Country Studies
Education Reform and Management Publication Series
Vol. I * No. 5 - July 2000
The Cuban Education System:
Lessons and Dilemmas
Lavinia Gasperini                      21752
EDUCATAEON
T  H  E    W  0  R  L  D  B  A  N  K



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
Lavinia Gasperini
Country Studies
Education Reform and Management Publication Series
Vol. I * No. 5 * July 2000






i.    Ml -
About the Author                                                              II
Preface                                                                       V
Executive Summary                                                             1
Introduction                                                                  3
1. High-quality Education in a Poor Country                                   5
2. Elements of a Successful System                                            7
Sustained Investments in Education                                        7
Consistent Policy Environment, Supportive of Quality Basic Education      8
Professional, High-status Teachers and Ongoing Professional Development   9
Low-cost, High-quality Instructional Materials                            10
Systemwide Evaluation and Competition Among Classes and Schools          11
Participation in School Management                                        13
Outreach to Rural Children                                                14
Attention to Special Needs                                                15
Linking School and Work                                                   16
Education for Social Cohesion and Values Education                        19
Ongoing Tensions: Quality and Equity                                      20
3. Questions for the Future of the Cuban Education System                    21
ANNEXES                                                                      23
BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                                 33






Lavinia Gasperini has served as the FAO Senior Education Officer based in Rome, Italy, since April
2000. Her main areas of work are education for agriculture and rural development, education systems
reform (with a special focus on countries in transition and crisis, and peace processes), curriculum
development, basic education, vocational and technical education and training, and higher education.
From 1998 to 2000 Ms. Gasperini was a World Bank Education Specialist in the Latin America and
Caribbean Region and the Africa Region. From 1987 to 1998 she was the Senior Education Specialist
of the Italian Development Aid (DGCS), where she was responsible for sector policymaking and coor-
dination with international and bilateral organizations on aid to education. She has worked widely in
Africa and the Middle East where she has formulated, monitored and assessed projects in more than
25 countries.
From 1977 to 1985 Ms. Gasperini served as Director of the Faculty of Education and professor of
teacher training, literacy and adult education at the University Eduardo Mondlane in Mozambique. She
was also involved in the reform of the newly independent country's education system and served as
Pedagogical Director of the School of Journalism.
Ms. Gasperini has a Ph.D. in Education (Sorbonne, France) and a B.A. in Education (Rome, Italy).
Her B.A. dissertation was on the Cuba education system  A journalist since 1978, she was the
correspondent of ANSA from Mozambique, serves on the board of Confronti, a journal for intercultural
dialogue, and has published extensively on education and development issues.
III






This paper was inspired by a study tour of Cuba undertaken by representatives of the Government of
Colombia, the Ministry of Education in Cuba and World Bank staff. The seminar was entitled "Inter-
change of Experiences on the Education Systems of Colombia and Cuba." It sought to provide a
comparative basis for understanding educational problems and issues across the two systems. The
seminar represents a growing dialogue between Cuba and its Latin American neighbors on issues of
education. The information presented here was gathered during the study tour and supplemented with
other documents. Needless to say, the opinions are those of the author and do not necessarily repre-
sent those of the World Bank or any of its affiliated institutions.
v






=;=Wi --
The record of Cuban education is outstanding: universal school enrollment and attendance; nearly
universal adult literacy; proportional female representation at all levels, including higher education; a
strong scientific training base, particularly in chemistry and medicine; consistent pedagogical quality
across widely dispersed classrooms; equality of basic educational opportunity, even in impoverished
areas, both rural and urban. In a recent regional study of Latin America and the Caribbean, Cuba
ranked first in math and science achievement,' at all grade levels, among both males and females. In
many ways, Cuba's schools are the equals of schools in OECD countries, despite the fact that Cuba's
economy is that of a developing country.
What has allowed Cuba's education system to perform so well, even under the severe resource con-
straints of the past decade, is the continuity in its education strategies, sustained high levels of
investments in education, and a comprehensive and carefully structured system, characterized by:
*      Quality basic education and universal access to primary and secondary school;
*      Comprehensive early childhood education and student health programs (established as
part of the commitment to basic education);
-      Complementary educational programs for those outside school-literacy, adult and non-
formal education (again as part of the basic education commitment);
*      Mechanisms to foster community participation in management of schools;
*      Great attention to teachers (extensive pre- and in-service training, high status and morale,
incentives, transparent system of accountability, strategies for developing a culture of
professionalism, rewards for innovation);
*      Low-cost instructional materials of high quality;
*      Teacher and student initiative in adapting the national curriculum and developing instruc
tional materials locally;
*      Carefully structured competition that enhances the system rather than the individual;
*      Explicit strategies to reach rural students and students with special needs;
1 UNESCO/OREALC Laboratorio Latinoamericano de evaluaci6n de la Calidad de la Educaci6n, Primer Estudio
Intemacional Comparativo sobre Lenguaje, MatematicayFactoresAsociados en Terceroy Cuarto gradq UNESCO,
Santiago, 1998.



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
*      Strategies to link school and work; and
*      An emphasis on education for social cohesion.
The importance of these factors is affirmed by a growing body of school quality and effectiveness
research carried out in other parts of the world, mostly subsequent to or at least independently of their
adoption in Cuba. Thus Cuba's experience is instructive in several ways. It provides evidence of the
importance of certain critical inputs, around which research consensus is growing. Though unlikely to
be replicated in full, many of these inputs can be adopted-clear standards of accountability, provision
of textbooks, attention to the professional development of teachers, etc. Most importantly, perhaps,
the Cuban case demonstrates that high quality education is not simply a function of national income
but of how that income is mobilized. A highly-mobilized people can realize high quality education by
ensuring the necessary inputs, paying attention to equity, setting and holding staff to high professional
standards, and caring for the social roles of key stakeholders-teachers, community members, chil-
dren.
As Cuba opens itself to global economic influences, these elements are likely to undergo considerable
stress. One set of challenges revolves around the affordability of high quality education. Cuba will
increasingly face issues of direct cost, such as the continued provision of textbooks. Indirectly, the
system will be affected by external issues such as the salaries potential teachers will be able to earn
outside the education system versus those inside. It is unclear whether Cuba will be able to maintain
the consistency of educational investments and policy strategy in a more open environment. The
system's commitment to equity will surely be tested, as economic opportunities provide greater op-
portunities for families to purchase high quality education for their members, directly or indirectly. The
challenges are daunting, but then who would have predicted that Cuba-after a decade of economic
turmoil-would have built the region's highest-achieving schools? The next few years are likely to be
critical ones if Cuba's educational excellence is to be maintained, whether Cuba follows the path of
other transitional economies and education systems or charts its own course.
2



The growing body of international research on educational quality and effectiveness, while continuing to
evolve in many ways, has developed broad agreement on many of the factors associated with high school
quality and effectiveness. Much of this consensus was developed at the World Conference on Education for
All (Jomtien, Thailand, 1990) and subsequently elaborated. These factors range from systemic factors
such as a sufficiency of facilities and resources, a supportive policy environment, and parent and commu-
nity involvement in schools, to school-based factors such as high expectations, clear goals, creative use of
high-quality instructional materials, employment of motivated teachers, ongoing professional development,
comprehensive assessment and feedback, and teacher and student involvement in defining, carrying out,
and evaluating learning processes and outcomes. Interestingly, the Cuban education system adopted
many of these features independently of the school effectiveness and quality research. This paper dis-
cusses those features as well as ongoing tensions facing the system.
3






S 3                I                * O 
The Cuban educational system has long enjoyed a reputation for high quality Recent studies comparing
achievement tests scores from Cuba with those from other Latin American countries, have further high-
lighted the achievements of the Cuban system. Figure 1 provides illustrative comparisons, in which Cuban
students score significantly higher than do students in other Latin American countries, often by as much as
two standard deviations. See also Table 1, Annex 1.
The Cuban education system has performed most satisfactorily on other conventional measures as well2
According to official data, for example, 98 percent of Cuban children of the appropriate age attended pre-
school in 1997-98. The enrollment rate for 6 to 16-year olds was 94.2 percent, and primary school gross
enrollment exceeded 100 percent. Repetition rates were 1.9 percent in primary school, 2.8 percent in
secondary and 1.8 percent in pre-university school. Age-grade distortion was about 2.5 percent in primary,
3.7 percent in basic secondary and 0.9 percent in pre-university.3 In the mid-1990s there were 241,000
illiterates, out of a population of 11 million.4 In 1959, in stark comparison, half of Cuba's children did not
attend school at all, 72 percent of 13 to 19 year olds failed to reach intermediate levels of schooling, and
there were over one million illiterates.5
Cuba's schools have been remarkably successful in achieving gender equity, reaching rural and disadvan-
taged populations, and fostering community participation, even in the context of rapidly dwindling resources.
Cuba is a poor country, and the past decade has been particularly difficult economically. Yet the success
of its schools flaunts conventional wisdom: Education in Cuba is entirely public, centrally planned, and free,
in a global reform environment of privatization, downscaling of the state role, and cost recovery.
The Cuban education system is characterized by:
*  Sustained and high levels of investment in education;
*  Consistent policy environment and political will in support of education for all;
*  Quality basic education, including early childhood and student health initiatives, literacy, adult and
non-formal education programs;
2 UNESCO, SIRI, Regional Information System, "The State of Education in Latin America and the Caribbean,
1980-94, Majorprojectofeducation" UNESCO, Santiago, Chile, 1996, UNESCO/OREALC 1998. For research on
the reliability of Cuban government statistics, see Benigno E Aguirre and Roberto J. Vichot, The Reliability of
Cuba's Education Statistics, Comparative Education Review, May 1998.
3Annex 3 presents data provided by the Cuban Ministry of Education to particpants in the Study Tour.
4 UNESCO, SIRI, 1996, p.223.
5 E. Martin and Y.F. Faxas, Cuba, in: T. Nelville Postlethwaite, National Systems of Education, Pergamon.
5



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
*  Universal access to primary and secondary school:
* Complementary educational support systems: early childhood and student health, literacy, adult
and non formal education;
*   Highly professional, well-trained teachers of high status:
*  Ongoing professional development of teachers:
* Low-cost instructional materials of high quality:
*  Creativity on the part of local educators in adapting and developing instructional materials:
*  System-wide evaluation:
*  Solidarity within schools and classrooms; competition among schools and classrooms:
*  Significant community participation in school management:
*  Compensatory schemes for disadvantaged and rural children:
*  Clear connections between school and work: and
* An emphasis on education for social cohesion.
Figure 1. Comparison of Achievement Test Scores in Language, Cuba and Other Countries
in Latin American and the Caribbean (Source: UNESCO/OREALC)
Third Grade Language Achievement Scores
(Median, 25%, 75%)
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Cuba
Honduras
M1 exico
Paraguay
I)ominican R.
Venez ucla
150              200               250              300               350              400
The remainder of this paper elaborates these points in an attempt to understand these elements of Cuba's
success.6 Essentially, we ask what factors account for the high performance of the Cuban education
system. Then, in the final section, we raise some of the questions facing the system in the context of a
decade of austerity and Cuba's growing participation in the global economy.
6 An exhaustive analytical literature describes the Cuban System in detail as well as the debate among its
partisans and detractors (see, for example, Sheryl L. Lutjens, Education and the Cuban revolution, A selected
bibliography, Comparative Education Review, Pergamon Press, May 1998). These will not be discussed in this
paper, although a brief description of the system is available in Annex 2.
6



Sustained Investments in Education
High Levels of Investment
Cuba devotes about 10 percent to 11 percent of its GDP to education, a very high percentage compared
with the rest of the region7 or with the 6 percent recommended as adequate by UNESCO.8 Of course, the
size of GDP allocated to education alone is insufficient to define an effective education system.
High Levels of Non-salary Expenditures
Cuba has invested substantial resources in non-salary items. Until March 1999, 60 percent of the Educa-
tion budget was devoted to teachers' salaries with the remaining 40 percent for non-salary items used to
support instruction. Both of these policies correspond to current understandings of best practices in educa-
tion finance. Unfortunately, it will be difficult to maintain such a high percentage of expenditures on non-
salary items. In March 1999, teachers received a 30 percent salary increase, a move that decreases the
resources available for non-salary costs. Teacher motivation and retention are also threatened by de-
creases in the purchasing power of salaries and the attractiveness of new professional activities, especially
in tourism and in foreign firms, as evidenced by teacher attrition of 4 to 8 percent per year in the eastern
oriental provinces, where tourism is more developed.
Sustained and Coordinated Investments
Investments in education need to be sustained over a long period of time to achieve maximum results.
Greater investments or allocation of resources to education as an isolated strategy do not necessarily bring
better educational results.
Ministry of Education, Cuba Organization of Education, 1994-6. Report of the Republic of Cuba to the 45th
International Conference on Public Education Havana 1996, p.1.
8 Jo Ritzen, Looking for Eagles; A Short Guide to Bird Watching in an Educational Context World Bank. Washing-
ton 1999.
Jo Ritzen, 1999.
7



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
Consistent Policy Environment, Supportive of Quality Basic Education
As in many other socialist countries, the Marxist-Leninist philosophy of praxis inspires the objectives of the
education system10 of educating a "New Human Being," to:
assume its most basic social duties, to educate this being to produce material and spirituals
goods thatwill serve society in a way that every human being participates in material production, in
orderto eliminate the contradiction among school and society, producerand consumers, intellec-
tual work and physical work, and among cities and rural areas."
Clear Objectives
These objectives were set, of course, by the same party that has run the country for almost 40 years.
Continuity of educational policy and strategy-quite unusual in most countries of the region-has contrib-
uted to the achievement of goals set by party and government. The different components of the education
system are articulated around common objectives, subject to constant evaluation with the participation of
the broader educational community, and centered in the classroom.
Stability
In many Latin American countries, frequent political changes may impede the development and consolida-
tion of educational strategies and achievements. The Cuban experience suggests that measures are
needed to protect the education system from the disruptive effects of continuous changes in strategies and
plans. Education is a long-term investment requiring consistent policies and political stability to grow. This
stability, however, was achieved at the cost of one-party rule.
Access to Quality Basic Education
The great emphasis placed on education and the high degree of collective control ensure that access to
education is effectively universal. The high levels of investment permitted an emphasis on both equity and
quality. Comprehensive early childhood and student health services, widespread literacy, adult, and non-
formal education programs support the objectives of basic education for all.
10 See, for example: Mario A Manacorda, ll Marxismo e 1'educazione, vol. 1, 11, e l1l, Armando, Rome, 1966; Mario A
Manacorda, Marx e la Pedagogia Modema, Editori Riuniti, Rome 1996; Castles, S. and Wustemberg W., The
Education of the Future. An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Socialist Education, Pluto Press, London
1979: Dietrich Theo, La pedagogie socialiste: fondements et conceptions, Maspero, Paris, 1973; Dommaget
Maurice, Les grand socialistes et 1'education, Colin, Paris, 1970; Le Than Kh6i, Les idees de Marxs sur 1'education,
Paris, Revue de lsEducation Internationale et Comparee, Barcelone, n.1,1987; Lavinia Gasperini, Luomo nuovo
come obbiettivo del sistema educativo del Mozambico, Politica Internazionale, La Nuova Italia, Rome, n.10,
October 1980.
" Gaspar Garcia Gallo, Bosquejo general del desarollo de la education en Cuba, Education, n.14, julio, setiembro
1974, p. 62.
8



Part 2
Professional High-status Teachers and Ongoing Professional Development
Lifelong Training
Teacher training is a lifelong process including training on the job as well as formal and informal training. Its
major aim is to support teachers to improve classroom practice. Fifteen higher education pedagogical
institutes (HPI, institutospedagogicos supeniores) and the pedagogical faculties provide formal preparation
of teachers for day-care centers, primary schools, and intermediate schools. HPIs offer formal daytime
courses for pre-university graduates and mid-level graduates of technical and vocational schools. Pre-
service courses consist of five years of training, while in-service courses last six years. Training for school
directors is provided at the same time as teacher training, so that directors will understand the teacher
development process.
School-based
Pre- and in-service teacher preparation emphasize basic knowledge, skills, values and attitudes. There is
a balance of didactics, pedagogy and subject matter knowledge. Teachers' professional development is
characterized by a strong linkage between theory and practice during both pre- and in-service teacher
phases. Both pre- and in-service teacher training are school based, to foster greater relevance of teacher
training to school and student needs and to link training institutions and schools. To reduce the distance
between academic teacher training and schools, a teacher trainer candidate must complete as a pre-
requisite a significant number of years (usually 6 to 7) as a teacher at the level at which he or she intends
to prepare teachers.
Community of Learning Teachers
Strong emphasis is given to teamwork and exchanges of experience. Each area has acolectivopedagogico
for each discipline (ciencias naturales, ciencias sociales, etc.). These co/ectivo pedagogico meet periodi-
cally to discuss teaching methods, produce learning materials, adapt curricula to local needs, and ex-
change experiences. The colectivopedagogico develops a "bank of problems" (banco de problemas) and
develops plans to address these problems. Every program has a methodological guidebook for teachers of
each grade that provides examples of good lessons and guidance on how to teach different learning units.
The colectivo of teachers meets every two weeks to discuss teaching strategies, the problems of the
school, evaluation, and the general educational "climate" of the school. Institutional support is provided to
schools to promote professional development among teachers. A metodologo works with teachers to
support them in different subjects. Such approaches to ongoing professional development are consistent
with the best current thinking in education internationally.
Action Research
Every teacher is expected to carry out applied research on ways to improve learning achievement and
systematize pedagogical experience. During training, teachers are prepared to carry out classroom stud-
ies on how to address student problems. Every two years teachers present their best work on innovative
teaching practices to a "municipal education conference" (pedagogia). Municipalities select the best re-
search for the provincial conference, and the province selects the best for a national conference where the
best 900 research projects are presented to an audience of national and international participants. Moral
9



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
and material incentives are provided to teachers presenting the best research. Pedagogical research is
guided bytwo institutions, the lnstituto CentralDe CienciasPedagogica(ICCP), and the Instituto Superior
Pedagogico (ISP).
Links to the Community
Teachers interact regularly with community members and parents through mass organizations and other
participatory modalities (parents' councils, parents' schools). Such interactions allow teachers to learn
about local communities, and the conditions facing children and their families. This enables teachers to
create a broad collaborative environment supportive of education. In this way, school-based innovations
seem to last because they are supported by several actors (teacherscolectivo, students, parents, commu-
nity) ratherthan a single individual, howevertalented. Teachers act as community activists and are involved
in activities such as parents' education and similar activities that have a positive impact on children's
education. Teachers help plan school life. They spend about 80 percent of their time with students at school
and the rest of their time in student's homes. According to the principle that "education is a shared
responsibility," students meet to study together, from one to three times a week, in "study homes" (casas
de estudio). Teachers visit parents and identify families with potential problems as well as families able to
host a group of students.
Evaluation and Accountability
Continuous evaluation is considered a part of teachers' professional development, providing useful informa-
tion to improve teaching practice through action research and life-long learning. Continuous assessment of
teachers is a participatory process that includes all the major actors of the education process and the
"teacher working group" (colectivo). Teacher evaluations provide recommendations for teachers' self-devel-
opment plans (plan de superaci6n autodidacta o postgraduada) for the following academic year The univer-
sity also participates in the evaluation of teacher performance, and by doing so receives feedback on its
activities, enabling it to adapt its offerings to the realities of schools. Teacher accountability is a reality in
Cuba. Inspection is not an autonomous function; career growth depends primarily on positive evaluations of
teachers' classroom practice. Teacher salaries are often related to student performance. Teachers whose
students fail to perform at the norm risk cuts in pay 12
Professional Status
Cuban teachers are regarded as true professionals. Their social status is high, and there is little difference
between teachers' salary scales and those of other professionals.
Low-cost, High-quality Instructional Materials
Nationwide Coverage and Care
The Cuban state has a monopoly on all aspects of production of educational materials-design, publishing,
and distribution. As a consequence, the state says, it is able to keep costs low, address the learning needs
12 Claudio de Moura Castro, 1999.
1 0



Part 2
of the poor, and distribute all educational materials free. Before the Periodo Especial, about 25 million
books were produced each year. In 1976, bookstores and schools were full of low-cost high quality text-
books and books of every kind. Books were offered free or at very low cost to countries with which Cuba was
cooperating, i.e., Angola and Mozambique. However, the austerities accompanying thePeriodo Especial
have strongly cut back the production and distribution of textbooks. To deal with these shortages, schools
works hard to maintain books in good condition. Most of the books currently in use were published around
1992. Students continually rebind books and repair other learning equipment and school furniture as part of
their weekly "labor education" (educacion laboral). Exercise books are often used several times: students
write with a pencil and when they complete the exercises, erase the book for reuse. Thus in Cuba, teacher
and student initiative and creativity appear to compensate, at least partially, for the lack of resources.
Nationwide Coverage, Local Adaptation and Development
National curricula (see Annex 4) are subject to continuous reform and adaptation to local realities. In
addition, the school calendar varies according to local production schedules. These measures allow for
both unified educational standards and respect for local diversity. Teachers and students take an active role
in examining the learning environment and adapting the curriculum to learning needs. Classroom observa-
tions suggest that teachers have great latitude in choosing the means to implement the curriculum. Teach-
ers went to great lengths to prepare instructional materials and utilize them actively as integral parts of their
teaching. In Cuba, teacher and student initiative and creativity appear to compensate, in part, for the lack of
resources. When resources are scarce, teacher motivation and creativity in the use of external inputs act
as major inputs and determinants of learning achievement. I ndeed, instructional inputs, however sophisti-
cated, have no instructional value unless used by teachers and students.
At the same time, there is substantial evidence of the closed nature of Cuban education. Basic Western
authors such as Montessori, Dewey, Piaget, Bloom, etc. are generally ignored, and when they are consid-
ered, they are usually critiqued. The pedagogical institutes place a great deal of emphasis on the educa-
tional research and tradition of Cuba and Latin American authors such as Marti and Bolivar and on thinkers
from the former USSR, Vigotsky, Lurija, Makarenko, Gorki, and many others. Similarly, social science
curricula have been overshadowed by four decades of Marxist-Leninist orthodoxy.
Systemwide Evaluation and Competition Among Classes and Schools
Cuba has developed an extensive evaluation and school improvement system. School performance evalu-
ation is a constant formative process, aiming at improving educational quality. Evaluation is based on a
participatory approach designed to detect and correct problems of poor educational process and achieve-
ment through a comprehensive set of indicators. School performance is evaluated holistically, that is,
taking into account the several variables thatdetermine the relevance and efficacy of the education process
and learning achievement, as opposed to a single measure of cognitive achievement. Schools have "banks
of problems" that identify the problems as well as plans of actions to solve them.
Example of Teacher Assessment
Continuous teacher assessment provides an example of the role and approach to evaluation. The 'chief of
the pedagogical unit" (lefe de circulo pedag6gico) visits every teacher each month during classes, as-
11



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
sesses his/her activities and addresses any problems detected, deciding, for example on in-service training
needed forteachers in differentareas. A"municipal specialist in teaching methods" (metodologosmunicipales)
helps the school address pedagogical problems. If a problem cannot be solved with themetodologos, the
Instituto de Capacitacion Pedagogicagets involved. Administrative and pedagogical inspectors set dead-
lines by which time problems must be solved. Assessment takes place at all levels of the system: the
nation assesses the province, the province assesses the municipality, and the municipality the school.
Teachers' performance is assessed by the school director, the party, the union, the Organization of Young
Communists, and the "pedagogical guide" for each cycle (pre-primary, primary, secondary). Teacher dili-
gence, punctuality and commitment are taken into consideration as part of the ongoing assessment as
well as their students' diligence, punctuality, and achievement. Teachers' "volunteer" participation in the
Workers' Guard (Guardia Obrera), which guards school property and security during weekends and at night
is also part of teacher assessment. All teachers are "activists" in the Party but only a few are "militants. " As
in other socialist countries, volunteer work is quite common in Cuba, for parents, students, teachers and
school staff.'3
Emulation, Not Competition
A form of competition permeates all classrooms as well as the school atmosphere and is promoted among
groups in the same class, different classes, and the school and other schools. However, competition in
Cuba is called "emulation" because it is not considered an end in itself, but a method for self-improvement,
developed through solidarity and collaboration among peers. "Emulation" among schools and municipali-
ties is assessed by the following centrally-defined public list of "emulation indicators of school perfor-
mance," which were illustrated in a poster hanging on a school wall:
a      Political and ideological work
*      Results of the teaching-learning process
*      Priority subjects
*      School retention
*      Student continuity in school
*      Children of the area with less then 16 years of study
*      Data concerning teachers
Support and stimulation of children
*      Staff development policies
*      Initial diagnostic examinations
*      School cleanliness
*      Integration with the institutopedagogico supenor(teachertraining institute)
*      School-work connection
*      School organization, discipline and health
*      Activities with the population
*      Physical protection of the school, school secrecy
13 Although the virtues of volunteer initiatives are evident, the tendency for volunteer efforts to become coercive
often leads to a double public-private standard, challenging the stability and sustainability of the political and
social project.
1 2



Part 2
Schools are classified on the basis of these indicators. The school that qualifies as first in a municipality
hosts the annual July 26 celebration of the anniversary of the Castrist assault on the Moncada barracks.
Schools where problems are detected are asked to define a plan of action to overcome the problems.
Incentives are basically to boost morale, but there are some material incentives, such as paid holidays in
state tourist centers, tickets for theater and concerts, etc.
In these ways, competition is transparent and based on public acknowledgement of results. In contrast to
other countries, competition among schools in Cuba does not lead to greater selectivity and stratification
butto school improvement. In Cuba all catchment areas are local. The overall financing of a school does not
decrease or increase as a consequence of its performance, and families do not select schools on the basis
of academic performance.
Participation in School Management
School management is guided by the principle that "education is everybody's responsibility," and participa-
tion is an important means of addressing problems of the school. The participatory mechanisms include
student assemblies, parents' councils, "council addressing minors," school councils, parents' schools,
and study homes. 14
Involving Children
Cuban schools give children responsibility for a variety of tasks appropriate to their ages. In primary school,
for example, children clean the school, fix broken facilities, help fellow students with difficulties, discuss
class and school problems, and work in the school garden. The director we interviewed considered the
student work in the school garden more of a pedagogical than a productive activity and declared that the
school invests more in this activity than it gains. Such work encourages a more active role for students in
school life."5 In Cuba this is called "pioneers protagonism" (protagonismo pionieristico) since students
participate in school life through the Pioneers Association.
14 The Student Assembly (Asamblea de Estudiantes), operating in every class, elects a president, integrates a
parents' delegate and operates under the guidance of a "guiding teacher" (orofesor guia). Parents Councils
(Consejos de Padres), composed of parents' representatives from each classroom, elect a president and
prepare a plan of action. The Parents' Council is part of the School Council (Consejo de Direccion)". The function
of the "Council Addressing Minors" (Consejo de Atenci6n a Menores) (CAM) is to advise the director on issues
related to children exhibiting so called "deviant behavior." The CAM is composed of the vice president of the
municipal government, representatives from political mass organizations such as the Revolutionary Defense
Councils (Consejos de Defensa de la Revolucion, CDR), the Women's Federation (Federacion de Mujeres
Cubanas), the Young Communist Union (Union de Jovenes Comunistas), the president of the Pioneers (Pioneros),
the representative of the Communist Party, the person responsible for education in the municipality, three per-
sons responsible for education in the school, one responsible for the Ministry of Interior, the representative of the
Union and a representative of the students. A School Council (Consejo de Escuela) is composed of parents
representatives and representatives of mass organizations, with the responsibility of advising the school director.
The Consejo de Escuela organizes the Escuela de Padres, the Parents' School, which prepares parents to
educate their children. For example, when the set theory (conjuntos) was introduced to teach mathematics,
parents who had been taught with a traditional approach were trained in the new teaching methodology to enable
them to assist their children. The Study Homes (Casas de estudio) are homes where parents have the cultural
background and time to host and support groups of students in their homes.
15 Giving children productive responsibilities, a typical educational feature of pre-literate agrarian societies, is
usually lost in western schools, which traditionally deposit all authority and responsibility with teachers and
encourage passive attitudes on the part of students. Japan, a non-western industrialized country, maintains a
strong tradition of active student participation in all aspects of school life, though not in production.
13



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
Box 1: Republics Oriental del Uruguay: A Rural School in the Mountains
The Republica Oriental del Uruguay School is located in the Las Terrazas community in a natural park in the
Pinar del Rio region. The school is part of the sustainable rural development project, Biosphere Reserve
Project, sponsored by UNESCO, based on tourism and agriculture. The school serves 122 families of
farmers, a total of 920 inhabitants, in an area of 5,000 hectares. This school provides all levels of the
education system, with 140 students enrolled in pre-primary and primary levels, 78 students in secondary
school, seven students in the polytechnic specializing in gastronomy and environment related to local tour-
ism, and 18 university students. There is no teacher absenteeism, and 98% of students graduate each year.
Curriculum, teacher didactics, and research are centered on environmental conservation and rural develop-
ment. Several teachers each year submit applied research papers for the Pedagogia congress, related to
specific local environmental problems, such as energy saving habits, low-cost machinery, and technologies
such as solar energy. In view of the importance of agriculture and tourism to the area, primary and secondary
school students are involved in practical activities related to ecology and gastronomy.
Outreach to Rural Children
Cuba considers itself duty-bound to provide education for all. As a result, the government has developed
explicit strategies for reaching children unlikely to be well-served by the standard school model, in particular
children living in isolated rural areas, i.e., mountainous areas, as well as children with disabilities and other
special needs. Overall, Cuba has approximately 2,000 schools with less than ten students, usually located
in remote areas. Such small schools offer multigrade instruction through 4th grade, in which case teachers
receive training on teaching in multigrade classrooms. In achievement scores, there are no significant
statistical differences between rural and urban areas. The dropout rate overall is about 2.3 percent. There
are no dropouts at the primary school level.
These results challenge the notion that schools must be of a certain size to be effective. Perhaps more
importantly, they also question the perception that rural schools are necessarily of lower quality. In Cuba's
case, rural schools are provided with adequate levels of human and physical resources as well as special
features to meet their needs. In return, rural schools provide education that contributes to the development
of rural areas, thus motivating families, teachers and students.
To encourage rural populations not to emigrate to urban areas, a special plan was developed to provide
education in the mountainous areas.16 Schools were planned to provide the entire education cycle, with
curricula adapted to local needs. To ensure the stability of the teacher workforce in rural schools, the
system promotes volunteerteachers who commit themselves to staying in the area fortwo or more years.
Young teachers living in such areas are provided incentives-assistance in home construction, radios,
lamps, etc. About 725,000 people of the total population of 11,000,000 live in mountainous regions, in 47
municipalities, including about 152,000 students. These areas include 27 pre-primary schools (circulos
infantiles) and 2,400 primary schools, many of which teach as few as four children in multigrade class-
rooms. In addition, the mountainous areas include 27 special education schools, 89 basic secondary
schools, 17 pre-university schools, 28 polytechnical institutes for agronomists, and three "mountain facul-
16 Cuba's centrally-planned strategy to promote relocation of rural dispersed communities is reminiscent of
similar strategies adopted by socialist countries such as the "ujama" in Tanzania, or the "aldeias comunais," in
Mozambique, raising issues of human rights and sustainability in an open-market economy.
1 4



Part 2
ties" (facultades de montaha) for agronomist engineers. Educational institutions are developed in conjunc-
tion with regional plans. Infrastructure and services were developed to attract people to the region, for
example, along with production incentives such as cooperatives entitled to credit from the state.
Havana's Escuela Especial Panama enrolls 162 children grades 4 to 9 with physical and motor handicaps.
The school is staffed by 132 workers, 51 of whom are teachers. Children from Havana go home during
weekends, while children from distant provinces go home twice a year, in December and during the summer.
School workers "adopt" the children and create "pedagogical families." Teachers and families are trained on
how to receive and work with the children. The school provides periodic "fathers' schools" (escuela de
padres) to teach parents living in Havana how to support and educate their children. Parents residing far
away are hosted in facilities near the school during special training events, and the school assumes the
costs of transportation and feeding. Days during which parents attend training are considered working days,
and their salaries are regularly paid by the employer since their activity is considered beneficial to the overall
society. Teachers receive a supplement of 40 pesos over and beyond their base salary because the school
is a boarding school. Teachers lacking a university degree devote one day per week and one afternoon per
month to distance training. Graduate teachers spend the same amount of time on post-graduate studies.
Since the beginning of the Periodo Especial, the school has faced severe difficulties. The center is given
priority for supply of food and medicine; nevertheless, we observed a serious shortage of basic teaching,
learning and rehabilitation tools, which personnel tried to compensate for with personal commitment and
creativity. Panama School students are integrated into the same organizations as regular students, Pioneiros,
CDR, etc. Most children transfer to regular schools after some years of rehabilitation at the special school.
Once in regular schools they continue to receive support by Panama School personnel for 2 years. Children
reintegrated into regular schools are invited to the Panama School to share their experience with the stu-
dents of the Panama School. It was interesting to observe how the Panama School does not create false
expectations in the children and works to help them accept their limits and develop their strengths. Teachers
and rehabilitation staff, for example, ask children with no hands which part of their body (mouth or feet) they
wish to reinforce in learning to write. Cuba has three schools such as the Panama for children with physical
handicaps.
Attention to Special Needs
Cuba's emphasis on providing access to schooling for all children extends to those with special needs and
is one of the initiatives accounting for the country's virtually universal primary enrollment. "The public role in
education is to be there for students who otherwise would not be able to develop their talents in full. ( ...)
Compensatory schemes provide stability to the education system and social cohesion, which is so neces-
sary in a society. "17
Cuba meets these needs in both special education centers and in regular schools. Before 1959 there were
eight special education centers in Cuba.18 Now the country has 425 special schools enrolling 57,000
children and employing 13,000 teachers (out of a total school population of 2,300,000). In addition, many
students with special needs attend regular schools. Depending on the type of impairment, these children
may receive supplementary attention by the regular school teacher or in specific working sessions out of
17 Jo Ritzen, 1999.
18 The data in this paragraph where rely on Ms. Ileana Musibay presentation on special education at IPLAC during
the study tour.
19 SIRI, regional Information System, "Santiago, 1996, quoted.
15



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
the class by an advisor teacher providing guidance to teachers and students."9 In order to attend to all
children with special needs, a group of "itinerant teachers" (maestros ambulantes) reach students who
cannot be transported from home or who are hospitalized.
However, while the mainstream of educational thought emphasizes the integration of children with special
needs into regular schools, Cuba continues to maintain separate facilities for many of its special needs
students. The Director of the Latin America Special Education Reference Center (CELAEE) in Havana,
representing Cuba's official position, describes separate special education institutions as the best way to
attend to diversity. He criticizes those who advocate integrating special needs children into regular schools
as adopting an "integrationist faqade" (fachada integracionista), denying the culture of diversity. These
policies are in direct contrast to a growing consensus among special educators in the rest of the world. The
Salamanca World Conference on Special Needs Education (Spain, 7-10 June 1994). for example, stated
that children with special needs must have access to regular schools which should accommodate them
within a child-centered pedagogy capable of meeting their needs.
Regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discriminatory
attitudes, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all:
moreover, they provide an effective education to the majority of children and improve the efficiency an
ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire education system.20
Box 3: Escuela Ciudad Liberad
Escuela Ciudad Liberdad21 is a laboratory of experimentation in pedagogical methodologies, in collabora-
tion with the Pedagogical University. The school devotes about 30% of the school calendar to extracurricular
activities. Every student in secondary school is involved in agriculture work two hours per week (for example,
planting trees in a wood nearby, or working in the school agriculture garden), two hours on music, and two
hours in military preparation. (We were surprised to see secondary school children managing real arms.)
Productive activities are planned according to local production schedules. In addition to the two hours per
week, students devote the entire month of May to agricultural activities in a neighboring city. Labor education
(educacion laboral) is considered a subject like any other which students need to pass to advance to the next
year.
Linidng School and Work
Since the Revolution, Cuba has placed a high value on relating study and work22 In a classically Marxist
formulation of praxis, education emphasizes the holistic development of the "new human being," to be
20 World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality: The Salamanca Statement and frame-
work for action on Special Needs Education, Spain 7-10 June 1994.
21 The Escuela Ciudad Libertad has 757 students in pre-primary, 2,850 students in primary, 402 in special
education, 1,840 in secondary levels. Of 381 teachers, 197 are graduates, 90 are not graduates, and 94 are
pedagogical assistants (auxiliares pedagogicos), which means students in the pedagogical faculty preparing for
their degrees and assisting the teachers as part of their pedagogical practice. The school employs 220 non-
teaching personnel. Primary school teachers follow the same students for 4 years.
22 Lavinia Gasperni, II rapporto tra studio e lavoro nella problematica educativa cubana, Universita' degli Studi di
Roma, Facolta' di Filosofia, Cattedra di Pedagogia, Roma, Dissertation thesis, 1975: Lavinia Gasperini Scuola
e lavoro in Cuba socialista, Scuola e Citta', N.4 1976, La Nuova Italia, Roma; Lavinia Gasperini Recenti innovazioni
nel sistema educativo cubano, Scuola e Citta' n., gennaio 1977, La Nuova Italia, Roma.
16



Part 2
achieved by relating study and work through lifelong education programs that involve students in working
and workers in study and reflection. In addition to these Marxist educational principles, the economic
situation facing the country called for mobilization of all available labor. Indeed, in the original formulation,
the entire cost of the education system was to be covered by students' productive labor23 though this is no
longer an objective of the system. Still, a high value is given to labor in the priorities and goals of the system.
In addition, productive work continues to form an important part of the school curriculum. Finally, the
system emphasizes technical, vocational and polytechnical education.
Compulsory Education
The primary curriculum includes 480 hours of "labor education" over six years, out of a total of 5,680 hours.
Here the Marxist principle of combining study and work is applied to school gardens (las huertas escolares).
By participating in simple agricultural activities, students are expected to develop a positive attitude toward
work along with attitudes of solidarity with workers. School gardens size range from one to more than 20
hectares. When schools do not have their own garden, students work in "collective gardens" in the provin-
cial capitals. "Education and not production," is the aim of this experience, we were told while visiting a few
schools, thus disclaiming possibility of exploitation of child labor. (At the same time, of course, this contra-
dicts the initial intent of the experiment.)
As part of labor education, all students take one year of drawing. The following year, there is a bit of wood
carving, using the models designed in the first year. In the third year, the boys go to woodwork and the girls
to sewing .24 In secondary school (grades 7 to 9), labor education represent 280 hours of a total of 5,799
hours, a less significant share than in primary school but still equivalent to half the time devoted to History
and a significant amount of time compared to that given to classic academic subjects (see Annex 4).
Work, when appropriate to children's age, appears to have become an instrument of intellectual and social
development and a sharing of responsibilities. The danger is that compulsory work may lead to exploitation
and an aversion to work on the part of students. The initial idea of linking education and work from primary
school appears to have lost its original motivation, and risks turning into a ritual or, in Claudio de Moura
Castro's words, a "relic" of Soviet influence, or "perhaps an ever older relic of Western education."
In the early years of the Revolution, Cuba developed "secondary schools in the countryside" (escuelas
secundanas basicas en el campo, ESBEC) boarding schools as a major initiative to bridge the gap be-
tween rural and urban populations. At one time, these schools were considered one of the major achieve-
ments of the Cuban education system. Each school was part of the agricultural development plan of the
region, and students worked every day for a few hours on plantations growing coffee, tobacco, citrus or
other products. During the study tour, although we requested a visit to such schools, we were not able to do
so. The ESBEC, we were told, have been controversial and have not met the expectations of students and
23 Discurso pronunciado porel Comandante Fidel Castro Ruz en el acto de inaguracion de numerosa construciones
escolares para el curso 1973-74, efectuado en el Instituto Tecnologico de Electronica "Educardo garcia delgadd
en la region de Boyeros, la Habana, el dia 22 de octubre 1973, Education, n. 11, otubre-diciembre 1973.
24 Claudio de Moura Castro, Ugly Schools, Good Schools? Notes from the Education Unit, Sustainable Develop-
ment Department, IDB, 28 July 1999.
17



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
their families, who have resisted such boarding schools. The tendency today is to give more emphasis to
family responsibility in their children's education and postpone the boarding schools to the "pre-university
institutes in the countryside" (IPUEC) for students aged 15-17. Although related to the development plan of
the area, ESBECs appear to have frequently ended up isolated, having failed to develop the linkages
between school, community, rural reality and urban students that were the original initial aims of the
experiment.
Box 4: Centro Vocacional Lenin en Ciencias Exactas: A Pre-University Institute
The Centro Vocacional Lenin en Ciencias Exactas enrolls 3.300 students with a special aptitude for science.
Employing 200 teachers, the center is located in the periphery of Havana. Organizations such as the Union
of Young Communists (UJC), the Communist Party, the Students Federation (FEM) and the Teachers Union
are active in the life of the school. The Teachers Union and FEM have the right to vote on the school board,
while the Party and the UJC do not. Student admission quotas are set in order to guarantee equal possibili-
ties to different municipalities. Admissions scores tend to start from 85 points up, in comparison with scores
for other pre-university schools, which start from around 60. As part of the curriculum, students are prepared
to defend themselves from natural disasters and military aggression during military preparation activities.
The school has a farm, where students observe applications of theoretical scientific studies such as plant
mycosis and other pathologies. The Director of the Center commented that the school's production is for
self-consumption, but that it is not cost-effective, as it barely covers costs.
The learning-teaching methodology adopted by the Lenin Vocational Center combines a clear emphasis on
autonomous research and learning, with a strong sense of community and group work and "emulation." We
observed a high level of cooperation among peers, where the best students were responsible for mentoring
students having problems in different areas. In talking with students, we noticed no shame among those
receiving support, nor was there arrogance among the mentors, but instead a common understanding of the
mutual responsibilities of students for the group. Flexibility allowed students to focus on the different cur-
ricula areas, building on their specific strengths. While the curriculum is the same as that adopted in other
pre-university schools, teachers in these schools for excellence act as learning facilitators to prepare stu-
dents for university learning and for managerial tasks.
Unfortunately, the school population was not representative of the national population in terms of gender and
race. The school director, when asked why there were so few Afro-Cuban students in the Center, answered
that cultural, social, and economic transformation takes a long time, that the school still reflects families'
cultural and social backgrounds. As observed in other socialist countries, the Center provides high quality
education for children of the elite, despite quotas designed to mitigate inequities in student recruitment25
Technical and Vocational Education
Preparation of a productive working class is a primary objective of the education system, and so approxi-
mately 50 percent of students who complete grade 9 enterTechnical and Vocational Education (TVE). This
centrally-planned decision reflects the political choice to consolidate a state based on industrial and agri-
cultural manpower. Public employers' organizations participate in defining the curricula and training activi-
ties. Students carry out professional practice 20 hours per week and are continually evaluated both by
teachers and technicians. Employers and schools carry out a joint "final integral evaluation" (evaluacion
final integral) of student achievement. Only a small group of the best students continue to university.
Students are selected for university during school assemblies, with parents participating.
25 Leiner, M, Cuba's schools: 25 years later, in Halebsky, S. and Kirk, J.M. (eds.) Cuba: Twenty-five Years of
Revolution, 1959-1984, New York, Praeger 1985.
18



Part 2
However, the TVE system has come under extreme pressure with the economic austerities of thePenodo
Especial, and the new economic conditions posed by the partial opening of the Cuban economy. At one
level, the infrastructure and technologies used in TVE schools are obsolete, having been brought from the
Soviet Union between 1960 and 1980. With important new, potentially lucrative sources of employment and
labor demand-foreign firms, joint ventures, small enterprises, and tourism, traditional university studies,
academic careers, and public sector employment are less attractive and less guaranteed paths to financial
security and social mobility. In addition, in an increasingly market-driven economy, it has become more and
more difficult for the Planning Ministry, and the Ministries of Labor and of Education to predict labor demand
and plan appropriate courses of study in TVE. In such an environment, links to private enterprises are
necessary to ensure curricular relevance.
Education for Social Cohesion and Values Education
Implicitly and explicitly, Cuban education is organized to promote social cohesion around the values of the
Party and state. Values Education is a core subject in the Cuban curricula. Education, specifically Values
Education, is expected to promote social cohesion by preventing internal disruption from violence, drugs,
and criminality.26 Values Education is taught as a separate subject two hours a week.27 Teachers are
selected from those with exemplary behavior. They teach values and attitudes aiming at consolidating
internationalism, national identity and patriotism, a morality of work, solidarity and defense against external
threats.
In addition, teachers reinforce values and practices that permeate the entire life of the school. For exam ple,
the colectivo is at the center of the school life. Individualism is discouraged, both among teachers and
students. Cooperation and solidarity between students of the same group or class coexist with competition
between classes and groups. Competition is called "emulation" to emphasize that its aim is self-improve-
ment and not a fight against the other. Self-sacrifice and rejection of individualistic attitudes are also seen
as characteristics of the "new human being" that the education system aims to produce. Both individual
and group responsibility are encouraged in striving to reach collective aims. This emphasis on competition
and solidarity in the education system is a typical feature of socialist education systems. Still, students
develop self-confidence and a sense of solidarity by assuming responsibility for the school. Racial and
26 As the social cohesion function of education is increasingly recognized as crucial for formation of human capital
and human development, issues such as global education, multicultural or intercultural education, values edu-
cation, education for peace and mutual understanding, education for democracy and social cohesion, and
human rights education are becoming increasingly important aspects of the curriculum in many countries.
During the last 20 years UNESCO, UNICEF, the European Union and many govemments have promoted projects
to develop these social dimensions of education, as alternatives to the obsolete "civic education" or the dogmatic
transmission of religious and political principles and values. Just a few examples from very different parts of the
world: UNESCO Principal regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (APNIEVE), Bangkok Leaming to live togetherin
peace and harmony, values education for Peace, Human Rights, Democracy and Sustainable development for
theAsia-Pacific Region, UNESCOAPNIEVE 1998; Educators for Social Responsibility, Uma educa,co do Cora,cao:
orienta,6es curriculares para a aprendizagem Social e Emocional Rio Grande do Sul, Brasi, 1997; Norman
Richardson, Northem Ireland, Education for Mutual Understanding and Cultural Heritage, Belfast, 1998; Ministerio
de education de El Salvador Derechos, deberes y libertades de los niAos y niiias, El Salvador 1997.
27 The teaching of values education as a separate subject diverges from the consensus in the international
education community that the teaching and leaming of values should permeate every discipline and not be a
separate subject since values are best leamed by students living in a democratic and cooperative classroom and
school environment
19



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
gender integration are a fact in Cuban basic education. Gender equity is quite significant in a country
mainly agricultural, where women were limited for centuries to traditional roles and where stereotypes and
discrimination permeated the entire society. With the collaboration of parents' councils (consejos de pa-
dres), special programs are developed in collaboration with the mass media on drugs, sexual education
and criminality.
The dilemma facing Values Education in Cuba is its top-down approach. Where there is no need to address
diversity and conflict, because consensus is compulsory, there is the risk of indoctrination. When conflict
is disregarded, it can later manifest itself in social unrest. The recent growth of youth criminality and
prostitution are likely a consequence of the current economic crisis and of increasing poverty, but may also
be symptomatic of the fact that values that have not been internalized are easily abandoned in periods of
crisis. Cuba faces the task of teaching national values in an increasingly global environment. The dilemma
is how to consolidate solidarity and a collective sense of responsibility in a context of scarcity, while
individualism and material consumption are increasingly appealing. In private, the study team noticed
diffuse criticism of the rewards of political and ideological conformism favoring access to higher levels of
education and career advancement.
Ongoing Tensions: Quality and Equity
Such tensions have never completely been eradicated from the Cuban education system. Despite efforts
to equalize opportunity, the best schools still enrolled, primarily, the children of the elite, as illustrated by
the school discussed in Box 4. The system, after all is said and done, is still more equitable at the bottom
than at the top.
20



K
As the context of Cuban education changes, the tensions can be expected to worsen. By any measure
and in the best of times, Cuba's education system has achieved impressive results. That these results
were obtained after a decade of economic upheaval attests to the strength of Cuba's investment in educa-
tion. Nonetheless, the system faces a number of questions. How Cuba faces them will determine the
nature and effectiveness of its future education system.
*     Will government continue to monopolize Cuban education? If not, who will be able to partner
with government? NGOs? Private education entities?
=     Can Cuba maintain the coherence of its education policies in the absence of historically
strong state guidance and control?
-     Will the system maintain its current standards of access and quality in a more open political
system with greater choices available to individuals, families, and the population?
-     Will the system maintain its commitment to social cohesion, in a less coercive, more diverse
environment?
*     Will the system continue to attract and motivate dedicated high-quality personnel, when other
sectors of the economy are likely to pay more?
*      Is the curriculum adequate to educate resilient citizens, capable of managing change, risk
and uncertainty in a globalized and market-driven world?
*      Can the school system continue to be effective in promoting social cohesion in a less coercitive
environment and in a context of uncertainty, growing inequity, rapid social and economic
change?
*      How can the education system move from a system led by the Party and the state to develop
a broad consensus around the overall objectives and content of education?
*     Will the education sector be able to continue to claim high levels of public resources?
21



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
a      How can the education system develop a culture and set of institutional processes that allow
individuals to express criticism and air differences, and contribute to a lasting democracy built
on individual rights ?
*      Will Cuba's strong scientific education curriculum provide students with skills needed not only
master known knowledge but to use information in new and unanticipated problem-solving
contexts?
*      How will the education system deal with competition in the labor market, which has been
disallowed for the past forty years?
*      How will Cuba deal with likely competition among schools for resources and high quality
students?
*      Howwill Cuba develop needed technical skills and personnel in an economy increasingly
driven by market forces rather than state planning?
To the extent that Cuba follows the path of other transitional economies, the education system can expect
to face profound changes in philosophy, administration, and curriculum. Linkages between education and
the workplace can be expected to shift greatly. While the motivation, creativity, and professionalism of
teachers have played a critical role in the achievements of the Cuban system, it is unclear how long the
system will be able to maintain teacher motivation in the face of low salaries, dwindling resources, and
expanding opportunities outside the sector. Curriculum, particularly history, the social sciences, econom-
ics, and business will likely undergo thoroughgoing change. The policy challenge will be for Cuba to
maintain its excellence in education along with its commitment to equity and quality in a very different
political and economic environment. If Cuba succeeds, however, it will not be the first time it has defied
others' expectations.
This paper has highlighted ways in which the Cuban educational system, despite the dismal economic
picture of the past decade, adopted features that research has identified as characterizing a high-quality
education system. The Cuban model, while difficult, in an increasingly democratic world, to replicate in its
entirety, is quite replicable in much of its detail. Most inspiringly, Cuba demonstrates that a poor country
can build an education system of very high quality that truly reaches all.
22



Third Grade Language Achievement Test Results, Selected LAC Countries
Bottom Quartile    Median         Top Quartile
Argentina                230             263            295
Bolivia                  199             232            275
Brazil                   228             256            283
Chile                    225             259            294
Colombia                 207             238            271
Cuba                     305             343            380
Honduras                 190             216            248
Mexico                   194             224            260
Paraguay                 198             229            264
Dominican Republic       191             220            256
Venezuela                212             242            272
Source: Data from Laboratoria Latinoamericano de Evaluacion de la Calidad de la Educaci6n: Primer Estudio
Internacional Comparativo. Santiago, Chile: UNESCO, 1998; published in "Laboratorio Latinoamericano difunde
estudio comparativo de lenguaje y matematicas," ClNDE/Dialogo Interamericano, PREAL Informa, February 1999.
23



Annex 2
Structure of the Education System
The Cuban education System is articulated around the following sub-systems (see Annex 3 chart)29
a. Pre school education
b. General, Polytechnical and Labor Education
c. Special Education
d. Training and Improvement of the Pedagogical Staff
e. Technical and Vocational Education
f. Adult Education
g. Higher Education
Our study tour addressed General, Polytechnical and Labor Education and Special Education with a
presentation at IPLAC and site visit, while Pre-School Education, Training and Improvement of the
pedagogical staff, Technical and Vocational Education and Adult Education were addressed by an
exposition at IPLAC. Higher Education was addressed only in relation with teacher training thus is not
addressed here.The subsystem of Training and Improvement of the Pedagogical Staff is not described
here because extensively addressed in the main text.
a. Preschool Education Subsystem
Preschool education is not compulsory and is directed to children aged 6 months to 5 years. Pre-
school education consists of three main components:
*  Day care centers, (about 1156 in 1994) for children between 6 months and 5 years of age. Some
Day care centers might also include Preschool grades.
• Preschool preparatory grades for 5 to 6 year olds.
* Non-formal preschool education for children who do not attend educational institutions, with the
assistance of parents and the community. Non-formal preschool is based on household education
(from 0 to 2 years of age) and non-formal groups in parks, nearby sites, etc, for children aged 2 to
4. A special program was created to prepare parents to educate children that do attend non-
formal preschool education.
28 In this and following paragraphs, the information concerning the organization and structure of the Cuban
Education system we are referring to is drawn from the following sources: Ministry of Education Cuba organi-
zation of education, 1994-6. Report of the Republic of Cuba to the 45the Intemational Conference on Public
Education" Havana 1996; Pedagogia 99, "La educacion en Cuba, encuentro por la unidad de los educadores
latinoamericanos," 1/5 febrero 1999 La Habana.
24



Annex 2
b. General, Polytechnical and Labor Education Subsystem
This subsystem (a total of 12 levels) encompasses Primary Education and General Intermediate
education.
*  Primary education, for 6 to 11 year-olds. It covers six grades and is divided in the First cycle (from
1 St to 4th grade) and the Second cycle (form 5th to 6th). Primary schools in 1998 were 8,905, of which
about 25% urban and the rest rural. A retention rate about of 99% and an enrollment rate above
100% grant universalization of primary school.29 Primary education extends throughout 200 work-
ing days and is divided into 4 class periods, 10 weeks each, accounting for 40 weeks, 3 interme-
diate non-teaching periods, one week each, at the end of the first three class periods, and one
week and 3 days for final examinations.
*  General Intermediate education is divided in two levels: Basic Secondary Education for 12 to 15
years olds (from 7th to 9th.) which completes basic education and defines the compulsory educa-
tion, and Pre-University, for 15 to 18 years olds(from 10'h to 12'h grade). Pre-university is not
compulsory, but is free. The school calendar varies in accordance with the type of center and the
time span of the productive activity. ESBEC holds 42 weeks devoted to classes and 3 weeks and
3 days for final examinations. ESBEC holds 7 weeks of work in the countryside, 35 weeks for
classes, while ESBU holds 5 weeks of work in the countryside, 37 weeks for classes and 3 weeks
and three days for final examinations. Basic secondary studies are taught in Urban Secondary
School (ESBU and Secondary School in the Countryside (ESBEC), the latter holding a full board-
ing system, and were considered until recently as one of the main achievements of the Cuban
education system because of the combination of work and study. Pre-University studies are held
in Urban Pre-university Institutes (IPUs) and in the Pre-university Institutes in the Countryside
(IPUEC), the latter having the same system of the ESBEC. There are also other pre-university
institutes such as the Vocational Preuniversity Institutes of Exact Sciences for students with
outstanding academic records.
c. Special Education
* Special Education operates in the Preschool subsystem, in Primary and Intermediate Education
and by Diagnosis and Guidance centers. These last ones are provincial settings endowed with
multidisciplinary specialist teams that determine which children need to receive this type of edu-
cation. Some of the centers are transitory because children will attend them only until correcting
the problem for which they were admitted. Education centers are classified according with the
type of impairment there are addressing. These impairments are: behavior disorders, blindness
and low vision, deafness and speech impediments, language disorders, psychological disorders,
psychic development handicap, and mental disability or deviant behavior (disturbios del
29 Pedagogia 99, "La educacion en Cuba, encuentro por /a unidad de los educadores latinoamericanos," 1/5
febrero 1999 La Habana.
25



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
comportamiento). Some concern arises specifically about the diagnosis of "behavior deviance"
that can turn into an early segregation and condemnation of young persons that do not to adapt
the prevailing socio-political ethos.
e. Technical and Vocational Education, and Adult Education Subsystems
The Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) subsystem is responsible for meeting the nation's
needs for a trained and skilled labor force and is intended for grade 10-12 graduates. According to
Prof. Aragon, who conduced one of the sessions of IPLAC seminar, about 50% of the students
who complete grade 9 enter technical and vocational training since the preparation of a productive
working class is the main objective of the system. According to the official statements, this
centrally-planned decision reflects the political choice to consolidate a state based on industrial
and agricultural manpower. About 140,000 students and 22,000 teachers are presently in Techni-
cal and Vocational Education (TVE), which starts after nine years of general education and fore-
sees two years of training for qualified workers and three to four years for intermediate techni-
cians.
The Adult Education Subsystem is structured according to the following levels: worker-farmer elemen-
tary education (Educacion Obrera y Campesina, EOC): elementary or primary education, with four
semester; worker farmer secondary education (Escuela Secundaria Obrera y Campesina, SOC): ba-
sic secondary level, with four semesters; worker-farmer pre-university education (Facultad Obrera y
Campesina, FOC): higher secondary level, with six semesters. The Escuelas de Oficios preparing
qualified workers, (obreros calificados) enroll students with school delay. A significant part of the
training is done by the enterprises.
26



Annex 2
Graphic of the Cuban National Education System
Ministerio de Educacion Estructura del Sistema Nacional de Educacion
1. EDUCACION REGULAR
Infantls        Prees-            1                       7 2    9 1415     ;3
0-4                               Premaria       __        Sec._
Anos           5 Anos                                      Basica           Pre-Univ.
Edad            Edad          6-llAnos de Edad             2-14               15-17
.            ~~~~Anos De        Anos Del
2-3 Anos
Politecnicos  (c)
Unwma
Anos         (b   Anos
Centros
Escuela                          _UniversitaUn                     os
De              Politec.
Oficios            15-18
Anos                                    institutos
Superiores
II. EDUCACION DEADULTOS
1                                     1s2  3s4  (a)        1234 6s        )
Educacion                         -  Secundariz             Facultad
Obrero                                Obrero               Obrero
Campesina                          _  Campesina            Campesina
i s 2s 3s 4s
(a) Los egresados de SOC pueden tambien continuer estudios en centros Politecnicos                     Educacion|
(b) Pueden continuar estudios de Educacion Superior desde sus puestos de trabajo y de acuerdo con su especialidad  Obreroj
(c) Pueden continuar estudios de Educacion Superior desde su puesto de trabajo                         Campesina|
27



Annex 3
Statistical Data
Cuba: Data on Education
1989-90  1990-91  1991-92  1992-93  1993-94  1994-95  1995-96  1996-97  1997-98
Enrollment 0-5 years of age              28.8    26.4    27.9   28.6       79.2   87.9      96.1    98.0
Enrollment 0-16 years of age             92.2    91.7    91.0   91.8       91.5   92.6       93.5    94.2
0/ of Age Grade Distortion
P imary                           5.5    4.3     3.2      3.2    2.3        2.3    2.3       2.4     2.5
B3sicSecondary Education          9.4    8.1     8.1       5.9    5.0       3.8    3.9       3.5     3.7
P -e-University                   2.8    2.4     2.7       0.8    0.7       2.3    1.5       0.9     0.9
0/ of Repeaters
P-imary                          3.6    2.6      2.7      3.1      3.0     2.8    3.2       2.6      1.9
Basic Secondary Education        3.0    2.9      3.3      3.4    3.2        3.3    4.1      2.7      2.8
P -e-University                  2.0    2.3      1.8      1.3    0.8       1.1    1.4        1.4     1.8
0/c of GNP Designated to
Education                                8.5     89       9.5    10.8       10.4    10.3     10.0    10.0
O/c Distribution of Expenditure
According to Grade
Pi eschool                               7.4      7.8      8.0    8.3       8.0   8.0
1 st Grade                               18.2    19.3    20.9   22.2       23.3   24.6
2nd Grade                                39.0    37.2    35.4   35.1       34.9   32.5
3rd Grade                                14.4    15.2    16.1   15.9       15.7   14.9
Other                                    21.0    20.5     19.6   18.5      18.1   20.0
% Teachers with University        65.0   71.0    79.4    83.9   86.9       90.8   92.4       93.5    94.6
Degree in Secondary Education     6
Present Structure of Tuition
P-imary                          40      41      44       48      52       54      55        55      54
Basic Secondary Education        48      47      44       41      39       38      38        38      40
Higher Education                 12      12       12      11       9        8       7         7       6
Source: Ministry of Education in Cuba, 1999
28



Curriculum for General and Middle School Education (Total of Hours/Grades),
1995-96
CLASS                       7th    8th      9th   Total  10th  l1th  i12th   Total Grand Total
Mathematics                 140     140    180    460    180   180       162   522        982
Spanish/Literature          150      140    140    430    100   100       112   312       742
History                      70      120    120    310    140      30     36   206        516
Geography                   100      120     30    250    100      -       -    100       350
Foreign Language            120      120    120    360    120   120       114   354        714
Physics                               70    100    170    110   140        56   306       476
Chemistry                             70     70     140    100   100       72   272        412
Biology                      70       70     70     210     -    100       56   156        366
Values Education             -               60      60    -       -       -      -         60
Marxism/Leninism
Fundamentals                                                -      60     76     136       136
Computers                                                   70     70    30      170       170
Labor Education              140     70      70      280        -      -          -        280
Physical Education           70      70      70      120    70     70     66    206       416
Artistic Education            70      -       -      70      -     -       -      -         70
Military/initial Prepara-    -       -       -        -    35      35    39      109       109
tio n__                                              _ _  _ _ __          _ _  _ _ _   __ _ _ _  _
Totals                      930      990    1030   2950  1025   1005    819   2849       5799
Source: Ministry of Education, Report of the Republic of Cuba for the 45th Intemational Conference on Public Education,
Organization of Education 1994-1996, Havana, Cuba, 1997.
29



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
Curriculum for Primary Education (Total of Hours/Grades), 1995-96
Class                             1st    2nd      3rd    4th    5th    6th        Total
Mathematics                       200     200    200      200   200    200        1200
Spanish                           400      400    400      400  240    240        2080
History                            -       -       -        -    80      80        160
Geography                                                         -       80        80
Foreign Language                                                   -     120       120
Natural Sciences                                                  120     80       200
Values Education                                                   80      -        80
The World in Which We Live          40     40      40      40                      160
Labor Education                     80      80     80      80    80      80        480
Physical Education                120      120    120      120    80      80       640
Artistic Education                 80      80      80       80   80       80        480
Total                              920    920    920       920   960    1040       5680
Source: Ministry of Education, Report of the Republic of Cuba for the 45th Intemational Conference on Public Education,
Organization of Education 1994-1996, Havana, Cuba, 1997.
30



PRESUPUESTO EDUCATIVO
Otros Tipos
Alfabet.      15%                  Primaria
2%                                  19%
Especial                                       Preprimaria
4%                                               8%/
Superior
15%                      Secundaria
37%
31






Addine Fernandez, Didacticay Curriculum: Analisis de una experiencia.
Aguirre, Benigno, and Roberto J. Vighot. "The Reliability of Cuba's Educational Statistics." Comparative Education
Review. May 1998.
Aguzzi, Luciano. "Educazione e Societa a Cuba." Terzo Mondo, No. 27. January-March, 1975.
Aguzzi, Luciano. Educaziione e Societa a Cuba. Mazzota. 1973.
Aragon, Aker. "Sobre la formaci6n de tecnicos medios apropecuarios en Cuba." Educaci6n No. 15. October-
December. 1975.
Bell Rodriguez, Rafael, Tatiana Chkout, Carmen Lidia Cobas, Alicia Santaballa, Alfredo Perez, Victor Llorens,
Leovigildo Ortega, Rolando Gomez, Cristina Fernandez, Arturo Gayle, Santiago Lopez, Ramon Lopez.
Sublime Profesi6n de Amor. Editorial Pueblo y Educaci6n. La Habana, Cuba. 1996.
Bell Rodriguez, Rafael. Educacion Especial: Razones, Visi6n actualydesafios. Editorial Pueblo y Educaci6n. La
Habana, Cuba. 1997.
Brizuela, Idalmis Rosabal, Fernando Arias Barzaga, and, Instituto Superior Pedagogico de Granma. La Formaci6n
de Maestros de Escuelas Rurales de Montana. I PLAC, UNESCO. La Habana, Cuba. 1997.
Brock, Colin, and Donald Clarkson. Education in CentralAmerica and the Caribbean. Routledge, London and New
York
Canovas Fabelo, Lesbia, and Jose Zilberstein Toruncha. La Investigacion Educativa en Cuba y la Calidad Educativa
a las Puertas del Siglo XXI: Restos y Perspectivas. Ministerio de Educacion de Cuba. 1999.
Carnoy, Martin, and Joel Samoff with Mary Ann Burris, Anton Johnston, Carlos Alberto Torres. Education and
Social Transition in the Third World. Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey. USA. 1990.
Camoy, Martin. "Socialist Development and Educational Reform in Cuba 1959-1980."EDUCATlONFromPovertyto
Liberty, Nasson, Bill, and John Samuel. David Philip Publishers, Creda Press. South Africa. 1990.
Casanova, Julio. "El huerto escolar como via de combinar el estudio con el trabajo en las escuelas de educaci6n
primaria." Educaci6n No. 17. April-June, 1975.
Castro Escarra, Castro, and Reynaldo Forcade Rabago, La Capacitaci6n y Superacion de Maestros y Profesores:
Una Experiencia para Debatir. IPLAC, UNESCO. La Habana, Cuba. 1998.
Chacon Arteaga, Nancy. La Formaci6n de Valores Morales. Propuesta Metodol6gica y Experiencias Aplicadas.
Pedagogia 99, Curso No. 57, IPLAC, UNESCO. La Habana, Cuba. 1999.
Claudio De Moura, Ugly Schools, good schools? Notes from the Education Unit, Sustainable Development Depart-
ment, IDB, 28 July 1999.
Del Llano Melendez, Mirta, and Victoria Arencibia Sosa. Formaci6n Inicial y Permanente de los Profesores en los
Institutos Superiores Pedag6gicos. Pedagogia 99, Curso No. 53, IPLAC, UNESCO. La Habana, Cuba.
1999.
33



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
Del Riesgo, B. La Pedagogia di Fidel, consigli. ai genitori cubani. Guaraldi. 1973.
Espinosa, Publio. "El estudio-trabajo en la educacion agropecuaria." Educaci6n No. 15. October-December, 1975.
Garcia Batista, Gilberto, and Fatima Addine Fernandez. Un Modelo de la Integraci6n Estudio - Trabajo en la
Escuela Cubana Actual. IPLAC, UNESCO, La Habana, Cuba. 1999.
Garcia Gallo, Gaspar. "Bosquejo General del Desarrollo de la Educacion en Cuba." Education N. 14, p. 62. July,
September 1974, p.62.
Garcia Gallo, Gaspar. "Bosquejo general del desarrollo de la Educaci6n en Cuba (Segunda Parte)." Educaci6n No.
13. April-June, 1974.
Garcia Gallo, Gaspar "La ESBEC, su razon de ser, su naturaleza, sus requerimientos." Educacion No. 9 (1). April-
June,1973.
Garcia Gallo, Gaspar. "Bosquejo general del desarrollo de la Educacion en Cuba (Tercera parte)." Educaci6n No.
14. July-September, 1974.
Garcia Ramis, Lisardo, and Alberto Valle Lima. La Escuela Cubana en el Camino hacia e/ 2000, Vias y Retos.
IPLAC, UNESCO. La Habana, Cuba. 1999.
Gasperini, Lavinia. "Recenti innovazioni nel sistema educativo cubano." Scuola e Cittf N. 1, Roma, Italy. January,
1977.
Gasperini, Lavinia. "Scuola e Lavoro in Cuba Socialista." Scuola e Citta, N. 4. Roma, Italy. 1976.
Gasperini, Lavinia. ll rapporto tra studio e lavoro nella problematica educativa cubana. Universita degli Studi di
Roma, Facolta di Filosofia, Cattedra di Pedagogia. Dissertation thesis. Roma, Italy. 1975.
G6mez Gutierrez, Luis Ignacio . Conferencia Especial: Pedagogia 99 - Encuentroporla Unidad de los Educadores
Latinoamericanos, UNESCO, UNICEF, OEI, Asociaci6n de Educadores de Latinoamerica y el Caribe,
ConvenioAndres Bello. La Habana. Cuba. 1999.
Gonzalez Corona, Jorge, and Ministry of Education. "Algunas Consideraciones sobre la Planificacion del Desarrollo
de la Educaci6n en Cuba." Revista Cubana de Educaci6n Superior, Vol. 14, No. 1. Ministerio de Educaci6n
Superior. La Habana, Cuba. 1994.
Heyneman, Stephen. "DevelopmentAid in Education, a personal view," Changing InternationalAid to Education:
Global Patterns and National Contexts, Buchert King, Unesco/NORRAG, Unesco. Paris. 1999.
Heyneman, Stephen. From the party state to multi Ethnic Democracy: education and its influence on social
cohesion in the Europe and CentralAsia Region, The International Child Development Center, UNICEF
Florence.
Heyneman, Stephen. The transition from party/state to open democracy: the role of education, International Jour-
nal of Educational Development, Vol 18, N. 1, p.23. Pergamon. January, 1998.
IPLAC. Maestria en Planeamiento, Administraci6n y Supervisi6n de Sistemas Educativos y Maestria en Educaci6n.
La Habana, Cuba.
Laboratorio Latinoamericano de Evaluacion de la Calidad de la Educaci6n, PrimerEstudio Intemacional Comparativo
sobre Lenguaje, Matematica y Factores Asociados en Tercero y Cuarto grado. U NESCO. Santiago. 1998.
34



Bibliography
Leiner, Marvin. "Cuba's schools: 25 years later. 1959-1984." Cuba: Twenty-five Years of Revolution, S. Halebsky,
and J. M. Kirk. New York, Praeger. 1985.
Leiner, Marvin. "Educational Change in Cuba." The Education Digest. Vol.47, May, 1982.
Leonard, Virginia. "Latin America: Education in a World of Scarcity." REVIEW ESSAYS.
Lorenzetto, A. Methodes et moyens utilises en Cuba poru la soppression de I'anamphabetisme. Report from
Unesco.
Lutjens, Sheryl L. "Education and the Cuban revolution, A selected bibliography." Comparative Education Review.
Pergamon Press. May, 1998.
Lutjens, Sheryl. "Women, Education, and the State in Cuba." Latin American Education, Comparative Perspec-
tives, Carlos Alberto Torres, Adriana Puiggros. Westview Press. 1997.
Marti, Jose. "A aprender en las haciendas." Educaci6n No. 14. July-September, 1974.
Marti, Jose. "Educaci6n Cientifica." Educaci6n No. 11. October-December, 1973.
Marti, Jose. "Trabajo Manual en las Escuelas." Educaci6n No. 13. April-June, 1974.
Marti, Jose. Ideario Pedagogico, Editorial Pueblo y Educacion, I mprenta nacional de Cuba. 1990.
Martin, Elvira, Miguel Valera, Benito Perez, Jose Le6n, and Sinesio Santos. "Experiencias en la gesti6n y el
financiamiento de la gestion superior en Cuba." La Educaci6n Superioren elsiglo XXI. Visi6n deAm6rica
Latinayel Caribe, Organizaci6n de las Naciones Unidas para la Educaci6n, la Ciencia y la Cultura, Centro
Regional para la Educacion Superior en America Latina y el Caribe, Ministerio de Educacion Superior de
la Republica de Cuba. CRESALC/UNESCO. Caracas. 1997.
Merinio Castellanos, Juana Teresa. La Creatividad: Su Proyecci6n Didactico en la Escuela. IPLAC, UNESCO. La
Habana, Cuba. 1999.
Mier Febles, Juan. "Bases Teoricas de la Pedagogia Marxista-Leninista de la Revolucion Cubana en la Formacion
Ideologica de Nuestra Juventud." Educaci6n No. 15. October-December, 1975.
Mier Febles, Juan. "Concepci6n Marxista-Leninista acerca de la ensehanza politecnica y la combinaci6n del
estudio con el trabajo." Educaci6n No. 11. La Habana, Cuba. October-December, 1973.
Ministerio de Educaci6n. Informe de Cuba. VI Reuni6n Tecnica de REPLAD. La Habana, Cuba. Mayo, 1994.
Ministry of Education of Cuba. Cuba organization of education. 1994-96. Report of the Republic of Cuba to the
45the Intemational Conference on Public Education. Havana. 1996.
Ministry of Education of Cuba. Sistema de Formacion Inicial y Continua del Personal Docente en Cuba. Direccion
de Formacion y Perfeccionamiento del Personal Pedag6gico. La Habana, Cuba. 1999.
Ministry of Education of Cuba. Sistemas educativos nacionales, Organizacion de Estados Iberoamericanos para la
educacion, la ciencia y la cultura. La Habana. 1995.
Pedagogia 99, "La educacion en Cuba, encuentro porla unidad de los educadores latinoamericanos" La Habana,
Cuba. Febrero, 1999.
Joe Ritzen. Looking forEagles: A shortguide to bird watching in a educational context,The World Bank February
1999.
Relys Diaz, Leonela. Una Experiencia de la Alfabetizacion Aplicable en Ameria Latina y e/ Caribe. IPLAC, UNESCO.
La Habana, Cuba. 1999.
35



The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas
Santa Cruz Figueroa, Gladys, and Mercedes Mayari Castanedo. Aplicacion de los Principios de la Agricultura y
Desarrollo Rural Sostenible en los Institutos Polit6cnicos Agropecuarios, su Aporte Metodologico y Tecnico.
IPLAC, UNESCO. La Habana, Cuba. 1999.
The World Bank. Educational Change in Latin America and the Caribbean. Papers on Latin America and the
Caribbean Region, Human Development Department. 1999.
The World Bank. Cuba Education Study mission, Full Report. Washington. February, 1979.
The World Bank. Development and Human Rights: the role of the World Bank,
Washington. 1999.
Torres, CarlosA. Estado, Educacion no Formaly Socialismo en Cuba, Nicaragua y Granada. La Habana, Cuba.
1992.
UNESCO/IBE. "Appraisal of education forinternational understanding: considerations or questions relating to the
1974 Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace
and Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms," Geneva, 1994.
VazquezCedeno, Silvia. Educaciony Valores. IPLAC, UNESCO. La Habana, Cuba. 1999.
Walsh, Edward T An Embargo's Devastating Impact on Higher Education in Cuba. The Chronicle of Higher Educa-
tion. 1996.
World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality: The Salamanca Statement and framework
for action on Special Needs Education. Spain. June 7-10, 1994.
Zotta, Donatella. Esperienzepedagogiche a Cuba. II Punto-emme, Emme Edizioni. 1973.
36






z~~THE WORLD BANK
Country Studies are part of the Education Reform and
Management (ERM) Publication Series, which also in-
cludes Technical Notes and Policy Studies. ERM publica-
tions are designed to provide World Bank client coun-
tries with timely insight and analysis of education reform
efforts around the world. ERM Country Studies examine
how individual countries have successfully launched and
implemented significant reforms of their education sys-
tems. ERM publications are under the editorial supervi-
sion of the Education Reform and Management Thematic
Group. part of the Human Development Network--Educa-
tion at the World Bank. Any views expressed or implied
should not be interpreted as official positions of the World
Bank. Electronic versions of this document are available
on the ERM Web site at http:llwww.worldbank.org/edu-
cationlglobaleducationreform.
EDUCATION REFORM AND MANAGEMENT TEAM
Human Development Network Education
The World Bank
1818 H Street, NW
Washington, DC 20433 USA
Knowledge Coordinator:    Barbara Bruns
Research Analyst:         Michael Drabble
WEB:         www.worldbank.orgleducationl
globaleducationreform
E-MAIL       BBruns@worldbank.org
TELEPHONE: (202) 473-1825
FACSIMILE:  1202) 522-3233