p. 47; IUCNISSC Crocodile Specialist B-Small population and dedline or fluctuation; known freshwater fish species also includes marine Group, Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: C-Small popuilation size and decline rate; species. Of this total, around 40 to 45 percent are es- Revised Action Plan for Crocodiles (IUCN, Gland, D-Very small population/very restricted dis- timated to be freshwvater species. Threatened ma- 1996). Available online at: http:IlwA4w.flmnh.ufl. tribution; and tine turtles and most threatened marine fish are ex- edulnatscilherpetologylact-plan/a-plan0 1 .htm; E-Quantitative analysis indicating the prob- cludedl from country totals. However, a fewv marine AZA, Species Survival Plan 1995-96 Reports. Avail- ability of extinction in the wild (e.g., Population Vi- fish species are included in the threatened category. able online at: http:I/www.aza.orglaza/ssp.html: ability Analysis). This is the first time that the IUCN Red List criteria IUCNI SSC African Rhino Specialist Group, In addition, there are subcriteria that provide are applied to marine fish; the categories formarine "Rhino lnformation,"lnternational Rhino Founds- further information on the reasons to list a species, fish should therefore be taken as a preliminary as- lion. Available online at: hittp:Ilwwws'rhinos-irf. potential causes of threat, etc. sessment that needs further evaluation. orglrhinos/black.html. IUCNISSC African Ele- N'umber of species per 20, 000 square kilometers The number of species per 10,000 square kcilome- phant Specialist Group, 'African Elephant Data- provides a relative estimate for comparingnumbers rers provides a relative estimate for comparing base?' Available online at: http://www.iucn.org/ of species among countries of differing size. Be- numbers of species among countries of differing themeslssclaedlhome.htm; E. Kemf and P. Jackson, cause the relationship between area and species size. For details, refer to the Technical Notes for Asian Elephants in the Wild: A WWVF Species Status number is nonlinear (i.e., as the area sampled in- Data Table 14.2. Report, "The Status of the Asian Elephant?' Avail- creases, the number of newv species located do- able online at: htcp://www.wAwf.org/speciesl creases), a species-area curve has been used to stan- elephantslpage5.htm. dardize these species numbers. The curve predicts Estimated wild populations data were also pro- how many species a country would have, given its EnagrdSeisvided by the following personal communications: current number of species, if it was a uniform Enanag reden Specieas ,96 Chris Banks, Melbourne Zoo, Australia; John Beh- 10,000 square kilometers in sire. This number is let, Chair, IUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Tut- calculated using the formula: S = cAl', where S = the Sources: Species, distribution, and 1UCN status: de Specialist Group, Wildlife Conservation Society; number of species, A =area, and c and z are con- world Conservation Monitoring Centre (WACMC) New York; William Branch, Chair, IUCN/SSC Afri- stants. The slope of the species-area curve is deter- and WAorld Conservation Union (IUCN), 1996 can Reptile and Amphibian Specialist Group, Port mined by the constant a, which is approximately IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN, Elizabeth Museum, South Africa: Kelly Cosgrave, 0.33 for large areas containing many habitats. This Gland, Switzerland, 19961. Species management Robust Skink Captive Coordinator, Auckland Zoo, constant is based on data from previous studies of programs: IUCN/Species Survival Commission New Zealand; Ardith Eudey, Vice-Chair for Asia, species-area relationships. In reality, the constant z (SSC), Conservation Breeding Specialist Group IUCNISSC Primate Specialist Group California would differ among regions and countries because ICBSG), F. Swvengel, T. Hill, and E. Sullivan leds.), State University-Fullerton, Upland, California; of differences in species' range size (which tend to Global Zoo Directory 1996 (IUCN/SSC CBSG, Ap- Richard Gibson, Herpetology Department Head be smaller in the tropics) and differences in vanie- ple Valley, Minnesota, 1996); Christine Hopkins, and Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, U.K.; Peter ties of habitats present. For example, a tropical Australasian Regional Association of Zoological Cuber, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) country with a broad variety of habitats would be Parks and Aquaria (personal communication), and Black-Footed Ferret Recovery Program Coordinia- expected to have a steeper species-area curve than a Kevin Willis, American Zoo and Aquarium Asso- tot, Pierre, South Dakota; lane Hendron, Informs- temperate, homogenous country because one ciation (AZA) (personal communication). tion and Education Specialist, USFWS California would predict a greater number of species per unit Estimated wild population data come from a va- Condor Recovery Program, Ventura, California: area. Species-area curves also are steeper for islands riety of sources. The following list includes pub- International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wis- than for mainland countries. At present, there are lished and on-line sources: N.J. Collar,M.J. Crosby, consin; Peter Jackson, Chair, IUCNT/SSC Cat Spe- insufficient regional data to estimate separate and A.J. Stattersfield, Birds to Watch 2: The World cialist Group, Switzeeland; B. Kelly, USFWS Red slopes Iz) for each country; therefore, these species List of Threatened Birds (BirdLife International, Wolf Project, Manteo, North Carolina; Sharon Ma- estimates should be interpreted with caution, Cambridge, U.K., 1994); National Council for Na- tola, Chair, IUCN/SSC Tapir Specialist Group, Be- ture Conservation and Bialowieza National Park, lire Zoo, Belize; Alan Mootnick, International Cen- 1995 European Bison Pedigree Book (Bialowieza tet for Gibbon Studies, Santa Clarita, California; National Park, Poland, 1995); IUCN/SSC Asian Luiz Paulo Pinto, Brazil Projects Coordinator, Con- Rhino Specialist Group, Asian Rhinios: Status, Sar- servation International, Belo Horizonte, Brazil: vey and Conservation Action Plan )IUCN, Gland, Christopher Servine, Co-Chair, IUCN/SSC Bear Swvitzerland, 19971; IUCN/SSC Pigs and Peccaries Specialist Group, University of Montana; USFWS Specialist Group and Hippo Specialist Group, Pigs, Caribbean Field Office; Chris Wemmer, Chair, Peccaries anid Hippos: Status, Survey anid Conser-va- IL'CN/SSC Deer Specialist Group Conservation World Resources 1998-99 329 and Research Center, Front Royal, Virginia; and outside the past range" The status of several sub- institutions, animals, and births in the world be- Shuyi Zhang, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Acad- species being managed in captivity was not listed cause other institutions that are breeding species in emy of Sciences, Beijing. Zoo census data: Interna- separately under the IUCN Red List; therefore, the captivity are not members of ISIS. ISIS receives, ar- tional Species Information System (ISIS) species status for the whole species was listed in this table. chives, and analyzes standardized information abstracts, available online at: htsp:/lwwvwworld- For example, IUCN does not list a separate status from its member institutions on 255,000 living zoo.org/abstract/abstract.htm and unpublished for the subspecies of vellow-crested cockatoo (Ca- specimens and on 850,000 of thei.- ancestors for data (ISIS, Apple Valley, Mlinnesota, 1996). catua sulphtrea citrinocristata), but lists the species 6,500 species using the within-zoo Animal Records Species: the list of species presents a selection of (Cacrita suilphurea) as endangered; therefore, the Keeping System software and a pooled central data- those being managed in zoos around the world, subspecies is also listed as endangered inthistable. base at ISIS. Of the non-ISIS-member institutions, Zoos captive breedfar more taxathan those species Species managemenrtprograms are active,region- some collaborate with species management pro- managed in organized programs. Species in this ta- ally organized efforts of managed cooperation grams while others do not. Ones that do not coop- ble are those mammals, birds, amphibians, and rep- among zoos, usually for species at risk in the wild, erate may breed species but with li tIe considera- tiles that: (a) have an ongoing management plan althoughafewprograms were initiated asaresult of tion for maintaining a genetically diverse popula- recognized and approved by regional zoo associa- a need to maintain the species in captivitv and not t, , - ,i,, . ii ,, . tions (e.g., the American Zoo and Aquarium Asso- because of the species' threatened status. According in species management programs also exist in the ciation [AZA], the European Association of Zoos to the AZA, species management programs breed country of origin of some species. and Aquaria [EAZA], etc.); (b) are listed as threat- species in captivity to "maintain a healthy and self- Nsumber ofzoos housing species: this is number of ened or extinct in the wild under the 1996 IUCN sustaining captive population that is both geneti- ISIS-memberzooshousigthespecies Red List ofThreatened Animals; and (c) are housed cally diverse and I.-. , ei stable.' There Numberqacapriceanimalsincludesalllivingin- in zoos that are members of the International Spe- are species management programs in North Amer- dividuals of a species housed in ISIS-member zoos cies Information System (ISIS). Although there are ica, Europe, Australasia, Japan, Soutlh Africa, Cen- as of December 1996. Not all individual animals other threatened species being bred in captivity, the tral and South America, India, and China. It is im- participate in the species management programs. institutions breeding them are not members of ISIS portant to note, however, that for many taxa, zoos For many species, the figures include all subspecies and therefore their data are not readily available. are past the first stage of trying to breed the species being held in zoos, and this is indicated as such in The species' common and scientific names follow and are into the second stage of trying not to breed t e sal e. the IUCN Red List nomenclature, and thus species them too fast, because the available space in many NuIber of caprice births refer so the total births may have been given different names by ISIS and zoos is full or because space needs to be made for mcrus deaths with e first 30 dayslflife that oc- the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group more threatened taxa. Several species management curred durang the last 6 months o r 19 96. (CBSG). programs include reintroduction ofthe species into Crude rate of change IS an idicator of captive Distribution: the countries or regions where spe- the wild, and in some cases, these programs have population stability or the annual population in- cies are found in the wild follow the IUCN Red List. been responsible for returning a species to crease or decrease per its A figure of l 0 means For birds, regions include migratory ranges. Where former habitat. However, species reintroduct the captive population is stable, whereas 0.90 indi- cates a 10 percent decrease in the captive popula- possible, the table indicates ifa species has been re- not the goal of all species management programs tion. This indicator is she net result of all processes introduced ("re-int.' i.e., the species has been rees- Estimated w'ildpopulation: accurate numbers for including births, deaths, imports, exp Drts, capture, tablished after disappearing from that particular wild populations are known for only a few well- escapes. etc. With the increasing number of species area), introduced ("int.,' i.e., the species was not studied species. Most figures presented here are es- being managed in captivity, many zoos are scaling found in that area before its introduction), is be- timates based onanumber of different methodolo- dowvn their breeding programs for certain species lieved to be extinct ("ex?"), or whether it is un- gies from extrapolating population estimates using to make space for more important taha or because known if the species is currently found in the area remaining habitat to actual population counts; thev lack the resources to continue expanding. ("?"). For more detailed information on distribu- therefore, caution is recommended when using Ho'wever, the reason for the population's increase or tiois, please refer to the oi igitial source. these t.-,.. - '' - for the Califorisia colldor, thC decrease is not taken into account whe i calculating IUC.N status refers to species that fall within the black-footed ferret, and the red wolf are all as of No- the crude rate of change. A declining population IUCN categories of Critically Endangered (CR), vember 1,1997. At that time, 13 more condors were that is significantlv bred in captivity aften means Endangered (EN), \rulnerable (VU), or Extinct in scheduled to be released into the wild by the end of intentional shrinkage to make room for other taxa the Wild (EW). For a description of the categories 1997. in zoos, rather than failure of captive propagation. CR, EN, or VU, please refer to the Sources and Tech- Zoo census data include data from ISIS-member Therefore, this variable should not b, taken as a nical Notes for Data Table 14.2. The category EW is zoos exclusively. As of 1996,495 institutions (about measure of the ability to breed any pa:-ticular spe- describedbyIUCNasspecies"knownonlytosur- half of the world's recognized zoos) were ISIS ciesincaptivitybutshouldinsteadbeu.sedincom- vive in captivity or as a naturalized population well members. This table underestimates the number of bination with other information. 330 World Resources 1998-99 ENERGY AND MATERIALS . - -, .j t . X ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~' ._ Energy and Materials World Resources 1998-99 331 Data Table 1 5.1 Energy Production and Consumption, 1985-95 Source: Unitd Nticeus St,aistical Di,ii.n Commercial Energy Production Total Energy Consumption Total Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels Primary Electricity Commercial Energy Traditional Fuels PeTcent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent (peta- Change (peta- Change (peta- Change (peta- Change (peta Change (peta- Change (peta- Change joules) Since joules) Since joules) Since joules) Since joules) Since joules) Since joules) Since 1995 1985 _1 995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 WORLD 364,891 25 102,356 15 138,531 is 88,699 46 35,305 47 347,262 19 24,941 41 _iIRICA 2,667 5 0 2 4,36,L 31 3,499 117 324 46 8.976 15 5,227 26 Aigena 4,997 5s 1 326 2,565 Angola 1,121 129 0 0 1,109 131 7 56 5 4 26 (15) 59 50 Serr 4 6S) c 0 4 [63 0 0 0 0 7 3 55 34 Bolsv,ana x x x x x x x x x x y x x Cam roon 222 43) 0 (100) 213 (45 c 10 20 56 15 222 i36 Centrl Alrcan Rep 0 (100) 0 0 3 0 (100) 4 63 32 12 Chad c x 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 (67) 39 30 Congo,Rep 385 57 Cbte a Ivaire 19 60) 0 0 15 (65) 0 0 4 1 8) 98 34 117 38 Egypt 2,530 23 0 0 1,961 4 530 279 39 34 1,348 57 so 27 Equatorial Guinea 7C 38,789 a 0 10 0 0 0 0 ioo) 2 121 4 (8) E, tree x X x y X. X X X K Y, X X Ethiopia 0 0 7 04 4B 4 449 29 Gabor 799 119 0 754 112 764 38,64' 3 25 61 167 29 36 Gambia, Tne 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 3 24 l 30 Ghana 22 93 0 c 0 i OM 0 O 22 104 67 5 1 246 63 Guinea 1 70 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 70 16 15 41 15 Guinea-Bissau 50 4 (3) Kenyo 22 21 0 0 0 E 0 0 22 2 ill 82 s88 17 Lesotho X )< X k X X X X X X X X X X Dber a (23) 0 c 0 0 0 0 1 6 5 53) 52 36 0 4L Madagesca, 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 17 13 105 6c) Ma awi 3 74 0 0 0 c c 0 3 75 12 38 l03 (22) Mah I 88 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 107 7 is 60 32 Mauntan a 0 (100) I I 0 0 0 a 0 Ii0o) 40 347 0 (100) Maurit,us 0____L _oO I - 0 0 0 0 0 -0 _ L34_ 13_ j6I Moro 22 23 ig 06 0 (I Go (70) 2 16 339 63 17 36 Mozarnbique 1 (36) 1 (3) 0 0 0 0 0 (100) 16 8 170 21 NamAua X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Niger 5 14 5 14 0 0 0 O 0 0 15 16 54 50 4,054 26 1 (75 __174 __17 Rwanda 1 5 6 69 7 22 53 (3) Senegal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 21 46 9 S,eura Leone 0 0 a c 0 '3 0 0 0 0 5 43 31 21 Somalia X X X X X X X X 0 0 X X X X ___14 __73 A51 3 Sudan 3 lo) 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 62 49 4 237 27 Swaziland X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Tanzar a 6 157 0 il 00) 0 0 a 0 5 125 34 24 341 29 Togo 0 (100) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (00) 9 191 21 257 Tunis a (65)) 1 00) 2 0 5 3 3 Uganda 3 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 29 16 65 149 38 ZaMNa 37 24) 9 f2g 0 0 a c 2s 22) O M 135 29 E L. RI:-PE a Q., 2 -2c a 39 (661 2 (94i 22 !75) Austria 255 4 14 (64) 45 (8) 57 22 139 25 1,010 is 32 108 Belaws, Rep 120 X 30 X 91 X 9 X 0 Y, 946 X 8 X Belgium 462 (16) 7 96) a 0 0 (10c) 455 20 2,035 10 20 232 15 X 10 X c- "K X BUlgaTa 8 (54) Croalia, Rep 113 X 3 X 16 X 75 X 19 X 276 X 9 X Czech Rep 1,208 X 1,D40 X 5 X 8 X 155 X 1,492 X 8 X Derma,k 598 260 0 0 384 217 210 368 4 68 738 (7) 29 635 Estonia, Rea ___ _LO9 109  X 5 Finlano 341 21 85 198 0 0 0 0 256 1 i,078 25 64 ill France tbl 4,866 42 230 (57) 123 (11) 130 (40) 4,383 72 9,045 16 98 (4) Germay 5,960 y 3,30 X 122 X 669 X 1,766 X 1 3,511 X loo X Greece 349 29 314 56 19 66) 2 (40 14 39 1,008 50 15 (32) 3) 3L 60) 3 2) 151) (25) 153 115 988 (16) 19 (35) Iceland 27 30 a 0 0 0 0 0 27 30 51 22 0 0 ire and 156 24 47 47 0 IC5 16 4 34 442 52 7 123 Ita y 1,258 29 4 (70) 219 li7 76C 41 274 (i 5) 6,906 2C 128 135 Latv,a, Rep 14 X 3 K a X 0 X 11 X i5b X 34 X 5 '31 58 X I Macedon,a, FYR 85 'A 82 X 0 X 0 X 3 X 122 X 8 X Mo dova, Rep I X 0 X 0 X 0 X I X 176 X X X Netherands 3,006 (2) 0 (100) 14S (14) 2,812 (1) 45 ii 3,367 17 14 054 Norway 7,569 145 8 45) 5,91 1 266 1,309 20 441 20 905 17 11 32 9-71 _1 79-9 ------ L4--',O) Portuga 35 3 57r 0 0 0 D O 9 716 100 6 1 Romana 1,270 (46 313 (42 292 is 5) 605 (55) go 40 l,776 (36) 506 865 Russian Federat oi 44,314 X 7,120 X 12,772 X 22,699 X 1,723 X 29,444 X 281 X Slovak Rep 194 X 29 X 3 X 10 X 153 X 667 X 4 X 64 X 222 X_ 2 _X Spa n 1,142 (0) 399 (35) 33 (67) 18 68 692 65 3,667 39 28 31 Sweden ,Ol 13 10 2,962 0 (100) 0 0 1,003 12 ,717 10 54 (51) Switzer a,d 401 16 0 a 0 0 (100) 401 r6 928 70 23 194 Ukra e 3,485 y 2,038 X 172 X 650 X 625 X 6,955 X 26 X Un',ed Krtgdom 10,671 6 328 Al 5,191 r3 2,666 72 993 48 9,080 1 VI 105 3,981 Yocloslavia, Fed Rep 352 X 245 X 38 X 29 X 40 X 410 X 9 X 332 World Resourm 1998-99 Data Table`15.11 continued ENERGY AND MATERIALS Commercial Energy Production Total Energy Consumption Total Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels Primary Electricity Commercial Energy Traditional Fuels Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent (peta- Change (ea- Change (peta,- Change (peta- Change (peta Change (peta- Change (peta- Change joules) Since joules) Since joulen) Since joules) Since joules) Since joules) Since Inules) Since i995 1985 1995 1985 i9g5 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 I,t0~~~Tn AP.134i55 iS 5)1 21 ~~~~~~ 2' 032 II26'i lii I61 61 Ii I13 31 - 14 Si- 391. '13 :J IEJOTa. AIE.C36&. 4) I ill n 6) I 94 1 6 5 3 4 .- i Costa S Ca 30 201 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 201 96 100 12 (06) Cuba 46 25 0 0 44 21 2 084 0 7100: 378 17) 127 :33, Domenman Rep 7 as 0 0 0 0 0 2 7 66 162 107 22 ~ 31 I-ail 1 161 0 0) 0 0 0 0 1 7 0 (ID1 61 20 ironduras 3 106 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 186 36 106 52 13 Jamaica 0 110(0) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1100: 124 01 11 104 Ve cc 6,266 10 182 (11) 6,470 6 1,206 10 430 i60 0,473 30 207 05 Panama 9 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 60 68 16 0 -. - - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5 'I. I - - 5 1 ?? ~ Bolivia 216 00 0 0 69 48 142 60 0 942 126 1~8 is at Bra,,l 2,742 00 96 109) 1,01?1 29 193 90, 94? 39 2,240 30 1,602 (121 Chile 200 2 36 (Si 20 (67) 70 02 06 77 64.3 114 97 38 Guyana 0 11001 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1100 13 1331 7 0 Paraguay 150 026 0 0 0 0 0 0 13Q 3,21 7 63 160 66 32 Peru 226 (26) 4 12 2065 (39) 7 (71) 00 40 370 01 123 49 Surname 16 159 0 0 12 346 0 0 0 01 26 6 0 (1'001 Urugua3 27 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 27 104 02 99 31 10 U2JIS '230~~~~~~i5 _i4J3 A 33e37l6h 1.305 Armeerfa,Rep 10 Is 0 01 2 X 0 01 10 01 68 01 0 21 3zerbaqai 019 it 0 11 302 01 332 0 6 01 010 01 0 7X Bangladesh 272 1-46 0 0 0 (1001 270 161 1 162, 349 100) 336 20 China 36,262 40 26,407 56 6,281 20 699 30 862 148 34,310 62 2,1 2 24) Georg a 27 01 - 0 6 01 2 17 01 146 01 I 01 Inda 9,113 70 6,603 60 1.396 12 716 39' 334 40 10,013 88 3,065 20 rap 1,706 (42) 2 0 1,001 (43) 1,23 263 2 (9: 1,078 242 1 ~ 3 srae. (06) 0 0 0 1100) 1 (47) 0 0 038 62 0 1021 Japans 3,867 47 152 164) 30 00 91 14) 3,014 71 18,711 30 lOS (1,23 Korea, Dewn Peoole s Rep 2,621 62 2,038 67 0 0 0 0 83 1181 2,808 08 42 9 Korea, Rep 837 36 io8 (70) 0 0 0 0 700 20-3 0,401 100 44 1401 Kuwait 4 706 06 0 0 4,412 80 304 60 0 0 630 77 0 0) Lebaone 7 42 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 42 167 OR 0 12 M3alaysra 2,613 ill 3 0 1,400 08 1,132 270 27 99 1,446 200 98 28 Mogognia 73 (11 72 (1) 01 0 0 0 0 0 96 141 4 :701 Oman 1,876 08 0 0 ,7704 71 92 23 0 0 168 44 2 0 Pakstan 000 63 60 36 116 116 386 86 60 04 1,337 91 330 44 Pr lppines 209 12 26 4 6 1641 0 0 237 20 860 72 396 23 SaucdiArab a 19,363 101 0 0 17,760 (01 1,574 147 0 0 3,33' 56 0 0 O~ngap`ore 0 0 0 0 0 84-0 - 1 70 0 0- SriLanKa 16 06 0 0 0 2 0 0 16 86 93 89 97 19 Syr an Arab Rep 1 293 224 0 0 1,190 200 92 1,400 3 22 032 70 0 1100) Ta koslantRep 56 01 1 01 3 7X 1 0X 5 ~ 3 114 0 0 0 ThaiIand 669 2l2 339 498 1i - -- - lackey 70 3 0 (81 - I . irkrmen sran, Rep 1,296 01 0 X 209 01 1,086 01 0 01 4(6 0, 0 01 Jnited Arab Emirares 6.703 61 0 0 4,642 77 1, 113 '608 0 0 1,2' 2 156 0 0 Uzbeoso:an, ep 2,184 3 37 4 419 01 1,703 3 26 01 1,768 7) 0 .6 V,etnam 607 260 210 40 322 0 0 0 66 866 382 83 311 43 CJ(fAlIA- "13 ti). SM - 5 10I IC 2 5: 11: ' 3 Fmj 2 90 a 0 0 2) 3 0 2 92 if 32 12 23 NJew2Zea.and 026 43 83 47 70 54 W39 28 173 30 6~0 41 0 11001 Papua Newa Guinea 277 10,220 0 0 272 0 3 0 2 32 30 17 60 6 Solomron slands 0 0 0(J0 0 0 0 2 101) 3 01 Notes a Gala are for roe Soutl- Afr ca Customs Union (Boaswana, Lesotno, Nlamioia, Sau-te Afnca, are Swato land) 6 lcluoes Monaco World Resources 1998-99 333 Data Table 15.2 Electricity Production and Trade, 1985-95 Source. United Natiorns Statistical Division Electricity Production (million kilowatt-hours) Trade (million kilowatt-hours) Total Thermal Hydroelectric Geothermal Nuclear Import Eaxport Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Change Change Change Change Change Change Change Since Since Since Since Since Since Since 1 995; 1959 1Q95 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 -198- 1999 1989 1995 1985 rUCIALD t3 9i.>i.-J 3.3 56I; 7 32 2 512l.i 2: 11 .,'I,j e9r -'a .22 117 99i J2f 917tt i.01.ii 4' t'9~~~.t99 6" 57 ,~I oa tRj I 9eA I' jI l~ 6' Angola 1,870 4 495 7 1,385 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0) Benin 6 20 6 20 0 0 C 0 0 0 263 53 0 0 Bot5wana 31 1 4 4 X 4 4 31 X 1 31 31 X 3 Bourkina Faso _ _220 79 145 18 _ 75 4 0 0__ _ _ 8---- 0 _ _0 0 0 Burund, 120 1,900 2 0 119 2,850 0 0 0 8 29 (951 0 0 Camoeroon 2,746 14 84 (11 2,662 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CennraAficran Rep ~ 02 31 21 24 Si 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a Chad 89 75 89 75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 _Congo, Demn 9,,5,2 7 18 87) 5,02 2 0 0 9 79 1,8 764 Congo, Rep 435 87 3 50 432 97 0 0 0 0 112 104 0 0 Cote divoire 1,913 15) 808 22 1,1I05 (189) 0 3 3 0 0 0 0 Egypt 48,864 81I 38,054 71 1 0, 810C 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Equatorial Guinea 20 (91 '8 (1 0) 2 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 a Entrea 4 1 4 3 4 31 31 1 31 1 4 3 X Eth opia 1,328 87 103 134) 1,155 80 70 31 0 8 0 0 0 0 Gabon 940 9 215 '1 725 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gambia,T1,e 74 72 74 72 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ghana 8,159 100 42 (481 6,11 7 104 0 0 0 0 4 31 228 118) Guinea _ 543__11 -- -~ 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 C' 0 Guinea-Bissau 43 0 I 0 00-.00- Kenya 3.747 50 334 130) 3,123 86 290 114 0 8 172 1201 0 0 L,bena 486 k36) 303 331) 178 (32) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Li _ 18,000 52 18,000O 52 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Madagascar 61' 22 258 6 353 37 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Malawi 803 64 19 15 784 88 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mali 290 73 65 91 225 08 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 Mauritania 152 4' 124 8 1 28 (1 0) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mauritis, 1,120 15 85 143 15 17 0 00 30000 Morocco 11,724 67- 11,1 19 70 803 28 0 0 0 0 1,000 2 0 0 Mozoamb que 563 !60 513 25 50 (551 0 0 0 0 601 162 31 (100) Naniboa 31 31 X 31 31 1 31 4 0 5 31 X 3 Niger 175 14 175 14 0 0 0 0 0 9 '95 51 0 0 lgN "a 14,810 50 8,810 ~ 4 6,000 '75 0 0 0 9 0 0 010) Rwooba 164 (2) 4 33 160 (2) 0) 0 0 0) 14 (30) 3 0) Senegal 774 2 774 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 S erra Leone 241 37 241 37 0 0 0 0 0 0a 0 0 0 Somalia 272 23 272 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 S2ute A_frica la) 190,51 5___6 1005 5 83 8 __0 0 9,0 1460 14 01 1600 67 Sudan 1,331 28 386 (261 945 83 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 Swaziland 0 4 31 1 X 4 31 4 X X 31 4 X 3 Ta'an aa 1,738 lOG 228 (1 0) 1, 5'i0 145 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Togo 93 174 87 '9c 6 50 0 0 0 0 315 48 0 0 Turoiara___ 7,589 89 7,550 83 38 (34) 0 00 8 17' 389 10 2233 Lgaoda 792 21 7 122) 785 ~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~~22 0 0 0 9 0 0 '15 (13) Zambia 7,790 (22) 40 8 7,750 (22) 0 0 0 0' 22 0 1,500 (52) FL-RCIPE -~4 "aJ' 6 6c 2 2-2 4Th '19 1' .t '2 3263 M392 2a 23 Austria 56,987 29 18,' 10 40 38,477 24 0 0 0 0 7,287 20 9,757 26 Be~arus, Rep 24,918 X1 24,898 X 20 31 0 31 0 Is 10.066 X 2,907 4 Be gium 74,428 32 3' .834 49 1,230 220 8 0 a 41 356 20 8,398 71 5,326 14) Croat a, Rop 8,863 31 7, 137 4 1,726 31 0 11 0 5 5,382 X 986 X Czech Rep 80.847 31 45,494 31 1,726 X 0 2 o 13,627 31 3,'00 4 5,900 31 Denmark 38,790 27 35,583 23 33 0 1.1I74q 1,763 0 0 4,0 12 27 4,806 78 France (or 483,1 77 51 39,456 (24) 75,922 25 568 1) 377,231 77 2,880 (48, 72,701 152 Germany 534,902 4 356,224 X 24,217 11 370 31 1954,081 3 39,735 31 34,911 X Greece 41,55 1 50 37,739 SI 3,792 35 34 31 0 8 1,390 47 593 184 Ireland 17,878 52 1 6,873 55 968 17 35 X 0 0 20 31 35 31 Italy 241,1 1 32 '95,754 49 41,907 2 3,450 29 0 (I'00) 38,662 54 1,2 35 114) Lat,ia, Reo 3,979 31 1,042 4 2,937 31 0 4 0 5 2,647 31 391 31 L.ite,ea,R 1,9 31 1,325 4 75' 31 0 4, 11,822 0 5,270 31 7,948 31 Mdacedonia, FY11 6,11~4 0 ,313 31 801 3 0 30 31 221d 4 54d 43 Moldova, Rep 8,392 X 9,112 31 280 31 0 4 0 2 5,600 X 5,100 31 NSienerlands 80,832 28 76,408 29 88 5, 318 X1 b 4,018 8 11i,979 159 589 (36) Norwvay 123,1 36 20 662 100 '22,436 20 6 31 0 0 2,201 (48) 8,563 85 Romania 55,266 (171 42,573 (29) 6'6693 40 0 0 0 0 755 1771 456 31 Russian FesEration 860,026 3 583,208 4 177,258 3< 30 4 99,532 X 18,377 31 37,982 31 Slovak Rep 25,240 4 9,100 '4 4,940 3 0 31 12.500 31 1.280 31 2,1 05 31 SoceLn a, Pen1,4 1 489 3 ,4 1 0 X 4773 3 740 23L92 3 Spain 186,380 52 86,356 30 24,3569 (211 0 0 55,455 98 7,633 94 3,147 (37) Sweden 147,035 8 9,972 43 67,029 (61 99 31 6 69,935 19 7.720 48 9,421 41 Serntzerlano 63,080 17 2,226 158 35,954 13 6 31 24,895 '7 '9,415q 34 26,690 19 UKraine 194,000 4 128.270 4 12,430 31 0 31 93,300 31 15.550 31 18,300 31 Unoted K,ngdorn 534,454 163) 238,302 1711 6,839 67 352 31 n 88,964 48 16,339 31 23 31 Yugoslavia, Fed Rep 37,176 4 7,050 31 -11,220 _X 0 3 0 31 0 31 0 334 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 15.2 continued ENERGY AND MATERIALS Electricity Production (million kilowatt-hours) Trade (million kilowatt-hours) Total Thermal Hydroelectric Geothermal Nuclear Import Exprort Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent Change Change Change Change Change Change Change Since Since Since Since Since Since Since 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 C.ETirCAL AtrqitiCA I2 2 5 f 453 A; .15 2' End %~a i1' V ' AS 25 Cosr ta RC 4,840 71 752 1,175 3,620 31 4998 A 0 0 179 A 101 202 Cub6a 11,189 (8) 11,081 l9i 109 100 0 0 7 0 3 0 0 0) Donminican Rep 8,536 50 4,51 3 41 1,993 92 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sa saneor 3,4305 9' 831 070 2,045 189 000 (25) a 0 30 A 65 Goaremala 3229 34 1,060 (2) 2,169 220 0 00 0 03 00 IHair 407 9 242 110 195 (371 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Honrdu,as 2,742 157 340 79 2,402 175 0 0 0 0 4 (98) 0 0 (1001 Jam,aca 5,820 155 5,709 108 120 58- 0 3 0) 0 0 .0 0 0 Panam-a 3,319 44 1,101 11i 2,418 25 0 0 0 0 209 A 122 3 CiL'ti ArttECI.33 A' 15 81 u' ii Ji2 tJ-,. I 715311 '3S: t4 363546 24.6-66 Argent na 07,' 60 48 30,789 63 28,100 30 0 0 8,300 44 2,342 A 220 9,587 Bolivia 3,020 100C 1,298 :4r '.722 978 0 0 0 0 13 550 3 A Brazil 275,399 43 19,018 73 253,802 42 0 0 2,519 (251 35.352 1,171 0 :100) Chile 29,906 113 1 ,498 212 18,400 78 0 0 0 0 3 003 Guyana 910 1181 313 (19 5 0 0 0 0 0 16 X 0 0 Paraguay 41,640 3,204 27 5/0 41,603 3,212 3 0 4 0 1 1531 37,939 A Peru 8,7 53 38 2.977 8 13 782 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Armena, Rep 5,59 A 3,338 A ~ ,913 A 0 X 304 N ~ 3 N 3 6 N Azerbajan 1 7,000 3 1 5,403 A 1,603 A 0 A 0 A 45C A 203, A 8anglaoesh 11,689 140 1 1,31 7 174 372 (30) 0 0 0 0 0 -0 0 0 Cnina 1.007,726 1751 804,3 16 (80; 190,077 106 0 0 12,833 3 2,000 80 4,203 10,4100 Georgea 6,800 A 2,050 A 4,710 A 0 A 6 0 A 950 X 180 A cola 414,622 114 335,900 145 71,660 40 57 0 7,000 41 .8670 10,369 130 21 ndonnesia 68.804 '30 56,572 140 10,418 88 1,614 764 0 0 0 0 0 0 Iraq 29.000 38 78,430 38 570 171 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 marn 29,103 85 29,088 65 32 A 3 0 0 0 0 3 30 a Japan 969,965 47 804,207 43 91,301 4 3,203 119 291,254 83 0 0 0 0 Korea, Oem Peoplens Rep 30.000 (25) 13,000 :35: 33,000 (I13) 0 03 0 0 03 0 Korea, Rep 205 102 227 132.595 213 3,478 50 0 0 67,028 300 3 0 00 Ku,va 24,128 54 24,~26 04 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 _Kv~jy Re 1229 1(,231 I I 0A X 6 6,987 X 3 55 A Lao People's Oem Rep 938 ~110 43 r'.0 0 0) 0 27 35 840 (lI 1 Lebanon 5,573 44 4,641 48 732 25 0 0 0 0 50 0 riCOr 0 0 Malayoa 45,632 211 38,132 249 7,500 98 3 0 0 0 2 1361 25 A Mongorla 2,629 l2r 2,620 (2) .0 0 0 0 0 0 381 149 0 3 Oman 6,236 180 6,258 185 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cak scan 60,1005 116 38,766 146 22,658 67 0 2 51 1 46 0 0 0 0 Pci. pp)nes 33,426 49 20,961 69 6,510 17 5.950 23 3 0 0 0 30 Sr Lan,a 4,600 95 286 314 4,014 68 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Synaa Arao Rep 1 5,300 00 12,790 114 2.510 22 0 0 0 0 0 , 0 0 1 00) Ta;tieslan, Rep 14,760 A 560 2 14,180 A 0 A 0 A 4,800 3K 560 AO) Tu,rkmenistan, Rep 9,600 A 9.796 A 4 N 0 A 0 1) 880 A 9,000 A La ted Arab tmi'ares 189,070 64 19,073 64 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Uzbekistan, Sep 47,203 N~ 5,085 15 7,100 A 0 A~ 0 A 14,500 A 14,930 A Vietnam 14,667 137 1,920 (36) 12,342 050 605 A 0 3 0 30 0 Yemen 1,580 A 294 A 0 ___ 0 A 0 A 0 150 A OCE4tsiA 212 96' 3A 165 '-16 4, 14 65's Ž5 2 ("-A '1 0 a I) 'S~~~~~~ Fij ~~~~~544 36 ItO 429 46 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Newm Zealand 34,37 5 26 5,01 7 123) 27,263 38 2,060 84 0 0 0 0 0 0 Papua tern O,uiea ' 790 16 1,285 15 495 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 03 Solomornslands 29 0 29 0 0 0 3 0 0 2 0 3 0 3 Note;: a Dana are for one Sonion Africa Ooustoms Union (Botswana, esntho, 1Nam b a. Soath 'r ca, end Sr.Nazi ann) 6 Re)ers to vend eneera-nina c Incluiaes Msonaco d Dana are for 1994. eRefers tor wno ann, nonspecfiean combust ales generation f. Refers no solar, I de, end maes generation. g Indc,nes solar and vsind generation A' Data are for 1993 Refers to soi a', line, wane, and fu.el ce generatlon, j Data are for 1981 World Resources 1998-99 335 Data Table 15.3 Energy Balances, 1985-95 Source: International Energy Agency lndustrv Sector Transportation Sector Commercial and Total iron and Steel Total Air Road Aciriculture Public Services a % of Tot - Residential (% fTota(Final (%ofTata[Final (%ofTotalFi,a( alFinal (%ofTotall'inal (%ofTotalFinai (%ofriotalFinal (%ofTotulFinal Consumption) Consumption) Consumption) Consumption) Consumption) Consumption) Consumption) ConsumFtion) 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 1995 1985 -1995 1985 1995 1985 WORLD 37.5 40.7 - 4.0 4.5 26.5 24.2 3.3 3.0 20.9 18.2 3.2 3.7 18.7 16.5 7.6 8.4 AFRICA 37.5 43.3 6.1 I'L6 293 32.2 3.9 4.0 24.1 26.2 2.4 2u8 13.2- 12.3 2.3 3,2 -7- 0 00 7 29 2 21 5 0 a 2.3 Algeria 23 1 24 9 4 2 8 6 22 2 39.4 2 3 .2 16.1 34 3 Angola 26 5 219 0 0 0 a 50 6 58 6 27.1 26 2 23 6 32 4 0 0 0.0 18 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 Benin 14.7 7 2 a ( 0 0 58.2 74 8 21 0 10 9 37.2 64 0 0.0 ( 0 25.4 14.4 0 7 0 4 Botswana x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Burkina Faso x x x x x x x x x x x x Burundi x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Carneroon 1 75 14 5 0 0 00 437 53.9 4 8 50 38 9 4&9 0 0 0.1 16 3 9 0 0 0 0.5 Central Atr can Rep x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Chad x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Conqo, Dem Rep &7 10 5 a 0 0.0 661 70 5 22.6 1 19 43.5 59.6 0. C, 0 0 18.6 7.7 a 0 0 Cl Congo,Rep 291 24 7 00 c 0 38 6 435 88 8 29  .34.6 0 0 0 0 16 7 17.7 0.0 0 0 Cote d'lvoire 216 179 0.0 co 49 5 49,11 9,0 9.6 38 7 34 8 30 41 14 2 13 2 6.3 7 3 Egypt 49 7 46 0 29 4O 19 9 24.2 2 8 2.6 17 1 20O 0 7 13 20 6 18 7 0 0 1 0 Equatorial Guinea x X x x x x x Y, x X x x x x x x Eritrea x x x x x x x x y x x 24L8 19.3 0 0 0 a 51 9 591 20.8 20 6 31.1 36 1 2 3 3 8 6 5 7.8 Ethiopa -- 7 Gabon 29.C 46 3 0 0 0( 42.5 198 13 9 4.2 24.5 15 6 0.0 0 0 12.9 19.2 2 6 03 Garnbia, The x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Ghana 34 5 29 7 0.0 0.0 44.4 47 2 44 3.9 38 4 398 1 7 3 8 13.0 108 2.C 23 Gu)nLa x x x x x x x x x x x x Guiriea-Bissau x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Kenya 264 Z4 -, 0 a 0 0 Si 6 54 9 167 14 8 33 0 377 3.1 28 11a a 9 I 1 49 Lesotho x x x x x x x x A x x x x x x x Liberia x A x x x x x X x x x x x x x x L,bva 319 36 2 a 0 0 0 40 2 39 0 36 6.0 36 7 33 0 0 0 Madagascar x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 7 Malawi x x x x x 'X x x x x x x x x x y Mali x x x x x x x x x x y x x x x > Mauritania x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Mauritius x x x x x x x x x x x 'A Morocco 229 40 3 a 0 0 0 12.9 27 7 3 9 59 64 0 18 7 16 0 2 4 6  Mozambique 12 0 15 ( 0.0 0 0 16 4 17 2 7 6 7A 8 8 9 9 3 5 a ( 6 7 5 5 0.1 0 0 Nam ba x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Niger x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Nigeria 16.0 17.9 0 6 0 6 51 6 56 5 4.9 5) 46 2 50 1 0 0 0 6 13 5 18.2 2 3 0.7 R.anda x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Senegal 29 4 26 C) 0 0 0 0 55 0 612 20 5 22 5 31 1 31 1 0 2 3 2 1 1.C 5.6 2 6 1 5 Sierra Leone x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Somalia x x x X x x x )< x x x x x x < x South Africa 45.8 59.9 17 23 9 19.9 4 2 3.i 5 5 7 0 3 6 4.3 Sudar 29.6 28.6 0 0 0.0 43.4 451 1 15 34 4 8 9 12 0 7 ( 3.2 2 2 2 6 Swazi a,nd x x x x x x x x x X. X X X X Y, X Tanzania 15 2 30 6 0.0 0 1 44.4 325 6 3 6 1 34.0 19 7 4.6 3 7 28.C 25.3 4 3 3 9 Togo X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Tunisia 33 5 34 1 2.0 3 2 31 3 311 59 3.9 24 8 2 15 7 3 5 7 15 0 18 4 8 6 7.5 Uganda X X X X X X X ---; x X X- x X X X Zarnbia S7 5 63.4 0 C) 0 0 2rl. 1 18 7 3 8 4 1 16.3 13 3 2 9 2 3 4 3 5 4 7 9 6.6 Z,mbabwe 3 25.3 2.3 3 1 13 8 15 9 10 2 12.0 5 8 5 1 8 3 6.8 EUROPE 35u6 39.3 7.2 8.4 20.8 20.3 1 6 15 5 1 6.8 7.4 Alban a 16 6 35 6 0 0 5 8 40.5 17 7 0 a a 0 40 5 17 7 0 5 0 0 23 0 4 1 j -0 Austr a 25 6 31 2 8.2 IC4 28 5 23 1 2 1 11 24 6 20 4 4 9 c 5 29 1 33 4 2.0 3 4 Bela,us, Rep 3S 3 34 4 0 E 0 2 14 S 14.7 z 5 0 0 6 5 9.0 6 5 7 0 31 0 0 0 1.6 0.5 Belgium 37 9 41 3 11.2 14,6 22 7 19.1 2 6 1 8 19 0 16.0 2.9 1.1 24 6 28 0 9 1 8.0 3 9 0 0 1 0 0 5 a 5 0 o o o o 0 (L o Q. o Bplgar,a 59.8 51 2 10 9 2 3 5.3 9 7 29 2 1 1.8 7 0 3A 1 3 25.5 11.5 1 7 2 1 Croatia, Rep 39 4 0 0 1 8 0 0 24.0 2 5 1 8 0 0 19 9 0 0 4.0 04 19.6 0.0 8 5 0 0 Czech Rep 48 1 56 4 14 9 12 2 13 5 7 9 0 9 a 9 11 5 6 5 4 9 3 5 20 0 17 4 6 0 3 7 Denmark is 5 18 1 0.7 O'S 30 5 30 7 5 1 5.0 23 2 21 0 6 4 4 6 29 4 31.7 12.4 10 4 Estonia, Rep 33 9 49 2 0.3 0 0 17 5 26 0 8 0 a 14 7 0.0 3 6 26( 35 1 0 a 6.6 0 0 F n ard 45 9 44 9 2 6 1 18 1 17.5 1 8 1 4 15.4 15 1 3 3 4.2 22 7 24 1 4 2 3.5 France 29 1 33.0 4 9 6,2 29 3 25 3 3.1 2 0 25 0 21 9 1 9 2 2 16 9 15 8 18 7 2).7 Germany 32.0 37.0 5 9 78 26O 19 0 2.5 1 7 22.4 16.1 1.1 1 3 25.5 25.9 10.4 11 9 Creece 24 9 28 S 0 9 1 6 40.8 37 2 8 0 9 6 29.0 242 6.3 7 4 19.4 1&1 5.8 28 0 15 8 11.2 1 1 0 7 13 S 82 3 6 71 36 7 281 15 0 0 Iceland 24 6 27 5 5.9 6 7 15 7 15 7 4 4 4.9 10 6 9 5 1 7 8 2 31 8 37 5 4.7 3 0 Ireland 26 2 31 7 0 6 0,8 30 3 259 6 8 3 2 22 4 219 31 0 2 23 8 29 3 14.8 39 Ital 34 D 357 60 73 731 1 27.0 2 3 1.9 27 8 23.9 2 7 2.3 25 6 28 6 4 C) 35 Latvia, Rep 18A 44.1 2 2 0,0 24 4 2 5 09 0 0 15.6 0 0 2 8 12 4 46.2 0 0 144 ).7 Ltthuaria, Pet) 32.2 38.8 01 0 a 24.8 13 4 0.8 3 3 1 8.0 9 5 4.0 34 32.4 a 0 9.9 3 Macedonia, FYR 371 X I X 24.9 X 2 5 X 22.1 X 10.4 X 21.8 X 4 9 X Moldova, Rep 21 8 1 s I 0.0 0 0 13 a 15 0 0 4 1 2 95 13 8 1 2 7 5 3 29.6 J.0 19.9 02 Netherlands 354 37 6 49 43 21 9 17 8 46 25 15 8 13 7 7 2 5 0 19 1 23 8 3 9 6 Norvvay 38 0 44.7 62 8 9 22 5 19.8 3 0 2 8 15 1 12 8 3 8 1 5 211 196 101 )9 1922LLP- 14 1 9.1 0.9 0 0 12 1 9.4 6 9 3.0 343 35 8 0 0 .8 Portugal 393 46 2 1 8 2 34 4 28 6 5 5 1 289 22.1 3.3 3 1 2 7 13.2 6 1 4.8 Romania 5 7.0 58 4 14 5 13 6 13.0 3 5 0.8 0 0 99 3 1 19 2 3 21 6 13.1 0.0 () 7 Russian Federation 391 362 9 6 O'D 9.2 32 9 -, 0 C) 0 1.9 27 4 8.4 12 3 355 0 0 09 S, 0 Slovak Rep 52 7 61 C) 15 5 0 0 10 7 6 8 0 2 ( 0 9 6 6 2 32 51 14 8 8.1 14.0 S, 4 Sloven a, Rep 30 6 48 3 0.8 35 3 213 ( C) 0 0 259 25,8 53 -7 Spain 33 6 41 7 51 93 37 3 32.1 4 5 42 3 1 52 13 8 11 7 Sweden 38 3 38 3 49 5.0 22 2 19.9 2 5 1 7 IS 6 16.4 1 4 1.7 22 7 29 9 13 3 J 7 Switzerland 18.5 226 0 a 0,0 32 0 27 0 68 5 0 24 1 20.9 1 3 0 9 29 4 28 4 16 1 1 .o LJkr3 ne 43.0 50.1 V 1 23 7 8.2 9 1 0 9 00 4.0 00 4.7 52 27 6 00 85 C 3 unfte6 ying6om 27 3 29 7 49 5 0 30 8 26 5 53 39 24 C, 21 0 0 8 I 0 25 3 27.4 9 2 9 9 0.4 0.0 6 5 C). 5 0 7 0.0 5.6 c 0 02 C.3 21.3 0.0 04 c 9 336 World Resources 1998-99 X 00~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 AC m~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C Z xx- - 0X <: - 01 -- _ xxWY 7 -XC X C.. -, > '-' 0 ij~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-'1i X0-C 7' - SAC - - - - - - - - CXXWCO ii - - -'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ x x - I x: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - oo ~ ~ CYX-1 xx,x 2L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o .Cs - : X -0 w ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 0C w~~~~~OXCX <0 ~0 - '4 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~j0C =-i Data Table 15.4 Production of Selected Minerals and Materials, 1995 Bauxite {a} Iron Ore Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Sand and Hydraulic (Al content) (Fe content) Copper Ore Silver Ore Gold Sulfur Salt (ammonia) (P205) (potash) Gravel Cement (000 (005 (Cu content) (Ag content) (Au (000 (tOG (000 (000 (tOG (005 (000 metric metric (metric (metric content) metric metric metric metric metric metric metric torns) ton s) tons) tots) (kilograms) tons) tons) tons) tons) tons) tots) tons) WORLD 27,250 554,846 10,000,000 14,600 2,250,000 54,300 189,000 91,600 40,100 24,700 X ,2,4 -AFRICA X X X X X X X X X X X X Ageria 11 1,000 )K 3 1K 2 178 380 232 2 21 6,200 Angola 1 1K K 21 21 1 30 11 0 21 1 300 tene 2 K 1K K 2. I 1K 1K 1K 1 380i Botswvana 1K 1 21,029 X 86 X 206 1K K 1K 1K 1 tBcrkina Faro K 1K 1K 2 6,000 x 7 1K1 1K 1K 1 Buru,rd 1 1K 1K 1 10 0 0 21 X K 1K 0 Camerocn >1 X 11 1 560 K 1K 1 1K 1K 1 520 Centra. Afrcar Re-p 21 0 1K 1 700 K aX K 'A 1K 21 1 Chad 2 A 1K K 1K < 2 1K K 1K 1K 1 Congo, Oem Rep 1K 3 ~ ~~~~~~ ~ ~ 26,800 10 80 K K1 1K 100 Congo, Seo K 1K 1K 1 5 1K K 0 1K K 1K 100 Cote dIlojre K 1K 1K 1 3,200 K 1K K 0< K 1K 500 Egypt 1K 2,100 K 1K 1K 1 1,000 842 390 2x 32,800 16,000 Eq.rator,aGCu ea 0 K 0 1K K 1K K 1K K 1K 1K 1 Inrnea 1K __ 2 1 59 1K 255 1K 1K 1 1,334 350 Ethnopia 1K 1K 0 1 4.500 1K 5 1K 1K 1 1,600 611 Gabon K 1K 1K 1 70 2 1K K 21 1K 1 130 Gamnora,Tne K 1K K 1K K 1K K 2 21 4 1K 1 Ghana 123 1K 1 3 52,200 1K 50 1K 2 K 1K 1,400 ,au nea 2,00 1 1K 1 7,8660 K 0 1K 1K 1K 1 Gui,nea-Bis5aj 1K K 21 0 K 1K K 1K K 1K 1K 1 Kenya 1K X 2 1 170 11 74 K 1K K 1K 1,500 Lesotho K 21 K 1K 1K 1K K 1K K 1K 1K L[mn'a 1K 2 1K 1 500 1 1K 2 2 K 21 K Libva 1K K 1K K 21 1K 2 200 1K 21 1 2,300 Madagascar 1K K 1K 1K S00 1 30 8 1K 1K 1 60 M'alaa X 1K 4 K 1K K 1K K 1K 1K 139 [vala K 1K 1K , 7,800 1K 5 K 1K 1K 1 20 Maurtania 1K 7,000 1K 2 2 1 6 K 1K 1K 1 375 Maorit us K 1K 1K 1 0 01 1K 1K 1 Morocco 1K 40 '3, 000 330 ''1 1K 1 6.500 Mozahgrfbqe 3 1K 1K 1 900 1K 40 K 1K 1K 1 20 Narno a 21 1 22,530 66 2,099 1K 300 1K K 1K 1K 1 Niger K 2 1K K 1K X 3 K 1K 1K 1 30 1Nigeria 1K 100 2 2 1K 1 1 350 1K 1K 1 2,6001 Rwanda 1K 2 1K 1 100 2 1K K 1K 1K 1 5 Senegal K 1K K 1K 1K 1 120 1K 600 1K 1 590 Serra Leone 70 1K 1K 1 50 1K 100 K 1K 2 1K 1 Somala X 1K 1 1K 1 IK 1 1K 1K 1 25 -South Africa 1K 1,06 166 117 53,20 506 313 600 1.087 1K 1 9,07_1 Sudan K X 2 1K 3,000 1K 75 2 1 1K 1 250 Sevazi and 1K K 1K K 1K K 1K 2 K 1K 1K 1 Tanzania K 1K 1K 1 44 1K 7 K 7 1K 2 800 Togo 1K K 4 1K K 1K 1K 1 720 2 1K 350 Tuon,sa K i26 1K I 1K 1 400 1K 2:8 1K 430-0 U.ganda 2 4 X 0 1 1 5 K 1K 1K 1 130 Zamba 1K 1 320,200 1 4 76 2 1K I0 X. XK 1 300 Zimbabwe XK 160 3,500 1 0 24,344 X XK 70 45 XK X 1 000 -EUROPE X XXX X X X X X X X X Albania XK X 800 XK XK X X 1 5 1 X 1K 200 Austlria XK 860 XK X X 1K 701 400 XK X 50,000 5,000 Be ar5, Rep X 'X XK X X 0 219 500 XK 3,210 1K 1,235 Beigirum XK X X X X 1K 1K 500 X 1K 14,000 8,000 _Bosnia and Herzecovina 19L 52 XK IK1K 5 XK 1 750 -160 Bu, sara XK 250 63,000 33 2,000 X1 700 600 X XK X 2,100 Croatia, Rep 1 XK XK XK X X 28 300 X XK 3,000 1,700 Czech Rep X XK X1 XK XK XK IS0 h X X 15,786 4,825 Denrmar< XK XK XK 0 XK 576 XK XK X 37,500 2,000 Estonia, Rep X XK XK XK X X X 45 XK X 21,000 417 F n,and XK X 12,000 27 1,400 X1 X 1 0 244 XK 1K 000 France 1K 600 XK 1 4.000 1,100 7,350 1,500 0 802 174,900 ?1,000 Germany XK 20 XK 1 XK 1,230 10,600 2,100 XK 3,280 450,000 .50500 G,reece 479 000 XK 45 X 1K 150 55 XK X 1K 12,000 H,inoarr' ~~~~ ~~~275 XK X X 1K XK 1 3 K1 3,200 3,000 Iceland XK X X X 1K 1K 4 9 X 1K 5,400 82 Ireland XK XK X 15 1K 1K X 370 X 1K 7,500 1,500 Itala 20 XK X 12 XK X 0,400~ 800 XK X 125,000 .15,000 Latvia,Rep XK X1 XK XK X 1K X X X X 91 204 Litn,,ania,Reo 1K 1K~ ~~ ~ ~~~~ XK1 1K XK X 442 X 1K 46 649 Macedorna, FYR XK 6 66500 10 1K XK XK X X 1K 95 500 Mlodova,Rep XK XK X1 X X 1K X X 6,361 XK X 46 Nethen anda XK X1 X1 X X X 3,500 2,500 XK XK X 3,400 NsoKrway 1K 1,430 0,800 X X 1K 1K 300 XK X 1K 1,400 _Poland, ec XK 2 8,0 ,0 K 240 400 1501 1K 200 1,664 Portuga ~ XK 6 130, 161 32 X XK 670 100 X 1K 0,000 7,500 Romania 44 184 24,003 60 4,000 XK 1,802 1 X1 X 901 6,000 Russian Fede(aton 968 XK 591,000 700 132,170 4,000 2,000 7,500 0,000 2,800 XK 06,000 SiovakROep X 230 500 XK XK X 70 250 XK XK X 2,500 S2LoenaoX1 X1 X1 X1 1 X 8 X1 1K ,0 _1,050- Spain XK 900 5,000 135 6.000 702 3,400 360 XK 650 XK 25,000 Svaeoen XK 13,880 83,600 268 6,400 XK XK XK X X X 2,100 Switzer,ano X1 X1 XK X X X 300 30 X1 21 X 4,000 Ukraine XK 24,600 XK XK X X 3,000 2,200 X 110 X1 11,020 Uored Kingdom XK XK XK X X X 7,100 1.000 XK 582 104,000 12,500 ugoslavlaa, Pen Rep 12 XK 70,000 27 4,000 XK 16 150 XK X 3,000 1,696 338 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 15.4 continued ENERGY AND MATERIALS Bauxite (a) Iron Ore Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Sand and Hydraulic (At content) (Pe content) Copper Ore Silver Ore Gold Sulfur Salt (ammonia) (P205) (potash) Gravel Cement (000 (BBS (Cu content) (Ag content) (Au (BBS (000 (000 (000 (BBS (BOB (SOB metric metric (metric (metric content) metric metric metric metric metric metric metric tons) tons) tons) tons) (kilograms) tons) tons) tons) -tons) tons) tons) tons) NORTHNAMERICA t It t It It It t It I It It Costa Rica A A A A 570 A 47 A 1,500 990 cona A a 1,500 a A A 190 130 A A 5x 1,200 Dominica Rep A A ii 13 3,288 A 11 A A A 5,500 1,453 PIlSalvanaor A A A A A 30 A A A A 8756 Gu~aeremala A 2 A A 30 A 100 A A is 1,000 1,560 Harl( A A A A A A A A A a 1,500 50 Honduras A A 390 25 110 A 25 A A A 650 Jama ca 2,714 A A A A A 19 >A A A 1,900 523 Mexico u 0,040 201,900 2.400~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Oi 20,92 2,980 7,670, 2,100 190 A 152,692 20,921 Nlicaragua A is a 2 1,000 A 1s A A A 1,300 300 Panama A A A 1,100 A 22 A A A 3,000 350 Argentlna A <500 300 43 1100 A 1,000) 70 A 21,067 6,400 Boiva 0 A 127 410 14 405 A S A A A A 700 Brazil 2,190 120,900 41,000 155 72,000 5 3, 100 940 700 223 A 205,500 CO le 0X 5 119 2,496,000 1,032 39,180 A 3,000 A 3 50 300 3,000 Celombia ii 75,0 28006 2,6 A 50 0 LO ,2 Ac,,ano~ A A A A 15,500 A A A A ri 173 2,300 3uyana 125~ A A A 11.900 A A A A A A Paralguay A A A is A A A 3 2,000 070 Peru A 4,900 290,700 1,909 06 500 A 236 90 12 A 900 2 100 Surmaame 625 A 30 A A 135 s0 Uruguay A A A A~ ~~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~~ 900 A S A A A 2,000 600 Ofghan trn slamic ra7tte A AA A A 3 3 A A 11 Armneria,ORep A A 1,000 A 100 0 50 4 A A A 2100 Azerbaitan 0 93 A is A A 20 A A A 2 200 Bangladestp 3 A 2 A A 350 975 A A A 280 Bhutan A A -nina 1,250 A 370,000 250 140,000 6,530 26,000 15,500 6.400 80 A 445,ErO0 A A 1,000 A 000 3 A 30 A A 55 100 1,200 372900 93,000 40 2 300 3 9,000 7,713, 338 A 5X 70,000 Iedonesia I2 19-4-10 12 6,90- . i . Irn, Oumi.c Rep 20 4,500 1co,000 60 650 390 rag A A A A A 325 250 500 300 A A 19,000 srae A A A A A A 1,200 4 1 1,264 1,330 A 3,000 .apar, A 1 2,376 102 9.165 2,960, 1,400 1,402 A A A 90)424 Jordan A A A A ___ A 25 A 1,655 1020 A 4,1000 KaTzalbstan, Rep 925 6,200 260,000 900 260~00 55 A 200 550 A A 1,500 Korea, Demr Peep e stRep A 0,1I00 16,000 50 5,000 0 600 600 164 A A 17,000 Korea, Rep A 106 5 208 13,000 A 770 470 A A 1,718 55,130 Kunart A A A A A A 45 329 A A A 2(000 L,ao Peomels DemRreo A A A A 0 A 9 A A C A Lebanor A A A A 0 A 3 A A A A 3,003 Maaysia 46 123 21.900 11 3,181 8 A 340 A A 55 0, 667 Mongolia SX A 100,400 0X 4,900 A 1 5 A A A 109 Neoal A A 2 Oman A A A A A A A A A A 6,500 lAceo Pak stan 2 A A A A A 052 1,450 0 A A 9,586 Phil ppines A A 1405,651 27 27,144 A 540 5 7 A 22,500 9400 Saud Arabia e 5X 925 18 9,06 2,200 A 2,000 A A aX 1 6,300 Singapore e A A A A A Sr A A S 1,000O Snari Lna A A A A A A 60I1 11 A A 900 Syr an Arab Rep A A A A A A 130 67 477 A 4,200 6,000 Tas,kssran,,ep A A A A 1,502 A A 25 A A A 100 Tha,an A 17 A Turkmenirtan, Rep A A A A A a 500 20 A A A 400 Un ted A,ab'm rates 0 A a A A 0X A 259 A A A 9.000 ,,zbekrslan, Rep A A 45000 A 75,000 A XI 1,106 A A A 3,500 Vietnam A A A A A A 375 52 '40 A A 7,500 Yemen 1 A< A A 1000 OCEANIA It~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ X It It It It ICI tI Pp1 15 A A 2 32775 A A A A A 300 78 Nerw Zealano A 920o e 32 10,0'00 5 50 99 A A 20,00 700 Papua Nen, Gui,nea A A 2 12,737 60 02,635 A is A A A A A s6ormons~ands A A A A I A A A A A A A Mores a Indclues nepbeline syensare ores from the Russian Pederation and alunite orer from Az,lc~aa converted to naunrte eculsuents World Resources 1998-99 339 Sources and Technical Notes electricity for internal applications, such as factory equivalents. Other fuels were converted to operations. coal-equivalent and petajoule-equi-alent terms in Commercial Energy Production Total energy consurmption includes conmmercial a similar manner. and Consumption, 1985-95 energy and traditionalfuels. Conmmercial energy re- For additional information, refertsa the UNSTAT Source: United Nations Statistical Division UN- fers to apparent consumption and is defined as do- 1995 Etergy Statistics Yearbook. STAT), 1995 Eniergy Statistics Yearbook (UNSTAT, mestic production plUS net imports, mius net stock increases, and minus aircraft and marne New York, 1997). bunkers. Commercial energy consumption in- Energy data are compiled by UNSTAT, primarily cludes energy from solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels, from responses to questionnaires sent to national plus primary electricity (seethe definition above). Electricity Production and governments, supplemented by official national Traditionalfiuels include estimates of the con- Trade, 1985-95 statistical publications and by data from intergov- sumption of fuelwood, charcoal, bagasse, and ani- ernmental organizations. When official numbers mal and vegetal wastes. Fuelwood and charcoal Source: United Nations Statistical Division (UN- are not available, UNSTAT prepares estimates consumption data are estimated from population STAT), 1995 Energy Statistics Yearbook (UNSTAT, based on the professional and commercial litera- data and country-specific per capita consumption New York, 1997). ture. figures. These per capita estimates were prepared Energydata are compiled byUNSI'AT,primarily Commercial energyproduction includes total en- by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the from responses to questionnaires sent to national ergy production, solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels; United Nations (FAO) after an assessment of the governments, supplemented by off cial national and primary electricity production. Solid fuels in- available consumption data. Data were supplied bv statistical publications and by data from intergov- clude bituminous coal, lignite, peat. and oil shale the answers to questionnaires or come from official ernmental organizations. When official numbers burned directly. Liquidfuels include crude petro- publications by Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brazil, the are not available, UNSTAT prepares estimates leum and natural gas liquids. Gaseousfuels include Central African Republic, Chile, Colombia, Costa based on the professional and comnsercial litera- natural gas and other petroleum gases. Primary Rica, Cuba, Cyprus, El Salvador, The Gambia, Ja- ture. electricity refers to electricity generated by non- pan. Kenya, the Democratic People's Republic of Electricity pmdduction, which encornpasses total, combustible energy sources and includes nuclear, Korea,the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg,Malawi, thermnal, hydroelectric, geothermal, ancl nuclearpro- wind, tidal,wave, solar, geothermal. and hydroelec- Mauritius, Nepal, Panama, Portugal, the former So- duction, represents the amount of electricity out- tric power sources. Primary electricity values are viet Union, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Thailand, and Uru- put generated by each of the different sources in calculated to equate them with the amount of coal guay. The conversion of fuelwood is based on 20 to million kilowatt-hours. Figures generally refer to or oil required to produce an equivalent unit of 30 percent moisture content. gross production. Data for the Domirican Repub- thermal electricity and are expressed in joules. The Similar estimates were prepared for coniferous gic Finland, France (induding Monaco), Mexico, conversion from kilowatt-hours to joules, assum- fuelwood and for charcoal. Although the energy the United States, Zambia, and Zimbabwe refer to ing a thermal efficiency of the primary source of values of fuelwood and charcoal vary widely, UN- net production. Gross production is the amount of 100 percent, is 0.0036 petajoules per million STAT uses standard factors of 0.33 metric ton of electricity produced by a generating saation before kilowatt-hours. However, the efficiency, or the per- coal equivalent per cubic meter of fuelwood and consumption bv station auxiliaries and trans- centage of heat energy transformed into electrical 0.986 metric ton of coal equivalent per metric ton former losses within the station are deducted Net energy, of nuclear power plants is estimated at an of charcoal. production is the amount of electricity remaining . : percent, and geothermal plants at 10 Bagasse production is based on sugar produc- after these deductions. Typically, net production is percent. Hydroelectric, wave, wind, and solar tion data in the Sugar Yearbook of the International 5-10 percent less than gross production. Energy power sources (which are mechanical as opposed Sugar Organization. It is assumed that 3.26 metric productionfrompumpedstorageisnotincludodin to thermal sources) are assumed to be 100 percent tons of fuel bagasse at 50 percent moisture are pro- prosston from generation. efficient. duced per metric ton of extracted cane sugar. The Electricity production data generallv refer to energy of a metric ton of bagasse is valued at 0.264 Total electricity production is the total amount gross production. Data for the Dominican Repub- metric ton of coal equivalent, of electricity produced, both from primary and lic, Finland, France (including ivtonaco), Mlexico, One petajoule (1 x 10' joules) is the same as secondary sources. Thermal electricity is generated the United States, Zambia, and Zimbabwe refer to 20,778 x 10' kilowatt-hours, 9.478 x 10C Quads, from the heatproducedbythe burningof fossil and net production. Gross production is the amount of and 9.478 x 10"' British thermal units and is the renewvable fuels. Hydroelectric power is generated electricity produced by a generating station before equivalent of 163,400 "U.N. standard" barrels of oil from the energy of svater falling from E higher to a consumption bv station auxiliaries and trans- or 34,140 U.N. standard metric tons of coal. The lower point. Geotliernnal refers to electricity pro- former losses within the station are deducted. Net heat content of various fuels has been converted to duced using sources of heat from the earths inte- production is the amount of electricitv remaining coal-equivalent and then petajoule-equivalent val- riorexcept in some specified countries 'see data ta- after these deductions. Typically, net production is ues using country- and year-specific conversion ble). Nuclear electricity is generated fr)m the heat 5 to 10 percent less than gross I ' ." i . ',' factors. For example, a metric ton of bituminous produced by nuclear fission. production from pumped storage facilities is not coal produced in Argentina has an energy value of Electricity production includes both public and included in gross or net electricity generation. 0.843 metric ton of standard coalequivalent (7 mi- self-producer power plants. Public power plants Electricity production includes both public and lion kilocalories). A metric ton of bituminous coal produce electricity for many users. They may be self-producer power plants. Public power plants produced in Turkey has a 1991 energy value of operated by private, cooperative, or governmental produce electricity for many users. They may be 0.925 metric ton of standard coal equivalent. The organizations. Self-producer power plants are op- operated by private, cooperative, or governmental original national production data for bituminous orated by organizations or companies to produce organizations. Self-producer power plants are op- coal were multiplied by these conversion factors electricity for internal applications, such as factory erated by organizations or companies to produce and then by 29.3076 x 10- to yield petajoule operations. 340 World Resources 1998-99 ENERGY AND MATERIALS Import and export trade refer to the amounts of more accurate than values for the individual sec- duction that, to escape taxation, enters illegal chan- electric energy transferred to and from the country tors. nels. concerned, respectively. Sulfur is produced from elemental deposits. One kilowatt-hour equals 3.6 x I 0 joules, 3.41 x from the production of other minerals, or as a by- 10- Quads, and 3,413 British thermal units. product of other industrial processes. It is counted Production of Selected Minerals here as produced in the country of origin if produc- and *l ~~~~~~~~~~~tion is from native sulfur, pyrites, gypsum, byprod- 5 and Materials, 1995 ucts from the extraction of crude oil and natural Energy Balances, 1985-95 Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS), gas, or tar sands. It is counted as produced in the Minerals and Materials Inforsnation CD-ROM country ot recovery if it is obtained from metallur- Source: International Energy Agency (IEA), En- (USGS, Minerals Information Team, Reston, Vir- gical operations, petroleum refineries, or spent ox- ergy Balances of Organisation for Economic Co- ginia, 1997). ides. Operation and Development (OECD) Countries, The work of the old U.S. Bureau of Mines, com- Salt here refers to sodium chloride, or common 1960-5. .i ,1 -, Balances of OECD Countries, piling data on the mineral resources of the world salt, and is derived from mines, oceans, and seas 1960-1995, on diskette (OECD, Paris, 1997). continues through the work of the Minerals Infor- through evaporation and by the extraction of Data for OECD and Economic Commission for mation Team of the USGS. The team compiles data brines It is used to season and preserve foods, as an Europe (ECE) countries were compiled from infor- based on the review of the world's published litera- a fseveral ote r the usest mation provided in IEA/OECD/UN-ECE Eurostat ture and, often, through personal knowledge of and for several other industrial uses. questionnaires. Data from other large and particularindustriesandcountries.Althoughthese entrogen is measured as the amount 182.2 per- medium-sized energy consumers come mostly data are based on the best country information cent) contaied i anhydrous aoimnonia produced from individual country inforinaLion. Data for the svailable,theyare only as accurate and comprehen- bycombiningnitrogenfromthe air withhydrogen remaining countries were gathered from a varietv sive as the information reported by coimipanies, (derived from several potential sources) and water. of international organizations. WRI calculated the countries, and commodity organizations. Detailed Ammonia, in turn, provides the essential input to a amount of individual energy-use sectors as a per- commodity notes and sources are available from variety of nitrogen-based fertilizers that together t. TTC>nO ~~~~~~~~provide more than 30 percent of the nitrogen re- centage of total final (energy) consumption for the USGS. quire for the wl foodend fibe production each country Bauxite is the primary ore from which alumi- quPred or the world's food and fiber prouctilon Tota inl rosunirio is he sm ofconsmp- nom mis derived, although these data also contain the Phsor,anteofheheesetill- tion by th dffe ent ectors Barkflown from the dry bauxite equivalents of the minerals nepheline ments tor plant growth, is obtained primarily from petrochemical industry are not included. Induistry sycoite and alunite. o ow comparisonS wit quantity of phosphorus pentoxide (PiOt ) or its sector includes the iron anid steel industry, chemical other extraction activities, the bauxite equvalents equivalent. industry, nonferrous metals basic industries, non- reported here i terms of its content of aluminum, Potassium, the final of the three elements essen metallic mineral products (e.g., glass, ceramics, ce- wich is 25percent of the mpdt ofbaux N tiaL for plant growth, is derived from a varietv of ment, etc.). transport equipment, machinery, min- bauxite is used for the production of aluminum, mined and manufactured salts. ing and quarrying, food and tobacco, paper, pulp however; it can also be used in the production ot Sand atid gravel for construction are basic raw and print, wood and wood products, construction, such items as abrasives, chemicals, and refractories. materials produced every-where for local use. Be textile and leather, and any nonspecified industry. Iron ore is reported as the elemental iron con- cause of the local nature of these resources, data on The transportion sector includes all fuel used for tamed in the production of iron ore, iron ore con- sand and gravel should be used svith caution and transportation except international marine bun- centrates, and iron ore agglomerates and in princi- can significantly understate the amount actuallv kers. Fuel used for ocean,coastal, and inland fishing ple contains no double-counting of ores traded produced in a country. These data are presented is not included. Air transportation includes both in- rather than produced, here to illustrate the relative magnitude of reported ternational civil aviation and domestic air travel. Copper ore is the world mine production in productioni. Sand anid graiel are used in the pro- Road transportation includes all human and cargo terms of the copper content of ores produced. duction of concrete, asphalt paving materials, road transportation taking place on a natioDs road net- Where possible,the copper contentwas calculated t ,II " I, I .- .. , r- products, and in avarietvof work. Agriculture includes all agricultural activity, from actual analysis of the relevant ores or concen- other applications. including ocean, coastal, and inland fishing. Com- trates. Hydraulic cement is a product that can set under- mercial and public services include service sectors Silver ore is commonly produced as a byproduct water and is the dominant form of cement manu- such as stores, repair shops, restaurants, etc. Resi- of gold, copper, and other metals production, al- factured in the world. Its use in concrete and in ma- dential includes energy use by residences. IEA re- though it is also mined directl,. sonry is critical to the construction industrv. Port ports that it can be difficult to accurately distin- Gold production is based on the actual reported land and masonry cements are made by burning guish among the agriculture,commercial,and pub- production of the element. It does not necessarily calcareous rocks such as limestone with lesser lic services sectors, and that a total of the three is capture small-scale artisanal production nor pro- quantities of other materials. World Resources 1998-99 341 ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE , .' z I . -, , , Atmosphere and Climate World Resources 1998-99 343 Data Table 16.1 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Burning and Cement Manufacturing, 1995 Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Per Capita Carbon Dioxide Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1995 1000 metric tons) Emissions Bunker Fuels la) Solid Liquid Gaseous Gas Cement Total (metric tons) (000 metric tons) Fuels Fuels Fuels Flaring Manufacturing Emissions 1995 1995 WORLD 9,016,712 8,342,675 4,179,833 233,479 687,927 22,714,561 3.9 485,806 _AtFRICA 274,078 269.355 100,416 7,8 2,92 745,595 1.1 28,326 Algeria 3.243 22,134 47,222 15,578 3,069 91,267 3 3141 Angola 0 1,667 322 2,460 149 4,602 0 4 2,561 Rern 0 443 0 0 189 634 ai 59 O3otscvana 2,242 0 0 0 0 2,242 1 5 0 Carrercon 4 3,880 0 0 259 4,144 03 48 Central Afincan Rep 0 234 0 0 0 234 0 1 40 Cnar , 95 0 0 0 95 0 0 59 Coo, Oem Rep ~ 4 1 9~ 0 0 0 2,0L99 00 476 Congo, Rug 0 1,048 7 '67 50 1,269 0 5 33 COle dIlvoire 3 13,113 0 0 249 10,362 068 260 Egypt 2,451 53,205 26,055 0 7,673 91,664 1.5 5,106 Eguatoria Gu, nea 0 132 0 0 0 132 0.3 0 _Lr..rea __ ___X X X X X Ic 4 I Eta 0pia 11 3,045 0 0 -- 29 ~ 3,525 - 0-7 ~3-15- Gabon 0 1,494 1,583 0 65 3,543 3 3 418 Gamb,a Tne 0 216 0 0 0 216 0 2 0 Ghana 7 3,342 0 0 696 4,049 02 161 Gureea ____ 1,061 0 0 0 ,061 01 40 Gmarea-Bissa.s 0 231 0 7 231 0 2 Is Kenya 253 5,683 0 a 747 6,683 0.3 1 72 Lesotho 3 Ic Ic Ic Ic Ic I L beria 0 319 30 0 319 0. 51 Libya -~~~~~~~~~ 10~~ ~ 25,5~64 9,259 3 42,4146 39,403 7.3 751 Madagascar 44 1.048 0 0 30 1,125 0155 Ma a,i 44 612 0 0 69 725 0 1 37 M1ali 0 454 0 0 10 465 0 0 51 Mauritan a 19 2.865 0 0 167 3,067 14 70 Mauritu,s _______ 16 1315 0 ,9 3 661 Morocco 6,247 19,764 48 0 3,239 29,294 1 1 246 Moezambique 150 635 0 0 l0 993 2 1 216 lramlba X 3 X 0 Ic c Ic 3 Niger 458 645 0 0 19 1,116 0U 46 2igeria 150 29,21 7 6,563 51.~493 ~ 1,296 _ 90.71 7 08S 2301 Rwanada 0440 2 3 491 0 1 29 0 2.770 0 0 294 3,063 04 764 0 443 0 0 0 443 0 1 305 Somal a 0 5 0 0 12 11 0 0 0 Souts Africa 250,453 47,291 39543 4,2 0,057 ,3 S-uda n 2- O 3, 3 7 5 0 0 125 3,499 0 1 139 Swauzland 4S4 0 0 0 0 454 0 5 0 T nzanra 15 2,026 0 0 399 2,440 0 1 156 logo 0 572 0 0 174 744 0.2 0 _Lur.sia 238.49 3,18 261 2143 5.308 1. 566 Uganda 0 978 0 0 65 1,044 0 0 0 Zambia 795 1,462 0 0 149 2,404 0 3 110 i2 90 I':- 't6 1, 5 U3t J26 1Ž :a C5 Austria 12,439 29,184 15,169 O 2,492 59,280 7 4 627 Be arus, Rep 5,078 20,942 23,666 0 616 53,302 57 0 Beg c m 33,449 42,099 24,261 0 3,966 103,816 10 3 15,224 Croata, Rep 267 10,501 4,426 0 369 1 7.0 6 20 0 Czech Rep 77,1 3 9,591 2910 2 404 112,049 108 0 Denmiark 23,516 23.131 6,907 323 997 53,668 105 7,063 France 56,913 202.62 67,887 0 10,464 340,065 5 9 19.756 Germany 353,543 309,623 1 50,990 1,01 1 19,932 635,099 10 2 23,472 Greece 32,943 37,263 99 3 5,960 76,264 7 3 13,894 6,2 192 62, 8695 0 1495 556876 55 iceland 209 1,554 0 0 41 1,603 6 7 344 Ire ahd 11,106 1 5,239 5,144 0 747 32,236 9.1 1,480 Italy 46,641 243,520 102.185 0 17,441 409,983 7 2 15.011 Latvia, Rep 993 6,141 2,061 0101 9,316 3 70 _Lhun _aRe___ _ _ _4 206 ~ 23 4 14 814 _ _ 40 Macedon a, YR 5. Ic 4 I X S I Moldooa, Rep 2,921 3,034 4,935 a 25 10,816 2 5 0 Netherlands 34.229 2 994 77,656 344 1,694 135,906 6 6 43,675 Norway 4.012 27,912 7,661 32,171 696 72,452 16 7 2,352 Roman,a 40,617 37,501 39,764 0 2,990 121,092 5 3 0 guissian Federation 636,606 377,066 774,295 9,908 16,138 1,616,011 12,2 0 Slovak Rep 18,195 7,768 10,827 0 1,246 38,036 7. 2 S~~~~aeo~~~~~~~~,p ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 496 ~~ 111,714. ~ 1 Spain 72,093 129,390 1 7,660 11 12.458 23 1,605 562 1 6,363 Sweden 10,790 3,195 1,557 0 1,046 44,591 5 1 4,734 Sw tzer and 348 31,488 5,023 0 1,993 38,653 5 4 3,761 Jkraine 214,919 68,099 149,715 0 5,491 439,211 6 5 0 Uniited Kingdom 179,906 207,932 149,515 4,556 6,226 542,140 9 3 23,398 '7unosl~~~~via, Red Rep X 15~~~~~ A X Ic X Ic I 344 World Resources 1998-99 Data Table 16.1 continued ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE Per Capita Carbon Dioxide Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 1995 (000 metric tons) Emissions Bunker Fuels (a) Solid Liquid Gaseous Gas Cement Total (metric tons) (000 metric tons) Fuels Fuels Fuels Flaring Manufacturing Emissions 1995 1995 NORTH AMERICA 2,35,7 222 4 1 ,,3O_6 16,29 43,65 5,94,1219.9 93,995 Canons ~~~~~~ ~~93,626 180,961 5176 4,021 5,343 435,749 1494,507 CENJTRAL ar.EAica Ži 9s; 3 i 8Ž1IC., If o; a *Žv Costa Rica 0 4,741 0 0 493 5,232 1 5 0 Cuba 7 27,8999 77 0 34 23,367 1 5 117 Dorrun can Pep 233 10,250, 0 C 724 11,739 '3 0 El Salvador 0 47200436 ~ 5189 3 Guaterrala 0 6,330 22 0 776 7,1989 07 0 Hauti 0 612 0 0 25 938 0 1 0 Honduras 0 3,528 0 0 326 3,955 0 7 0 Jamaica 147 .8,643 -0 0 261 -9,050 37 95 Panama 143 6,463 117 174 6,8999 2 6 0 -J,r a I ,:A 5 I, 1.) -j 2. -I 7-7 -3 Bolivia 0 5,276 2,929 1,923 349 10,475 1 4 0 Brazil 42,951 190,832 9,479 2,324 12,702 249,196 1 9 5,919 Ch-ile 10,926 29,1 51 3,217 319 1,495 441I04 3 1 0 Co ombia 15,2497 39,2905 739 4,992,4190 Ecuado7 19,009 506 1,9693 1,149 22,933 2 0 239 G]yana 0 934 0 00934 1 1 0 Paraguay 0 3,514 0 0 284 3,796 098 7 P'eru 1,997 27,224 393 44 1,046 30,591 1 3 0 Afghan scan, slamic Snate iS 924 322 22 57 1,239 7.1 15 Armen a, Rep 19 1,539 1,993 0 100 3,649 I 0 0 A7erbajan 19 30,949 11,913 0 ~ 00 42,579 596 0 Bangladesh 0 7.493 13,304 0 140 20,932 0 2 37 China 2,499 036 447,004 34 394 0 222,049 3,192,494 27 3,1233 Gnorg a 553 1.227 5,914 0 50 7,746 14 0 India 929,779 205,795 35,336 2,959 34,991 908.734 1 0 2,019 Indo,esia 36,93 19,21 5957 7,70 7L_ 97 296, 1 2 152,4 Iran, samic Rep 1,503 1 52,239 92,945 17,253 9,122 263,760 3.5 1,707 Iraq 0 93,902 6,035 99 9,999 99,001 4 97 Jsnael 16,232 29,20 1 44 0 1,744 49,720 9 4 1,954 Japan 331,791 630,999 119,076 0 45,094 1,126,753 900 36,574 Jordan 0 1 i O , ,,,,, f 9 3130 2 5 7966 Kaasstan, Sep 165,992 34,094 20,937 0 997 221,479 13 2 0 Korea, Cemn People's Rep 3,236 1 1,319 0 0 1,334 256,936 0 2 1330 Korea, Rep 115,332 2 1,916 19,972 0 27,472 373,592 9 3 16,964 Kuwasat 0 29,319 17,419 986 997 49,720 2998 1,722 ._A9g,._.,e I,9 7 4 5 463 12 Lao People's Dern Rep 4 308 0 0 308 0 Lebanon 532 11,344 0 0 1,495 13,341 4 4 513 Malavsia 6,555 59,955 30,455 5,422 5,315 106,604 5 3 794 Mongo ia 6,793 1,612 0 0 54 8,457 3 4 0 Oman 0 5,313 4,021 997 999 11,41 7 5.2 872 Palk scan 3,332 43,913 29,932 0 4,279 95,357 3 6 465 Phil pprnes 5,990 50,299 0 0 4,993 61,159 0 9 1,942 Saudi Arabia 0 148 ,&3 77473 C9,0(05 77325 ,5 3 9 770699 Sigapore 110 62,614 ,.0 947 63,669 19 1 35,479 Sr Lanka 4 5,434 0 4.48 5,999 0 3 1,301 Syrian Arab Rep 4 34,069 4,426 4,535 2,990 46.024 3 2 311 Tajio,slan, Rep 96 410 3,213 0 50 3,741 0 7 0 Turkmenistan, Rep 0 12,271 15,965 0 199 29,334 7 0 0 UrntedAraboEmirates 0 21,204 43,459 954 2,990 99,304 30 9 2,162 Uzoekistan, Rep 4,294 25,699 67,1319 0 1,74,4 99,977 4.4 0 V etna m 11,32 5 1 3,699 11 2,948 3,737 31,709 0 40 Yemenr 3 9 2 148 , j 4 i 047 ~~~ Q ,,jAj7~~146~ 0 042 4~ 22 1351.3 fi A . Australia ~~~~~~1 70,477 76,979 31,459 0 2,990 299,909 16 2 8,409 Fil 51 645 0 0 39 736 1 0 199 New Zea and 557 12,922 9,909 0 349 27,440 7 7 2 992 Papu,a New Guinea 4 2,323 159 0 0 2,481 0 6 73 Solomon Islandr 0 161 0 0 0 161 0 4 7 Noses a Bunker fools are stored fuels Is be used for ship or a.r transport Data in this table are reported as Ioe mass of carbon d oxide omitted World Resources 1998-99 345 Data Table 16.2 Inventories of National Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 1989-94 Sources: Varioos Nitrous Oxide Carbon Dioxide Emissions (000 metric tons) Methane Emissions from Anthropogenic Sources (000 metric tons) - (000 Fossil Land Use Industrial Net C02,' Fossil Fuel Fuel Agriculture Total metric Year Fuels Chne ocesses la) Emsios(b xracton Combustion Livestock Other Waste Methane (c) tons) WORLD A2FRICA Cyte d IvSe 1990 3 241 30,379 1 3 33,633 0 127 50 78 370 626 1 Egypt 199 41,310 21 28,110 93,510 3 52 1 3 424 X X e 489 X Ethiup a 1992 2,336 13,333 1 33 1 5,809 1 5 340 974 1 71 29 10597 6 Gambia, The 1993 206 1,648 21 1,854 X 2 1 3 8 7 30 0 Mau,ritiu,s 1994 957 (208) X 748 0 2 1 0 3 6 0 EUROPFE Austria 1990 57,1 00 (I15,000) 2,100 44.200 f 92 24 259 X 228 603 4 Belgomur 1990 '06,298 21 7.198 114,410 0 0 1 2. 21 2 0 21 Eu gara 1990 76,530 159801) 5,680 77,189 249 1 1 245 6 956 1,370 22 Czech Rep 1990 157,364 12,265) 8,425 '36,282 g 531 59 195 X 101 942 26 Denmark 1994 6.905 1260 ,2 052 11 12 250 X 122 401 11 Eston a, Rep 1994 21,413 1,645 215 293,273 109 2 46 21 30 187 1 Finland 1994 57,500 (3 1,000) h 800 27,300 21 16 j 92 21 135 247 11 France 1993 351,290 (37,1891 14,250 328,356 333 182 1,559 38 725 2,931 171 Germany 1993 896,000 (20,000) 25,200 991,200 1,460 130 1.658 X 1,91 7 5,203 191 G~reece 19 7622X 5,650 82.100 a 39 15 165 10c 110 343 14 Hufogary 1990 68,105 (4,4671 3,568 67,206 396 6 170 3 272 851 11 Iceland 1993 1,988 X 409 2,301 21x 0 11 21 10 21 1 Ireland 1990 29,0)38 0 1,627 30,719 u 103 5 603 41 136 795 42 Italy 1990 401,350 (36,730) 27,591 392,211 349 66 1,541 319 1,611 3,901 120 La:oa, Rep 1990 22,606 ~~~~~~~(14.300) 37 8,77 22l1 21 44 159 2 Nietherluos ~ 934 173,600 11,700) 1,500 i74,700 159 28 476 X 376 1,051 59 Nor.ay 1994 30.682 110,2001 h 6,597 27,479 16 18 95 X 167 297 14 Pulaed, Rep 1992 560,988 21 10,603 .371,561 d 793 29 702 1 941 2,474 50 Portugal 1990 38,686 21 3,462 42.148 d 2 14 162 13 35 227 11 _Ruman.a 1989 18~9,228 (2,9251 ,4 1,659 -' 46 576 34 241 2,329 67 Russian Federation 1990 2,348,350 (597,200) 40,670 1,801,920 1, x I 4.900, 100 2.400 27,380 225 Slovak Rep 1990 55.059 14.4511 2,775 53,827 96 21 171 1 53 347 16 Spain 1990 209,425 123,166) 17,696 204,:56 695 76 772 115 491 2,1 51 94 Svveden 1994 53,081 (34,398) 6 4,883 23,890 21 i 34 j 202 21 100 1 336 25 Suonuerland 19 3922 1.5) ,730 38,182 13 8 200 25 67 318 16 Uicane 1990 6686,360 (51,976) 31,780 646,164 6,220 60 2,235 15 930 9,460 25 United Kinodom 1994 542,689 (5,9701 8,373 54,0 0 1 116 2 1,862 3,877 94 NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA Canada 1994 401,935 1< 25,019 483,559 d 1,696 40 964 21 815 3,514 Ill Ln ted States 1994 5,103,000 (532,0001 23,083 4,594,083 7,630 945 9,558 639 10,400 28,1 71 3599 Mexico 190 3296 9,4 402,053 753 11 1,804 35 386 2,977 X SOUTH AMERICA Bolivia 1990 6.247 50,007 260 56,514 14 115 m, 429 29 X 597 1 Bras~ 1994 215,1 59 X 1 2,659 339,496 d 0 10 21 X 21 X 2 Ecuador T990 198,876 13,736 1,1 50 33,764 21 20 281 108 64 555 1 Peru. 1990 19,599 83,135 1,089 103,824 22 158 383 298 130 1,433 7 Venezuea 1990 107,334 80,61 2 2.967 190,813 1872 85 98 221 3,170 454 ASIA Eangladesh 1990 74,727 125,151) In 110,860 80 i9c 520 473 74 1,335 3 Ch,ra 1990 2,951,5300 9,160 106.000 2,496, ~60 5,650 5o 8,940 18,400 790 39,830 1,100 Isdonesla 1990 1 76,981 (822,849) 33,765 (672,1991 927 316 864 2,099 21 3,746 2,769 Japan 1994, 1,137,000 (90,000) 56,000 1,151,000 94 26 526 278 400 1,816 1 54n Kaza,ssan, Rep 1990 162.885 (90,000) 4,348 97,233 841 21 939 X1 1,763 3,555 7 Mongolia 1990 1 3,970 18 220 14,208 9 5 301 X 15 329 0 Nepal 1990 913 21 83 9864d 94n 1<1 370 542 21 996 Oman 1992 333,633 X 4 a 303,641 0 21 21 21 1,518 o 1.518 a 21 Ph lippres 1990 38,245 ~~~~~~~84,202 3 28 1944 8 20 315 559 138 1290 6 OCEANIA Australia 1990 282,073 130,843 6.892 419,808 1,026 28 3.005 396 1.391 6.243 60 Nev,Zealand 1994 24,749 113,7861 2,660 1 3,633 23 8 ,3 1 43189 19 Nores a. Usuallv refers to cement production b Net em,ssioes for some couisnes inc ude sources uf C02 not listen c Total methane em ssiones for somne countr es include sources non sted d Tutu neon net, emissions e Waste s ecliuco inner ag CUIt,irC ( Caici anner of set emissioes oased us tota, em,ssions for 1952 gCa,culation of nee9em,ss;ions based scrtotal emnissions -'or 1 993 u 1 990 figure i Emissions for fossiJ fuel extraction are inc uded under foe cumoust us. je inclues fossil foe extract on. k Includss methane emniss ons from fuel combusticoncfluded under -'ossil foe extract,on. m. From lass use ass chance. n, Methane ass nitrous snide em ssion reports are (or 1993. o '993 data. 346 Worid Resources 1998-99 Data Table 16.3 World CO 2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Consumption ATMOSPHERE AND CLI MATE and Cement Manufacturing, 1755-1995 Source: Carbon Dioxide l,,torroation Analysis Center Annual Per Carbon dioxide emissions (million metric tons) Capita Cement ~~~Gas Cumulative Emissions Year Solid Liquid Gas Manuacuing Flaraing -Total -Total (metric tons) 1755 1 1 0 0 A 4 1 55 14 1760 1 0 0 A A 1 110 A 1765 1 1 0 0 A 51 I1 185 A 1770 11 0 0 A A '1 220 A 1785 1 8 0 0 14 1 8 458 a ~790 0 0 0 n A 168 550 15 1795 22 0 0 5 22 660 A 1805 33 0 0 A A 33 953 A 1 810 37 0 0 A A 37 1,136 A 1815 44 0 A A A 44 1,341 A 1820 51 0 A A 51 1,594 4 1825 82 0 0 5 A ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~62 1,880 A 1830 88 0 0 A A 882,8A 1835 92 0 0 A A 92 2,884 A 1840 121 0 A A, 12 ~ 7,221 A 1845 158 0 0 A A 158 3,513 A 1850 15 0 8 ,5 1855 260 2) 2 A 260 5,828 11860 333 0 0 A A 333 7,412 & 186S 430 0 0 A A 438 3,34'3 A 1870 530 4 0 A 539 11,822 A 1885 1,20O3 1 5 4 A A 01(i5 23,536 2 1890 1,:287 29 I A A 1,304 29,448 A 1855 1,440 40 7 A A 1,488 38,453 A 1910 2,85 ~ 18 26 A A 3,057 70,455 A 1515 2,873 224 33 A 3,123 80,833 A 1920 3,063 Al 44 5A3,444 103,482 A 1925 ~~~~~~~~3,085 454 66 A 3,505 1 20,355 A 1330 3,158 534 ~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~103A 3,335 140,1 11 A 193 5 2,572 1,205 220 33 A 4,433 158,5 27 5 1840 3,726 1,572 304 40 A 5,843 184,391 AX 1945 3.004 1,803 432 28 A 5,265 212,750 1950 3,920 1,550 355 60 ~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~73 5,624,4 1951 4,137 1,755 421 73 81 6,487 243,8153 9132 4,1~00 1847 454 8'1 84 8,570 206,785 3 1353 ,122 153480 88 6 6,731 263,1 16 A 19564 4,089 2,041 506 89 77 6,811 265,927 3 1355 4,425 2290 65~ ~ ~~~~ ~ ~~~~~0 105 7,41-7739 1858 4,664 2,488 590 11 7 110 7,969 285,3673 1557 4,8040 2,6186 652 ~ 25 108 8,295 293,662 1958 4,895 2,682 703 132 95 8,508 302,1 72 3 1959 0,084 2,385 784 1792 8,984 311,54 a 1962 4,950 3,594 10Ci5 180 84 9,823 339,810 3 1963 419 3,858 1099 187 52 10,354 350,165 3 1964 5,258 4,170 11,202 209 I'L 052 361 173 1967 5.305 5,218 1,502 238 91 12,454 397,064 4 '968 5,325 5,687 1,630 258 205 13,084 41 0, 48 4 1985 5 448 6,134 1,784 271 245 13,883 424,031 4 1972 5,760 7,530 2,136 326 344 1 6,103 470,513 4 1874 5,789 8,207 2,228 348 403 i6,975 487,488 4 1574 5,778 8,222 2,264 352 392 1 7,005 504,492 4 977 6,485 6,757 2,367 398 331 18,386 557,661 4 '978 6,544 8,73 1 2,470 425 392 18,5652 578,2 23 4 1979 6,856 9,285 2,61 6 436 386 15,595 595,81 8 4 1982 7,223 7,873 2,678 443 253 18,573 652,452 4 1883 7,247 7,918 2,688 458 231 18,540 670,992 4 1984 7,534 3,006 2,898 469 213 19,10 890,1~58 4 1987 8,563 8,387 3,309 524 187 20,969 751,431 4 1988 8,787 8,764 3,427 557 134 2 1.780 773,221 4 1989 8.918 5,300 3.602 572 183 22,178 795,399 4 1992 8. 563 9,149 3,734 619 227 22,292 862,7' 1 4 1893 3,338 9,1 53 3,811 849 231 22,1 78 884,889 4 1994 8, 922 9,31 0 3,898 689 234 2 3,054 907,543 4 - 1995 9.307 9,409 4.177 707 234 23,838 931,781 4 Noer Mass @1 carbon dolonde World Resources 1998-99 347 Data Table 16.4 Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse and Ozone-Depleting Gases, 1 965--96 Source: Carbon Dioxide lnformantino Analyso Center Carbon Methyl Carbon Tetra- Chloro- Total Nitrous Dioxide chloride form CFC-11 CFC-12 CFC-113 Gaseous oxide Methane (C02) (CCI4) (CH5CC13) (CCISF) (CCI2F2) (C2C15F3) Chlorine (N20) (CH4) Year ppm ppt ppt ppt pot * ppt ppt ppb ppb P__reindustrial 280.0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 285 a 700 u 3965 339.9 XI 33 33 C3 33 33 3 196 321 2 3 33 3 33 3 33 '3 3 1967 322 0 X3 3 33 < 33 33 0 3 1968 322 9 3 33 3 33 3 >3 33 3 197 ~ 32652 X3 33 33 33 33 33 3972 327 3 :43 33 3< 33 33 33 197 329A 3 3 33 0 33 33 3' 3 1_]970 _ _330' r 33x __ _ 33 33 3 3 33 1975 3313 33333 33 33 33 196 332 0 33 32 33 3 33 3 33 3577 333 7 33 33 '3 C 33 33 3 1976 335 3 98 98 '39 297 2 1,457 298 33 -1979 336 7 98 63 147 272 2,- 1,529 299 33 1980 338 5 95 71 358 289 33 1622 2993 399 339 8 91 78 16 305 3 1r,898 2992 1992 341 0 93 82 375 329 26 39871 333 33 3983 34286 94 86 182 341 28 3,949 302 33 1986 347 0 98 97 209 390 40 2,222 305 1,600 1997 349'8 320 I3 239 411 48 2,321 3C6 1,831 1998 393 3 303 1304 231 433 53 2,432 306 1,619 1991 39559 102 3" 294 489 71 2,891 307 3,657 1992 356 3 01 18 69 496 77 2,782 308 1,679 3893 357 0 303 313 260 902 79 2,798 308 1,671 198 399 ____101 I8 261 509 9' 2,774 309 1,666 3985 380 9 99 97 263 519 8 ,9 0 ,8 396 362 6 99 99 261 528 2,3 310 1,670 Notes a pptrox mately A est males are nyvon uine, ppm parts per n liar, ppb = ports per tu3ion, sund pat =parts per til1 on Sources and Technical Notes countries, but are still limited mostly to developed verely from reality. CDIAC points out that the time rn ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~countries (see Data Table 16.2). CDIAC's method trends from a consistent, uniform time series COU2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel has the advantage of calculating CO. emissions should be more accurate than the individual values. Burning and Cement from a single common data set available for all Eachvear,CDlACrecalculates theentire time series Manufacturing, 1 995 countries, from 1950 to the present, incorporating its mostre Sources: ll data ae from Cabon Dioxie Infor- This table includes data on industrial additions cent understanding and the latest corrections to the mationAnalyss Centr (CDIC), Eto the c ,,. , . . t :database. As a result, the carbon emissions estimate matin Anlysi Cener (DIAC, Enironmental Sciences Division, OasE Ridge National Laboratory, futels, gas fluring, and cement rmunufacrturing. data set has become more consistent, n nd probably " 1995 Estimates of CO, En3issions from Fossil Fuel CDIAC annually calculates emissions of CO, from more accurate, each year. Burning and Cement Manufacturing based on the the burning of fossil fuels and the manufacture of Emissions of CD. are often calculated and re- United Nations Energy Statistics and the U.S. Ceo- cement for most of the countries of the worldi. Esti- ported in terms of their content of elemental car- logical Survey Cement Manufacturing Data;' mates of total and per capita national emnissions do bon. For this table, their values were converted to ORNL/CDIAC-25, NDP-030 (an Internet- notincludebun7kerfuelsusedininternationaltrans- the actual mass of CO, by multiplying the carbon accessible numerical database), available at: portbecauseofthedifficultyofapportioningthese Mass by 3.664 (the ratio of the mass of carbon to http://cdiac.ESD.ORN L.Gov/ndpslndp03tJr6. fuels among the countries benefiting from that that of CO,). html (Oak Ridge, Tennessee, September 1997). transport. Emissions from bunker fuels are shown Solid fuels, liquid fuels, and gaseousfuels are pri- These data from CDIAC represenit a complete separ-ately for the country where the fuel was dolly marily, but not exclusivelyD coals, petrorleum prod- harmnonized global data set of carbon dioxide ered. nets, and natural gas, respectivelv; Gus_t7uting is the (COJ) emissions. Individual country estimates, CDIAC calcu-lates emissions from data on the practice ofburning offgas released inrltheprocess of based oni more detailed information and a net apparent consumption Of fosSil fuels (based on petroleum extraction, a practice that is declining. country-specific methodology, could differ. An eK- the WVorld Energy Data Set maintained by the During cement rnunufucruring, cement is calcined perts meeting, convened by the Organisation for United Nations Statistical Division) and from data to produce calcium oxide. In the pro3cess, 0.498 Economic Co-Operation and Development On wOrld cement manufacturing (based on the Ce- metriC ton of CO, is released for each te-n Of Cement (OECD) in February 1991, recommended that ment Manufacturing Data Set mnaintained by the production. Toral emissions consist of the sum of when countries calculate their oswo emissions of U.S. Geological Surveyl. EmissionS are Calculated the CO, produced during the consumpl ion of solid, CO,, they use a more detailed method when these using global average fuel chemistry and usage. liquid, and gaseous fuels, and from gas flaring and data are available (.Estimnrion of Glveettllouse Gus Althouggh estimates of world emissions are the manufacture of cement. Per capiru cuarbon diox- Emtissions tsozd Sinks, OECD, Paris, 199 11. Such data probably within I10 percent of actual emissions, in- ide emnissions are calculated by dividi3ig the total are currently available for an increasing number of dividual country estimates may, depart more se- emissions by the 1995 population of each country. 348 World Resources 1998-99 ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE Combustion of different fossil fuels releases CO, veoztorv of Greenhouse Gases Emissiouzs and Sinzks ini cent from one estimate of a particular year' eamis- at different rates. For the same level of energy eon- Indonesia (The State Mvinistry of Environment, sions to a later estimate of the same year's emissions sumption, burninig oil releases about 1.5 times the 1996). Kazak-stan: Kavalerchik et ait., Kaz'ak-stan: are not unheard of. amount of CO, releasedi by burning natural gas; Overall Approachies and Prelimiinary Results fainor Carboni dioxide (CO.-) emiissions from -fossilfoiels coal combustion releases about twvice the CO, of Country Stuidy, Interim Report on Climate Change include emissions from combustion and other in- natural gas. Country Studies (1995). Available online at: dustrial processes. CO, emnissions from land uise It was assumed that approximately 1 percent of http:l/www.gcrio. org/CSP/IR/lRkazakh.html change are estimates of the emissions associated the coal used by industry and power plants was not 11997). Kenya: Kenya Country Study on Climate with the clearing of landi or increases in forest cover burned and that an additional few percent were Change, Inventory of Greenlhouse Gases (GHG) or forest biomass. industrial processes refers to converted to nonoxidizing uses. Other oxidative re- from Agricriulrarl Activities, Second Progress Report emissions from industry; most of these emissions actions of coal are assumed to be of negligible im- (1997). Mtauritius: National Climate Committee: result as a byproduct of cement manufacturing and portance in carbon budget modeling. CO, emit- U.S. Country Study Programme M'vauritius, N,a- steel production. Net CO, emtissions sums energy sionus from gas flaring and cement manufacturing nional Inventory of Greenihouse Gases (1990), Mkao- use and negative or positihve emissi ons from forest production make up about 3 percent of the co, ritius Meteorological Services Report No. 2 (Mau- growth. emittedhyv fossil fuel combustion. ritius Meteorological Services, 1996). Mexico: Merhane emiissionis frooi anthropogenic sources: Mexico Country Studies Project Team, Mexico: fossil 'fuel extraction includes methane released Emnissionis Inventory, Mitigation Scenatrios, ttnid Vuil- from venting and leakage from oil, gas, coal pro- nerability and Adaptation-Interioz Report, Coon- duction, and distribution systems. Futel comzbustioni Inventories of National try Study, Mexico. Available online at inicludes emissions from c ombustion of fuels for Greenhouse Gas Emissions, http:wwsv.gcrio.org/CSP/IR/IRmexico.htmI human use. In some counitries this includes bin- 1989-94 ~~~~~~~~~~~~(t997). Mvongolia: U.S. Country Studies Program: mass. Under agricuilture. emnissioins from livestock 1989-94 M~~~~~~~Ivongolia's Study Team, MoutgoIlia Greenihouse Gas include both coterie fermnentation and animal Sources: Bangladesh: Bangladesh Climate Change Inventory 1990, Mongolia?s Country Studies Report wvaste. Other agricultural sources inCILude sect rice Countrv Study, Emnissioni Inventory, Final Report on Climate Change,VNolume 2 (Ulaanbaatar, 19961. agiutr,methane released from soils, and the (Bangla'desh Centre for Advanced Studies, 1996). Nepal: U.S. Country Studies Team-Nepal, A Re~- burning of agricultural waste and grazing lands. Bolivia: Programs Nacional de Cambios Climati- port on Inventory of Greenhiouse Gases FosissionJfor W1aste includes emissions fromn landfills. Tonal cot, Inventario de Emiisiones de Gases die Efecto 1ii- NVepal, FinalDraft (Integrated Methodical Research mnethaine is the total of all sources, and for some vernadero de Origen Antropogenzico de Bolivia para Centre and Associates [P\TT] Ltd., 1997). Oman: countries, includes emissions from industrial pro- el A Fo 1990 (Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible y, Oman Country Studies, Project Team, National cesses and landi use change. Medio Ambiente, 1991 CO,FEodssions from' Emission Inventory of Greenhotise Cases (Sultanate Ntosoie(.)i nte oetgen .Sector-Top-Dowvn Approach, Minesterio of Oman Ministry of Regional Municipalities and huegsta sdfiu omdl ndsedn de Ciencen y Technologia. Available online at Environment, 1995). Peru: Peru Climate Change ordier Of importance, the primary sources of NDO http://ws-w.iNmct.gov.br/GABIN/CPMG/ Country Study Team, Perus NVational Greenhouse CLIMATEIPROGRAMAIing/tab94.html (1997). Gas Invenitory, 1990 (Universidad Naciona aradcetr,inutyaI nrg s ortas China: Carbon Dioxide-National Conditions genieria, t996). Philippines: Philippine onr Anab,sis and Research Group of China Academy of Study on Climate Change, National Greenhous Scien'ces,NAo.IV Report of NTationzal Conditionis, op- Gas Inventory 1990 (PAGASA, 1996). Ukraine portunities, and 0 , -Goals of Econiomic CountrvyStudy on Climate Change in Ukraine, De- WolCO Emsin frmF sl Developmpent and Stuidy on Fundamnental Develop- velopmenit of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventor s:, i ,-. ,- .- . -.:-Press, Beijing, 1996); Meth- Finial Report (Suipplemlent) (Agency for Rational Fuel Consumption and Cement ane-Warig Hanchen, National Environmental Energy Use andi Ecology; 19951. Venezuela: Vene- Manufacturing, 1755-1995 Protection Agency of 5.29 (NEPA, Beijing. 1997). 7uela Country Studiies Team, VeneZiiela Greenhouise Cote d'Ivoire: Minist6re de l'Enseignement So- Gas EmissionIs (Ministry of Environment snd Re- Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysins perieur de is Recherche et de l'Innovation Tech- newable Natural Resources). Available online at: Center (CDIACI, Environmental Sciences Divi- nologique,EmissiontsetPiuitsdes( .-. f,. http:I/wwwv.gcrio.org!i 1 ii 1 'VenTabl.gift in nkig ainllbrtr,Goa D eni Core dilvoire (Ecole Nationale Superieure des (1997).EniiosfmFsilueBrig,C et Travux ublcs,199). Euadr: cuaor limte Astrlia Autri, Blgiu, Blgaia,Canda, Manufacture, and Gas Flaring: 175t-19957" pre- Changex Country,196 Ecodor4: EntadrCloiNa-e Czechrepulic,Asra,DBenmark, Estonria, Finland,' pared by Gregg Marland and Tom Boden I CDIAC). Chage ounryStudy, Nouo4:Ivna' ` CehRpbi,DnakEsna,Flnd Bob Andrea (University of Alaska-Fairbanks), and cional tie FEmisiontes Gaiseosas quie Prodticeni el Efecto France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ire- Cathy Johnston (University, of Tennessee); and Invernadlero, Borradior del Informe Final, Aho 1990 land, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Netherlands, New Zeni- 1 995 Estimates of CO_ Emissitons from Fossil Fuel (Mlinisterio de Energia y Mlinas, 1996). Egypt: El- land, Norway; Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Burning and Cement Manufacturing Based on the Raeyvetal.,Egypt: tInvento ry and Mitigation Options, Federation, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Nations Energy Statistics and the U.S. Ceo- anid VEnterability, and Adaptation Assessmeiit, In- UntdKndmanUntdSae:Cmid v lgclurvCMDt auftrng aa, terim Report on Climate Change Country Studies UntdKndmanUntdSae:Cmieby lgcluryCmntM uftrngDa, (1995).Availableonlines' -,,, ',,,,,-, the Secretariat of the Climate Change Convention ORNLICDIAC-25. Nt)P-Ot0 (ani Internect- CSPIRlRgyp.hml(197) Ehioia Ehi- .S from national sources. Available online at: accessible numerical database), available at: Country Study Project, Greenhouse Gases Eouissionz http://wAwwunfccc.delfccc/emiss/t1le08.htm# http:l/cdiac.ESD.ORNL.GOV/ndps/ndpO3Or6.htmI Inventory aind Vulnerability, Adiaptation., and Miti- emis94. (Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Septemnber t995). gation Assessrmetit to Climutte Chaitge int Ethiopia These inventories are derailed estimates of emis- For years after 1950, CDIAC calculates world Techntical Report (Crop, Water Resources, Forestry, sions and not inventories as the word is commonly, emissions from data on the global production of Gr-asslastds and Livestock, miiid Esiergy sectors) (Na- understood. Fstimates of other gas emissions at the fossil fuels (based on the World Eniergy Data Set tional Meteorological Services Agency, 1996). The national level have been shown to be highly labile maintained by the U-nited Nations Statistical Dlvi- Gamabia: Bubu P. lallowv, The 1993 Greenihouse Gas due to chianges in the understanding of the under- sion). and from data on world cement m aniufactur- Emissioiis invenitory of The Gamnbia: A Synithesis Re- lying data, changes in rtme methods used in estima- ing (based on the Cement Mlanufacturing Data Set porrt (National Clinsare Comnmittee). Indonesia: tion, and even changes in the extent of thie phe- mnainltainied by the U.S. Geological Survev). Emis- U.S.-EPA Indionesia Country Study Program, Ini- nomenon under studvt Vlariations of 30 or 40 per- sions are calculated using global average fuel chem- World Resouirces 1998-99 349 istry and usage. These data account for all fuels in- Atmospheric CO. concentrations are monitored applications and for grain fumigation. Compared cluding "bunker fuels" not accounted for in the to- at manysites worldwide; thc data presented here are with other gases, CCI, makes a small contribution tals in Data Table 16.1,which are also shown sepa- from Mauna Loa, Hawaii (19' 32' North latitude, to the greenhouse effect and to stratcspheric ozone rately. For further information, see the Technical 155' 35' West longitude). Trends at Mauna Loa re- depletion. Notes for Data Table 16.1. flect global trends, although CO. concentrations iMethyl chloroform (CH,CCI) is used primarily For years prior to 1950, estimates are based on differ significantly among monitoring sites at any as an industrial degreasing agent and as a solvent CDIAC'shistoricaldatabaseofnationalemissions. given time. For example, the average annual con- for paints and adhesives. Its contribution to the centration at the South Pole in 1988 was 2.4 parts greenhouse effect and to stratospheric ozone de- per million (ppm) lower than at Mauna Loa. pletion is also small. Annual means disguise large dailv and seasonal CFC-1I (CCI3F), CFC-12 (CCI,F2), and CFC-1 13 Atmospheric Concentrations of variations in CO, concentrations. The seasonal (C3Cl3F,) are potent depletors of stratospheric Greenhouse and Ozone- variation is causedbyphotosynthetic plants storing ozone. Together, their cumulative eff£ct may equal Depleting Gases, 1965-96 larger amounts of carbon from CO, during the one fourth of the greenhouse contribution of CO.. summer than in the winter. Some annual mean fig- y- Sources: Carbon dioxide: Charles D. Keeling and ures were derived from interpolated data. ing the number of chlorine atoms in each of the T.P. Whorf, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Data are revised to correct for drift in instru- chlorine-containing gases (carbon tetrachloride, Center (CDIAC), Environmental Sciences Divi- ment calibration, hardware changes, and perturba- chloroform, and the CFCs) be the concen- sion, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, "Atmos- tionsto "background"conditions. Detailsconcern- ion of that gas. pheric co. Concentrations-Mauna Los Observa- N~~~~~~'itrous oxide (N.iO) is emitted hi aerobic de- pheric CO,.Concentrations-Mauna Loa Observa- ing data collection, revisions, and analysis are con- i o tory, Hawaii, 1958 -1996" (revised August 1997), ta d in C D K li t, " Me t fth compositonoforganic matter in oceans and soils, ORNL/CDIAC-25, NDP-OO1/R7 (an Internet- Concentration of Carbon Dioxide at Mauna Loa bybacteria,by combustion of fossil iuels andbio- accessible numerical database)I, available at mass (fuelwood and cleared forests), by the use of http:ll cdiac.ESD.ORNL.GOVlftp/ndpOO I r7/ Observatory, Hawaii," in Carbon Dioxide Review: nitro enous fertilizers, and throughl other pro- (Oak Ridge, Tennessee, September 1997). Other 1982C C e ( n cesses. N,O is an important depletor of strato- trace gases: CDIAC, Environmental Sciences Divi- ork, 19821. spheric ozone; present levels may contribute one sion, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Data for all other gases are from values moni- twelfth of the amount contributed bv CO, toward ORNL/CDIAC-25, DB- 1001/R3 (an Internet- tored at Cape Grim, Tasmania (45' 41' South lati- the greenhouse effect. accessible numerical database), available at: tude, 144' 41' East longitude) under the Atmos- Alethane (CH) is emitted through the release of http://cdiac.ESD.ORNL.GOV/ndps/alegage.html pheric Lifetime Experiment (ALE), Global Atmos- natural gas and as one of the products of anaerobic (ALE/GAGE/AGAGE Monthly Readings at Cape pheric Gases Experiment (GAGE), and Advanced respiration. Sources of anaerobic respiration in- Grim, Tasmania), originally R.G. Prinn et al., "At- GAGE (AGAGE). Although gas concentrations at clude the soils of moist forests,wetlands,bogs, sun- mospheric CFC-1 1 (CCI,F), CFC-12 (CCI,F), and any given time vary among monitoring sites, the dra, and lakes. Emission sources associated with N,O from theALE-GAGENetwork;'in T.A.Boden, data reported here reflect global trends. Cape Grim human activities include livestock management et al., eds., Trends '93: A Compendiumn of Data on generally receives unpolluted air from the south- (enteric fermentation in ruminants), a:aerobic res- Global Change (ORNL/CDIAC-65, CDIAC, Oak east and is the ALE/GAGE/AGAGE station with the piration in the soils associatedwithwel rice agricul- Ridge, Tennessee, 1994), pp. 396-420. longest, most complete dataset. Air samples were ture, and combustion of fossil fuels and biomass The trace gases listed here affect atmospheric collected 4 times daily for ALE and 12 times daily (fuelwood and cleared forests). CH, acts to increase ozone, contribute to the greenhouse effect, or both. for GAGE/AGAGE. The annual values shown here ozone in the troposphere and lower stratosphere; Carbon dioxide (CO,) accounts for about half the are averages of monthly values calculated by its cumulative greenhouse effect is currently increase in the greenhouse effect and is emitted to CDIAC. Missing values were interpolated. thought to be one third that of CO,, but on a theatmospherebynaturalandanthropogenicpro- Carbon tetrachloride (CCI, is an intermediate molecule-for-molecule basis, its effect, ignoring cesses. See the Technical Notes for Data Tables 16.1 product in the production of CFC- I I and CFC- 12. any feedback or involvement in any atmospheric and 16.2 for further details. It is also used in other chemical and pharmaceutical processes, is I I to 30 times that of CO. 350 World Resources 1998-99 Acknowledgments World Resources 1998-99 is the product of a unique interna- The United States Energy Information Administration (USEIA) tional collaboration involving many institutions and individu- The United States Environmental Protection Agency als. Without their advice, support, information, and hard work, (U.S. EPA) this volume could not have been produced. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) We are especially grateful for the advice and assistance of our The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMCC) many colleagues at the World Resources Insitute (WRI), the The World Conservation Union (IUCN) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Na- The World Health Organization (WHO) tions Development Programme (UNDP), and the World Bank. Their advice on the selection of material to be covered and their diligent review of manuscript drafts and data tables, often under Individuals pressure, have been invaluable. Many individuals contributed to the development of this volume by providing expert advice, data, or careful review of manu- scripts. While final responsibility for the chapters rests with the Institutions World Resources staff, the contributions of these colleagues are We wish to recognize and thank the many other institutions that reflected throughout the book. We are especially grateful to the have contributed data, reviews, and encouragement to this proj- writers who contributed boxes, background papers, regional ect. They include: profiles, and guest commentaries. All performed diligently and then endured patiently our numerous queries and often sub- The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC) stantial editorial changes. Some of these outside authors have The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) bylines in the chapters; others are acknowledged beloxu Many of The Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) our colleagues at the World Resources Institute contributed to The European Environment Agency (EEA) the writing of this volume as well; they are acknowledged below. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Special thanks to Marion Cheatle of UNEP, Robert Watson of Nations (FAO) the World Bank, and Ralph Schmidt of UNDP, who coordinated The Global Environmental Monitoring System of UNEP (GEMS) access to pertinent experts at their agencies: The International Energy Agency (IEA) The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) UNEP The International Institute for Environment and Development Hussein Abaza, Uno Abrahamsen, Yinka Adebayo, Jacqueline (IIED) Aloisi de Larderel, Alex Alusa, Ali Ayoub, Francoise Belmont, The International Labour Office (ILO) Hassane Bendahmane, Brenda Bender, Jaques Berney, Aiko The International Species Information System (ISIS) Bode, Tore Brevik, Franklin Cardy, Uttam Dabholkar, Arthur L. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Dahl, Joanne Fox-Przeworski, Hiremagalur Gopalan, Michael The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Graber, Midori Hatta, Christine Hogan, Mike Jansen, Sergei The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) Khromov, Ji-Tae Kim, Isabella Masinde, Timo Maukonen, C. The Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Mohanty, Elizabeth Maruma Mrema, Naomi Poulton, Walter (OECD) Rast, Nelson Sabogal, Madhava Sarma, Bernard Schan- The Organization of American States (OAS) zenbacher, Frits Schlingemann, Gerhart Schneider, Miriam The Oxford Committee for Famine Relief (OXFAM) Schomaker, Megumi Seki, Rajendra Shende, M. Short, Surendra The Population Reference Bureau (PRB) Shrestha, Ashbindu Singh, Cheikh Sow, Janet Stevens, Agneta The Ramsar Convention Bureau Sunden-Bylehn, Bai-Mass M. Taal, Peter Usher, Veerle Van- The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements deweerd, Laura Williamson, James B. Willis, Ron Witt, Kaveh (Habitat) Zahedi, Hamdallah Zedan, Jinhua Zhang. The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Informa- UNEP COLLABORATING CENTRES AND tion and Policy Analysis (UNDESIPA) OTHER ORGANIZATIONS The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organiza- Ayman A. Al-Hassan, Royal Scientific Socicty, Jordan; Clement tion (UNESCO) Dorm-Adzobu, Network for Environment and Sustainable De- The United Nations Population Division velopment, C6te d'Ivoire; Mohamed Nabil Alaa El-Din, Arabian The United Nations Statistical Division (UNSTAT) Gulf University, Bahrain; Ruben Mnatsakanian, Central Euro- World Resources 1998-99 351 pean University, Hungary; Laszlo Pinter, Interniational Institute U.S. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL for Sustainable Development (IISD), Canada; Marisabel Ro- DEVELOPMENT (U.S. AID) maggi, University of Chile; Zhang Shigang, National Environ- We wish to thank our colleagues at U.S. AID for their intellectual mental Protection Agency, China; Leena Srivastava, Tata Energy and financial support of this special section, as well as the com- Research Institute (TERI), India. ments on each chapter: John E. Borrazzo, Curt Grimm, David Hales, Gary Merritt, Sam Myers, John Tomaro. UNDP Sakiko Fukuda-Parr, Luis Gomez-Echeverri, Frank Hartvelt, Se- ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PROJECT (EHP) lim Jehan, Thomas Johansson, Karen Jorgensen, Inge Kaul, Rob- Andrew A. Arata, Pat Billig, Eugene Brantly, Karen Rarnsey, erto Lenton, Peter Matlon, Ellen Morris. Pandu Wijeyaratne. THE WORLD BANK SPECIAL ADVISORS Isabelle Alegre, Derek Byerlee, Miriam Claeson, Gloria Davis, The section profited enormously from the insightful comments Shelton Davis, Philippe Durand) Fran1ois Falloux, Fran~ois of our group of Special Advisors, who painstakingly reviewed Gadelle, Yves Genevier, James Listorti, Magda Lovei, Kseniya every chapter. They include: Eugene Brantly, EHP; David C. Lvovsky, Richard Newfarmer, Thomas Novotny, Michel Petit, Christiani, Harvard University School of Public Health; Paul Ep- Robert Robelus, Tjaart W Schillhorn van Veen, Andrew Steer, stein, Harvard Center for Health and the Environment Jeffrey A. Robert E. Tillman, Cor P.W. van der Sterren, Hua Wang. Foran, ILSI Risk Science Institute; Duane J. Gubler, Un-ted States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Tord Kjell- WRI strom, WHO; Wilfried Kreisel, WHO; Changsheng Li, Fraunho- fer Institute of Atmospheric Environment; Gordon McGrana- Karim Ahmed, Patricia Ardila, Matt Arnold, Christopher Bacon, han, Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI); Anthony Darryl Banks, Chip Barber, Theresa Bradley, J. Alan Brewster, McMichael, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Frank Dexter Brown, lake Brunner, Dirk Bryant, Lauretta Burke, (LSHTM); Isabelle Romieu, Centro Panamericano de E cologia Liz Cook, Kathleen Courrier, Devra L. Davis, Rob Day, Daryl Humana y Salud; Ellen Silbergeld, University of Maryland Ditz, Christine Elias, Paul Faeth, Katrine Fitzgerald, Tom Fox, Medical School; Kirk Smith, University of California, Berkeley; Shirley Geer, Michelle Gottlieb, Allen Hammond, Julie Harlan, Jacob Songsore, University of Ghana; Carolyn Stephenm, Norbert Henninger, Nels Johnson, Nancy Kete, Jonathan Lash, LSHTM. Jim MacKenzie, Kenton Miller, Daniel Nielsen, Mary Paden, Walter Reid, Robert Repetto, Frances Seymour, Nigel Sizer, Or- REVIEWERS AND OTHER CONTRIBUTORS etta Tarkhani, Lori Ann Thrupp, Dan Tunstall, Donna Wise, We are grateful to the following individuals for their thoughtful Deanna Madvin Wolfire, Changhua Wu. comments on this special section: Arnold Aspelin, U.S. EPA; Oral Ataniyazova, National Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan; Part I Environmental Change and John Balbus, George Washington University; Leslie Bernstein, University of Southern California/Norris Cancer Cente *; Martin Human Health Harold Birley, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine; Aaron Blair, National Cancer Institute; Jerome Blondell, U.S. E-?A; Mar- PRINCIPAL AUTHORS tin Bobak, University College, London Medical School; Pierre Chapter 1 Leslie Roberts Boileau, OECD; Sandy Buffett; Donald S. Burke, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research; Sandy Cairncross, LSHTM; Dara Chapter 2 Carolina Katz and Gregory Mock Carr, DHS; Lincoln Chen, Harvard Univeristy; Eric Chivian, Chapter 3 Carolina Katz Harvard Medical School; Rita R. Colwell, University of Mary- land; Ralph Cooper, U.S. EPA; Angela Cropper, IUCN; Christo- With contributions by Patricia Ardila, Jamie Bartram, Nancy pher De Rosa, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Regis- Carson, Ulisses Confalonieri, Afzal Khan, Margie Patlak, and try; Elizabeth Economy, Council on Foreign Relations; Steven A. Kirk Smith. Esrey, UNICEF; Tony Fletcher, LSHTM; Theodore M. Fliedner, This special section of Wlorld Resources is a collaborative effort Global Advisory Committee on Health Research; Rober: M. of colleagues at numerous institutions around the world who con- Friedman, The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Eccnomics, tributed ideas, data, background papers, reviews, and attended and Environment; Luz-Agusto Galvao, Pan American Health planning meetings. Special thanks to several individuals who Organization (PAHO); Peter Gergen, Agency for Health Care played a key role in shaping the report: Roberto Bertollini, Bonnie Policy and Research; Bernard Goldstein, Rutgers University; Bradford, Marion Cheatle, Ulisses Confalonieri, Carlos Corvaldn, H.R. Hapsara, WHO; Donald A. Henderson, The Johns ]-lopkins Devra L. Davis, Jeffrey Foran, Tord Kjellstrbm, Roberto Lenton, University; Polly Hoppin; Michael Horowitz, Internatiornal De- Gordon McGranahan, Anthony McMichael, Walter Reid, Kirk velopment Association (IDA); Bill Jobin, Blue Nile Associates; Smith, Carolyn Stephens, and Robert Watson. The financial sup- Robert Kavlock, U.S. EPA; Amy Kyle, University of California, port provided by the Risk Science Institute of the International Life Berkeley; Joseph LaDou, University of California-San Francisco; Sciences Institute (ILSI) helped make the health section possible. Phil Landrigan, Mount Sinai; lames Le Duc, CDC; Stuart Levy, 352 World Resources 1998-99 Tufts University; Giovanni Lombardi, LSHTM; Alan Lopez, REVIEWERS AND OTHER CONTRIBUTORS WHO; John Magistro, NOAA; Kathryn R. Mahaffey, U.S. EPA; B. Mansourian, WHO; Christopher McGahey, Associates in Rural Population and Human Well-Being Development, Inc.; Stephen S. Morse, Defense Advanced Re- Robert Engelman, Population Action International; Tom Fox, search Projects Agency (DARPA); Christopher Murray, Harvard WRI; Carl Haub, PRB; Jay Moor, Habitat, Colin Rees, The World University; Chris Nielsen, Harvard University; Charles Nor- Bank; Walter Reid, WRL Lori Ann Thrupp, WRI. mand, LSHTM; Wafaas Ofosu-Amaah; Horst Otterstader, PAHO; Ari Patrinos, U.S. Department of Energy (DOE); Jona- Feeding the World than A. Patz, The Johns Hopkins School of Public Health; Ger- ald Poje, National Chemical Safety and Hazard Investment Nikos Alexandratos, FAO; Pamela K. Anderson, Centro Interna- Board; David Rall; Marilyn Roberts, University of Washington; cional de Agricultura Tropical; Mark Andrew Bell, International David Satterthwaite, International Institute for Environment Rice Research Institute (IRRI); Devra L. Davis, WRI; Tom Fox, and Development (IIED); Bruce A. Sayers, DALY Review Group, WRI; Peter Hazell, IFPRI; Osamu Ito, IRRI; Dante de Padua, Global Advisorv Committee on Health Research; Jacob Scherr, IRRI; WValter Reid, WRI; Mark Rosegrant, IFPRI; Morton Satin, NRDC; Susan M. Sieber, National Cancer Institute; Jacqueline FAO; Sara Scherr, IFPRI; Lori Ann Thrupp, WRI; Sami Zarqa, Sims, WHO; Carl Smith, Foundation for Advancements in Sci- FAO. ence and Education (FASE); Gerald R. Smith, USGS; Ellen Spi- talnik, U.S. EPA; Steve Stellman, American Health Foundation; Production and Consumption M. A. Subramanian, WHO; Valerie Thomas, Princeton Univer- Matthew Arnold, WRI; Rob Day, WRI; Margaret Flaherty, World sity; Ellis Turner, EHP; William Vorley, Leopold Center for Sus- Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD); Wal- tainable Agriculture; Diane Wagener, National Center for Health ter Reid, WRI; Robert A. Rice, Smithsonian Migratory Bird Cen- Statistics; John Walsh; James Wargo, Yale School of Forestry and ter; Nick Robbins, IIED; Helmut Schuetz, Wuppertal Institute. Environment; Ellen Wasserman; William Waters, George Wash- ington University; Wade Welshons, University of Missouri; John The Global Commons Wickham, Yale University; Jonathan Wiener, Duke Law School; Duncan Brack, Royal Institute of International Affairs; Linda iMary Wilson, Mount Auburn Hospital; Sheila K. Zahm, Na-DucnBakRolIstueofnertialAar;Lnd Mionar Wilson, MounstiAubur Hopta;Shia .Zam N Doman, DOE; Tom Fox, WRI; Corinna Gilfillan, Friends of the Earth; Mary J. Hutzler, Energy Information Administration; Tom Land, U.S. EPA; Tanvi Nagpal, The World Bank; Walter Environmental Health Indicators Reid, WRI; Nelson Sabogal, UNEP; Michael Schomberg, World Energy Council; Rajendra Shende, UNEP; Robert T1,11- - ! Na- PRINCIPAL AUTHOR tional Renewable Energy Laboratory; Lori Ann Thrupp, WRI. Robin P White Resources at Risk With contributions by Carlos Corvalan, Allen Hammond, Caro- Chip Barber, WRI; Ned Cyr, NOAA; Jean Marc Faures, FAO; lina Katz, Eric Rodenburg, and Kirk Smith. Serge Garcia, FAO; Gregor Hodgson, Institute for the Environ- ment and Sustainable Development Research Center; Stephan REVIEWERS AND OTHER CONTRIBUTORS Schwartzman, Environmental Defense Fund; Kate Sebastian; Ni- Marion Cheatle, UNEP; Christopher D. Elvidge, National Geo- gel Sizer, WRI; Laura Tangley; Ronan Uhel; Tony Whitten, The physical Data Center; Robert Engelman, Population Action In- World Bank; Clive Wilkinson, Australian Institute of Marine ternational; Sakiko Fukuda-Parr, UNDP; David 0. Hall, King's Science. College, London; Mark Hereward, UNICEF; Selim Jahan, UNDP; Richard Jolly, UNDP; Jeanne X. Kasperson, Clark Uni- Regions at a Glance versity; Masami Kojima, The World Bank; Magda Lovei, The Adel Farid Abdel-Kader, Centre for Environment and Develop- World Bank; Walter Reid, WRI; A.E.C. Reitveld, WHO; Dieter ment for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE); Chris Anas- H. Schwela, WHO; Dan Tunstall, WRI; M\lichael P. Walsh. tasi, University of York; Abou Bamba, Network for Environment and Sustainable Development in Africa (NESDA); Winston Bowman, The Regional Environmental Center; Munyaradzi Part II Global Environmental Trends Chenje, India Musokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa (IMERCSA); Christopher D. Elvidge, NOAA; PRINCIPAL AUTHORS Tom Fox, WRI; Edgar Gutierrez-Espeleta, University of Costa Gregory Mock, Emily Matthews, and Fred Powledge Rica; Johan Kuylenstierna, SEI; Ruben Mnatsakanian, Central European University; Laszlo Pinter, IISD; Walter Reid, WRI; With contributions by Yvonne Baskin, Dirk Bryant, Lauiretta Marisabel Romaggi, University of Chile; Ivelin Roussev, The Re- Burke, Julie Harlan, Carolyn Knapp, Jim MacKenzie, Siobhan gional Environmental Center; Ram Manohar Shrestha, Asian In- Murray, Christian Ottke, Elizabeth Pennesi, Carmen Revenga, stitute of Technology; Leena Srivastava, TERI; David Stanners, Laura Tangley, and Robin P. White. EEA; Donna Wise, WRI. World Resources 1998-99 353 Part III Data Tables Oceans and Fisheries Dirk Bryant, WRI; Adele Crispoldi, FAO; Serge Garcia, FAO; REVIEWERS AND OTHER CONTRIBUTORS Richard Grainger, FAO; Brian Groombridge, WCMC; Maurizio Perotti, FAO. Economic Indicators Betty Dowr, The W/7orld Bank; K. Sarawar Lateef, The World Biodiversity Bank; Saeed Ordoubadi, The WVorld Bank; Eric Swanson, The Dirk Bryant, WR1; Neil Cox, WCMC; Nathan Flesness, ISIS; World Bank. Brian Groombridge, WCMC; Christine Hopkins, Australasian Species Management Program; Philip S. Miller, IUCN/S SC Con- Population and Human Development servation Breeding Specialist Group; Alan Mootnick, Inerna- Vittoria Cavicchioni, UNESCO; Joseph-Alfred Grinblat, United tional Center for Gibbon Studies; James E. Paine, WCM(C; Nations Population Divison; Mark Hereward, UNICEF; Angela Dwight Peck, Ramsar Convention Bureau; Anthony B. Rylands, Martins-Oliveira, ILO; George Schieber, The World Bank. Conservation International; Kevin Willis, American Zoo and Aquarium Association. Health Compiling data on the estimated wild population of t.ireatened animals was possible thanks to the input of more than 15 scientists Valery Abramov, WHO; Jenny Barkway, WHO; Jennifer Bryce, around the world. These individuals are listed in the Sources and WHO; Rachel Horner, WHO; Aminur R. Khan, United Nations Technical Notes of Data Table 14.4. Population Division; Magda Lovei, The World Bank; Suki McClatchey, WHO; Eduardo Netto, The Global Tuberculosis d I Programme; A.E.C. Rietveld, WHO; Sonja Schmidt, WHO; Di- Energy and Ma teria s eter H. Schwela, WHO; Gerald R. Smith, USGS; Martin Wulfe, Marilyn Biviano, USGS; Herman Haberman, UNSTAT; Gary DHS. Lam, UNSTAT; Grecia Matos, USGS. Urban Data Atmosphere and Climate Christine Auclair, Habitat; Joseph-Alfred Grinblat, United Na- Thomas A. Boden, Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis tions Population Division; Jay Moor, Habitat. Center. Food and Agriculture PRODUCTION STAFF Jeff Tschirley, FAO. A talented team of editorial, production, and publishing experts accomplished the enormous task of preparing this volume for printing. WAe thank them for their dedication, hard work, and Forests and Land Cover high professional standards. In addition to the World Resources Dirk Bryant, WRI; Robert Davis, FAO; Susan Iremonger, staff, they include: WCMC; Klaus Janz, FAO; Giovanni Preto, FAO. Copyeditors: Michael Edington, Beth Rabinowitz Fresh Water Proofreaders: Christine Schuyler, Anders Smith Simon Blyth, WNCMC; Dirk Brvant, WRI; Christopher D. El- Index: Enid Zafran, Indexing Partners vidge, NOAA; lean Marc Faures, FAO; Peter Gleick, The Pacific Design: Pamela Reznick, Reznick Design Institute; Peter Kristensen, National Environmental Research In- Photographs: Theresa de Salis and Mark Edwards, Still Pictures stitute; Tom Loveland, USGS EROS Data Center; Robert C. Lo- WAe are especially grateful to WRI librarians Beth Behrendt and zar, Army Corps of Engineers; Walter Reid, WRI. Beth Harvey for assisting us with research and materials. It has been a privilege to work with so many outstandirtg indi- viduals throughout the world in producing World Resources 1998-99. Leslie Roberts, Editor in-Chief 354 World Resources 1998-99 The World Resources Institute (WRI) is an independent center World Resources Institute for policy research and technical assistance on global environ- 1709 New York Avenue, N.W. mental and development issues. WRI's mission is to move hu- Washington, D.C. 20006 U.S.A. man society to live in ways that protect Earth's environment and its capacity to provide for the needs and aspirations of cur- rent and future generations. Because people are inspired by WRI's Board of Directors: ideas, empowered by knowledge, and moved to change by Maurice E Strong, Chairman greater understanding, WRI provides-and helps other institu- John Firor, Vice Chairman tions provide-objective information and practical proposals Manuel Arango for policy and institutional change that will foster environmen- Frances Beinecke tally sound, socially equitable development. Robert 0. 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Box 30552 8-14 avenue de la Paix Nairobi, Kenya 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was es- mental problems, promote environmentally sound management tablished in 1972 and given by the United Nations General As- at both national and international levels by encouraging the ap- sembly a broad and challenging mandate to stimulate, coordi- plication of assessment results, and make such actions and find- nate, and provide policy guidance for sound environmental ac- ings known to the public-from scientists and policymakers to tion throughout the world. Initial impetus for UNEP's forma- industralists and schoolchildren. The programme is run in coop- tion came out of the largely nongovernmental and antipollution eration with numerous other United Nations agencies, govern- lobby in industrialized countries. This interest in pollutants re- ments, intergovernmental organizations, nongovernmental mains, but right from the early years, as perceptions of environ- organizations, and specialized institutions. mental problems broadened to encompass those arising from In recent years, UNEP has strengthened its regional delhvery the misuse and abuse of renewable natural resources, the promo- and adopted a more integrated approach. Activities are now tion of environmentally sound or sustainable development be- grouped under five programme areas: sustainable manag,ement came a main purpose of UNEP. and use of natural resources; sustainable production and con- From the global headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya, and seven re- sumption; a better environment for human health and well-be- gional and liaison offices worldwide, UNEP's staff of some 280 ing; globalization and the environment; and global and regional scientists, lawyers, administrators, and information specialists servicing and support. The programme is implemented through carry out UNEP's programme, which is laid down and revised three divisions: Programme; Environmental Information and As- every two years by a Governing Council of representatives from sessment; and Policy, Interagency, and External Affairs. its 58 member states. These members are elected on a staggered The Division of Environmental Information and Assessment basis for four years by the United Nations General Assembly. works with a wide range of partners to keep under review and UNEP's mission is to provide leadership and encourage part- report on the state of the world environment, provide early nership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, warning of environmental threats, develop harmonised method- and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life ologies and tools for policy relevant assessments, improve access without compromising that of future generations. Broadly, to information for environmental decision making, and enhance UNEP's programme aims to stimulate action on major environ- developing countries' capabilities to use information. United Nations Development Programme One U.N. Plaza New York, New York 10017 U.S.A. Administrator James Gustave Speth Bureau for Development Policy Assistant Administrator and Director Eimi Watanabe Sustainable Energy and Environment Division Director Roberto Lenton Through a unique network of 134 country offices, the United A Human Development Report, published yearly for UNDP Nations Development Programme (UNDP) helps people in 174 since 1990 and drafted by a team of independent consultants, countries and territories to help themselves, focusing on poverty assists the international community in developing new, practical, eradication, environmental regeneration, job creation, and the and pragmatic concepts, measures, and policy instruments for advancement of women. In support of these goals, UNDP is fre- promoting more people-oriented development. quently asked to assist in promoting sound governance and mar- Environment is one of the main themes for UNDP's 1997-2000 ket development, and to support rebuilding societies in the programming cycle. Environmental objectives will be included aftermath of war and humanitarian emergencies. in almost all country programmes approved for this period, and UNDP's overarching mission is to help countries build their own all activities will be screened for their environmental impact. national capacity to achieve sustainable human development, giv- Programmes to build capacities for sustainable development and ing top priority to eliminating poverty and building equity. natural resource management are supported through work on In administering its programmes, UNDP draws on the exper- food security, forests, water, energy, and urban development. tise of developing country nationals and non-governmental or- Together with the World Bank and the United Nations Envi- ganizations, the specialized agencies of the UN system, and ronment Programme, UNDP is one of the managing partners of research institutes in every field. Eighty-five percent of UNDP the Global Environment Facility (GEF). The GEF is a US$2 billion staff is based in the countries where people need help. fund that helps countries translate global concerns into national In 1996, core and non-core contributions and pledges to action to help fight ozone depletion, global warming, loss of bio- UNDP exceeded US$2 billion. Contributions to UNDP are vol- diversity, and pollution of international waters. UNDP is also untary, and come from nearly every government in the world. one of six UN sponsors of a global programme on HIV/AIDS. Importantly, recipient country governments cover more than At the country level, the UNDP Resident Representative nor- half of total project costs through personnel, facilities, equip- mally also serves as Resident Co-ordinator of the United Nations ment, and supplies. System's operational activities for development. Eighty-seven percent of UNDP's core programme funds go to Headquartered in New York, UNDP is governed by a 36-member countries with an annual per capita GNP of US$750 or less. These Executive Board, representing both developing and developed countries are home to 90 percent of the world's extremely poor. countries. The World Bank The World Bank Group The World Bank Group is a partner in opening markets and 1818 H Street, N. W. strengthening economies. Its goal is to improve the quality of life and expand prosperity for people everywhere, especially the world's poorest. Executie Dlreaors: A first-rate financial standing and access to the world's capital Khalid H. Alyahya markets enable the Bank to invest broadly in societies-from Khalid M. Al-Saad health, education, and the environment to infrastructure and Marc-Antoine Autheman policy reform. Ali Bourhane The World Bank Group of institutions includes: Andrei Bugrov Marcos C. de Paiva * The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Huw Evans (IBRD), founded in 1944, is the single largest provider Of Fritz Fischer development loans to middle-income developing countries and Jean-Daniel Gerber a major catalyst of similar financing from other sources. The Leonard Good IBRD funds itself primarily by borrowing on international Eveline Herfkens capital markets. Ruth Jacoby * The International Development Association (IDA), founded in Bimal Jalan 1960, assists the poorest countries by providing interest-free Abdul Karim Lodhi credits with 35- to 40-year maturities. IDA is funded primarily Leonard Mseka by governments' contributions. Peter WE. Nicholl * The International Finance Corporation (IFC) supports private Atsuo Nishihara enterprises in the developing world through providing loan and Julio Nogues equity financing, and through a range of advisory services. Franco Passacantando * The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) offers Jan Piercy investors insurance against noncommercial risk and helps de- Walter Rill veloping country governments attract foreign investment. Jorge Terrazas * The International Center for the Settlement of Investment Li Yong Disputes (ICSID) encourages the flow of foreign investment to developing countries through arbitration and conciliation fa- Officers: cilities. James D. Wolfensohn, President Over its 54-year history the World Bank has become a global Jessica Einhorn, Managing Director partnership in which more than 180 countries have joined to- Caio Koch-Weser, Managing Director gether for common goals: to improve the quality of life for peo- Sven Sandstrom, Managing Director ple throughout the world and to meet the challenge of Shengman Zhang, Managing Director sustainable development. Index References ini italics denzote box material. China, 116-120,124 Bauxite production, data tables, 338-39 city air pollution, data sables, 264-65 Bertollini, Roberto, 94-95 climate change, impact of, 69-70 Biodiversity disease burden, 94 Convention on Biological Diversity, 197 A inidicators of environmental health, 127-28, 129 data tables, 319-30 life expectancy in C:entral Europe, impact on, 96-97 endangered species management programs, data ta- Accidents Air transportation, energy balances, data tables, 336-37 bles, 326-27 Chernobyl accident, 95 Aldrin. See Organochlorine pesticides; Persistent or- marine biodisversity, data tables, 316 industrial accidents, 54 ganic pollutants protection of natural areas, data tables, 320-21 Acid rain, 177-79, 181-84. See also Sulfur dioxide emis- Algal blooms, 180-81, 194 regions at a glance, 200-20 sions Amnazon. See Brazilian Amazon threatened species, data tables, 322-25 developed countries, 183-84 Ambient air quality. See outdoor air quality Biodivershty conservation, 1 00 developing countries, 182-83 Amphibians Bioiovasions, 197-99 impact of, 182-83 endangered species management programs, data ta- Biological hazards to health, 18-26 redluction, 183 bles, 326-27 Biological pollution, 197-99 Acquired immnune deficiency syndrome. See HIV/AIDS threatened species, data tables, 324-25 Bismass fuel-burning. See also Coal consumption and Acute respiraitory infections (ARI), 25-26 Anemia in pregnant women, data tables, 256-57 emissions indoor air quality, effect of, 66 Antibiotic resistance. See Drug resistance China, 11I9 Adult literacy, 144-43,149-50 Appliances consumption rates, 66 Africa, 200-02. See also specific cosntries mranufacturer "take-back" requirements, 168 indicator of environmental health, t27 climnate change and mala-riai, 70 radios, households without, 268 particulate concentrations, 66 HIV/AIDS morbidhyv rate, 151 refrigerators, households without, 268 Biosphere reserves, data tables, 320-21 population growth, 38 stoves. See Stoves Birds Senegal River development. See Senegal River televisions. See Televisions coffee production methods, impact of, 165-66 urbanization, 39, 146-47 Aquacuhture production, 158-60 endangered species management programs, data ta- Age structure of population data tables, 314-15 bles, 326-27 data tables, 246-47 regions at a glance, 200-20 seabirds, biodiversitv of regional seas, data tables, 316 regions a; a glance, 200-20 Aquatic ecosystems, nlitrogen imbalances, 180 threatened species, 1~97, 322-23 Agricultural intensification, 84-87 Argentina, climate change and malaria, 70 Birth defects coffee, 165 Arid regions, watershed data tables, 309 China, 122 disease prevention strategies, 85-87 Armed conflicts pesticide exposure, 44 fertilizers. See Fertilizers displaced persons, 148 Birth rates. See also Fertility rates health risks, generally, 6-7,41-50,84-85 famines caused by, 155 data tables, 246-47 Integrated Pest Management 11PM), 85-86 income inequities, impact of, 146 Births. See Childbirth irrigationi. See Irrigation Arsenic poi'soni'ng Blck market in chlorofluorocarbons, 178 nitrogen levels, impact on, 180 China, 122 Black smoke overview, 41 West Bengal, 105 city pollution, data tables, 264-65 pesticides. See Pesticides Asbestos, 53-54 indicator of environmental health, 127 rice, 152-53 Ascaris worms, impact of wastewater irrigation, 48 Blue-baby syndrome soil degradation resulting ftrom, 157 Asia, 215-17. See also specific countries Central and Easterni Europe, 96 sustainable culithation mnethods, 162 education, impact of, 148-50 nitrate contamination, 47 Agricultural land H1VIAIDS morbidity rate, 151 Brazilian Amazon conversion to agricultural use, 49-30, 152 Mekong River Basin, 191 deforestation, 185-86 cropland area, data tables, 286-87, 298-299 paper production and consumnption, 163 malaria, 48-49 data tables, 286-87 sulfur dioxide emissions, 182-83 Breast cancer, 102-04 ownership, data sables, 248-49 urbanization, 146-47 Bronchitis. See Respiratory diseases Agricultural machinery, data tables, 286-87 Asthma Burden of disease, 32-34,94 Agricultural production. See Agricuhtural intensifica- indoor air quality, effect of, 66 Bus transportation. See also headings starting with Motor tion; Food production mnorbidity rates, inicrease in, 30-31 vehicle Agricultural wvater sulfur dioxide emissions, effect of, 63 urban households, data tables, 278-79 pollutioni, 87 Atmnosphere. See also Air pollution; specific emissions scarcity, effect onl health, 153 (e.g., Particulate emissions) withdrawals, 188-89, 304-05 data tables, 343-So Agriculture. See also Food production regions at a glance, 200-20 energy balances, data tables, 336-37 temperature profiles, 173-74 intensification. See Agricultural intenisification Australia's Great Barrier Reef, 195 Calorie supply, data tables, 256-57, 288-89 land. See, Agricultural land Automobiles. See Motor vehicles Canada regions at a glance, 200-20 ballast water discharge regulations for Great Lakes, Senegal River projects, 109-to0 198 water. See Agricultural water industrial pollutants in Great Lalkes, 55 Agroinidustrial pro jects, Senegal River, 109-10 B Cancer. See also Carcinogens; specific cancer ( e.g., Breast Aid. See Donations; Financial aid sod incentives cancer) AIDS. See 101 V/AIDS Bacteria, health hazards, 18-26 chemical hazards, 32-34, 54,102-04 Air-borne dliseases, 25-26 Bagasse, indicator of environmental health, 127 Chernobyl accident, effect of, 95 Air pollution, 63-67. See also Indoor air quality; DOut- Ballast water discharges, 198 China, 122 door air quality; specific emissions (e.g., Sulfur diox- Bangladesh, mnigrations, 148 endocrine disruptors, 57 ide emissions) Batteries, 60, 168 PCB exposure, impact of, 55 acid rain. See Acid rain Battery-powvered motor vehicles, 173 pesticide exposure, 44-45,45 World Resources 1998-99 359 Canned food, lead poisoning, 60 data tables, 258-59 Clean production, 53,90 Carbamate pesticides, 43,43 demographic regions, by, 2 Climnate change, 67-72. See also Global warming; Tem- Carbon dioxide concentration in atmosphere, 171 malnutrition, correlation with, 154 perature changes climate change, impact of, 71-72 measles, 9 air pollution, impact on, 69-70 data tables, 348 mother's education, impact of, 78 direct impacts, 67-70 Carbon dioxide emissions, 63. See also Greenhouse gas Senegal River region. 11 0 disease rates, effect on, 70-71 emissions Children ecological system disturbances, 68, 72 cement manufacturing, data tables, 344-45, 347 acute respiratory infections, 66-67 indirect impacts, 70-72 consumption rates, correlation wvith, 39 diarrheal diseases, data tables, 268 K~yoto Protocol, 174-77 developed countries, 176 goiter, data tables, 256-57 nutrition, effect on, 71-72 developing countries, 176 indicators of health, 256-57,268 overview, 67 fossil fuel burning, data tables, 344-45, 347 lead exposure, 59, 60-61 plant pests and diseases, effect on, 71-72 industrial emissions, 175 low-birth-weight infants, 154,256-57 rising sea levels, 68-69 Kyoto Protocol, 174-77 malnutrition. See Malnutrition season changes, 174 motor vehicle emissions, 172-73 mortality rates. See Child mnortalihy rates weather events, 68 parity with methane emissions, 1 00 outdoor air quality, impact of, 64 "Closed-loop" processing cycles. 167 reduction of, 91-93, t7t, 175. 177 PCB exposure, 55 CO. emissions. See Carbon dioxide emiss.ons regions at a glance, 200-20 pesticide exposure, 46 Coal consumption and emissions, 62-63, 67. See also season changes, impact on, 174 school attendanice, 149-50 Fossil fuels temperature of atmosphere, imnpact on, 173 vulnerability to environmental hazards, 20 China, 11 6-17,119,124,170-71 trends, 170-71 wveight as indicator of health, 128, 256-57 heavy metal exposure, 58 Carbon monoxide emissions, Chins, 1 18 China, 115-25 indicator of environmental health, 127 Carbon tax, 92-93 air pollution, 116-120,124 life expectancy in Central Europe, impact on, 96 Carbon tetrachloride, atmospheric concentrations, data saquaruhltre produiction. 159-60 particuilate emissions. 64 tables, 348 background, 115-16 reduction of pollution, 90-93 Carcinogens, 32-54. See also Cancer chronic diseases, 122 sulfur dioxide emnissions, 64 breast cancer, 102-04 coal production and consumption, 116-19,124, Coal mining and production endocrine disruptors, 57 170-71 China, 116-17 industrial chemicals, 54 conservation laws, 123-24 environmental impact. 32 pesticides, 43, 44-45, 45 drinking waten, 121-23 Coastal waters, See also Oceans; Wetlands Cardiac disease. See Heart disease economic reforms, 124 eutrophication, 47 Caribbean. See Latin America; specific countries enforcement of environmental laws, 123-24 rising sea levels, 68-69 Carp, aquacultuare production, 159 financial investment in environmnent, 124-25 Coffee production and consumption, 165- 66 Cars. See Motor vehicles groundwaten, 120-21 Cold-related deaths, decline, 68 Causes of death, 9-13. See also Msortality rates indoor air quality. 11 8-20 Columbia, flower industry, 43 Cement industries industrial avastewaten, 120-22, 124 Comnmercial enterprises, energy balances, data tables, carbon dioxide emnissions, data tables, 344-45, 347 infectious diseases, 121-23 336-37 environmental impact, 52 lead poisoning, 120 Comnmodity indexes and prices. World Banik, 240 production, data tables, 338-39 motor vehicle use and emissions. 118, 172 Communicable diseases. See Infectious diseases Central America, 209-Il,. See also Latin America; spe- municipal wastewater, 120-21,124 Comnmunity involvement. See also Preventive strategies cific countries outdoor air quality, 1 16-120 disease prevention strategies. 75-78 Central Europe. See also specific countries particulate emissions, 124 vector-borne disease prevention strategies, 81 blue-baby syndrome, 96 pollution control laws, 123-24 Conservation. See also Recycling; Sustainable produc- pollution and life expectancy. 96-97 public Policy; 123-25 tion Ceramic industries, environment-al impact. 52 respiratory diseases, 118-20 biodhversity conservation, 100 Cereal. See also specific cereal (e.g.. Rice) sanitation, 123 China, conservation laws, 123-24 donations, data tables, 288-89 sulfur dioxide emissions, 124 endangered species management peograms. data ta- price declines, 152 township-and-village enterprises. 121-22 bles, 326-27 production, data tables, 284-85 Trans-Cenitury Green Plan, 124 Consumption rates, 39 regions at a glance. 200-20 wastewaten, 120-22, 124 biomass fiuel-burning, 66 trade, data tables, 288-89 wastewater irrigation, 122 chlorofiuorocarbons, 177-79 yields. 152-33, 288-89 water pollution, 120-22 coal. See Coal consumption and emissicons CFC-l11, -12, and -1 13 water shortages, 120 coffee, 165 atmospheric concenteations, data tables, 348 Chlordane. See Organochlorine pesticides;, Persistent or- electricity, data tables, 332-33 CFCs. See Chlorofluotocarbons ganic pollutants energy, generally. See Energy use Chagas disease, 25 Chloride in European lakes, data tables, 308 fertilizers, 46-47, 286-87 dlimate change, impact of, 70 Chlorine (gaseous), atmospheric concentrations, data fish, 196,314-15 prevention strategies, 81-82 tables, 348 gasoline, data tables, 266-67 Channelization. See Navigation projects Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 32, 61 paper consumption, 163-65 Chavis, Benjamin, 99-100 black market trade, 178 pesticides, 41-42,46 Chemical hazards to health. 26-32, 101. See also Fertiliz- reduction of production and consumption. 177-79 population growth, impact of, 143 ers; Pesticides; specific hazards Chlorophyll in European lakes, data tables, 308 salt consumption, data tables, 256-57 breast cancer, 102-04 Cholera trends, 161-69 endocrine disruptors, 56-57 climate change, impact of, 71 water, 188-89, 304-05 industrial chemicals, 53-54 morbidity rates, 260-61 Contamination. See Air pollution; Soil degradation; Wa- Chemnical production. 51-52 reemnergence of, 22-23 ter pollution; specifirpollrutant Chernobyl accident, impact on heath, 95 Senegal River region, 113 Contraceptive use, data tables. 262-63 Childbirth. See also Pregnancy wastewater irrigation, impact of, 48-49 Convention on Biological Diversity, 197 attended by trained personnel. data tables, 262-63 Chronic diseases. See alaso specific disease (e.g.. Cancer) Conversion of land to agricultural use, 49-50, 152 birth rates, data tables, 246-47 causes of death, 10- 1 3 Cooksrove smoke, 66-67 defects. See Birth defects China, 122 Cooperation. See Multinational cooperation low-birth-weight infants, 154,256-57 Cities, See headings starring wirh Urban Copper. See also Heavy metals stillbirths, effect of indoor air quality. 66-67 Civil wsars. See Armed conflicts production data tables, 338-39 Child mortality rates, 1. See also Infant mortality rates Clean fuel, transition to. 67 Coral reefs, 193-95 360 World Resources 1998-99 biodiversity of regional seas, data tables, 316 sulfur dioxide emissions, 183-84 Domesticated land area Corporate responsibility movement, 169 Developing countries. See also specific countries data tables, 298-299 Costa Rica carbon dioxide emissions, 176 map, 222 flower industry, pesticide use, 43 chlorofluorocarbon production and consumption, Donations. See also Financial aid and incentives life expectancy increase, 16 178 cereal donations, data tables, 288-89 Cote dIlvoire, water supply improvements, 79 deforestation, 185 food donations, 155 Cropland area, data tables, 286-87,298-299 economic growth disparities, 144 Dorsey, Michael K., 99-101 Crops. See Agriculture; Food production energy use, 62, 170-71 DPT immunizations, data tables, 262-63 Crowdinig. See Overcrowding financial investment in, 38,53 Drinkinig water. See also Water supply Crustaceans. See Molluscs and crustaceans hazardous waste exports to, 53, 100 access to, data tables, 250-51 HIV/AIDS morbidity rate, 151 China, 121-22,123 indicators of environmental health, 127-30 nitrate contamination, 47 indoor- air quality, 66 Droughts, 155. See also WVeather events D_ industrialization. See Industrialization Drug resistance, 76-77 Daily, calorie supply, data tables, 256-57, 288-89 outdoor air quality, 65 tuberculosis, 40 Daily protein supply, data tables, 256-57 pesticide consumption, 41-42,46 Dust. See Particulate emissions DALYs (disability-adjusted life years), 13-14,94 population growth, 141 Dysentery, China, 122 Dams, 190-9 1 sulfur dioxide emissions, 182-83 Senegal River, 108-14 urbanization, 146 Data tables, 233-350 water supply and pollution, 189-90 atmosphere and climate, 343-50 Developmenit projects E biodiversity, 319-30 disease prevention planning, 84 economic indicators, 235-42 Senegal River, 109-10 E. coi 0157 transmission, 21 energy and materials, 331-41 DHF (dengue hemorrhagic fever), 26-27, 81-82 Eastern Europe. See also spectfic countries food and agriculture, 283-90 Diadromous fish, aquaculture production, data tables, bluie-baby syndrome, 96 forests and land cover, 291-302 314-15 DIV/AIDS miorbidity rate, 151 fresh water, 303-12 Diarrhea] diseases, 19-22 pollution and life expectancy. 96-97 health, 255-72 children, data tables, 268 tuberculosis mortality rates, 40 oceans and fisheries, 313-1 8 China, 122 BEno-efficiency strategies, 90, 167,168 overview, 233-34 climate change, imnpact of, 71 Ecological systems. See Ecosystems population and human development, 243-53 Mexicos prevention strategies, 80 Economic growth, 38-39 sources, 233-34 Senegal River region, 113 agricultural intensification. See Agricultural intensifi- urbani data, 273-81 Dieldrin. See Organochlorine pesticides; Persistent or- cation Davis, Devra Lee, 102-04 ganic pollutants China, 115-16 DDT. See Organochlorine pesticides; Persistent organic Diethylstilbestrol (DES), 56-57 data tables, 235-42 pollutants; Pesticides Diptheria, 25-26 disease prevention and economic growth, 83-93 Death. See Mortality rates immunizations, data tables, 262-63 energy taxation and subsidies, effect of, 92 Debt, notional Disability-adjusted life years I DALYs), 13-14,94 environmental health in twenty-first century, 94-95 data tables, 238-39 Disease burden, 32-34,94 gross city product, data tables, 276-77 regions at a glance, 200-20 Disease prevention, 35, 73-93 gross domestic product. See Gross domestic product Deforestation, 185-86 agricultural intensification, reducing impact of, gross national product, data tables, 236-37 acid rain, 182 85-87 income per capita. See Incomne per capita coffee production methods, impact of, 166 community improvements, 75-82 industrialization. See Industrialization conversion to agricultural use, 49-50 development project planning, 84 rate of growth, 144 fragmentation of forests, 187-88 economic growth and prevention, 83-93 regions at a glance, 200-20 map, 223 energy use improvements, 90-93 trends, 144-46 paper consumption contributinig to, 165 fertilizer use, reducing, 86 Economic incentives. See Financial aid and incentives Degradation of environment. See also Scarcity of re- financial aid and incentives, 83-84 Ecosystems sources household improvements, 75-82 acid rain damages, 182-83 air. See Air pollution indoor air quality improvements, 80-81 bioinvasions, 197-99 aquaculture production, 159-60 industrialization, reducing impact of, 87-90 climate change, impact of, 68, 72 coral reefs, 193-95 irrigation improvements, 86-87 forest ecosystems. See Forest ecosystems forests, 186-88. See also Deforestation local improvements, 75-82 freshwater ecosystems, 190-91 migr-ation, cause of, 148 mnultinational efforts, 82 nitrogen imbalance, effect of, 180 soil. See Soil degradation overview, 73-74 Senegal River basin, 11 0 water. See Water pollution pesticide risk reduction, 85-86 valuing of ecosystemn services, 191-93 Delta areas, rising sea levels, 69 POP reduction, 89 wetlands ecosystemns. See Wetlands Demersal fish catch, 195 public policy, 77-78, 83-84 Ecuador, flower industry, 43 data tables, 316 risk analyses, 84 Ediths checkeerspot butterfly, impact of climate change, Demographic regions, 2 sanitation improvements, 78-80,82 174 causes of death in, 10-1I1 vector-borne diseases, 81-82 Education Dengue fever, impact of climate change, 70 water supply improvements, 78-80,82 disease prevention, 77-78, 80-81, 83-84 Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), 26-27 Diseases. See also specific disease expenditures, 150, 230-51 prevention strategies, 8 1-82 biological hazards, 18-26. See also specific hazard health, impact on, 14-15,149-50 Dermatitis, pesticide exposure, 44 burden of disease, 32-34,94 illiteracy, 144-45, 149-50 Desalinated water production, data tables, 306-307 chemical hazards, 26-32, 1 01. See also apecific hazard pesticide safety, 86 DES ldiethylstilbestrol), 56-57 links between environment and disease, 19 school attendance, 149-50 Developed countries. See a/so specific countries morbidity rates. See Mlorbidity rates trends, 149-50 carbon dioxide emissions, 176 plants. See Plant pests and diseases vector-borne disease prevention strategies, 81 energy use, 170 preventive actions. See Disease prevention Effluents. See Industrial wastewater; Municipal wastewa- forest quality, 186 psychosocial effects, 95,97 tee; Water poflution indicators of environmental heahh, 129 Displaced persons. See Relocation and resettlement Electricity. See also Energy use pesticide consaumption, 41-42,46 Doctors, percentage of population, 262-63 consumption, data tables, 332-33 World Resources 1998-99 361 hydroelectric f-acilities, See Hydroelectric production data tables, 284-85 "Lifeline" rates, 8t F3 irrigation, imnpact of, 47 production, data tables, 332-35 per capita productioni trends, 154 regions at a glance, 200-20 Family planning programs, 142 postharvest losses, 155-56 Senegal River facilities, 109-10, 114 Famines, 155 soil degradation, impact of, 156-58 trade, data tables, 334-35 Farming, crops. See Agriculture; Food production trends, 152-54 urban households, data tables, 278-79 Farming, fish. See Aquaculture production world production trends, 154 Electric motor vehicles, 173 Farming, trees. See Forest plantations yields, 152-53, 157 Emissions. See Air pollution; spectfic emissions (e.g., Sul- Fauntroy, Walter, 99 Food security, 153-55. See also Malnutrition; Nutrition fur dioxide emissions) ~Fecal coliform, China, 121i data tables, 288-89 fuE ixd missions)tain,8 Female-headed households in urban population, data Food supply, 154-56 Kyoto protocol, 175 Feables. Se2Cidbrh;Gndr7Penac biological hazards, 19-24 Employment. See Labor force; Workplace environment Fertility raes hlbrh edr rgac chemical hazards, 26-32 Encephalitis dariltyatabes,264 donations, 155 climate change, impact of, 70 region at aglaece,20020fish and seafood, 196, 314-15 Japanese encephalitis, imnpact of irrigation, 47 trends, 141-43 lead poisoning from canned food, 60 Endangered species. See Threatened and endangered Fertilizers, 46-47 losses, 155-56 species China, 120-21 POP contamination, 55 Endocrine disruptors, 56-57 consumption rates, 181,286-87 production. See Food production Endrin. See Persistent organiC pollutants nitrogen levels, impact on, 180 security. See Food security Energy balances, data tables, 336-37 reducing use, 86,180-181 Food waste, 156 Energy production, data tables, 332-33 soil degradation resulting from, 157 Foreign investments, 144 Enery ue, 2-6. Se aso peciic ypeqreerg (eg., Filariasis, impact of irrigation, 47 data tables, 238-39 Enecrgy cset6267 Sefealsspcfcteofnrg (e.g.,Foslfe) Financial aid and incentives. See alto Government ox- developing countries, in, 38, 53 ElCtricity 1 rful(eg, osiues penditures Forest ecosystems chia,. 1e15-16nupio ndeisin China, 124-25 data rabIes, 294-95 coal. See Coa consumption nd emissionsdata tables, 238-39 valuation, 193 data tables, 331-41 disease prevention, generally, 83-84 Forest industry structure, data tables, 292-93 ecoo-efficiency strategies, 90, 167, 168 energy subsidies, 91-92 Forest plantations, 185-86 emissions reduction, 90-93 food supply, 155 data tables, 292-93 health risks, generally, 6-7, 90-93 Official development assistance (ODA). See Official regions at a glance, 200-20 increase in consumnption. 62 development assistance wood pulp production, 163-64 industry's energy efficiency, 167 ozone-depleting gases phaseout, 179 Forest quality, 186 motor vehicles, 171 pesticide use, 85 Forests and woodlands nitrogen levels, impact on, 180 sustainable production, 168-69 conversion to agricultural use, 49-50 overview, 62-63 unleaded gasoline production, 89 data tables, 291-302 reducing consumption, 90 water supply and sanitation improvements, 79-80 degradation, 186-88. See also Deforestatio)n regions at a glance, 200-20 Fish. See also specific rype (e.g., Freshwater fish) ecosystems. See Forest ecosystems subsidies, 91-92 aquaculture production. See Aquaculture production fragmenitation, 187-88 taxation, 91-93 food supply, 196,314-15 frontier forests. See Frontier forests transition to clean fuel, 67 industry See Fisheries and fishing industry land area, data tables, 292-293, 298-299 trends, 170-71 threatened species, data tables, 324-25 map, 223 Enteric diseases. See also Cholera; Typhoid Fisheries and fishing industry nitrogen depositions, 180 wastewvater irrigation, impact of, 48-49 aquaculture production. See Aquaculture producti'on plantations. See Forest plantations Environmental equity, 106-07 ~coral reefs, damage to and dependence on, 194 reforestation, 185, 292-93 Environmental impact assessments of health hazards, emptaloyent treds,196 regions at a glance, 200-20 84,95 dataoytables,en314-15 tropical rainforests. See Tropical ralnforests Environmental justice movement, 99-1 01 freshwater catch, dttals3115watersheds, data tables, 309 Environmental racism, 99-101 marine catch, data tables, 314-16 wood pulp production, 163-64 Envrosinmentaol eracismo9-10 marine catch, regions at a glance, 200-20 Fossil fuels. See also Energy use Esophageal cancer, China, 122 P o ntamis ination, 56 carbon dioxide emissions, 170-71,347 Ethics regions tamglancen, 20-2 coal. See Coal consumnption and emissioosi corporate responsibility movement, 169 scarcity of resources, 195-96emsin,gerlydaatbs,345 environmenital justice movement, 99-101 Senegal River, I110 htdden matertal flows, 162 Europe, 203-05. See also Central Europe; Eastern sustainable fishing, 196 nitrogen emissions, 180-81 Europe; specific countries trade balance, data tables, 314-15 petroleum. See Oil agricultural water pollution, 87 yields, 195-96,314-16 Free trade zones, 53 life xpectncy, ast-Wst ga, 95,96-98Fish farming. See Aquaculture prodiuction Freshwater ecosystems, 190-91. See also Lakes; Rivers; nitrogen oxide emissions, 183 Fish meal, 160 Wtad sulfur dioxide emiasions, 183 ~~trade balance, data tables, 314-15 Freshwater fish sulfur dioxide emissions, 183 Floods ~~~~~~~~~~~aquaculture prodiuction, data sables, 314-S water ualityof laks, dat table, 308rising sea levels, impact of, 69 catch, data tables, 314-15 Eutrophication, 47, 180 Senegal River, 108, 1 10 threatened species, data tables, 324-25 Excavations, 161-62 Floors, finished, households without, 268 Freshwater resources and withdrawals, data uzbles, Exotic species, bioinvasions, 197-99 Flowver industry in Latin America, pesticide use, 43 304-05 Export-processing zones, 53 Flush toilets, households without, 268 Frontier forests Exports. See also Trade Food donations, 155 data tables, 294-95 electricity, data tables, 334-35 Food insecurity. See Food security fragmentation, 187-88 fish, 196 Food losses, 155-56 regions at a glance, 200-20 haza-rdous waste, 53, 100-01 Food production. See also Agriculture Fuels. See Energy use; specificfusels (e.g., Fossil fuels) persistent organic pollutants, 54-55 aquaculture production. See Aquaculture production Fungicides. See Pesticides pestic,ides, 42,44 climnate change, imnpact of, 71-72 Furans. See Persistent organic pollutants 362 World Resources 1998-99 Gross national product (GNP), data tablet, 236-37 Hemorrhagic fever. See Dengue hemnorrhagic fever G Groundwater Hepatitis, China, t22 arsenic poisoning in WVest Bengal, 105 Heptachlor. See Persistent organic pollutants Garbage. See Solid waste China, 120,121 Herbicides. See Pesticides Gaseous chlorine, atmospheric concentrations, data ta- data tables, 306-307 Herztman, Clyde, 96-98 bias, 348 nitrate contamination from fertilizers, 46-47 Hexachlorobenzene. See Persistent organiC pollutants Gaseous fuels recharge, data tables, 306-307 Hidden mnaterial flows, 161-63 carbon dioxide emissions, data tables, 344-45, 347 withdrawals, data tables, 306-307 eco-efficiency strategies, 90, 167, 168 emissions, regions at a glance, 200-20 Hidrovia project, 191 production and consumption, data tables, 332-33 HIV/AIDS, 150-5t Gas flaring, carbon dioxide emnissions, data tables, morbidlity rate, t50-5l 3444534 H mortality rate, 151 Gasoline tuberculosis morbidity rates, impact on, 40 consumption rates, data tables, 266-67 Halons, 178-79 Homelessness, imnpact on tuberculosis morbidity rates, leaded gasoline. See Leaded gasoline Hardlwood forests, wood puip production, 163 40 prices, data tables, 266-67 Harvesters, data tables, 286-87 Hookworm, impact of wastewater irrigation, 48 Gender Hazardous waste Hsrmones educational attainment, 130 exports, 53, 100-01 breast cancer, impact on, 102-04 life expectancy, 246-47 lacilities, location, 99-100 endocrine disruptors, 56-57 mortality rates, 11, 13 HCFs (hydrofluorocarbonsl, Kyoto Protocol, 174-77 Household environment. See also specificfactors (e.g., In- Genetics, impact on breast cancer, 102-03 Heahth and environment, 1-130. See alto specific environ- door air quality, Sanitation) Geographic distribution of environmnental threats to mental hazzards (e.g.. Overcrowding, Water pollution) appliances. See Appliances health, 3-5 agricultural intensification, imnpact of, 6-7,41-50, chemical hazards, 26-32 Geographic information systems (GIS). 158 84-85 disease burden associated witb poor environment, 34 Geothermal energy production, data tables, 334-35 attribution of risk from environmnent, 34-33 disease prevention strategies, 75-78, 81 Germany, Packaging Ordinance, 264 biological hazards, 18-26 fuel use imnprovements, 81 GIS (geographic information systems), 138 categories of hazards, 6 health surveys, 268 Glass industries, environmental impact, 52 change in environment, impact on health, 6-8, 37-72 lead exposure, 59 Global Burden of Disease study, 32-34 chemical hazards, 26-32, 101. See alto specific hazards stove improvements, 80-81 Global health patterns, 8-18 China, profile, 1153-25 urban householdls, data tables, 278-79 Global trade. See Exports; Imports; Trade climate chansge, impact of, 70-72 vector-borne disease preveittion strategies, 81 Global warming, 63, 67-68, 93, 173-74 data cables, 255-72 wvater storage improvements, 81 interdisciplinary research, 95 definition of environment, 6 Human development index mnap, 222 trends, 170-71 diseases. See Diseases Human development trends, 144-46 GNP (gross national product), data tables, 236-37 energy use, impact of. 6-7, 90-93 Human immnunosufficiency virus. See HIV/AIDS Goiter in children, data tables, 236-57 environmental equity, 106-07 Humnan Poverty Index, 143 Gold. See asit Heavy' metals geographic distribution of environmental threats, Hunger, 153-55. See also Nltalnutrition production data tables, 338-39 3-5 Hydraulic cement production, data tables, 338- 39 Golden apple snail, 198 global health patterns, 8- 18 Hydrocarbon emissions, China, 118 Gold mining, Brazilian Amazon, 481 guest commentaries, 96-107 Hy~droelectric production Government aid. See Financial aid and incentives indicators. See Indicators Of enVironmental health data tables, 334-35 Government debt. See Debt, national industrialization, impact of, 6-7, 87-90 Senegal River, 109-10,114 Governmnent expenditures international environmental justice, 99- 101 Hydrotluorocarbons (HCFs). Kyoto Protocol, 174-77 China, financial investmelnt in environment, 124-23 links betwveen environment and health, 1-33 Hygiene. See also Sanitation data tables, 238-39 morbidity rates. See Morbidity rates burden of disease, 34 educatton, 150 mortality rates. See Mortality rates health, tso_iso0-st poverty's impact on, 14-18 Government policy. See Public policy preventive actions. See Disease prevention Government regulation. See Lawvs and regulations psychosocial effects, 93, 97J Grain consumption, data tables, 288-89 regional profiles, 108-25 Gravel production, data tables, 338-39 twenty-first century, 94-95 ICRI (International Coral Reef Initiative), 195 Great Lakes Health care personnel, data tables, 262-63 lltiteracy, 144-45. 149-30 ballast wvater discharge regulations, 198 Health care services Immigration, 147-49 industrial pollutants, 53 access to, dlata tables, 250-51 Immune system Greenhouse fingerprint, 173-74 breast cancer detection, 102 chemical hazardts, 54 Greenhouse gas emissions, 63. 173-74. See also specific data tables, 262-63 endocrine disruptors, 57 emotsions (e.g..~ Carbon dioxide emissions) government expeditures, 130, 250-51 heavy mnetal exposure, effect of, 58 atmospheric concentrations, data tables, 348 life expectancy, in Elastern and Central Europe, im- PCB exposure, impact of, 35 IKyoto Protocol, 174-77 pact on, 97 pesticide exposure, effect of, 44,45 national inventories, data tables, 346 Health education, 77-78. 80, 83-84 UV-B radiation, effect of, 61 paper disposal in landfills, 164 Heahth expedhtures, data tables. 250-51 Immunizations, data tables, 262-63 trends, 170 Heart disease Imports. See also Trade Gross city product, data tables, 276-77 indoor air quality, effect of, 67 electricity, data tables, 334-35 Gross domDestic product (GOP) mnortality rates, 97 paper, 164 average annual growth rate, data tables, 236-37 outdoor air quality, impact of, 64 Incineration, paper disposal, 164 China, 113,122 particulate emissions, effect of, 64 Income distribution data tables, 236-37 sulfur dioxide emissions, effect of, 63 data tables, 248-49 distribution, data tables, 236-37 Heat stress, 67-68 inequities, 145-46. See also Poverty education, impact of, 149-50 Heavy metals, 58-61. See stlso specific metals map, 221 global GOP, 38 Great Lakes, contansi.ation, 53 Income per capita, 38-39 growth rate, 144 health hazards, 38, 86 demographic regions, by; 2 heart disease mortality rates, correlation with, 97 history of exposure, 38 health, impact on, 14-17 indicators of development, correlation with, 144 increase in production, 58 life expectancy, impact on,.15-16 regions assa glance, 200-20 Helmninths, health hazards, 18-26 India World Resources 1998-99 363 Kerala State, eduication and health care policies, tSO morbidity rates, 260-61 cropland area, data tables, 286-87,29 3-299 motor vehicle use, 172 Injuries data tables, 298-299 pesticide exposure, 45 causes of death, 10-1 3 domesticated land area. See Domesticated land area vector-borne disease prevention strategies, 81 industrial accidents, 54 map, 222 Indicator maps, 22 1-24 insect-borne diseases, 24-25. See abso Vector-borne dis- watersheds, data tables, 309 Indicators of environmental health, 3-4,4~,127-30 eases; specifir disease (e.g., Mialaria) Land conversion to agricultural use, 49-50, 132 air pollution, 129 climnate change, impact of, 70 Land cover, data tables, 291-302 air quality, 127-28 indicator of environmental health, 128 Land distribution, data tables, 248-49 developed countries, 129 irrigation, impact of, 47 Land erosion. See Soil erosion developing countries, 127-30 land conversion to agricultural use, impaict of, 49-30 Landfills, paper disposal, 164 health hazards, 4, 4, 94-95 prevention strategies. 81-83 Latin America. See also specific countries maps, s Rift Valley Fever, 1 12 coffee productioni, 1 65-66 nutrition, 128 Insecticides. See Pesticides flower industry, pesticide use, 43 ranking of developing countries, 128-29 Integrated Pest Managemnent (1PMI1, 85-86 HIlV/AIDS mnorbidity rate, 151 refining of indicators, 129 Interdlisciplinary research on environmental heahth, 95 Lawvs and regulations twenty-first century issues, 94-95 International cooperation. See Multinational coopers- ballast water discharges, 198 water quality, 128 tion China, pollution control laws, 123-24 Indonesia International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), 19 outdoor air quality, 63,90 deforestation, 186 International environmental justice, 99-101 pesticides, 85 environimental performance ratings, 88 International migration, 147-49 Leaded gasoline, 60 urbanization, 147 Intestinal schistosomiasis, 1 11-12 China, 118 Indoor air qualhty,65-67 Investments. See alaso Foreign investments; Covernment data tables, 266-67 acute respiratory infections, 25 expenditures emnissions as indicator of environmental health, 127, asthma affected by, 30-31 social investments, diata taboles, 230-51 129 China, 118-20 Iodine deficiency, indicator of environmental health, 128 health hazards, 1, 88-40 developing countries, 66 Iron, recycling, 162 Lead exposure and poisoning, 39-61. See lsoa Heavy disease prevention strategies, 80-81 Iron industries metals health effects, generally, 66-67, 80 environmenital impact, 32 battery production and recycling, 60 indicators of environmnental health, 127-28 production data tables, 338-39 canned food, 60 Industrial accidents, 34 Irrigation, 86-87 Central and Eastern Europe, 96 Industrialization, 51-61. See also Production; specific in- health risks, generally, 47-49 China, 120 dustry, imaprovements to prevent disease, 86-87 paints, 61 abatement of industrial pollutants, 87-88 increase in irrigated lanid, 47potrglzn,6 Central and Eastern Europe, 96-97 percentage of irrigated land, 157, 286-87 potery glazing, 60 . ,Haymtl chemnical hazards, generally, 54 regions at a glance, 200-20 data tabl-es, 266-67 chemical production, 51 Senegal River developmnent projects, 109-10, 113 Leather and tanning industries, environmental imnpact, China, 115-16 soil degradation resulting fromn, 117 52 chloroflurocarbons, 61 wastewater. See Wasteivater irrigation Leishmaniasis, impact of land conversion zo agricultural cleaner production, 33, 90 water-efficient sy~stems, 189 use, 49-50 eco-efficiency strategies, 90, 167, 168 Leukemia, Chernobyl accident, 95 energy balances. data tables, 336-37 Libraries, data tables, 250-31 energy efficiency, 167 TLife expectancy, 8 environmental imnpact of selected indtustries, 32 ,J China, 115-16, 122 environimental performance ratings, 88 jamnaica, coral reef damage, 194 data tables, 246-47 factors promoting industrialization, 33 lapan, PCE contamination, 35 demographic regionis. by, 2 health impact, generally, 6-7,87-90 Japanese encephalitis, impact of irrigation. 47 Europe, East-W%est gap, 95,96-98 heavy metal hazards, 58-61,88 regions at a glance, 200-20 increase in, 161 trends, 142 injuries fromn industrial accidents, 34 Lifestyles matetiat flows, 161-63 asthma affected by, 31 overviewv, 51-54 K breast cancer, impact on, 102 persistent organic pollutants, 54-38,89 Kerala State. India, education and health care policies, life expectancy in Eastern and Central Eiurope, imn- Industrial wvastewater 150 pact on, 97 China. 120-22, 124 Klyansanur forest disease, 30 malaria prevalence in Amazon, impact on, 49 irrigation with. See Wastewater irrigation Kyoto Protocol, 174-77 Lindane. See Pesticides treatmnent. See Wastewater treatment Liquid fuels Infant mortality rates carbon dioxide emissions, data tables, 3 44-45,347 blue-baby syndromne, 47,96 emissions, regions at a glance, 200-20 China, 11 6 L production and consumption, data tables, 332-33 data tables, 258-59 Literacy, 144-45, 149-50 outdoor air quality, impact of, 64 Labor force. See alaso Workplace environment Liver cancer, China, 122 parents' schooling, impact of, 15 fisheries and fishing industry, 196 Livestock production poverty's impact 00, 14 growth, data tables, 244-43 grain fed to lhvestock, data tables, 288-8a regions at a glance, 200-20 international migration, 147-49 pasture land ares, data tables, 298-299 Senegal Rivet region, 1 10 Lakes Senegal River region, 1 13 stillbirths, effect of indoor air quality. 66-67 ecosystem decline, 190-91 Lobsters, biodiversity of regional seas, data tables, 316 Infectious diseases. See alaso apecific disease European lakes, seater quality, data tables, 308 Logging, 186 antibiotic resistance, 76-77 Great Lakes.See Crear Lakes structure of forest industry, data tables, 1192-93 biological hazards, 18-26 nitrate levels, 180 Low-birth-weight infants, 154 causes of death, 10-13 Senegal River projects. See Senegal River data tables, 256-57 China, 116, 121-23 ultraviolet penetration, 183-84 Lung cancer increase of, 150 Land, agricultural. See Agricultural lanid China, 119 irrigation, impact of, 47-49 Land area and use. See alaso apecific area or tise (e.g., Agri- indoor air quality, effect of, 66 land conversion to agricultural use, imnpact of, 49-SO cuktural land, Forests and woodlandsl outdoor air quality, imnpact of, 64 364 World Resources 1998-99 smoke exposure, effect of, 67 Media campaigns, vector-borne disease Prevention China, 118 Lymnphoma, pesticide exposure, 45 strategies, 81 particulate emissions, 64 Mvegacities, 146-47 reduction of, 90 Mekong River Basin, 191 Motor vehicle manufacturing, 161 Mercury exposure, 48. See also Heavy metals alternative fuel vehicles, 173 M Metals. See Heavy' metals; Mining; specific utetals "take-hack" requirements, 168 Methane Miotor vehicles, 171-73 Maize. Sec alga Cereal atmnosphe!ric concentrations, data tables, 348 emissionis. See Motor vehicle emissions yield, 152-53 Kyoto Protocol, 174-77 energy balances, data tables, 336-37 Malaria, 24-25 paper disposal in landfills, 164 energy use, 171 Brazilian Amazon, 48-49 parity with carbon dioxide emissions, 100 increase in, 172 climate change, imipact of, 70 Mvethemoglobinemia. See Blue-baby syndrome tmanufacturing. See Motor vehicle manufacturing indicator of environmental health, 129 Methyl chloroform, atmospheric concentrations, data regions at a glance, 200-20 irrigation, impact of, 47 tables, 348 urban households, data tables, 278-79 land conversion to agricultural use, impact of, 49-SO Mexico, seater supply and sanitation improvements, 80 TMultinational cooperation morbidity rates, 48-49, 260-61 Microorganismns. health hazards. 18-26 disease prevention. 82 prevention strategies, 81-83 Meigration, 147-49. See also Relocation and resettlement environmental health in tweenty-first century, 94-95 Senegal River region, 112 Mlillet, 153.8See alaso Cereal Ryoto Protocol, 174-77 Males. See Gender Minerals. See Miniing; specific minerals (e.g., Copper) Msontreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Mali, Senegal River development. See Senegal River Mining. See alaso Coal mining and production Ozone Layer, 176-78 Mlalnutrition, 154-55 environmental impact, 52 Senegal River projects, 109-10 burden of disease, 34 gold mnining in Brazilian Amazon, 48 Municipalities. See Urban headings; Urbanization data tables, 256-57 heavy metal exposure, 58 Municipal swastewater poverty,s impact oni, 16-17,154-55 hidden material flotes, 161-62 China. 120-21, 12t, 124 reduction of, 134-53 lead mnining and processing, 60, 266-67 indicator of environmental health, 128 Senegal River region, 110, t12-13 production data tables, 338-39 irrigation seith. See Wasteweater irrigation Mearnmals Miniorities, environmnental racism, 99-10 1 treatment. Sec W7astewater treatment endangered species management programs, data ta- Moldova, pesticide exposure, 45 Murders, urban population, data tables, 278-79 bles, 326-27 Molluscs and crustaceans marine mammals, biodiversity of regional seas, data aquaculture production, data tables, 314-15 tables, 316 biodiversity of regional seas. data tables, 316 threatened species, data tables, 322-23 trade balance, data tables, 314-15 N Mangroves Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone data tables, 294-95 Layer, 176-78 Nath, K.J., 105 destruction by aquaculture production, 159 Mlorbidity rates, 13-14 Natural forests. See alaso Frontier forests Manufacturing. Sec Industrialization; Production; ape- asthm'a.30-31 data tables, 292-93 clfic industrr breast cancer, 102 Natural resources. Sec speci'fic resource Maps Central and Eastern Europe, 96-97 degradation. See Degradation of environmnent algal bloom sites, United States, 181 China, 116, 1t9 scarcity. See Scarcity of resources bird species, percentage threatened, 197 cholera, 260-61 Navigation proJects, 190-91 biomass fuel use, developing countries, 80 climate change, impact of, 70-71 Senegal Riven, 109-10 China, 115 HIVIAIDS, 150-51 Nemnaticides. Sec Pesticides demographic regions, 2 infectious diseases, 260-61 Neurological damage dengue fever risk, 26 mnalaria, 48-49, 112, 260-61 PCB exposure, 55,57 E call 0157 found, 21 measles, 260-61 pesticide exposure, 44 exposure to lead from gasoline, deseloped countries, polio, 260-61 Nigeria, wetlands ecosystem valuation, 193 S Rift Valley Fever, I ; 2 Nighttime lights, map. 224 health risks from environmnental threats, developing schistosomiasis, 47, 111-12 Nitrates countries, S tuberculosis, 25, 40, 260-61 containtinatioit from fertilizers, 46-47 indicator maps. 221-24 Meortality rates. 8-13 watersheds, data tables, 309 leaded gasoline use, 1 00 causes of death, 9-13 Nitric oxide emissions, 180 malaria. 24 Central and Eastern Europe, 96-97 Nitrogen mnalnutrition, 16 children. Sec Child mortality rates Europeani lakes, data tables, 308 sea level rise, vulnerability to, 69 China, 116,119-20,122 production date tables, 338-39 Senegal River Basin, 108 cold-related deaths., dedline, 68 Nitrogen cycle, 179-81 tester supply, projected, 190 data tables, 258-59 Nitrogen dioxide emissions Mlarine fish demographic regions, by, 3 city pollution, data tables, 264-65 aquacuhture production, data tables, 314-15 estimation methods, 12 indicator of environmental health, 127 catch, data tables, 314-16 heat stress, impact of, 67-68 Nitrous oxide, atmnospheric concentrations, data tables, catch, regions at a glance, 200-26 HIV/AIDS, 151 348 Marine mammals, biodiversity of regional seas, data ta- indoor air quality, effect of, 66-67 Nitrous oxide emissions, 180 bles, 316 infants. See Infant mortality rates China, 118 Miass media campaigns, vector-borne disease prevention maternal mnortality rates, data tables, 258-59 Kyoto Protocol, 174-77 strategies, 81 outdoor air quality, ittspact of, 63-64 Non-Hodgk its's ls'mphonsa. pesticide exposure, 45 Material flosss, 161-63 particulate emissions, effect of, 64 Noncomnmunicable diseases. See Chronic diseases ecu-efficiency strategies, 90, 167,168 pesticide poisoning, 42-43 Nonferrous metal industries, environmental impact, 52 Mvaternal ediucation, impact on child mtortality rates, 78 of,I.'0, 106 Nontropical forests, data tables, 294-95 Maternal mortality rates, data tables, 258-59 regions at a glance, 200-20 Nonwood fiber production. 164 M1auritania, Senegal River development. See Senegal smoking, 33 North America, 206-08. See alaso Canada; United States River sulfur dioxide emissions. effect of, 653 Nuclear energy Measles, 23-26 tuberculosis, 9,25,40 Chernobyl accident, 95 child mortality rates, 9 Mosquito-borne diseases. See Insect-borne diseases.;spe- production, data tables, 334-35 tmmunizations, data tables, 262-63 ctfic dibease (e.g.. Malariaj Nuclear testing, site locations, 1 06 morbidity rates, 260-61 Miotor vehicle emissions, 62-63, 172-73 Nurses, percentage of population, data tables, 262-63 World Resources 1998-99 365 Nutrition. See also Malnutrition hiealth hazards, 18-26 arsenic poisoning. See Arsenic poisor ing calorie supply, data tables, 256-57,288-89 schistosomiasis. See Schiarosomiasis lead poisoning. See Lead exposure and poisoning climate change,impact of, 71-72 wastewater irrigation, impact of, 48 pestitide poisoning, 42-44 data tables, 256-57,288-89 Parental education Poland, pollution and life expectancy, 96 indicators of environmental health, 128 infant mortality rates, impact on, 15 Policy actions. See Preventive strategies; Public policy trends, t54 maternal education, impact on child mortality rates, Polio 78 imnmunizations, data tables, 262-63 Parklands, data tables, 294-95 morbidity rates, 260-61 Particulate emi'ssi'ons Political disruption 0 China, 116-17, 119-20, 124 displaced persons, 148 city pollution, data tables, 264-65 famines caused by, 155 Occupations. See Labor force; Workplace enivironmnent bealth effects, generally, 64, 90 health, impact on, 97 Oceania, 218-20 indicator of environmental health, 127 income inequities, impact of, 146 Oceans reduction of pollution, 90 Polluter Pays Principle, 168 biodiversity, data tables, 316 total suspended particulates. See Total suspended Pollotion. See Air pollution; Soil degradat ion; Water pol- coral reefs. See Coral reefs particulates lotion; specificpollutants data tables, 313-18 Pasture land area, data tables, 298-299 Polyaromatic hydrocarbons IPAHs), Great Lakces, 55 fish. See Marine fish PCBs, 54-55, 57. See also Persistent organic pollutants Polychlorinated biphenyls. See PCBs regions at a glance, 200-20 endocrine disruptors, 56-57 Polychlorinated dioxins. See Persistent org~anic pollut- Office equipment and supplies, recycling, 168 Pelagic fish catch, data tables, 316 anits Official development assistance (0ODA) Perfiuorocarbons (PFCs),IKyoto Protocol, 174-77 Polyester, recycling, 168 data tables, 238-39 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 32, 54-58,689 Pops. See Persistent organic pollutants regions at a glance, 200-20 banning, 54 Population Oil. See also Fossil fuels endocrine disruprors, 56-57 age structure. See Age structure ofPO po lation China, production and use, 11 6 exports and imports, 54-55 Chinia, 115 environmental impact of industries, 52 future implications, 55-56 data tables, 244-45 transport sector, consumption, 172 Great Lakes, contamination, 55 demographic regions, by, 2 Onchocerciasis. See River blindness Pesticides. 41-46. See also Persistent organic pollutants density. See Population density Oral rehiydration therapy (ORT), 80 acute health effects, 42-44 growth. See Population growth data tables, 262-63 breast cancer, effect on, 103 incomre distribution by quintile, data tables, 246-47 Organic produce, coffee, 166 chronic health effects, 43, 44-46 regions at a glance, 200-20 Organochlorine pesticides, 42,45,45 consumption rates, 41-42,46 trendls, 141-51 breast cancer, effect on, 103 endocrine disruptors, 56-57 urban population, data tables, 274-77 Organophosphate pesticides, 43, 43-44,45 exports, 42,44 Population density, See also Overcrowdin& ORT local rehydration therapy), 80 flower industry in Latin America, 43 dsta tables, 298-299 data tables, 262-63 future trends in use, 46 map, 221 Outdoor air quality, 63-65. See also specific emissions health risks, 42-46 urban residential density, data tables, 276-77 asthma affected by, 30 tmmnune system suppression, 44,45 svatersheds, data tables, 309 burden of disease, 34 nonoccupational exposure, 43-45 Population growth, 37-39, 141-43 chemical hazards, 26-32 occupational exposure, 43, 43-45 Brazilian Amnazon, 46 China, 116-120 protective clothing, 43,43 data tables, 244-45 city air pollution, data tables, 264-65 reducing health risks, 85-86 demographic transitioni, 142-43 health effects, generally, 63-65, 90 regulation of use, 85 implications, 143 history of pollution, 63 Pests, plant. See Plant pests and diseases medium-variant projections, 141-42 indicators of enivironmental health, 127-29 Petroleum. See Oil probability model, 143 reduction of pollution, 90-93 PFCs (perfluorocarbonsl, Kyoto Protocol, 174-77 "social modernization:' 142 regulation, 63, 90 Phaseours urban population, 146-47,274-77 Overcrowding. See also Population density asbestos, 53 Postharvest losses, 155-56 data tables, 278-79 chlorofluorocarbons, 177-78 Potassium production, data tables, 338-39 health, impact on, 1 halons, 178 Pottery glazing, lead poisoning, 60 tuberculosis morbidity rates, impact on, 40 leaded gasoline, 60, 88-89 Pores, Sir Percival, 54 Ozone concentrations, China, 11 8 ozone-depleting substances, 61, 176-78 Poverty Ozone emissions, health effects, 65 persistent organic pollutants, 89 data tables, 248-49, 276-77 Ozone layer depletion, 32,61, 177-79 Phithppines, postharvest losses of rice, 156 disease prevention strategies, 75-78 atmospheric concentrations of ozone-depleting Phospates, watersheds, data rables, 309 environmental risks, 17-18 gases, data tables, 348 Phosphorous, data tables, 308, 338-39 female-headed households in urban population, data Montreal Protocol, 176-78 Physicians, percentage of population, data tables, 262-63 tables, 276-77 Plantations fuel use among impoverished, 81 coffee, 165-66 health, impact on, 14-18, 106-07 trees. See Forest plantations Human Poverty Index, 145 p ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Plant pests and diseases iscrease, 38-39, 145 climate change, impact of, 7 1-72 malnutrition and, 16-17, 154-55 P-ackaging Integrated Pest Management (1P M), 85-86 trends, 145-46 Germany's Packaging Ordinance, 164 pesticides. See Pesticides tuberculosis morbidity rates, impact ono.40 manufacturer 'take-back" requirements, 168 Plants urban population, data tables, 276-77 PAHs (polyaromnatic hydrocarbons), Great Lakes, 55 bioinvasions, 198 Pregnancy. See also Childbirth Paints, lead-based, 61 climate change, impact of, 174 anemia, data tables, 256-57 Paper and pulp industries, 163-65 nitrogen cycle, 179-81 contraceptive use, data tables, 262-63 data tables, 296-97 pests and diseases. See Plant pests and diseases tetanus immunizations, data tables, 262--63 enavironmseintal insipect, 52,164-65 threatened species, data rabIes, 322-23 Preventive strategies Paper consumption, 163-65 Plastics, recycling, 168 acid rain. 183 Paper recycling, 164 Plumbing, households whthout, 268 aquacuhture pollution, 160 Paraquat, 43 PM- I10. See Particulate emissions bioinvasions, 198-99 Parasitic worms Poisoning coffee production, 166 366 World Resources 1998-99 coral reef destruction, 195 nitrogen depositions, 180 corporate responisibility mnovement, 169 RSenegal River projects, 108-14 diseases. See Disease prevention watersheds, data tables, 309 eco-efficiency strategies, 90, 167, 168 Racism, environmental, 99- 101 Road transportation. See Motor vehicles 8 ~~~~~Radiation, ultraviolet. See Ultraviolet radiation Root production, data tables, 284-85 endangered species management programs, data ta- Radios, households without, 268 Root yield, data tables, 288-899 bles, 326-27 Rainfall Roundwvood production and trade fish stock management, 196 acid rain. See Acid rain data tables, 296-97 freshwater ecosystem decline, 191 agriculture, impact on, 71 regions at a glance, 200-20 malnutrition and hunger, 154-55 air pollution, impact on, 70 Rural population, regions at a glance, 200-20 material use, 90,162-63,167,168 disease rates, impact on, 70-71 Russia Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Senegal River region, 109 pesticide exposure, 45 Ozone Layer, 176-79 Ramsar sites, watersheds, data tables, 309 tuberculosis morbidity and mortality rates, 40 nitrogen imbalance, 190-91 Recycling, 162 phaseouts. See Phaseouts battery recycling, lead exposure, 60 postharvesr losses, 156 chlorofluorocarbons, 179 recycling. See Recycling "closed-loop" processing cycles, 167 S soil degradation, 159, 162 manufacturer "sake-back" requirements, 169 sustainable production. See Sustainable production paper, 164 Salt water scarcity, 189 ~~~~plastics, 168 consumption data tables, 236-57 water scaorcitd 199et(PC polyester, 169 production data tables, 338-39 Prior Informed Consent (PICI ~~~Refineries Saltwvater hazardous waste exports, 100-01I lead processing, 60,266-67 desalinsted water production, date tables, 306-307 pesticides, 95 petroleuim, environmental impact, 52 intrusion, Senegal River, 109-10 Pr-oduction. See also Industrializationt; specific industry Reforestation, 185 Sand production, data tables, 338-39 or specjifcprodsct data tables, 292-93 Sanitation aqusculture production. See Aquaculture production Refrigerators, households without, 269 access to, data tables, 250-5t 'closed-loop" processing cycles, 167 Refuigees, 149 burden of disease, 34 coal. See Coal mining and production Regional profiles, 108-23 China, t23 food production. See Food production Regions at a glance, 200-20 disease prevention strategies, 79-90,92 livestock production. See Lhvestock production Regulations. See Laws and regulations disease rates, impact on, 9 materials, data sables, 339-39 Relocation and resettlement, 149 indicator of environmental health, 129 population growth, impact of, 143 Senegal River region, 113 Sawnwood production, data tables, 296-97 sustainable production. See Sustainable production Reproductive abnormalities, endocrine disruptors, Scarcity of resources, See also Degradation of environ- trends, 161-69 56-57 ment Product steivardship, 167-68 Reptiles dfrsain e eoetto endangered species management programs, data Is- fisheries, 195-96 Prostate cancer, endocrine disruptors, 57 bles, 326-27 food. See Food security Protectedl areas threatened species, data sables, 324-25 freshwater ecosystems, 190-91 data tables, 320-21 Research studies migration, cause of, 149 forest ecosystems, data tables, 294-95 aquaculture production, 160 trends, 185-99 international protection systems, data tables, 320-21 burden of disease studies, 32-34 water. See Water shortages national protection systems, data rabies, 320-21 chemnical hazards, 30-32 wood fiber, 164-65 regions at a glance, 200-20 environmental health in twenty-first century, 94-95 Schistosomiasis watersheds, data rabIes, 309 geographic information systems lGIS), 159 climate change, impact of, 70 Protein supply, data tables, 288-89 valuinig of ecosystem services, 191-92 irrigation, impact of, 47 Protozoa, health hazards, 198-26 Reservoirs, Senegal River projects, 109-10 morbidity rates, 47 Psychosocial effects on health, 95,97 Resettlement. See Relocation and resettlement Senegal River region, 110-12, 114 Publicity campaigns, vector-borne disease prevention Residences. See Household environment School attendance, 149-50 strategies, 91 Residential density, urban data tables, 276-77 Seabirds, biodiversity of regional seas, data tabIes, 316 Publc plicySeealsoLas's ad rgulaion; Prvenive Residential energy balances, data tables, 336-37 Seafood. See Fish; Molluscs and crustaceans strategpoicy es loLw n euain;Peetv Respiratory diseases. See also specifc diseases (e.g., Lunig Seagrasses, biodiversity of regional seas, data tables, 316 strategies ~~~~~~~~cancer) Sea levels, rising, 68-69 antibiotic resistance, 76-77 Chins, 119-20 Season changes, 174 chemical hazards, 32 indoor air quality, effect of, 66-67 Senegal, water supply improvements, 79 China, 116,123-25 outdoor air quality, impact of, 63-64 Senegal River, 108-14 disease prevention, generally, 77-79, 83-84 ozone emissions, 65 background, 109 environmental heaith in twenty-first century, 94-95 particulate emissions, 64 cholera, 1 13 fuel use improvements, 91 sulfur dioxide emissions, 65 development projects, 109-to pesticide use, 95 Rice. See also Cereal diartheal diseases, 113 phaseouts. See Phaseouts crop intensification, 152-53 ecosystem changes in river basin, 10 postharvest losses, 156 postharvest losses, 156 future development, 113-14 urbanization, consequences of, 147 yield, 152-53 health problems from environmental changes, vector-borne disease prevention, 91-92 Rift Valley Fever, 112 110-13 wvater supply and sanitation improvements, 79-90,982 Riigsalvl,6-9mlra 1 Public services. See also Education; Health care services River blindness malnutrition, 112-13 energy baances, dta table, 336-37climate change, impact of, 70-71 Rift Valley Fever, I112 energy balances, dta tables, 336-37irrigation, impact of, 47 schistosomiasis, 110-12,114 government expeditures, 150 prevenition strategies, 92 social changes and conflict, 113 libraries, data tables. 250-51 Rivers Sewage. See Municipal wastewater Public transport, urban households, data tables, 278-79 annual flow, data tables, 304-05 Sewage systems, urban households, data tables, 279-79 Pulp industries. See Paper sod pulp industries dams, 190-91 Sewage treatment. See Wastewater treatment Pulse production, data tables, 294-95 ecosystem decline, 190-91 Sharks, biodiversity of regional seas, data tables, 316 Purchase power parity; regions at a glance, 200-20 Mekong River Basin, 191 Ships, ballast water discharges, 199 World Resources 1998-99 367 Shrimp indicator of environmental health, 127 coffee trade, 165-66 aquaculture production, 159-60 reduction of pollutioni, 90 electricity trade, data tablea, 334-35 biodiversity of regional seas, data tables, 316 trading of emissions, 88, 175 fish, fish meal, mollusca and crustaceanis, trade bal- Silver production, data tables, 338-39 trends, 181-84 ance, data tables, 314-15 Skin cancer, UV-B radiation, 61 Sulfur hexafluoride, Kyoto Protocol, 174-77 free trade zones, 53 Sleeping sickniess, impact of climate change, 70 Sulfur production, data tables, 338-39 increase in global trade, 38 Smoke. See also Black smoke; Coal consumption and SUrface watet. See abso Lakes; Rivets toundwoodi trade, data sables, 296-97 emissions; Particulate emissions nitrate contamination from fertilizers, 46-47 water markets, 189 cookstove smoke, 66-67 resources and withdrawals, data tables, 304-05 wood trade, data tables, 296-97 wood smnoke, 67 Sustainable cultivation, 162 Transportation. See also headings starting siith Motor ye- Smoking coffee, 166 hicle health hazards, 97 Sustainable fishing, 196 energy balances, data tables, 336-37 mortality rates, 33 Sustainable production, 166-69. See also Recycling urban households, data tables, 278-79 Snails corporate responsibility movement, 169 Trash. See Solid waste golden apple snail, 198 eco-efficiency strategies, 90, 167, 166 Trees. See Forests and woodlands schistosomiasis. See Schistosomiasis incentives, 168-69 Trends in global environment, 138-224 SO, emissions. See Sulfur dioxide emissions phases of progression toward, 166-67 food production and security, 152-60 Social audhting, 169 product stewardship, 167-68 global commons, 170-84 Social investmDents, data tables, 250-51 reshaping industry, 168-69 population and human wdll-being, 141 -51 "Social modernization," 142 Synthetic xenoestrogens, effect on breast cancer, 103-04 production and consumption, 161-69 Social services. See also Education; Health care services resources at risk, 184-99 government expeditures, 150 Trichuris worms, impact of vastewater irri:ation, 48 libraries, data tables, 250-51 Tropical rainforests Socioeconomic characteristics of cities, data tables, Tdata tables, 294-95 276-77 deforestation, 186 Socioeconomic development Tanning industries, environmenital impact, 52 wood pulp production, 163 corporate responsibility movement, 169 Tanzania, fertility rates, 142 Trucks. See headings starting with Motor vehicle education, impact of, 149-30 Taxation Tuberculosis (TB) population growth, effect on, 142 carbon tax, 92-93 immunizations, data tabIes, 262-63 Socioeconomic disruption chlorofluorocarbon excise tax, United States, 178 morbidity rates, 25, 40, 260-61 climate change, impact of, 68 energy taxation, 91-93, 92 mortality rates, 9,25,40 health, impact on, 97 Televisions urbanization, impact of, 40 income inequities, impact of, 146 households without, 268 Tuber production, data tables, 284-85 international migration, 149 regions at a glance, 200-20 Tuber yield, data tables, 288-89 Senegal River region, 113 Temperature changes, 67-68. See also Global warming Typhoid, 48-49, 122 Soil, biological or chemical h-azards, 19-24,26-32 agriculture, impact on, 71 Soil degradation, 156-58 air pollution, impact on, 69-70 acid rain, effect of, 178, 182 carbon dioxide emissions, inipact of, 171 nitrogen imnbalance, 180 disease rates, impact on, 70-71 1f Soil erosion, 157-58, 161 Temperature profiles of atmosphere, 173-74 risinig sea levels, impact of, 69 Terrestrial ecosystems, nitrogen imbalance, 180 Ultraviolet radiation, 61 United States, 162 Testicular cancer, endocrine disruptors, 57 acid rain, combined imnpact of, 183-84 Solar ultraviolet radiation. See Ultraviolet radiation Tetanus immnunizations, data tables, 262-63 Undernourishment. See Malnutrition Solid fuels Thailand United Church of Christ Commission for Racial justice, carbon dioxide emissions, data tables, 344-45, 347 aquacultute production, 159-60 99-100 emissions, regions at a glance, 200-20 fertility rates, 142 United States health hazards, 80 malnutrition, reduction of, 155 sir quality standards, 90 production and consumption, data tables, 332-33 Thermal energy production, data tables, 334-35 ballast water discharge regulations, 198 Solid waste. See also Hiazardous waste Threatened and endangered species chtorofluorocarbon excise tax, 178 paper, 164 amphibians, data tables, 324-25 emissions trading, 88, 175 urban households, data tables, 278-79 bioinvasions, 197-99 food waste, 156 Sorghum, yield, 153 birds, 197,322-23 Great Lakes. See Great Lakes South America, 212-14. See also specific coutsnries data tables, 322-25 greenhouse gas emissions, 176 Hidrovia project, 191 fish, data tables, 324-25 HIVIAIDS morbidity rate, 151 Southeast Asia, urbanization, 39 mammals, data tables, 322-23 leaded gasoline phaseout, 60 Soviet Union (former). See also Ruissia management programs, data tables, 526-27 nitrogen oxide emissions, 183 HI V/AIDS morbidity rate, 151 plants, data tables, 322-23 pesticide exposure, 44 Sparse trees and parklands, data tables, 294-95 reptiles, data tables, 324-25 soil erosion, 162 Steel industries, environmental impact, 52 Threatened frontier forests, data tables, 294-95 sti]fur dioxide emissions, 182-83 Stephens, Carolyn, 106-07 Thyroid cancer, Chernobyl accidtent, 95 tuberculosis morbidity rates, 40 Sterility, pesticide exposure, 44 Toilets, flush, households without, 268 watershed protection and ecosystem valuation, 193 Stillbirths, effect of indoor air quality, 66-67 Total suspended particulates (TSP) Urban agglomerations, data tables, 274-75 Stomach cancer, China, 122 China, 117,120 Urban characteristics, citylevel, dots tables, 276-77 Stoves city pollution, data tables, 264-65 Urban environment, city level, data tables, 278-79 cookstove smoke, 66-67 indicator of environmental healhb, 127 Urbanization, 39 environmental improvements, 80-81 Tourism, coral reef damage, 194 China, 115-16 Stratospheric ozone depletion. See Ozone layer depletion Toxaphene. See Persistent organic pollutants data tables, 275-81 Subsidies. See Financial aid and incentives Toxic algal blooms, 180-8 1, 194 developing countries, 146 Sulfur dioxide emissions Toxic waste. See Hazardous waste environmental health in twenty-first cenittry, 94-9 5 China, 117-18, 120,124 Tractors, data tables, 286-87 implications of, 146-47 city pollution, data tables, 264-65 Trade. See also Exports; Imports mnegacities, 146-47 developed countries, 183-84 bioinvasions fostered by, 197-98 outdoor air quality, 63 developing countries, 182-83 cereal trade, data tables, 288-89 population growth, 146-47,274-77 health effects, 64-65 chlorofluorocarbons, 178 public policies, 147 368 World Resources 1998-99 rate ot, 146-47 urban households, data tables, 278-79 plant pests and diseases, effect on, 71 socioeconomic indicators, data tables, 276-77 Water-borne diseases, 19-24, 78-79 West Africa tuberculosis increase, 40 China, 121-22 Onchocerciasis Control Programme, 82 Urban population, 200-20 climate change, impact of, 71 Senegal River, damming, 108-14 data tables, 274-77 Water markets, 189 West Bengal, arsenic poisoning, 105 growth, 146-47 Water pollution Wetlands Urban residential density, data tables, 276-77 agricultural water pollution, 87 data tables, 309, 320-21 Urinary schistosomiasis, 111-12 aquaculture production causing, 160 ecosystems, 190-91, 193 UV radiation. See Ultraviolet radiation arsenic poisoning in West Bengal, 105 Wheat, 152-53. See also Cereal biological hazards, 19-24, 78-79 Whooping cough immunizations, data tables, 262-63 burden of disease, 34 Wildlife chemical hazards, 26-32 chemical hazard studies, 30-32 V China, 116,120-22 endocrine disruptors, 56-57 European lakes, data tables, 308 exposre 33 Vector-borne diseases, 24-25. See also Insect-borne dis- indicators of environmental health, 128 PCB exposure, 55 eases; specifc disease nitrate contamination from fertilizers, 46-47 threatened species. See Threatened and endangered climate change, impact of, 70 paper and pulp industry, 164 species irrigation, impact of, 86 scarcity of water, impact on, 189 Wilkinson, Clive, 193 land conversion to agricultural use, impact of, 49-50 Watersheds Wind patterns, impact on air pollution, 70 prevention strategies, 81-83 data tables, 309 Woodlands. See Forests and woodlands Senegal River, 110-13 ecosystem valuation, 193 Wood production and trade, 200-20 Vehicles. See Mtotor vehicles map, 224 data tables, 296-97 VioLence Water shortages, 188-90 Wood smoke, 67 murders in urban populations, data tables, 278-79 China, 120 Workplace environment Wars. See Armed conflicts health, effect on, 155 air quality See Indoor air quality Viral hepatitis, China, 122 map, 223 chemical hazards, 26-32 Viruses, health hazards, 18-26 Water storage, disease prevention strategies, 81 injuries from industrial accidents, 54 Vitamin A deficiency Water supply See also Drinking water pesticide exposure, 43,43-45 data tables, 256-37 agricultural water. See Agricultural water World Bank commodity indexes and prices,240 indicator of environmental health, 128 consumption rates, 188-89, 304-05 World heritage sites, data tables, 320-21 desalinated water production, data tables, 306-307 Worms. See Parasitic worms disease prevention strategies, 78-80, 82 domestic water withdrawals, 188-89, 304-05 freshwater resources and withdrawvals, 188-89, W 304-05 X groundwater. See Groundwater Wages, impact on industrialization, 53 indicator of environmental heaLth, 128 Xenoestrogens, effect on breast cancer, 103-04 tAtar. See Armed conflicts industrial wsater swithdraweals, 188-89,304-05 Waste internal renewable resources, data tables, 304-05 hazardous waste. See Hazardous waste irrigation, impact of, 86 industrial wastesvater. See Industrial wastewater lakes. See Lakes y municipal wastewater. See Municipal wastewater piped water, households without, 268 solid waste. See Solid waste pollution. See Water pollution "Yield plateau," 152-53 Waste of resources, 161-63. See also Consumption rates regions at a glance, 200-20 "Yield stagnation," 152-53 food waste, 156 rivers. See Rivers paper, 163-64 Senegal River development projects, 109-10 sustainable production. See Sustainable production shortages. See WVater shortages Wastewater See Industrial svastewater; Municipal waste- surface water See Surface water Z seater urban households, data tables, 278-79 Wastewater irrigation, 47-48, 86-87 watersheds. See Watersheds Zinc. See Heavy metals China, 122 withdrawals, 188-89 Zoos, endangered species management programs, data Wastewater treatment, 189 Weather events, 68. See also specific events (e.g.. Floods) tables, 326-27 World Resources 1998-99 369 WRI Classroom Resources Forthcoming 1999 ....WRI Teacher's Guides Healthcoaind En19r9 n t 'These self-contained Teacher's Guides contain everything The latest unit in the Teacher's needed to teach multi-part Guide to World Resources lessons on a critical global series with focus on the health issue including: suggestions for and environment issues integrating the topics into discussed in World Resources civics, government, history, 1998-99. The guide exatmines geography, mathematics, and environmentally caused health science curriculums; step-by- problems in the United States .it ... " step teaching strategies; student and worldwide and guides A, $ > 5 ........ l rX ffi enrichment activities; student students to investigate health :. - ' handouts and overhead issues in their own home and transparency masters; and community. 1998 Est. 90 pp. e suggestionsforfurther reading. Biodiversity. Why care about species going Exploring Sustainable Communities. This Oceans and Coasts. Fish catches extinct? This unit takes a hard look at the guide draws on real world information pulled in many of the world's traditional fisheries economic, ecological, ethical, and aesthetic together for the UN Habitat II conference and have plunged in the past several years. reasons. Students explore the root causes of for the President's Council on Sustainable Students will explore the reasons for these Biodiversity loss, along with strategies for Development to produce a hands-on exploration dramatic declines and examine the health conservation. 23 pp., $8.95, 0-7872-4259-4 of worldwide trends in urban growth and the of the world's oceans. 18 pp., $8.95, ensuing environmental and social problems 0-7872-4264-0 Car Trouble. Students study their famiuly's as well as methods that draw students into a automobile use and calculate the hidden costs closer involvement, a sense of empowerment, Population, Poverty, and Land of driving, investigate alternative fuels and and concern about their own communities. Degradation. This unit examines the technologies, and, finally, envision a 87 pp., $8.90, 0-7872-3648-9 relationship among population, poverty, sustainable transportation system for the and land degradation--the tragedy behind future. 44pp., $9.95, 0-7872-4260-8 Exploring Sustainable Communities: the terrible suffering in many developing Optional Transparency Packet. 20 color countries that students see on TV but can't Citizen Action. This unit explores how transparencies of maps, photos, and satellite really understand without background. citizen groups can organize and fight for images that can be used in conjunction with the 19 pp.. $8.95. 0-7872-4266-7 environmental quality and good natural Teacher's Guide above. Includes images and re source management. 24 pp., $8.95, photos connected with case studies in the Guide Sustainable Development. This unit looks 0-7872-4261-6 as well as satellite imagery of famous cities. at the concept of sustainable development Energy, Atmosphere, and Climate. 1997, $24.90, 0-7872-3649-7 through economic, social, environmental, and technological lenses. Students will learn Energy consumption patterns around the India and China. Students get a view of what sustainable development means in world are tightly linked to air pollution rates each nation's history, culture, and major developed, newly industrialized, and and global climate changes. This unit makes resource issues and consider a variety of developing nations. 34 pp., $8.95, these complex relationships understandable environment and development issues from 0-7872-4267-5 and outlines actions students can take for Chinese, Indian, and Western perspectives. energy conservation. 27 pp., $8.95, 78 pp., $10.95, 0-7872-4263-2 Watershed Pollution. Students get the 0-7872-4262-4 big picture of the world's watersheds and National Resource Economics. How is it the basic concepts they need to size up the that the Exxon Valdez oil spill actually boosted health and anatomy of their local watershed. the U.S. economy? This unit reveals what 21 pp.. $8.95, 0-7872-4268-3 happens when valuable natural capital is allowed to slip away without notice. 18 pp. Women, Equity, and Sustainable Introduction to Our $8.95, 0-7872-4265-9 Development This unit links women's Global Environment education and cultural roles with resource This incisive, informative management, family size, and sustainable This incisive, informative ~~~~~~~~~~~development around the world. A series of 10 minute video provides an Published by Kendall-Hunt overheads gives startling statistics on excellent introduction to global Publishing Co., Dubuque, Iowa women's health, education, income, and issues, It is designed to be used To order or to political power around the world. 58 pp., in conjunction with the request $9.95, 0-7872-4269-1 Teacher's Guides to World more information, call Visit our Environmental Resources series. 1994/VHS 800-KH-BOOKS Education Website at 10 minutes. 0-7872-3272-7 (542-6657). httD://www.wri.orp/wrilenved WORLD RESOURCES 1998-99 READER SURVEY ............. ... ...................................................................... ................................................. TO REMAIN ON OUR MAILING LIST, PLEASE FILL OUTAND RETURN THIS SURVEY. THANK YOU. About yourself 7. In the current volume which part(s) do you use leastoften? 1. Your country of residence? _ Part i: Environmental Change and Human Health Part Il: Global Environmental Trends 2. For what purpose do you use WorldResources? (check all that apply) _ Critical Trends - Regions at a Glance _ for scholarly research _ Part Ill: Data Tables - for policy research _ to teach a class 8. What type of companion materials to World Resources would be most useful -to prepare a speech to you? _ to write an article _ for access to basic environmental data _ data diskette _ other _ teachers' guide -slides of graphics/maps 3. How do you use WorldResources? (check all that apply) _ other _ read all sections thoroughly 9. I use the World Resources Institute (WRI) Web site to access the report. _ read certain sections thoroughly _ skim through or glance at _ no _ keep as a personal reference _ yes _ place in a library _ I don't have access to the Internet. _ share with interested colleagues _ leave unused on shelf Your thoughts on the data tables _ other 10. Are there tables you find particularly useful? Your thoughts on overall content and presentation -no 4. How would you rate the report as a source of objective and impartial - yes, specifically information? 11. Are there tables that you would like to be added? _ always objective _ usually objective -no _ sometimes objective - yes, specifically _ rarely objective 12. Are there tables you think should be omitted? 5. If you are familiar with previous volumes of WorldResources, please tell us which part(s) of WorldResources you found most useful? _ no -yes, specifically -special focus (e.g., Urban Environment in World Resources 1996-97) 13. In what format do you most often use the data tables? _ resource related chapters (e.g., Food and Agriculture, Population and Human Development, etc.) - in the report _ data tables on diskette _ not familiar with previous volumes _ from the WRI Web site 6. In the current volume which part(s) do you use most often? 14. I rely on the data tables in the World Resources: _ Part l: Environmental Change and Human Health _ as a primary source of data for my information needs _ Part Il: Global Environmental Trends _ as one of many sources I rely on for my data needs (such as the World Bank, _ Critical Trends Internet, etc.) - Regions at a Glance _ because they are more easily accessible than other sources for data I need _ Part Ill: Data Tables _ other aJiaq ade4 pue puowas Ploi *noAX ue4q Adoj0Au0 ue U! a)eid aseald'sajejS paun a4 apisno palpew j AXlunOD opoD 1!eA aje4S/A1!D ssaJppv UoiWZiuebiO UOI!HSOd OweN Place postage here World Resources Report World Resources Institute 1709 New York Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20006 U.S.A. 15. We welcome any and all comments and suggestions concerning the World Resources series. Fold First WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE Health, Environment, and Development Program ........................... ................................................................................................................................................................... WRI's Program in Health, information on breast cancer pollution can be staggering. In Environment, and Development prevention and reproductive conjunction with WRI's Program (HED) generates analyses and health, including a documentary in Economics and Population, policy options to help film featuring Olivia Newton- HED is estimating the health and governments and the private John and Web site slide shows economic costs associated with sector grapple with the and other materials. fossil fuel use in China, Mexico, increasingly complex links and Brazil, and developing between environmental Health and Environment innovative policy solutions to conditions and human health. Profile of China address these problems. These The program is currently local reductions will have concentrated in the following China's economy is growing as important implications for the areas: fast as any in the world, with global environment as a whole, to associated growth in air and the extent that they include Health and water pollution. Working with improvements in energy Environmental Indicators WRI's Climate Program and efficiency and reductions in leaders in China, HED is greenhouse gas emissions. This project identifies and documenting the extent and develops environmental health persistence of environmental -. --.-.-.-.- indicators that demonstrate pollution, and assessing related current-and predict health and economic costs to For more information, contact: future-patterns of health and assist policymakers in making some of their important sound decisions about issues Devra Lee Davis determinants, such as climate pertaining to public health and Program Director change and pollution. sustainable development. 202/662-2567 Environmental Health Reducing Air Pollution in A. Karim Ahmed Education and Outreach Developing Countries Deputy Director 202/662-3763 Several HED projects document Urban air pollution poses a dual the link among environmental threat in that it causes major Rita Farrell exposure and a variety of health environmental health problems Program Assistant outcomes, and disseminate this and also produces gases that 202/662-2567 information to the scientific exacerbate the greenhouse effect. community and the general Respiratory health problems or visit our Web site at: public. WRI is generating associated with urban air http://www.wri.org/wri/ RECENT PUBLICATIONS "Public Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels," WHO/WRI Working Group, Lancet, November 1997. "Environmental Influences on Breast Cancer," Devra Lee Davis, Deborah Axelrad, and Michael Osborne, Science and Medicine, June 1997. "Reduced Ratio of Male to Female Births in Several Industrial Countries: A Sentinel Health Indicator?" Devra Lee Davis, Julie Stampnitzky, and Michelle Gottlieb, Journal of the American Medical Association, in press. The Geography of Risk What Accounts for the Rise in Asthma? Cholera Returns to Latin America Environmental Justice Pesticide Risks: Acute and Chronic Malnutrition and Environmental Risks Malaria in the Brazilian Amazon Poverty, Health, and the Environment Tuberculosis and Urban Inequality Urban Air Pollution The Spread of Dengue Fever Persistent Organic Pollutants Pollution in the Black Triangle Are Hormone Mimics Affecting Our Health? Indoor Air Pollution Breast Cancer and the Environment Heavy Metals and, Health Getting Lead out of Gasoline Tackling Air Pollution and Climate Change Competing Risks in West Bengal Is China's Growth Sustainable? Global Production of Toxic Metals Deforestation and Infectious Disease Heat-Related Deaths from Climate Change Damming the Senegal River: Unintended COnm Improving Health Through Environmental Acie Managing Pests Strategically 780195 214086 ISBN 0-19-521408-0